HEARD, JOHN BICKFORD: Church of England; b. at Dublin, Ireland, Oct. 26, 1828. He was educated at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge (B.A., 1852), and was ordained priest in 1852. He was vicar of Bilton, Yorkshire (1864-68), curate of St. Andrew's, Westminster (1878-80), rector of Woldingham, Surrey (1880-91), and vicar of Queen Charlton (1894-1904). He was also editor of the Religious Tract Society from 1866 to 1873, and Hulsean Lecturer in Cambridge in 1892. His theological standpoint is that of the German mediating school, and in his writings he has sought to develop a Christian psychology in support of theology and to lay stress on Pauline rather than on Augustinian concepts. He has written The History of the Extinction of Paganism in the Roman Empire (Cambridge, 1852); The Pastor and Parish (London, 1865); The Tripartite Nature of Man (Edinburgh, 1866); National Christianity; or, Caesarism and Clericalism (London, 1877); and Alexandrian and Carthaginian Theology Contrasted (Hulsean Lectures; Edinburgh, 1893).

HEART, BIBLICAL USAGE: The Hebrew lebh or lebhabh and the Greek kardia ("heart") are never used in the Bible of animals except in the passages Job xli. 24 and Dan. iv. 16, where the reference is psychological, not physiological. Deut. iv. 11 speaks of the heart of heaven, II Sam. xviii. 14 of the heart of an oak, Ex. xv. 8 and other passages of the heart of the sea, and Matt. xii. 40 of the heart of the earth, all designating the interior parts of the objects. In nearly all passages where the word occurs, however, it is used of man's heart, and generally in the psychological sense as the organ by which he feels, thinks, and wills. The terms lebh, lebhabh, kardia, which never mean "self," as does nephesh, are employed to express the ethical qualities which the Greeks ascribed to the soul.

As an organ of the body the heart is the seat of life, and is concerned in the receipt of impressions and the issuance of expressions of personal life. Strengthening and revival which come from the partaking of food bring strength and comfort to the heart (Gen. xviii. 5; Judges xix. 5, 8), and excess affects the heart unfavorably (Luke xxi. 34). Indeed, the heart is the center of personal life in all its relations (Prov. iv. 23); consequently, up to a certain limit, kardia, psyche, and pneuma, "spirit," may be used as synonyms, and the reception of joy, sorrow, emotion, alarm is ascribed to the heart (e.g., Prov. xii. 25) or to the soul (Gen. x11. 8). The unstable man is called dipsychos, "double-minded," and to him is given a double heart (Ecclus. i. 28). The heart is to be purified (James iv. 8), so is the soul (I Pet. i. 22), just as depression is ascribed to the soul in Pa. xlii. 5, and to the heart in Pa. lxii. 8. But each of these terms has its peculiarities of usage. Man is said to lose his soul, never his heart. Where the two are bound together in some action, especially if that be religious, as in the case of lovingGod, it is not a mere heaping together of synonyms, but the expression of action involving the entire personality. Nabal's heart is said to have died (I Sam. xxv. 37), though his actual death did not occur till ten days afterward (verse 38). So one may speak of the heart of the soul, but never of the soul of the heart, since the psyche is the subject of life while the kardia is only an organ.

The relations and distinctions between heart and spirit recall those between spirit and soul. The soul is what it is through the spirit which exists in it as the life-principle, so that within certain bounds each may stand for the other (see Soul and Spirit). Since the personal life is limited by the spirit and is mediated through the heart, the activities of the spirit are sought in the heart, and to it then may be ascribed the properties of the spirit, and spirit and heart may be paralleled (Ps. xxxiv. 18). While Acts xix. 21 ascribes purpose to the soul, II Cor. ix. 7 ascribes it to the heart. On the other hand, serving God in the spirit (Rom. i. 9) is not quite the same as serving him with the heart. Exchange between spirit and heart is excluded when the heart appears as the place of that activity of the spirit the result of which is conscience (I Sam. xxiv. 5). Heart and flesh are differentiated so that sin is ascribed to the heart, though both are united in Ezek. xliv. 7. Delitzach finds in Ps. xvi. 9 an Old Testament trichotomy, but really in the first clause heart and soul are united to express as strongly as possible the inner exultation. Heart is in distinction from soul the place where the whole personal life is concentrated, where is concealed the personal individual essence, and whence proceed the evidences of personal character in good or evil (Matt. xv. 8). With the heart man approaches God and Christ rests in him, possesses him, so that he lives and dwells in man (Eph. iii. 17; Gal. ii. 20). Similarly, estrangement from God is of the heart (Eph. iv. 18; Isa. i. 5). In like manner the individual character is expressed in terms of the heart in respect to purity, humility, uncircumcision, unrighteousness, and the like. God himself is called mighty in heart (Job xxxvi. 5), and he who seeks God and in faith relies upon him is called strong in heart (Ps. lxxviii. 8).

The heart is the treasury of good and evil (Matt. xii. 34-35); it is the organ for the reception of

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God's word and of the gift of the Holy Spirit (Matt. xiii. 19). But if it is the seat of God's activ ity and of that of his word and spirit, so is it of Satan's activity (John xiii. 2), and it resists God and becomes hardened (Acts xxviii. 27). Similarly, out of it proceeds love for God and man. It is the organ of faith or unfaith (Roe. x. 9), of decision (Acts v. 4), and of thought (Isa. x. 7). In this sense Johannean and Pauline usage equates nous and dianoia; since the nous as the organ of the spirit is also a function of the heart, it is conceivable that the apostle opposes nous to sarx, "flesh" (Roe. vii. 25), because for his purpose the opposition between sarx and kardia seemed too inclusive. In the heart of man through his conscience is written the work of the law (Roe. ii. 15), and God has placed eternity in the heart (Eccles. iii. 11). But the imagination of man's heart is evil from his youth (Gem. viii. 21), and whatever makes man impure proceeds from his heart (Mark vii. 21). Here resides that double personality (Rom. vii.) by which man is either senseless (Roe. i. 21) or impenitent (Roe. ii. 5) or uncircumcised in heart (Acts vii. 51), or, on the other side, is honest and good (Luke viii. 15).

(H. Cremer.)

Bibliography: F. Delitasoh, System der biblischen Psychologie, Leipsic, 1881, Eng transl., Edinburgh, 1887; C. H. Zeller Kurze Seelenlshre, Calw, 1850; J. G. Krumm, De notionibus psychologies Paulinis, chap. iii., Giessen, 1858; J. T. Beck, Umriss der biblischen Seelenlshre, Stuttgart, 1871; idem Outlines of Biblical Psychology, pp 78-148, Edinburgh, 1877; G. F. Oehler, Theology of O. T., i. 221 sqq., ii. 449, ib. 1874-75; B. Weiss, Biblical Theology of N. T., ib. 1882-83; E. Womer, Biblische Anthropologic, II., xi. 3, Stuttgart, 1887; K. Fischer, Biblische Psychologie, Biologic und Padapogik, pp 20 sqq., Gotha, 1889; H. Schultz, O. T. Theology, ii. 248 sqq., London, 1892; W. Beyschlag, N. T. Theology, consult Index, Edinburgh, 1896; C. A. Briggs, in Semitic Studies in Memory of A. Kohut, pp. 94-105, London, 1897; T. Simon, Die Psychologie des Aposteis Paulus, pp. 24 sqq, Göttingen, 1897; G. Waller, Biblical View of the Soul, London, 1904; DB. ii. 317-318; EB, ii. 1981-82; JE, vi. 295-296; DCG i. 709-711; and the lexicons under the words cited in the text.