THE NEW
SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
Editor‑in‑Chief
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
Editor‑in‑Chief
of
Supplementary Volumes
LEFFERTS A. LOETSCHER, Ph.D., D.D.
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF CHURCH HISTORY
PRINCETON THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
BAKER BOOK HOUSE
GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN

THE NEW

SCHAFF‑HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
EDITED BY
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
(Editor‑in‑Chief )
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF
CHARLES COLEBROOK SHERMAN

AND
GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.
(Associate Editors)
AND THE FOLLOWING DEPARTMENT EDITORS
CLARENCE AUGIISTINE BECKWITH, D.D.
(Department of Systematic Theology)
HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D.
(Department of Minor Denominations)
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.
(Department of Liturgica and Religious Orders)
JAMES FREDERIC bIcCURDY, fH.D., LL.D.
(Department of the Old Testament)

HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.
(Department of the New Testament)

ALBERT HENRY NEWNAN, D.D., LL.D.
(Department of Church History)
FRANK HORACE VIZETELLY, F.S.A.
(Department of Pronunciation and Typography)
VOLUME III
CI‑IAMIER ‑ DRAENDORF
BAKER BOOK HOUSE
GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN
1952

EXCLUSIVE AMERICAN PUBLICATION RIGHTS
SECURED BY BAKER BOOK HOUSE FROM FUNK AND WAGNALLS
LITHOPRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY
CUSHING ‑MALLOY, INC., ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN, 1952

EDITORS
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
(EDITOR‑IN‑CHIEF. )
Professor of Church History, New York University.
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
CHARLES COLEBROOK SHERMAN ~ GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.
	Editor in Biblical Criticism and Theology on "The New Inter‑	New York, Formerly Professor of Biblical History and Lecturer
	national Encyclopedia," New York, 	on Comparative Religion, Bangor Theological Seminary.
DEPARTMENT EDITORS, VOLUME III
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D.
(Department of Systematic Tfaeologg.)
Professor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological
Seminary.

HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D.
(Department of Minor Denominations.)
Formerly a Corresponding Secretary of the Board of Foreign
Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church, New York.

JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.
(Department of Liturgies anal Religious Orders.)
President of St. Joseph's Seminary, Yonkers, N. Y.
JAMES FREDERICK McCURDY, Ph.D.,
	LL.D.
(Department of the Old Testament.)
Professor of Oriental Languages, University College. Toronto.
HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.
(Department of the New Testament.)
Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New Tes
tament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass.

ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D.
(Department of Church History.)
Professor of Church History, Baylor Theological Seminary
(Baylor University). Waco, Tea.
FRANK HORACE VIZETELLY, F.B.A.
(Department of PronmaciatW n and Typography.)
Managing Editor Of the STANDARD DICTIONARY, etc.,
New York City.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME III
JUSTIN EDWARDS ABBOTT, D.D.,
Missionary in Bombay, India.
HANG ACHELI6, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Halls.
RUDOLF ANBTEIN (t),
Late Pastor in Basel.
FRANKLIN CARL ARNOLD, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Breslau.
WILHELM 33AUR (t), Th.D.,
Late General Superintendent in Bonn.
GEORGE JAMES BAYLES, Ph.D.,
Writer on Civil and Ecclesiastical Law.
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH,
D.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological Semi
nary.
KARL BENRATH, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, UnlvereHy of Honlffeoer&.
IMMANUEL GUSTAV ADOLF BEN
ZINGER, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
German Orientalist and Vice‑Consul for Holland in Jerusalem.
CARL BERTHEAU, Th.D.,
Pastor of 8t. Michuei's, Hamburg.

BERNHARD BESS, Th.Lic.,
Librarian, University of Halls.
RUDOLPH MICHAEL BINDER, Ph.D.,
Lecturer in Sociology, New York University.
EMIL BLOESCH (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, Bern.
HEINRICH BOEHMER, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Professor of Church History, University of Bonn.
AMY GASTON CHARLES AUGUSTS
BONET‑MAURY, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Church History, Independent School of Divinity.
Paris.
GOTTLIEB NATHANAEL BONWETBCH,
Th.D.,
Professor of Churoh History, University of GSttingen.

CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME III
FRIEDRICH BOSSE, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Assistant Librarian, University Library, Marburg.
GUSTAV BOBBERT, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Retired Pastor, Stuttgart.
	PERCY	HOLMES BOYNTON,
Secretary of Instruction in the Chautauqua Institution,
		Chautauqua, N. Y.
JOHANNES FRIEDRICH THEODOR
BRIEGER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Leipstc.
FRANTB PEDER WILLIAM BUHL,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Oriental Languages, University of Copenhagen.

KARL BURGER (t), Th.D.,
Late Supreme Consistorial Councilor in Munich.
HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D.,
Formerly Corresponding Secretary of the Methodist Mission
ary Society.
WALTER CABPARI, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
University Preacher and Professor of Practical Theology,
University of Erlangen.
JACQUES EU(IANE CHOIBY, Th.D.,
Pastor in Geneva.
FERDINAND COHRB, Th.Lic.,
Consistorlal Councilor, Ilteld, Germany.
AUGUST HERMANN CREMER (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Systematic Theology, University of
GroitewaJd.
WALTER EWING CRUX, N.A.,
Coptic Scholar, London.
FRIEDRICH WILHELM CUNO ( f ), Th.Lic.,
Late Pastor at Eddlgehausen, Hanover.

SAMUEL MARTIN DEUTSCH, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Berlin.
MORTON DEXTER, X.A.,
Congregational Clergyman and Author, Boston.
DEODAT DIBBELHOFF,
Pastor at %aiserawerth, Germany.
BERNHARD DOMBART (f), Ph.D.,
Formerly Gymnasiat Rector, Anebach, Germany.
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.,
President of St. Joseph's Seminary, Yonkers, N. Y.

HENRY JAY DUCKWORTH, D.D.,
Secretary of Education for the Ohio Central Christian Con
ference.
LUDWIG ALFRED ERICHBON (f), Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Late Preacher at St. Thomas'. Strasburg, Germany.
HUBERT EVANS, Ph.D.,
Member of the Editorial Staff of the Encyclopedia Brltannica
Company. New York.
THEODOR FOERBTER (t), Th.D.,
Late Processor of ChuroV History, University of Halls.

CHRISTIAN HENRY FORNEY, D.D.,
LL.D.,
Editor of the Church Advocate, Harrisburg, Pa.
RUDOLF FOBS (t),
Late Councilor in Groeslichtertelde, Germany.
GUSTAV WILHELM FRANK (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Dogmatic, Symbolics, and Christian Ethics.
University of Vienna.
EMIL ALBERT FRIEDBERG, Th.D.,
Dr.Jur.,
Professor of Ecclesiastical, Public, and German Law, University
of Leipsic.
JOHANN FRIEDRICH, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Munich.
THEODOR GEROLD, Th.D.,
President of the Consistory,8trasburg.
JOHANNES ABRAHAM (BERTH VAN
WIJg (t), Th.D.,
Late Reformed Church Clergyman at The Hague, Holland.
CHRISTIAN GEYER, Ph.D.,
Clergyman in Nuremberg, Germany.
GE03ELGE WILLLA M GILMORE, M.A.,
Former Professor of Biblical History and Lecturer on Com
parative Religion, Bangor Theological Seminary.
WILHELM GOETZ, Ph.D.,
Honorary Professor of Geography, Technical Hlgh School, and
Professor, Military Academy, Munich, Germany.
CASPAR REND GREGORY, Ph.D., Dr.Jur.,
Th.D., D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic.
GEORG GIRUETZMACHER, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Extraordinary Professor	of Church History, University of
	Heidelberg.
KARL RUDOLF HAGIENBACH (t), Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Basel.
ADOLF HARNACS, N.D., Ph.D., Th.D.,
Dr.Jur.,
General Director of the Royal Library and Professor of Church
History, University of Berlin.
ALBERT HAUCK, Ph.D., Th.D., Dr.Jtir.,
Professor of Church History, University of Leipsic, Edttor‑in
Ch1et of the Hauek‑Herzog Realencykloptklie.
HERMAN HAUPT, Ph.D.,
Professor and Director of the University Library, Giessen.
CARL FRIEDRICH GEORG HEINRICI,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Lelpaic.
ERNST HENKE (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Marburg.
	HERMANN	HERING, Th.D.,
Professor of Philosophy of Religion and Homiletics, University
		of Halle.
JOHANN JAKOB HERZOG (f), Ph.D.,Th.D.,
Late Professor of Reformed Theology, University of Erlangen.
PAUL HINBCHIUB (t), Dr.Jur., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Ecclesiastical Law, University of Berlin.
KARL HOLL, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Berlin.
GEORGE ELLIOTT HOWARD, Ph.D.,
Professor of Institutional History, University of Nebraska.

EDUARD JACOBS, Ph.D.,
Privy Councilor, WernlKeerode. Prussian Saxony.
HEINRICH FRIEDRICH JACOBSON (t),
Late Professor of Law, University of KSnigsberg.
H39UXANN JACOBY, Th.D.,
Professor of Homiletics, University of KSntgsberg.
MARTIN BAEHLER, Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics and New Testament Exegesis, Univer
sity of Halle.
FRIEDRICH WILHELM FERDINAND
BATTENBUSCH, Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics, University of Halls.
EMIL FRIEDRICH BAUTZSCH, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis. University of Halls.
PETER GUSTAV 8AWE8AQ, Th.D.,
Conslstorlal Councilor, University preacher, and professor of
Practical Theology. University of Breslau.
HUGO WILHELM PAUL KLEINERT,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Ezegests and practical Theology.
University of Berlin.
HEINRICH AUGUST KLOSTERMANN,
Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Kiel.
FRIEDRICH EDUARD KOENIG, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Bonn.
JULIUS 80ESTLIN (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Dr.Jnr.,
Late Professor of Theology. University of Halle.

THEODOR FRIEDRICH HERMANN
80LDE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Erlangen.
HERMANN GUSTAV EDUARD KRUEGER,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of church History, University of Giessen.
JOHANNES WILHELM BUNZE, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic and Practical Theology, University of
Greiibwald.
MAXIMILIAN ALBERT LsNDERER (t>,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of TRbingen.
WILLIAM HENRY LARRABEE, LL.D.,
Plainfield, N. J.
MORITZ LAUTERBURVIy
Professor of Practical Theology. University of Bern.
KARL LUDWIG LEIMBACH (t), Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Late Provincial Councilor for Schools, Hanover, Germany.
LUDWIG LEMME, Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Heidelberg.

31CDUARD LEMPP, Ph.D.,
Chief Inspector of the Royal Orphan Asylum, Stuttgart,
Germany.
BRUNO LINDNER, Ph.D.,
Professor of Aryan Languages, University of Lelpsic.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME III
THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, M.A., D.D.,
Principal United Free Church College, Glasgow.
GEORG LOESCHE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, Evangelical Theological Faculty.
Vienna.
WILHELM LOTZ, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Erlangen.
JAMES FREDERICK . MeCURDY, Ph.D.,
LL.D.,
Professor of Oriental Languages. University of Toronto.

OTTO MEJER (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late President of the (:onatatory, Hanover.
PHILLIPP MEYER, Th.D.,
Supreme Consiatorial Councilor. Hanover.

CARL THEODOR MIRBT, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Marburg.

ERNST FRIEDRICH KARL MUELLER,
Th.D.,
Professor of Reformer Theology, University of Erlangen.

GEORG MUELLER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Inspector of Schools, Ldpsic.

FRIEDRICH WILHELM REINHARD
MVMX, Th.Lic.,
General Secretary of the Free Ecclesimtical‑8oda1 Conference,
Berlin.
HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.,
Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New
Testament, Episcopal Theological School, Csmbrldga,
>ttsesaahusetts.

MARTIN VON NATHUSIUS (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Practical Theology, University of Greifswald.

ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Church History. Baylor Theological Seminary
(Baylor University), Warn, Texas.
THEODOR JULIUS NEY, Th.D.,
Supreme Coneistorlal Councilor, Speyer, Bavaria.
FREDERICK CHRISTLiDT NIELSEN (t),
D.D.,
Late Bishop of Aarhus. Denmark.

CONRAD DON 08.ELLI, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and History of $ellgion,
University of Bawl.
CHARLES PFENDE$,
Pastor of St. Paul's Evangelical Lutheran Church, Paris.
FREDERICK DUNQLISON POWER, X.A.,
LL.D.,
Pastor of Garfield Memorial Church, Washington, D. C.
ERWIN PREUSCHEN, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Pastor at Hirachhornon‑t6e•Nectar, Germany.
HERMANN RAHLENBECB,
Pastor in Cologne.
8. $*V3kBZ,
senior of tae BefOrmed Church, BeaChBn, Hungary.
GEORG CHRISTIAN RIETSCHEL, Th.D.,
University Preacher and Professor of Practical Theology, Unt•
versityof Letpeic.

HENDRIX CORNELIS ROGGE (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of History, University of Amsterdam.
EVGEN BACHBBE, Th.D.,
Professor of Practical Theology, University of Bonn.
HUGO BACHBBE, Ph.D., Th.Lic., Dr.Jur.,
Professor of Ecclesiastical Law, University of Rostock.
FERDINAND SANDER,
Councilor for Schools in Bremen, Germany.
ELIAS BENJAMIN SANFORD, D.D.,
General Secretary of the National Federation of Churches and
Christian Workers.
THEOD03EL SCHAEFER, Th.D.,
Head of the Deseonesses' Institute, Altona.
	DAVID	SCHLEY SCHAFF, D.D.,
Professor of Church History, Western Theological Seminary,
		Allegheny, Pennsylvania.
PHILIP SCHAFF (f), D.D., LL.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary,
New York.
ADOLPH FREDERICK BCHAUFFLER,
D.D.,
President of New York City Mission and Tract Society.
CHRIBTOPH THEODOR CiOTTLOB DON
BCHEURL (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor in Nuremberg.
REINHOLD BCHMID, Th.Lic.,
Pastor in Oberholzhefm, wurttemberg.
	HEINRICH SO	DT (t),
Late Professor of Theology, University of Erlangen.
EARL BCHMIDT, Th.D.,
Pastor at Goldberg, Mecklenburg.
THEODOR SCHOTT (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Librarian and Professor of Theology, University of
Stuttgart.
JOHANN FRIEDRICH BITTER VON
SCHULTZ, Dr.Jur.,
Professor of Law, University of Bonn.
VICT03EL SCHULTZE, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History and Christian Archeology, Univer
sity of Grdfawald.
LUDWIG THEODOR SCHULZE, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Rostock.
OTTO BEEBABB, Ph.D.,
Educator, Leipslc, Germany.
REINHOLD BEEBER(i, Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Berlin.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME III
EMIL BEHLING, Dr.Jur.,
Professor of Ecclesiastical and Commercial Law, University of
Erlangen.
CHARLES COLEBROOK BHERMAN,
Editor in Biblical Criticism and Theology on The New Inter
national Encyclopedia, New York.
ALBERT B siXPBON,
President Christian and Missionary Alliance.
ARTHUR HENDERSON SMITH, M.A.,
American Missionary, Pang Chuang, China.
ROBERT WALTER STEWART, B.Bc., B.D.,
Glasgow, Scotland.
JOSEPH JAMES BUMMERBELL,
Editor of The Herald of Gospel Liberty, Dayton, Ohio.
EARL THIEME, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics, University of Leipaic.
ERNST PETER WILHELM TROELTBCH,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology. University of Heidelberg.
PAUL TBCHACKERT, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Gottingen.
JOHANN GERHARD WILHELM UHL‑
HORN (t), Th.D.,
Late Conaistorial Councilor, Hanover.
	BIETRE DOVWEB VAN VEEN, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History and Christian Archeology, Uni
		versity of Utrecht.

MARVIN RICHARDBON VINCENT, D.D.,
Professor of	New Testament Exegesis and Criticism, Union
	Theological Seminary, New York.
JOHANNES WEISS, Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Heidelberg.
AUGUST WILHELM ERNST WERNER,
Th.D.,
Pastor Primarius, Guben, Prussia.
FRIEDRICH LUDWIG LEONHARD WIE
(IAND, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Greifawald.
SAMUEL WELLS WILLIAHB (f), LL.D.,
Late Professor of Chinese Language and Literature, Yale College.
JOSEPH DAWSON WILSON, D.D.,
Professor of Ecclesiastical History in Reformed Episcopal
Seminary, Philadelphia, Pa.
RICHARD PAUL WUELKER, Ph.D.,
Professor of English Philology, University of Leipsic.
OTTO ZOECSLER (f), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History and Apologetics, University
of Gtwifawald.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑yOLS. I‑III
The following list of books is supplementary to the bibliographies given at the end of the articles
contained in volumes I.‑III., and brings the literature down to January, 1909. In this list each vocabu‑
lary entry is printed in capital letters.
ADAM	OF BREMEN: W. P. Kohlmann, Adam von
	Bremen, Leipsic, 1908.
ADAMNAN: An Irish Precursor of Dante. A Study on the Vision of Heaven and Hell ascribed to the 8th‑century Saint Adamrean., with Translation of the Irish Text by C. S. Boswell, London, 1908.
Asxn, C. F.: Old Events and Modern Meanings and Other Sermons, New York, 1908; Wells and Palm Trees: cool Wafer arid abundant Rest on Life's rough Way, ib., 1908.
ALCUIN: G. F. Browne, Alcuin of York. Lectures delivered in the Cathedral Church of Bristol in 1907 and 1908, London, 1908.
ALFRED THE GREfaT: Asser's Life of King Alfred, ed. L. C. Jane, London, 1908.
ALLEN, W.: D. B. Camm, William Cardinal Allen, Founder of the Seminaries, London, 1908.
Amos: J. Touzard, Le Livre d'Amos, Paris, 1909.
APHRAATES: P. Sehroen, Aprahat, seine Person, and aein Verstandnis des Chrdstentums, Berlin, 1907.
APOLLONIUS OF TYANA: F. W. G. Campbell, ApOllonius of Tyana.. A Study of his Life aced Times, London, 1908.
APOLOGETICS: W. Ernst, Aufgabe and Arbeitsmethode der Apologetik fur die Gegenwart, Berlin, 1908.
ARABIA: M. Hartmann, Die arabiaehe Frage mit einen. Yersuche der Archaologie Jemeus, Leipsic, 1909.
ARISTOTLE: Works, Eng. tranal., vol, viii., Metaphysics, London, 1909.
ART AND CHURCH: H. B. Walters, The Arts of the Church, Oxford, 1908.
AssYRIA: R. W. Rogers Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, New York, 1908.
ATONEMENT: J.Stalker, The Atonement, London, 1908.
J. Grimal Le Sacerdoce et le sacrifice de . . . ,~ Jesus‑Christ, Paris, 1908.
AUGUSTINE: H. Becker, Augustin. Studien xu einer yeistigen. Entwicklung, Leipsic, 1908.
W. Thimine, Augustins geastige Eretwickelung . . . 386‑891, Berlin, 1908.
AUSTRIA: J. R. Kusej, Joseph 11. and die aussere Kirchenverfassung lnner6sterreicha (Bistums; Pfarr‑ and KZoaterregulierung). Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des 6aterreich. Stasis
kirchenrechtes, Stuttgart, 1908.
AVILA, JUAN DE: Letters of Blessed John of Avila, translated and selected from the Spanish by the Benedictines of Stanbrook, with Preface by Gasquet, London, 1904.
BABYLONIA: See ASSYRIA, ut sup.
BARRY, A.: Do we Believe? The Law of Faith perfected in Christ, London, 1908.
BAUR,	F. C.: G. Schneider, F. C. Baur in seiner
	Bedeutung fvr die Theologie, Munich, 1909.
BExAISM: S. Sprague, The Story of the Bahai Movement, London, 1908; A Year with the Bahais in India and Burma, ib., 1908.
BIBLE TEXT: Biblia Hebraica, ed. R. Kittel, Leipsic, 1906.
A. B. Ehrlich, Randglossen xur hebrkischere Bibel, vol. i., Genesis and Exodus, Leipsic 1908.
C. R. Gregory, Die griechischen Handschriften des N. T., Leipsic, 1908.
H. C. Vedder, Our New Testament; how did we get it ? Philadelphia, 1908.
Transcript of the Turin Manuscript of the " Dodekapropheton "; tr. and collated by Rev. W. C. Oeaterley, New York, 1908.
BIBLE VERSIONS, B. IV.: The Gospel of St. John in West Saxon, Boston, 1904; The Gospel of St. Matthew in West Saxon., Boston, 1904; The Gospel of St. Mark in West Saxon, 1905; The Gospel of St. Luke in West Saxon, Boston, 1906; ed. J. W. Bright. The West Saxon Psalms, being the Prose Portion, or the " ~I.rst fi ty," of the so‑called Paris Psalter, ed. J. ~. Bright, Catherine Donovan, and R. L. Ramsay, Boston, 1907.
The Coptic (Sahidic) Version of Certain. Books of tAe Old Testament from a Papyrus in the British Museum, ed. H. Thompson, New York, 1908.
BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION: C. R. Gregory, Einleitung in du N. T., Leipsic, 1909.
BIBLICAL THEOLOGY: W. E. Orchard, The Evolution of the Old Testament Religion, London, 1908.
W. H. Bennett, Religion of the Post‑exilic Prophets, Edinburgh, 1908.
BONIFACE: An Eng. transl. of the correspondence of Boniface, ed. E. J. Kylie, London, 1908.
BUDDHISM: E. Windiseh, Buddhas Geburt and die Lehre von der Seelenwaradertsng, Leipsie,1908.
CALVIN, J.: P. Bess, Unsere religiosen Erzieher, Vol. ii., Leipsic, 1908.
R. Schwarz has edited a collection of 670 letters of Calvin in Germ, transl., Tiibingen,1908.
CAMPION, EDMUND: W. Allen, A Briefs Historie of the Glorious Martyrdom of twelve Reverend Priests. Father Edmund Campion and his Companions' with contemporary Verses by the venerable H. Walpole, and the earliest Engravings of the Martyrdom; ed. J. H. Pollen, Saint Louis, 1908.
L. J. Guiney, Blessed Edmond Campion, Lon‑
don, 1908.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑VOLUMES I‑III
CARMELITES: The Ascent of Mt. Carmel 6y St. John of the Cross, tranal. by D. Lewis, with prefotory Essay on the Development of Mysticism in the Carmelite Order, by B. Zimmermann, London, 1906.
CATECHISMS, § 16: Luther's Small Catechism Developed and Explained, Prepared and Published by Authority of the General Synod of the Evangelical Synod of the Ev. Luth. Church, U. S. A., Philadelphia (current).
CEMETERIES: E. Calve, Blbliografia Belle catacombs e Belle chiese di Roma, Rome, 1908.
CHARITY, SISTERS OF: L. Bougaud, Hist. of St. Vincent de Paul, . and of the Sisters of Charity, New York, 1908.
CHILE: G. F. S. Elliot, Chile, its Hist. and Development, London, 1907.
CHINA: D. Mac Gillivray, A Century of Protestant Missions in China, London, 1908.
M. Bromhall, The Chinese Empire, a General and Missionary Survey, London, 1908.
A. Launay, Hist. des missions etrangerea, vole. i.‑iii., Vannes, 1907‑08.
F. L. Norris, China, London, 1908.
J.	Speicher, Conquests of the Cross in China,
	New York, 907.1
R. W. Thompson, The Story of Fifty Years in China, London, 1908.
CHRISTOLOGY: S. Faut, Die ChriatologieaeitSchleiermacher, ihre Geachichte and ihre Begriindung, Tiibingen, 1907.
CHRYOOSTOM: Chrysoatom4ka. Sludi a ricerche intorno a S. Giovanni Criaoatomo a cura del comitato per il XY centenario delta sua morte, Rome, 1908.
CHURCH AND STATE: s. COIL, National Idealism and a State Church, London, 1907.
H. von der Goltz, Kirche and Stoat, Berlin, 1907.
CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA: J. Gabrielson, Ueber die Quetten des Clemens von Alexandrien, Leipsic, 1906.
CLEMENT OF ROME: C. Schmidt, Der erate Clemenabrief in altkoptischer Ueberaetxung, Leipsic, 1908 (in TU, xxcii. 1.).
G. A. van den Bergh van Eysinga, Onderzoek naar de echtheid van Clemens ersEe brief aan de Corinthiera, Leyden, 1908.
CLIFFORD, JOHN: D. Crane, John Clifford, God's Soldier and the People's Tribune, London, 1908.
COLLYER, R.: Some Memories, Boston, 1908.
COMMON PRAYER, Boos OF: S. Coit, National Ideal
	ism and the Book of Common Prayer. An
	Easy y in Reinterpretation and Revision,
	LORI
	on,		COMMUNISM: W. A. Hinds, American Communities,
2d ed., Chicago, 1908.
COMPARATIVE RELIGION: F. B. Jevons, An Introduction to the Study of Comparative Religion, Zd ed., New York, 1908.
H. Webeter, Primitive Secret Societies. A Study in early Politics and Religion, London, 1908.
A. van Gennep, Tabou et totemiame d Madagascar, Paris, 1904~
R. de la Grasserie, Des Phenombnea reli~ieux Bits myatkrea (triodes ou dedoublemerUa dzvma; anthroposes ou incarnations; a thyaioses ou redem~twns par sacrifice, aroec aboutiasement Bans le cults), Paris, 1908.
E. Douttk, Magie et religion Bans l'Afriyue du Nord, Paris, 1908.
B. Thompson, The Fijians. A Study of the
Decay of Custom, London, 1908.
CONCORDANCES: A Textual Concordance of the Holy
Scriptures; arranged especially for Use in Preaching, New York, 1908.
CONCORDATS: H. Rudorff, Zur Erklarung des
Wormser Konkordats, Weimar, 1906.
CONFIRMATION: C. R. BAIL, Confirmation, Before
and After, London, 1909.
CONGREGATIONALISTS: D. Maefadyen, Constructive
Congregational Ideals, London, 1908.
CONSCIENCE: F. Le Dantec, Science et conscience,
Paris, 1908.
CONSTANTINE THE GREAT AND HIS SONS: Joannea
M. Ff>'£ttisch, Die Reds Konstantins des
Grosaen an die Veraammlung der Heiligen
auf ihre Echtheit unteraucht, Freiburg and
St. Louie, 1908. [A defense.]
CONWAY, MONCURE DANIEL: E. C. Walker, A
Sketch and an Appreciation of Moncure Daniel Conway, Freethinker and Humanitarian, New York, 1908.
COPLESTON, R. S.: Buddhism, Primitive and Pres‑
ent, new ed., 1908.
COVENANT: F. V. Norton, A Lexicographical and
Historical Study of AcaBfjw?, Chicago, 1908.
COVENANTERS: J. K. Hewiaon, The Covenanter&
A History of the Church in Scotland from the
Reformaticm to the Revolution, Glasgow, 1908.
J. Willcock, A Scots Earl in Covenanting Times,
Being the Life and Times of Archibald, 9th Earl of Argyll (16,9‑85), Edinburgh, 1908.
CROSS AND ITS USE AS w SYMBOL: W. M. Glow,
The Cross in Christian Experience, London,
1908,
CROWTHER, S. A.: J. Page, The Black Bishop.
Samuel Adjai Crowther, London, 1908.
DAMASCUS: Ibn al‑Qalasani Hiat. of Damascus, ed.
M. H. F. Amedrog, Leyden 1908.
DAVID: B. Baentsch, David and aein Zeitalter, Leip‑
sic, 1907.
DEATH, DANCE OF: K. Kiinstle, Die Legends der
drei Lebenden and der drei Toten and der
Totentanz, Freiburg, 1908.
DEISM: I. W. Riley, American Philosophy; the
early Schools, pp. 191 sqq., New York, 1907.
DESCARTES, R.: K. Jungmann, RenE Descartes.
Eine Einfichrung in seine Werke, Leipsic,
1908.
DlwsroRw: E. W. Bueamann, Evangelische Diaapo‑
rakunde. Handbuch fur Pfarrer and Freunde
deutacher Auslandagemeinden, Marburg, 1908.
DIDACHE: A. Seeberg, Die Beiden Wege and daa
Aposteldekret, Leipaic, 1908.
DISEASES AND THE HEALING ART, HEBREW: A
series of articles by E. M. Merrina, M.D. in Bx'bliotheca Sacra, April, 1904, to October, 1908.
DOGMA, DOGMATICS: F. Bollard, Christian Essen‑
tials, New York, 1908.
H. H. Wendt, System der chriaElichen Lehre,
GSttingen, 1907.
A. H. Strong, vol. ii., Philadelphia, 1908.
F. J. Hall, Dogmatic Th~9J Vol. ii.,
Authority, Ecclesiastical and Biblical, Chicago, 1908.
DONELLAN (DONNELAN) LECTURES: 1906‑07. H. J. Dukinfield Aetley, Prehistoric Archaeology and the O. T., Edinburgh, 1908.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations in common use or self‑evident are not included here. For additional information concerning the works listed, see vol. i., pp. viii.‑xx., and the appropriate articles in the body of the work.
Adv ........... AJP..........
AJT.........
AKR .........
ALKG .......
Am .......... AMA.. .....
ANF .........
ASM ......
.
	ADB 	~ Allgemeine deutsche Biographic. Leipaic,
		1875 aqq., vol. 53,1907
		‑.adveraua, ' against
		American Journal of Philology, Balti
		more, 1880 eqq.
		American Journal of Theology, Chicago,
.	1897 eqq.
. Archiv fur katholiachea Kirchenrecht, Innsbruck, 1857‑81, Mainz, 1872 e4q.
• Archiv fur L itteratur‑ and Kirchengeachichte des Mittelaltera, Freiburg, 1885 aqq.
_ American
Abhandlungen der Munrhener Akademie, Munich, 1763 eqq.
Ante‑Nicene Fathers, American edition by A. Cleveland Coxe, 8 vole. and index, Buffalo, 1887; vol. ix., ed. Allan Menzies, New York, 1897
	Apoc .		Apocrypha, apocryphal
	Apol .		Apologia. Apology
	Arab 	Arabic
	A ram. . . . . . . . . 	Aramaic
	art 	article
	Art. Schmal		Schmalkald Articles
ASB . . . . . . . . . . ,; Acta aanctorum, ed. J. Bolland and others, Antwerp, 1843aq q .
. . . • JActs aanctorum ordania S. Benedicti, ed.
		J. Mabillon, 9 vole., Paris, 1888‑1701
	Aes .~		Assyrian
	A. ~. . . 	.		Altea Testament, " Old Testament "
	AT. Con	.		Augsburg Confession
	A. V			Authorized Version (of the English Bible)
	AZ 	.		Allgemeine Zeitung. Augsburg, Tebmgen,
			Stuttgart, and Tiibmgen, 1798 aqq.
Baldwin, ~ J• M. Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy Dictionary . . . and Psychology, 3 vole. m 4. New York, 1901‑05
Bensinger, ~ I. Bensinger, Hebrtaiache Archaologie, Archtiologie... 2d ed., Freiburg, 1907
Bertholdt, ~ L., Bertholdt, Hiatoriach‑Kritieche Ein‑
	Einleitunp .	~tung . • des Alters and Neuen Tea
		tamenta, 8 vole., Erlangen , 1812‑19
	BFBS .		British and Foreign Bible Society
Bingham, ~ J• Gingham, Originea eccleaiaetacee, 10 Oripinea . . . . , , vole., London, 1708‑22; new ed., Oxford, 1855
	,M. Bouquet, Recueil des hiatoriena des
Bouquet, Reeueil j Gaulea et de 1a France, continued by
		( various hands, 23 vole., Paris, 1738‑78
		Archibald Bower, History o/ the Popes
	Bower, Popes 	. . to 1768, continued by S. H. Cox,
		3 vole., Philadelphia, 184b‑47
	BQR .	. 	.....	~ Baptist Quarterly Review, Philadelphia,
				1887 sqq.
	BRG				See JaffE:
	Cant 		. 	Canticles, Song of Solomon
	cap 			,.caput. " chapter "
Ceillier, Auteure~ R' Ceilher, Hiatoire des auteura asses et
	. . , , eccleaiaatiquea, 16 vole. in 17, Paris,
				1858‑89
	Chron .				Chronicon, " Chronicle "
	I Chron .		I Chronicles
	II Chron .		II Chronicles
	CIG .	Corpus inacriptionum Crcecarum, Berlin,
		1825 aqq.
	CIL	Corpus znacriptionum Latinarum, Berlin,
		1883 aqq.
	Ci's 	.....	Corpus inacriptioraum Semiticarum, Paris,
1881 aqq.
	cod 		codex
	cal. D			codex Bezo:
	cod. Theod			codex Theodoaianna
	Col 	...............	Epistle to the Colossians
	Col., Colo 	column, columns
	Conf . . . . . . . . .		Con/esaionea, " Confessions "
	I Our 	First Epistle to the Corinthians
CR ......
	II Cor .		8econd Epistle to the Corinthians
	COT 	See Schrader
CQR . . . . . . . . . . ~ The Church Quarterly Review, London,
	1875 eqq .
	..	. . . . . ~ C_?us rgo	b?.gnn at Halle,
1834, vol. hsix., Berlin and Leipsic, 1905eq q.
~ M. Creighton. A Hsatory of the Papacy Creighton, ~ from fhe Great Schism to the Sack of papacy, , , , . , , , Rome, new ~ed., 8 vole., New York a do
		London, 1897
	CSEL .	. . . . . . ~ Corpus acriyforum eccTeaiaaticorum Lati
		norum, Vienna, 1887 aqq.
	CSHB		. . . ~ Corpus ecr'plorum hiatorite Byzantine,
		49 vole., Bonn, 1828‑78
Carrier, Religious ~ C. W. Carrier, History of Religious Orders,
	Orders . 	. . . . New York, 1898
	D .		Deuteronomiat
	DACL .		. ~ F' Cabrol, Dictionnaire d'arch5,olnpie chrE
		tienne et de liturp4e, Paris, 1903 eqq.
	Dan 	Daniel
		J. Hastings Dictionary ot the Bible, 4
	DB .	vole. an~ extra vol., Edinburgh and
		New York, 1898‑1904
		W. Smith and S. Cheetham, Dictionary
	DCA .	. . . . . .	of Christian Antiquities, 2 vole., London,
			1875‑80
			W. Smith and H. Wace, Dictionary of
	DCB .	Christian Biography, 4 vola., Boston,
		1877‑87
		J. Hastings, J. A. Selbie, and J. C. Lambert,
DCG . .. .. . . .. . ~	ADietionaryaj Christ and the Gospels, 2
	vole., Edinburgh and New York, 1906‑08
Deut . . . . . . . . . . . .. Deuteronomy
De vir. ill. . . . . . . . . De viria illuaErdbus
De Wette‑ ~ W. M. L. de Wette, Lehrbuch der hiaSchrader, Ein‑ toriach‑kritiachen Einleitung in die Bibel, leitung . . . . . . . vol. i. A. T., ad. E. Schrader, Berlin, 1869
	DGQ .		.	9ee Wattenbach
			L. Stephen and S. Lee, Dictionary of
	DNB 		~ National Biography, 83 vole, and
			supplement 3 vole., London, 1885‑1901
Driver, Introduc‑~ S• R. Driver, Introduction to the Literature
			o the Old Testament, 5th ad., New
	tion			~ yfork, 1894
	E .			Elohiat
			T. K. Cheyne and J. S. Black, Eneyclo
	EB .			pordia Biblica, 4 vole., London and
			New York, 1899‑1903
	EccZ .			Eecleaia, Curch ; eccdeaiaaticua, "eo
			cleeiaetical '
	Eccles . 		Ecclesiastes
	Ecclus:. . .			Ecclesiasticus
	ed 		edition; edidit, " edited by "
	Eph .	..	. . 	Epistle to the Ephesiana
	Epiat .	..	..	.		Epiatola, Epistola, ' Epistle,"' Epiatlea "
Ersch and Gru‑ J. S. Erach and J. G. Gruber, •Ahgemeine
	her, Encyklo‑j Encykloptldie der Wiseenachaften and
	ptldie .					Kvnate, Leipaic, 1818 eqq.
	E.V					Engliah versions (of the Bible)
	Ex 				Exodus
	E.ek Ezekiel
	faac					faaciculua
Friedrich, KD.. ~ J' Friedrich, Kirchengeachachte Deutath
	landa, 2 vote., Bamberg, 1887‑t19
Fritzsche, Exe‑ O. F. Fritzsche and C. L. W. Grimm,
	getiacheaHand‑~ Kurzgefaaetea exegetiachea Handbuch
	both 	Tu den Apocryphen des Alters Teata•Gal .	meats, G parts, Leipaic, 1851‑S0
			Epistle to the Galatians
Gams, Series. . j P' B, Gams, Series ap~ acoporum eecleaiae
episcoparum	Catholieae Regensburg, 1873, and sup
	plement, 1888.
Gee and Hardy, H. Gee and W. J. Hardy, Documents
	Documents .... London,1898
	Gen 		Genesis

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Germ . . . . . . . . . . . German
		Gottingisrhe Gelehrte AnzeiDen, GSttingen,
	GGA .		1824 eqq.
Gibbon, Decline ~E~ Gibbon, History of the Decline and
	and Fall 	. . . . Fall of the Roman Empire, ed. J. B.
		Bury, 7 vole., London, 18981900
	Gk 	Greek, Grecized
		C. Gross, The Sources and Literature of
Gross, Sources.. 1 1900 English History . . . to 1186, London,
	Hab .		Habakkuk
Haddanand	~A‑ W. Haddan and W. Stubbs, Councils
	Stubbs, Coun‑ SS	and Ecclesiastical Documents Relating
		to Great Britain and Ireland, 3 vole.,
	""' 	Oxford, 1869‑78
~Refera to patristic works on heresies or heretics, Tertullian's De ~r aafxiptaone,
Her""""""	the Pros haireaeis of ~enteus, the
		Panarion of Epiphanies, etc.
	Hag .		Haggai
Harduin, Co, I J, Harduin, ConciZiorum collectio reDia
	cilia 	. . . maxima, 12 vole., Paris, 1715

Harnaek, Dogma ~ A~th 3d German edition, 7 ols., Bo ton, 1895‑1900
Harnack, Litters‑~ A' Harnaek Geschichte der altchriat‑
			Zichen Litteratur bie Euaebiua, 2 vole.
	fur	. . . . . . .	in 3, Leipsie, 1893‑1904
			A. Hauck, Kirchengeachirhte Deutach‑
	Hauck, KD .	.	lands, vol. i., Letpaic, 1904; vol, ii.,
1900; vol. iii., 1906; vol, iv., 1903
	1	~Realeru‑ykloP&die ffir Proleatantiache The
	Hauck‑Herzog 	aloDie and Kirche, founded by J. J.
	RE	Herzog, 3d ed. by A. Hauck, Leipaic,
		189fr1909
	Heb .		Epistle to the Hebrews
Hebr . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hebrew
Hefele,Concilien‑~ C' J. von Hefele, Conciliengeachichtef con‑
Deachichte . . . . .	tinued by J. Hergenrother, vole., t.‑vi
Heimbucher, Or‑	viii.‑ix., FrFreiburg, 1883‑93
den and Kon
greyationen ....
Helyot, Ordrea
M07da8t2qne8. . .
Henderson, Doo‑
	umenta .	Hist
Mist. eccl......
J ..............
J.4.............
JaffE, BRG......
J.40S
( M. Heimucher, Die Orden and Korfgre
i	gatiovzen der katholiachen Kirche, 2d
	ed. 3 vole., Paderborn, 1907
P. Helyot, Hiatoire des ordrea monas‑
tiquea, relipieux et militairea, 8 vole.,
Pans, 1714‑19; new ed.. 1839‑42
E. F. Henderson, Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages, London, 1892
. .History, hiatoire, hiatoria
J Hiatfn•ia celeaiaatica, eccleaice, " Church History"
Ilom .. . . . . . . . . ...Homilies, lurmiliai, " homily, homilies "
	Ilos .		Hosea
	Isa 	Isaiah
	Ita1		Italian
..Jahvist (Yahwist)
.Journal Aaiatique Paris, 1822 aqq.
~) P. JaffE, Bi~theca rerum Gernvanicarum, 6 vole., Berlin, 1884‑73
P. JaffE, ReDeala Pontifacum Romanarum
JaffE, Regeatn .... ~ . ad annum 1198, Berlin, 1851; 2f3 ed., Leipsic, 1881‑88
. . _ , . _ . . ~ Journal of the American Oriental Society, New Haven 1849 aqq.
Journ.al of Biblical Literature and Exepeaia, first appeared as Journal of the
JBL . . . . . . . . . . . ~ Society of Biblical Literature arid Exe‑
		gesis, Middletown, 1882‑88, then Bos
		ton, 1890sq q
		The Jewish Encyclopedia, 12 vole., New
	JE	York, 1901‑08
	JE .	The combined narrative of the Jahvis
		(Yahwiet) and Elohist
	Jer .		Jeremiah
	Josephus, Ant	j Flavius Josephus, " Antiquities of the
		Jews "
	Josephus, Apion	. Flaviua Joaephus, " Against Apion "
	Joaephua, Lxte .		Life of Flavius Josephus
	foaephua, 11'ar .		Flavius Joaephus, The Jewish War"
	Josh .		Joshtta
		Jahrbiicher fur protestantiache Theologie,
JPT .. .. .. .. ... Leipsic, 1875 sqq.
JQR. . . . . . . . . , , ~ The Jewish Quarterly Review, London,
		1888 sqq.
	JTS	~'1°tzrnal of Theological Studies, London,
		1899 sqq.
Julian, Hym‑ ) J. Julian, A Dictionary of Hymnology,
	I tology 	revised edition, London, 1907
	I
		Jaarboeken voor Wetenschappeliike Theo
	JTVT 	logic, Utrecht, 1845 sqq.
	KA T		Sfx Schrader
	KB 	See Schrader
	KD .		See Friedrich, Hauck, Rettbetyg
		Wetzer anti Welts a Kirchenlexikon, 2d
KL . . . . . . . . . . . .	ed., by J. Hergenrother and F. Kaulen,
	12 vole., Freiburg. 1882‑1903
G.
7	.f, ,	.zrZy Christian
iiriiger, Hiatoryl L2teratzfre anLthe First Three Centuries,
	(New fork. 1897
Krumbacher,	~ K• Krumbacher Geachichte der byzan
	Geachichte .....		tantachen Litteratur, 2d ed., Munich,
			1897
		1P. Lsbbe, Saaorum concilimum nova
Labbe, Conciliai		et ampliaaima collectio, 31 vole., Flor
		(	sate and Venice, 1759‑98
Lam . . . . . . . . . . ...Lamentations
Lanigan. Eccl.	~ J• Lanigan, Ecclesiastical History of
	Hiat . . 	. . , Ireland o the 13th Century, 4 vole.,
Dublin, 1829
	Lat .		Latin, Latinized
	Leg .		LeDeatlegum
	Lev .		Levittcus
Lichtenberger, ~ F• Lichtenberger, EneyclopEdie des aci
	1~ reliDaewea, 13 vole., Paris, 1877‑
ESR ........

Lorenz, DGQ . . . 1 O• Lorenz, Deutachlanda Geachichtaqueh den im Miuelalter, 3d. ed., Berlin, 1887
	LXX .		The Septuagint
	I Mace 	I Maccabees
	11 Mace 	II Maccabees
Mai, Nova col_ ~ A. Mai, ScriPtandm veterum nova coGlectio . . . . . . . . . lectio, 10 vole., Rome, 1825‑38
	Mal . . . . . . . . . . . . 	Malachi
	Mann, Popes 	~ R. C. Mann, Lives of the Popes in the
		Early Middle Ages, London, 1902 sqq.
		G. D. Manai, Sanctorum conciliorum
	Manei, Concilia	~ collectio nova, 31 vole., Florence and
		Venice, 1728
	Matt . . . . . . . . . . . . 	Matthew
		`Mnnumenta Germanic; kiatorifxi, ed. G. H.
		Peru alzd others, Hanover and Ber
		lin, 1826 eqq. Te following abbrevia
		tions are used for the sections and sub
		sections of this work: Ant., Antifrui
		tatea, " Antiquities "; Auct. ant., Auc
		tfrrea antiquiaeimi, " Oldest Writers ";
		Chron, man. Chronica minors, " Lesser
		Chronicles ' ; Dip, Diplomats, ' Di
		plomas, Documents ' ; EiZiat, Eyia
		tola•„ " Letters ' ; Geat, yont. Rom .,
		Geata pontificum Romanorum., ' Deeds
		of the popes of Rome "~ Leg., Legea,
		" Laws '; Lib. de life, Libelli de lice
		inter regnum et ascerdotium aa'culorum
		xi et xii conacripli, " Books concerning
		the Strife between the Civil and Eccle
	MGH .	aiastical Authorities in the Eleventh
		and Twelfth Centuries' • Nec., Ne
		crologies (lermanica, " Necrology of
		Germany' ; Poet. Lest. f>wvi Car.,
		Pocks Latini cevi Carolini, " Latin
		Poets of the Caroline Time "; Poet.
		Lest. med. acvi, Poelee Latini medii awi,
		Latin Poets of the Middle Ages";
		Script., Scriptorea ' Writers' • Script.
		rer. Germ., Scriptorea rerum Germani
		canaml ' Writers on German Sub
		jects ' ; Script, rer. Langob., Smi.ptorea
		rerum Largo rdicarum et Italicarum,
		Writers on Lombard and Italian
		Subjects "; Script. rer. Merov., Smip
		torea rerum Merwin9icarum. " Writers
		on Merovingian Subjects'
	Mic .		Micah
H. H. Milman History of Latin CAria‑
Milman, Latin ~ dignity. Including that of the Popes to
	Christianity		Nicholas V., 8 vole., London.
		1860‑81
		C. Mirbt Quellen zurGeachichte des Papat‑
		tume and des rf5miachen Katholieiamua,
		Tiibingen, 1901
		W. Mueller, History of flee Christian
		Church, 3 vole., London, 1892‑1900
		J. P. Migne, Patrologi(e tarsus completua,
		aeries Grace, 162 vole., Paris, 1857‑66
	hIPL .	. . .; J. P. Migne; Patrologice torsos eemPlelua
		aeries Latina, 221 vole., Paris, 1844‑84
	MS., MSS .		Manuacript, Manuscripts
Muratori, Scrip‑JL. A. Muratori, Rerum Italicarum acrip‑
	torea .		force, 28 vole., 172's‑51
		Neuea Archiv der Geaellarhaft fiir titters
	NA 	deutsche Geachichtakunde, Hanover,
		1876 sqq.
Nah. . . . . . . . . . . . .. Nahum
	n.d		no date of publication
Neander, Chris‑1A' Neander, General History of the Christian Church. . . tier Religion and Church, 6 vole. and
		index, Boston, 1872=81
	Neh .		Nebemiah
Niceron, m1R.Z. Niceron Dlirzwirea pour aeroir h
		1stoire des hf»nmea iltuatres . , 43
	moiree 	vole., Paris, 1729‑45
	NKZ .		~ N~qkirchliche Zeitachrift, Leipaie, 1890
Nowaek, ArchB‑ ~ W. Nowaak, Lehrbuch der hebriiiachen
	oloDie .		. . Archiiologie, 2 vole., Freiburg, 1894
	n.p		no place of publication
Mirbt, Quellen.
Moeller, Chris‑
tian Church..
MPG..........

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
	The Nicene and PoahNicene Fathers, let
NPNF ... . . . . . . series, 14 vole., New York, 1887‑92; 2d
		series, 14 vole., New York, 1890‑1900
N. T.. . . . . . . . . .; New Testament, Nauum TeatamenEum, Nouveau Testament, Neuea Testament
Num .... . . . . . . . ..Numbers
	Ob		Obadish
	S. B 	,,,,, ~ Ordo aanct% Bened%cti, " Order of St.
O. 	Benedi ct "
	O. T		Old Testament
	OTJC .		See Smith
p„ . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Priestly document
L. Pastor, The History of the Popes from
Pastor, Popes. . . ~	the Close of the Middle Apes. 8 vole.,
	London, 1891‑1908
PEA . . ... . . , , , , I Patrea eccleaia Anglicante, ed. J. A. Giles, 34 vole., London, 1838‑48
PEF .... . . . . .. ...Palestine Exploration Fund
I Pet .. . . .. . . . . ... First Epistle of Peter
	II Pet 	Second Epistle of Peter
Pliny, HisE. nat...Pliny, Hiatoria. naturalia
Potthaat, Wep‑~A'~ott)~e~8~ ~ e~ ~ to~ a ~ i
	weiaer .		werke, Berlin, 1898
	Prov 	Proverbs
	Ps .		Psalma
	PS BA		. . 3Proceedings of the Society of Biblical
		J Archeology, London, 1880 q.
	q.v., qq.v	. 	. quod (quw) vide, " which see'
	It 		Redactor
Ranks, Popes... ~I° von Ranks, History of the Popes, 3 vole., London, 1900
RDM . . . . . . . .... . Revue des deux mo»dea, Paris, 1831 aqq.
	I2E			See Hauck‑Herzog
Reich, Docu‑ ) E. Reich, Select Documents Illustrating Mementa .. . .... . . 1 dia'val and Modern History, London, 1905
REJ .. . . . ... . . . . . Revue des 6tudea Juivea, Paris, 1880 eqq.
Rettberg, KD... 1 F' R'. Rettberg, Kirchengesch%chte Deutaclc‑
			~ lands, 2 vole., GSttingen, 1846‑48
	Rev 		Book of Revelation
	RHR .			;Re"'"a de Z'histo%re des religions, Paris,
			1880 eqq.
Richter, Kirchen‑~ A• L. Richter, Lehrbuch des katholiarhen
	recht .			, Und evanpeliachen Kirchenrechta, 8th
			ed . by W. Kahl, Leipaic, 1888
Robinson, Re ‑ ( E. Robinaon, Biblical Researches in aearc7eea, and Palestine, Boston, 1841, and Later Later Re‑ ~ Biblical Researches in Palestine, 3d ed.
	searches			of the whole, 3 vole., 1867
Robinson, , Euro‑ I J. H. Robins on, Readings in European pears History . Hia=i2 vole., Boston, 1904‑06
Robinson and J. H.	neon and C. A. Beard, DDevelop
	Beard, M~ ~ 	1 07 of Modem Europe, 2 vol., Boston,
	Europe
	Rom .			~.REpi~stle~ ~~ ~e~ti a Arms,
	RSE .			1860‑74, Amiena, 1875 eqq~
RTP .... . . . . . . . I RevW do thlolopie et de philosophic,
			Lausanne, 1873
	R. V			Reviaed Version (of the English Bible)
	ecec .			areculum ' century'
	I Sam 	....	..	.I Samuel
	II Sam 	..	. II Samuel
	SBA 		? ~'S''tr""paberichte der Berliner Akademie,
			Berlin, 1882 eqq.
			F. Max Miiller and others, The Sacred
	SBE .	Books of the East, Oxfor, 1879 eqq.,
		Vol. xlviii., 1904
		Sacred Books of the Old Testament (" Rain
	SBOT .	bow Bible ), Leipeic, London, and
		Baltimore, 1894 sqq
Schaff, Chriat%anj P• Schaff, History o/ the Christian Church, Church . . . . . , , vole, i. iv., vi., vii„ New York, 1882‑92, Vol‑ v., part 1, by D. S. Schaff, 1907
Schaff, Creeds... ~ P• Schaff, The Creeds of Christendom, 3 vole. New York, 1877‑84
ESchrader, . 	Cuneiform Inscriptions and
Schrader, COT. . ~	the Old estament, 2 vole., London,
	1885‑88
Schrader, KAT . ~ E• Schrader, Die Keilinachrlften and daa Alte Testament, 2 vole., Berlin, 1902‑03
Schrader, KB... ~ E' Schrader, Kealinachriftliche Bibliothek, 8 vole., Berlin, 1889‑1901
'E. Schiirer, Geachichte des jiidiachen Yolkea im ZeitalterJeauChriati, 4th ed„ 3 vole., Leipaic, 1902aqq,; Eng. transl., 5 vole., New York, 1891
Script .. . .... . . . . `Scr_i,ptares, " writers
Scrivener,	F. H, A. Scrivener, Introduction to New Tea
	Introduclion . , { 	tamen.t Criticism, 4th ed., London, 1894
	Sent 	. „,.Sententice " Sentnces "
S. J. . . . . , , , , , , Societaa Jean " Society of Jesus "
	SK .		•	~Theolopische Studien and Kritiken, Ham
			burg, 1826 aqq,
	SMA . . . . . . . ~ S%tzunpaberichte der Mtinehener Aka
			demie, Munich, 1860 aqq
	Smith, Kinship			~ w• R• Smith, inship and Marriage in
			Early Arabia., London, 1903
SchiSrer,
Geachichte. , .
W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the
Smith, OTJC. . . Jewish Church. London, 1892
Smith, Prophets.. ~ wthe Eighth Smith, Prophets	95 Israel . ~ ~ ~
Smith, Rel. of'W. R. Smith, Religion of the Sem%taa.
	Sem	London, 1894
S. P. C. K.. ... . 1 Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge
S. P. G. . . . . . . . . ~ Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts sq., eqq.. . , ... . . . . and following
	Strom . . . . . . . . . .		Stromata, iscellaniea "
	s.v		sub voce, or sub verbo
Swete, Introduc‑ ~ H. B. 3wete, Introduction to the Old Tea
	tion. , , , , , , , , , lament in Greek, London, 1900
	Syr .		Syriac
TBS . . . . . .. .. . . .Trinitarian Bible Society
Thatcher and (O. J. Thatcher and E. H. McNeal, A
	McNeal, Souree~ Source Book for Mediawal History,
	Book . .. . . . . . . l New York, 1905
	I These 	First Epistle to the Thessalonians
	II These .		Second Epistle to the Thessalonians
ThT . . . . . . . , , , I Theolopische Tijdarhrifl. Amsterdam and
( Leyden, 1867 sqq.
Tillemont, Me‑~I''•S• Is Nain de Tillemont, Memoires eccl6siast%quea des a%x premiers moarea . . . . . " ' aieclea, 16 vols., Paris, 1693‑1712
	I Tim 	First Epistle to Timothy
II Tim . . .. .. .... .Second Epistle to Timothy
		Theologiacher Jahreabericht, LeiI?sic, 1882
	TJB .		1887, Freiburg, 1888, Brunswick, 1889
		1897, Berlin, 1898 eqq.
	TLB	......	.; The°loputchea Intteraturblatt, Bonn, 1866
	TLZ .. . . { TheolqOgiache Litteraturzeitung, Leipsic,
			1878 aqq.
	Tob			Tobit
	TQ		. . . ~ Theolopiaehe	Quarfalachrifl. Tiibingen,
		1819 aqq.
	TS		; J• A. Robinson, Texts and Studios,
		Cambridge, 1891 sq q
		Transactions of the Society of Biblical
		Archmolopy, London, 1872 aqq.
		Theolopische Studien and Kr%t%ken, Ham
		burg, 1826 aqq.
		Texts and Unterauchungen zur Geachichte
		der altchrletliehen Litteratur, ed. O. von
		Gebhardt and A. .Harnack, Leip,ic,
		1882 eqq.
		Tubi er Zeitsch'' t iir T
		if f heolopie, Tii
		bingen, 1838‑40
Ugolini, Theeau‑)B. Ugolinus, Thesaurus antiquitatum
	rua .		aaaarum. 34 vole., Venice, 1744_69
	V. T		VetuaTeatamentum,VieuxTeatament, 'Old
		Testament '
Wat.tenbach,	w• R'attenbach, Deutachlands Geachichta‑
	DGQ . 	ZZen. 5th ed., 2 vole., Berlin, 1385;
		ed., 1893‑94
Wellhausen,	) J. R'ellhauaen, Reate arabischen Heiden
	Heidentum ... .	1 fume, Berlin, 1887
Wellhsueen, ~ J• Wellhauaen, Prolegomena zur Ceachichle
Prolegomena...	la''aels• 6th ed., Berlin, 1905, Eng.
	tranNl., Edinburgh, 1885
Zeitachrift fur Aasyreolopie, Leipsic,
ZA . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 	Berlin, 1889 sqq.
Zahn, E%nlei‑ ~ T, Zahn, Einleitunp in daa Neu, Teatatunp ' ' ' "' ' ' ' ment, d ed., Leipaic, 1907
Zahn, Kanon.,., ~ T• Zahn, Geachichte des neutestamentlichen Kanona 2 voe., Leip•ic, ISSB‑92
Zeitachrift fur die altteatamenllicle IVissenschaft, Giessen, 1881 sqq.
Zeitschrift fiirdeutacea Alterthumuruldcutache Lateratur Berlin, 1876 aqq
ZDMG ... . . . . . . ~ Zectachrift der deutachen morpenhtndiachen Geael7schaft, Leipsic, 1847 aqq.
Zi$~rift fitr deutsche philologie, Halle,
	Zeitachriftq•des deutachen PalSatina‑Ver
	1 eina, Leipsic. 1878 sqq.
...Zechariah
		Zephaniah
		Zeatachrift Ifir die hiatoriache Theolopie,
	ZHT .	,, published successively at Leipsig
		Hamburg, and Goths, 1832‑75
	ZKG 	~ Zeits°hri.ft fiir Kirchenpeachichte. Goths,
		l876 aqq
	ZKR 	. . . . „ Zextachrift /itr Kirchenrecht Berlin, Tii
		bingen hreiburg, 1861 aqq,
	ZKT	, , , , , , , , , ~ ZeiZBChrift fiir katholiache Theologie, Inns
		bruck, 1877 sqq,
	ZKW .	, , , , , , ~ Zaltachrijt fur karchliclre Wieaereachaft and
		kirchliehea Leben, Leipaie, 1880‑89
ZNTW . . . . . . . . ~ Zeitachrijt fur die neutestamentliche Wis‑
		aenachaft, Giessen 1900 sqq.
		/Zeitachrift fiirProteetantiamuaundKirche,
	ZPK""""		' • Erlangen, 1838‑76
		(Zextachrift fx7r wiaeensrhajtliche Th cologie,
	ZWT .		j1 Jena. 1858‑60. Halle, 1881‑87, Leipaie,
1868 eqq.
TSBA .........
TSK .........
TU..........
TZT.........
ZATW ........ ZDAL........
ZDP .......... ZDPV........
Zech.......... Zeph. .. , . .

SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION
The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew:
H = ' or omitted at the	t = z	y =
	beginning of a word.	n =1~	13 = p
3=b	b =1r	b=Phorp
3=bhorb	~=y	Y=~
~=g	~=k
3 =ghorg	5=khork
		I =r
‑,=d	5=1	f7=a
7=dhord	n=m
~=sh
7=h	~=n 	h=t
1=w	D = s 	n=thort

The vowels are transcribed by a, e, i, o, u, without attempt to indicate quantity or quality. Arabic and other Semitic languages are transliterated according to the same system as Hebrew. Greek Is written with Roman characters, the common equivalents being used.
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
When the pronunciation is self‑evident the titles are not respelled; when by mere division and accentuation it can be shown sufficiently clearly the titles have been divided into syllables, and the accented
syllables indicated.
	a as in sofa	a as in not	in	as in duration
	a " " arm	8 " " nor	c = k " " cat

	$ cc cr at	U " " f,411 a	011 	.c` chnl'ch
	..	cc fare	Q .c, rc rule	ew ‑ qu as in queen
e	cc cc pen .	Q a rc but	dh (th) rr u
	cc .r			the
Elite	a	bum	f	it do fancy
i rc cr tin	VI " w ping	g (hue) cr cr 90
t .r cc machine	au " cc put	8 	a .r loch (Scotch)
	.r a ply	ei c. 	pi	hw (wld) `• " why,
	a n u no	is e. a few		j 	c. J8W

I In accented syllables only; in unaccented syllables it approximates the sound of a in over. The letter n, with a dot beneath it, indicates the sound of n as in ink. Nasal n (as in French words) is rendered n. ' In German and French names a approximates the sound of a in dune.

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
	CHAMIER, sha"my5', DANIEL: French preacher
(Reformed); b. at the castle of Le Mont, near Mocae
(in the district of Saint‑Marcellin, 23 m. w. of Gre
noble), 1565; killed at Montauban Oct. 17, 1821.
He belonged to an old Roman Catholic family
of Avignon, but his father had embraced the
Protestant faith and gained many converts in the
south of France, especially at Montklimar, where
he became pastor. Daniel studied at the Univer
sity of Orange and at Geneva under Beza and De la
Faye (1583‑89). He was ordained minister at
Montpellier, and about 1595 succeeded his father
at Montklimar. His intelligence and the firmness
of his character led the provincial synod to appoint
him deputy to the national synod at Saumur and
the political gathering at Loudun in 1598, and
thenceforth he was a frequent delegate to such
assemblies. He succeeded in preventing the ad
dition of certain limitations to the Edict of Nantes,
and brought the Edict to the Synod of Montpellier
in 1598. In 1801 and 1602 he took part in two
celebrated discussions at Montpellier with the
Jesuits Cotton and Gaultier. In 1603 he prided
over the National Synod at Gap, when an article
was added to the Reformed confession of faith
declaring the pope to be the Antichrist foretold
is the Scriptures. In 1807 Henry IV. granted him
permission as representative of the Church of
Dauphins to establish an academy at Montpellier,
and he became professor, returning, however, after
a short time to Montklimar. In 1612 he became
pastor and professor at Montauban. When Louis
XIII. besieged the city in 1621 Chamfer sent his
students to the walls, shared himself in all the
dangers and misfortunes of the citizens, and was
mortally wounded during the defense. in theology
he held fast to Calvin's dogma of predestination,
even to supralapearianiem; in some other respects
he differed from Calvin, e.g., concerning Christ's
descent into hell and the doctrine of angels. His
works were: Dispute de la motion des minietrea
de l1gliae rsformke (La Rochelle, 1589); Epistohe,
jeauiticte (Geneva, 1599); La Confusion des disputes
pcepiates (1600);. Disgutatto acholaatico‑theologica de
acumenico pond five (1601); Lo Hortte de Brsbylone
(SSdan, 1612); La J6auitomanie (Montauban, 1618);
Journal du voyage de M. D. Chamfer h Paris et h la
tour de Henri IV. en 1607 (ed. C. Read, Paris, 1858).
		G. BONE'1`MAURY.
Bxzr.xoas&PzT: J. Quick, Memoir a/ D. Chamfer. with Notices o/ his Deaeendante, London, 1862, also in Read's edition of the Joursat, us.
III,‑1
CHANCEL: In the narrowest sense the sanctuary of a church, i.e., an enclosure beyond or within the choir containing the altar. As the distinction between clergy and laity developed, it became customary to reserve an ever larger apace for the former, and separate it from the body of the church, as by a screen. Their apace then came to be designated as the chancel, and the word is often employed in modern usage for all beyond the nave and transepts. Bee ALTAR.
CHANCERY, APOSTOLIC (Cancettaria Apostolica). See CuxrA, § 3.
CHARDIEU, shah"dye', ANTOINE DE LA ROCHE‑ French Reformed theologian; b. at the castle of Chabot (near Macon) 1534; d, at Geneva Feb. 23, 1591. His trend toward the Reformed was strengthened during his study of law at Toulouse, and after a theological course at Geneva he became the pastor of the Reformed congregation of Paris, 1b56‑62. When in the night of Sept. 4, 1557, a Protestant meeting was attacked and 140 persons were imprisoned, Chandieu published his Remonstrance au Rot and his Aloologie des bona ChrBtiens contra lea enrternis de 1'Egliae catholiqate. In consequence, he was arrested, but was soon released at the intervention of Anthony of Navarre. In 1558 he went to Orleans, but soon returned to Paris. He took an active part in the deliberations of the first national synod of the Reformed Church in France which was held at Paris May 26‑28, 1559, and assisted in preparing a confession of faith. He presided at the third national synod at Orleans, Apr. 25, 1562, where Morelli's doctrine regarding the general right of voting at ecclesiastical elections was condemned. The controversy nevertheless continued, and Chandieu wrote a rejoinder, La confirmation de la discipline ecclAaiastultte obaerv6e en tsgliaes rsformeea de France (Geneva, 1568). At the eighth national synod, held at Nimes, May 6, 1572, the matter of Morelli, who was seconded by Pierre Ramus, De Rosier, Bergeron, and others, was again taken up and again condemned. After the massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572), Chandieu fled to Switzerland, and lived first at Geneva and afterward at Lausanne and Aubonne, everywhere advocating and defending the cause of his countrymen, many of whom lived in Switzerland. In the religious war of 1585 he was field‑chaplain to Henry of Navarre; but in May, 1588, he returned to his family at Geneva, where he died three years later, lamented by the Protestants of Geneva and France

oh.nAl.! ChaaainB
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
and by Beza. Chandieu was a prolific author, writing under the pseudonyms of Zamariel, Theopsaltes, La Croix, and, after 1577, of Sadeel. Among his works special mention may be made of the following: Meditationes in Psalmum xxxii. (Geneva, 1578; Eng. tranal. by W. Watkinaon, London, 1579); De verbo Dei seripto (1580); De vera peccatorum remissions (1580); De unico Christi sacerdotio (Geneva, 15$1); De veritate naturce humance Christi (1585j; De sPirituali mandueatione corporis Christi (1589; Eng. travel., London, 1859); and De sacramentali mareducatione corporis Christi (Geneva, 1589). A collected edition appeared at Geneva in 1592 under the title Antonii Sadcelis viri nolrilissimi opera theologica. Of great importance was his Hiatoire des pers6eutiona et martyrs de l'gglise de Paris depuis l'an 1667 jusqu'au temps de Charles IX. (Lyons, 1563j, in which he described his residence at Paris (15570). He also distinguished himself as a poet, and in 1563 defended his Church in verse against the attacks of the poet Pierre de Ronsard. (THEODOR SeaoTrt.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Bernus, Le Miaiatre A. de Chandieu, in Bulletin de is aocikth de Z'hiatoire du proteatant%e»ie franraia, aavii 11888), 2 eqq ; J. $enebier. Haatoire Z%tlkraira de Genwe, i. 322 eqq., Geneva, 1788; E. and It. Haag, La France proteatante, ed. H. L. Bordier, iii. 1049 eqq., Paris, 1852, Lichtenberger, EBR, iii. 33‑41, Paris, 1878.
	CHANDLER, EDWARD: Church of England
Eishop; b. in Dublin about 1670; d. in London
July 20, 1750. He studied at Emmanuel College,
Cambridge (M.A., 1693; D.D., 1701); was con
secrated bishop of Lichfield 1717, and in 1730 was
translated to Durham. He gained his reputation
by his Defence of Christianity from the Prophecies
of the Old Testament (London, 1725), a reply to
A Discourse on the Grounds and Reasons o f the
Christian Religion (1724) by Anthony Collins (q.v.).
Collins replied with The Scheme of Literal Prophecy
Considered (1726), and Chandler then published
A Vindication of the Defence of Christianity from
the Prophecies of the Old Testament (2 vole., 1728).
The chief point of their debate was whether or not
there was general expectation of the coming of a
messiah at the time of the birth of Jesus, Collins
denying this and Chandler affirming it. Chandler
has been charged with having bought his see, and
with dying " shamefully rich."

CHANDLER, SAMUEL: English Presbyterian; b. at Hungerford (26 m. w.s.w. of Reading), Berkshire, 1693; d. in London May 8, 1766. He was educated at Bridgewater and at Gloucester, where he formed lifelong friendships with Bishop Butler and Archbishop Seeker. He finished his studies at Leyden; became pastor of the Presbyterian church at Peckham, Surrey (a suburb of London), 1716; assistant at the Old Jewry, London, 1726, and in 1728 pastor. He was a learned and talented man, and is sand to have refused offers of preferment in the Established Church. In 1760 be preached a sermon on the death of George IL, in which he compared the deceased king to David. This called forth an anonymous pamphlet in which David was described as a bad man, and the comparison objected to as an insult to the late king. Chandler made a brief reply in 1762, and then prepared
A Critical History o f the Life o f David (2 vole.,
London; 1766), which is his beat known and moat
valuable work. His other publications were nu
merous; and are for the moat part controversial,
directed against the Deists or the Roman Cath
olics. Four volumes of sermons were published
posthumously (1768). In theology he was a aemi
Arian, or, as he expressed it, " a moderate Cal
vinist."
CHANGE OF CONFESSION: The change from one Christian Church to another. The expression is not equivalent to change of religion, and the subject has practical interest mainly as concerns conversions from Roman Catholicism to Protestantism and vice versa in certain European countries where legal complications are involved.
Where only one confession is recognized by law, there can be no change of confession. Thus there was none before the time of the Reformation; not only was it true that every secession from the Church was considered an offense, but no such thing was recognized either by ecclesiastical or secular law. In Germany rules of procedure. in cases of confessional change first began to be formulated after the Evangelical princes and the German Empire ceased to acknowledge the law against'heretics by the Religious Peace of Augsburg in 1555, and after the Empire decreed at the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 that under certain conditions Protestants in Roman Catholic territories and Roman Catholics in Protestant territories might be tolerated and possess civil rights. These rules were further developed under the modern principle of toleration, according to which the State recognizes in the Churches only more or less favored associations, and treats them accordingly from the legal point of view.
The Roman Catholic Church, however, still clings to the state of affairs before the Reformation, and still considers itself the only existing Church. According to the Roman view, every one who goes over to Protestantism is a heretic, and every one who changes from Protestantism to the Roman Catholic Church returns from an error of faith, to the knowledge of truth or rather to the churchly authority which possesses this truth. The ban is imposed upon every one who leaves the Church; even every born Protestant is under the ban; and every one who goes over to Catholicism is required not only to make the Catholic confession of faith, but also to confess that as Protestant he was a heretic, and to renounce his heresy and ask for absolution.
The Protestant Churches admit the right of change, although a person who makes use of this right is regarded as unfaithful. The declaration of an intention to make a change, regular attendance at the services of another church, or at its communion table, are considered sufficient to sever old connections. Whoever comes over from another Church is not required to abjure his former faith, but simply to make a confession according to the new doctrine, whereupon he is admitted to the Lord's Supper as the signum communionis.
It is the task of the State to regulate the existence of different confessions aide by side, as well as to protect the liberty of conscience of the in‑

8
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Chandler
Chaaning
dividual. Accordingly the legal ordinances con
cerning change of confession proceed from the
State. The law of Prussia forbids the making of
proselytes, but this is interpreted to mean that no
religious party has the right " to seduce members
of another confession by force or cunning to join
its own Church," and that " nobody is allowed
to disturb the peace of a family or impair its rights
under the pretense of religious zeal." In Austria
Protestants were, until 1868, forbidden to con
vert Roman Catholics. The modern State has
generally fixed a certain age before which con
version can not take place, in order to exclude dis
putes as to the capacity of judgment of the con
vert. The State leaves the conditions of admission
to the church organizations, but sometimes regu
lates the form of withdrawal for the sake of keeping
accurate ecclesiastical statistics. The person who
leaves has sometimes been required to announce
his withdrawal to the pastor, and sometimes a cer
tificate of dismissal is required. The Austrian
interconfessional law of May 25, 1868, and the
Prussian law of May 14, 1873, require only a dec
laration before the proper state official, who notifies
the Church. 	(A. Hnucx.)
CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY.
Life (§ I). His Views as Stated by Himself (§ 2). His Doctrines, Influence, and Character (§ 3). Works (¢ 4).
	William Ellery Channing, the most celebrated and
influential Unitarian theologian America. has pro
duced, was born at Newport, R. L, Apr. ‑7,
1780; d. at Bennington, Vt., Oct. 2, 1842.
His father was an honored judge and a moder
ate Calvinist; his mother, a refined and
pious woman. Under such influences he early
manifested a deeply religious nature, and chose
the clerical profession. He traced his conversion
to the influence of the funeral of his father, and
a religious revival which then swept over New
England. After his father's death he passed under
the tuition of his uncle at New London, the Rev.
Henry Charming, and then went to Harvard Col
		lege, being graduated in 1798. For
	z. Life. two years be acted as private tutor
		in Richmond, Va., and while there
had such mental agony from religious doubts that
he was physically enfeebled, and returned to New
port in 1800 " thin and pallid," with a constitution
permanently impaired. At home he associated
much with the Rev. Dr. Samuel Hopkins‑the
famous Calvinist, and pupil of Jonathan Edwards
for whose character he felt the deepest reverence.
In 1802 he returned to Harvard, where he had
been elected regent. The same year he was licensed
to preach, and at once distinguished himself by
his fire, his unction, and his elegant style. On
June 1, 1803, he was ordained and installed pastor
of the Congregational Church in Federal Street,
Boston, his only pastoral settlement. Here he
introduced a new era in preaching, and enlivened
the pulpit by themes of Christian philanthropy
and social reform. A new edifice was erected in
1809 to accommodate the increased congregations.
At the close of his sermons Charming was often
physically exhausted. In the earlier period of his ministry he was as indefatigable in pastoral visitation as in his pulpit.
Not long after this time, it became apparent that many of the Congregational churches of New England, especially in Boston and its neighborhood, had, through various influences, become Antitrinitarian and Anti‑Calvinistic (see CONGREGATIONALISTS, L, 4, § 8 ; UNITARIANS). In the separation which followed, Charming allied himself with the so‑called " Liberal " party, and became its acknowledged head. In a famous sermon at the installation of Rev. Jared Sparks as pastor of the Unitarian Society in Baltimore in 1819 he gave a clear statement of the points wherein he diverged from the orthodox churches of the time. He is commonly called a Unitarian; but, in his own language, he wished to regard himself as " belonging not to a sect, but to the community of free minds, of lovers of truth, and followers of Christ, both on earth and in heaven. I desire to escape the narrow walls of a particular church " (Sermon at the installation of Rev. M. J. Motte, 1828). This catholicity of spirit secured him the esteem of men of all schools and parties. In a letter of May 8, 1841, he declared: " I have little or no interest in Unitarianism as a sect. I can endure no sectarian bonds. With Dr. Priestley, a good and great man who had much to do in producing the late Unitarian movement, I have leas sympathy than with many of the ` Orthodox ' " (Memoir, ii. 105). In a letter of Aug. 29, 1841, addressed to an Englishman,
he expressed the noble sentiment: z. His Views " As I grow older . . . I distrust seoas Stated by tarian influence more and more. I
Himself. am more detached from a denomina‑
tion, and strive to feel more my connection with the Universal Church, with all good and holy men. I am little of a Unitarian, have little sympathy with the system of Priestley and Belsham, and stand aloof from all but those who strive and pray for clearer light, and look for a purer and more effectual manifestation of Christian truth " (Memoir, ii. 106). From this confession some have inferred that toward the close of his life he leaned more to orthodoxy; but this is emphatically denied by his nephew and biographer, and by E. S. Gannett, his colleague and successor. In another letter written three months later (Nov., 1841), he says: " I value Unitarianism, not because I regard it as in itself a perfect system, but as freed from many great and pernicious errors of the older systems, as encouraging freedom of thought, as raising us above the despotism of the Church, and as breathing a mild and tolerant spirit into all the members of the Christian body " (Memoir, ii. 121).
Charming opposed, on the one hand, the still, cold, Puritan orthodoxy of his day, and combated vigorously the traditional views on the Trinity, the atonement, and total depravity; on the other hand, he opposed equally the rationalistic and radical Unitarianism, and sought a middle way. He was averse to creeds and precise doctrinal statements, and laid stress on freedom and individuality in belief and religious experience. He insisted upon

o Chaplain
the expression of Christian belief in virtuous action and humanitarian ayfmpathies. He dwelt much upon love as expressing God's purpose in the mission of Christ and as the supreme manifestation of Christian character. He emphasised the human element is Christ and Christianity, which was too much overlooked by Calvinism, and paid one of the
most beautiful and eloquent tributes
3. His Doc‑ to the perfection of the moral character trines, In‑ of Christ. He held up his example as fluence,and the great ideal to be followed. He Character. found in Christ a perfect manifestation of God to men, and at the same time the ideal of humanity, who spoke with divine authority. He firmly believed in his einlessneee, miracles, and resurrection. He was " always inclined," he wrote as late as Mar. 31, 1832, " to the doctrine of the preexistence of Christ" (Memoir, ii. 133). He was, therefore, not a humanitarian, like Priestley, but rather an Arias, as his nephew calls him. His talent and generous cast of mind were averse to controversy, and he paid little attention to metaphysical questions. He preferred to dwell upon " Christ's spirit, his distinguishing moral attributes, the purposes of his mission " (letter of Mar. 31, 1832, Memoir, ii. 133), and the problems of practical Christianity. He remained a supernaturalist to the end; and his last utterances on the Gospels and the character of Jesus are among the strongest and noblest. Of the resurrection he said (letter, Nov. 20, 1839, Memoir, ii. 145): "The resurrection of Christ, related as it is to his character and religion, and recorded as it is in the Gospels, is a fact which comes to me with a certainty which I find in few ancient histories." In a letter, July 8, 1841, regretting omissions in a recent sermon of Theodore Parker, he wrote: " Without miracles the historical Christ is .gone.
. 1n regard to miracles I never had the least difficulty. The grand miracle is the perfect divine character of Christ, and to such a being a miraculous mode of manifestation seems natural. It is by no figure of speech that I call Christ miraculous." Charming, however, was not so much a theologian as a preacher and a philanthropist. He was no dreamer, but a practical reformer. He labored for the purification of life and society, and entered heartily into schemes for the abolition of slavery, of intemperance, of prison‑abuses, and of war, and for the circulation of the Bible. He had an exalted idea of the nobility of human nature, and an undying faith in freedom and progress.
Channing's works have been published in various forms (complete ed., 8 vole., Boston, 1848; 1 vol., 1875; London, 1880; etc.), and have been widely circulated in English and translations. The best
known are Evidences o f Christianity,
	;. Works.	addresses delivered at Cambridge,
		1821; a treatise on Slavery, 1841;
discourses on the Character of Christ; and critical
essays on Milton, F&Won, Bonaparte, and $elf
culCure. The centenary of his birth was celebrated
at Newport on Apr. 7, 1880, and memorial meet
ings were also held in New York, Brooklyn, Wash
ington, and several cities of New England. The
corner‑stone of the Charming Memorial Church at
Newport (dedicated	Oct. 19, 1881) was laid at
this time. 	(P. Scasast) D. 8. Bcasaa.
Bmwoanerar: Memoir o/ W. E. Chaaninp, with Eadrods from his Correspondence and Manuscripts, by his nephew, w. H. Chsnnina, a vole.. Boston. 1848: Channinp, sa vie et sea arurores, with preface by C. de R.6muest. Paris, 1867, enlarged ed., 1881; C. A. BsrWl, Principles and Portraits. Baton. 1880; C. T. Brooks, William EitAy Channinp, a Centennial Memory, ib. 1880: Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, Reminiscences o/ William El4ry Chamnnp, ib. 1880; The Channinp Centenary. ed. R. bi. Bellows, ib. 1881; W. W. Fens, W. X. Channing and As Growth of Spiritual Christianity, in Pioneers of Relipioua Liberty in America, ib. 1903. Also J. H. Allen, The Unitarian&, is the American Church History Series, New York, 189!<; G. W. Cooks, Unitarianism i» America, Boston, 1902; J. W. Chadwick. William Ellery C)aanninp, Minister of Religion. ib. 1903; and other works mentioned under 17xrrssisxs.
CHARRING, WILLIAM HENRY: Unitarian, nephew of William Ellery Charming; b. in Boston May 25, 1810; d. .in London Dec. 23, 1884. He was graduated at Harvard, 1829, and at the Cambridge Divinity School, 1833. He filled many pastorates, most of them o£ short duration, the longer and more important being at Cincinnati, 1838‑41; Rochester, N. Y., 18524; Liverpool, England, 1854‑‑8I (Renshaw Street Chapel, 18541857; Hope Street Chapel, 1857‑81, where he succeeded Dr. James Martineau); Washington, D. C., 18815. He returned to England in 1865 and spent the rest of his life there, making several visits, however, to his native land. He was an eloquent speaker, but more successful as a lecturer and ocaaeional preacher than as pastor; an earnest, spiritual, and enthusiastic man, but visionary and impractical. The chief elements of his creed were faith in God, belief in Jesus Christ as the perfect man, and s boundless hope for humanity to be realised through organization and external remedies. Schemes of social reform captivated him, he sympathized with the Brook Farm experiment, and adopted many of the ideas of Fourier. The antislavery struggle in America enlisted his ardent support, and,, while pastor in Washington during the Civil War, be labored untiringly for the Union cause and for the relief of the wounded in the field. He was chaplain of Congress, 1883‑84. In 1889 he delivered a course of Lowell lectures at Boston on the " Progress of Civilization." He published many sermons, addresses, and articles, and edited several short‑lived periodicals; translated Jouffroy's Introduction to Ethics (2 vole., Boston, 1841); prepared a Memoir of his uncle, William Ellery Channing (3 vole., 1848), and edited a volume of his discourses, The PerfecE Life (1873); edited the Memoir arid Writings of his cousin, J. H. Perkins (2 vole., 1851); and, with James Freeman Clarks and R. W. Emerson, edited the Memoirs of Margaret Fuller (2 vole., 1852).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: O. B. Frothingham, Life of William Harpy Channinp, Boston, 1888.
CHARTAL, JEANNE FRAN90189 FREMIOT DE. Bee vI81TATION, Oanza or msmm.

CHARTEPIE DE LA SAU33AYE, shtlii"te‑pf' de la so"sA', PIERRE DANIEL: Dutch Protestant; b. at Leeuwarden (18 m. e.n.e. of Harlingen) Apr. 9, 1848. He was educated at the University of

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Utrecht (D.D., 1871), and after being a pastor of the Reformed Church from 1872 to 1878, was appointed professor of the history of religions at Amsterdam, where he remained until 1899. Since the latter year he has been professor of ethic at Leyden. He is a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Amsterdam and several other learned societies, and, in addition to many briefer contributions to periodicals and a number of sermons, has written: Lehrbuch der Religionsgeachichte (2 vole., Freiburg, 1$87‑79, 3d ed., 1905; Eng. transl. of vol. i. by B. 8. Colyer‑Ferguason, London, 1892); Zekerheid en Troijfel (Haarlem, 1893); and Religion of the Ancient Teutons (Boston, 1901).

CHAftTRY: A chapel or an aisle in a church endowed for the purpose of having masses said for the soul of the founder; or of others nominated by him; also the money left for such purposes. The chantry priest was one employed on such a foundation. There were 1,000 cbantries in England when Henry VIII., in 1545, issued his order for their suppression (37 Hen. VIII., cap. 4), on 'the ground that their possessions were generally misapplied. The death of the king soon ensuing, their suppression was apparently not carried out. At all events, in the first year of Edward VI. (1 Edward VI., cap. 14, 1547) a very long act was passed dissolving the chantries, along with free chapels, hospitals, frhternities, brotherhoods, gilds, and other promotions, and devoting their revenues to charitable and educational purposes. The 'reason given for such appropriation was the alleged maintenance of superstition and ignorance by these foundations. The teat of this article is in Gee and Hardy, Documents, pp. 328‑357.

CHAPEL: A small building used for divine worship. It may be entirely detached; to supply the needs of people at a distance from the pariah church; or form a separate apartment in a large building, such as a convent or a nobleman's house; or run out of and form part of a large church, with an altar of its own. In this last sense some of the largest Gothic churches have small chapels entirely surrounding the east end or choir, the " Lady Chapel," dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, being usually directly behind the high altar (see A8C>3ITzCmoxa, ECCLE8IAH17CAL). In modern English usage the word chapel is commonly applied to non‑conformist places of worship, those of the Establishment alone being known as church; but the term " chapel of ease " is occasionally applied to Established places of worship coming under the meaning first given above, and without parochial boundaries.

CHA'P1ZP, EDWIN HUBBELL: American Universalist; b. at Union Village, Washington County, N. Y., Dec. 29, 1814; d. in New York Dec. 28, 1880. He studied four years at the Bennington (Vermont) Academy, began the study of law, but abandoned it in 1837 to become assistant editor
of the Evangelical Magazine and Gospel Advocate,
a Universalist paper published at Utica, N. Y. He was ordained in 1838. He was pastor at Richmond, Va., 1838‑39; at Charlestown, Mane.,
1840‑45; and assistant to Hosea Ballou in Boston, 184b‑48. In 1848 he went to the Fourth Universalist Church, New York, and remained there till death. During his pastorate the society moved from Murray Street to new and more oommodious church buildings on Broadway near Spring Street (1852), and then to the corner of Fifth Avenue and Forty‑fifth Street (1888), and adopted the name " Church of the Divine Paternity." He was one of the prominent clergymen of New York, and his services were much in demand as lecturer and on special occasions. His sympathies and creed were broad, his preaching was eloquent and popular. He possessed a ready wit end no slight poetical talent; an admirable ordination‑hymn, " Father, at this altar bending," is from his pen. His publications, chiefly sermons, include Diaoouraea on the Lord's Prayer (Boston, 1860); Moral Aspects of City Life (New York, 1853); Lemon* of Faith and Life (1877); The Church of the Living (trod (1881).
BiDwoaesra:: 8. Elbe, Lice o/ Bdwin H. Chapin, Boston,
1882.
CHAPLAIN: A term which, with its equivalents (Let. Capeltanut, Germ. Kaplan, Fr. Deaaerrant), designates members of the clergy assigned to some loads of special service. 1:n the Roman Catholic Church a chaplain is a priest who acts as assistant to the pastor of s pariah. According to both Tridentine and earlier law, each pariah has but one priest in full charge; if it is too large to be properly administered by him alone, he is supposed to appoint a sufficient number of chaplains, with the approval of the bishop.
In the These serve directly under him, are
Roman	maintained by him, and may be dis‑
Catholic	missed at bra pleasure. There are cease,
	Church.	however, in which a benefited founda
		tion exists within a pariah, with chapels
or altars at which the incumbent is bound to say a
certain number of masses. Such benefited chaplains
(cape(lani curati) are either bound to assist the
parish priest, or may be specially directed to do so
by the bishop. As benefited clergy, they can not
be removed at the letter's will; but he is not obliged
to avail himself of their services, unless certain
parochial duties are assigned to them by the terms
of their foundation. Such cases occur most fre
quently in chapels situated at a considerable dis
tance from the pariah church, or in hospitals and
similar institutions. In case the pariah priest fails
to appoint chaplains, or dose not appoint enough,
when directed to do so by the bishop, the latter,
is accordance with the law of Devolution (q‑v.),
may proceed to appoint. In some planes, by either
written law or custom, the bishop has a general
right of appointment on his own motion; and then
the chaplains are removable not by the parish
priest but by the bishop‑unless they have bene
fioed rights as mentioned above.
In France the chaplains were called deaserwanEs. The old French law distinguishes between parish churches (parorhialea rocleaia) and subsidiary (succur_ sales) chapels which supplement them. The system of the seventeenth century drew a distinction between pariah priests who were independent in their funo‑

Chaplain Chapter
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
8
tions and chaplains who officiated only by the license of the bishop, revocable at any time. This system struck Napoleon when he was thinking of restoring the Church after the destruction wrought by the Revolution. The Concordat of 1801 laid
down only the fundamental principles, The French especially regarding the bishops, who Desservants. were permitted to name incumbents
approved by the government to the pariah churches. The " organic articles " of 1802 went further into detail, and dealt with the support of the churches. As the payment of pariah priests was undertaken by the State, it was desirable to limit their number, and provision was made for the establishment of one in each district. But as these districts were far too large to be administered by one priest, as many others as were necessary were to be chosen for suceursales, and supported by their pensions and the voluntary offerings of the congregations. Their appointment was to be made by the bishop, and revocable at his pleasure. Imperial decrees of May and December, 1804, rearranged the assignments and provided a stipend of five hundred francs apiece. The desservants made increasing claims to independence; but the bishops were not inclined to give up their powers, and Gregory XVI. sanctioned the existing arrangement until further order. Repeated controversies arose over the position of these priests, who were by far the larger number in France, Belgium, and the provinces on the left bank of the Rhine; and while still theoretically removable, they succeeded in establishing the rule in practise that they should not be displaced except for cause, after an investigation by diocesan officials.
Historically, also, the name chaplain was early applied to priests who served private chapels, in castles and royal palaces. Bishops also had their private chaplains, who served partly as secretaries. The popes, too, have always had their own chaplains, who have as a rule acted as their confessors. By present use these latter are divided into three classes: honorary, ceremonial, and private. (O. MEJERt.)
The clergymen employed in the army and navy of all Christian countries are called " chaplains," and are under different rules and regulations. Thus in the British army they are under a chaplaingeneral of the forces; are not attached to particular
regiments or corps, but to garrisons In Military and military stations at home and and Naval abroad. They are according to their Service. length of service divides into four
classes, corresponding to colonels, lieutenant‑colonels, majors, and captains, respectively; and after twenty‑five years' service are entitled to retire on' a pension. They are not all from the Church of England or Ireland, but some come from the Presbyterian and Roman Catholic churches. In the United States chaplains are appointed by the president, and assigned or transferred by the secretary of war, but report monthly to the adjutant‑general, especially as to the baptism, marriages, and funerals at which they have officiated. During the Civil War there was in the Northern army a chaplain to each regiment,
but at its conclusion all were discharged. Later, thirty were engaged and sent to poets, generally on the frontier. To‑day there are no regimental chaplains, but only chaplains attached to posts. Much depends upon the post commander whether the chaplain can be efficient or not. In 1907, Major‑General Frederick D. Grant reports, there were fifty‑three chaplains in the whole army, from different denominations and ranked as follows: Majors 4, Captains 41, First Lieutenants 8. He adds: " In general their duties are to have charge of religious instruction, visit the nick, baptize children, officiate at marriages and funerals, and by statute they have charge of poet schools in the English branches." The number of chaplains in the United States nary on .July 1st, 1907, was twenty‑five, with rank as fpllowa. Captains 4, Commanders 7; Lieutenant‑Commanders 5, Lieutenants (junior grade) 2. Their duties are thus set forth in the regulations of 1905, communicated by the commandant of the New York Navy Yard. (1) The chaplain shall perform divine service and offer prayers on board of the ship to which he is attached, at such times as the captain may prescribe; and on board other ships to which chaplains are not attached, or at shore stations and naval hospitals, when so directed by the senior officer present. (2) He shall be permitted to conduct public worship according to the manner and forms of the church of which he is a minister. (3) He shall facilitate, so far as possible, the performance of divine service by clergymen of churches other than his own, who may be permitted by the captain to visit the ship for that purpose. (4) He may, with the sanction of the captain, form voluntary classes for religious instruction. (5) He shall visit the sick frequently, unless the condition of the sick renders such visits unadvisable. (fi) Under the direction of the captain, he shall supervise the instruction of such persona in the navy as may need to be taught the elementary principles of reading, writing, arithmetic, and geography. He shall, report in writing to the captain at the end of each quarter the character of instruction given, the number of hours of instruction, and the progress made by each person. He shall always report at quarters when on board. His duty in battle is to aid the wounded, and his station at quarters for battle and for inspection shall be as the captain may direct. Chaplains shall report annually to the secretary of the navy the official services performed by them. The pay of these army and navy chaplains varies according to their length of service and rank, and in navy according to whether they are at sea or on shore. In the French army and navy attendance upon the chaplains' services is voluntary, but in all other European countries it is compulsory. In the United States navy the penalty of disturbing a church service is three months' imprisonment.
Chaplains are also attached to militia regiments in the United States. They are chosen by the regiments, generally on the strength of their outside reputation, so that it is a distinct compliment and recognition of ability and popularity to be asked. They preach an occasional sermon, and clad in a distinctive uniform appear on the parades of their regiments.

7	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Ohsplsin
		Ohaptsr
	Chaplains are attached to parliamentary bodies
and to state and national societies. Their duties
in congress, the state legislatures, and the British
parliament are mainly connected with the relig
ious service at the beginning of each day's session.
In the case of societies they preach before the body
once a year and say grace at the annual banquet.
Prisons, almshouses; asylums, and similar institu
tions also have chaplains, who commonly live in
the building and conduct regular services. Where
a chaplain is a man of the right stamp, he is of the
utmost help to the officers, as he can do much to pro
mote good feeling between them and the subor
dinates, beneficiaries, or inmates, as the case may
be, for he is by education and manner of life the
equal of the chief, and by profession and intercourse
the friend of all the rest. It is good policy in a
government or institution to make this branch of
service attractive to the clerical profession, and to
maintain it by strict discipline.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Ferraris, PTOmyIlt t)ibttOGlECa Oa'RfmiCa,
	s.v " capellanus," Venice, 1782‑94; Z. B, van Espen,
	Jun eccleaiaeticum univeraum, part 2, tit. 8, chap. 2, Louvain,
1700; D. Bouix,Tractatua de Parocho, pp. 428 aqq.. 944 eqq.,
845 sqq.. Paris. 1856; A. L. Richter, Lelarbuch des . .
Kirchenrechta, ed. W. Kahl, p. 488, Leipsio, 1888; E.
Friedberg, hehrbuch des Kirehenrechta, pp. 175 eqq., ib.
1895
CHAPMAN, (J) WILBUR: Presbyterian; b. at Richmond, Ind., June 17, 1859. He was educated at Lake Forest University (B.A., 18?9) and Lane Theological Seminary (1882), and was pastor of the First Reformed Church, Albany, N. Y:, from 1883 to 1888. He was pastor of Bethany Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia, in 1888‑93, and then engaged in evangelistic work until 1899, when he became pastor of the Fourth Presbyterian Church, New York City, where he remained until 1903. In the latter year he was chosen executive secretary of the General Assembly's Committee on Evangelistic Work for the Presbyterian Church. His works include: Ivory Palaces of the King (Chicago, 1893); Received Ye the Holy Ghost t (1894); " And Peter " '(1895); Present‑Day Parables (Cleveland, O., 1900); Revivals and Missions (New York, 1900); Present Day Evangelism (1903); Fishing for Men (Chicago, 1904); and Samuel Hopkins Hadley of Water Street (New York, 1906); Another Mile (1908).

CHAPTER.
Origin and Development of the Common Life (11). In the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries (§ 2). Canons (§ 3). Modern Organisation (§ 4). Officers (6 5). Legal Provisions and Duties (§ 8). In Protestant Churches (§ 7).
A chapter is an ecclesiastical corporation of a collegiate nature, whose principal function is to provide for public worship in the cathedral or other church to which it is attached. The origin of chapters may be traced back to the early period when the bishop had for a council or senate his presbyterium, i.e., the total number of the priests and deacons belonging to his own particular church. The further development has been largely influenced since the fourth century by the extension of monastic institutions in some degree to the secular
clergy. Eusebius of Vercelli and Augustine established a community life for their clergy under one
roof, and at Hippo there was even a r. Origin monastic vow of poverty. These exand Devel‑ amplea were imitated in Africa, Spain, opment of and Gaul; in the last‑named the exthe Com‑ pression mensa canonica was used
mon Life. as early as Gregory of Tours. The
phrase is explained by the fact that all the clergy of a church were inscribed in a special list (matricula or canon), from which regularly appointed clergy were known as canonici. This use of the term occurs in the canons of the Synod of Laodicea (c. 380), and in the sixth. century was general in the Frankish kingdom. The mensd canonica, accordingly, was the common table of the clergy of a particular church, and the vita canonica their life in common. There was originally no reference in the term to any rule of life, as some have thought from another use of the word canon. By the middle of the eighth century, this community life for the clergy had become very general throughout the Frankish kingdom, usually following the regulations laid down by Cbrodegang of Metz for his clergy. At the Synod of Aachen in 816 Louis the Pious caused a new code of rules to be drawn up, based on Chrodegaag's, as that had been on the Benedictine rule, and relating to churches other than cathedrals which had several clergy, later known as collegiate churches. According to both rules, the clergy lived with the bishop or other superior in a prescribed house (claustrum), and were required to recite together the canonical hours and to render obedience to their head. In this capacity, besides the bishop, the archdeacon appears in Chrodegang's rule, the provost in that of Aachen. The organization differed from the monastic system in being conditioned by differences of clerical rank and by the permission of private property. In the ninth and early tenth centuries, this became the approved form of clerical life in cathedrals and other larger churches, and the name chapter was applied to the organization. In the rule of Cbrodegang capitulum designated originally the chapter to be read at the daily gatherings of the clergy, then the place in which the reading occurred, then the gathering, and finally the community as a whole.
As a result of the gradual redistribution of the revenues which had originally served for the maintenance of the community life, and the permission of separate residences (mansiones) for individual clergy, the vita canonica decayed during the eleventh century in many churches where it had formerly obtained. There were, however, numerous efforts directed to ire restoration, in the spirit of the new ascetic movement and on the theory that the pos‑
session of private property bad caused z. In the the decay. Supported by men like
Eleventh Hildebrand, Peter Damian, and Ger‑
	ead	hoh of Reicheraberg, and favored by
Twelfth the popes, these efforts were decidedly
Centuries. successful, and led to an enforcement
of the common life by the Lateran Council of 1059 under Nicholas IL, which extended the community principle to property. In the later

Ohwvte=	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	a
eleventh and the twelfth centuries the former secular canons were in many localities replaced by regular canons, living under a stricter rule, especially that known se of Saint Augustine, though it is not his composition, but a collection of excerpts from mainly pseudo‑Augustinian sermons. These Auguetinian canons, in their turn, were not seldom replaced from the twelfth century on by Premonstratensiane. But the ascetic tendency was not strong or enduring enough to reform all the chapters. The independence given by the possession of property prevented their reconstruction on the original model; and the worldliness of the higher clergy made such regulation oppressive,, so that the institution once more fell into decay in the thirteenth century.
The functions of the preabyteriunt as the bishop's council were assumed, during the period of the prevalence of the roils canonica, not by the whole body of the clergy living in community, but by those of the higher orders; and, on the other hand, room was found for the cooperation (in important matters affecting the diocese) of the clergy of the other churches in the see city besides the cathedral, and for representatives of the lay population of the city. The actual current administration was indeed conducted ,by the cathedral chapter; but when the distribution of revenues above alluded to made a division between the interests of the bishop and those of the chapter, the former was very apt to neglect to consult the latter, or to rely, for support in his measures, on‑the other clergy and prominent laity. The Decretals of Gregory IX. enforced the right of the chapter to a consultative voice; and it was finally established as .common law that the chapter was the only body with an independent right to advise the bishop in the conduct of diocesan affairs. From the beginning of the thirteenth century the chapters succeeded in excluding the other clergy and the lay nobility from any voice in the election of bishops.
A full or capitular canon was one who had a vote in the chapter, a stall in the choir, and commonly, though not necessarily, a prebend, i.e., a fixed income derived either from a share of the community revenues or from certain specially assigned property, tithes, etc. In contrast with the full rights of the canmiici, aeniorea, who were in major orders, was the position of the junioresclerka in minor orders or youths re‑
3. Canoes. oeiving education in the capitulas school, who had no voice in the chapter. The number of both classes was limited only by the amount of the community property. Later, especially in Germany from the thirteenth century, the number of canonriea and prebends was limited in many chapters, at first for various economic reasons and then for the purpose of assuring a richer livelihood to their members. The custom still, however, prevailed of receiving youths to be trained for canonriea. A special fund was set aside for their support, and they were bound on their aide to the vita communis. They were known as junior»: canonfci non capitularea, domicelli, dormcelLarea. In chapters with fixed numbers canonici, I eupraaumerarii were those waiting for a prebend
to be vacated The Lateran Council of 1179 had indeed forbidden the conferring of Expectancies (q.v.); but under the lax papal interpretation of the application of this prohibition to capitular positions, and the definite concession of four expectancies to each chapter by Alexander IV. (1254), the practise continued, and admission among the domicellarea was regularly the title to s full canonry in order of seniority.
Qualifications for admission had long been fixed by the chapters themselves before the common law took cognisance of the question. The Clementine required the possession of holy orders, and the Council of Trent.decreed that half the canonries should be given to doctors, masters, or licentiates in theology or canon law, and that in cathedral chapters half should be held by priests. The older statutes of the chapters themselves required (besides the possession of a " title ") that the candidate should have received at least the tonsure, and be free from notable bodily defects, and of unblemished honor, of legitimate, and sometimes of noble, birth; fourteen years commonly, sometimes less, was the minimum of age. While all canons were theoretically equal, there were officers among them to which special functions were attached. Such were the prcebendce doctorates for those holding doctor's degrees, others destined to provide support for university professors, lorosbendw parochialea connected with a parochial cure, pra;bendee preabyterdea for those in priest's orders who performed the requisite sacerdotal functions when the majority of the canons were deacons or eubdesaona, pr'cebendw exemptca or la3erce to which the obligation of residence was not attached, and prabenda regim, either those to which sovereigns had the right of presentation from having founded them, or which were held by the sovereigns themselves se honorary canons. Besides the canons, who were frequently hindered by political position or disinclination from performing their spiritual functions, there were often a number of vicarii, manaionarii, or caPellani, who had charge of the services and represented the canons in them.
The organization of chapters in modern times is usually a simpler one, especially owing to their loss of political importance in modern states. They usually consist of a number of ccapitularea or nurrerarii, who enter upon their rights as soon as they are nominated; the carwnici ezapedantea, juniores, and domicellarea have almost ceased to exist. The requirements are: priestly or (in some cases) any major orders;. the age of thirty in some places, in
others that requisite for the sub4. Modern diaconate or twenty‑two, unless they
Organ‑ must be priests, when it would be
izatioa. twenty‑four; practical experience in
ecclesiastical service or in an educational position, or at least a notable degree of learning; and in some cases native birth, either within the country or the diocese. Besides the full canons, there are in some countries honorary canons; in Austria and France deserving clerics who hold merely an honorary title without effective membership in the chapter, while in Prussia, although the obligation of residence is not imposed, they have

9	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Chapter
a sort of membership, extending at least as far as participation in episcopal elections. The office of vicar still exists; but in the modern chapter its holders are assistants rather than, as formerly, representatives of the canons.
As to the officers of the chapter, after the redistribution of revenues to which allusion has been made and the acquisition of property, the provost generally retained only the right of presiding over the chapter and administering its property. The enforcement of discipline and the conduct of public worship was usually in charge of the dean, who had a certain disciplinary power, to be exercised with
the counsel and assent of the chapter; g. Officera in the Middle Ages his functions were frequently combined with those of the archpriest. Other officials were the primicenus, cantor, or praoerUor, in charge of the services and music; the scholQaticus, in charge of the chapter school, sad often of other schools in the see city or the diocese; the aacriata or thesaurnrius, in charge of the sacred vessels, vestments, and other things used in divine worship; the cellerariua, who in the days of the vita commuraia provided for the housekeeping, and the portarius, who in the same period regulated the intercourse of the members of the chapter with the outside world. In the nineteenth‑century reorganization of capitular life this whole system of official administration has been much simplified in some countries, especially in Germany, while others, such as Italy and Spain, retain more of the medieval arrangements. In accordance with the provisions of the Council of Trent, a theologian and a penitentiary are appointed for each chapter.
In the early period of the vita commun%a the decision as to the reception of new members into the community rested with its head, either bishop or provost, though the aeniores sometimes had a consultative voice. After the dissolution of the common life, the chapter had the right in some cams to confirm or reject a nomination made by the bishop, and in others to nominate independently to certain canonries, while others, again, especially those founded by a bishop, were wholly in his gift. Further modifications were introduced by the papal claim of reservation, and by the patronal rights of founders. The emperors from the thirteenth century, and later other sovereigns and secular and ecclesiastical princes in their own countries, claimed the jua fmimariarum precum, the right to appoint one person to each chapter after their coronation or consecration. Opposed to this diversity is the principle of the present common law that cathedral canonries are in the joint gift of the bishop and the chapter, while in collegiate churches they are filled by the chapter with subsequent institution at the hands of the bishop.
The chapter is now, since the dissolution of the vita communia and the distribution of what was originally common property, a corporation with a separate legal existence of its own apart from the bishop, competent to deal with both ecclesiastical matters and matters of property, and to ordain and manage its own internal affairs independently, as by altering its former statutes and malting new
ones. By common law the consent of the bishop is not necessary for this, though it is by special
provision in some of the newer re6. Legal organized systems. The duties of the
	Provisions	chapter as a whole include the daily
	and Duties.	performance of divine service, both
		mass and choir offices. Cathedral
chapters have the further duty of assisting the
bishop in pontifical functions and in the adminis
tration of the diocese. The right corresponding
to the last‑named duty finds expression in various
ways. The bishop is required to have the assent of
the chapter for any alienation of the property of the
cathedral or diocesan institutions, for any notable
change in the system of benefices, for the appoint
ment of a coadjutor, for any measures which are
prejudicial to the rights or privileges of the chapter,
and for the introduction into the diocese of a new
feast of obligation. He is further required to seek
their counsel in the appointment or deposition of
ecclesiastical dignitaries, in the granting of dis
pensations or confirmations, in matters which touch
the interests of the chapter, in the more important
questions of diocesan administration, etc. For the
rights of the chapter during the vacancy of a see
or the incapacity of a bishop, see Ssnae Vscexs.
According to the Roman Catholic theory, cathedral
chapters are not essential and fundamental parts
of the constitution of the Church, but the, product
of historic development. Accordingly, church law
leaves a great deal to local usage in regard to the
part to be played by them in the administration
of a diocese; and they are lacking entirely in
many dioceses, as in the " missionary " districts
of North America, while in others (as in Eng.
land, Ireland, and Canada) their organisation is
very loose.
Little need be said here about the survival of chapters in the Protestant churches. For the English system, see ENGLAND, Csvxca op, IIL, 1 8. A few scattered chapters, of either cathedral or collegiate type, still exist in evangelical Germany, such tie those of Brandenburg, Naumburg, Merseburg, and Zeits in Prussia, and Meissen and Worsen in Saxony. After the Reformation the chapters
which came over to the new doctrine y. In Prot‑ with their bishops were usually die.. estaat solved: but a few of them succeeded
Churches	in maintaining their existence in
spite of the local sovereign, especially those which did not become wholly Protestant and went on as " mixed chapters " (Oenabrlick, Halberstadt, Minden), with a system of alternation as to the bishopric between the two religions, lasting even through the Peace of Westphalia. The connection of the others with the bishops who had become Protestants did not last long, and most of them were sooner or later incorporated with the territories of the sovereigns who had at first been their administrators; and only those named above survived the general secularisation of 1803. Even these, however, are not properly church bodies, but corporations for the preservation and administration of certain property and revenues; and steps have been taken toward the abolition of the
Prussian chapters.	(A. HwuQs.)

Chapter and Verse Division	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	10
Charismata
BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. Bouia, De capitulia, Paris. 1862; P. Schneider, Die biachojlichen Domkapital Main:, 1855; idem, Die Entvriclcelunp der biachtijtichen ~DomkapiteE Us zum vierzehnlen Jahrhunderte, wOrsburg, 1882; G. A. Huller, Die juriatiache PeraBalichkeiten der Domkapitel in Deutschland, Bamberg, 1860; G. Finaszi, Dei caPilul% cathedrals, Lucca, 1863; P. Hinachius, Kirchenrecht der Katholiken and Proteatanten, ii. 49‑161, Berlin, 1871; A. L. Richter, Lehrbuch des kathol%echen and evangelischen Kirchenrechda, 8th ed. by w. Kahl, pp. 440 aqq., 628, Leipaic, 1877‑86; W. F. Hook, Church Dictionary, e.YV. Chapter and Dean, London, 1887; E. Hatch, (growth o/ Church Institutions, ib. 1887; idem, Organisation of Early Christian Churches, ib. 1888; E. Friedberg, Lehrbuch des katholiachen and proteetantiachen Kirchearechta, p. 164, Leipaic, 1895; H. D. M. Spence, The White Robe of Churches, London, 1900; H. Schaefer, P)arrkirche and Sti/t, Stuttgart, 1903; A. werminghoH, Kirchsnver/aasunp Deatachlanda im Mittelalter, Hanover, 1005.
CHAPTER AND VERSE DIVISION IN THE BIBLE. See BIBLE TEXT, III.

CHAPTER‑COURTS (Chorgerichte): The name applied, in the canton of Bern after the Reformation, to the tribunals having charge of matrimonial causes and the execution of church discipline. As early as 1470, the town council of Bern had seriously attempted to take in hand the moral condition of the inhabitants, neglected by the Church. In the same spirit, the Reformation here was rather one of practise than of doctrine. Thus, after the issue of the first reforming decree, it was naturally one of the concerns of the Berneae authorities to replace the suppressed episcopal courts by a new tribunal which should represent the civil government but regard questions coming before it from a religious standpoint. On May 29, 1528, the new court began its work. It was composed of six members‑two from the greater and two from the lesser council, with two preachers. It met in the building belonging to the old chapter, whence it probably took its name. In September it set forth principles to govern matrimonial causes, and in November the other matters coming under its jurisdiction. These were offenses against the law of God which could not be punished as violations of express civil statutes‑such things as drunkenness, incontinence, usury, atheism, superstition, witchcraft, blasphemy, and gambling, which latter was strictly forbidden as unworthy of Christian people. An appeal had been intended to lie to the council, but this was abrogated in Jan., 1529. In March of this year the first formal regulations were put forth, evidently based on those adopted at Zurich in 1525. The punishments prescribed consisted of deprivation of honors and offices, imprisonment, banishment‑not often money fines, which became more usual later. The strictness of the judges caused no little murmuring at first, and the " Great Synod " of Jan., 1532, was obliged to promise that greater mildness should be shown. The attendance of the preachers was even for a time partially dispensed with, but in 1536 they were recalled, since so many questions came up in which their judgment, as expositors of God's word, was needed. In the same year Bern conquered Vaud and the other Savoyard lands to the southwest, and proceeded to introduce the Reformation on its own principles. The ministers of Vaud, especially Viret and Beza, wished to set up a system of strict
church discipline on the Geneva model; but this did not agree with the Berneae view of the unity of the State, including the Church within itself, so that ultimately chapter‑courts were set up in each church district of the conquered territory. The ministers, under Calvin's influence, stood out, obatinately for strictly eccleaiast>ical discipline, with excommunication for its principal weapon. Things finally came to an open breach, and the banishment of a number of the clergy. All this attracted greater attention to the system of chapter‑courts; and greater severity than ever was shown against wanton dress, fortune‑telling, gambling, and immoral dances and songs. The rules of the chaptercourta were enforced in the old local tribunals, which were gradually abolished (1561) in the interest of administrative unity; the same thing happened (1566) in certain cities, such as Brugg and Zofingen, where the magistrates had for a time dealt with matrimonial causes and general morality.
	Viret and his friends had, however, been right in
a way. The chapter‑courts were, after all, of the
nature of civil government and police. As such,
they had done a good deal for external morality
and order; but they could do little for the pro
motion of vital piety; their connection with the
Church was loose and external. The duty of ex
amining and licensing candidates for church offices,
which had been originally given to them, fell to
another body very soon; the clergy managed their
own discipline in their own assemblies; and in the
end the chapter‑courts had nothing but questions
of marriage and paternity and all external police
des mceurs. After 1704 appeals were granted to
the town council or the Two Hundred; and in
1708 the number was changed to eight secular
judges with two clerical assessors. They had now
a formal code of their own, with purely secular
penalties, which was revised or enlarged at need.
They continued to exist (except in the period of
the Helvetic Republic, 1798‑1803) until the re
vision of the constitution in 1831. By the law of
1874 most of the duties of the chapter‑courts were
given to the " church‑councils," which now regu
late questions of morality in so far as the modern
State permits. 	(E. B1.tSacxt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. B. Hundeahagen, Die Konftikte in der Bern. Landeakirche, in C. 'lreeheel, Beitrlipe, Bern, 18411842; Friekert, Die Kirchengebr6uche in Bern, Aarau,1846; Von StOrler in Archiv des hiatortachan Vereina von Barn 1862; E. Egli, Actenaammlunp zur Oeachichte der Zilrcher Reformation, Zurich, 1879.

CHARACTER: The composite of definite moral and personal traits which serves to distinguish an individual and to mark the type to which he belongs. Morality is essentially a matter of will, and thus of free agency. The will is, therefore, closely associated with character; but it exists, in the true sense of the word only in so far as it is free and accepts the new modification voluntarily, instead of possessing it by nature, or being constrained to it by external influences. The criterion of character, in Kantian phrase, is " not what nature makes of man, but what man makes of himself." Character must, therefore, differ essentially from the original disposition of man. The different forces and im‑

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	a~pter and Verse Division
	ahaz~ismata
pulses of the mental life form the basis, means, and material for will and character, but in themselves they are only anteethical. They may, furthermore, be devoted either to lofty or to low ethical ends. Such a naturalistic basis can not be allowed to condition the principle of decision for or against the will of God, nor can it be permitted to control the moral demand and aims. In terms of Christian ethics the fundamental requirements for a noble character are that, as divine revelation demands and renders possible, it should obtain a heart established with grace through faith (Heb. xiii. 9), that it be strengthened with might by the Spirit and become rooted and grounded in self‑denying love (Eph. iii. 16 aqq.), that it come unto a perfect man, unto the measure of the stature of the fulness of Christ (Eph. iv. 13; I Cor. xvi. 13), and that it be ready to perform faithfully every duty which its specie[ ability and position in the world requires. The natural dispositions, however, retain their importance for the weal or wo of character, and influences of the temperament may facilitate or aggravate the change for good or bad. On this account the will must influence nature lest it should destroy the formation of character and check the fulfilment of certain individual duties, so that the natural man must accordingly become subject to righteous will. Even where it is impossible to overcome certain natural dispositions, character must at least oppose them, and assert its authority by discipline. On the other hand, the natural elements of psychic life should be allowed a certain influence on the will, in case their tendency is good. Additional influences and factors arise from external conditions and social positions, so that character may be defined, with Scharling, " as the impress of the will on the basis of natural individuality." Thus arises an endless variety and diversity of characters, owing partly to moral and immoral free will, partly to varying temperaments, and partly to the manifold relations between the will, natural disposition, and personal experience. True ethical goodness of the character, however, always lies in that will which resigns itself to the moral principles, subjects the natural man to them, and at the same time endeavors to become fit for the tasks assigned to it individually, ever striving to become better adapted to its endowment and position. Christian ethics must naturally be directed from the very first toward developing and strengthening the character. Success here implies not only a mature discretion and insight into the basal principles of morality, but also a thorough understanding of one's own temperament and of mankind and the world.
(J. KSsmrarrt.)
CHARIOT. See WAR.
CHARISMATA, c8‑ris'm8‑t8: The term used by theologians to designate the remarkable signs of the divine favor and power which accompanied the work of the primitive Church, beginning with the gift of tongues on the day of Pentecost. The belief in such signs exists to‑day among large numbers of Protestants as well as in the Roman Catholic Church, with the differ‑
ence that the latter sees in the miracles of the saints the continuation of these miraculous powers, while on the evangelical side they are supposed to have ceased at the latest with the first three centuries, either through the fault of the Church or by God's design. The question of the continuance of the charismata is in many modern treatises connected with that of the continuance of miracles, the writers regarding the
gift of supernatural power to effect supernatural
operations as a fulfilment of Mark xvi. 17, 18.
Baur, on the other hand, saw in the charismata
only the gifts and dispositions which the individual
converts brought to Christianity, transformed by
the working of the Spirit into the various forms
of Christian consciousness and life. This view,
which excludes any giving of power to work mir
acles, as well as any new divine gift or divine re
enforcement of natural gifts, is demonstrably not
(as Baur claims) Pauline, but can not here be con
troverted at length. The word charisma itself does
not tell anything as to the nature of the gifts.
Except in one passage of Philo and in I Pet. iv. 10,
it is only found in Paul's use of it, though probably
not formed by him. In most of the places where
he employs it, it denotes an extraordinary evidence
of God's favor; in II Cor. i. 11, his own deliverance
from death; in Rom. i. 11 a gift of the Holy Spirit,
such as comfort or illumination. In other places
it refers to special gifts bestowed upon the Chris
tian (I Tim. iv. 14; II Tim. i. 6) as signs and tokens
of the grace received by belief in the message of
redemption (I Cor. i. 6, 7), which render him ca
pable of a particular kind of action, in order to ren
der some special service to the whole body (I Cor.
xii. 4 sqq.). The place, therefore, that each mem
ber has in the community he has by virtue of a
charisma, which he is to administer to his brethren
(I Pet. iv. 10). Natural powers as such are useless
to the life of the body of Christ; what it needs
must, like itself, be spiritual. Charismata, then, may
be defined as powers and capacities necessary for
the edification of the Church, bestowed by the
Holy Spirit upon its members, in virtue of which
they are enabled to employ their natural faculties
in the service of the Church, or are endowed with
new abilities for this purpose. According to I Cor.
xii. 18; Rom. xii. 5‑8; Eph. iv. 11, the charismata
form the basis of the offices in the Church. There
can be no office without a charisma; but not all
charismata are applicable to the exercise of an
office. Those which correspond to permanent and
invariable needs of the Church form the basis of
offices, the others do not. To the latter class be
long those of a miraculous or extraordinary char
acter, like those which are peculiar to the apostles
or to the apostolic period. Since the number of
the charismata must correspond to the needs of
the Church, it follows that the lists in I Cor. xii.,
Eph. iv., and Rom. xii. can not be taken as ex
haustive. 	(H. CREMERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. J. Conybeare and J. S. Howson, Life and Epistles of St. Paul, chap. xiii.. New York, 1889; Schaff, Christian Church, i. 230‑242, 436‑444 (reviews the opinions); Neander, Christian Church, i. 18188 et passim; M. Lauterburg, Der Begritt des Charisma, in A. Schlatter and H. Cromer, BeitrGvpe zur Forderunp chrisUichar Thto‑

CnisAty	THE NEW BCHAFF‑HERZOG	19
Charlakuwais
lopis, Gfltereloh, 1898; ICL, iii. 82‑89; DCA, i. 349‑3b0;
commentaries on Acts, Romans, Corinthians, and Ephesiane.
CHARITY, BROTHERS OF (Fratres caritatis): A name common to several benevolent orders of the Western Church during the Middle Ages. It is applied especially to the society founded about 1280 by a landowner Guido at Joinville, the Fri'rea de la CharitE de la bier~e Marie, to which Clement VI. gave an Augustinian rule and which took charge of the great Parisian hospital Las Billets from the fourteenth century until about 1840. In 1540, almost contemporaneous with the rise of the Jesuits, an order was founded in Grenada by the Portuguese Juan Ciudad, called John of God (b. 1495; d. Mar. 8, 15b0), which was generally known under the name of Brothers of Charity. After a life of dissipation and wild adventures in the army of the Hungarian King Ferdinand I. in his campaigns against .the Turks, John was converted by a sermon of the famous Juan d'Avila, and underwent the moat excessive penances, on which account he was regarded as a madman. Learning by his own experience how the insane were treated in the hospitals of those days, he resolved to devote himself especially to the nursing of these unfortunates and others in special need. In the house which he rented at Grenada, and which became the first scene of his self‑sacrificing work of love, he received only the sick from the poorest classes. Boon he gathered around himself and his first two associates, Martino and VeIasco, a number of sympathetic laymen. After ten years' activity he died, and Martino took charge of the institution, which as yet had neither a written rule nor a monastic organization. The number of houses soon increased, especially after the establishment of the large hospital at Madrid, which was richly endowed by Philip IL, to which others were soon added in different cities of Spain, Italy, and, after the seventeenth century, in France and Germany. The bull of authorization issued by Pies V. (Jan. 1, 1572) elevated the lay society to an order with the Augustinian rule, and placed their houses under episcopal jurisdiction, although the brethren were permitted to elect their directors (majorea, not priorea or abbatea) and to present some of their number for the priesthood. A general chapter held at Rome by Sixtus V. prepared the outlines of the constitution of the order. These articles were first published in 1589, and were enlarged under Paul V., Alexander VIL, and Clement XI. (cf. the final redaction dating from 1718, in Holstenius‑Broekie, Codex regutanan, vi. 293‑382). The statutes included in their requirements a thorough medical knowledge on the part of the hospital staff. The secular head master and the chief tender of the sick had to be an experienced physician and surgeon, respectively. Of the eleven provinces in which the order is found, ten belong to the old world, one to America. The number of houses is at present about 120. (O. Zbcsrxat.)
BranroaawraT: The early Vito of John of God are given in ABB. Merck i. 814‑8b8. Consult the more modem trash meats: z. BagGer, vie de s. Jean de Dieu, sex i'AiNoire de ja fondaboa e! du d6oeTopprnaent de son ardro, Paris,
1877; C. Wihnst, Lebenebeeehreibaap do@ . *. . Johannes
won lion, Regensburg, 1880. Further, on the order, ooasult: Helyot, Ordres monaediquea, iv. 131‑147; Heimbua)uu, Order and %oaprspationen, ii. 491‑498.
CHARITY, CHRISTIAN: As distinguished from mere compassion, which may be but a transitory emotion or a desire without accomplishment, charity requires the operation of the will; it presupposes a permanent willingness to help one's neighbor in his need. If love comprehends the whole of Christian moral obligations (Rom. xiii. 9), charity is its manifestation toward our fellows, whether in temporal or in spiritual need. It is a permanent attribute of God (II Cor. i. 3), because human misery is always before his eyes, and has been operative in him from all eternity, in his plan of redemption. Under the old covenant, God, revealing himself as merciful and gracious, required his people to show mercy toward their needy brethren (Zech. vii. 9). It has, however, a deeper foundation in the New Testament. As the children of God by their brotherhood with Jesus Christ, the disciples could not but imitate the mercy of God (Luke vi. 38); he who failed is this regard showed that he was unworthy of membership in the new kingdom (Matt. aviii. 33; James fi. 13). The ethical organisation of men is founded upon charity, and destroyed by its' absence (Luke x. 37; Heb. ii. 17, iv. lb). Thus the true Good Samaritan is not only the model, but the source of all real charity, and his disciples show their fellowship with him by it (Matt. ix. 13; Rom xii. 4‑b). It is the characteristic difference between the Christian and the non‑Christian world, which knows little of it. Nothing in primitive Christianity so struck the outside observer; even the emperor Julian was obliged to admit its force, while he strove is vain to imitate it. Step by step it did away with heathen customs‑infanticide, removal of the weak and sickly, brutality to slaves; it built hospitals and asylums everywhere.
In the Roman Catholic Church, according to the development of ethics since Ambrose in the form of a system of virtues and duties, charity is considered under both heads. Thomas Aquinas reckons it among the so‑called " theological virtues," and says that it is the highest of the virtues which go out to our neighbor. He enumerates seven corporal works of mercy (feeding the hungry, giving drink to the thirsty, clothing the naked, ransoming the captive, sheltering the homeless, visiting.the sick, and burying the dead), and seven spiritual (admonishing sinners, instructing the ignorant, counseling the doubtful, comforting the sorrowful, bearing wrongs patiently, forgiving all injuries, praying for the living and the dead).
(L. Lslxn.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The standard work is G. Uhlhorn, Die dwiatliche LiebeathBtipJbsit, 3 vole., Stuttgart, 1887r90, Erg. trsneL of vol. i., New York, 1883.
CHARITY, SISTERS OF: A name applied loosely to various female communities in the Roman Catholic Church devoted especially to the care of the sick and the poor. Some associations of this kind will be treated in the article Womm, CoxolteaAmioNS or. For the Irish Sisters of Charity see ENarrsa Len»ce. It will be necessary here to

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Char' ty
Chwrl~ne
treat only of the two best known and moat influential of these communities.
1. The Sisters of Charity of St Vincent de Paul
The title of Confr&ie do la charitE pour l'aaaistance apirituelle et corporelle den pauvrea naaladea was given by Vincent de Paul (q.v.) originally to the association of women which he organized in 1617 in his small parish of ChStillon les‑Dombes, in the diocese of Lyons, and which, after approval of its statutes by the archbishop, spread also to other places. After the final transfer of its headquarters to Paris (1818), he founded similar associations in the capital and its neighborhood. He entrusted the direction of these Dames de to Charit,E, after the death of his patroness the Countess of Gondy (1625), to the devoted Louise Marillac, under whose guidance the development of the rapidly growing association into a community of unmarried women began in 1633, in which year the first of such members were admitted to the confraternity. On the Feast of the Annunciation in the following year a number of these Filler aervantea den pauvrea de la cluariM (later commonly known as Saurs Grim from their gray habit) took their vows at the village of La Chapelle near Paris. Eight years later they were transferred to the city itself, where, by the time of the death of Vincent and Louise Marillac (both in 1660), they had already twenty‑eight houses. The rule drawn up by the founder was confirmed by Clement IX. in 1668. It includes the obligation of rising daily at four o'clock, making a meditation twice daily, willingly tending all the sick, even the moat repulsive, and rendering unconditional obedience to superiors. Life‑vows were not taken by the sisters, but after a probation of five years a vow of obedience was pronounced which was to be renewed from year to yeas. The order was placed in a sort of dependence on the " Priests of the Mission," or Lazariets, whose superior was to be their director. The order spread during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries principally in France and Poland, and reached the number of 500 houses. With the other religious orders it was suppressed at the Revolution, but continued its self‑sacrificing labors none the leas, until it was formally reestablished by Napoleon in 1807, and began a new and wider growth. 1n France alone it had about 400 houses in 1890; but the laicizing of the hospitals carried out by the government in the last few yea,ra has considerably weakened it since. Its total membership in all countries is supposed at present to be about 30,000. [The sisters of charity of St. Vincent de Paul were established in the United States in 1809 by Elizabeth Seton (q.v.). In 1907 this branch of the order numbered 4,698 professed sisters and had charge of 27 asylums, 33 orphanages, 27 academies, and 103 parochial schools.]
2. The Sisters of Charity of St. Charles: A community of similar nature and purpose grew up under this name in 1626 in the great hospital of St. Charles Borromeo at Nancy. The general of the Premonatratensiaas, Epiphaniue Ludovicua, abbot of Eetival, drew up in 1652 a rule for it, according to which the members were to take the three usual monastic vows, together with a fourth
binding them to devote themselves for life to the care of the sick poor and friendless children. From the mother house at Nancy they spread first through France, and in the nineteenth century through a large part of Germany and Austria. At the end of this century they numbered about 450 houses with nearly 3,000 members, divided into four congregations at Nancy, Prague, Trebnitz, and Treves. (O. ZOCKLEaxt.)

BIHlroo$ApBT: F. Bournsud, Les Sours, 1633‑1900, Paris, 1900; F. F. Buss, Dar Orden den barmhersipsn Schueatern, Schaffhausen, 1847: D. Wulf, Dae eepenareiehe Wirken den 3ehwestein, Mijnster, 1861; Sisters of Charity, Catholic and Protestant, London, 1866; Q. Uhlhorn, Die rhristtiche Liebeath&ipkeit aeit den Reformation, pp. 210‑227. Stuttgart, 1882: F. Herv6‑Brain. Las Grande Ordres du femmes, Paris, 1889; C. de )tiohemont, Histoire de Mme. it Gras, ib. 1894; L. Bsu$ard, La Vbnbnble Louise de Marillac, Paris, 1898; B. R,. Parkas, Historic Nuns, London, 1898; Carrier. Religious Orders, pp. 448‑482; Heimbnaher, Order und.IConprqpatio$sn, ii. 430‑4a8.

CHARI,EMAG1iE.
Ecclesiastical Policy of the Frankish Hinge (; 1). Charlemagne'e Policy (§ 2) Coronation an Emperor ($ 8). His Services to Learning (14). The Iconoclastic Controversy (1b).
Charlemagne or Charles the Great (Lat. Carol= Magnus), founder of the Holy Roman Empire, was the son of Pepin, the first of the Camlirman line of Frankish kind, and grandson of Charles Mantel, the powerful mayor of the palace under the last Merovingian kind. He was born c. 742, perhaps at Aachen or Ingelheim; d. at Aachen Jan.
28, 814. With his father and younger :. Ecclesi‑ brother, Karhnan, he was anointed asticsl king of the Franks by Pope Stephen II. Policy of in 754. He ruled jointly with Karhnan the Frank‑ after Pepin's death in 768, and alone ish ?hags. after Karlinan's death in 771. He was
crowned emperor of, the Romans at Rome by Pope Leo III. on Christmas Day, 800. In both civil and ecclesiastical matters Charlemagne carried out with consummate ability the policy of his father. From Clovis, the first Merovingian king (481‑511; see Fx"ge), onward the Frankish rulers pursued the policy of endowing and extending the Roman Church as a means of consolidating and strengthening the civil administration. The conquest of heathen peoples was not thought complete until they were Christianized and the newly acquired territory had been provided with a well‑ordered and comprehensive ecclesiastical establishment. Resources devoted to ecclesiastical equipment and endowment were supposed to yield the beat possible results in assimilating and loyalizing the communities in which they were expended. Where land was abundant it coat little to endow with landed estates archbishoprics, bishoprics, abbacies, etc., especially as the incumbents owed allegiance to their benefactors and could be relied upon for any kind of needful service.
The Lombards (q.v.) had long been a thorn in the side of the papacy. In 739 Pope Gregory III. had entreated Charles Mantel to come to his relief, but Charles was not ready for so great an undertaking.

Oharlems a	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	14
Charles
In 753 Stephen II. gained permission to visit Pepin for secret conference. Pepin sent his young sons Charles and Karhnan to meet him, and received him (754) with the utmost cordiality. The conference was epoch‑making. With the concurrence of his nobles, Pepin made with the pope an offensive and defensive alliance, recognized the pope's ecclesiastical headship, and undertook to deliver the papal territory from Lombard oppression and to promote the papal cause in all Frankish possessions and dependencies; while the pope commended Rome and the Romans to the protection of the king, crowned him patricfus IZomanorum and king of the Franks, crowned his two sons, and undertook to support the Frankish kingdom in every possible way. A successful campaign against the Lombarda (754) led to the bestowal on the pope of the territory claimed as the patrimony of Peter (see PAPAL STATES) and the exarchate of Ravenna, but the conquest did not prove permanent, and it was left for Charlemagne to complete it (774).
From his childhood Charlemagne was carefully instructed by his father in warfare and in statecraft, and in early youth was associated with his father in the government of the realm. When crowned at St. Denis (754) he was
2. Charle‑ made to promise to Peter and his
magne's	vicar or his successors to be a friend to
	Policy.	their friends and an enemy to their
		enemies. As ruler his policy was to
extend his kingdom as widely as possible by con
quest and to bring the whole domain into a well
ordered sad homogeneous organism by diffusing
throughout Christian civilization. His five cam
paigns against the Lombards (773, 774, 776, 780,
and 784) had for their object the emancipation of
the Church from Lombard oppression and encroach
ment and the inclusion of their territory in his own
domain. The bestowment of a portion of the
territory upon the Roman See and the apparent
recognition of the alleged Donation of Constantine
(q.v.) involved no surrender of his own sovereignty.
His eighteen expeditions against the Saxons (770
784) had for their object the subjugation of their
territory to Frankish rule and the Christianization
of the entire population. He regarded the latter
work, with the establishment of a full ecclesiastical
system dependent on the Roman See, as necessary
to the permanence and effectiveness of the former.
His five campaigns against the Saracens in Italy
were for the protection of Frankish territory and
of Roman Christianity. The same may be said
of his seven campaigns against the Arabs in Spain.
Many of his wars were for the protection of fron
tiers already established; but when territory was
once definitely acquired and incorporated in his
realm his first thought was to provide for the speedy
Christianization of its population by covering the
territory with Christian institutions and by com
pelling the people to submit to baptism and con
form to the cultus of the Church. Free forma of
Christianity fared little better with Charlemagne
and his predecessors than paganism, uniformity
and articulation with the Holy Catholic Church
being regarded as essential for the purposes of the
State. The infliction of the death penalty for
attempts to evade baptism, for desecration or destruction of church property, and for the celebration of pagan rites was based upon his conviction that the Chriatianization of the entire population was essential to the accomplishment of his political ends.
In 799 Pope Leo III., sorely beset by a hostile faction and driven from Rome, made his way to the king's court at Paderborn. He was received with all honor and sent back with a
3. Corona‑ royal guard and assurance of ample
tion as protection. Near the end of 800 Emperor. Charlemagne visited Rome to complete the restoration of order and of the pope's authority, and on Dec. 25, while engaged in a religious service, he was crowned emperor by the grateful pope. This coronation was prized by Charlemagne as involving a recognition by the Roman See, the moat influential surviving representative of Roman dignity and authority, of his right to be regarded as the legitimate successor of the Caesara and as a solemn expression of the pope's determination to make common cause with him in the work of building up a world‑wide empire in which the Roman form of religion should have exclusive away. It is evident that he had no thought of subordinating the civil to the ecclesiastical authority. After the coronation as before, he legislated as freely in ecclesiastical as in civil matters. His capitulariea and laws abound in minute regulations for every department of ecclesiastical life and work:
Of primary importance was the educational movement begun by Pepin and carried forward with unremitting zeal and vast expenditure by Charlemagne. He had a deep per‑
4. His Serv‑ sonal interest in all forma of knowl‑
icea to edge, and throughout his reign was Learning. diligent in his efforts to learn. The most eminent scholars of Britain and of Italy were drawn into his service. Something like a university was maintained in the court, and by an educational system under the guidance of Alcuin (q.v.) he sought to diffuse civilization throughout his realm. The monasteries and the churches were the chosen channels for the spread of enlightenment. It is probable that no other ruler ever accomplished so much for the diffusion of learning. A statement by Einhard (Vita, xxv.) that the emperor could not write can not fairly be taken to mean more than that he neglected to acquire a skilful use of the pen, preferring the services of amanuenses. He ie said to have had a speaking knowledge of Latin, to have understood Greek, and to have had some acquaintance with Hebrew.
Charlemagne followed in the footsteps of Pepin in his attitude toward the worship of images. The Caroline Books (q.v.), put forth in the name of Charlemagne and with his authority,
	g. The	combated the decisions of the Second
Iconoclastic Nicene Council in favor of image
Controversy. worship, approved by the pope, while
		at the same time condemning icono
clasm. Images are declared to be useful for the
ornamentation of the churches and the perpetuation

16	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Chariemaga e
Charles Y.
of holy deeds, yet they are by no means necessary. Christians having fellowship with Christ ought always to have him present in their hearts and to be able to look beyond the sensible into the spiritual. The Scriptures and not images are the proper outward means for gaining acquaintance with Christ. The Synod of Frankfort (794), called and controlled by Charlemagne, condemned the adoration and service of images (see IMAGES AND IMAGE‑WORSHIP, IL). The negotiations between Charlemagne and the empress Irene looking toward the marriage of the two sovereigns and the reuniting of the East and the West, which were brought to an end by the overthrow of the empress (802), no doubt had in view the world‑wide unification of ecclesiastical as well as civil administration.
Charlemagne paid little heed to moral or ecclesiastical considerations in contracting and annulling his marriages, and' had no idea of limiting himself to one wife at a time. Besides several regular marriages, he sustained semimarital relations with a number of women, whose children he recognized and provided for.
A. H. NEWMAN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A convenient list of sources is given in Potthast, Wegweiaer, pp. 192‑194, 1234‑3b. The Opera Omnia, including letters, are in MPL, aavii.‑xcviii. The Capitularia, ed. G. H. Peru, are in MGH,Leg., i (183b), 32‑194, and the Legea Langobardorum are in the same, iv (1868), 485‑514. Other important early sources are given in MGH, Script., i. ii., 1826‑29. Several short documents are given in the original in S. Mathews, Select dfediaval Documents, pp. 10‑14, Boston, 1892; a eapitulary is in Eng. travel. in E. F. Henderson, Documents, pp. 189‑200; several documents are in Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, pp. 35‑38. Excellent illustrative extracts are given in English, with a bibliography, in Robinson, European History, pp. 128‑149.
The fundamental life is the Vita Karoli Mapui by Einhard: it is in ASB, Jan., ii. 877‑888: also, ed. Pertz, in MGH, Script., ii (1829), 443‑483; ed. G. Waltz, in Script. rer. Germ., Hanover, 1880; in MPL, xevii. 25‑62; a good edition is by A. Holder, Freiburg, 1882; there is an Eng. tranal. by S. E. Turner, New York, 1880, and in Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, pp. 38‑48. Modern treatments of the life are: P. A. Thijm, Karl der Grosse and seine Zeit, M>Ynater, 1888; E. L. Cutts, Charlemagne and his Times, London, 1887; J. I. Mombrt. Hint. of Charles the Great, London, 1888 (scholarly, discusses the sources); J. 1. Humbert, Haet. of Charles the Great, ib. 1889: R. Foss, Karl der Grosse, Giiteraloh, 1897; T. Hodgkin, Charles the Great, New York, 1897; H. W. C. Davis, Charlemagne, New York, 1900.
Shorter treatments or discussions of various phases of his life and activities are: A. Ebert, Allperneine Geachichte der Literatur lea Msttelaltera, ii. 3‑108, LeiPaie, 1880; A. West, Alcuia and the Rise of the Christian Schools, New York, 1893; E. F. Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, pp. 58 eqq., New York, 1894; F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. ii., book iv., chaps. 4‑7, vol. iii., book v., chap. 1> London 1894‑95; J. A. Ketterer, Karl der Grouse and die Kirche, Munich, 1898: C. L. Wells, The Ape of Charlemagne, New York, 1898; J. Nover, Karl der Grosse and seine Paladins, Glogau, 1900; J. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, especially chap. v., New York, 1904; J. B. Mullinger, The Schools of Charles the Great, ib. 1904; H. Prutz, The Age of Charlemagne, vol, viii. of History op All Nations, ed. J. H. Wright, Philadelphia, 1905; Milman, Latin Christianity, book iv., chap. iii., book v., chap i.: Neander. Christian Church, vol. iii., pas=im; Schaff, Christian Church, iv. 236‑249; Mueller, Christian Church, ii. 90‑98. Consult also: $. Abel and B. Simaon, Jalarlriicher lea frenkiachen Reicha. 2 vole., Leipaic, 1883; Wattenbach, DGQ; and the literature under Arccrx.
CHARLES V.
Charles's Policy. The Diet of Worms (§ 1 !. Political Events Favor the Protestant Cause (§ 2). Attempts at Religious Unity. Diet of Augsburg 0 3). Efforts for a General Council (§ 4). Renewal of Hostilities; Failure to Secure Unity (§ 6). Abdication (§ 8).
Charles V., emperor of the Holy Roman Empire 1519‑56 and king of Spain. (as Charles I.), was born at Ghent Feb. 24, 1500; d. at the monastery of San Jer6nimo de Yuste (124 m, by rail w.s.w. of Madrid), in Estramadura, Sept. 21, 1558. He was the son of Philip the Handsome of Austria and Joan of Aragon, grandson on the paternal side of the emperor Maximilian I. and Mary of Burgundy, on the maternal side of Ferdinand and Isabella, who had united Aragon and Castile into the kingdom of Spain. In 1516 he succeeded Ferdinand and Isabella as king of Spain, and ruler of the Netherlands, of the kingdom of Naples (including Sicily and Sardinia), Milan, L uxemburg, and Franche‑Comtk. As a member of the house of Hapsburg he was archduke of Austria. Thus as a youth of sixteen he was by far the most powerful sovereign in Europe. In 1519 he was elected emperor in competition with Francis I. of France, largely through the influence of Frederick of Saxony (see FREDERICK III., THE WISE).
From the beginning of his reign as king of Spain Charles was beset with difficulties. It required the most strenuous efforts of Ximenes, chief counselor of Ferdinand, to prevent open revolt I. Charles's in Spain, where Charles's right to the Policy. succession was considered doubtful
The Diet and where, because of his Dutch trainof Worms. ing and Dutch counselors, he was unpopular. He entered upon his imperial administration amid the throes of the Protestant revolution, threatened in the West by the jealousy and ambition of the king of France and in the East by the attacks of the Ottoman Turks, who were encouraged by France to do their worst. The necessity of protecting the Netherlands, his Italian and other Western pcssessions from French voracity, and the Eastern domains of the house of Hapsburg from Turkish aggression, lay at the basis of Charles's policy in ecclesiastical matters. Immediately after his coronation as emperor at Aachen (Oct., 1520) the necessity of vigorous measures for the suppression of Lutheranism became manifest. The Diet of Worms followed (Jan. 28‑May 25, 1521), but Charles, influenced by his confessor, Quintana, and having a wholesome dread of civil war, refused to deal as summarily with Luther as the papal nuncio, Girolamo Aleandro, wished. The Edict of Worms, representing the extent to which Charles was prepared to go in the direction of coercion, prohibited the printing, sale, and reading of Luther's books, and the giving of comfort and support to him; but the safeconduct under which he had come to Worms was respected (see WORMS).
On May 8 a secret treaty was made at Worms between the emperor and the pope against France. Henry VIII. of England joined the alliance, hoping to acquire territory lost to France and to increase

Oharles P.	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	18
bin own importance by having Woleey, bin chief counselor, elected pope. War broke out almost immediately. The duke of Bourbon
s. Political espoused the imperial cause. The pope,
Events Fa‑ expecting the French to win and fear‑
vor the ing the increase of imperial power in
Protestant Italy, transferred his allegiance to
	Cause.	Francis, and thus angered the em
		peror, who proved victorious and took
Francis prisoner in the battle of Pavia (1524).
The marriage of Charles to the infants of Portugal
rather than to Mary, daughter of Henry VIII.,
caused the latter to withdraw from the imperial
alliance and make peace with France. Availing
themselves of the emperor's absorption in extra
German enterprises, many German princes ignored
the Edict of Worms and openly promoted the
Lutheran cause. In July, 1525, Duke George of
Saxony, the elector of Brandenburg, the arch
bishop‑elector of Mainz, and the duke of Bruns
wick met at Dessau and formed a Catholic league
to cooperate with the emperor in exterminating
" the accursed Lutheran sect." In Feb., 1526, the
elector of Saxony and the Iandgrave of Hesse
(joined later by seven other princes) formed the
GotharTorgau alliance for the defense of Lutheran
ism. The manifest strength of the evangelical
cause and his breach with the pope caused Charles
to assume a conciliatory attitude, and the Diet of
Speyer (June, 1526; see SPEPEB, DIZ6TS or) left
the German princes free to deal with religious
questions each according to his sense of duty.
Turkish invasion in the east and the need of a
German army for the chastisement of the pope
promoted thin policy of toleration. 1n May, 1526,
a secret league was formed by the pope, France,
England, Venice, Milan, and Florence, against the
emperor, who (Sept. 17) declared the pope no
pastor, but a usurper, and appealed from hire to a
general council. In 1527 Charles sent a German
Lutheran army led by Georg von Frundsberg and
a Spanish army led by the duke of Bourbon against
the pope and his allies. The imperial troops forced
their way into Rome at the cost of the lives of
about five thousand of its defenders and for eight
days reveled in pillage, drunkenness, and outrage.
The pope took refuge in the castle of St. Angelo.
Cardinals were dragged through the city and forced
to pay ransom. St. Peter's was used for a stable.
Just before the sack of Rome England and France
had agreed to unite in demanding of the emperor
the release of the French princes held by him as
hostages and the payment to England of certain
indemnities, and to make war on him immediately
in case of his refusal. The sack of Rome and Ihal
treatment of the pope augmented the hostility of
England and France. Henry VIII. hoped, by suc
coring the pope and antagonizing the emperor, to
secure the good offices of the former in the matter
of the divorce from Catherine of Aragon, a relative
of the latter. Charles felt it advisable to come to
terms with the pope. He restored most of the
territory taken from him and received a promise
to convene a general council for the pacification of
Christendom and the reformation of the Church.
In 1528 the duke of Bavaria sought the cooperar
tion of England, France, and Lorraine in an effort
to depose Charles; and Philip of Hess sought
the assistance of France, Silesia, Poland, and oth
		ers against the house of Hapsburg.
3. Attempts Charles's decisive victory over the
at Religions French led to the Peace of Cambrai
	Unity. (July, 1529), and was followed by
	Diet of an agreement between him and the
Augsburg. French king to cooperate in efforts
		for religious unification. The Second
Diet of Speyer (1529; see Srzcrrca., DIETa oh) nul
lified the tolerant policy of the first. The man
ifest determination of Charles to crush Lutheran
ism led the Lutheran princes to unite in a protest
‑whence the designation "Protestants." The fail
ure of Lutherans and Zwingliane to unite for the
defense of the Evangelical cause (nee MexDU$a,
CoNFExENCa or) and the retreat of the army of
Suleiman from the gates of Vienna caused the
emperor, now at peace with France and the papacy,
to feel that at last he was master of the situation.
He was; in fact, now at the height of his power, and
all that was laclong to complete success was the
restoration of religious unity. He planned to visit
Germany, call a diet for religious pacification, sum
mon the different Evangelical parties to present
their views, and have them confuted by Roman
Catholic th&logiana invited for the purpose. He
announced. his intention to leave all peat errors to
the judgment of Christ, and to give due considera
tion to every man's opinions; yet he did not con
ceal his determination to bring all the people of
his empire into one commonwealth and one Church.
Arriving in Augsburg for the diet of 1530, he nought
to intimidate the German princes, insisting that
they should keep their preachers silent during
the cessions of the diet and requesting them to
join him in the Corpus Christi procession. They
atanchly refused compliance. The irenic confession
of faith prepared by Melanchthon (see Avassaxa
CONFESSION AND rfa APOLOGY) was attacked by
the Roman Catholic theologians. Charles objected
to the harsh polemics in which they indulged and
insisted on a more conciliatory statement than they
at first prepared.
The confession of Zwingli and that of the four cities (see TwxxApoLrrAx CONFFSaION) were treated with even leas consideration. Lorenzo Campeggi, representing the pope, urged drastic measures for the extirpation of heresy; but Charles was too much of a statesman not to see that in case of a conflict the Evangelical princes and cities would be supported by France, Bavaria, and other antiHapaburg powers, and again assumed a conciliatory ~a~ttitude. The Schmalkald League (1531; see SCHMALSALD ABTICLEB) soon had as its members all the Lutheran princes and cities and gained the support of France, England, Denmark, Hungary, and the duchy of Geldere; and Charles was again embarrassed by Turkish aggression. By the Religious Peace of Nuremberg (q.v.; 1532) he renewed the toleration of 1526.
Charles spent the following nine yearn in Spain, and from thin time onward was unwearied in his efforts to secure the avocation of a general council which should thoroughly reform the eccle‑

17	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Charles V.
siastical administration, redress the grievances of the Protestants, and make possible the reunion of
Christendom. His overtures to the 4. Efforts Lutheran princes for the settlement
for a of differences by a free council were General repelled, and for the next few years
Council. he had the mortification of seeing
Protestantism advancing more rapidly than ever before. In 1541 he conferred in person with Paul III. regarding a council, and Trent was selected as being outside of, but near Italy and in Catholic Austria (see TRENT, COUNCIL OF). Charles insisted that reformation should have precedence of doctrinal definition, while the pope and his advisers thought the latter the matter of supreme importance. As a compromise it was arranged that alternate sessions should be devoted to reformation and doctrine. Charles's interest in reformation was political rather than moral or religious. He thought efforts at coercion without antecedent reformation would result in war and render unification impossible. He repeatedly invited the Protestants to send representatives to the eoimcil, with promises of safe‑conduct and fair treatment. At the Fourth Diet of Speyer (1544) a dispute between the duke of Brunswick and the elector of Saxony and the landgrave of Hesse that had resulted in the imprisonment of the former and the seizure of his estates, was settled by the emperor, and he secured the promise of a large German army for a campaign against the Turks. With the help of the English and the Germane Charles gained such advantages over the king of France as to be able to make a favorable peace (Creepy, Sept., 1544). The peace involved an agreement on the part of the two sovereigns to unite in promoting the council and in reunifying Christendom.
At the Diet of Worms (May, 1545) the impossibility of reconciling the Protestants became more manifest to the emperor than ever before, and he
began to prepare for the inevitable g. Renewal conflict. War was immediately ro‑
of Hostil‑ newel between the duke of Bruna‑
	ities;	wick and the elector of Saxony and
Failure to the landgrave of Hesse. It resulted dis‑
Secure astrously to the former. The elector Unity. of the Palatinate showed Protestant leanings early in 1546 and the death of the elector‑archbishop of Mainz (Sept., 1545) precipitated a struggle for ascendency between supporters of the emperor and the Protestants. At the Diet of Regensburg (June, 1546) the Schmalkald allies protested against the council and petitioned for continuance of peace. The emperor treated their overtures with contempt and expressed his purpose to vindicate his imperial authority. In July he declared war against the allies as outlaws and rebels. The defection of Maurice of Saxony gave a marked advantage to the imperial cause, and by June, 1547, Charles had destroyed the Schmalkald League and had the Protestants at his mercy. Yet even now he was too prudent to attempt the sudden and violent extirpation of the Evangelical faith. He secured.. the concurrence of the Lutheran princes and theologians in the Augsburg and Leipsic Interims (see INTERIM) in a scheme for the partial IIL‑2
and gradual restoration of Roman Catholicism. The return of Maurice to the support of the Lutheran cause, disagreement between the emperor and the pope, and the intervention of France deprived the imperial cause of the advantages that had been gained. In the Treaty of Passau (Aug., 1552) Charles felt obliged to grant amnesty and religious toleration to the Lutherans, and by 1554 the imperial authority had become so weakened that Charles allowed his brother Ferdinand to make peace (1555) with the Lutherans on terms recognizing complete equality of rights for Lutheran and Roman Catholic princes (see AuasRURa, RELIGIOUS PEACE OF).
Deeply humiliated and utterly discouraged, Charles abdicated (1556), leaving to his son Philip his hereditary possessions. He was 6. Abdi‑ succeeded in the imperial office by ration. his brother Ferdinand. He retired to the monastery of Yuste, where, broken in health and depressed in spirit, he spent the two remaining years of his life. Shortly before his death, seeing in Luther the cause of all his worm, he expressed regret that he had not burned the archheretic at the Diet of Worms. Charles was unquestionably a statesman of more than average ability, self‑possessed, comparatively tolerant, fry from fanatical zeal for the Roman Catholic faith, less treacherous than most of the rulers of his time, and supremely concerned to conserve and extend the Hapsburg possessions and power and to effect religious unification as a means to this end. Circumstances beyond his control made his position an extremely difficult one. From his point of view, it probably would have been advisable to crush Lutheranism in its infancy. A. H. NEWMAN.

BrBLIOf78APHT: A very extensive bibliography may be found in the British Museum Catalogue under " Charles V. Emperor of Germany." Among the voluminous sources may be mentioned: K. Lane, Corresponds= de* Kaisers Karl V. aua dem ka%aerlirhen Archiv, 3 vole., Leipeio, 18441846; Staatapapiere zur Geachichte lea Kaisers Karl Y., Stuttgart, 1845; ActanaCiieke and Briefs our Geschirhte Kayla Y., Vienna, 1853‑57; J. J. I. von D6lfinger, Dokumente cur Geschichte Karle Y., in Beitrllpe, vol. i., Rsgenaburg, 1862. A French version of a Portuguese travel. of the lost autobiography of Charles was published by K. de Lettenhove, Commentairea de Charles Quint, Brussels, 1882, Eng. travel., Autobiography of do Emperor Charles V., London, 1862 (covets, 1518‑48). Early lives are by: A. Ulloa, Venice, 1580; Sandoval, Valladolid, 1606; $epulveda, Madrid, 1780; A. de Mueica, Leipeic, 1728. An English classic and standard authority is W. Robertson, Hid. of Charles V., ed. W. H. Presoott, best ed. Philadelphia, 1857, new ed. London, 1882. Consult further: D. G. van Male, Lettrea our la vie 'snthriawe de 1'empereur Charles‑Quint, Brussels, 1843; W. Bradford, Correspondence of Charles V. and his Ambassadors in England and France. London, 1850; J. J. Hannueah, Kaiser Karl V., seine Zeit and seine Zeitpenosaen, Vienna, 1853; A. Piehot, Charles‑Quint, Chroufque do as vie intkrieure et de as vie politigue, Paris, 1854; W. Maurenbreeher. Karl V, and die deutache Proteatanten, 16.46‑66, Diiaseldorf, 1885; O. C. Krabbe, Kaiser Karl Y, and das Augaburper Interim, Rostock, 1872; A. von Draffel, Raiser Karl V. and die rtmiache Curie, 164./‑.I,B, 3 parts, Munich, 1877 eqq.; H. Baumgarten, Geachichte Kayla Y., Stuttgart 1885; W. Stirling‑Maxwell, Cloister Life of Charles Y., ed. J. Stirling‑Maxwell, London, 1891; Baumgarten, Karl V. and die deutsche Reformation, Coburg, 1893; O. Wale, Die Denkwflrd%qEeiten Kaiser Kayla V., Bonn, 1901; J. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, chap xix.. New York, 19G4; E. Armstrong, The Emperor Charles

~1°aY~ °'bet'	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	18
Y., 2 vole., London, 1902 ; Pastor, Popes, vi. 379, 421; Creighton, Papacy, vi. 109‑127 et passim; Schaff, Christian Church, vi. 282 et passim; Moeller, Christian Church, iii. 23 eqq. et paemm (worth consulting) The subject in treated necessarily in works on the Reformation and on the church history of the period.
CHARLES (abe RUNDLE), ELIZABETH: Church of England authoress; b. at Tavietock (13 m. n. of Plymouth), Devonshire, Jan. 2, 1828; d. at Hampstead (a suburb of London) Mar. 28, 1896. She was educated at home, and commend to write at an early age, her work winning the approval of such authors as James Anthony Froude and Tennyson. In 1851 she married Andrew Paton Charles (d. June 4, 1868), a chandler, and did much philanthropic work among the poor of Wapping. After 1894 she resided at Hampstead, where she continued her interest in philanthropy, attending the meetings of the North London Hospital for Consumption, and taking an active interest in the Metropolitan Association for Befriending Young Servants, while as early as 1885 she had founded at Hampstead a home for incurables called Friedenheim. Mrs. Charles was a prolific writer, but her fame rests chiefly on her Chronicles of the SchSnbergCotta Family, first published at London in 1883. This is a historical romance of the time of Luther, and gained wide popularity, running through many editions and being translated into most European and several Oriental languages. Among her other works special mention may be made of her Rest in Christ, or the Crucifix and the Cross (London, 1848); Tales and Sketches of Christian Life in Different Lands arid Ages (1850); The Two Vocations (18b3); The Voice of Christian Life in Song (1858); The Martyrs of Spain and Liberatora of Holland (1882); Wanderings over Bible Lands and Seas (1862); Sketches of Christian Life in England in the Olden Time (1884); Sketches of the Women of Christendom (1880); An Old Story of Bethlehem (1884); The True Viva (1885); The Great Prayer of Christendom : Thoughts on the Lord's Prayer (1886); Wanderings aver Lands and Seas (1887); Martyrs and Saints of the First Twelve Centuries (1887); " By the Coming of the Holy Ghost " (1888); " By Thy Glorious Resurrection and Ascension " (1888); and the autobiographical Our Seven Homes, edited by Mary Davidson (1896).

CHARLES, ROBERT HENRY: Anglican theologian and Ethiopic scholar; b. at Cookstown (21 m. w. of Armagh), County Tyrone, Ireland, Aug. 6, 1855. He was educated at Queen's University, Ireland (B.A., 1877), and Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1881); sad was incorporated M.A. at Exeter College, Oxford, in 1892. He was ordered deacon in 1883 and ordained priest in 1884, and was euoceasively curate of St. Mark's, Whitechapel (18831885), St. Philip's, Kensington (1885‑86), and St. Mark's, Kennington, Surrey (1886‑$9). In 18981906 he was professor of Biblical Greek in Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1905 was also appointed Grinfeld lecturer on the Septuagint at Oxford. He was Hibbert lecturer at Oxford in 1898, Jowett lecturer in London in 1898‑99, and select preacher at Dublin in 1889‑1900 and 1902‑03, and was elected a fellow of the British Academy in
1908. In addition to numerous contributions to theological periodicals and encyclopedias, he has written Forgiveness and Other Sermons (London, 1888); The Book of Epoch (Ethiopic text; 1903); Ethiopic Version of the Hebrew Book of Jubilees (Oxford, 1894); The Apocalypse of Baruch (Syriac text and translation; London, 1896); The Assumption of Moses (Latin text and translation; 1897); Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life in Israel, in Judaism, in Christianity (Jowett lectures for 1898‑99; 1899); The Ascension of Isaiah (Ethiopic, Greek, and Latin teats and translation; 1900); The Book of Jubilees : or, The Little Genesis (translation; i902); The Ethiopic Version of the Book of Epoch (1905); Greek Version of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs with the Variants of the Armenian and Slavonic Versions and the Hebrew and Aramaic Fragments (Oxford, 1906); Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs (1908); and, with W. R. Morfill, translation of the Slavonic text of The Book of the Secrete of Epoch (1898).

CHARLES, SAINT, SISTERS OF CHARITY OF. See CHAR=, Srsmaas or.
CHARLES, THOMAS: Welsh Methodist; b. at Pantdwfn, near St. Clears (8 m. w.s.w. of Carmarthen), Carmarthenshire, Oct. 14, 1755; d. at Bale, Merionethshire, Oct. 5, 1814. He was educated under Methodist influences in Wales and at Jesus College, Oxford (1775‑78; B.A., 1779), was ordained deacon and priest in the Church of England, and held a curacy in Somersetehire; but his opinions and style of preaching unfitted him for service as an English curate, and in 1783 he settled at Bala and soon became a leader of the Welsh Methodists. He made long preaching tours over all North Wales, instituted " circulating schools " and Sunday, schools, and trained teachers at his own expense. The revival which began in 1791 and spread from Bala se a center was a direct result of his labors. He maintained close connections with the English Methodists and extended his efforts to Ireland in 1807. In 1802 he helped to found the British and Foreign Bible Society (see BIBLE SOCIETIES, L, 2). He wrote tracts and books in Welsh for the religious instruction of his countrymen, including a catechism, which in English translation was recommended by the Countess of Huntingdon for use in her chapels, and a " Scriptural Dictionary " in Welsh (4 vole., Bale, 1805‑08) which went through seven editions. A printing‑press which he established at Bala in 1803 issued more than 300,000 copies before his death.
Bn3a:oaaeaar: Edward Morgan, Memoir of the Life and Labours of Thomas Charles, London, 1828; William Hughes, Life and Letkrs of Thomas Charles Rhyl, 1881; Essays, Zwra, sad IatemeEinp Papers of Thomas Chw(es, ad. E. Morgan, London, 1838.
CHARROCB:, STEPHEN: Puritan; b. in London 1628; d. there July 27, 1680. He studied at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, took his degree there, and became minister in Southwark; in 1649
he went to Oxford and became fellow of New College (1650) and proctor (M.A., 1852); went to Ireland with Henry Cromwell as chaplain (1655); returned to England soon after the death of Oliver

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Charles Elisabeth abase, rah
Cromwell, and lived for fifteen years in London in retirement and without regular charge; in 1675 he was appointed joint pastor with Thomas Wateon of a Presbyterian congregation in Bishopagate Street, London. He was a grave and impressive preacher and a man of fervent piety. His chief work was On the Existence and Attributes of God, published posthumously, ed. Richard Adams and Edward Veal (London, 1681; many subsequent editions; American ed., with biographical sketch by William Symington, 2 vola., New York, 1874); there is an edition of his Works with memoir by Edward Parsons (9 vole., London, 1815), and another with introduction by James MeCoeh, in Nichol's Series of Standard Divines (5 vole., Edinburgh, 1864).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Notices additional to those mentioned in
the tent are A. a Wood, Athena Oxonians", ed. P. Bliss,
iii. 1234‑38, 4 vole., London, 1813‑2V; DNB, z. 13413b.
CHARRON, ahdr"r8h', PIERRE: French Roman Catholic ecclesiastic and theologian; b. at Paris 1541; d. there Nov. 16, 1603. He studied law at OrlCana and Bourgea, and practised for several years, after which he entered the Church and soon became a pulpit orator of note. He preached for a number of years in various cities of southern France, and was finally appointed preacher to Queen Margaret. In his forty‑seventh year he returned to Parse and wished to enter a monastic order, but was rejected on account of his age. He then resumed his activity as a preacher, and in Bordeaux made the acquaintance of Montaigne. In 1594 he was appointed vicar‑general by the bishop of Cahora, and in the following year was sent as a deputy to a convention of the French clergy, where he was so highly esteemed that he was chosen first secretary. Charron was the author of three works. The first of these was his Trait, des tro^,'s v&ites, coretre loos athkes, idoldtres, juifs, maJaomEtana, hkrEtiques et schismatiques (Bordeaux, 1594), in which he maintained against the atheists that there is a God and a religion; against the pagans, Jews, and Mohammedans that the Christian religion alone is true; sad against heretics and achiamatica that salvation can be found only in the Roman Catholic Church. He likewise wrote a collection of sixteen Discours chr&*ns (1600), on the mass, the knowledge of God, salvation, and the communion of the saints. Still more famous was his Traitk de la sagesae (1601; Eng. tranal. by S. Leonard, London, 1612 [7]), in which he proceeded from the thesis that the true understanding of man consists in knowledge of himself and of the nature and limits of his powers, so that this wisdom should direct his inward and his outward life. Truth, on the other hand, can be found with God alone, and man is unable to gain it by himself. This agnostic tendency led Charron to express himself with such freedom concerning all positive religions, including Christianity, that the Jesuit Garasae branded him as an atheist. The Traits was accordingly expurgated by Jeannin for the edition of 1604, but in this form the book found few readers, and three years later the text was restored with Jeannin'a notes. Shortly before his death Charron published a compendium
of his work with an apology under the title Pent traitE de la aagesae (Paris, 1648). (C. PrmlvnEx.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The works, with s Life by M. de la RocheMaillet, were published, Paris, 1838. Consult: C. A. $ainto‑Beuve, Causeriea de Lundi, vol. n., 4th ed., 18 vole., Paris. 188288.
CHARTERIS, ARCHIBALD HAMILTON: Church of Scotland; b. at Wamphray (15 m. n.e. of Dumfries), Dumfriesshire, Dec. 13, 1835. He studied at Edinburgh (B.A., 1853), Tiibingen (1870) and Bonn (1871); d. at Edinburgh Apr. 24, 1908. He was minister of St. Quivox, Ayrshire (1858‑59), New Abbey, Dumfriesshire (1859‑63), and The Park Pariah, Edinburgh (18838). From 1868 to 1898 he was professor of Biblical criticism in Edinburgh University. He was chairman of the General Assembly's Committee on Christian Life and Work, 1889‑94, and was instrumental in establishing the Young Men's Guild, the Woman's Guild, and the I)eaoonesaes' Hospital, and in reviving the order of deaconesaes as a part of the organization of the Church of Scotland. He was appointed a chaplain to the queen in 1869, and was moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1892. From 1901 to 1908 he was chaplain in ordinary to the king in Scotland. In theology he was a conservative. He has written Life of Professor Jameg Robertson (Edinburgh, 1863); Cartonicily : A Collection of Early Testimonies to the Canonical Books of the New Testament (London, 1880); The New Testament Scriptures (1888); and The Church of Christ (1905).
CHASE, FREDERIC HENRY: Anglican bishop of Ely; b. in London Feb. 21,1853; studied at Christ's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1876) ; was curate of Sherborne, Dorset (1878‑79), and of St. Michael% Cambridge (1879‑84). He was tutor of the Clergy Training School, Cambridge, from 1884 to 1887, and its principal from 1887 to 1901, and was lecturer in theology in Pembroke College, Cambridge, from 1881 to 1890, and in Christ's College from 1893 to 1901, as well as examining chaplain to the archbishop of York in 1894‑1905. He was Hulsean lecturer in 1900, and was NorrWan pre. feeeor of divinity in Cambridge University and president of Queen's College, Cambridge, from 1901 to 1905, as well as vice‑chancellor of the university from 1902 to 1904. In 1905 he was consecrated bishop of Ely. He has written Chryaoatom (London, 1887); The Old Syriac Ele»unt in the Text of Codex Bezee (1893); The Lord's Prayer in the Early Church (Cambridge, 1891); The Syro.Latin Text of the Gospels (London, 189b); Credibility of the Book of Acts (Huleean lectures for 19001901; 1902); and The Gospels in the Light of Historical Criticism (190b). He also edited F. J. A. Hort'a Commentary on 1 Peter (London, 1898).
CHASE, IRAN: American Baptist; b. at Stratton, Vt., Oct. 5, 1793; d. at Newton Center, Mass., Nov. 1, 1864. He was graduated at Middlebury College, Vt., 1814, and Andover 1817; he was ordained 1817, and preached for a year as missionary in Virginia; in 1818 he became professor of languages and Biblical literature in the first Baptist theological school in the country, then at Phila‑

ona,siaim omtier
THE NEW BCHAFF‑HERZOG
delphis, is 1822 incorporated with Colombian University at Washington; he resigned in 1825 and was one of the founders of the Newton Theological Institution and professor of Biblical theology there till 1838, of ecclesiastical history, 1838‑45. The latter part of his life was spent in literary work. He wrote much for the religious periodicals and published, with other books, Remarks on the Book of Daniel (Boston, 1844); The Work Claiming to be the Constitutions of the Holy Apostles, including the Canons, Whistoxi's Version, revised from the Greek, with a prize essay upon their original contents translated from the German (New York, 1848); The Design of Baptism Viewed 8n its Relation to the Christian Life (Boston, 1851); Infant Baptism an Invention of Man (Philadelphia, n.d.).

CHASIDI>K (Heb. $aaidhim, "Pious"): 1. A Jewish religious party important during the time of the Maceabean wars. They advocated the strictest ideals of Judaism prescribed by the scribes, opposed the Grecizing tendencies of the age, and for a long time supported the Maccabees in the struggle with the $eleucida; for independence. They were the precursors of the Pharisees. See HesMoxP"s, J 1.
2. The adherents of a religious movement which arose among the Polish Jews in the seventeenth century. It was essentially a pietistic and mystic reaction against Talmudism, and thus presents a certain analogue to the pietism current in Christian circles about the same period, though there was no actual relation between the two. The founder of the Chasidim was an obscure Polish rabbi named Israel ben‑Eleazar, who received the epithet of Ball $hem‑Tob or " Master of the good name " (i.e., the mystic name of God), whence he was frequently termed Besht (from the initial letters 6‑sh‑t). Teaching a religion of the heart, and discarding Talmudic formalism for personal faith and
love of God, he gathered about himThe self an enormous following which num‑
Founder of bered many rabbis whom the legalism the Chasi‑ of the Talmud had failed to satisfy. dim and his About 1740 he made his headquarters
	Teachings.	in Miedzyboz in Podolia, sad there
		developed his two cardinal doctrines
that God is everywhere, and that man may com
mune with God. The first tenet was pantheistic
and the second cabalistic. To attain perfect com
munion with the deity ecstatic prayer and medita
tion, often induced by violent physical motions
or even by the use of intoxicants, were necessary,
while thus a direct influence might be brought to
bear upon God himself. Formalism was altogether
discarded by Chasidism, and in a like spirit the
non‑Jewish asceticism grafted on Talmudic ritual
ism by the " practical Cabala " was rejected. The
Chasidim were to serve and worship God with
gladness and in the freedom of the spirit, while
reason was distinctly subordinate to faith.
He who realized Chasidic ideals was " righteous " (?addik) and had preeminence over lesser souls. Herein lay the danger of the system, for the zaddik came, in increasing measure, to be regarded as a quaeimediator with God, who could influence the
deity to bestow blessings on those that had not achieved perfect righteousness and communion
with the divinity. This concept was The thoroughly non=Jewish, nor was such ZaddiJrIm. homage ever rendered to any rabbi as to the ordinary 4addik. The cleavage between the orthodox Jews and the Chasidim grew wider; separate synagogues were formed, and changes were made in the arrangements of the prayers, the rules for slaughtering, and other ancient Jewish customs. It was not until after the death of Besht, however, that the power of the foddiTc gained full development, but then the rule was evolved that the `' righteous " should be supported by less holy souls in return for his mediation with God. From a sincere, though often ignorant, leader of his flock he became only too frequently a mere thaumaturgist, healing the sick and performing other miracles with his amulets and the penancea which he imposed. Yet Chasidism was not a homogeneous system, but developed, in course of time, into two distinct schools, one finding its center in South Russia and Poland, and the other in Lithuania sod White Russia. The cause of this demarcation was, in the main, intellectual. In South Russia and in Poland the mystical and pietistic trend was no new thing. It had already been exemplified in the movements headed by Jacob Frank (q.v.) and in the religious upheaval caused in Oriental Judaism by the pseudo‑Messiah $habbethai Zebi. It had been augmented, moreover, by the religious anarchy consequent on the political disturbances in Poland and by the savage persecutions of Chmiebvcla and the Haidamacks. The result was a combination of ignorance and despair, which furnished a fallow soil for an optimistic mysticism freed from all restraints of the ritual law. In these regions, then, the qaddik flourished and worked his miracles at the expense of the still more benighted Chasidim. In White Russia and Lithuania, on the other hand, these destructive factors had not been at work, and the Talmud retained its position of honor and its conservative
power. There, moreover, the Jews History centered in the cities, and thus were of under the intellectual restraint and
Chasidism. stimulus of the scholars of the Talmud, while in the villages of Poland and South Russia imagination could run riot, devoid of the restraint of scholarship. For all these reasons Chasidism did not gain in the north the exclusive dominance which it possessed in the south, and its break with rabbinical Judaism was far lees radical. The ?addik of White Russia and Lithuania was tittle more than a heterodox rabbi, and was deeply influenced by the " rational Chasidism " taught by Zalman of Liozna (1747‑1812), who postulated the need of an intelligent faith rather than absolute subjection of reason, and reduced the ;add4 to the place of a teacher instead of a thaumaturgist.
Chasidism, being suspected (and not without some probability) of an affinity with the vagaries of Frank and $habbethai Zebi, was everywhere bitterly opposed by orthodox Judaism, represented by the mitnaggedim (" opponents "). In the north,

where the hold of Chasidism was so alight, the hostility was extreme, and the sectarians were denounced to the government, although without success. The result was the existence of the two schools side by aide, but in the south rabbinical Judaism was completely routed, and the iaddi~im took the place of the rabbis. The Chasidim, however, met with their moat formidable opponents when the maskilim (" enlightened ") arose in the nineteenth century. This movement, inspired by Moses Mendelesohn and his followers, was fatal, in its importation of Occidental Christian learning and criticism, to the ignorant mysticism of Chasidism. Its power is now confined to the uneducated Jews of southern Russia, where the maskilim meet
the stubborn resistance of stagnation
Opposition and a reactionary tendency which is
to the more intense, because lees enlightSystem. ened, than that of rabbinical Judaic.
This trend is not improbably increased by the attitude of the Russian government toward the Jews, but elsewhere the despair which evoked it no longer saints, and with the absence of the cause the effect has vanished. Yet in pawing judgment on Chasidism, it should not be forgotten that, with all its faults, it possessed one important element which was the secret of its power, the insistence on personal piety and faith as the means of salvation, rather than on the intellectualism of rabbinical legalism, a teaching by no means new in Judaism, but revived and fostered by this sect in a time of need.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Greets, (ieachichte der Juden. Vol. Xi., chap. 3. Leipeic, 1891 (the fullest account); J. M. Jost, (ieachichte den JuderUhums and asiner Saktsn, iii. 184. 3 parts, ib. 1857‑59; L. Law, Yerpanpenheit uud (#eDenwart der CluueidSer, Budapest, 1859; J. B» Ehrlich, Der Wep meinea Lebena, Vienna, 1874; 8. Schechter, Studies in Judaism, Philadelphia, 1898; RL, iii. 102‑103; JE, vi. 251‑258.
CHASTEL, ahae"tel', 1'TIEliNE LOUIS: Swiss church historian; b. at Geneva July 11, 1801; d. there Feb. 24, 1886. He was educated at Geneva, and subsequently studied in France, Italy, and England. In 1832 he became a pastor in his native city, where, seven yearn later, he was appointed professor of church history in the theological faculty of the university. He was a prolific author, his chief works being as follows: Conf&ertces sur l'histoire du Ckriatianisme (2 vole., Geneva, 1839‑47); Histoire de la destruction du pnganisme darts l'emplre d'Oriertt (1850); etudes historiques our l'F.nfhcence de la charitE durant les premiers sie'cles chritiens (Paris, 1853; Eng. transl. by G. A. Matile, Philadelphia, 1857); Le Christiartisme au dix‑rteuvi_~me sitcle (Geneva. 1874; Eng. travel, by J. R. Beard London, 1875), this forming, in a new edition, part of his Histoire du Christianisrrae depuis sort ortgirte 9u8qu'd nos fours (5 vole., Paris, 1881‑84); and Ldtrea in~dites de Madame de Mdintenort du lieutertetrrt de Baville (1875). His MElanges historiques et religietrx appeared posthumously, together with a biographical sketch by A. Bouvier (Paris, 1888).
CHASTITY: Chastity in the modern acceptation of the word is a condition and a virtue‑the state of physical and moral purity in sexual rela‑
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ohaddim Chastity
tions, and self‑preservation from unallowel sexual desires. As a virtue it was highly esteemed early in heathen antiquity, by the Romans, and among the Germanic tribes‑all the more as it was uncommon. Even to the present day it has been required more strictly from women than from men, and there are traces of this inequality in the Mosaic law. Indeed it can not be said that as concerns chastity Israel rose much above the general level of the pre‑Christian period; the nation's moral consciousness of sexual purity was not acute. Christianity first gave to chastity its full value. The New Testament writers use the word hayrwa in this connection, which originally meant " dedicated," " holy," then " pure," " chaste." The New Testament idea is based upon the entirely new, Christian, conception of the value and significance of the human body and of its life. Included in the plan of salvation, destined to eternal communion with God, called to future transfiguration in celestial existence, the body to the Christian is an object of solicitude and conscientious care (I Cor. vi. 19).
In the performance of this duty the Christian must fight all carnal desires (I Pet. ii. 11), especially the sexual instinct, which in all times and places has been recognized and felt by men as one of the fiercest and moat invincible. That the instinct in itself is not sinful may be inferred from God's institution of wedlock. But any transgression of thin limit is uncbastity, whether in thought .(Matt. v. 28), in word (Eph. v. 3, 12), or in deed (I Cor. vi. 15). The destructive effect of incontinence extends not only to the body, but to the soul as well, which is thereby polluted, made unfit for all good, and irretrievably estranged from spiritual intercourse with God, hence these, sine exclude from the future communion of heaven (I Cor. vi. 9, 10; I Eph. v. 5; Rev. xxi. 8, 27).
For the attainment of chastity training is necessary. For the Christian this training has its root in the grace of regeneration. The guidance and support of the Holy Spirit is indispensable and assured (Rom. viii. 13; Gal. v. 22‑23), but is ineffectual without personal exertion and self‑discipline on the part of the individual (I Cor. ig. 27; Eph. iv. 29, v. 4; Phil. iv. 8; I Tim. v. 22). The duty of prayer, watchfulness, and the other means of self‑training is incumbent on all without respect to sea or age, and rests in an especial degree upon those whose calling is to educate others. While wedlock is a holy defense of chastity (I Cor. Vii. 2), it is no guaranty of purity (I Cor. vii. 3‑5; I Pet. iii. 1‑7). Celibacy, too, has its dangers; it is imposed upon many by circumstaRCE9 in Ill1pde]Zt times, but incontinence is not excused thereby. Finally the successful result of Christian training and discipline, made possible by the Christian's inward relation to Jesus Christ, is something different from the natural sense of shame and outward decorum, also from the particular gifts of chastity referred to in Matt. tea. 12, which Paul attributes to himself (I Cor. vii. 7), for which the tradition of the Church Praises the Apostle John, and which is mentioned in the Apocalypse (uv. 4).
KARL Bvaaaat.

Chasuble
Cheatham	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	22
CHASUBLE (Let. caaula): The principal vestment worn by Roman Catholic priests when celebrating mass. Bee VESTesmwms Am IxamNre, Eccr.>oarssTtcer..
CHATEL, ahd"tel', FERDINAND FRAft~OIS
Founder of the Jfgliee catholique‑frangaise; b. at
Gannet (34 m. s.e.w. of Moulins) Jan. 9, 1795; d.
at Paris Feb. 18, 1857. At first chaplain of a regi
ment of the line, he was called by the July Revo
lution of 1830 to a place of importance at Paris.
An adherent of the liberalism of the period, he
sought to found a Church based on reason rather
than on Rome, retaining, for the moat part, the
forma of Roman Catholic ritual, yet changing their
meaning and rendering them patriotic in tendency.
His theological education was but superficial, and
it is clear that at first he was rationalistic and
later pantheistic in tendency, while he preserved
traces of the cult of Reason in the sense that term
bore during the French Revolution. Chltel soon won
a considerable following is his movement for re
form, and is 1831 he was able to announce the
establishment of the Aglise catholique‑frangaise, a
temple for several thousand persons being erected
at Paris in the Faubourg St. Martin two years
later. On the high altar was a representation of
Reason in the form of a woman who supported
another holding a crone and typifying Religion,
while near them was a lion as a symbol of the
strength of Reason. The sides of the altar were
adorned with pictures of Ftnelon and St. Vincent de
Paul, with the words gloire and patrie. The service
had the form of a mesa; feasts were celebrated in
honor of great men, especially Frenchmen; and
at Christmas ChAtel himself was honored as a
" reformer " by the side of Christ. About 1837
the community reached its height, although the
majority of its adherents were confined to Paris,
but in 1842 it came to an end. The government
of Louis Philippe favored it at first, but later be
came hostile to it. Chatel long survived the
organization which he had founded, and died in
poverty and neglect. He expounded his views in
a series of works, none of which was of any spiritual
importance. 	F. Ksz rErtsusca.
Biaaroagsray: A. Theiner, in TQ, 1832, pp. 861 eqq.; H. Reuohlin,DwChmin h'rankreich, pp. 293 eqq., Hamburg, 1837; F. F. Fleck, WiaeanschafUiclts $eiae durdv . . . Frankreic7v, vol. ii., part 2, pp. 65 eqq.. Leipeio, 1838: F. xunetmann, in Zeitechrift far Theoiopie, iii (1840), 57 eqq.; R. Holaapfel, in ZHT, riv (1844), 103 eqq.; A. Martin, ChBtet et l'iplies franfaies, Montauban, 1904; BL, iii. 108‑110.
CHAUNCY, CHARLES: 1. Second president of Harvard College; b. at Ardeley or Yardley Bury (10 m. n. of Hertford), Hertfordshire, England, 1592 (baptized Nov. b); d. in Cambridge, Mass., Feb. 19, 1872. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1813; M.A., 1817; B.D., 1824), and became fellow and lecturer in Greek (or professor); was vicar of Ware, Hertfordshire, 1627‑33, and of Marston St. Lawrence, Northamptonshire, 1633‑37. His stern Puritanism brought him into difficulties with the church authorities in both parishes, and in 1834 he was suspended and imprisoned; after some months' confinement he made submission, but regretted the act ever afterward.
He decided to go to America, and before sailing
wrote The Retraction of Charles Chauncy formerly
minister of Ware in Hertfordshire (London, 1841),
published, as he says, " for the satisfaction of all
such who either are, or justly might be, offended
with his scandalous submission, made before the
High Commission Court, Feb. 11, 1835." He ar
rived at Plymouth, Dec., 1837, and acted as as
sistant there till 1841, when he went to Scituate;
he was invited to return to ware in 1854 and was
making preparations for departure when he was
offered the presidency of Harvard to succeed Henry
Dunater; he accepted with reluctance, was in
augurated Nov. 29, and filled the position faith
fully and well. He was a good scholar and, in
addition to his attainments as a theologian, had
considerable knowledge of medicine; he is said to
have been an admirable preacher and was esteemed
for his piety. He published The Doctrine of the
Sacrament, with the right use thereof, calechetically
handled by way of question and ansvxr (London,
1842); a volume of sermons on justification (1859);
and Antisynodalia scripts Americana, or a pro
posal of the judgement of the dissenting ministers of
the churches o f New England assembled Mar. 10,
186.E (Cambridge, 1882). He had six sons, who
were all graduated at Harvard, all became ministers,
and all are believed, like their father, to have been
physicians as well. His eldest son Isaac (b. at
Ware Aug. 23, 1832; d. in London Feb. 28, 1712)
was ejected as rector of woodborough, Wiltshire,
by the Act of Uniformity in 1882, and in 1687
became minister of the independent congregation
in Bury Street, London, formerly nerved by John
Owen; on his resignation in 1701 he was succeeded
by his assistant, Isaac watts; for the rest of his
life he practised medicine and taught. He was
a voluminous writer.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: William Chauncey Fowler, Memorials of the Chaunuys, Boston, 1858; Cotton Mather, in his Magnolia, gives a chapter to President Chaunoy under the title Cadmue Annue, bk, iii., chap. xtiii., vol. i.. pp. 483‑478, Hartford, 1855; James Savage, Genealogical Dictionary of the First Se#lere of New England, i. 388‑389, Boston, 1880.
2. New England clergyman, great‑grandson of President Chauncy; b. in Boston .tan. 1. 1705; d. there Feb. 10, 1787. He was graduated at Harvard, 1721; ordained assistant minister of the First Church of Boston, 1727, and remained there till his death. He cultivated a plain sad matterof‑fact style in preaching, and was noted for scrupulous integrity. He tried to check the extreme excitement attending the preaching of whitefield, and v rote in reference to it Seasonable Thoughts on the State of Religion in New England (Boston, 1743), and two or three open letters to Whitefield (17441745). He stoutly opposed the establishment of episcopacy in the colonies, and published The Validity of Presbyterian Ordination Asserted dud Maintained (1782) and A Complete View of Episcopacy until the Close of the Second Century (1771). He believed in the final restoration of all, or Universaliam, and advocated it in The Salvation for All Men Illustrated and Vindicated as a Scripture Doctrine (1782); Divine Glory Brought to View in the Final Salvation of All Men (1783); The Beneuo‑

23
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Chasuble
Cheatham
lertce of the Deity Fairly oral Impartially Considered (1784); Five Dissertations on the Scripture Account of the Fall and its Consequences (1787).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. C. Fowler, Memorials of the'Chaunceyt,
pp. 49‑70, Boston, 1868.

CHAUTAUQUA INSTITUTION r An institution on Chautauqua Lake (poet‑office, Chautauqua, N. Y.), founded in 1874 se a Sunday‑school teachers' normal institute by John H. Vincent, now retired bishop in the ‑ Methodist Church, and by Lewis Miller of Akron, O. Within four years there developed a complete system of popular education, the main features of which have survived to the present day.
The activities of the institution center primarily about a summer assembly conducted on the institution ground for eight weeks from late June to late August. At this assembly two main educational features are carried on side by side. A series of summer schools hex been evolved which divides itself into two main groups: the first‑the academic courses or schools‑including the English language and literature, modern languages, classical languages, mathematics and science, psychology and pedagogy, and religious teaching. The eecondthe professional schools‑includes library training, domestic science, music, arts and crafts, expression, physical education, and practical arts. The work in these schools is carried on for six weeks (JulyAugust) and is conducted by a faculty of some ninety instructors from universities, colleges, and normal schools from the Atlantic Coast to the Middle West and the Far South. The second systematic scheme for general education is promoted by means of a popular programme which includes during the season over three hundred lectures, readings, concerts, and entertainments.
Besides the two divisions of the summer schools and public programme, Chautauqua Institution shows its sense of responsibility toward visitors through an established aeries of clubs which makes place for Chautauquans of all ages from the kindergarten child to the members of the men's and women's clubs. Of these different organisations, five‑the Kindergarten, the Girls' Club, the Boys' Club, the Athletic Club, and the Men's Club‑now have their own well‑equipped and centrally located buildings.
The work of the Institution, however, does not cease with the close of the summer assembly, for through the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle large numbers of people are reached throughout the year by means of a regular series of university extension readings. Four books are prepared yearly for the course and The Chautauqua,,, a monthly magazine, supplements the lines of thought developed in the text‑books. The activity of the Reading Circle is directed and systematized by the adoption of a succession of years‑the American Year, English‑Russian Year, FrancoGerman Year, and Classical Year; by reading for four years a person passes through the series and qualifies himself for the certificate of completion of the course. During 1905‑07 registration in the summer schools averaged 2,485, the total attendance at the assembly each summer was somewhat over 50,000,
and the total membership for the Reading Circle from the beginning to 1907 approximated 270,000.
	The plan of Chautauqua Institution is extensive,
but constantly developing. On the tract of nearly
three hundred acres a town with some five hundred
cottages has sprung up. An amphitheater seating
five thousand, a hall of philosophy with a capacity
of eight hundred, and a doses smaller halls and class
buildings provide amply for the various classes and
audiences. The Institution holds a charter from
the State of New York whereby no element of
private profit is permitted. It owns its own light
ing and water plants and its own printing estab
lishment, and performs all the functions of an
ordinary town although upon a system of govern
ment which is entirely unique. The Extension
Department circulates each year over a million
pieces of matter, and the number of assemblies
more or less similar in nature which all owe their
stimulus to the original Chautauqua aggregates
nearly three hundred. 	P. H. BoYNmorr.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. H. Vincent, The Chautauqua dfousment,
Boston, 1888; C. A. Teal, Counting the Coet; or, a Sum
mer at Chautauqua, New York, 1889; F. C. Bray, Reading
Journey throuoh Chautauqua, Chautauqua, 1906 (on the
system of instruction).
CHAVASSE, sha"vas', FRANCIS JAMES: Anglican bishop of Liverpool; b. at Edgbaston (a suburb of Birmingham) Sept. 27, 1$46. He studied at Christ Church, Oxford (B.A., 1889), and was curate of St. Paul's, Preston (1870‑73), vicar of St. Paul's, Upper Holloway (1873‑78), and rector of St. Peterle‑Bailey, Oxford (1878‑89). He was then principal of Wycliffe Hall, Oxford, in 1889‑1900, and in the latter year was consecrated bishop of Liverpool. He was select preacher at Oxford in 1$881889 and 1901‑02, and at Cambridge in 1893 and 1902, and was also lecturer in pastoral theology in the latter university in 1898.
CHEDORLAOMER. See BASyroirre (vol. i., p. 407, foot‑note); IeaaEr., HreTOSy or, I.

CHEETHAM, SAMUEL: Anglican archdeacon and canon of Rochester; b. at Hambleton (20 m. n.e. of Leicester), Rutlandshire, Mar. 3, 1827; d. at Rochester July 19, 19(1&. He was educated at Christ's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1850), became deacon in 1851, and priest in 1852. He was vioeprincipal of the Collegiate Institute, Liverpool, in 1851‑53, and from 1853 to 1858 was assistant tutor of Christ's College, where he was also fellow from 1850 to 1886. He was curate of Hitchin, Harts, in 1888‑61, vice‑principal of the Theological College, Chichester, and curate of St. Bartholomew's in the same city in 186i‑63 and professor of pastoral theology in King's College, London, from 1863 to 1882. He was also chaplain of Dulwich College from 1886 to 1884 and archdeacon of Southwark from 1879 to 1882. In the latter year he was made archdeacon of Rochester, and hoe also been canon of the same cathedral since 1883, as well as examining chaplain to the bishop of Rochester from 1$78 to 1897. He was Hulsean lecturer at Cambridge in 1898. In theology he is a Broad‑churchman. In addition to numerous minor contributions, he has written The Law of the Land and the Law of the mind (Lon‑

Choke	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	24
(7hemosh
don, 1866); Colleges and Tests (1871); A History
of the Christian Church during the First Six Cen
turies (1894); same, Since the Reformation (1908);
The Mysteries, Pagan and Christian (Hulaea,n Lec
tures for 1896,1897); MediawalGreek History (1899).
He likewise edited the Dictionary of Christian An
tiquities (2 vole., London, 1875‑80) with Sir William
Smith, and contributed a large number of articles
to it.
	CHEgE, SIR JOHN: English scholar; b. at
Cambridge June 16, 1514; d. in London Sept. 13,
1557. He studied at St. John's, Cambridge, and
adopted the Reformation doctrines there; became
one of the first Greek scholars in England, and in
1540 regiua professor at Cambridge; in 1544 was
made tutor to Prince Edward, and when the latter
succeeded to the throne, in 1547, received honor
and wealth. He espoused the cause of Lady Jane
Grey, was her secretary of state, and was com
mitted to the Tower by Mary in 1553; released the
next year, he went abroad and settled at Strasburg.
In 1556 he visited Belgium, was arrested there by
order of Philip IL, and taken to England; through
fear of dying at the stake he renounced the Protes
tant religion, and his death is said to have been
hastened by shame and regret for his weakness.
He made an English translation of the Gospel of
Matthew (all but the last ten verses) and of the
first twenty verses of the first chapter of Mark,
with notes (ed., with seven of his letters, James
Goodwin, London, 1843), to illustrate a notion he
had about " reform " in English spelling and to
show that it was possible to use only Saxon words;
he edited and translated into Latin some of the
homilies of Chrysoatom; also Cranmer'a treatise
upon the Eucharist (1553) and wrote some other
tracts; of special interest is The Hurt of Sedition,
how grievous it is to a Commonwealth (1549).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. 8trype, Life of the Learned Sir John
	Cheke, Oxford, 1821 (contains a tranal, of Cheke's " Trea
	tise of Superstition "); an account of the Life is also added
	to G. Langbsine'a ed. of The True Subject to the Rebell,
	Oxford, 1841. For his Gospel tranal. consult J. I. Mom
	bert. English Versions of the Bible, pp. 234‑237, London,
	new ed., 1908.
		CHEMMTZ (gEMIUTZ), MARTIK.
Pretheologieal Activity (§ 1). Work as a Theologian (§ 2).
Share in the Formula of Concord (§ 3).
Part in the Adiaphoriat Controversy (§ 4).
Polemics against the Roman Catholics (§ 6). Evaluation of Chemnits (§ 8).
German theologian and controversialist of the Reformation period; b. at Treuenbrietzen (35 m. a.w. of Berlin), Brunswick, Nov. 9, 1522; d. at Brunswick Apr. 8, 1586. The death of his father when he was a boy made attainment of education difficult; he was at the Magdeburg school from 1539 to 1542, and then earned money enough by teaching to go to the University of Frankfort‑onthe‑Oder for a time, and in 1545 to that of Wittenberg. Here he came into contact with Melanchthon, on whose advice he took up mathematics, which led him to astrology. These studies consumed so much time that he paid little heed to Luther's teaching, though he heard him. The outbreak of war took him away from Wittenberg; in 1547 he
settled at Konigaberg and supported himself by
teaching some young Polish noblemen, becom
		ing later rector of the school at Kneip
	1:. Pre‑ hof. He still pursued his astrological
theological studies, until on a visit to Wittenberg
	Activity. he was advised by Melanchthon to
		turn his attention to theology. The
plague put au end to his school work, and he ac
companied Melanchthon's son‑in‑law Sabinua to
Salfeld, where he laid the foundation of his theo
logical learning. In 1550 he returned to Kdniga
berg, where the duke, who esteemed him as an
astrologer, made him his librarian. He was now
convinced of the insecure foundations of astrology,
and devoted himself systematically to theology,
studying the Bible in the original, the Fathers, and
the controversial writers of the time. The dis
turbances stirred up by Osiander's controversy on
justification made him uncomfortable at Kbniga
berg, and in 1553 he returned to Wittenberg, where
he lectured for a time; but in the following year
went to Brunswick to settle permanently, as coad
jutor to the superintendent, becoming superin
tendent himself in 1567 and holding the post until
		1584, when he resigned on account of
	z. Work his health. He was not noted as a
	as a preacher, but he was a diligent and
Theologian. methodical pastor. The continuance
		of his studies, however, made him
known rather as one of the first theologians of his
time, and he was called upon to take part in every
controversy. In 1567 he went with his superior
Mbrlin to Prussia to reorganize the Church there,
distracted by the divisions over Oaiander's teaching,
and the Corpus dodrince Prutenicum was the result.
He rendered still more important services in the
principality of Brunswick‑Wolfenbiittel, where, in
1568, Duke Julius summoned him, with Andrea,
to assist in establishing Protestantism. The docu
mentary results of his work here, and at Luneburg
with Duke William, remain in . the Corpus doo
trino; Julium and the Corpus Wilhelminum. He
also gave the impulse to the founding of the Julian
University at Helmatadt in 1576. The later years
of his life were largely taken up by work connected
with the Formula of Concord (q.v.). Its final
acceptance, in spite of all difficulties, was largely
due to the untiring work of Chemnitz. Before this,
however, he had the misfortune to fall out with
Duke Julius, whom he rebuked sharply for having
his son consecrated bishop of Halberstadt with
all the rites of the old Church. The Protestant
		princes who were working for the
	3. Share adoption of the Formula omitted on
is the For‑ this account to invite the duke to their
	mule of conferences at Juterbock, and he de
	Concord. clined to have anything further to do
		with their undertaking. Thus the
Formula was not definitely accepted in Brunswick,
and the Corpus Julium remained the standard
there, as at the University of Hehnatadt, which thus
assumed an isolated position ultimately favorable
to the growth of the doctrines of a Calixtus. Chem
nitz wrote a defense of the Formula against its
critics, which was published at Magdeburg in 1582.
This the Hehnatadt theologians attacked, eape‑

26	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	abets
ahemosh
cially on the ground of its containing the doctrine of ubiquity, and a conference was called at Quedlinburg by the three electors and Duke Julius to reconcile the differences. Chemnitz made his last important public appearance at this meeting, but could not prevail. His death was felt as a public calamity by all Protestant Germany.
His first participation in the disputes of the time was occasioned by the Adiaphorist controversy (see ADIAPHORA), at the instance of Morlin, who was a steadfast Lutheran. He was next moved to utterance on the question of the Lord's Supper by the fact that Zwinglianism had found an entrance into Brunswick. He was not present at the conference held there in 1561 by MSrlin against Hardenberg, the principal representative of this doctrine in northern Germany, but sent a treatise
which contributed to Hardenberg's ;. Part in condemnation. In the same year he
the Adi‑ published a more complete and sys‑
aphorist tematic Repetitio cans; doctrine' de
Contro‑	vera Pra'sentia, in which, avoiding
	versy.	dogmatic subtleties, he rests his be
		lief in the real presence on the plain
sense of the words of institution. In 1570 he went
on to treat directly of the Incarnation, which then
(exactly contrary to the logical sequence of the
early Church) was treated as dependent on the
eucharistic controversy, in his De duahus naturis
in Christo, etc. Soon afterward he declared against
Crypto‑Calvinism. (see PHILIPP18T8) in two forcible
expressions of opinion on the Wittenberg Cate
chism, which influenced the action of the authorities
in Brunswick and Lower Saxony.
But he was even better known through his polemics against the Roman Catholic Church and the Jesuits. The latter in 1560 had published in Cologne, where they were strong, a criticism of a Protestant catechism. This was the first literary onslaught of theirs to attract general attention in Germany, and Chemnitz was the first to take it up and warn people. of the danger from the Order. His counterblast was entitled Theologia! Jesuitarum prcecipua capita (1572). Payva d'Andrada (q.v.), a Portuguese Jesuit and member of the Council of Trent, published two works in rejoinder (1564),
the first of which came into Chemg. Polemics nitz's hands together with the decrees
Against	of the Council, to which it appealed.
	the	This seemed to him to open the way
Roman for a more thoroughgoing work, and
Catholics. gave him the idea of his famous
Examen concilii Tridentini. (1565‑73), than which no book of the period was more damaging to the Roman claims. It ran through numerous editions, and was translated into German and French; a modern edition was brought out by Preues (Berlin, 1861). His dogmatic standpoint is indicated not only in these polemical works, but in the Loci theologici, commenting on Melauchthon's Loci, which, left uncompleted by him, his successor Leyser and his son published in 1591. Here, without directly contradicting Melanchthon, he interprets him in a tone of moderate Lutheran orthodoxy, attempting to work out a consistent integral body of doctrine, and to show its relation
to the Christian life. Leyser also edited and published his incomplete exegetical works, the Harmonic evangelica and the Postilla oder Auslegung der Evangelien, in 1593.
Chemnitz's mind was not of the creative order; but it was just what was needed for his time, following upon an age of productivity, when systematization and confirmation were the great requirements. He took a middle
6. Evalua‑ course among the parties of the age;
tion of strongly influenced as he had been Chemnitz. by Melanchthon, his doctrine leaned more to strict Lutheranism, and the Philippists (q.v.) upbraided him as an apostate. Sober discretion characterized both his writings and his practical work. He was suspicious of innovations, exhorting his readers to " hold fast the form of sound words," and never going to the extremes of the younger Lutheran school. His practical cast of mind shows itself in his theology, which is never merely speculative, but occupied rather with laying down serviceable and unquestionable formulas. His life, taken as a whole, must certainly be pronounced a blessing to the Church he served so long. (Joaaisltra Kl>NZE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The beet source for a life is J. Rehtmeyer, Der berfihmten Stadt Braunechweip Hird<anhistaris, iii. 273 sqq., Brunswick, 1710. Other sources are the letters of Chemnits in the library of the University of GBttingen, and J. Gasner, Oratio de vita, atudiia et otwtu M. Chemnitii [Brunswick], 1588 Other accounts are' T I'reasel Martin Chemnita, Elberfeld. 1882; C. G. H. Lents, Dr. Martin Chemnitz, Gotha, 1888 (uses M&9. sources); H. Hachfeld, Martin Chamnitz. Leipsic, 1887 (also based partly on unprinted sources): R. Mumm, Die Pdemik den M. Chamnits gepen daa Konzil von Trent, Leipeie, 1905; Schaff, Christian Church, vii. 801.
CHEMOSH : The national god of the Moabites according to the Old Testament, confirmed by the Moabite Stone (q.v.); by the Moabitish names Kam2isvaaadbi. (ie., Chemoshnadab, cf. the Hebr. Jehonadab), mentioned as a king of Moab in an inscription of Sennacherib (" Taylor Cylinder," II. 53; H. Zimmern, in Schrader, RAT, p. 472), Chemoshmelek (or Chemoshgad), the father of Mesha (Moabite Stone, 1), and Chemoshyehi, upon a gem with Phenician inscription found at Beirut and probably Moabitiah (E. Reran, Mission de Phknicie, Paris, 1864, pp. 351‑352; De VoAii6, M& langes d'arch6dogie orientate, Paris, 1868, p. 89). The name may possibly be found also in one or two other inscriptions (VP. Geaenius, in Scriptures linguceqtte P)usrticice monuments, Leipaie, 1837, p. 159; P.Le Bas and W. H. Waddington, Inscriptions greeques et Wines reeueillies en Grtace et en Asie Mineure, iii. 1, Paris, 1870, n. 2220). In Judges Id. 24 Chemosh is spoken of apparently as god of the Ammonites; but elsewhere in the Old Testament the Ammonitish god is called Milcom (related to Molech) (I Kings xi . 5, 7, 33; II Kings xxiii.13), and there is reason to believe that the passage Judges xi. 12‑28 is an interpolation and originally referred to the Moabites (cf. the commentaries on judges). The etymology of Chemosh is uncertain. Concerning the character of the god and his worship not much is known. His priests are mentioned, and an image of him (which was to be carried away as a trophy by enemies) is implied in Jer. xlviii. 7 (cf.

ahemoah
ahiens.ee	THE NEW BCHAFF‑HERZOG	26
verse 13); the expression "Chemoeh said to me "
(Moabite Stone, 14, 32) indicates prophets or an
oracle; he was worshiped at a " high place "
(I Kings xi. 7; Iea. xvi. 12; II Kings xxiii. 13; Moab
ite atone, 3) and, at least in extreme cases, his cult
included human sacrifice (II Kings iii. 27; of.
Moabite Stone, 14‑17). The expression "Ashtar
Chemosh " (Moabite Stone, 17) probably indicates
that a female deity was associated with Chemosh;
it is thought by some, however, that Ashtar is an
other name for Chemosh and that the compound
"Aahtar Chemoeh" is formed like Yahweh Elohim
(cf. F,. Meyer, in ZDMG, vol. xxxi., 1877, p. 733;
F. Baethgen, Beitrdtge zur semitisehen Religionage
achichte, Berlin, 1888, pp. 13 eqq.; G. A. Barton,
A Sketch of Semitic Origins, New York, 1902, pp.
141‑144). Chemosh was worshiped by the idola
trous Israelites (I Kings xi. 7, 3 , II Kings sxiii.
13). The similarity of the language applied to
Chemosh, both in the Old Testament and in the
Moabite Stone, to that used of Yahweh is very
striking. The Moabites are the " people of Che
mosh," his sons and daughters he "gives into cap
tivity " (Num. xxi. 29; of. Jer. xlviii. 46); Che
mosh gives possessions (Judges xi. 24 ). In the Moabite
Stone Chemosh is the lord and protector of Moab;
he commanded Mesha to go to war (14, 32) and
gave the victory (4, 19); the slaughter of his ene
mies was a "pleasing spectacle for Chemosh " (11
12); because he was " ° angry with his land " Che
mosh allowed Omri to oppress 'Moab (b). See
Moos, and for the inscription, Moesrrs: STONE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the works already mentioned and those referred to in the article Moearrm &roxa, consult: D. Heckmann, Ds Chemoecho Moabitarum iddo. Bremen. 1730; F. C. Movers, Die PAenizier, i. 334‑337, Bonn, 1841; P. Scholz, ptltzend%auat and Zaubenaesen bei don after Hebrdarn, pp. 178‑182, Regensburg, 1877, and the literature under Moss.
CHENEY, CHARLES EDWARD: Reformed Episcopal bishop; b. at Canandaigua, N. Y., Feb. 12, 1836. He was educated at Hobart College (B.A., 1857) and at the Protestant Episcopal Theological Seminary, Alexandria, Va., from which he was graduated in 1859. He was ordered deacon in 1856 and ordained priest two years later. After being curate of St. Luke's, Rochester, N. Y. (18581859), and of St. Paul's, Havana, N. Y. (1859‑60), he became rector of Christ Church, Chicago, in 1880. His pronounced evangelicalism, however, caused him to be tried by Bishop Whitehouse, although the verdict was overruled by the civil courts. His church, nevertheless, seceded from the Protestant Episcopal communion, and in 1873, on the organization of the Reformed Episcopal Church, he was elected first bishop, still retaining his rectorate, which he has since held continuously. His jurisdiction was changed in 1878 from the Northwest to the Synod of Chicago, and in 1905 he was president of the Synod of Reformed Episcopal Churches of the Central States. While in the Protestant Episcopal Church he was, naturally, an adherent of the pronounced Low‑church party, and now describes himself as " believing heartily in the great fundamental principles held by all evangelical Christians," and as " totally opposed to all that leans toward any compromise with Roman‑
iem, and equally .opposed to the radicalism in
volved in the destructive criticism of God's Word."
He has written: Twenty‑Eight Sermons (Chicago,
1880); A Word to Old‑Fashioned Episcopalians
(Philadelphia, 1884); What is the Reformed Episco
pal Church? (1885); What do Reformed EpiacopCa
liana Believe F (1888); The Enlistment o f the Christian
Soldier (Chicago, 1893); A King of France un
named in History (1903); and The Second Norman
Conquest of England (1907).
CHERBURY, EDWARD HERBERT, LORD. See DEIBM, L, j 1.

CHERETHITES, ker'e‑thaits, AND PELETHTTES, pel'e‑thaits (Iieb. hakkerethi wehappelethij: The designation of the royal body‑guard of King David, commanded by Benaiah (II Sam. viii. 18, xv. 18, ax. 7, 23; I Kings i. 38, 44; I Chron. xviii. 17; called admatoiohylakes by Joeephus, Ant., VII. v. 4). The interpretations " executioners and runners " (Geeenius and others) and " bowmen and stingers " (Targum Jonathan, Peshitto) are not supported by etymological proof, and are inadmissible because the Hebrew forms are unquestionably gentilic nouns. The name " Cherethite " in the above passages is to be taken as in I Sam. xxx. 14 (cf. Zeph. ii. 5; Ezek. xxv. 16), where the reference is to the Philistine population, or at least to a part of the same. The connection of this people with the island of Crete is less certain, though it is easily possible that they were Cretans (see CaP=ox). The word Pelethi (" Pelethites ") seems to be an abbreviation of Peliahti (" Philistines "), intended to rime with Kerethi, and the two words taken together allude in a general way to the various elements of the Philistine population. There is nothing improbable in David's having a standing body‑guard wholly or chiefly of Philistines, subject to himself alone and reliable in times of civil strife. His attitude toward Ittai and his countrymen from Gath (II Sam. xv. 18‑22, xviii. 2) shows that such relations with foreigners (even uncircumcised) were not found offensive, either from a national or a theocratic point of view. This body‑guard is not to be confused with the " mighty men " who constituted the native corps d'Blite (cf. II Sam. xx. 7).
Probably the royal body‑guard was popularly known as the " Cherethites and Pelethites " until long after David's time, though the appellation must soon have become inapplicable to the nationality of the guardsmen. In the time of Atbaliah mention is made of the " captains and the guard " (II Kings xi. 4, 19; Heb. hakkmri. weharazim, evidently formed after analogy with the old double name). The " guard " are the footmen and the accompanying halberdiers who ran before the king's chariot (II Sam. xv. 1; cf. I Sam. xxii. 17 and elsewhere). The " captains," however, are more correctly the " Carites " (cf. R.V.) or " Carians," and the passage shows that in a later period this adventurous people, who were often employed as mercenaries (cf. Herodotus, ii. 152, v. 111, Livy, xxavii. 40) had come to occupy in Jerusalem the place of the old Philistines. The Hebrew teat (kethibla) of II Sam. ss. 23 has karl (both English

RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
ahemomh
ahiemres
versions follow the 4ri. in translating " Cherethitea "), perhaps by confusion with the later passage. The Great Cylinder Inscription of Sennacherib seems to indicate that Hezekiah had an Arabian body‑guard (cf. Sayce, Higher Criticism and the Monuments, pp. 431, 433, London, 1894). C. VON ORELLl.
BnHLI005APHT: The dissertations of Carpsov and Opits, still valuable, are in Uaolini, Thesaurus antiquitatum aacrarum, savii. 423 eqq., 451 eqq., 34 vole., Venice, 17441789. Consult also C. Iken, Dissertationae ylvilolopico‑theolopicos, pp. 111‑132, Leyden, 1727; B. Behrend, Die %rsti and pled, Krotoeohin, 1888; $. R. Driver, Notes on the Hebr. Text of Samuel, London, 1890; R. Kittel, History of the Hebrews, 1153, 184, ib. 1898; DB, i. 378‑377; EB, i. 739‑740; Smith, OTJC, p. 282.
CHERUB. See ANGEL.
CHESHIRE, JOSEPH BLOUNT, JR.: Protestant Episcopal bishop of North Carolina; b. at Tarborough, N. C., Mar. 27, 1850. He was graduated at Trinity College, Hartford, Conn., in 1889, and after teaching for two years, studied law and was admitted to the North Carolina bar in 1872. He practised for six years, and then, having studied theology privately, was ordered deacon in 1878, and prieated two years later. He was curate at Chapel Hill, N. C., 1878‑81, and was rector of St. Peter's, Charlotte, N. C., 1881‑93. In the latter year he was consecrated bishop coadjutor of North Carolina, and within the year, on the death of Bishop Lyman, he became bishop of the diocese.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. $. Parry, The Episcopate in Ama^ica, p. 381, New York, 1895.
CHEYNE, ch8"ni', THOMAS BELLY: Church of England; b. at London Sept. 18, 1841. He was educated at Worcester College, Oxford (B.A., 1862), and also studied at the University of Gbttingen. He was ordered deacon in 1864, and ordained priest in the following year, and from 1868 to 1882 was fellow of Balliol College, Oxford, in addition to being a college lecturer on Hebrew and divinity in the same college from 1870 to 1871. He became rector of Tendring, Essex, from 1880 to 188; was Oriel professor of the interpretation of Scripture, Oxford 188Tr1908; became canon of Rochester 1885. He became a member of the Old Testament Revision Company in 1884, was Bampton Lecturer in 1889, and American Lecturer on the History of Religions in 1897‑98. He is one of the leaders of the " higher criticism,, of the Bible in the Engliehepealdng world, sad in this spirit edited the Encyclopcedia Bt3lica in collaboration with J. S. Black (4 vo1s., London, 1899‑1903). His independent works include, in addition to numerous contributions to standard works of reference, as well as to theological periodicals, Notes and Criticisms on the Hebrew Text of Isaiah (London, 1868); The Book of Isaiah Chronologically Arranged (1870; in collaboration with S. R. Driver); The Prophecies o f Isaiah (2 vole., 1880‑81) ; Micah (1882) and Hoses (1884) in The Cambridge Bible ; Jeremiah in The Pulpit Commentary (1883‑84); The Book of Psalms, a New Translation (1884); Job and .'~olomon (1887); Jeremiah, his Life and Times (1888); The Origin and Religious Contents of the Psalter (1891; the Bampton Lectures for 1889);
Aids to the Devout Study of Criticia»t (1892); Founders of Old Testament Criticism (1893); Introdttolion to the Book of Isaiah (1896); Book of Isaiah (critical text and translation) in the Polychrome Bible (2 vole., 1898‑99); Jevrish Religious Life after the Exile (New York, 1898; American Isctures on the history of religions for 189?‑98); The Christian Use of the Psalms (London, 1899); Critics Ba'blica (1904); Bible Problems and the New Materials for their Solution (1904); and Traditions and Beliefs of Ancient Israel (1P(YT).

	CHEYNELL, FRANCIS: Puritan; b. in Oxford
1808; d. at Preston, near Brighton, Sussex, 1885.
He studied at Merton College, Oxford, and became
fellow; took orders and held a curacy near Oafosd
and a living near Banbury; on the outbreak of the
civil war he became an active partizan of the par
liamentary aide, and, as a reward for his services,
was given the living of Petworth, Sussex, in 1643.
He was a member of the Westminster Assembly
the same year. In 1848 parliament determined to
" reform "the University of Oxford and appointed
Cheynell one of a commission to " prepare the way,"
and the next year made him one of the visitors;
he is said to have been " the moat defeated as well
as the moat active slid meddlesome of all." In
1648 he took forcible possession of the Lady Mar
garet professorship of divinity and the presidency
of St.' John's College, but either resigned or was
removed in 1850. He was deprived of his living
some time before the general ejection of non‑con
forming ministers in 1862. He attended William
Chillingworth (q.v.) in his last illness, showing
himself " as charitable and compassionate as his
rigid orthodoxy would permit him to be " (Des
Maizeaux, Life of Chillingworth, p. 314): he refused
to officiate at the burial, but attended the cere
mony with Chillingworth's book in his hand, and
in the course of a bitter harangue threw it into
the grave, exclaiming, "Get thee gone, thou cursed
book; . . . rot with thy author and see corrup
tion." To justify his conduct he published Chil
lingworthi novissima, or the sickness, heresy, death,
and burial o f W. Chillingworth (London, 1664); he
also published The Rise, Growth, and Danger of
Socinianism (1643) and other works.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. g Wood, Afh8f1tu 0201tienCel, Ed. P. Bh&1, vol. ii., 4 vole., London, 1813‑20; D. Neal, Hiat, of the Puritans, vol. iv., ib. 1738; DNB, x. 222‑224.
CHICAGO‑LAMBETH ARTICLES. See FUNDAMENTAL DOCTRINEa OF CHBI$TIANITY, J 4; LAMBETH CONFERENCE.
CHIEMSEE, kf"em‑e5', BISHOPRIC OF: A bishopric of the modem Bavaria. Before the middle of the eighth century, a monastery was founded, probably from Salzburg, on an island in the Chiemsee, the largest lake of Bavaria. In 788 it was given by Charlemagne to the church of Metz, which retained possession of it till 891, when King Arnulf exchanged it for Luxeuil and presented it to Salzburg. The foundation of the bishopric was due to Archbishop Eberhard of that see (1200‑48), and was confirmed by the Lateran Council in 1215
and by Innocent III. shortly after The extent of itx jurisdiction was only about eight miles by tour,

	'a Bibles
China
comprising the valleys of the Prien and the Achen
with their tributaries. The see was suppressed in
1807, in the process of reorganization of the Ba
varian Church. 	(A. HAUCS.)
BisLxoassrar: J. E. von Boch‑8ternfeld, Beybdtpe our teutaehen Lander‑ , . and SVaaten‑Kunde, ii. 289‑314,
3 vola., Munich, 1826‑33; Iiettberg, KD, ii. 243; Hauck,
KD, ii. 482, iv. 655, 924; KL, iii. 134‑137.
CHILDREN'S BIBLES. See BIBLES FOR CHILDREN.
CHILDREN'S COMMUNION. See LOitD'a SuFPER, V.
CHILDREN'S DAY, CHILDREN'S SERVICES.
See SurrDAy‑acaooLS AND CHILDREN'S SERVICES.
CHILE: A republic of South America, bounded on the north by Peru, on the east by Bolivia and Argentina, on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; area, 307,620 square miles; population, 2,712,150 by census of 1895, estimated in 1903 at 3,205,992. The Indiana number about 50,000.
The predominant religion is Roman Catholic. An active missionary propaganda, in which Franciscans and Jesuits were especially zealous, began immediately after the Spanish conquest under Valdivia in 1539‑41, from the town of Santiago i (founded 1541) as a base. The heroic resistance of the Araucanians, the ruling native people, prevented extensive results till late in the seventeenth century. The period of separation from Spain began in 1810 and ended in 1827, when the Spanish garrisons were finally withdrawn. The present ecclesiastical organization includes the archdiocese of Santiago of Chile (founded 1561, raised to archiepiscopal rank in 1840) and the dioceses of Conception (1363), Ancud (1840), and La Serena (1840). The vicariates apostolic of Antofagasta (for Chile and Bolivia) and Tarapac4. (for Chile and Peru), and the prefecture of Araucania have been established in recent years. There is an apostolic delegate and envoy extraordinary.
The Roman Catholic religion is legally recognized as " protected " (protetta) by the State, and the Church receives an annual subsidy of about one million pesos. Freedom of religious confession, however, is granted. Plans of the curia concerning the relations between the Church and non‑Catholics and educational affairs led to a difference with the government in 1883; nevertheless President Balmaceda maintained the provisions respecting complete tolerance of Protestant worship, and state promotion of higher instruction. One consequence was the founding of a Catholic University at Santiago in 1889; beside which the State University (founded by the Jesuits, 1743) with five faculties is still active.
Primary instruction is not uniform, and school attendance is not compulsory; private, parochial, and public schools exist aide by side for both white children and Indiana; approximately 1,960 schools are maintained. by public funds as against somewhat over 500 by other arrangements. The State also provides for several normal schools. There is evidence of a noteworthy expansion of secondary schools for boys and girls, and the management and equipment are good; a state peda‑
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
gogical institute for this branch of education is in operation at Santiago. Higher education is served, apart from the university, by an Academy of Art, a Conservatory, and an Institute for Agriculture and Mining.
Immigration has given rise to a number of considerable congregations of the Anglican Church and of the Presbyterian confession, and a German Evangelical Church " of the country." The former are found especially in Valparaiso, Santiago, Conception, Iquique. The fourteen German Evangelical congregations are not yet completely coordinated by synodical union, but they have everywhere an assuring support in the way of German schools, even though moat of these are not strictly associated with the Church. The German total is estimated at 12,000; that of English‑speaking Protestants at 7,000.
WILHELM GOETZ.
Breraoossrax: Mrs. M. R. Wright, Republic of Chile,
Philadelphia, 1905; d. T. Medina, Los Aborigines de Chile, Santiago, 1882; C. Oeheenius, Chile. Load and Leute, Leipaie, 1885; H. Kunz, Chile and die deutachen Rolonien, Leipeic, 1891; A. U. Hancock, A Iliat. of Chile, Chicago, 1893.
CHILIASM, kil'i‑azm. See MILLErnvIUm, MILLENARIATTISM.

CHILLIIYGWORTH, WILLIAM: Church of England; b. at Oxford Oct., 1602; d. at Chichester Jan. 30, 1644. He became a scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, 1618 (B.A., 1620; M.A., 1623; fellow, 1628). He entered heartily into the theological controversies of the time, and, undertaking to argue against a Jesuit at Oxford (John Percy, but known as John Fisher), became himself a convert to Romanism and went to Douai in 1630; here he attempted to write. out the reasons for his change of faith with the result that he wavered, returned to Oxford in 1631, and in 1634 declared himself again a Protestant. He seems to have been influenced by a longing for authority and certainty; the apparently firmer foundation offered by the Church of Rome proved delusive; and then he settled upon Scripture interpreted by reason. Some of the claims of the Church of England seemed to him unreasonable, and he declined to take orders. His great work was called forth by a controversy between a Jesuit, Matthias Wilson (alias Edward Knotty, and Dr. Christopher Potter, provost of Queen's College, Oxford, as to whether Protestants could be saved. Three books had already appeased when Chillingworth entered the contest (Charity Mistaken, 1630, and Mercy and Truth, 1634, by the Jesuit; Want of Charity Justly Charged, 1633, by Dr. Potter). His work, after being examined and approved by the vice‑chancellor of Oxford and two divinity professors, appeased at Oxford in 1638 with the title The Religion of Protestants to Safe Way to Salvation : or do Answer to a Book entitled Mercy and Truth. A second edition was necessary within five months, and a host of answers and criticisms was called forth, from Puritans as well as Roman Catholics. It is a defense of Protestantism, which, he says, he understands to be not " the doctrine of Luther, or Calvin, or Melanchthon; nor the confession of Augusta [Augsburg], or

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Geneva; nor the catechism of Heidelberg, nor the articles of the Church of England; no, nor the harmony of Protestant confessions; but that wherein they all agree, and which they all subscribe with a greater harmony as a perfect rule of their faith and actions, that is, the BIBLE. The BIBLE, I say, the BIBLE only is the religion of Protestants " (part i., chap. vi., sec. 56). He argues strongly for fry inquiry, and denims that any church is infallible. Concerning the Church of England he declares that he believes its doctrine " no pure and orthodox that whosoever believes it, and lives according to it, undoubtedly he shall be saved; and that there is no error in it which may necessitate or warrant any man to disturb the peace or renounce the communion of it. Thin, in my opinion, in all intended by subscription " (preface, sec. 40). This being acceptable to the bishops, in 1638 Chillingworth was made chancellor of Salisbury with the prebend of Brixworth in Northamptonshire annexed. He took the royalist side in the contest between king and parliament, and wrote against " rebels "; became chaplain in the royal army and was taken prisoner at Arundel Castle in Dec., 1643; being ill at the time, he was taken to Chichester, where his death was hastened, as was believed by his friends, by the injudicious efforts of the Puritan Francis Cheynell (q.v.) to convert him.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Chillingworth's minor writings were published in 1887 under the title Additional Discourses, the beet edition of his Works is that of Oxford, 1838, 3 vole.; a Historical sad Critical Account of the Life and Writinpa of William Chrollingworfh by P. Des Maizeaux appeared in London, 1725; and his Life by Thomas Birch was prefixed to the tenth folio edition of his Works (1742), reprinted in the edition of 1838. Cf. DNB, a. 2~5~2‑257.
CHIMERE'. SEE VESTMENTS AND INSIGNIA, ECCLESIASTICAL.
I. Native Religions.
i. Confuoisniam. Confucius (11). The Teaching of Confucius (4 2). ' its Defects (5 3).
2. Taoism. Origin and Chsraoterietica (¢ I). Superstition of the Chinese (§ 2).
a. Budahiam.
4. Mohammedanism.
b. Chinese Beets. II. Christian Missions.
1. Nestorian Missions.
2. Roman Catholic Mis.. eiona.
China forma the southeastern part of the Chinese empire, is from 1,300,000 to 1,500,000 equate miles in extent, and has a population of perhaps 375,000,000. Its capital is Peking. The name "China"is often loosely used for the entire empire, which includes, besides China proper, Manchuria, Mongolia, East Turkestan, and Tibet. The governmental authority in large districts is purely nominal, and for this reason and owing to the encroachments of European powers, the boundaries and area are uncertain and fluctuating. The extent is given an about 4,200,000 square miles, and
CHINA.
The FArliest Period (11). The Second Period (§ 2).
The Modern Period (¢ 3).
8. Protestant Missions
The First Period, to 1842 (¢ 1).
The Second Period, 18421$80 (§ 3)
The Third Period, 1880189b (¢ 3).
The Fourth Period, from
1895 (¢ 4).
General Features. Christina Literature (¢ b).
Various Forma of Work (f s).
Statistics (17).
hildron's Bibles
lhias
a late estimate of the population (admittedly very uncertain) is 425,000,000.
I. Native Religions: In speaking of the "religions " of the Chinese it is always necessary to point out that not only does the Chinese language contain no such word as " religion " in the sense of a relation between God and man, but there has never been any equivalent to this idea in the minds of the Chinese people. The teaching of the Sages, which are ethical as distinguished from religious, are grouped under the term " instruction." To " worship the gods " means also to pay one's respects.
1. Confucianism: Confucius (q.v.) was a teacher and a philosopher who wished to reform his native state by a return to the past. At the
1. Con‑ age of fifty‑five he became an official,
thoins. but his morals were too pure and his aims too lofty to make him successful and he retired in disgust to private life. His great work was the instruction of his pupils, who are said to have numbered 3,000, seventy‑two of whom are enrolled among the Sages of the empire. They gathered up his sayings in a kind of Memorabilia which for ages has been a text‑book in every Chinese school. Confucius edited the books already reckoned as classical, but added comparatively little of his own, his most important work being a bald compendium of Chinese history covering about 240 years, including his own lifetime. Through I the use of them as text‑books his comments on the Book of Rites, the Book of Poetry, the Book of History, and the Book of Changes, together with the Memorabilia, have probably exerted more influence upon a greater number of human beings than any other writings in the history of mankind. The Book of History should be especially mentioned, which, as Dr. Williams remarks, " contains the needs of all things that are valuable in the estimation of the Chinese‑it is at once the foundation of their political system, their history, and their religious rites, the basis of their tactics, manic, and astronomy."
Although while he lived his precepts were neglected, Confucian began to be appreciated ai'ter he was dead, and has long been regarded by the Chinese as a perfect Sage (otherwise called " Holy Man "), to whom there is a temple in every city, where there are. annual offerings of animals and of silk. The ornamental portals inform the passer‑by that his " Virtue Equaled Heaven , and Earth," which is tantamount to his deification. In the words of Dr. Legge. " The homage which is offered to the Master could not be more complete were he Shang Ti himself." hl Bt19ki11g contrast with this universal estimate of the Chinese people is that of
Confuaua himself in such modest eenteneen as the following: " The Sage and the man of perfect virtue‑how dare I rank myself with‑ them? It may simply be said of me that I strive to become such without satiety, and to teach others without weariness. In letters I am perhaps equal to other men; but the character of the Superior Man,
carrying out in his conduct what he professes, is what I have not attained to. The leaving virtue without proper cultivation: the not thoroughly

China	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	30
discussing what is learned; not being able to move toward righteousness of which knowledge is gained; and not being able to change what is not goodtheae are the things which occasion me solicitude. I am not one who was born in possession of knowledge; I am one who is fond of antiquity, and earnest in seeking it. A transmitter, and not a maker, believing in and loving the ancients." This latter trait of the Master has been perpetuated in the Chinese people, whose face has for more than two millenniums continued to be turned to the peat. Aside from the voluminous works which constitute the Chinese classics, a view of what is for convenience comprehensively termed Confucianism must take account of the standard interpretation of these works by Chu Hsi, a highly distinguished scholar of the Sung dynasty (1130‑1200 A.D.), whose commentaries on the classical works have for centuries formed the recognized standard of orthodoxy.
Like all other complex systems of human thought, Confucianism is many‑aided. But its essence is expressed in the " Five Constant The Virtues " of Benevolence, Righteous‑
Teaoh• nees propriety, Wisdom, and Sin‑
iag of writ, as well as in enforcing the Confucius. duties of the " five relations" of Prince and Minister, Husband and Wife, Father and Son, Brother to Brother, and Friend to Friend. Confucius taught the duty of keeping aloof from spirits, while at the same time treating them respectfully. " We have not performed our duties to men," he says; " how then can we perform our duties to spirits? " " Not knowing ]ifs, how can we know about death?" The ]awe of nature, and of the spiritual world as well, lie beyond the comprehension of all men except those endowed by nature with the spirit of wisdom. " He who has sinned against Heaven has no place for prayer." It has been claimed that there are six essential elements in Confucianism, five of which differentiate it from any other system of non‑Christian thought. These are: (1) The direct responsibility of the sovereign to Heaven, Shang Ti, or God. (2) The greater importance of the people than the sovereign. (3) The discrimination of the five social relations, with their appropriate duties. (4) Insistence on the virtues just mentioned, with the doctrine that the wise and the able should rule, the object of the ancient civil service examination being to ascertain who the wise and the able are. (5) The presentation of an ideal, or Princely Man, as a mode( upon which every Confucianist should form his character. The influence of this upon the unnumbered millions of Chinese moat have been measureless. (6) Filial piety, which involves not merely suitable treatment of the living, but the worship of ancestors, the real religion of the Chinese people, and perhaps the most potent among several causes which have perpetuated the race through all the millenniums of Chinese history.
Confucianism is mixed with and debased by an intricate system of nature‑worship, including worship of heaven and earth, the sun and the moon, the douda, the rain, thunder, the five great mountains, the north pole, the spirits of dead worthies, and much
else, combining in one ritual gods, ghosts, flags, and cannon. It embodies much of ideal excellence for
8. Its an ideal world, but it is deficient in the Defects. chief of the relations, for it has no
knowledge of God, its account of men is inadequate, it has no elucidation of the fact of sin, and no remedy for it, nor any explanation of the relation between man and God. Confucius used the term Heaven instead of Shang Ti. As Dr. Legge says: " He was unreligious rather than irreligious; yet by the coldness of his temperament and intellect in this matter his influence is unfavorable to the development of true religious feeling among the Chinese people generally, and he prepared the way for the speculations of the literati of medieval and modern times which have exposed them to the charge of atheism."
Confucianism is a wonderful product of human development, with a unique grip on its adherents. Its strength lies in the inherent rectitude of its injunctions, which, if followed, would make the world a very different one from that which we see. But it has the fatal defect of altogether failing to recognize the inherent weakness and inability of human nature to fulfil these high beheata, and for this inability Confucianism hen neither explanation nor remedy. In its adoration of Confucius and other worthies, its face is ever toward the past. Its worship of ancestors has no ethics] value,* and is quite destitute of any directive or restraining power. While Confucianism has unified and consolidated the Chinese people, it has not, as the Great Learning enjoins, renovated them, and it never can do so. It can do no more for China than it has already accomplished, and it is now a spent force.
2. Taoism: The Chines character Tao signifies a " road, reason, doctrine." The indigenous
religion called by thin name owes its 1. Origin reputed origin to Lao‑taze (" Old
Cue‑
	Anti Master," as distinguished from Con
	istios, fucius the Master; see LAO‑TazE), who
		is supposed to have been half a cen
tury older than Confucius, and to whom is gener
ally attributed the work called " Canons of Reason
and Virtue," a treatise remarkable alike for its
brevity and its profundity. Historically next to
nothing is known of Laotaze, and the authenticity
of the treatise passing under his name is much
disputed. Taoists are ]inked to Confucianists by
a common regard for the Book of Changes, of which
great use is made by them. The Taoism of the
present day has nothing to do either with the Canon
of Reason just mentioned or with its alleged
author, whose philosophy is now only a historical
curiosity. Modern Taoism occupies itself with a
quest for the elixir of immortality, the conquest

	v [This statement will not be accepted by all students of
Chine religion. Many of them look upon ancestor‑worship
as the apotheosis of the family, and point out that the prac
tise of laying before the ancestral tablet se s worthy offering
the article or document which evidences that the individual
had done something which reflected credit on the family
moat affect the offerer and his deenendante. The contem
plation of distinguished or even respectable ancestors has
stirred many among us to nobler living. Yet it is true that
the evangelising of China is hindered by the yraotiee.‑ED.]

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
of the passions, and especially with the exorcising of demons. It is extensively mixed with Buddhist ideas, having borrowed from that system the notion of a trinity of Pure Ones. A being having the same title as the Shang Ti of the Confucianists is worshiped, but his functions an practically delegated to a divinity called Pearly Emperor Supreme Ruler, who is regarded as an apotheosis of a man named Chang who lived in the Han dynasty (189 B.c.), and whose supposed successors, into each of whom the soul of the founder transmigrates, lives on the Dragon‑Tiger .mountain in Kiangsi, and is by foreigners termed " the Taoist Pope." Eight " Immortals," each of great capacity, some of them objects of worship, figure largely in popular Taoism. In almost all villages there is a temple to the local god (or god of the soil) who is regarded as a constable reporting deaths, etc., to the city god (Ch'eng Huang) in whose temple an represented by images the most horrible tortures of the future life, visited upon the wicked. A Sea Dragon King rules the waters, and is often worshiped in the form of water (or even land) snakes. Taoism boasts an immense literature, but with the exception of the classic named it is of little value, and is not reducible to a system. It descends into animal worship of the " Five Great Families," viz., the Fox, the Rat, the Weal, the Snake, and the Hedgehog, each of which is spoken of in terms of the highest respect, and considered to be endowed with supernatural powers.
The dense ignorance of the Chmeae regarding the uniformity of nature, and the apparent absence of any intuition of cause sad effect,
S• ate'‑ make the popular mind a fertile seedetitioa bed for the cultivation of superstitious of the
	Chinese.	germs of every sort. Every few years
		a wave of fanaticism seems to be
propagated throughout the empire, issuing in tales
of cue‑cutting without visible agency, kidnaping
of children, and the like. The whole Boxer move
ment in China was stimulated by beliefs which
negative and defy the laws of nature.
Men who are confident that no sword that was ever forged can cut them, that no rifle‑bullet can penetrate their charmed bodies, that no artillery can destroy them are dangerous elements in any civilized land, and China is full of such men. It is difficult to find in Taoism at the present day a single redeeming feature. Its assumptions are wholly false, its bald materialism inevitably and hopelessly debarring.
S. Buddhism: This Indian religion is supposed to have been introduced into China in the Han dynasty, by the Emperor Ming Ti, in consequence of a dream. At different periods it encountered great opposition both from the agnostic Confucranists and the materialistic Taoists. The essential doctrines of Buddhism (q.v.) are the vanity of all material things, the supreme importance of charity, and the certainty of rewards and punishment by means of the transmigration of souls. The Five Precepts of Buddhism forbid the taking of life, stealing, lust, improper speech, and the use of wine.
The Buddhist habit of renouncing one's family
China
and becoming priests or nuns is in theory totally opposed to Confucian teaching and instincts, yet like the belief in the transmigration of souls, and the bliss of attaining to be a Buddha, it is commended to the Chinese by long custom. The poverty of thousands of Chinese makes their children available for service in the temples, though Confucianism has never assented to it. Yet whatever their theoretical views, Chinese of all ranks call in Buddhist or Taoist priests, or both, upon due provocation, especially at funerals. The unlimited utterance of the name of Omito Fo (Amita Buddha) will bring great felicity, and its incessant enunciation is one of the principal industries of the Mongols. The power of Buddhism has arisen from the fatal weakness of Confucianism, which has nothing to say of the hereafter. The literature of Buddhism, like that of Taoism, is appallingly extensive, embracing both translations from the Sanskrit (which embodies the northern form of Buddhism as the Pali language does the southern), and also attempts to write Sanskrit texts in Chinese characters. Although Buddhist tenets are deeply I enshrined in the hearts of the Chinese people, Chinese scholars, even when adopting Buddhism, have always affected to despise it. It has rendered the Chinese more compassionate to the brute creation than they would otherwise have bin, and it has introduced the graceful but costly pagoda, as well as the dagoba, or memorial tope. While often displaying the negative activity arising from the cohesive power of ancient, vested interests, Buddhism in China has long since lost the virility which it attained through persecution, and has passed into a hopeless and senile decay.
4. Mohanimedsaism: Mohammedans are scattered throughout China, particularly in the cities, being strongest in the southwestern provinces, their total number being estimated at twenty millions. They reached China in the Tang dynasty, over a thousand years ago. Their mosques are especially in evidence in such great centers as Peking, Tien‑Tsin, Canton, etc. The Mohammedans are much more lax in their practises than their coreligionists in India. They do not intermarry with the Chinese, but sometimes adopt Chinese children. They do nothing to propagate their faith, and apparently have never done so. The Chinese consider them as more violent in temper and more cruel in disposition than themselves, but the days of their early persecution have long since passed away. With the exception of their monotheism there is often very little distinction between the followers of the prophet and the Chinese.
6. Chinese Sects: China is honeycombed with many varieties of secret societies, nearly all of which profess to " practise virtue" as an end. Many of them are, however, semipolitical, and all of them are tabooed by the government. Their manuals are copied by hand, and are practically inaccessible, and their tenets are compounded of fragments of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism brewed in s common kettle. Their practises have unquestionably had their origin in Indian sources, the Chinese intellect not being sufficiently metaphysical to originate, or even to comprehend,

dhin4	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	SS
subtleties of this sort. Some use a species of planchette for obtaining adumbratione of fate, some keep ledger accounts of merits and demerits, while others strive after the (Taoist) " pill of immortality." The I Ho Ch'iian (or " Boxers ") in 1899 adopted the name of an organisation much more than a century old. Whenever any society is vigorously repressed, it invariably reappears under a new name. The existence of these countless sects is a conspicuous witness to the radical insufficiency of each of the standard " religions " of China to satisfy the wants of the human soul.
II. Christian Missions.‑1. Nestorian Missions: According to ancient tradition Christianity was carried to India and perhaps even to China by the apostle Thomas. While it is not impossible that a knowledge of the new faith may have penetrated so far in the early centuries, no certain evidence of it is now to be obtained. The Nestorians, however, sent missionaries to China at the beginning of the sixth century, as is proved by the black marble tablet discovered near the present Si Ngan Fu, the. western capital of China, in 1625, recording the establishment of the " Illustrious Doctrine." The date of this justly famous monument of the past is 781 A.D., and its authenticity, once hotly disputed, is now irrefragably established. Judging by the allusions in Marco Polo's narrative, in the thirteenth century Nestorian churches must have been numerous. The followers of this faith were no doubt bitterly antagonized by the aggressive Mohammedans, who came to China somewhat later than they, the Nestorians in turn persecuting the early Roman Catholic missionaries. Nestorianism seems to have survived for almost a thousand years, traces of it being mentioned by travelers as late as the fourteenth century. But not a building which the Nestorians erected, not a page which they wrote has been preserved, and after more than twelve centuries they are remembered only by a atone tablet [In Nov., 1907, probably on account of the increasing number of European vandals in the province, the governor of Shen‑Si removed the Nestorian Tablet from its ancient position in an open field near Si Ngan Fu and placed it in the Peilin Temple, inside the walls of the city.]
2. Roman CSatholio Missions: The efforts of the Roman Catholic Church to establish itself in
China are divisible into several well‑
1. The marked periods, of which the first be‑
Eeet ‑ gan with the arrival of John of Monte
Period. Corvino (q.v.), who reached China in
1292, during the Yuan, or Mongol dynasty. This zealous priest labored alone for eleven years, being later reenforced by seven assistants and himself made archbishop. His letters speak of translating the Psalms and the New Testament into Mongol, and of some 30,000 " infidels" converted. But with the advent of the native Ming dynasty and the expulsion of the Mongols in 1368, so completely were the traces of the past effaced that it was long forgotten that Christianity had ever entered the Celestial empire at all.
The second period of Roman Catholic missions is separated from the first by more than two centuries of silence. The great missionary Francis
Xavier (q.v.) died on the island of St. John in 1552, after heroic but unavailing efforts to enter China. In 1582 two Jesuit priests
2. The succeeded by a stratagem in getting a
Second foothold in the province of Kwangtung.
Period. One of these was Michele Ruggieri (Roger), and the other the celebrated Matteo Ricci (q.v.), a man of great natural abilities, of a genial diplomatic temperament, and gifted with an unwearying patience. After nearly twenty years of romantic adventures he at last accomplished his great purpose, reaching Peking in Jan., 1601, where his labors were most indefatigable, and at his death in 1610 at the early age of fifty‑five, they appeared to be crowned with success, especially in winning the literati. Ricci's Chinese writings remain to this day as an evidence of his unique achievements. His most famous convert was a Han Lin named Hsu, who took the name of Paul, and whose daughter (baptized as Candida) was a foster‑mother to the infant Church. The family estate near Shanghai (locally called Sikawei‑" home of the Hsii family ") is now perhaps the most important center of Roman Catholic influence in China. Ricci nominated Longobardi (Lombard) as his successor, who after careful investigation felt obliged to reverse the policy of concession to Chinese customs in regard to the worship of ancestors, and in the use of the characters Shang Ti as the designation for God. These divisive and perversive questions were the rock upon which Roman Catholic missions in China ultimately split. The talents of Adam Schaal, one of his successors, like those of Ricci himself, were various and imposing, his labors ranging from astronomical erudition, exhibited in the reform of the Imperial calendar, to the composition of works of theology, and of metal for the casting of cannon. His success was provocative of jealousy, so that he was undermined by intrigues, and died of grief and mortification at the age of seventy‑eight, having been thirty‑seven years in the employ of five monarchs. The achievements and honors of his successor, Ferdinand Verbiest, were if possible even greater, continuing for a period of thirty years to 1688. This trio of men of extraordinary abilities and devotion not perhaps equaled in missions in any other part of the world might have been expected to insure the success of the Church to which they gave themselves.
But meantime the seeds of dissension which ultimately proved the ruin not only of the Jesuit labors in China but also of those of the Franciscans and Dominicans who followed them were yielding their harvest of ill. Ricci had endeavored in everything to regard Chinese prejudices that he might win the literati. Upon the representations of Lombard, Pope Innocent X. (1645) forbade the worship of Heaven, and the rites to the dead, but the Jesuits succeeded in getting a bull from Alexander VII. (1656) practically (although not is form) reversing the decision. A third bull maintained the validity of each of the former, the rites being forbidden to those who thought them idolatrous, but lawful to those who considered them as merely civil and not religious. In 1699 the Jesuits with signal imprudence appealed the ques‑

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
tion to the Emperor Wang Hsi, whose decision in their favor was flatly contradicted by a bull of Clement XI. (1704) absolutely forbidding the rites, and the use of the terms " Heaven " and " Shang Ti " for God. The Emperor Wang Hsi was not the man to divide his rule with an Italian gentleman, and the result was that while missions were still patronized at court for scientific purposes, they were persecuted in the provinces with the connivance of the emperor. On the accession of his successor, Yung Cheng (1723‑35), by various decrees the missionaries were banished and the Church extinguished. It is said that " more than 300 churches were destroyed or suppressed, and 300,000 Christians abandoned to the fury of the heathen."
Thus at the end of a century and a half of great prosperity the work of the past appeared to be again wholly undone; but the fortitude under bitter persecutions and the
	s. The	constancy of the Roman Catholic
	~odera	Christians during the succeeding cen
		tury and a quarter ‑till the practical
toleration of the Treaty of Whampoa, and the
fuller liberty of the treaties of 1858, afford the most
convincing proof of the genuineness of their religion.
During the last half‑century the expansion of the
Roman Catholic Church in all parts of the empire
has been marked, but as it does not publish
statistics, only estimates are possible. In a re
cent work by the vicar apostolic of the province of
Chehkiang there are said to be twenty‑seven
bishops, and the number of Christians is esti
mated at three‑quarters of a million, although
figures twice as large are often met with. From
the Protestant standpoint it is a capital defect
of the Roman Catholic policy that practically
no use is made of street chapel preaching, and
that the Bible as a whole is not translated for
the converts. The standard of admission to the
Church is not high, and great harm is done to the
cause by the too ready acceptance of many appli
cants whose obvious motive is the prosecution of
lawsuits, and revenge.* It should be sand that in
	*On March 15, 1899, the Chinese government wen in
duced to issue this decree, which is thus translated in
President Hawks Pott's The Outbreak in China, pp. 107 sq.
(New York, 1900): " Churches of the Catholic religion, the
propagation of which has been long since authorised by the
Imperial Government, having been built at thin time in
all the provinces of China, we long to see the Christians
and the people live in peace, and, in order to make their
protection more easy, it has been agreed that local authori
ties shall exchange visits with missionaries under the con
ditions indicated in the following articles: 1. In the differ
ent degrees of the ecclesiastical hierarchy, bishops being is
rank and dignity the equals of viceroys and g0o8rp0l8,ltls
screed to authorise them to demand to sea viceroys and
governors . . . . Vicars‑general sad archdeacons will be au
thorized to demand to see provincial treasurers sad judges,
and teotais. Other priests will be authorised to see pre.
feats of the first and second class, independent prefects, eub
prefecte, and other functionaries, 2. When s mission af
fair. grave or important. shall come up unexpectedly in any
province, the bishops and the missionaries of the pleas
should ask for the intervention of the minister or consuls of
the power to which the pope has confided the protection
of religion. These last will regulate or finish the matter,
either with the Teungli YamAn or the local authorities. In
order to avoid protracted proceedings, the bishop and the
missionaries have equal right to address themselves at once
IIL‑‑3
many cases the Roman Catholic converts showed the greatest firmness under the persecution of the Boner period, unknown numbers enduring martyrdom for their faith.
S. Protestant xisdoas: Protestant missions to
China, owe	their origin to a general revival of
	spiritual life at the end of the eight‑
1. The math century, which was naturally
First	manifested in greatly increased so‑
Period,
to 1848. tivity both at home and abroad.
These missions in China are naturally.
divisible into four distinct periods, each terminated
by a foreign war. In this vast field the London
Missionary Society had the honor of being the
pioneer, in the face of difficulties which can now
be but imperfectly comprehended. Robert Morri
son (q. v.) reached Canton by way of New York
Sept. 7, 1807. The East India Company would
not allow him passage on its ships, but later was
glad to employ him as its interpreter, when it
was evidently for its interest to command the
services of so thorough a Chinese scholar. His labors were unintermittent and immense. He completed the translation of the entire Bible into Chinese in 1818, partly in collaboration with his associate, William Mime. In 1823 his great Chinese Dictionary was published by the East India Company at an expense of twelve thousand pounds sterling. Dr. Morrison died in 1834, when the relations between Great Britain and China were becoming every year more strained, the missionary outlook being then almost as unpromising as when he began his work. The impossibility of getting a foothold on Chinese soil led to the establishment of an AngloChinese College at Malacca (subsequently transferred to the newly ceded island of Hongkong) in which Mr. Mime labored with diligence in teaching, and in preparing and pfttleg Christian books. Walter Henry Medhuret, who came as a printer, spent many years at Batavia. The next society to begin work in Chins was the American Board, which sent out Rev. Elijah Coleman Bridgman, who reached Canton in Feb., 1830, together with Rev. David Abeel (q.v.), who soon after joined the mission. Three years later, Mr. Samuel Wells Williams, then a mere youth, went
out as a printer. In the ensuing decade, before the opening of the war with Great Britain, three other American societies entered the field, the Protestant
Episcopal, 1835, the Baptist missionary union, 1836, and the Presbyterians (North), 1838. Medical work is this period was begun in 1834 by Dr. Peter Parker, who opened a hospital in Canton Oct., 1835, where the successful treatments) esY
eye and 9U1'giesf! cases, were phenomenal and most influential in diminishing prejudice. Dr. Thomas Richardson Colledge, of the East India Company, opened a dispensary at his own expense ill 1827.
to the local authorities, with whom they may negotiate the matter and &nieh it." President Pott adds; " The missions of the Anglican Communion and other Protestant Churches have unanimously refused to ask for any similar privileges, foreseeing clearly that, although the possession of ouch
would vastly increase their power, yet this assumption would be attended with the gravest dangers, and could but make their cause unpopular in the eyes of the Chine~e."$. M. J.

China	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	84
Dr. Benjamin Hobson, of the London Mission, also conducted a hospital in Canton, Macao, and Hongkong, from 1839 to 1843. The war with Great Britain was terminated by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842, as a result of which the ports of Canton, Amoy, Fuchau, Ning‑po, and Shanghai were definitely opened to trade.
From the close of the war to the settlement at the end of the next one is to be reckoned as the second period of Protestant missions
2. The to China, characterized by an activity Second on the part of the British, American,
Period, and German missionary societies fully
1842‑80. equal to that of the agents of commerce. The various missions to the Chinese in Java, Siam, and the Straits of Malacca were now transferred to the Chinese empire itself. Among them were those of the American Baptist Missionary Union, removed from Bangkok to Hongkong in 1842, and thence to Swatow in 1860; the American Presbyterian Mission from Singapore to Canton, with work opened later at Amoy and Ning‑po, the Southern Baptists likewise beginning in Hongkong in 1842, and in Canton in 1845. During this period of renewed energy the American (Dutch) Reformed, the Church Missionary Society, the English Baptist Society, the American Methodist Episcopal (both North and South), the Berlin and Basel Mission, the English Presbyterian, the American Seventhday Baptists, the Wesleyan Mission, and the Methodist New Connexion were first seen in China (discrepancy in the dates of the opening of some of these missions is often due to the fact that in some instances the preliminary work was discontinued). The difficulties inherent in the initial stages of missions among the self‑centered, suspicious, and practically hostile people like the Chinese were greatly aggravated by the rise and rapid growth of the T'ai Ping rebellion, which devastated nearly all the provinces of the empire, lasting from 1850 to 1864, when Nanking was captured, and in its sequelae for three years more. The last four years of this period witnessed another war with Great Britain‑the effects of the defeat half a generation before having worn off‑the Taku Forte were taken, and Peking was entered by the British and French in Oct., 1860. At the close of the war of 1840‑42 the number of living Chinese converts might have been counted on the fingers of one hand. After eighteen years more of sapping, mining, and laying of foundations, there were in 1860 at the most but a few score, but important beginnings had everywhere been made in evangelistic, medical, educational, and literary work.
All the open ports of China were at this time centers of intense and unwearied activity, confined within these limited areas like waters behind a closed lock. By the Treaty of Tien‑Tain many new ports. were opened, and Christianity in each of its forma was explicitly tolerated. More than a hundred missionaries had been penned up in Shanghai awaiting the expected opening of inland China. Tien‑Tsin was first reached by Henry Blodget (American Board) in company with British troops, and Peking by Mr. Joseph Edkins (London Mission), while Mr.
Griffith John, of the same society, settled at lisukow, from which strategic point missions were opened in
Hupeh and later in Szechuen and 3. The Hunan. Spar expansion took place Third from each of the other ports. This Period, period of missions is full of impor1880‑88. test political events so intimately related to all foreign interests that the one can not lie considered without the other, and they must therefore be briefly mentioned. Among them are the suppression of the T'ai Ping rebellion (1864), the reception by the emperor of the foreign ministers in audience (1873), the murder of Mr. Augustus Raymond Margary (1875), with the resultant Chefu Convention (1876), by which greater security was given to foreigners in China, and in connection with which more new ports were opened. A great steamship company was organized under Chinese management, and a network of telegraph lines began to overspread the empire.
The most important single step in the evangelization of China was the development (rather than the organization) of the China Inland Mission (1865), founded on a combination of faith and works, which within a single generation has covered China with a chain of mission stations. Each of the older societies endeavored to expand into the illimitable regions beyond, and many new missions were begun. At the first general conference of missionaries in Shanghai in May, 1877, attended by 126 representatives, the total number of Protestant workers was 473, of whom 228 were connected with thirteen British societies, 212 with ten American societies, and two of German origin. The number of Christians in ninety‑one stations with 312 organized churches was about 13,000. Thirteen years later a second conference was held, in May, 1890, when the societies had increased to forty, male missionaries to 589, married women to 391, and the unmarried to 316, a total of 1,296. There were 522 churches, and the Christians were nearly three times as numerous as in 1877, numbering 37,287. More than sixty hospitals and forty‑four dispensaries treated in 1889 348,000 patients. By the end of the century, however, this work had vastly expanded, so that 128 hospitals and 245 dispensaries, conducted by 162 male and 79 lady physicians, treated in one year 685,047 patients. The influence of this branch of missionary work in a country like China is immeasurable. Other op, portunitiea for philanthropy arose in connection with the great famine of 1877‑78, which overspread all northern China. The loss of life among
j	the Chinese was estimated at between nine and a half and thirteen millions. Famine relief proved a golden key to unlock many closed doors. Similar relief has been afforded upon a large scale at other times in connection with other famines, floods, and pestilence, not without visible effect. The terrible massacre at Tien‑Tsin in June, 1870, was one of a long series, the most numerous outbreaks taking place in 1891‑93, apparently as a direct result of the blasphemous Hunan tracts, the whole Yang‑tzu valley being ablaze with excitement. Another atrocity took place at Ku Ch'eng, Fukien province in 1895, when Mr. Robert Warren Stewart and most of

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
his family were murdered. The great province of Szechuen became a hotbed of violence, foreigners were temporarily expelled, and 50,000 Christians (largely Roman Catholics) suffered, many being killed. These events were directly connected with China's ignominious defeat by Japan (18995), for which all foreigners were supposed to be in some way responsible. These continual outrages occurred in every part of the empire, and often without warning, in spite of imperial edicts and official proclamations, but in no instance had they any permanent effect in restraining mission work.
For a long time the bitter but wholesome lessons of the war with Japan seemed to be forgotten or
ignored. But in 1898 the emperor 4. The began a series of reform measures
Fourth which soon brought on a crisis, and
Period, he was set aside by his aunt, the
from 1896. empress dowager, who reversed all his measures. The effect of this reaction was instantly felt throughout the empire. The cumulative force of the loss of Chinese territory by foreign aggression, of commercial intrusion, of railways, and the opening of mines, added to the chronic prejudice against foreign religions, led to the fanatical I Ho Ch'iian crusade of 1899‑1900, with its spectacular consequences of the flight of the court and the occupation of Peking by foreign armies, which, however, within a few months retired. The native Christians had now established their right to exist, and often afforded striking objectlesaons of fidelity. Although practically all mission property (except at protected ports) had been destroyed from the Yellow River to the Amur, within two years almost everything was replaced with a far better plant than would otherwise have been possible. The fidglity of the Chinese Christians, while not uniform nor universal, won praise from every quarter, many thousands of them losing their lives, as well as 135 Protestant missionaries, and fifty‑three children, thirty‑five Roman Catholic fathers, and nine sisters.
It will be convenient to combine in a brief and summary view some features of missionary work
	which have been slowly developing
~;~ee 1 during the sixty and more years since
	Christian the Treaty of Nanking. Bible trane
		Litera‑ lotion, one of the great labors of the
		tore. first missionary, has ever since been
		prosecuted with untiring zeal, and is
still in progress. It is impossible to go into details,
but in general it may be said that the word of God
has been put into the literary style (adapted for
universal circulation among scholars), into man
darin colloquial, supposed to be spoken in some
form by 75 per cent of China's four hundred mil
lions, and into the patois of special districts, the
last‑named both in Chinese characters and in
an increasing degree by the use of Roman letters.
The three great Bible societies, the British and
Foreign, the American, and the Scotch, have been
indefatigable in their work of distribution, largely
by sales, which were never on so extensive a scale
as at present. Numerous societies, especially the
Chinese and the Central China Tract societies,
have put into circulation uncounted millions of
sheets, booklets, and books, so that at times it has been impossible to keep pace with the demand. Great mission presses, notably for nearly sixty years that of the American Presbyterian Mission, and more recently those of the United Methodist Missions in Shanghai and Fuchau, are kept constantly busy. Influential religious journals and magazines are issued in nearly all the principal mission centers, especially at Shanghai, penetrating not only all parts of the empire, but every part of the world where Chinese are to be found. One of the most important agencies for influencingChineeethought is the Society for theDiffuaion of Christian andGeneral Knowledge Among the Chinese, founded by Dr. Alexander Williamson, and now under the leadership of Dr. Timothy Richard. Its Rev,i.ew of the Tines, conducted by Dr. Y. J. Allen, has long reached a large circle of officials in every province, and previously to the reform plans of 1898 it was especially procured by the emperor himself for his study. Great quantities of Christian and useful literature are distributed to scholars at the civil‑service examinations in the provincial capitals, tending to dissipate prejudice in influential quarters.
The distinction between the Roman Catholic and the Protestant form of Christianity has now
become well understood both by
	e. Vari.	officials and people. Woman's work
one Forms		for woman has been expanded in every
	of Work.	direction, in evangelizing, medical, and
		educational lines, the first Woman's
Medical College being opened in Canton Dec.,
1902, with an immediate success, foretokening
speedy imitation elsewhere. The Educational As
sociation of China is a most important unifying
and developing force for every agency connected
with teaching, especially in the preparation of
text‑books. At the St. Louis Exposition of 1904
this association made an important exhibit of
education in China in all its aspects. The Young
Men's Christian Association has established an
energetic work in Shanghai, Tien‑Tain, Peking, and
other centers, which promises great results in the
future. Christian Endeavor societies (and Ep
worth leagues) have taken firm root in China, and
an experienced missionary has been chosen to act
as a traveling secretary in the interests of this
effective agency. Student Volunteer conferences
have been repeatedly held, at which influential
and representative men have been gathered in
large numbers. An antifoot‑binding reform move
ment, distinct from that of muasionary origin
but allied to it and in sympathy with it, has spread
widely over China, promoted by some of its highest
statesmen, and favored by the empress dowager.
Special work for the insane has been begun at
Canton, for the deaf at Chefu, and for the blind
at Peking. The hostile and bitterly antiforeign
province of Hunan has been entered and is now
occupied by thirteen societies with a force com
prising at present about eighty‑seven mission‑
aries. As an incidental result of the cataclysm of
1900 three leading societies, the London Mission, the
American Board, and the American Presbyterian,
have formed an important union in educational
work in the Chili province, hag sward a union

Chinri t, Order of	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	86
university. In Shsagtung there is a similar partnership between the American Presbyterian and the English Baptist Missions.
The relations between officials and all missionaries since 1900 have been much improved. Although occasional outbreaks still occur, earnest efforts are now made to prevent them on account of their possible consequences. It can not be doubted that the result of the war between Japan and Russia will exert an important influence upon Christian work throughout the Chinese Empire.
In Beach's Geography and Atlas o f Protestant
Missions (New York, 1903), 88 Protestant societies
7. Btatis‑ axe reported as working in China (33 e, American, 22 British, 12 Continental,
and 1 international), with a total of 2,785 workers, of whom 610 were ordained men, 578 unordained, 772 wives, and 825 other missionary women, living in 653 stations, and working 2,478 outstations. There were 162 male physicians and 79 women physicians, with 259 hospitals and dispensaries treating more than 691,000 patients annually. H. O. Dwight's Blue Book of Missions for 1907 indicates that the number of workers was rapidly increasing, as it gives from the reports of 59 societies an aggregate of 3,146 missionaries. The aggregate of native workers is 8,243, and the total number of Christians 249,878. Fukien, at the beginning the most difficult province, has the largest number of converts, with continuous accessions. There were 1,819 day‑schools with 35,412 pupils, and 170 higher institutions instructing 5,150 students. According to tables published in Shanghai in 1904 by Dr. Richard, there were in 1901 4,126 Roman Catholic churches and chapels in China, 904 European missionaries, 471 native priests, 3,584 schools, 60 colleges, and 720,540 Christians. Considering the brevity of a century in comparison with the age‑long periods of Chinese history, the exceptional difficulties to be overcome, the ignorance, the conservatism, and the contempt of the Chinese race for everything from\,abroad, the results of a hundred years of Protest t missions are in every way remarkable as a pro and a promise of what is yet in the future. AaTaux H. Snfrra.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For history: 8. . Williams, The Middle Kingdom, New York, 1899 ( mprehensive and standard); A. H. Smith, Chinese C ' lice, New York, 1900. On geography: H. P. B Geography and Atlas o/ Protestant Missions, New York, 1903; E. L. Oxenham, Historical Atlas of the Chinese Empire, London, 1898.
On the language and literature: W. A. P. Martin. The Lore o/ Cathay, New York, 1901 (beet); R. K. Douglass, Language and Literature o/ China, London, 1875; T. Welters, Essays on the Chinese Language, Shanghai, 1889.
On the religious sources: For Confucianism, SBE, iii., ri.. :avii., xxW i.; J. Legge, Chinese Classics, 7 vole., London, 1881‑87. For Taoism: Lao‑Tese. The Canon of Reason and Virtue, by P. Carne, Chicago, 1903; W. G. Old, The Classics of Confucius, 3hu King, London, 1.908. For Buddhism: SBE, xiz; 8. Beat, Buddhist Literature in China, London, 1882, and Catena of Buddhist Scriptures, London, 1871, also Dhammapada; Texts from the Buddhist Canon, London, 1878; E. Chavannea, Lea Inacriptaona chinoiaea de Bodh‑Gaya, Paris, 1898. On the religions in general: P. D. Chantepie de la $suasaye, Lehrbuch der Religionapeachichte, i. 57‑114, T>3bingen, 1905; $. Johnson, Oriental Religions . . China, Boston, 1877 (full, but discursive); J. H. Plath, Die Religion and der Cultua der alfeu Chineaen, Munich, 1882; R. K. Douglaa Confucianism and Taoism, London, 1879; J. Legge,
Religions of China, Confucianism and Taoism, London, 1881; A. Reville, La Religion chinoiee, Paris, 1889; C. de Hades, Lea Religious de la Chine, Paris, 1891; E. H. Parker, China and Religion, London, 1905. On Confucianism: H. A. Giles, Confucianism, in Religious Systems of the World, London 1901; idem, Religious of Ancient China, ib. 1908; E. Faber, Digest of flea Doctrines of Confucius, Hongkong, 1875, and Mind of Mencius, Shanghai, 1882. On Taoism: A. de Pouvoirville, Le Taoiame et lea aocikt& eecrEtea chinoiaea, Paris, 1897; I. W. Heyeinger, Lao Taze, the Light of China, Philadelphia, 1903; E. H. Parker, China and Religion, London, 1905. On Chinese Buddhism: E. Lamaireeee, Le Bouddhiams en Chine . . , Paris, 1893; J. Edkine, Chinese Buddhism, London, 1880; $. Beal, Buddhism in China, in Non‑Christian Religious Systems, London, 1884 (Beal is the authority on Buddhism in China); E. J. Eitel, Handbook . . . of Chinese Buddhism, London, 1888; J. J. M. de Groot, Religious System of China, vole. i. v., Leyden, 1892‑1907 (still in progress); Tai‑ahang kar4‑yiup glen: Treatise of the Exalted one on Response and Retribution, from the Chinese by Teitara Suzuki and Paul Carne, Chicago, 1908; J. D. Ball, The Celestial and his Religions; or, the Religious Aspect in China, ib. 1908.
On missions: Statistical: J. $. Dennis, Centennial Sur‑
vey of Foreign Missions, New York, 1902. General:
Memorials of Protestant Missionaries to the Chinese, Shanghai, 1887; Conferences on Missions, at Shanghai, 1877 and 1890, at Shantung 1893 and 1397 (Reports pub• liahed at Shanghai); J. Gilmour, Among the Mongols, London, 1884; W. Campbell, Missionary Success in ... Formosa, London, 1889; Church Work in North China, London, 1893 (on Anglican missions); M. G. Guinness, Story Of the China Inland Mission, 2 vole., London, 1893; China Mission Handbook, Shanghai, 1898; G. L. Mackay, From Far Formosa, . . Island, People and Missions, New York, 1898; R. Lovett, Hint. of London Missionary Society, chaps. six.‑xavi., London, 1899; J. C. Gibson, Mission Problems and Mission Methods in South China, London, 1901; L. Miner, China's Book of Martyrs, Boeton, 1903; J. Ross, Methods of Mission Work in Manchuria, London, 1903; M. Broomhall, Pioneer Work in Hunan, ib. 1908 W. A. P. Martin, Awakening of China, New York, 1907; W. E. Soothill, A Typical Mission in China, New York, 1907.
For the Boner troubles: A. H. Smith, China in Convulsion, New York, 1901; M, Broomhall, Martyred Miaaionariea of the China Inland Mission, London, 1901; E. H. Edwards, Fire and Sword in Shansi, London, 1903; R. C. Forsyth, China Martyrs of 1900, London, 1904.
On Roman Catholic missions: F. Prandi, Memoirs of Father Ripa, London, 1844; Abb6 Hue, Christianity in China, Tartary and Thibet, beat ad., 3 vole., London, 1857; T. Chancy, La Colonic du SacrE‑Cour dare lea Cfroennes de la Chine au xuiii. allele, Pads, 1889; Abb6 Pierre, La Chine chr6tsenru. La Vie et lea avvrea do H. A. Languillat, 2 vole.. Paris, 1893.

CHIIPIQUY, shi"nf"kf' or chin"i‑kwi', CHARLES PASCHAL TELESPHORE: Presbyterian: b. of Roman Catholic parents at Kamouraska, Quebec, Canada, July 30, 1809; d. in Montreal Jan. 16, 1899. He studied at the college of Nicolet, Canada, 1822‑29, and was professor of belles‑lettres there till 1833; was ordained a Roman Catholic priest 1833; vicar and curate in the province of Quebec till 1846; he established the first temperance society there and won the title " Apostle of Temperance of Canada." In 1851 he was called by Bishop Vandevelde, of Chicago, to direct the tide of Roman Catholic emigration toward the prairies of Illinois; in 1858, with his congregation at St. Anne, Kankakee County, Ill., he left the Church of Rome, slid joined the Canadian Presbyterian Church. He lectured in England 1860, 1874, and 1882, and in Australia 1878‑80, and published a number of books and tracts upon temperance, and others bitterly hostile to the Roman Catholic

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Church, which have passed through many editions and been translated into different languages.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: His autobiography, Forty Years in as Church of Rome, appeared Chicago, 1900.
CHIiTIP, cai'un. See REMPHAN.
CHOIR: 1. In the older churches, especially the Gothic, that part which contains the high altar and in which the services are sung. It is usually separated from the nave by a railing or rood‑screen, and in monastic churches only members of the order sit within it. See AReHITECTtrRE, ECCLESIASTICAL, L, §§ 15, 18. .sL. A body of singers appointed to lead the music in public worship.
CHOISY, shwd"zf , JACQUES EUGENE: Swiss Protestant; b. at Geneva, Switzerland, Feb. 28, 1866. He was educated at the college and university of his native city, from which he was graduated in 1885, the theological faculty of Montauban, from which he was graduated in 1888, and, the University of Berlin. Since 1898 he has been pastor of the parish of Plainpalais, Geneva, and was also moderator of the Compagnie des Pasteuls from 1904 to 1905. In 1898 he received from the faculty of arts of the University of Geneva the Theodore Clapar6de prize, and three years later was awarded the Daniel Colladan prize by the conaistory of the National Protestant Church of Geneva. He has been a member of the Soci6tk des sciences th5ologiques of Geneva since 1890 and was its president in 1903‑05, and has also been a member of the Geneva Soci6tk d'histoire et d'arch6ologie since 1893 and president of the Socit=tk du mustte historique de la reformation in the same city since its foundation in 1897. In theology he terms himself a "broad Evangelical, much indebted to higher criticism for a more accurate and trustworthy understanding of God's revelation in the Bible." In addition to a translation of A. Harnack's Grundriss der Dogmengeschichte (Paris, 1893), he has written Pasehase Radbert, etude historique sur Is neuvi~yne aikde et sur le dogme de la Chne (Geneva, 1888); La ThEoeratie h Genesve au temps de Calvin (1897); and LItat chretien caltriniate d Genesve au temps de Theodore de Bbze (1903).
CHORAL. See MUSIC, SACRED.
CHORENTIE, co‑ren'ti or ‑t6. See MESSALIeN9.
CHOREPISCOPUS, co"re‑pis'co‑pus (Gk. charepiskopos, " country bishop "): The name given to a class of assistants to the bishops in the administration of their dioceses from the third to the eleventh century. As the name implies, they rendered this service principally in the country districts. In the fourth century they attended councils like the bishops (Ancyra, 314; Neociesarea, between 313 and 325; Antioch, 341) and had some at least of the episcopal prerogatives, though the question whether they received episcopal consecration is disputed. A tendency showed itself in the same century to restrict their powers and make them altogether dependent on the diocesan bishops. The Councils of Sardica and Laodicea attempted to suppress them entirely, forbidding the installation of bishops in country
China Christ, Order o!
places and providing for the needs of such districts by itinerant visitors of a merely priestly character. These efforts were only partially successful, and the institution continued in partial use in the East as late as the sixth century, though now in entire subordination to the diocesan bishops and with no further claim to the strictly episcopal character. In the West chorepiscopi are heard of only from the eighth century, as assistants or deputies of missionary bishops in the new dioceses, or as administrators of vacant sees. There is no demonstrable connection with the Eastern usage. In the ninth century they are also found in the see cities as assistants to bishops who were much occupied with affairs of state. The reforming legislation of this period, appealing to the Eastern canons, emphasized their dependence on the diocesan bishops, and toward the middle of the century undertook to suppress them altogether. They disappeared in the first half of the tenth century in France, but in the extensive German dioceses, supported by Rabanua Maurus, they maintained their existence to the middle of this century, and were found in Ireland as late as the thirteenth. Their place was to a great extent taken by the archdeacons (see ARCHDEACON AND ARCHPRIEST).
(P. H>rrscalpst.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hefele, Concddienpeachschte, ii. 290, iii. 478,
803, 885, 745, Eng. trsnel., ii. 89, 321, iii. 158; J. L. von Moeheim, Institutes of Bed. Hiat., ed. W. Stubbs, i. 83, 239 eqq., London, 1883; Bingham, Oripinea, book ii., chap. xiv., ¢ 12; Schaff, Christian Church, iii. 289‑270; KL, iii. 188‑191.
CHRISM: The specially prepared mixture used for anointing in the Eastern and Roman Catholic Churches, except in the case of Extreme Unction
(q.v.) when olive‑oil mixed with water is used. That employed in the administration of baptism, con‑
firmation, and holy orders, and in the consecration of churches and altars, is composed according to
Roman usage of oil and balsam, to which other odorous spices are added by the Greeks. It early
received a special benediction, as is shown by Ter tullian, De bapfiismo, vii.; Cyprian, Epist., Ixx. 2; Apostolic Constitutions, VII. xxvii. 1. From the end of the fourth century the right to consecrate it was reserved to the bishops‑in the East later to the patriarchs. From the fifth century Maundy Thursday was the day appointed for the blessing. (A. HAUCK.)

CHRISMAL: A word used in the same senses as "chrisom" (q.v.); also a cloth for covering relics.

CHRISOM: The white cloth with which the Roman priest covers the head of an infant after
i	the administration of baptism or, in the early Church, the white garment put upon the newly baptized as a symbol of purity; also the vessel in which the chrism is preserved.

CHRIST, BRETHREN IN. See R,rvER
REN.	BRETH
7~ CHRIST, DISCIPLES OF, CHRISTIANS, ,gee
DIBCIPLE$ OF CHRIST.
CHRIST, ORDER OF: The Knights of Jesus Christ, an order founded by King Dionysius of

Christ order of	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	H8
Qhrisaaa Brothers
	Portugal in 1317, like the Spanish orders of Alcan
tara and Calatrava (qq.v.) under Cistercian rule
	and to fight against the Moors. It was endowed
	with property of the Templars, who had been sup
	pressed in 1312. Papal confirmation was received
	from John XXII. in 1319, the grand master being
	made subordinate to the abbot of the Cistercian
	monastery of Alcobapa. The knights gained im
	portant victories and became rich and powerful.
	At their chief seat, Thomar (75 m. n.e. of Lisbon)
	in Eatremadura, and at Batalha, twenty miles
	farther west, they erected magnificent buildings in
	pointed style, imitating the churches of the Tem
	plara in Cyprus and the Mosque of Omar in Jerusa
	lem (cf. the Viscount de Condeixa, O mosteiro dtx
	Batalha, with French trawl., Lisbon and Paris,
	1892; J. Dernjac, Tltomar and BdtaLltd, iv the
	Zeitschrift fur bildende Kumt, new series, vi [1895],
	98‑106) . About 1500 Pope Alexander VI. re
	leased the order from the vow of poverty. It
	had then 450 commanderies and an enormous
	income. A reform was effected in 1550 by the
	Hieronymite abbot Anton of Lisbon, and confirmed
	by Pope Julius III. At the same time the grand
	mastership was formally attached to the crown, as
	it had been actually from the time of King Emman
	uel (1495‑1521). Pins V. in 1567 removed the
	jurisdiction of the abbot of Alcobaga, and Gregory
	XIII. in 1576 granted the king supreme power over
	both knights and monks. The order was secu
	larized in 1797 and its property confiscated in 1834.
	It is now merely an order of merit. A less important
	Italian Ordine di Christo was founded by Pope
	John XXII. about 1320. It also became an order
	of merit.	(O. ZScsl.Ext.)
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: Helyot, t?rdrea monaati9uea, vi. 72‑78, Paris,
		1718; G. Giueei, Iconoprafia atordca degli ordini relipioei e
		cavallereachi, i. 34‑38, Rome, 1838; G. Moroni, Dizionario
		di erud%zione atorico‑eccleaiaalim, xviii. 210‑219, Venice,
		1843; Heimbucher, Order and Kongregationen, i. 227;
		Carrier, Religious Orders, p. 217.
		CHRIST, Grist, PAUL: Swiss Protestant; b. at
	Zurich Oct. 25, 1836; d. there Jan.14,1908. He was
	educated at the universities of Tiibingen and Basel,
	and after being a pastor successively in the canton
	of Grisons (1858‑62) and at Chur, the capital of
	the same canton (1862‑65), he was a professor in the
	cantonal school of Chur from 1865 to 1870. He was
	then pastor at Lichtensteig (1871‑75) and Rheineck
	(1875‑80), both in the canton of St. Gall, and after
	four years of retirement on account of impaired
	health (1880‑84) was municipal archivist at Chur
	(1884‑87) and again professor in the cantons. school
	of the same city (1887‑89).	Since 1889 he has
	been professor of systematic and practical theology
	at the University of Zurich. In theology he repre
	sents the speculative and liberal school. He has
	written Christliche Religimtslehre (Zurich, 1875);
	Billet sus der Oeschichte der christliclten Kirehe and
	Sitte (St. Gall, 1876); Religi6se Betraehtungen
	(1881); Der Pessimismus urtd die Sittenlehre (Haar
	lem, 1882); Die Z.ehre vom Gebet each dem Neuen
	Testament (Leyden, 1886); Die sitttiche Weltord
	nung (1894); and C»~undrias der Ethik (Berlin, 1905).
		CHRISTADELPHIANS: A small sect which
	originated in the United States about 1850. They
call themselves Chriatadelphians because of the belief that all that are in Christ are his brethren, and designate their congregations as " ecclesias " to " distinguish them from the so‑called churches of the apostasy." John Thomas, the founder, a physician, born in England, came to America in 1844 and joined the Disciples of Christ. In a short time, however, he established a separate denomination, because he believed that, though the Disciples were the moat " apostolic and spiritually enlightened religious organization in America," the religious teaching of the day was contrary to the teaching of the Bible.
	Christadelphians reject the Trinity. They be
lieve in one supreme God, who dwells in unap
proachable light; in Jesus Christ, in whom was
manifest the eternal spirit of God, and who died
for the offenses of sinners, and rose for the justi
fication of believing men and women; in one bap
tism only‑immersion, the " burial with Christ in
water into death to sin," which is essential to sal
vation; in immortality only in Christ; in eternal
punishment of the wicked, but not in eternal tor
ment; in hell, not as a place of torment, but as
the grave; in the resurrection of the just and un
just; in the utter annihilation of the wicked, and
in the non‑resurrection of those who have never
heard the Gospel, lack in intelligence (as infants),
or are sunk in ignorance or brutality; in a sec
ond coming of Christ to establish his kingdom on
earth, which is to be fitted fur the everlasting
abode of the saints; in the proximity of this sec
ond coming; in Satan as a Scriptural personifica
tion of sin; in the millennial reign of Christ on
earth over the nations, during which sin and death
will continue in a milder degree, and after which
Christ will surrender his position of supremacy,
and God will reveal himself, and become Father
and Governor of a complete family; in salvation
only for those who can understand the faith as
taught by the Christadelphians, and become obe
dient to it. They have no ordained ministers.
There are about sixty " eccleaias " in the United
States, and a few in England, where most of their
literature is published. 	H. K. CARROLL.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources of doctrine are the works of the founder, generally published in pamphlet form in Birmingham and London. The principal are: Eureka, 1889; The Revealed Mystery, 1889; Who are the Chrastadelphianaf 1869; The Book Unsealed, 1870; Phaneroaie, 1870; Anaataaia, 1871; Clerical Theology Unacriptural, 1877, and Elpla Israel, West Hoboken, 1871. Also the following works by Robert Roberts: A Defence of the Faith Proclaimed in Ancient Times, . . Revived in the Chrietadelphiana, Birmingham, 1888; Everlasting Punishment not " Eternal Torments," ib. 1871; Meaning of the Chriata.. delphian Movement. London, 1872; Thirteen Lectures on the Things Revealed in . . " Revelation," Birmingham, 1880; The Good Confession, ib. 1881; Dr. Thomas, his Life and Work, ib. 1884. Their organ is The Chriatadelphian, published at Birmingham, Eng. Consult H. K. Carroll, Religious Forces of the U. S., pp. 89‑90, 454, New York, 1896.
CHRISTENTUMSGESELLSCHAFT, DIE DEUTSCHE (" The German Society for Christendom "): A society which had a wide influence at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth centuries. In that period of deep depression and discouragement for the Evangelical

89	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Christ Order of
		Ohrietlan Brothers
Church of Germany, it brought believing, earnest
Christians together by personal intercourse and by
correspondence, and helped them to successful
cooperation. Its special object was to oppose the
bold depreciation and mockery of the Word of God
then so common, as well as the tendency repre
sented by Nikolai's Zeitschrift in Berlin and the
Gothaer Zeitung. Its founder was Dr. Johann
August Urleperger (q.v.), of Augsburg, who be
longed to the old school of simple Scriptural faith
and piety. He thought that the .friends of the
Gospel should stand together and strengthen one
another as did its enemies. In 1777 he wrote to a
number of German, Dutch, Danish, and English
	theologians without getting much response, and I
in 1779 and 1780 traveled widely in the hope of
effecting more by personal contact. But the result
was still the same, and he came home much dis
couraged. In Basel, the last place he had planned
to visit, he found a response. Here since 1756,
stirred up by D'Annone, the zealous pastor of Mut
tenz, a number of like‑minded men had already
been organized, who listened with delight to Url
sperger's ideas; and the society was able to hold its
first formal meeting on Aug. 30, 1780. The begin
	ning once made, the thing spread; branches were
formed at Nuremberg the next year, then at Stutt
	gart, Frankfort, Berlin, Magdeburg, etc. As the
numbers grew, and correspondence came in even
from America, a more formal organization was
	required. Basel was made the headquarters at the
end of 1782, and a manifold activity radiated from
it, embracing all that is meant nowadays by home
	and foreign missions. Selections from the vast
mesa of correspondence were sent to all the branches,
	in printed form after 1783. Urleperger had orig
	inally wished to write and circulate good theological
	treatises, but the central body turned its efforts in
	a more practical direction, wishing indeed to up
	hold the true faith,, but not to renew the old con
	troversies. The name, too, was changed from the
	original Deutsche Gesellschaft zur Befdrderung
	christlicher Wahrheit and Gottseligkeit (" German
	Society for the Promotion of Christian Truth and
	Piety ") to the present title. In 1801 Steinkopf,
	who had been the general secretary, was called to
	the Savoy Chapel in London, and formed a link
	between Germany and England, where the mighty
	revival of spiritual life set a standard for emulation.
	The Basel Bible Society was founded in 1804 as the
	first result; and the second was the mission house,
	also at Basel, planned as early as 1805 by C. F.
	Spittler on the model of the Berlin mission school
	(founded in 1800 by Anicke, a member of the so
	ciety), and realized in 1815 with the help of
	C. G. Blumhardt (q.v.). A number of other foun
	dations and special organizations marked the suc
	ceeding years. Among them were the training
	school and orphanage at Beuggen (1820); the
	Society of the Friends of Israel (1831); the Society
	for the Spread of Christian Literature (1835);
	the deaf and dumb asylum at Richer, (1838); and
	the deaconess home in the same place (1852).
	The original association fulfilled its task in giving
	the impulse to so many and varied good works;
	it still exists, however, under the direction of a
central committee in Basel, where the Sammlungen fur Liebhaber christlicher Wahrheit urtd Gottseligkeit is still published periodically, after an existence of more than a century. (R. AxsTEaat.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. J. Riggenbach, I. 3tockmeyer, and II. Pratorius, Zur hundertjdhrigen GedBchtnieafeier der deutachen ChrbatenEumageaelldchafh Basel, 1881; A. Oetertag, EntdehunOeBes<:hicnta der euanpeliaeheye MisaionapeaelLechaft au Basel, ib. 1885.
CHRISTIAN: The term Christianos, " of the party of Christ," occurs in the New Testament only in Acts xi. 26, xxvi. 28; I Pet. iv. 1.8. The first passage states that it originated at Antioch, which accords with the fact that the termination‑anon was recognized and employed especially in Grecian Asia. The date implied by the passage is 40‑44 a.n. None of the New Testament passages requires an invidious meaning, though it is suggested in the second and third, There is no historical foundation for the statement often made that it was a "nickname:" Tertullian says that non‑Christians pronounced it Chrestianoa, the word commonly associated with the Greek word . chrestos, " serviceable," and the Codex Sinaiticu8 reads Chrestianos in all New Testament passages. Its earliest use by Christians, apart from the New Testament, is found in the Apologists, Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Theophilus, etc., after whose time it was generally appropriated by Christians. That it originated outside of Christian and Jewish circles is most likely because (1) Christians spoke of one another as "the brethren," "the saints," " the disciples," " the faithful," etc.; (2) the Jews used the term " Nazarene." Its convenience would justify its use; while the frequency with which the term " Christ " occurred in the Chriatocentric preaching of the early apostolic age would justify its application to the disciples.
GEO. W. Gnmoxm
Bmwoaaerar: R„ A. Lipeiue, Ueber den Uraprung and
. . . Gebrauch dee Chrislennamzna, in GraCulaxionepropraram der theolop4adten Facultut Jena far Haas, 1873, PP. 6‑10; DB, i. 384r388; EB, i. 752‑763; DCG, i. 318318.
CHRISTIAN BROTHERS (BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS): The most noted and i influential of the Roman Catholic educational brotherhoods, founded by Jean Baptists de la Salle (b. at Reims Apr. 30, 1651; d. at Rouen Apr. 7, 1719), who was canonized May 24, 1900. Placed in charge of a congregation of Sisters of Jesus in Reims in 1680, De la Salle soon added to his duties the direction of a number of schools for boys, whose teachers he bound to a life of renunciation and union. The brothers were required, in addition to the three simple vows, t0 eve in. struction invariably without compensation, and t0 wear a special habit. In 1688 their founder was appointed their first superior‑general and removed to Vaugirard near Paris, in 1696 to Saint Yon, a house of novices at Rouen, which remained the center of the congregation until 1770. The Christian Brothers spread rapidly throughout France, and in 1724 were recognized by Benedict XIII. The antimonastic decree of the National Assembly ~ of Feb. 13 1790, dissolved the congregation, which then had 121 houses in France, but it still retained its organization in Italy, and was reestablished in

Christian Brothsrs	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	40
Christian Science
France under Napoleon in 1804. By 1822 the
houses of the Christian Brothers numbered 180
in France, and since that time the congregation has
spread over the greater part of the Roman Catholic
world (especially Belgium, Spain, Italy, and Aus
tria), and is represented in Turkey, India, Egypt,
Australia, and America. With about 1,300 houses,
over 2,000 schools, and 14,000 members, the Chris
tian Brothers are now the strongest Roman Cath
olic male order.
	Although without official connection with the
Jesuits, the Christian Brothers, who are also called
Ignorantins because of their law which forbids
them to admit to their number priests with a
theological education, have many points in com
mon with the older order. When the Jesuits were
expelled from France in 1784, the Christian Brothers
aided materially in maintaining sympathy for the
exiles among the people and preparing the way
for their return. Much of their organisation and
discipline also recalls the Jesuit system, especially
the assistants charged with the supervision of the
acts of the superior‑general, the frequent visita
tions, the rules for confession and prayer, and the
training of their members, which consists of a
novitiate and a course of practical teaching of one
year each. 	(O. Ztfcgr.Ext.)
Brsnioassret: Heimbueher, Orden and %onpropationsn,
ii. 280‑28b; Die chrieaiche .9ehulbritder. 2 vole.. Auge
burs, 1844: J. A. Krebs, Leben lea . . . J. B. de la Sane,
ne6at Anhanp fiber (3esehirhte . . . seines Ordena. Regene
bura, 1858; F. J. Knecht, J. B. de 1a Sane urd das In
spip,t der chridlirhe„ .SehuibrGder, Freiburg, 1879; Mrs.
M. Wilson, The Christian Brothers, their Origin and Work,
London, 1883: J. B. Blain, La Vie du . . . J. B. de la
Bolls, Versailles. 1887; P. HelYot. Ordres monasti4uu,
viii. 233 eq4•: Carrier. Religious Orders. pp. 47.

CHRISTIAN CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH IN ZION: A religious society, the formal organisation of which was effected by John Alexander Dowie (q.v.) in Chicago, 1896. The growth of the movement dates back to the founder's discovery of his alleged power to obtain cure of disease through prayer, on account of which he retired from the Congregational ministry in Melbourne and established a church rind tabernacle for " divine healing." His emigration to the United States in 1888 was followed by the establishment of " missions of healing " on the Pacific Coast. After his settlement at Evanston, Ill., in 1890 he conducted work on the same lines there and in Chicago,, with missions in Canada, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. The success of his efforts in Chicago decided him in 1893 to make that his center of operations, and a tabernacle and " divine healing rooms " were erected. His following was so large that organisation was determined upon. In 1900 a large tract of hind was bought on Lake Michigan, 42 m. n. of Chicago, and " Zion City " was planned, where were to be erected schools, a college to train the ministry and propagandists, various business establishments and factories (for which large sums have been solicited and received from believers), and residences for the adherents of the Church. The branches already established in the West and elsewhere were brought into connection with the central organisation, in which a theocratic element was claimed.
	In the organization of the Church Dowie was
" general overseer," and claimed to be Elijah III.,
John the Baptist being Elijah II. Other officers
are overseers, elders, evangelists, deaconeeees, and
conductors of gatherings. The propaganda is
carried on by bands of " Zion Seventies " who in
twos act as tract‑distributors. Missionaries are
sent in all directions, and branches are established
in different countries in Europe, eastern Asia, and
South America. The basis of church membership
is belief in the Scriptures as the rule of faith and
practise, in the necessity of repentance for sin and
of trust in Christ for salvation, and belief in the
witness of the Spirit.
In 1905 Mr. Dowie was compulsorily retired, and Wilbur Glens Voliva elected in his place, though the former objected that the election violated the theocratic constitution. No statistics are obtainable as to membership or ministry. The receiver ;pPpt.oi,nr for the affairs of Zion City reported in
	8, total assets of $22528,581 and liabilities
of $8,125,018. 	W. H. LARRABEE.
BIHLIOanAPHT: R. Harlan, John Alexander Dowie and the Christian Catholic Apostolic Church in Zion, Evansville, Wis., 1908; J. A. Dourie and his Ziona, in Independent. liii (1901), 1788; Dowia Movement in Chicago, in Outlook, bviii (1901), 429: J. M. Buckley, John Alexander Doude, Analyzed and Ciasei¢ed, in Century Magazine, alii (1902), 928‑982; J. Swain, 77u Prophet and his Profile, ib., pp. 122 eqq.: J. J. Halsey, Cof a Modern Prophet, in American Journal of Sociology. is (1903).
310; J. K. Friedman, in Everybody's Magazine, a (ice). 687; J. H. 8hepetone. Douda and nix City of Zion, in the London Sunday Magazine, ‑dii (1904). 553.
The Church periodical is Leaves of Healing, a weekly published at Zion City.

CHRISTIAN COMMISSION, THE UNITED STATES: An organisation to care for the religious needs of the soldiers in the field during the Civil War, firstproposed byVincent Colyer, of NewYork, in 1861. The idea was taken up by the Young Men's Christian Association, and at a invention held in New York in Nov., 1881, a commission of twelve was organized to take charge of the work. Bibles, hymnals, tracts, religious books, and newspapers were distributed through the armies, and personal religious work was done. Two special works were undertaken: The Commission aimed to be a medium of speedy and reliable communication between the soldiers and sailors and their friends at home,, and it circulated loan‑libraries of general literature. The total value of money contributed and other gifts was officially estimated at $6,291,107.68. The final meeting of the Commission was held in Washington Feb. 11, 1866. The leading men in the movement were the president, George H. Stuart, of Philadelphia, and Nathan Bishop (q.v.), of New York.
Binnxoaswrar: Lemuel Moss, Annals of the United States Christian Commission, Philadelphia, 1888.
CHRISTIAN CONNECTION. See CaitJSTisils.

CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE, SOCIETY OF: The name of several religious associations of which the most important are. (1) The Society of Christian Doctrine (Societd dells doltrina cristiana), founded at Rome in 1582 by Mares de Sadis Cusani, of Milan (d. lb9b), to instruct the people in Christian teach‑

41	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Christian Brothers
Christian Science
ings. It consisted of priests and laymen, and spread in Upper Italy, Germany, and Austria. In 1586 the Roman branch was made a spiritual congregation with its seat at the church of St. Agatha in Trastevere (whence they are sometimes called Agathists). The others constituted a brotherhood under secular presidents, connected with the clerical congregation by a common directing body (de finitorium). They founded schools and undertook general as well as religious instruction, taught in the churches, and strove to lead the young to a religious life. The number of clerical members had fallen to fifty‑four in 1747, for which reason Benedict XIV. in that year united them with a French congregation of like name, (2) the Fathers of Christian Doctrine (P&ea de la doctrine chrdienne), founded in 1592 by CSsar de Bus (b. at Cavaillon 1544; d. 1607), with the help of a former Calvinist, J. B. RomiHon, canon of Isle, and a canon of Avignon, named Pirelli. The object was to instruct in Roman doctrine and to check the spread of Calvinism. Clement VIII. confirmed the constitution in 1597. Most of the members were united with the Somaschians (q.v.), while a minority joined the Oratorians of Berulle in 1616. In 1647, however, Innocent X. again made the Pyres doctrinaires an independent body, and Alexander VII. in 1659 allowed them to take the simple vows. At the outbreak of the French Revolution they bad twenty‑eight houses in France; in 1900 they had one in France (at Cavaillon, diocese of Avignon) sad six in Italy. Cardinal Bellarmine wrote his Dottrina criatiana and Dichiaratio7ze pile capiosa delta dottrina cristiand for the use of the Italian congregation, and De Bus composed a popular exposition of the catechism for the French congregation (published at Paris, 1866). The only scholar of the congregation worthy of note was the general superior Pierre Annat (d. 1715), author of an Apparatus methodicua ad positivam theologiam (Paris, 1700, and often).
(O. Z6cztLERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Helyot, Ordree monaetiquee, iv. 237r2b2;
Heimbuoher, Order and %onpregatimwrt, ii. 338‑341; Carrier, Relipiow Orders, pp. 438‑138; P. du Mss, La Vie du .roinErabk CF,ear de Bus, Paris, 1703; J. J. Cbsmoua, Vie du ro&&nble C6sar de Bus, Paris, 1884.
CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOR SOCIETY. See YOUNG PEOPLE'S SOCIETIES.

CHRISTIAN LOVE, BROTHERS OF. See B.IPPqLYTUB, SAINT, BROTHERS OF.

CHRISTIAN AND MISSIONARY ALLIANCE:
An organization to promote a deeper spiritual life among Christians of all denominations, and a more aggressive missionary work in neglected fields at home and abroad. The work was begun during a convention at Old Orchard, Me., in 1887 by a number of Christian men and women, connected with various Evangelical denominations in the United States and Canada. It is not a sectarian body, but a fraternal union of Christians. It is incor porated under the laws of the State of New York, and is managed by a board of fifteen directors,' elected for a term of three years at the annual meet‑
ing of the society. It hoe about 200 branches in the United States arid Canada, and 100 mission stations in foreign countries. There are about 200 official workers in the home land, and 600 foreign laborers in the mission fields abroad, of whom onehalf are natives and the others American and Canadian missionaries. There are about 4,000 communicants in the various native churches. The fields include western India, southern, central, and western China, Japan, the Kongo and the Sudan in West Africa, Palestine, the West Indies, Venezuela, Chile, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Argentina.
The special object in beginning the foreign mission work was to endeavor to reach neglected fields, where other missions had not been established. Tibet wan the first objective point of the society, and for many years a successful mission has been established on its borders. In other countries the most destitute fields have always been chosen, and the society endeavors to avoid duplicating the work of other societies. Another object was to employ a class of laborers for whom an open door was not easily found under other organizations. Many of the missionaries of the Alliance are laymen specially trained for this work, and also unmarried women. A large and successful Bible Institute is maintained at South Nyack, N. Y., for the preparation of the laborers, from which over 3,000 students have gone out in the past twenty years. The attendance in the classes of 1906‑07 was over 300.
The work of the society is sustained by voluntary contributions. During the past twenty years about E3,000,000 have been contributed in this way, and the annual income at the present time is about a quarter of a million dollars. One aim of the society is to cultivate a spirit of rigid economy and great simplicity and self‑denial in the methods of work. The missionaries voluntarily receive no fixed salary, but a sufficient amount to meet their actual expenses on the field, gladly giving their lives in disinterested service and simple faith in God to take care of them through the friends at home. There are no expensive buildings, and most of the home workers and officials receive no salary and give their services freely for Christ's sake. In this way the maximum service is secured at the smallest expense, and the self‑denial of those who give finds its response in the self‑sacrifice of those who go.
A. B. SIMPSON.

CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION: A
loose confederation of churches in Kentucky, in which each church was independent and claimed to be uneectariau. The churches were bound together by no creed or ecclesiastical tie, but the general system of doctrine was Evangelical, and baptism by immersion was preferred. The confederation, now extinct, reported in 1895 thirteen organizations and 754 communicants.
BIBLIOGRAPHY; H. K. Cam" Relipioua Forces o/ the United
.YRatea, p. 98, New York, 1898.

CHRISTIAN REFORMED CHURCH. See Rr_
FORMED CHURCH, CHRISTIAN,

CHRISTIAIf SCIERCE. See SetENCE, CHRISTIAN.

Christian Socialism	THE NEW SCELAYF‑HERZOG 	42
CHRISTIAN SOCIALISM.
I. Definition and Principles. The Term (§ I). Relations to Science and Religion (§ 2). Attitude to Various Forces and Theories (§ 8). II. History.
1. England. Initiation of the Movement (§ 1). Results (§ 2).
2. Continental Europe. Basal Principles (I I). Results (§ 2).
3. The United States.
I. Definition and Principles: The term" Christian Socialism" was first used in 1848 by J. F. D. Maurice (q.v.). He wished to express the idea that socialism is a development and outcome of
1. The Christianity; and that, if it is to be
	Term.	effective, it must have a definite
		Christian basis. To this view later
Christian Socialists have always adhered, although
the term has been used to express a number
of other ideas, especially in Europe. It is fre
quently employed there loosely to indicate any ap
plication of Christian principles to social life. Both
Protestants and Roman Catholics have so applied
the phrase, perhaps in order to show that the
Church was not antagonistic to socialism when
subjoined to the leadership of the Church. The
term should, however, be restricted in use to the
idea which Maurice desired to express; although
this restriction does not imply adherence to the
economic views held by early Christian Socialists.
Circumstances have changed and social thought
has developed. Christian Socialists may, and do,
hold various views on economics; but they must
believe in socialism as a development and outcome
of Christianity if they would be counted among
the followers of Maurice and Charles Kingsley,
The definition of Christian Socialism as given by Maurice can be understood only on the basis of his ethical and religious principles. The most important of these is that there are two forces which came into prominence in the nineelv_ teenth century, although they had had
tiona to a prior existence‑‑science, and man as
Science	an end in himself. The Church was
and Me‑ compelled to adopt some attitude in
	ligioa.	regard to both, since both seemed hos
		tile‑‑‑science as threatening the en
tire structure of theology, and the new theory of
man as giving rise to the labor movement with
socialism as an attendant, emphasizing the mate
rial advantages of civilization. Christian Socialists
maintained an attitude of hospitality toward both
of these forces. They claimed an essential agree
ment between the ascertained results of science
and the fundamental teachings of the Bible, and
argued that, since God was ruler both in the spiri
tual and the secular spheres of life, there could
be no discrepancy between revealed religion and
science when both were rightly and fully under
stood. Both were inspired by God, although in
different degrees and for different purposes. With
respect to the endeavor of the masses to obtain
recognition as individuals, Christian Socialists
maintained that the essence of Christianity was
brotherhood, and that its aim was the acquirement
of dignity by every man as a child of God. They
contended that the system of privileged classes
was foreign to the spirit of Christianity, and a para
sitic growth upon the body politic. The funda
mental principle of their philosophy may be sum
marised in the statement that the world is created
by God‑ the Christian religion is revealed by him.
The principle has, however, other corollaries:
(1) Since God has created the world, he has also
redeemed it‑the whole of it, each human being in
ft, and all human relations because the incarna
tion was a universal redemption. (2) Since all
men are, at least potentially, the children of God,
they are brothers in all relations. (3) Since God
has created men individuals, each with a special
endowment, every man must do some useful work
and develop his God‑given faculties; he should,
moreover, have the opportunity so to do.
From the vantage‑point of this principle Christian Socialists began to wage war upon their contemporaries. They fought the Calvinistic doctrine of a partial redemption through election; Roman Catholicism, because as an organization that Church depreciates family life more or less by its teaching of asceticism and by ma8. Attitude king reward in heaven dependent upon to Various " good works," in this way putting a Forces and premium on wealth and requiring the
	Theories.	continuation of a system whereby the
		few are able to reap rewards from the
labor of the many. Against communists, social
ists, and anarchists it was urged that they denied
the raison d'dre of nationality, and thus violated
a fundamental law of human nature, since the de
velopment of the individual could take place only
on the basis of nationalism, and not on that of cos‑

mopolitanism. They inveighed against the laissez‑faire doctrine as a perversion of Christian doctrine
and of sound economic principles. They berated
the rich who paid wages merely sufficient to keep
their workmen alive and thus used human beings
as a means to selfish ends. They questioned the
ability of socialism to remedy present evils merely
by changing the system of economic production
and distribution, and pointed out that only by the
infusion of the spirit of Christian brotherhood and
by the conversion of every individual could the in
dividual be induced to work for all, and all for one,
since the beat work in the world had not been done
from economic motives, but from an unselfish de
sire to help others.
II. History.‑1. England: The year 1848 was a dark one for English workingmen. Conditions combined to bring their wrongs and sufferings to a head. Chartism had, moreover, stirred up considerable discussion and caused much political unrest. On April 10 there was
1. Initia‑ an imin‑ mass‑meeting at Ben‑
tion of nington Common, London; 100,000 the love‑ men proposed to march to Parliament
	meat.	and force it to accept the so‑called six
		points; viz., universal suffrage, aboli
tion of property qualifications formembers of Par
liament, annual parliaments, equal representation,
payment of representatives, and vote by ballot.
This programme seemed revolutionary; the Gov‑

43	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Christian Socialism
ernment put Wellington in charge of London, and 150,000 householders were sworn in as special constables. But the assemblage was a mere rabble, since sober workingmen stayed away, and O'Connor, the Irish agitator, absented himself. A heavy downpour of rain cowed the crowd completely, so that the meeting dispersed in confusion.
But the danger was not yet passed. In order to prevent the recurrence of similar or more dangerous meetings, three men, Frederick Denison Maurice, Charles Kingsley, and John M. Ludlow, decided after consultation to write and publish Politics for the People (May 6, 1848). Only seventeen weekly numbers appeared, but these succeeded in turning the impending revolution into a peaceful social evolution. The writers declared their sympathy with the workingmen, warned them against violence, appealed to the justice and charity of the rich, and expounded their principles with skill and zeal. .Others joined them, and numerous meetings were held, both for the instruction of workingmen and for mutual encouragement. Henry Mayhew had contributed a series‑ of ‑articles to the Morning Chronicle of London during 1849 on the sweating system, and these called forth in 1850 Kingsley's tract Cheap Clothes and Nasty. In the same year the little group of friends decided to issue Tracts on Christian Socialism, with the keyword: Association, i.e., Cooperation versus Competition. In order to alleviate at least the direct poverty among the laboring classes, the Christian Socialists started in 1850 the Society for the Promotion of Workingmen's Associations. Since cooperative societies were not legal at that time, Ludlow exerted all his influence to have the Industrial and Provident Societies' Act passed in 1852. Maurice and his friends immediately used this opportunity to establish a number of cooperative concerns. The principles underlying them, adopted at Manchester May 15, 1853, were: (1) human society is a body consisting of many members, not a collection of warring atoms; (2) true workers must be fellow workers, not rivals; (3) the principle of justice, not of selfishness, must govern exchanges.
These societies thus established have prospered to a remarkable degree. In 1906 the turnover of the Cooperative Wholesale Society, with more than 2,000 local branches, was 16500,000,000, with a surplus of over $12,000,000. In 1876 the Guild of St.
Matthew was formed for the purpose 8. 8esulta. of drawing the Church and the work‑
ingmen closer together, and to close as far as possible the social chasm between the rich and the poor. It was absorbed in 1880 by the Christian Social Union, under the leadership of Canon Scott Holland, although it still maintains an individual existence within the larger body, and has a spokesman in the Church Reformer. The Union consists of men of all classes who are willing to work for the following purposes: (1) to claim for the Christian law the ultimate authority in social practise; (2) to study how the truths and principles of Christianity may be applied to the social and economic difficulties of the present time; and (3) to present Christ as the living king and
master, the enemy of wrong and of selfishness, and the power of love and righteousness. The earlier Christian Socialists also worked in other fields, such as village improvement societies, drew up a programme for the National Health League, founded the Workingmen's College in London, and secured the passage by Parliament of a number of laws for the benefit of workingmen. They encountered much bitter opposition both in and out of the Anglican Church. Some of them suffered persecution, as when Maurice was removed from his professorship at King's College in 1853, although he was later (1866) appointed to one at Cambridge. Nevertheless, their fearless and sincere conduct and self‑sacrifice made many friends for them. While the movement as a separate organization has died, it has been the seed of many reforms throughout England in every sphere of life, while the United Kingdom itself has been greatly improved socially and morally by the lives and teachings of these men. The conference of 194 Anglican bishops assembled in 1897 practically adopted as its principles the platform of Maurice and of the Christian Social Union (see LAMBETH CONFERENCE). The non‑conformists have also caught the spirit, and the Rev. John Clifford and many others are members of the Christian Socialist League.
2. Continental Europe: Analogous Continental movements can not properly be called Christian Socialism. They were always Christian, but never socialistic. They were started largely with the purpose of undermining secularaocialiam. Butthe principal objection to applying the term to the
1. Basal Continental movements is that they Principles. never formulated a philosophy of life and of the State such as Maurice and Kingsley gave to England. As a result they were unable to present a world‑view as systematic, farreaching, and comprehensive as that offered to English workingmen. This difference may explain why in Great Britain the socialist party and other extremists did not develop great strength after the appearance of the Christian Socialists. The English workingman has been taught to look at the economic problem as only one among many, whereas German and French laborers came to consider that of supreme, if not of sole, importance. Marx simply systematized that view in his .Kapltal. The Christian workers of France and Germany had nothing to put into the hands of workingmen which could compare with that book. There is another difference of prime importance between the two schools. The Continentals always leaned on the arm of the Church, of the State, or of both; whereas Englishmen were not afraid to attack either or both whenever necessary. Continental laboring‑men regarded these leaders as hirelings of the State or emissaries of the hierarchy, while in fact they were defenders of society on Church and State principles, and sought to ally the altar and the crown.
For these reasons the Continental movement was doomed to failure. The laboring class has kept aloof, and adopted Marxism. The leaders were, nevertheless, in earnest, and began work along other lines. The Roman Catholics founded au‑

Christian socialism	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	44
Christians
merous societies under the leadership of Baron Yon Ketteler (q.v.), archbishop of Mainz, who exerted a great influence. The object of these societies was partly ecclesiastical, partly politicalthe people were to be guarded from the infidelity of the socialists, and were to be used because of their possession of the ballot. The Roman Catholic Church has in Germany succeeded so well in this that it has been able through the votes of artisans, laborers, and peasants to secure a large number of seats in the Reichstag. There has been no hesitation at times to form an alliance with the socialists, when the Church's purposes were served, and the State has been several times compelled to capitulate before the union thus effected. But along with this political and ecclesiastical activity an immense amount of valuable practical Christian work has been done‑‑a description of which would be foreign to this article.
The Protestant Church in Germany began practical Christian work in the early part of the nineteenth century, which made rapid headway after 1850. Hardly any Church in Christendom does so much valuable work as the Lutheran, but‑‑it is all done under the auspices or in alliance with the
8. 8e‑ State, and is, therefore, discredited
	cults.	among the socialists who showed their
		opposition by withdrawal en masse
from the Church. Men of influence like Drs.
StScker and KSgel failed after earnest endeavors
to organize an independent political or Christian
party, while they have been eminently successful
in uniting various charitable and philanthropic
movements in the loners Mission (q.v.). In France,
Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Denmark, and
elsewhere no distinctively Christian Socialist move
ments have developed. The Christians of emi
nence in these countries, such as the Comte de Mun
in France, Laveleye in Belgium, and Prince von
Lichtenstein in Austria, who ought have led in
this direction, were either dependent on the Roman
Catholic Church for the expression of their views,
or did not imitate a distinctive independent Chris
tian Socialism. They simply contributed to litera
ture or founded charitable and philanthropic in
stitutions.
S. The united states: The seed which was sent out from England found a much more favorable soil in the United States. This country had been the camping‑ground of numerous communistic and other societies (see COMMUNIaM), and the experimental station for such idealistic organizations as Brook Farm near Boston. No hostility was manifested by either State or Church to independent movements along Christian Socialist lines, nor was the attitude of the people unfavorable. Nevertheless, no movement of any national importance has been inaugurated. A number of men prominent in the Church and in business became interested in the work of Maurice and Kingsley. A paper, the Equity, was published irt 1874‑75 in Boston. An organization was formed in that city April 15, 1889, largely under the leadership of W . D. P. Bliss, called the Society of Christian Socialists. The constitution emphasized the stewardship of all gifts and of property, the fatherhood of God, and
the brotherhood of man, it deprecated the present industrial and commercial systems as individualistic, unjust, and contrary to the law of God; recommended socialism (without defining it) as the necessary outcome of Christian teachings; and invited all Christians and Churches to join the new movement. But the ideas did not take root, and the movement today is a mere sentiment which finds a channel for its activities in charity and philanthropy. Some journals, such as the Outlook, the Kingdom, the Christian Statesman, advocate Christian Socialism to a limited extent, but as a whole the movement has taken the shape of practical reform. See SOCIALISM.
RUDOLPH M. BINDER.
Brstsoos&ray: Besides the publications mentioned in the teat, the sources are contained in Tracts on Christian Socialism, London, 18b0' eqq.; the Christian Socialist, a journal issued from Nov. 2, 1850, to June 28, 1851; Charles Kingsley's two novels, Yeast, London, 1848, and Alton Locks, ib. 1850; F. D. Maurice, Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy. 2 vole., ib. 1871‑72; and other writings of these two leaders. Further light is to be gained from the biographies of these two men. For different phases of the subject consult: A. V. Woodworth, Chrisdian Socialism in England, London, 1903 (contains a full bibliography); E. R. A. Seligman , Omen and the Christian Socialists, in Political Science Quarterly. June, 1888; B. F. Westcott, Social Aspects of Christianity, London, 1887; idem, The Incarnation and Common Life, ib. 1898; M. Kaufmann, Christian Socialism, ib. 1888; W. D. P. Bliss, What Christian Socialism Is, and The Social Faith of the Catholic Church (tracts). New York, 1894; G. D. Herron, The New Redemption and the New Society. Boston, 1894; F. 8. Nitti, Catholic Socialism, London, 1895; W. D. P. Bliss, et slis, Encyclopedia Social Reform, New York, 1908.

CHRISTIAN UNION, THE: A religious organization of the United States, founded by James F. Given in the first year of the Civil War. Mr. Given (d. 1889) was a graduate of Marietta College and an ordained minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1880, when political excitement and prejudice were high and bitter, he found himself out of sympathy with his Church. He began the publication of a religious paper, the Christian Witness (Columbus, O.), and called a meeting of others who shared his views to organize an antipolitical and antisectarian brotherhood. Ministers and laymen of several denominations, chiefly from Ohio, met in Columbus in 1861, where they chose the name " The Christian Union," declared the Bible the only rule of faith and practise, and adopted strict congregational government for each local church. The first general council, held in Terre Haute, Ind., in 1883, adopted the following principles: (1) Christ the only head of the Church; (2) the Holy Bible the only rule of faith and practise; (3) good fruits the only test of fellowship; (4) each local church to be self‑governed; (5) the union of all Christians to be worked for; (8) political preaching discountenanced. The Christian Witness was made the organ of the society.
The membership of the Union is found chiefly in the country and small villages, there being no city churches. It stands for Evangelical Christianity and pleads for the union of all Christians on the basis of the Bible. At first its numbers increased rapidly, but in recent years looses and gains have been about equal. There are now

4!f	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Christian Socialism
Christians
about 250 ministers, 300 churches, and 20,000 members, of whom more than two‑thirds are in Ohio and Missouri, with churches also in Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Oklahoma, and Tennessee. Two or three schools have been established, but have failed to receive adequate support, and at present there are no denominational schools or colleges. The Christian Union Messenger (Greencastle, Ind.) and the Witness Herald (Excelsior Springs, Mo.) are papers published by clergymen of the Union. H. J. DUCgVPORTH.
	CHRISTIANI, ARNOLD: German theologian;
b. at Johannenhof Dec. 14, 1807; d. at Riga Mar.
16, 1886. In 1838 he became pastor of Ringen;
in 1849 dean of the district of Werro; in 1852 pro
fessor of practical theology at Dorpat and preacher
to the university. From 1865 to 1882, when he
retired, he was general superintendent of Livonia.
Besides a volume of sermons (Dorpat, 1852), he
published three books on the Apocalypse (Riga,
1861‑75), in which he followed the Erlangen school.
		(A. Heucs.)
CHRISTIANS: As a denominational designation, a name given to two religious bodies of America.
1. A Church dating from the early part of the nineteenth century, also known as the Disciples of Christ (q.v.).
2. A denomination sometimes called the Christian Connection for purposes of identifications phrase which they admit usually refers to them. The name which they use themselves was formerly sometimes incorrectly pronounced Christ‑fans. The denomination resulted from three independent movements, two of which partook of the nature of secession. In 1793, in North Carolina. and Vir ginta, twenty or thirty ministers, influenced chiefly by Rev. James O'Kelly (q.v.), withdrew from the Methodist Episcopal Church on account of objections to the government of bishops and the use of creeds and disciplines. They were followed by
about 1,000 members. At first they Origin. were called Republican Methodists; but in 1794 on motion of Rev. Rice Haggard the name Christian was unanimously adopted, and since that time they have accepted no other name. The second movement was in Vermont, in 1800, among the Baptists, Abner Jones, a physician, and Rev. Elias Smith being prominent in it. The third movement, in 1800 and 1801, was in Kentucky chiefly, among the Presbyterians; prominent here were David Pur viance, John Thomson, Robert Marshall, John Dunlavy, William Kinkade, Richard MeNemar, Nathan Worley, and Barton W. Stone (q.v.). The three movements were severally unknown to each other until a number of years had passed, when they came together without negotiation or formal organic action.
They all accepted the Bible as the only creed, Christian as the only name, and Christian character as the only teat of fellowship. Generally they baptize by immersion, but some ministers sprinkle. They are universally open communioniete, as their teat of fellowship compels. Sometimes
they are called trinitarian, and sometimes antitrinitarian; but almost universally they hold to the divinity of Christ. They themselves refuse to pronounce on these dogmas, which are disputed among Christian people. They are congregational in government; but there seems to have been no pressure on this point organically since the O'Kelly movement in the South. They have annual district conferences and quadrennial general conventions.
In 1854, at the general convention at Cincinnati, resolutions were passed condemning human slavery. The Southern brethren of the denomination withdrew, and perfected a separate organization.
The division lasted till long after the
History. Civil War; but at the convention at
Haverhill, Mass., in 1894, under uncontested ruling of a brother temporarily called to the chair by the president, that the Southern brethren " only called themselves Christians, took the Bible for their only creed, and granted full fellowship to all Christians, and therefore were entitled to membership in the convention on the same basis of representation as others," they took then seats in the convention and have been working with the general body ever since, greatly increasing its organic effectiveness.
The question of the " union " of denominations has several times proved injurious to the Christians. A third of a century after their rise, Bar ton W. Stone, one of their prominent ministers, made a " union " with Alexander Campbell, the founder of the Disciples of Christ (q.v.), which really proved a surrender by Stone. Somewhat more than fifty churches were in this way lost to the Christians. This element in the Disciple denomination clung to the name " Christian "; so that there has been some confusion, marry supposing that the Disciples are the original body. But the Disciples differ from the Christians in giving fellowship exclusively to the immersed; while the Christians make Christian character their only test of fellowship or membership. In 1885 and 1886 there was agitation for union with the Free Baptists, whose genius is more like that of the Christians; and in some sections it was actually voted and supposed to be effected. But the churches did not follow the leaders, and the movement was abandoned. From 1893 to 1898 organic union with the Congregationalists was talked of, making some denominational friction, which led to the cessation of the agitation.
The membership of the Christians is almost wholly in the United States and Canada, numbering about 120,000. Former estimates were too large. They have few churches west of Kansas, or south of North Carolina. The following institutions of learning belong to them or are affiliated
with them: Union Christian College,
Numbers at Merom, Ind.; Christian Biblical

and Educe‑ Institute (a theological seminary), at tional In‑ Stanfordville, N. Y.; Elon College, at
stitutions. Elon College, N. C.; Starkey Semi‑
nary, at Lakemont, N. Y.; Defiance College, at Defiance, O.; Palmer College, at Le Grand, Ia.; Kansas Christian College, at Lincoln,
	_	..	,	.

Christians	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	4t
Christmas
	Kan.; and Franklinton Christian College (for ne
	groes), at Franklinton, N. C. Their quadrennial
	convention of Oct., 1850, held at Marion, N. Y.,
directed the founding of a college giving equal
	privileges to the sexes; and they established An
	tioch College at Yellow Springs, O., and made
	Hon. Horace Mann its first president; but they
later lost the institution to the Unitarians.	It
was the first college to give fully equal honors to
both sexes in " coeducation." Union Christian
	College, their next college, may be considered the
effect of the abortive attempt at Antioch.	[In
	Canada the Christians pay the salary of one of
	their members as professor in McMaster Univer
	sity, a Baptist institution, and encourage their
young people to study there.‑A. H. N.]
	The Christians were also the first in modern
	times as a denomination to authorize the ordina
tion of a woman to the Gospel ministry; but they
were not the first to ordain; this being done irreg
	ularly before their action. The foreign mission
work of the Christians is only twenty years old;
	it is carried on now in Japan and Porto Rico, and ~,
there is agitation to begin work in India.
	In 1808 the Rev. Elias Smith established the first
	religious newspaper, the Herald of Gospel Liberty,
at Portsmouth, N. H. After various vicissitudes,
	it is now the property of the general body and is
	published by the Christian Publishing Association,
a denominational corporation at Dayton, O. Other
	periodicals to be mentioned are: the Christian Sun,
	weekly, property of the Southern Christian Con
	vention, Elon College, N. C.; the Christian Van
	guard, semimonthly, property of the Ontario Chris
	tian Conference, Toronto and Newmarket, Ontario;
	the Young People's Worker, monthly, Raleigh, N. C.;
	various Sunday‑school periodicals, issued by the
	Christian Publishing Association, Dayton, O., quar
	terlies and weeklies, and the Christian Missionary,
	monthly, property of the American Christian Con
	vention, Dayton, O.; the Afro‑Christian Messenger,
monthly, Franklinton, N. C.
	J. J. SUMDiERBELL.
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: Smith's Works, by Elise Smith, Exeter,
	N. H., 1805; John Dunlavy, Manifesto, Pleasant Hill,
	Ky., 1818; John Rogers, Biography of Barton Warren
	Stone, Cincinnati, 1847; D. Purviance, Biography of D.
	Puruiance, Dayton, O., 1848; J. R. Freese, Christian
	Church History, Philadelphia, 1852; N. Summerbell,
	History of the Christians, Cincinnati, 1871; E. W. Hum
	phreys, Memoirs of Deceased Christian Ministers, Day
	ton, 1880; J. F. Burnett, Origin and Principles of flee
	Christians, Dayton, 1903; J. J. Summerbell, Scripture
	Doctrine, Dayton, 1904; idem, The Christians and the
Disciples, Dayton, 1908.
CHRISTIANS OF ST. JOHN. See MANDEANs.
	CHRISTIANS OF ST. THOMAS. See NE$TO
R1AN8.
	CHRISTIE, FRANCIS ALBERT: Unitarian; b.
at Lowell, Mass., Dec. 3, 1858.	He was educated
	at Amherst College (B.A., 1881), and studied phi
	lology at Johns Hopkins ('1884‑86) and theology at
	the universities of Berlin, Heidelberg, and Mar
	burg (1889‑93). He taught in the Roxbury Latin
	School, Roxbury, Mass., in 1881‑84 and wag clas
	sical master at Lawrenceville School, Lawrenceville,
	N. J., in 1887‑89. He was subsequently an in‑
structor in the Harvard Divinity School (1891‑92), and since 1893 has been professor of church history in Meadville Theological School, Meadville, Pa.
CHRISTLIEB, THEODOR: A voluminous theological author; b. at Birkenfeld (27 m. w.n.w. of Stuttgart), Wiirttemberg, Mar. 7, 1833; d. at Bonn Aug. 15, 1889. His education was received mainly at Tubingen, where he studied theology under Tobias Beck and F. C. Baur. He was ordained in 1856 as assistant to his father, and soon took charge of a church at Ruith near Stuttgart. A Lutheran by education and conviction, he laid more stress on honest faith and real conversion than on dogmatic subtleties; the narrow exclusiveness of many Lutherans repelled him, and he had close associations with numbers of the Reformed, coming later to be among the supporters of definite union. His pastoral duties left him time for literary work, out of which grew his Leben and Lehre des Johann Scotus Erigena (Goths, 1860). From 1858 to 1865 he was in London as pastor of the Lutheran German church of Islington. He was recalled by the king of Wiirttemberg to be pastor at Friedrichahafen. While there he delivered lectures at St. Gall and Winterthur, afterward enlarged into his second important work, Moderns Zweifel am christliehen Glauben (Bonn, 1868; Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1874). In a moderate and conciliatory tone, yet not paying sufficient attention to the results of Biblical science, he attempted to meet some of the principal modern objections to Christianity, dealing especially with materialism, pantheism, and deism, and going on to develop a Christian theism, paying particular attention to the doctrine of the Trinity and the possibility of miracles, and vigorously opposing the rationalistic conceptions of Strauss, Renan, and Baur. In 1868 he was called to Bonn as professor of practical theology and preacher to the university, and here he remained anti! his death. The purpose of his lectures was rather the formation of earnest and devout pastors than the display of scientific learning. Similarly, his preaching, which had a wide influence, was characterized rather by warm, earnest pressing home of the great truths of Christianity than by a seeking after oratorical effect. His work extended far beyond the bounds of the university. In England he had learned to know and to esteem members of other churches than his own, and he worked constantly for unity of spirit between them, without wasting time in fruitless efforts for external unity. He took part in the work of the Evangelical Alliance, and attended its conferences in Basel, Copenhagen, and New York, where he read a paper on The Best Methods of Counteracting Modern Infidelity (New York, 1873), dealing with unbelief as it shows itself in the individual, in scientific investigations, and in the practise of social life. In order to stir up the German churches to more zealous activity, he delivered a lecture at Copenhagen in 1884 on the best means of counteracting religious indifference, in which, while deprecating sensational methods such as those of the Salvation Army, he suggested the appointment, especially in large places, of evangelists who should

4?
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ctuirtisaa Christmas
carry the Gospel to the people outside the church
building, working in harmony with the pastor.
To carry this idea into effect, he founded the
German Evangelistic Union, in conjunction with
Bernstorff and Piickler. He purchased in Bonn a
disused Presbyterian chapel with a large house at
tached, and turned it into a training‑school for
evangelists. After his death the institution was
transferred to Barmen, where there was thought to
be a wider field for its work. He was also an en
thusiastic advocate of foreign missions, and in
1874, with Warneck, founded the Allgemeine Mis
sionszeitschr%ft, in which moat of his writings on
missionary topics first appeared. The best known
of these is Der gegenxnartige Stayed der evartgel%schen
Fleidenmission (Giitersloh, 1879;	Eng. transl.,
London, 1880). Another of his numerous works
which was translated into English was his sharp
arraignment of England for permitting and even
encouraging the opium traffic, Der %ndobritische
Opiumhandel and seine W%rkungen (1878; Eng.
transl., London, 1879). 	(E. Sacsssu.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zum (JcdBchCniae Theodor ChriatLieba, Bonn, 1889; Mrs. T. C6riatlieb, Theodor CAriatlieb of Bonn, London, 1892 (by his widow).
CHRISTMAS: The supposed anniversary of the birth of Jesus Christ, occurring on Dec. 25.' No sufficient data, however, exist, for the determination of the month or the day of the event. Efforts to reach a fixed date for Zacharias's ministration
and to combine thin with the " sixth The Dap of month " mentioned in connection Christ's with the annunciation to Mary (Luke Birth not i. 26) have given no assured result.
Known. Hippolytus seems to have been the
first to fix upon Dec. 25. He had reached the conviction that Jesus's life from conception to crucifixion was precisely thirty‑three years and that both events occurred on Mar. 25. By calculating nine months from the annunciation or conception he arrived at Dec. 25 as the dap of Christ's birth. The uncertainty of all the data discredits the computation. There is no historical evidence that our Lord's birthday was. celebrated during the apostolic or early postapostolic times The uncertainty that existed at the beginning of the third century in the minds of Hippolytus and others‑Hippolytus earlier favored Jan. 2, Clement of Alexandria (Strom., i. 21) " the 25th day of Pachon " ( =May 20), while others, according to Clement, fixed upon Apr. 18 or 19 and Mar. 28‑proves that no Christmas festival had been established much before the middle of the century Jan. 6 was earlier fixed upon as the date of the baptism or spiritual birth of Christ, and the feast of Epiphany (q.v.) was celebrated by the Basilidian Gnostics in the second century (cf. Clement of Alexandria, ut sup.) and by catholic Christians by about the beginning of the fourth century.
The earliest record of the recognition of Dec. 25 as a church festival is in the Philocalian Calendar (copied 354 but representing Roman practise in 336; cf. Ruinart, Acts Martyrum, p. 617; MPL, xiii.; Lightfoot, The Liberian Calendar, in his Clement of Rome, vol. i., p. 246). In the East the celebration of Jan. 6 as the physical as well
as the spiritual birthday of the Lord prevailed generally as early as the first half of the fourth century. Chrysoatom (in 386) states that Earliest the celebration of the birth of Christ
	Traces of	" according to the flesh " was not in
the Church augurated at Antioch until ten years
	Festival.	before that date. He intimates that
		this festival, approved by himself, was
opposed by many. An Armenian writer of the
eleventh century states that the Christmas festival,
invented in Rome by a heretic, Artemon, was first
celebrated in Constantinople in 373. In Egypt
the Western birthday festival was opposed during
the early years, of the fifth century, but was cele
brated in Alexandria as early as 432. The Jeru
salem church was celebrating birth and baptism
on the same day (Jan. 6) about the middle of the
fourth century, the former at Bethlehem, the latter
at the Jordan, although the twenty‑mile journey
between involved great inconveniences (supposed
letter of Bishop Cyril of Jerusalem to Bishop Julius
of Rome, preserved in Combefia, Historic hceresis
morwthelitarum). The Jerusalem bishop asks the
Roman bishop to ascertain the real date of Christ's
birth in order that, if possible, the practical diffi
culty may be overcome. Julius is represented as
sending to Cyril a calculation in favor of Dec. 25,
based upon the supposition (derived from Josephus)
that Zachariass vision took place at the Feast of
Tabernacles. The Jerusalem church, however,
persisted till 549 or later in celebrating birth and
	baptism on	Jan. 6 (Cosmas Indicopleustes). The
	Christmas festival has never been adopted by the
	Armenians,	the physical and spiritual birthdays
	being still celebrated conjointly on Jan. 8.
The wide‑spread conviction during the early
centuries that the baptism of Jesus was the occasion of his spiritual birth, or his
Relation	adoption as Son of God and his exal
	to the	talon to divine rank and power,
Epiphany.	tended to magnify the anniversary of
		his baptism and to cause compara‑
tive indifference as regards the precise date of his birth according to the flesh. In two Latin homilies, ascribed by some to Ambrose of Milan (4th cent.) and by others to Maximus of Turin (5th cent.), Jan. 6 is declared to be the birthday of the Lord Jesus, " whether he was born of the Virgin on that day or was born again in baptism." It is his " natal feast," his " nativity both of flesh and of Bpi *." As thirty years before he " was given for through the Virgin," so on the same day he was " regenerated " and " sanctified " " through the mystery." The writer; or an interpolator, virtually contradicts the statement about Christ's regeneration by explaining that " Christ is baptized, not in order that he may be sanctified by the waters, but that he may himself sanctify the waters."
The naive adoptioniam that was so widely prevalent till the end of the second century in Syria, Asia Minor, Italy, northern Africa, and elsewhere, and for centuries later in Armenia, Spain, etc. , was gradually displaced by the formulation and gen‑

eral acceptance of a christology (based upon the prologue of John's Gospel and the Epistles of Paul)

shrdieto
THE NEW SCHAF'F‑BERZOG
which laid strew upon the preexistence of Christ as the eternal divine Logos and of the absolute deity of Jesus Christ from the time of his conception. The physical birth assumed more and more importance in the Christian consciousness. The celebration of Christmas as a special Christian festival spread rapidly from the middle of the fourth century onward in sympathy with the triumph of the orthodox christology.
How much the calculation of Hippolytus had to do with the fixing of the festival on Dec. 25, and how much the date of the festival depended upon the pagan Brumalia (Dec. 25), follow‑
Relation ing the Saturnalia (Dec. 17‑24) and
to the celebrating the shortest day in the Roman year and the " new sun " or the begin‑
Saturnalia. ring of the lengthening of days, can not be accurately determined. The pagan Saturnalia and Brumalia were too deeply entrenched in popular custom to be set aside by Christian influence. The recognition of Sunday (the day of Phaabus and Mithras as well as the Lord's Day) by the emperor Constantine as a legal holiday, along with the influence of 1Kanicheism, which identified the Son of God with the physical sun, may have led Christians of the fourth century to feel the appropriateness of making the birthday of the Son of God coincide with that of the physical sun. The pagan festival with its riot and merrymaking was so popular that Christians were glad of an excuse to continue its celebration with little change in spirit or in manner. Christian preachers of the West and the Nearer East protested against the unseemly frivolity with which Christ's birthday was celebrated, while Christians of Mesopotamia accused their Western brethren of idolatry and sun‑worship for adopting as Christian this pagan festival. Yet the festival rapidly gained acceptance and became at last so firmly established that even the Protestant revolution of the sixteenth century was not able to dislodge it and Evangelical Christians even of the more radical types, who reject or ignore nearly all of the ecclesiastical festivals, have never been able wholly to ignore it.
The religious significance of Christmas has been too commonly minimized among Christians, the day among adults being degraded into one merely for the exchange of presents, often neither given nor received in any affection, but out of a sense of obligation or as barter. In too many homes the children, whose day it more particularly is, ar%not taught to link their merrymaking on Chnsa with the gift of God to the world in the person of his Son Jesus Christ. Although some of our denominations hold service on that day, the vast majority of Protestants do not attend, and moat of our denominations keep their churches closed. But as it is unquestioned that the Christian Church was founded by Jesus Christ, it will be well to celebrate the event of his birth, if not on Christmas day, then on some other day. The old gospel story of the Nativity was formerly taken literally and has inspired many beautiful hymns and been the suggestion of many legends and elaborate festivities. By design, on Christmas many important events have
taken place, as the crowning of Charlemagne as
Holy Roman Emperor (800), and William as King
of England (1066). 	A. H. N>swMArt.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Marti•ne, De antiquis eakaior rilibue, iii. 31 eqq., Venice, 1783; A. J. Bintenau, Deakwardipkeiten, v. 1, pp. 528 eqq.. Mains, 1829; J. C. W. Augueti, Handbwh der chriatZichen ArchBoiopie, 3 vole., Leipeia. 18381837; J. P. Thompson, Christmas and the Saturnalia, is Bibliotheca Saga, mi (186b), 144 eq9.‑ P. Cassel, Wsihswrhfen; Urapranpe, Brducha and Aberpiauben, Berlin. 1882; J. Marbeah, Die Wigs Weihnachtafaier. Frankfort, 1886: A. H. Grant, The Church 3eneone, New York, 1881; J. H. Hobart, Festivals and Feasts, London, 1887; T. K.. Harvey, The Book o/ Christmas; descriptive o/ the Customs, Cereswnrou, Traditions, Superstitions, Fun, Peeling, Festivities o/ the Chriadnas Season, London. 1841, New York, 1888; H. ileener, Relspwnepeachichtlichs Untersuchunpen, vol. i., Bonn, 1889; P. de Legsrda, Mitlheiiunpen, iv. 241‑323, Gottingen, 1891; F. C. Conybeare, Hiat, of Christmas, in AJT, iii (1899), I‑21; edam, The Key o/ Truth, Introduction, Oxford, 1898; H. Thureton, is American Ecckaawtieai Review, Dec., 1898• A. Tille, Yule and Christmas, London, 1899; H. Ana, Die lateiniechea Mapisrspiel. Untarsuchunpen and Tezfe Sur Voryeschichte den . . . Weihnaehtsspiele, LaiPeia. 1907; R. H. 9ehauf8er. Christmas, its Origin, Celebration and Significance, New York, 1907: Bingham, Oripinte. XX. iv. (investigation of sources): DCA, i. 357‑ 384: DCG, i. 281‑282.
	CHRISTO SACRUM ("Sacred to Christ"): The
name of a religious society organized in 1792, at
Delft in Holland, by certain well‑educated young
men belonging to the Walloon deacons' confrater
nity. Its purpose was the defense of the Christian
faith against deistic and Voltairean, tendencies,
and the promotion of universal Christian love, inde
pendent of ecclesiastical affiliations. Though it
disregarded separate creeds, it had a creed of its
own, expressing its own minimum of belief; it
recognized as brothers " all who honestly believe
that all men are sinful and corrupt; that God
requires the punishment of sin; that Jesus Christ
came as a mediator to take this punishment upon
himself, which he alone, being both God and man,
could do; that those who believe in him and in his
satisfaction, and penitently invoke his intercession,
are immediately saved; and that through his as
cension the Holy Spirit operates faith and con
version in them." The society grew by the acces
sion of members of various churches, until a special
meeting‑place was needed, which was dedicated by
Canziue, one of the principal founders, in 1802.
The services were more like Lutheran or Anglican
worship than Reformed, and everything was done
to enhance the solemnity of the Lord's Supper.
The original intention was to have the members
retain their former church connections; but when
the society was condemned by the Walloon and
Reformed authorities, it gradually took shape as a
separate sect. It numbered as many as 117 mem
bers under Canzius, but when in 1810 he removed
to Leyden it gradually fell off, maintaining a pre
carious existence until 1836, when the building
was closed. 	(J. A. GERTH vArt Wlrlc.)

131BLIOGRAPHY: Hatender voor de Proteetanten in Nederland, vii (1882), 19b‑258; A. Grdgoire, Histoire den rates rslipisusu, v. 331, 8 vole., Paris. 1828‑4b: B. Glaeiue, GoaeAiedenie der chriatdijke kerk en podsdieast in Nederland, iii. 378‑380, Amsterdam, 1844; J. Reitema, Gasehiedenis der Henrorming an harvormde kark in Nederland, p. 347, Groningen, 1893.

49	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Christmas
Chrlstoloe':
I. The Biblical Christology.
1. The Old Testament Christology.
2. The New Testament Christology. Christ the Ideal Man (§ I). Yet also God (§ 2). II. The Ante‑Nicene Christology.
1. The Early Simple Faith. Heresies (§ 1). The Church Doctrine U 2). The Divinity of Christ Consistently Held (§ 3).
2. Theological Speculation. Justin Martyr (§ 1). Clement of Alexandria (§ 2). Origen (§ 3). Ireneeus (§ 4). Tertullian (§ 5). Dionyeius of Rome (§ 8). III. The Nicene Christology. IV. The Chalcedonian Christology. An Answer to Heresies (§ I). The Cbalcedonian Statement (§ 2).
V. The Poet‑Chalcedonian Chriatology. Monophysitiam (§ 1). Monothelitism (§ 2). Adoptioniem (§ 3).
	Christology is a word derived from the Greek
after the analogy of "theology" (q.v.). It em
braces the doctrine of Christ's person; while so
teriology is the doctrine of Christ's work (the doc
trine of salvation). The word was used by the
English theologians in the seventeenth century,*
and during the nineteenth was reintroduced
from Germany, Christology is based upon the
life said testimony of Christ, as represented
historically in the Gospels, and as reflected
doctrinally and experimentally in the Acts and
Epistles. It treats of the mystery of the in
carnation as a problem of personality, vjz,,
(1) the humanity, (2) the divinity of our Lord,
and (3) their relation to each other in his one per
son. This divine‑human personality forms the
basis of his work, which is the redemption, 'recon.
ciliation, and reunion of man with God. It is
the central doctrine of Christianity, was the one
article of St. Peter's creed (Matt. xvi, lg), and forma
the heart of the Apostles' Creed. The leading
evangelical theologians of Europe and America
have come to agree more sad m°m in this estimate
of its importance; and the ever‑increasing number
of lives of Christ and works on his incarnation and
work strengthens the christocentric character of
modern theology, yet care mgt 1e taken not to
emphasize the incarnation at the expense of the
equally Important doctrines of atonement by
Christ's death, and regeneration by the Holy
Spirit (gee ATONEMENT; REaENEaToN).
* Dr. Thomas
.. that Part ~ Jackson (1695‑164p) de 	y as
godliness‑‑God en 	~'f a which in displays the great mystery of
of the (ice ~p~ 'n his xpw.,oAsyuma~ >
~~ (London, 1879 ), and	junR a ~ h	l
	( 1716). wrote
($ ) Some French "ter. also	(3 vols., London 170
	me it. Lich ten)~er
~~ 	~' iii. 1	defines it correctly. ..Oa ~mp~ad chant la " [Chn °lsiel •1'easemble des doctrines tou‑
soe
personne de J
et sues I huma~Ie at ~nsea rapport
Nouveau Testa'
CHRISTOLOGY.
The Medieval Church (§ 4).
VI. The Ecumenical Christology.
1. Its Leading Ideas.
2. Criticism Favorable Opinion (§ I). Objection and Criticisms U 2). Real Value (§ 3).
VII. The Orthodox Protestant Chris‑
.
tology.
VIII. The Scholastic Lutheran Chrietology.
I. The Communicatio Idiomatum.
2. The Doctrine of the Twofold State of Christ.
3. The Threefold Office of Christ.
IX. The Kenoeie Controversy Between Giessen and Tiibingen.
X. Modern Christologiee.
I. The Humanitarian or Unitarian Christology.
2. The Pantheistic Christology.
3. The Chrietology of Schleiermaoher and His School.
fichleiennacher (§ I).
of
Ullmann (12). Rothe (13). Horace Bushnell (14).
4. The Modern Iienotio Theory. General Outline (§ 1). Gene (¢ 2). Marteneen (§ 3). Kahnis and Lange (14). Julian Mailer U 5). Goodwin and Crosby (§ 8). Criticism (§ 7).
5. The Ritschlian Theory. The Theory Stated (§ 1). Its Merit and Limitation (§ 2).
8. The Theory of a Gradual or Pro. gressive Incarnation.
	The Theory (§ I).
	Its Merits (§ 2).
7. Conclusion.
Elements of Truth in All Theories (§ I).
The Mystery of Christ (§ 2). Limits of This Article (§ 3).
7. Additional Note. Preexistence (§ 1). Incarnation (§ 2).
I. The Biblical Christology: This embraces (1) the Messianic prophecies of the Old Testament; and (2) the christology of the New Testament, which includes (a) the testimony of Christ in the
Gospels; and (b) the christology of the apostlesJames, Peter, Paul (including the chriatology of the Epistle to the Hebrews), and John (including the Apocalypse). Christ is the heart of the Scriptures and the key to their spiritual understanding,
1. The Old Testament Christology.: The Old Testament is the preparation for the New. The soul of the Old Testament is the promise of the Messiah, which began in paradise with the protevangelium of the serpent‑bruiser, and culminated in the testimony of John the Baptist, pointing to Jesus of Nazareth as the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world. See IKEBBIAH, M=_
BIANI9M.
2. The New Testament Chrietology: It is the unanimous teaching of the New Testament writings that Christ combines in a most real though mysterious way the double character of a unique dime sonship and a unique sinless manhood in one har_ monious personality; and that by this very constitution of his person he is qualified to be the Lord and Savior of the human race, and the only 1Kediafor between God and man. He represents at once the nearest approach which God can make to i»~ and the nearest approach which man can eke to
God. The orthodox christology, handed down from the early Church
late this "mystery of y, ~at~ d ~~f t state, error, but every is problem of Problems,
fitful for its own intel_r...„„a, benefit .
Christ strongly asserts his humanity, and calls if about eighty times in the Gospels "the ,fin
fin" (q•v•): not a son of man 	g other
ndants of mAdam, but the Son ~Man a 	de.
class Is tours dm ~ et teiles qu•elles oat g~nuea sans le 'cry as the representative of the whole race mg~
	IIL‑.~ ~Iee, as ,*;e de 1 i:;e>;ae chr~ie~°•~ thus in 	by, the apostles to be
Adam, descended from heaven (d. Rothe.
	m‑ ~ v. and

Chrlatolo9y
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
I Cor. xv.);	the, ideal, the perfect, the absolute man,
the head of	a new race, the king of Jews and Gen
	tiles, the model man for universal
	1. Christ station. While putting himself on a
		the	par with us as man, he claims at the
Ideal lliaa. same time, as the Son of Man, superi
			ority over all, and freedom from sin,
and thus stands solitary and alone as the one and
only spotless human being in the midst of a fallen
race, as an, oasis of living water and fresh verdure,
surrounded by a barren desert. He nowhere con
fesses sin, betrays a consciousness o€ sin, or asks
pardon for sin; and this was not because ha did not
feel the evil of sin, for he pardoned sin and con
demned sins in the severest terms. He alone
needed no repentance, no conversion, no regenera
tion, no pardon. This sinlesaness of Christ is the
great moral miracle of history which underlies all
his miraculous works, and explains them as natural
manifestations of his miraculous person.
On the other hand, Christ as emphatically asserts his divinity, and calls himself not simply a son of God among other children of God by adoption, but " the Son of God" (q.v.) above all others, in a peculiar sense; the Son by nature; the Son from eternity; the Son who alone knows the Father, who reveals the Father to us, who calls him, not " our" Father (as we are directed to pray), but " my " Father. He is, as his favorite disciple calls him, the " only‑begotten Son " (according to some of the oldest manuscripts, " the only‑begotten God," Gk. theos); or, as the Nicene theology expresses it, " eternally begotten of the essence (Gk. ousia) of the Father." He is thus represented by himself; and the representation which he makes of himself was affirmed by the apostles. Paul never calls him " the son of man," but frequently " the son of God " (" God's own son," Rom. viii. 3, 32, etc.). To the apostles Christ was a divinehuman being, truly God and truly
2. Yet man in one person; and his words also clod. and acts and sufferings have a corresponding character and effect. Hence he puts forth claims which in the mouth of every other man, no matter how wise and how good, would sound like blasphemy or lunacy, but which from his figs appear as natural as the rays of light emanating from the sun. He represents himself constantly as being sent from God, or as having come directly from God, to teach this world what he had not learned from any school or book. He calls himself the Light of the World, the Way, the Truth, and the Life; he invites all men to come to him, that they may find rest and peace; he claims the power to forgive sins, and to raise the dead; he says, " I am the Resurrection and the Life," sad he promises eternal life to every one that believeth in him. Even in the moment of his deepest humiliation, he proclaimed himself the King of truth, and the Ruler and Judge of mankind. His kingdom is to be coextensive with the race, and everlasting as eternity itself. And with this consciousness he sent forth his disciples to proclaim the gospel of salvation to every creature, forewarning them of persecution,and pledging them his presence to the end of the world, and a crown of glory in heaven.
ao
He coordinates himself in the baptismal formula with the Eternal Father and the Eternal Spirit, and allows himself to be worshiped by the skeptical Thomas as his " Lord " and his " God."
This central truth of Christ's divine‑human person and work is set forth in the New Testament writings, not as a logically formulated dogma, but as a living fact and glorious truth, as an object of faith, a source of comfort, and a stimulus to a holy life, in humble imitation of his perfect example. The simple narrative of the Gospels is far more powerful for the general benefit of mankind than all the systems of theology. But the mind of the Church moat meditate, and try to grasp this truth; and the New Testament itself furnishes ever new impulse and food for theological speculation. The formulated statement of christology begins as early as Paul and John.
B. The Ante‑Nicene Cln‑iatology, from 100 A.D. to the Council of Nicaea, 325.‑1. The Early Simple Faith: The ecclesiastical development of the fundamental dogma started from Peter's confession of the Mesaiahship of Jesus (Matt. xvi. 16), and from John's doctrine of the incarnate Logos (John i. 14). It was stimulated by two opposite hereaies‑Ebionism and Gnosticism; the one essentially Jewish, the other essentially heathen; the one affirming the humanity of Christ to the exclusion of his divinity, the other running into the opposite error by resolving his humanity into a
I	delusive show (Gk. dokesis, phmntasnaa;
1. Heresies. see DOOETIaM); both agreeing in the
	denial of the incarnation, or the real
and abiding union of the divine and human in the
person of our Lord. There also arose in the second
and third centuries two forma of Unitarianism or
Monarchianiem: (1) The Rationalistic or Dynamic
Unitarianism‑represented by the Alogi, Theodotus,
Artemon, and Paul of Samosatar‑which either de
nied the divinity of Christ altogether, or resolved
it into a mere power (Gk. dynarnis), although its
representatives generally admitted his supernatural
generation by the Holy Spirit. (2) The Patripas
sian and Sabellian Unitarianism, which maintained
the divinity of Christ, but merged it into the es
sence of the Father, and so denied the independent,
preexistent personality of Christ. So Praxeas,
Noi;tus, Callistus (Pope Calixtus L), Beryllus of
Boatra, and Sabelliue. See the articles on the here
sies named and their representatives.
In antagonism to these heresies, the Church taught the full divinity of Christ (against Ebionism and rationalistic Monarchianism),
2. The his full humanity (against Gnosticism
Church and Manicheiem), and his independent
Doctrine. personality (against Patripassianiam and Sabellianism). The dogma was developed in close connection with the dogma of the Trinity, which resulted, by logical neces9ity, from the deity of Christ and the deity of the Holy Spirit on the basis of the fundamental truth of Monotheism.
The ante‑Nine christology passed through many obstructions, loose statements, uncertain conjectures and speculations; but the instinct and main current of the Church was steadily toward the Nicene and Chalcedonian creed‑state‑

61	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	ChrLtolosy
menta, especially if the worship and devotional
life as well	as the theological literature be con
	sidered. Christ was the object of
8. The worship, prayer, and praise from the Divinity of very beginning, as moat be inferred Christ Con‑ fpm such passages of the New Testa‑
sisteatly
	gig,	ment as John xx. 28; Acts vii. 59, 60,
		ix. 14, 21; I Cor. i. 2; Phil. ii. 10;
Heb. i. 6; I John v. 13‑15; Rev. v. 6‑13; from
the heathen testimony of Pliny the Younger con
cerning the singing of hymns to Christ as God
(" Carmen Christo quasi, Des dicers," Epist., x. 97);
from the " Gloria in Excelais," which was the
daily morning hymn of the Eastern Church as early
as the second century; from the " Tersanctua ";
from the Hymn of Clement of Alexandria to the
divine Logos (Pcedagogus, iii. 12); from the state
ments of Origen (Contra Celsuna, viii. 67) and
Eusebius (Hilt. eccl., v. 28); and from many other
testimonies. Christ was believed to be divine, and
adored as divine, before he was clearly taught to
be divine. The ante‑Nicene rules of faith as they
are found in the writings of Irena:us, Origen,
Tertullian, Cyprian, etc., are in essential agree
ment among themselves and with the Apostles'
Creed, as it appears, first in the fourth century,
especially at Rome and Aquileia. (Cf. Rufinus, De
symbolo.) They all confess the divine‑human
character of Christ as the chief object of the Chris
tian faith, but in the form of facts, and in simple,
popular style, not in the form of doctrinal or logical
statement. The Nicene Creed is much more ex
plicit and dogmatic in consequence of the preceding
contest with heresy; but the substance of the faith
is the same in the Nicene and Apostles' Creeds.
(For these Ante‑Nicene Rules of Faith, cf. Schaff,
Creeds, ii. 11‑45.)
8. Theological Speculations: In the apostolic Fathers only simple practical, Biblical statements are found, with reminiscences of apostolic preaching for the purposes of edification. Ignatius of Antioch calls Christ God without qualification (Ad Ephes., vii. 18; cf. Ad Rom., vi.). Polycarp calls him "the eternal Son of God " (Ad Phil., ii. 8), and associates him in his last prayer with the Father and the Spirit (Martyrium. Polycarpi,, xiv.). The theological speculation on the person of Christ began with Justin Martyr, and was carried on by Clement of Alexandria and Origen, in the East; by Irenssus, Hippolytus, and Tertullian, in the West.
	Justin Martyr (d. 166) takes up the Johannean
Logos idea, which proved a very fruitful germ
of theological speculation. It was prepared by the
Old Testament personification of the word and
wisdom of God, assumed an idealistic shape in
Philo of Alexandria, and reached a realistic com
		pletion in St. John, although it is not
1. Justin likely that John's had anything more
	Martyr.	in common with Philo's idea than the
		name "Logos." Following the sugges
tion of the double meaning of the Greek logos (ratio
and oratio), Justin distinguishes in the Logos two
elements‑the immanent and the transitive; the
revelation of God ad infra, and the revelation
ad extra. He teaches the procession of the Logos
from the free will (not the essence) of God by gen
eration, without division or diminution of the divine
substance. This begotten Logos he conceives as a
hypostatical being, a person distinct from the
Father, and subordinate to him. He coordinates
God, the Son, and the prophetic Spirit, as objects
of Christian worship (APoI., i. 6). Peculiar is his
doctrine of the logos spermotikos, the " ° seminal
Logos," or the Word disseminated among men,
i.e., Christ before the incarnation, who scattered
elements of truth and virtue among the heathen
philosophers and poets, although they did not
know it.
Clement of Alexandria (d. 220) sees in the Logos the ultimate principle of all existence (without beginning, and timeless), the revealer 2. Clement of the Father, the sum of all intelli‑
	ot Ales‑	gents and wisdom, the personal truth,
		the author of the world, the source of
		light and life, the educator of the
race, who at last became man to make us par
takers of his divine nature. Like some other
ante‑Nicene Fathers (Justin Martyr, Tertullian,
and Origen), he conceived the outward appear
ance of Christ's humanity in the state of humilia
tion to have been literally without form or come
liness (Isa. liii. 2, 3); but he had made a distinction
between two kinds of beauty‑the outward beauty
of the flesh, which soon fades away; and the moral
beauty of the soul, which is permanent, and shone
even through the servant form of our Lord (Pada
gogus, iii. 1).
Origen (d. 254) felt the whole weight of the chriatological problem, but obscured it by foreign speculations, and prepared the way both for the Aria,n heresy and the Athanasian orthodoxy, though more fully for the latter. On the one baud he closely approaches the Nicene homoousion by bringing the Son into union with the essence of the Father, and ascribing to him the attribute of eternity. He is, properly,
8. Ortsen. the author of the Nicene doctrine of eternal generation of the Son from the essence of the Father (though he usually represents the generation as an act of the will of the Father). But, on the other hand, he teaches subordinationiem by calling the Son simply " God," and " a second God," but not "the God" (ho these or autos theca). In his views on the humanity of Christ, he approached the semi‑Gnostic Dooetism, snd ascribed to the glorified body of Christ ubiquity (in which he was followed by Gregory of Nyesa). His enemies charged him with teaching a double Christ (answering to the lower Jesus, and the higher Sour of the Gnostics), and a merely temporary validity of the body of the Redeemer. As to the relation of the two natures in Christ, he was the first to use the term " God‑man " and to apply the favorite illustration of fire heating and penetrating the iron, without altering its character.
The Western Church was not so fruitful is speculation, but, upon the whole, sounder and more self‑consistent. The key‑note was struck by Irenaeus (d. 202), who, though of Eastern origin, spent his active life in the south of France. He carries special weight as a pupil of Polycarp of

ChrLtoioey	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	52
Smyrna, and through him a grand‑pupil of St. John, the inspired master. He likewise uses the terms " Logos " and " Son of God" interchangeably, and concedes the distinction, made also by the Valentinians, between the inward and the uttered word, in reference to man; but contests the application of it to God, who is above 4. Irenesuo. all antitheses, absolutely simple and unchangeable, and in whom before and after, thinking and speaking, coincide. He repudiates also speculative or a priori attempts to explain the derivation of the Son from the Father. This he holds to be an incomprehensible mystery. He is content to define the actual distinction between Father and Son by saying that the former is God revealing himself; the latter, God revealed. The one is the ground of revelation; the other is the actual, appearing revelation itself. Hence he calls the Father " the invisible of the Son "; and the Son; " the visible of the Father." He discriminates most rigidly the conceptions of generation and of creation. The Son, though begotten of the Father, is still, like him, distinguished from the created world as increate‑without beginning, and eternal; all plainly showing that Irena;us is much nearer the Nine dogma of the essential identity of the Son with the Father than Justin Martyr and the Alexandrians. When, as he does in several passages, he still subordinates the Son to the Father, he is certainly inconsistent, and that for want of an accurate distinction between the eternal Logos and the incarnate Christ. Expressions like " My Father is greater than I," which apply only ,to the Christ of history, in the state of humiliation, he refers also, like Justin and Origen, to the eternal Logos. On the other hand, he is charged with leaning in the opposite directiontoward the Sabellian and Patripassian views‑but unjustly. Apart from his frequent want of precision in expression, he steers in general, with sure Biblical and churchly tact, equally clear of both extremes, and asserts alike the essential unity and the eternal personal distinction of the Father and the Son. He vindicates at length the true and full humanity of Christ against the Docetism of the Gnostic schools. Christ must be man, like us in body, soul, and spirit, though without sin if he would redeem us from sin, and make us perfect. He is the second Adam, the absolute, universal man, the prototype and summing up of the whole race. He also teaches a close union of the divinity and humanity in Christ, in which the former is the active principle, and the seat of personality, the latter the passive and receptive principle.
Tertullian (about 220) can not escape the charge of subordinationism. He bluntly calls the Father the whole divine substance, and the Son a part of it, illustrating their relation by the figures of the fountain and the stream, the sun and the beam. He would not have two suns, he says; but he might call Christ God, as Paul does in Rom. ix. 5. The sunbeam, too, in itself considered, may be called sun, but not the sun a beam. Sun and beam are two distinct things (species) in one essence (substantia), as God and the World, as the Father and the Son. But figurative language moat not be
taken too strictly, and it moat be remembered that Tertullian was especially interested to distinguish
the Son from the Father, in oppo6. Tertal‑ eition to the Patripasaian Praxeas.
	lien.	In other respects he did the Church
		christology material service. He pro
pounds a threefold hypoatatical existence of the
Son (filiatio): (1) The preexistent, eternal imma
nence of the Son in the Father, they being as in
separable as reason and word in man, who was
created in the image of God, and hence in a measure
reflects his being; (2) the coming forth of the Son
with the Father for the purpose of the creation;
(3) the manifestation of the Son in the world by
the incarnation. He advocates the entire yet sin
less humanity of Christ, against both the Docetistic
Gnostics (Adv. Mareioreem and De carne Christi)
and the Patripaesiana (Adv. Praxeam). He ac
cuses the former of making Christ, who is all truth,
a half lie, and, by the denial of his flesh, resolving
all his work in the flesh into an empty show. He
urges against the latter that God the Father is
incapable of suffering and change. Professor War
field (see bibliography) lays much stress upon the
definition which Tertullian gives of the Trinity,
and regards Tertullian rather than Origen as the
real father of the Christian doctrine of the Trinity.
Dionysius, bishop of Rome (262), came nearest the Nicene view. He maintained distinctly, in
e. Dio‑ the controversy with Dionyaius of
nysins Alexandria, the unity of essence and
of Rome. the threefold personal distinction of
Father, Son, and Spirit, in opposition to Sabellianiam, tritheiam, and subordinationiam. His view is embodied in a fragment preserved by Athanasius (De sententiis Dionysii, iv., and Routh, Reliquics sacrx, iii., Oxford, 1846, p. 384).
III. The Nicene Christology, from 325 to 381: This is the result of the struggle with Arianism and semi‑Arianism, which agitated the Eastern Church for more than half a century. The Arian heresy denied the strict deity of Christ (his coequality with the Father), and taught that he is a subordinate divinity, different in essence from God (Gk. hetero‑ousios), preexisting before the world, yet not eternal (" there was a time when he was not "), himself a creature of the will of God out of nothing (Gk. ktisma ex ouk ontbn), who created this present world, and became incarnate for our salvation: Semi‑Arianism held as untenable middle ground between the Arian hetero‑ovsia and the orthodox homo‑ouusid, or coequality of the Son with the Father, and asserted the hpmoi‑ousid, or similarity of essence, which was a very elastic term, and might be contracted into an Arian, or stretched into an orthodox, sense, according to the general spirit and tendency of the men who held it.
In opposition to these heresies, Athanasius of Alexandria (" the father of orthodoxy ") and the three Cappadocian bishops‑Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Gregory of Nyssa‑maintained and defended with superior ability, vigor, and perseverance, the horiw‑ousia, i.e., the essential oneness of the Son with the Father, or his eternal divinity, as the corner‑atone of the whole Christian system. This doctrine triumphed in the councils

58	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Ohrietolosy
of NicEea (325) and Constantinople (381), and is expressed in the Nicaeno‑Conatantinopolitan Creed, which has stood ever since‑.like an immovable rock:

" (We believe) in one Lord Jesus Christ, the onlybegotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all worlds [God of God], Light of Light, Very God of Very God, Begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father; by whom all things were made; who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Ghost of the Virgin Mary," etc.

See ARIANISM; ATHANAaIUO; CONBTANTINOPOLITAN CREED; NICIEA, COUNCILS OF.
IV. The Chalcedoniaa Christology : This finds its normal expression in the Chalcedonian statement of 45), (see below, § 2). It was the answer of the orthodox Church to the heresies relating to the proper constitution of Christ's divine‑human person, of which the chief were three, viz., (1) Apollinarianiam, a partial denial of the humanity of Christ. Apollinaris (the Younger) of Laodicea (q.v.; d. 390), on the basis of the Platonic trichotomy, ascribed to Christ a human body (Gk. soma) and animal soul (Psyche alogos), but not a human spirit or reason (psyche logike, noes, pneuma); he put the divine Logos in the place of 1' An the rational soul, and thus substituted
Answer a theos sarkophoros for a real theanto
	Heresies.	thr6pos‑a mixed middle being for a
		divine‑human person. From this er
ror it follows, either that the rational soul of man
was not redeemed, or that it needed no redemption.
(2) Nestorianiam (from Nestorius, patriarch of
Constantinople, d. in exile 440; see NEBTORIUS)
admitted the full deity and the full humanity of
Christ, but put them into loose mechanical con
junction, or affinity (Gk. synapheia), rather than a
vital and personal union (henosis); and hence it
objected to the unscriptural term " mother of God "
(Gk. theotokos, Lat. Deipara), as applied to the Vir
gin Mary, while willing to call her " mother of
Christ " (Christotokos). (3) Eutychianism (from
Eutychea, presbyter at Constantinople, d. after
451; see EUTYCHIANLSM) is the very opposite of
Neatorianism, and sacrificed the distinction of the
two natures in Christ to the unity of the person i
to such an extent as to make the incarnation an
absorption of the human nature by the divine, or a
deification of human nature, even of the body:
hence the Eutychiana thought it proper to use the
phrases " God is born," " God suffered," " God
was crucified," "God died."
The third and fourth ecumenical councils (Epheaus, 431, and Chalcedon, 451) settled the question
	of the precise relation of the two na
g. The	tures in Christ's person. The decree of
Chaloe‑	the Council of Ephesus, under thelead
doniaa	of the violent Cyril of Alexandria, was
13tate
ment.	merely negative, a condemnation of
	the error of Nestorius, and leaned a
little toward the opposite error of Eutychea. Nes
torianism triumphed temporarily in the " Robber
Synod " of Ephesus, in 449, under the lead of
Dioacurua of Alexandria, who inherited all the
bad, and none of the good, qualities of his prede
cessor, Cyril. But Dyophysitism reasserted itself;
and Dioscurun and Eutyches were condemned by
the Council of Chalcedon. This council gave s clear and full statement of the orthodox christology as follows (for Greek and Latin text and. notes, cf. Schaff, Creeds, ii. 62‑65):

" Following the holy Fathers, we all with one consent teach men to confess one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, the same perfect in Godhead and also perfect in Manhood; truly God and truly man, of s reasonable [rational] soul and body; consubstantial [coequal] with the Father according to the Godhead, and consubstantial with us seconding to the Manhood; in all things like unto us, without sin, begotten before all ages of the Father according to the Godhead, and in these latter days, for us and for our salvation, born of the Virgin Mary, the Mother of God, according to the Manhood; one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, Only‑begotten, to be acknowledged in two natures, £nconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably: the distinction of natures being by no means taken away by the union but rather the property of each nature being preserved, and concurring in one Person and one Subsistence, not parted or divided into two Persona, but one and the same Son, and only‑begotten, God the Word, the Lord Jesus Christ; as the prophets from the beginning [have declared] concerning him, and the Lord Jesus Christ himself has taught us, and the Creed of the holy Fathers has handed down to us."
The same doctrine is set forth in a more condensed form in the second part of the Symbolism Qacicunque, or the so‑called Athanasian Creed (for text and trans]., with notes, cf. Schaff, Creeds, ii. 66‑71; see ATHANA6IAN CREED).
V. The Post‑Chalcedonies Christology: The Chalcedonian decision did not stop the controversy, and called for a supplementary statement concerning the two wills of Christ, corresponding to the two natures. Eutychianism revived in the
form of Monophysitiem (nee MONOPHY1. mono‑ srrES), or the doctrine that Christ had physitiem, but one composite nature (Gk. mia
physic synthetos or mia physic dine). It makes the humanity of Christ a mere accident of the immutable divine substance. The liturgical shibboleth of the Monophysites was " God has been crucified," and they even introduced the idea into the Trisagion (q.v.); hence they are also called Theopaschiten (from theos, " God," and paschxin, " to suffer "). The tedious Monophysite controversies convulsed the Eastern Church for more than a hundred years, weakened its power, and facilitated the conquest of Mohammedanism. The fifth ecumenical council (553) made a partial concession to the Monophyaites, but did not reconcile them. They separated, like the Nestorians, from the orthodox Greek Church, and' continue to this day under various names and organizations‑the Jacobites in Syria, the Copts in Egypt, the Abyssinians, and the Armenians.
Closely connected with Monophysitiem was Monothelitism (see MONOTHELITES), or the doctrine that Christ had but one will, as he had but one person. The orthodox maintained that will is an attribute of nature, rather than of person, and consequently that Christ had two wills‑a . human
will and a divine will‑both working 2. Mono‑ in harmony. The Monothelite conthelitiam. troversy lasted from 633 to 680. The
Emperor Heraclius proposed a compromise formula‑one divine‑human energy (mia theandrike energeia); but it was opposed in the West. The sixth ecumenical council condemned

Chriatoloffy
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
the Monothelite heresy, and repeated the Chalcedonian Creed, with the following supplement concerning the two wills (cf. Schaff, Creeds, ii. 72‑73):

.. And we likewise preach two natural wills is him [Jesus Christ], and tvoo natural operations undivided, inconvertible, inseparable, unmized, according to the doctrine of the holy Fathers; and the two natural wills [are] not contrary (far from it), as the impious heretics assert, but his human will follows the divine will, and is not resisting or reluctant, but rather subject to his divine and omnipotent will. For it was proper that the will of the flesh should be moved, but be subjected to the divine will, according to the wise Athanasiue. '
The same council condemned Pope Honorius I. (625‑638) as a Monothelite heretic, and his successors confirmed its decision. Monothelitism continued among the Maronitea on Mount Lebanon, who, however, afterward submitted to the Roman Church, as well as among the Monophysites, who are all Monothelites.
	With the sixth ecumenical council closes the de
velopment of the ancient Catholic chriatology.
		The Adoption controversy (see Anor‑
g, Adop‑ xrornsns), which arose in Spain and
	tioairm.	France toward the close of the eighth
		century, turned upon the question
whether Christ as man was the Son of God by nature
(naturaditer), or simply by adoption (nuncupative).
The Adoptioniata maintained the latter, and shifted
the whole idea of sonehip from the person to whom
it belongs to the nature. Their theory was a modi
fication of the Nestorian error, and was condemned
in a synod at Frankfort, 794; but it did not result
in a positive addition to the creed statements.
The scholastic theology of the Middle Ages made no progress in chriatology, and confined itself to a dialectical analysis and defense
4. The Me‑ of the Chalcedonian dogma, with a
dieval one‑sided reference to the divine naChnroh. tore of Christ. John of Damascus in the East, and Thomas Aquinas in the West, were the ablest exponents of the Chalcedonian dogma. The medieval Church almost forgot, over the glorious divinity of our Lord, his real humanity (except his passion), and substituted for it virtually the worship of the Virgin Mary, who seemed to appeal more tenderly and effectively to all the human sensibilities and sympathies of the heart than the exalted Savior.
VI. The Ecumenical Christology (i.e., the christology taught in common by the doctrinal standards of the Greek, Latin, and Evangelical Protestant Churches).
1. Its Leading Ideas: These may be stated as follows: (1) A true incarnation of the Logos, i.e., the second person in the Godhead (Gk. enanthropenis theott, ensarkasis too logott, Lat. incarnalio verb9,). This is an actual assumption of the whole human nature‑body, soul, and spirit‑into an abiding union with the divine personality of the eternal Logos, so that they constitute, from the moment of the supernatural conception, one undivided life. The incarnation is neither a conversion or transmutation of the divine nature into the human nature, nor a conversion of man into God, and consequent absorption of the one, nor a confusion (Gk. krasis, synchysis) of the two.
On the other hand, it is not a mere indwelling (Gk. enoikesia, Lat. inhabitatio) of the one in the other, nor an outward, transitory connection (Gk. synapheia, Lat. .conjunctio) of the two factors. (2) The distinction between nature and person. Nature or substance (essence, Gk. oasis) denotes the totality of powers and qualities which constitute a being; while person (Gk. hypostasis, Prosbpon) is the ego, the self‑conscious, self‑asserting, and acting subject. The Logos assumed, not a human person (else we should have two persona‑‑a divine and a human), but human nature, which is common to us all. (3) The God‑man (Gk. theanthr8pos) as the result of the incarnation. Christ is not a (Neatorian) double being, with two persona, nor a compound (Apollinarian or Monophysite) middle being, a tertium quid, partly divine and partly human; but he is one person, at once wholly divine and 'wholly human. (4) The duality of the natures. The orthodox doctrine maintains, against Eutychianiam, the distinction of natures, even after the act of incarnation, without confusion or conversion (Gk. asynchytiia and atreptba, Lat. inconfuse and immutabiliter), yet, on the other hand, without division or separation (Gk. adiairetds and achzristbs, Lat. indivise and inseparabiliter); so that the divine will ever remain divine, and the human ever human; and yet the two have continually one common life, and interpenetrate each other; like the persons of the Trinity (Gk. Pericharwsis). According to a familiar figure, the divine nature pervades the human as the fire pervades the iron. Christ has all the properties which the .Father has, except the property of being unbegotten; and he has all the properties which the first Adam had before the fall; he has, therefore (according to John of Damascus), two consciouanesaes and two physical wills, or faculties of self‑determination (Gk. autexousia). This is the extreme border to which the doctrine of two natures can be carried, without an assertion of two full personalities; and it is almost impossible to draw the line. (5) The unity of the person (Gk. heraasis kath' hypostasin, henZ:sis hypostatiko, Lat. unio hypoatatica or unio personalis). The union of the divine and human nature in Christ is a permanent state, resulting from the incarnation, and is a real, supernatural, personal, and inseparable union, in distinction from an essential absorption or confusion, or from a mere moral union, or from a mystical union, such as holds between the believer and Christ. The two natures constitute but one personal life, and yet remain distinct. " The same who is true God," says Pope Leo I. in his famous Epistle, which anticipated the decision of Chalcedon, " is also true man; and in this unity there is no deceit, for in it the lowliness of man and the majesty of God perfectly pervade one another . . . . Because the two natures make only one person, we read, on the one hand, ` The Son of man came down from heaven' (John iii. 13), while yet the Son of God took flesh from the Virgin; and, on the other hand, ` The Son of God was crucified and buried,' while yet he suffered, not in his Godhead, as coeternal and consubstantial with the Father,

66	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	ahristolo6r
but in the weakness of human nature." (6) The whole work of Christ is to be attributed to his person, and not to the one or the other nature exclusively. The person is the acting subject; the nature, the organ or medium. It is the one divine‑human person of Christ that wrought miracles by virtue of his divine nature, and that suffered through the aensorium of his human nature. The superhuman effect and infinite merit of the Redeemer's work must be ascribed to his person, because of his divinity; while it is his humanity alone that made him capable of, and liable to, temptation, suffering, and death, and renders him an example for our imitation. (7) The Anhypostdsia, or, more accurately, the Enhypostasia (Impersonality), of the human nature of Christ. The meaning is that Christ's human nature had no independent personality of its own, and that the divine nature is the root and basis of his personality. His humanity was enhypoatatized through union with the Logos, or incorporated into his personality. The Synod of Chalcedon says nothing of this feature; it was an afterthought developed by John of Damascus. It seems inconsistent with the dyotheletic theory; for a being with consciousness and will has the two essential elements of personality, while an impersonal will seems to be a mere animal instinct. Ritachl (justification and Reconciliation, New York, 1900, p. 437) says: " That the divine revealing Word constitutes the form, and the human individual the substance, of the person of Christ . . . is what in the end the doctrine of the Greek Church comes to. For the theory of the anhypoatasis of the human nature in Christ . . . is intelligible only if the Divine Logos is the form in which this human individual exists, outside of which he has no real existence at all. For the form is the basis of reality."
2. Criticism: The Chalcedonian chriatology is regarded by the Greek and Roman, and by the majority of the orthodox English and American theologians, as the highest chriatological knowl‑
1. Favor‑ edge attainable in this world. Dr.
able oyin‑ Shedd (History of Christian Doctrine,
	ions.	i., New York, 1863, p. 408) thinks it
		probable that " the human mind is
unable to go beyond it in the endeavor to unfold
the mystery of Christ's complex person." Dr.
Hodge (Systematic Theology, ii., New York, 1872,
pp. 397 sqq.) notice and criticizes several of the
more recent " erroneous and heretical doctrines,"
but holds to the Chalcedonian statement as adopted
by the scholastic Calvinists of the seventeenth
century.
On the other hand, the Chalcedonian chrietology has been subjected to a rigorous criticism in Germany by Evangelical as well as rationalistic divines‑by Schleiermacher, Baur, Dorner, Rothe, and the modern Kenoticists, also by Ritechl and his followers, and by! Professor Pains in America. It is charged with a defective psychology, and now with dualism, now with docetiem, according as its distinction of two natures or the personal unity is made its most prominent feature. It is said to oscillate between two extremes, without truly recoa‑
citing them;	as the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity
stands between tritheiam and modaliam, now leaning
to the one, now to the other, when either the tri
personality or the union is emphasized. It assumes
two natures in one person; while the dogma of the
Trinity assumes three persona in one nature.
Professor Pains (Critical History of the Evolution
of Trinilarianism, Boston, 1900, p. 279) marvels
"'how such	a bald antinomy, Christ wholly God
and wholly man, could have been adopted by theo
logians who	were adepts in the Aristotelian and
Platonic philosophies." Again he speaks of the
Chalcedonian chriatology as " an unhistorical and
unscientific	violation of logical and psychological
laws." The	Chalcedonian definition, it is further
	objected, teaches a complete human
	2. alxieo‑	nature with reason and will, and yet
	dons and	denies it personality. It does not do
		justice to the genuine humanity of
		jcisms.	Cwt in the Gospels, and to all those
passages which assert its real growth. 1t over
shadows the human by the divine. It puts the
final result at the beginning, and ignores the inter
vening process. If we read the Gospel history, we
find that Christ was a helpless infant on his mother's
breast‑and therefore not omnipotent till after
the resurrection, when " all authority in heaven and
on earth " was given unto him (Matt. xaviii. 18); he
grew in wisdom, and learned obedience (Luke ii.
40; Heb. v. 8), and was ignorant of the day of
judgment (Mark xiii. 32), therefore not omniscient;
he moved from place to place, and was therefore
not omnipresent before his ascension to heaven;
be was destitute of his divine glory, which he was
to regain after his death (John avii. 5). To con
fine these limitations and imperfections to his
human nature, while in his divine nature he was,
at one and the same time, omnipotent, omniscient,
and omnipresent, even in the manger and on the
cross, is to destroy the personal unity of life, and
to make two Chriats. How can ignorance and omni
science simultaneously coexist in one and the same
mind? How can one and the same individual per
vade and rule the universe in the same moment in
which he exclaims, " My God, my God, why heat
thou forsaken me? " Christ speaks and acts
throughout as one undivided ego. We must, there
fore, so reconstruct or improve the Chalcedonian
chriatology as to conform it to the historical realness
of his humanity, to the full meaning of his own
sayings concerning himself, and to all the facts
of his life. This is generally felt among the Evan
gelical theologians in Germany, where christo
logical speculation has been moat active since the
Reformation, and by not a few in other countries.
If anything has resulted from the multitude of
lives of Christ, written by learned and able men in
the nineteenth century, it is the fact of the perfect
and unique divine‑human personality of Jesus of
Nazareth (cf. some good remarks on thin subject
by Dr. J. 0. Dykes, in the Expository Times, Jan.,
1906, pp. 151 eqq. ).
At the same time the Chalcedonian dogma is the ripest fruit of the chriatological apecnlsvtions and controversies of the ancient Church, and can never be lost. It gave the clearest eaprea‑

ahristolosv	THE NEW SC$AFF‑HERZOG	68
eion to the faith in the incarnation for ages to come. It saves the full idea of the God‑man as to
the essential elements, however imperS. Reel fect the form in which it is cast. It
Value.	defines with sound religious judgment
the boundary‑line which separates christological truth from chriatologieal error. It guards against two opposite dangers‑the Scylla of Nestorian dualism, and the Charybdis of Eutycliiaa Monophysitism, or against au abstract separation of the divine and human, and an absorption of the human by the divine. It excludes also every kind of mixture of the two natures which would result in a being which is neither divine nor human. With these safeguards, theological speculation may boldly and hopefully move on, and penetrate, if possible, deeper and deeper into the central truth of Christianity.
VII. The Orthodox Protestant Chrlstology: The churches of the Reformation (Lutheran, Anglican, and Calvinistic) adopted in their confessions of faith, either is form or in substance, the three ecumenical creeds, and with them the ancient Catholic doctrines of the Trinity and of Christ's divinehuman character and work. They condemned the old and new Antitrinitariana, and the peculiar doctrine of the Sociniane‑that Christ was raised by his own merit to a participation in the divine honor and dignity. The Unitarians, like the Anabaptists, were everywhere (except in Poland sad Transylvania) imprisoned, exiled, or executed; and the unfortunate Servetus was burned as a heretic under the eyes of Calvin and with the approval of the mild Bullinger and Melanehthon. The following are the relevant passages from the principal Protestant confessions.
The Augsburg Confession of the Lutherstn Church (1530), Art. iii. (De Filio Dei):
" The Word, that is, the Bon of God, took unto him man's nature in the womb of the blessed Virgin Mary, so that there are two natures, the divine and the human, inseparably joined together in unity of person; one Christ, true God and true man: who was born of the Virgin Mary, truly suffered, was crucified, dead, and buried."
The Second Helvetic Confession, by Bullinger (1566), chap. xi.:
" There are in one and the same Jesus Christ our Lord, two natures, the divine and the human nature; and we say that these two are so conjoined or united that they are not swallowed up, confounded, or mingled together, but rather united or joined together in one person, the properties of each nature being safe and remaining still: so that we do worship one Christ our Lord, and not two; I say, one, true, God and man; as touching his divine nature, of the same substance with the Father, and as touching his human nature, of the same substance with us, and ' like unto us in all things, sin only excepted., 11
The Thirty‑nine Articles of the Church of England, Art. ii.:
" The Bon, which is the Word of the Father, begotten from everlasting of the Father, the very and eternal God, and of one substance with the Father, took man's nature in the womb of the blessed Virgin, of her substance; so that two whole and perfect natures, that is to say, the Godhead and Manhood were joined together in one person, never to be divided, whereof is one Christ, very God and fiery man; who truly suffered, was crucified, dead, and buried."
The Westminster Confession, chap. viii., § 2:
" The Bon of God, the second person in the Trinity being
very and eternal God, of one substance and equal with the Father, did when the fulness of time was come, take upon him man's nature with all the essential properties and common infirmities thereof, yet without sin, being conceived by the Holy Ghost in the womb of the Virgin Mary, of her substance: so that two whole, perfect, and distinct natures, the Godhead and the Manhood, were inseparably joined together in one person, without conversion, composition, or confusion. Which person is very God and very man, yet one Christ, the only Mediator between God and men."
The Westminster Shorter Catechism, which is famous for clear and terse definitions, says (Qu. sxi.):
" The only Redeemer of God's elect is the Lord Jesus Christ, who being the eternal Bon of God, became man, and so was, and oontinueth to be, God and man, in two distinct natures, and one person forever."
VIII. The Scholastic Lutheran Chrietology: On the general basis of the Chalcedonian christology, and following the indications of the Scriptures as the only rule of faith, the Protestant, especially the Lutheran, scholastics, at the close of the sixteenth, and during the seventeenth, century, built some additional features, and developed new aspects of Christ's person. The propelling cause was the Lutheran doctrine of the real presence or omnipresence of Christ's body in the Lord's Supper, and the controversies growing out of it with the ZWlngliane and Calvinists, and among the Lutherans themselves (see LORD'S SUPPER; LUTHER; ZWINOLI; BRENZ;, CHEMNITZ; etc.). These new features relate to the communion of the two natures, and to the states and the offices of Christ. The first was the production of the Lutheran Church, and was never adopted, but partly rejected, by the Reformed; the second and third were the joint doctrines of both, but with a very material difference in the understanding of the second.
	1. The aommnnioatio Idiomatnm: The com
munication of attributes or properties (Gk. idia
mata, Lat. proprietdtes) of one nature to the other,
or to the whole person. It is derived from the unio
Personalis and the communio naturarum. The Lu
theran divines distinguish three kinds or genera:
(1) The genus zdiomatieum (or idiopoietikon),
whereby the properties of one nature are trans
ferred and applied to the whole person, for which
are quoted such passages as Rom. i. 3; I Pet. iii.
18, iv. 1. (2) The genus apotelesmotieum (koino
pol'elikon), whereby the redemptory functions and
actions which belong to the whole person (the
apotelesmata) are predicated only of one or the
other nature (I Tim. ii. 5‑6; Heb. i. 2 3). (3)
The genus auchematicum, or majestaticum, where
by the human nature is clothed with and mag
nified by the attributes of the divine nature
(John iii. 13, v. 27; Matt. xzviii. 18, 20; Rom. ix.
5; Phil. ii. 10). Under this head the Lutheran
Church claims a certain ubiquity or omnipresence
for the body of Christ, on the ground of the personal
union of the two natures; but as to the extent of
this omnipresence there were two distinct schools
which are both represented in the Formula o f Concord
(1577). Brenz and the Swabian Lutherans main
tained an absolute ubiquity of Christ's humanity
from his very infancy, thus making the incarnation
not only an assumption of the human nature, but
also a deification of it, although the divine attri‑

67	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Chrietoiosy
butes were admitted to have been concealed during the state of humiliation. Chemnitz and the Saxon divines called this view a monstrosity, and taught only a relative ubiquity, depending on Christ's will (hence called voliprcesentia, or multivoliprcesentia), who may be present with his whole person wherever he pleases to be or has promised to be. (4) A fourth kind would be the genus kenoticum (from kenasis), or Lapeinotieum (from tapeinasis), Phil. ii. 7, 8; i.e., a communication of the properties of the human nature to the divine nature. But this is decidedly rejected by the old Lutherans as inconsistent with the unchangeableness of the divine nature, and as a " horrible and blasphemous " doctrine (Formula of Concord, p. 612), but is asserted by the modern Kenoticists (see below, IX.).
The Reformed divines never committed themselves to the communicatio idiomatum as a whole (although they might approve the first two kinds, at least by way of what Zwingli termed allai8sis, or a rhetorical exchange of one part for another); and they decidedly rejected the third kind, because omnipresence, whether absolute or relative, is inconsistent with the necessary limitation of a human body, as well as with the Scripture facts of Christ's ascension to heaven, and promised return. The third genus can never be fully carried out, unless the humanity of Christ is also eternalized. The attributes, moreover, are not an outside appendix, but inherent qualities of the substance to which they belong, and inseparable from it. Hence a communication of attributes would imply a communication or mixture of natures. The divine and human natures can indeed hold free and intimate intercourse with each other; but the divine nature can never be transformed into the human, nor the human nature into the divine. Christ possessed all the attributes of both natures; but the natures, nevertheless, remain separate and distinct. See COMMUNICATIO IDIOMATTJM.
2. The Doctrine of the Twofold State of Christ: This is the state of humiliation and the state of exaltation. This doctrine is based upon Phil. ii. 5‑9, and is substantially true. The state of humiliation embraces the supernatural conception, birth, circumcision, education, earthly life, passion, death, and burial of Christ; the state of exaltation includes the resurrection, ascension, and the sitting at the right hand of God.
But here, again, the two confessions differ very considerably. First as to the descent into Hades. The Lutherans regarded it as a triumph over hell, and made it the first stage of exaltation; while the Reformed divines viewed it as the last stage of the state of humiliation. It is properly the turning‑point from the one state to the other, and thus belong to both (see DESCENT of CHRIST INTO HELL). Secondly, the Lutheran Creed refers the two states only to the human nature of Christ, regarding the divine as not susceptible of any humiliation or exaltation. The Reformed divines refer them to both natures; so that Christ's human nature was in a state of humiliation as compared with its future exaltation, and his divine nature was in the state of humiliation as to its ex‑
ternal manifestation (ratione occultationis). With them the incarnation itself is the beginning of the state of humiliation, while the Lutheran symbols exclude the incarnation from the humiliation. Finally, the Lutherans regard the humiliation only as a partial concealment of the actual use (Gk. kryPsis chreseos) of the divine attributes by the incarnate Logos.
The proper exegesis of the classical passage, Phil. ii. 7 aqq., decides here in favor of the Reformed, and against the Lutheran theory. The kenasis, or self‑humiliation, can not refer to the incarnate Logos, who never was " in the form of God," but must refer to the preexistent Logos (the Logos asarkos). This is admitted by the Greek Fathers, and by the best modern commentators, Lutheran as well as Reformed. (Cf. quotations in Schaff, Creeds, i. 328‑329, and see JESUS CHRIST, TwoFOLD STATE OF.)
S. The Threefold Oboe of Christ‑: (a) The prophetical office (munus, or officium prophetieum) includes teaching and the miracles of Christ. (b) The priestly office (munus sacerdotale) consists of the satisfaction made for the sins of the world by the death on the cross, and in the continued intercession of the exalted Savior for his people (redemptio et intercessio sacerdotalis). (c) The kingly office (munus regium), whereby Christ founded his kingdom, defends his Church against all enemies, and rules all things in heaven and on earth. The old divines distinguish between the reign of nature (regnum natures sine potentics), which embraces all things; the reign of grace (regnum gratics), which relates to the Church militant on earth; and the reign of glory (regnum glori~e), which belongs to the Church triumphant in heaven. The threefold office or function of Christ was first presented by Eusebius of Caesarea. The theologians who followed Luther and Melanchthon down to the middle of the seventeenth century treat Christ's saving work under the two heads of king and priest. Calvin, in the first edition of his " Institutes " (1536), did the same, and it was not till the third edition (1559) and the Genevan Catechism that he fully presented the three offices. This convenient threefold division of the office of Christ was used by the theologians of both confessions during the seventeenth century. Ernesti opposed it, but Schleiermacher restored it. See JESUS CHRIST, THREEFOLD OFFICE OF.
1X. The genosis Controversy Between Giessen and Tiibingen: This is the last chapter in the development of the orthodox Lutheran christology on the basis of the Formula of Concord. It arose in the early part of the seventeenth century, between the Lutheran divines of the universities of Giessen and Tiibingen over the Kenosis and KryPsis ; that is, over the question whether Christ, in the state of humiliation, entirely abstained from the use of his divine attributes (kenosis, abstinentia ab vsu, Phil. ii. 7), or whether he used them secretly (kryPsis). The divines of Giessen (Balthasar Mentzer, his son‑in‑law Feuerborn, and Winkehnann) defended the Kenotic; those of Tiibingen (Thumm, Hafenreffer, Osiander, Nicolai), the cryptic view. Both schools were agreed as to the possession of the

ahristolocy	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	58
divine attributes by Christ, including omnipotence, omniscience, and omnipresence, during all the stages of his humiliation, and differed only as to the use (chreais) of them‑whether it was a kryPsis chreseda (a concealed use), or a kenosis chr8seds (a non‑use). The cryptic view of Tiibingen is logically (i.e., from Lutheran premises) more consistent, but carries the theory of the communica#io idiomatum to the very verge of Gnostic Docetiam, which resolves the human life of Christ on earth into a magical illusion. The Kenotic view of Giessen is more in accordance with the facts of Christ's life, but agrees with the other in principle, and admits, after all, as exceptional use in the performance of miracles. The controversy was waged with violence, and threatened to weaken the Protestant cause at a very critical period. The Lutheran princes interfered. In their name, Hoe von Hoenegg (q.v.), court preacher at Dresden, issued a Solids decisio (1624), essentially favoring the cause of the Giessen Kenoticista; but the Tiibingen theologians defended their position till the controversy was lost in the disastrous events of the Thirty Years' War, without leading to any positive result. The Kenotic controversy was renewed recently, but in a modified form, and on a new basis (see below, X., 4; see also KErrosis).
%. Modern Christologiea: The orthodox christology emphasized the divinity of Christ, and left his humanity more or less out of sight and, in the last stage of its Lutheran development, arrived at the brink of Gnostic Docetism. Rationalism arose, toward the close of the eighteenth century, as a reaction against symbolical and scholastic orthodoxy, and ran into the opposite extreme; it ignored the divine nature, and fell back upon a purely human, or'Ebionitic, Christ. Its worth, as well as its weakness, consists in the examination of the human element in Christ and in the Bible.
With the revival of Evangelical faith in Germany, the divine element of Christ was again duly appreciated by theologians. Hegel and Schleiermacher mark a new epoch in chriatological speculation, with two tendencies‑=the one pantheistic, the other humanistic; and these, again, were followed by original reconstructions and modifications of the Catholic doctrine of the God‑man. The pantheistic tendency of Hegel is more congenial to the maxim of the Lutheran Confession, that the finite is capable of the infinite; the humanistic of Schleiermacher to the tendency of the Reformed Confession, which guards the genuine humanity of Christ against confusion with the divine. The former starts from the divine, the latter, from the human element; but both may unite, and often do unite when they proceed from naturalistic premises. Both Hegel and Schleiermacher gave impulse to orthodox as well as negative and destructive tendencies. To most of his pupils Schleiermacher was a sort of John the Baptist, who led them to Christ.
1. The Humanitarian or Unitarian Ohrietology makes Christ a mere man, though the wisest and beat of men, and a model for imitation. It is held in various forms, from the communicated semidivinity of the old Sociniana down to the pure
humanity of modern Unitarians and Humanitarians. Professor Bruce (Humiliation of Christ, Edinburgh, 1881, lecture v., p. 193) distinguishes five classes of Humanitarians. Kant may be said to have inaugurated the modern Humanitarian view. He regarded Christ as the representative of the moral ideal, but made a distinction between the ideal Christ and the historical Jesus. The conservative Unitarians admit the sinless perfection of Christ. William Ellery Charming (q.v.) was, at least in his earlier period, a firm believer in the preexistence of Christ, and is sometimes called an Arian by his nephew and biographer. He certainly rose above the mere Humanitarianism of Priestley. He caw in Christ the perfect manifestation of God to man, and the highest ideal of humanity, and paid one of the noblest and moat eloquent tributes to Christ's character and inspiring example. With this school must be reckoned Prof. Levi L. Payne, who dissociates christology, or the person of Christ, from theology; or the doctrine of God, and joins it to anthropology. Christ is a man and to be judged as a man. It was " not necessary that his moral consciousness should be divinized." He is separated by no miraculous act from the beings he came to save, and yet his moral consciousness has surpassed that of all other men (Critical History of the Evolution of Trinitarianism, Boston, 1900, pp. 199, 281).
fd. The Pantheistic Uhriatology, suggested by Schelling and Hegel, and best represented by Daub, Marheineke, and Goechel '(of the right, or conservative, wing of Hegelianiam), and by Baur, Strauss, and Biedermann (of the left, or radical, wing), starts from the idea of the essential unity of the divine and human, and teaches a continuous incarnation of God in the human race as a whole, but denies, for this very reason, the specific dignity of Christ as the one and only God‑man. This, at least, is the theory of the "left," or radical and negative, wing of the Hegelian School, although Hegel himself had no sympathy with rationalism, but despised it. " The infinite," says Strauss, " can not pour out its fulness into a single individual." The peculiar position of Christ, however, is that he first awoke to a consciousness of this unity, and that he represents it in its purest and strongest form. Under this view Biedermann (Christliche Dogmatilc, Zurich, 1869) places Christ highest in the scale of humanity, not only in the past, but for all time to come. Even Strauss was at one time willing to go so far; but he destroyed nearly the whole historic foundation of his life, and ended in the philosophical bankruptcy of materialism.
8. The Ohrietology of $ohleiermaoher (d. 1834) sad his Sohool represents the highest form of Humanitarianism with an important admission of the supernatural or divine element. He regards Christ as a perfect man, in whom, and in whom alone, the ideal of humanity (the Urbild) has been fully realized. At the same time he rises above Humanitnrianiem by emphatically asserting Christ's essential ainleesnesa and absolute perfection (" wesenlliche Unsiindlichkeit" and "schlechthiniqe Vollkommenheit "), and a peculiar and abiding indwell‑

59	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	christoloffy
ing of the Godhead in him (" sin eigentliches Sein Gotten in Am "), by which he differs from all men.
He admits him to be " a moral 1. Bohleier‑ miracle," which means a great deal
msoher. for a theologian of the boldest and
keenest criticism in matters of history. He was willing to surrender almost every miracle of action in order to save the miracle of the person of him whom he adored and loved as his Lord and Savior. He adopts the Sabellian view of the Trinity as a threefold manifestation of God in creation (in the world), redemption (in Christ), and sanctification (in the Church). Christ is God as Redeemer, and originated an incessant flow of a new spiritual life, with all its pure and holy emotions and aspirations, which moat be traced to that source. Sabellian as he was, Schleiermacher did not hold an eternal personal preexistence of the Logos which would correspond to the historical indwelling of God in Christ. His conception of the abstract unity and simplicity of the Godhead excluded an immanent Trinity. (For his christology, cf. his Der christliche Glaube, §§ 92‑99, vol. ii., Berlin, 1830, pp. 26‑93; cf. also the sharp criticism of Strauss, in Die christliche Glaubenalehre, ii., Tiibingen, 1841, pp. 175 sqq.)
Ullmann (d. 1865), originally a pupil of Schleiermacher, but more orthodox, wrote the best book
on the important topic of the sinless2. Ullmann. ness of Christ, which has an abiding
doctrinal and apologetic value, independently of all speculative theories (Die Siindlosigkeit Jesu, 7th ed.,. Goths, 1863, Eng. tranal., Edinburgh, 1870).
Somewhat similar is the christology of Richard Rothe (d. 1866), one of the greatest speculative theologians of the nineteenth century. He wrought out an original system of ethics of the highest order. He abandons the orthodox dogma of the Trinity and the Chaleedonian dyophysitism (which he thinks goes far beyond the simplicity of Biblical teaching, and makes the union physical rather than moral), but fully admits the divine‑human character of the one personality of Christ, and lays great stress on the ethical feature in the development of Christ, by which alone he can become our redeemer and example. God, by a creative act,
calls the second Adam into existence 8. Rothe. in the bosom of the old natural hu‑
manity. Christ is born of a woman, yet not begotten by man, but created by God (as to his humanity), hence is free from all sinful bias, as well as actual sin. His development is a real, but normal and harmonious, religious moral growth, with a correspondingly increasing indwelling of God in him. There was not a single moment in his conscious life in which he stood not in personal union with God; but the absolute union took place with the completion of the personal development of the second Adam. This completion coincided with his perfect self‑sacrifice in death. Henceforth he was wholly and absolutely God (ganz and achlechthin Gott), since his being is extensively and intensively filled with the true God; but it can not be said, vice versa, that God is wholly the second Adam; for God is not. limited by an individual
person. The death of Christ on earth was at the same time his ascension to heaven and his elevation above all the limitations of material existence into the divine mode of existence (a return to the morphe theou), which, however, implies also his perpetual presence with his Church on earth (Matt. xxviii. 20).
Here is the place also for the theory of Horace Bushnell (q.v.; d. 1876), which strongly resembles those of Schleiermacher and Rothe, but differs from them by adhering to the eternal preexistence of Christ (though only in a Sabellian sense). It was first announced in his Condo ad Clerum, at the annual commencement of Yale College, New Haven, Aug. 15, 1848, and gave rise to his trial for heresy.
Bushnell, one of the most independent 4. Horace and vigorous American thinkers, read
Bushnell. Schleiermacher's essay on Sabelliua as translated by Professor Moses Stuart in the Biblical Repository, and said that " the general view of the Trinity given in that article coincides " with his own view, and confirmed him in the results of his own private struggles (God in Christ, New York, 1877; pp. 111‑112). He maintains the full divinity of Christ on the Sabellian basis. He rejects the theory of " three metaphysical or essential persons in the being of God," with three distinct consciousnesses, wills, and understandings; and he substitutes for it simply a trinity of revelation, or what he calls (p. 175) an " instrumental trinity," or three impersonations, in which the one divine being presents himself to our human capacities and wants, and which are necessary to produce mutuality, or terms of conversableness, between us and him, and to pour his love moat effectually into our feeling (p. 137). " God may act," he says (p. 152), " as a human personality, without being measured by it." The real divinity came into the finite, and was subject to human conditions. There are not two distinct subaistences in the person of Christ, one infinite and the other finite; but it is the one infinite God who expresses himself in Christ, and brings himself down to the level of our humanity, without any loss of his greatness or reduction of his ‑majesty. At the same time, Bushnell holds to the full yet sinless humanity of Christ; and the tenth chapter of his work on Nature and the Supernatural is one of the ablest and most eloquent tributes to the sinless perfection of the moral character of Christ.
4. The modern genotio Theory (see KEnloais) differs from the theories just noticed by its orthodox premises and conclusions as far as the dogma of the Trinity and of the eternal Deity of Christ is concerned; but it likewise departs from the Chalcedonian dyophysitism, by holding to one divinehuman Christ, with one consciousness and one will. It is chiefly based on the famous passage Phil. ii. 6‑8 (Gk. heauton ekenosen, verse 7, " he emptied himself," A. V., " made himself of no reputation," the subject of the Kenosis being the preexistent, not the incarnate, Logos), and also on II Cor. viii. 9; John i. 14 (Gk. egeneto, " became "); Heb. ii. 17, 18, v. 8, 9; and on the general impression which the gospel history makes of Christ, as a truly human,

Chrietolocy	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	60
yet divinely human being, speaking of himself always as a obit. It was suggested by Zinzendorf in the form of devout sentimentalism that brought the divine Christ down to the closest
1. General intimacy with men; it was scientif‑
	Oatline.	ically developed, though with various
		modifications, by a number of emi
nent German divines of the Lutheran Confession
(Thomasius, Liebner, Gees, Von Hofmann, Kahnis,
Delitzsch, SchSberlein, Kiibel), and several Re
formed divines (Lange, Ebrard, Godet, Prea
eens6, in Europe, Henry M. Goodwin and Howard
Crosby in America). It is hardly just to call it
(with Dorner) a revival of Apollinarianism and
Patiipassianiam; for, while it resembles both in
some features, it differs from them by assuming
a truly humanized Logos dwelling in a human
body. It carries the Kenosis much farther than
the Giessen Lutherans, and makes it consist, not in
a concealment merely (kryPsis), but in an actual
abandonment of the divine attributes of omnipo
tence, omniscience, and omnipresence, during the
whole period of humiliation from the incarnation
to the resurrection; the differences between the
advocates of this theory referring to the degree of
the Kenosis. It substitutes a genus kenoticum, or
tapeinoticum, for the genus majesticum of the Lu
theran Creed: in other words, a communication of
the properties of humanity to the divinity for a
communication of the properties of the divine na
ture to the human. Instead of raising the finite
to the infinite, the Kenotic theory lowers the infi
nite to the finite. It teaches a temporary aelf
exinanition or depotentiation of the preexistent
Logos. In becoming incarnate, the second Per
son of the holy Trinity reduced himself to the
limitations of humanity. He literally emptied
himself, not only of his divine glory, but also of his
divine mode of existence (the morphe theou), and
assumed the human mode of existence (the morpU
doulou), subject to the limits of space and time
and the laws of development and growth. The
incarnation is not only an assumption by the Son
of God of human nature, but also a self‑limitation
of the divine Logos; and both constitute one divine
human personality. Otherwise the infinite con
sciousness of the Logos could not coincide with the
human consciousness of the historical Christ: it
would transcend and outreach it, and the result
would be a double personality. The self‑limita
tion is to be conceived as an act of will, an act of
God's love, which is the motive of the incarnation;
and his love is absolutely powerful, even to the extent
of the utmost self‑surrender. This was the view
of Thomasius, a Bavarian Lutheran. He and
Liebner held, first, that the Logos actually became
a rational human soul; but afterward they assumed
a truly human soul along with the Kenosis of the
Logos, and thereby they lost the chief benefit of
the Kenosis theory.
Less, a Swabian divine brought up under the influence of the school of Bengel, Oetinger, and Beck, and starting from a theosophic Biblical realism, carried the Kenosis to the extent of a suspension of self‑consciousness and will. He identified it with the outgoing of the Son from
the Father, or his descent from heaven, which resulted in a temporary suspension of the influx
of the eternal life of the Father into 2. Gems. the Son, and a transition from a state
of equality with God into a state of dependence and need. Gesa and Ebrard assume an actual transformation of the Logos into a human soul, i.e., he assumed a human body from the flesh of the Virgin, but became a rational human soul so that he had no need of assuming another soul. Consequently the soul of Christ was not derived from Mary: it was the result of a voluntary Kenosis, while an ordinary human soul derives its existence from a creative act of God. It is very questionable whether such a soul, which is the result of a transformation which begins with divinity and ends with divinity, can be called a truly human soul spy more than the Apollinarian Logos, who, remaining unchanged, occupied the place and exercised the functions of the human soul.
Martensen, the Danish theologian, more cautiously taught only a relative, though real, Kenoaie.
The eternal Logos continues in God 8. tear‑ and in his general revelation to the
tensen. world as the author of all reason;
while at the same time he enters into the bosom of humanity as a holy seed, that he may arise within the human race as a mediator and redeemer. He would, however, have become man even without sin, though not as redeemer. Martensen taught, with several of the Fathers and modern German theologians, that the incarnation was necessary for the highest revelation of God, and was only modified, not conditioned, by the fall.
Kahnis and Lange limited the Kenoaie substantially to an abandonment of the use, rather
than the possession, of the attri~~ge, butea. Lange's christology abounds
m fruitful and original hints for further and clearer development.
Julius Miiller, one of the profoundest theologians, taught likewise in his lectures a moderate
Kenosis theory. Paul contrasts the 6. duline earthly and preearthly existence of duller. the Son of God as poverty and riches
(II Cor. vii. 9), and represents the incarnation as an emptying himself of the full possession of the divine mode of existence (Phil. ii. 6 ). This implies more than a mere assumption of human nature into union with the Son of God: the incarnation is a real self‑exinanition (Selbstent6vsserung), and a renunciation, not only of the use, but also of the possession, of the divine attributes and powers . . . . The Church is undoubtedly right in teaching a real union of the divine and human nature in Christ. But in the state of humiliation this union was first only potential and concealed; and the unfolded reality belongs to the state of exaltation. Only with the assumption of a self‑exinanition can we fully appreciate the act of the self‑denying condescension of divine love; while in the orthodox dogma God gives nothing in the incarnation, but simply receives and unites something with his person.
Goodwin differed from the German Kenoticists by assuming that the Logos is the human element

81	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Christoloay
in God which preexisted in him from eternity, and became incarnate by taking flesh, and occupy‑
ing the place of the soul. No incase. Good‑in nation is possible without a humaniand Crosby. Zation of the divine; and this implies
a self‑limitation, and true development from ignorance to knowledge and wisdom. The incarnation is not a synthesis or union of opposite natures, but a development of the divine in the form of the human. The Word did not assume flesh or human nature, but it became flesh. As the true idea of God includes humanity, so the true idea of man includes God. The divine and human differ only as the ideal differs from the actual, or the prototype from the copy. This essential unity is the basis of the possibility of the incarnation as a Kenosis. Howard Crosby held that, according to the Scripture, the Son of God reduced himself to the dimensions of humanity, to a state of " dormancy." His Godhead, therefore, was in a state of quiescence during his humiliation and awoke with the resurrection, after which the divine overshadowed the human.
A theory advocated by so many learned and pious theologians can not be altogether false: The Kenotic theory has the merit of bringing out the truth of the classical passage in Phil. ii. more forcibly than ever before. But it carries the idea
of the self‑limitation of the Logos to 7. Criti‑ the extent of a metaphysical imposcism. eibility: it contradicts the essential
unchangeablenesa of God. The humiliation of the Logos is an .abandonment of the divine doxa and its enjoyment, but not of the divine being. The true Kenoais is a renunciation of the use (chresis), but not of the possession (ktesis), of divine attributes. The former is possible, the latter impossible. God can do nothing that is contrary to his rational and moral nature. It is admitted by the Kenoticista that the Logos can not, in the incarnation, limit or suspend his moral attributes of. love and holiness, but reveals them moat fully in the state of humiliation. But his metaphysical and intellectual attributes belong just as much to the essence and nature of God as his moral attributes, and all are inseparable from his nature; so that God can not give up any of his attributes without mutilating and so far destroying his own being. He can not commit suicide, nor can he go to sleep. He can not reduce himself to the unconscious existence of an embryo, without ceasing to be God, and without destroying the life of the world, which without I him can not exist a single moment. The illustra‑
tion borrowed from sleep proves nothing; for I man's identity continues undisturbed in sleep, and he awakes with the full exercise of all the faculties. Moreover, we can not conceive of such a self‑reduction of the Logos without suspending the intertrinitarian process, and also the Trinity of revelation. It would stop for thirty‑three years, as Geas frankly admits, the eternal generation of the Son, the procession of the Spirit from the Father and the Son, and the government of the world through the Logos. To say that the Logos remained unchanged in the Trinity, while
at the same time he went out of the Trinity and became man, is virtually to establish two distinct Logoi, which is uo better than the orthodox theory of two parallel natures, one infinite, the other finite. The Father and the Son have but one essence; how, then, could the divinity of the Son be suspended, or almost annihilated for a time, without suspending the divinity of the Father ? It may be said, with Thomas Aquinas, that it was not the nature, but the person, of the Logos that became man. True, but a person without a nature is an impossible abstraction. If the Logos surrendered his divine self‑consciousness, his omnipotence, and omniscience, how did he regain them? Was it by a recollection of his preexistent state ? Or by a reflection on the Old Testament Scriptures? Or by a revelation from the Father? Or by the development of a native instinct? These and similar questions can not be satisfactorily answered by the consistent Kenoticiats. Professor Pains (Critical History of the Evolution of Trinitarianism, Boston, 1900, p. 281) pronounces the Kenoais theory " only a metaphysical makeshift to cover the real contradiction which in the Chalcedonian theology stands visible to every intelligent eye."
If: The R,itschIian Theory is the product of Albrecht Ritachl (q.v.), the founder of the theological school which goes by his name. It is set forth adequately in his Christliche Lehre von der RechtferEigung and der Versohnung (3 vole., Bonn, 1870‑74; 3d ed., 1888‑89; Eng. transl., Edinburgh, vol. i., 1872, vol. iii., 1900), chap. vi., " The Doctrine of Christ's Person and Work" (iii. 385‑484 of Eng. ed.). The theory is an appreciation of Christ's ethical and religious unity with the Father and a denial of man's ability to find out the " physical origin" of the Person of Christ. Christ is " unique in his own order," that is, regarded as the revealer and bearer of religious and ethical truth. In this sense he is the Son of God; and his " apprehension of himself as the Son of God is ever attained through his adoration of God as his Father." It is folly to attempt to explain the physical origin of the Person of Christ. Ritachl's theory is in accord with his discarding of the 1. The metaphysical element and his asserTheory tion only of that which is truly re13teted. ligious. In other words, all is to be set aside from the discussion of Christ's Person which can not be and has not been tested by the Church, or " the Christian community," in its experience. Ritschl says that the three offices of Christ‑prophet, priest, and king‑are a step toward grasping the significance of Christ for the Church, but they afford only a defective conception of him. Jesus was conscious of a new and previously unknown relation to God, as he testified to his disciples (p: 386). He esteemed himself more than a .mere human being. He regarded his life as an instrument of God's complete revelation of himself. The theology of the Reformers adopted, it is true, the ethical mode of looking at Christ (p. 440); but all the older theologies in their doctrine of Christ failed to consider his religious activities, namely his habit of prayer and

ChslstoloBy
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
his submission to the dispensations of God. Christ as the Word of God realizes in himself, that is in a human person, his vocation, which is the establishment of the universal ethical kingdom of God. This kingdom is the supreme self‑end of God in the world, so that the complete revelation of God is present in Christ, " in whom the word of God is a human person " (p. 451). The origin of the Person of Christ is not a proper subject of inquiry, for the problem transcends all investigation (p. 451). What ecclesiastical tradition offers in this respect is obscure in itself and is not fitted to make anything clear. Christ, as the instrument of the perfect revelation, is given that we may believe on him, and believing on him we find him to be the revealer of God. But the determination of the personal relation of Christ to God the Father is not a matter of scientific inquiry. Straining after explanations will prove fruitless. It will result only iii obscuring the recognition of Christ as the perfect revelation of God (p. 452). The specific and complete revelation of God in Christ is " the grace and truth" which dwelt in him. These are his divinity, and divinity does not reside in the will (p. 467). In the discharge of his vocation the essential will of God is revealed, which is love (p. 454). The only tests of the revelation of God in a human personality are " grace and truth." In Christ the divine attributes of omniscience, omnipotence, and omnipresence are not to be sought. To be sure, to Christ is ascribed power over the world (Matt. xi. 27; etc.), but this power manifests itself chiefly as patience under suffering (p. 460). Christ's divinity is in his world‑conquering power, in his own patience, and in the Christian community. It rests not in his physical origin, which has never yet been reconciled with his historic appearance and never can be (p. 467). In virtue of the love which inspired him and in view of the lordship which in his own estimate of himself and by his patience he exercised over the world, he is equal with God (p. 4&3).
It is Ritachl's merit that he emphasized the ethical element of Christianity and insisted upon human experience as a test of the great principles
of the Gospel. He can preserve the 2. Its terms "equality with the Father" ~ Limi‑ d sad " Preexistence " by exalting the
tation. love which moved Christ and by
exalting Christ's vocation, which was to advance the universal kingdom of God. In doing this he can not avoid metaphysical subtlety and he must leave out, or explain away, utterances of Christ which on their face refer to what he calls " his physical origin " and which he says the older theologies in vain attempted to solve. Theology will not be satisfied with formulas bearing on the ethical and religious relationship of Christ and God while so much is said in the New Testament about the " physical (essential) relationship," especially as this " physical relationship " seems to be the basis of the ethical and religious unity of the Son of God and the Father.
8. The Theory of a Gradual or Progressive Incarnation is the last to be mentioned as promoting a. solution of the problem. It carried the divine
Kenoaie, or the motion of God's love to men, through
the whole earthly life of Christ, instead of confi
ning it to	an instantaneous act when the Holy
Spirit overshadowed the Blessed Virgin. When
John says	that the " Logos became fleNh," he
spoke as one of those who " beheld his glory, the
glory of the only‑begotten of the Father," as it
manifested	itself in his whole public life. The
impossible idea of an essential self‑limitation of
	the Logos is discarded, and in its
	1. The	place is assumed the rational idea of
	Theory.	a limitation of the self‑communication
		of the Logos to humanity. There are
various degrees in this self‑communication. The
being sad. actuality of the Logos remained meta
physically and morally unchanged; but Jesus of
Nazareth possessed the Logos merely so far as was
compatible with the truth of human growth and
the capacity of his expanding consciousness. In
other words, the eternal personality of the divine
Logos entered into the humanity of Jesus, meas
ure by measure as it grew, and became capable
and worthy of receiving it. There were two corre
sponding movements in the life of Christ‑a
descent of the divine consciousness, and an ascent
of the human consciousness. There was a pro
gressive self‑communication of the divine Logos
to Jesus, and a moral growth of Jesus in holiness
keeping step with the former. The process of union
began with the supernatural conception, and was
completed with the ascension. The first act of the
incarnation of the Logos was the beginning of the
man Jesus, and both constituted one undivided
personality. There was a personal unity and iden
tity throughout the whole period, the same life of
the divine‑human personality, but in actual growth
and development from germ to full organization,
from infancy to ripe manhood. Christ became
conscious of his Godhead as he became conscious
of his manhood; but the divine life always was the
basis of his human life. The twelfth year of
Jesus in the temple, and the baptism in the Jor
dan, mark two important epochs in the develop
ment of this divine‑human consciousness. There
was in connection with the gradual incorporation
of the divine Logos into the humanity of Jesus an
actual elevation of his humanity into personal
union with the Godhead, as he grew in moral
perfection: hence his exaltation is spoken of by
Paul as a reward for his humiliation and obedience
(Phil. ii. 9; cf. Heb. v. 7‑10).
This theory escapes the difficulties of the Kenotic theory, and is even better reconcilable with the orthodox christology of the creeds,
	2. Its	as far as the result is concerned.
	merits.	Nearly all christologists admit now
		the genuine growth and development
of Christ's humanity, to which the Kenoticiats add
the impossible growth of the divine Logos from
unconsciousness and impotence to omniscience
and omnipotence. This view teaches the former
without the latter, and saves the continued integ
rity of the Logos. There still remains the specu
lative problem perceived by the Reformed divines‑
how the infinite consciousness of the eternal Logos
can ever become absolutely coincident with the

as	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Christolosy
limited consciousness of the man Jesus; but this difficulty attaches to every theory which holds fast to the strict divinity of our Lord
7. Conclusion: In reviewing these various theories we can readily accept the elements of truth which they variously express. Christ is the ideal man realized, the head of the redeemed race, the perfect model for universal imitation. So far, even the Humanitarian theory is correct; only it does not go far enough, and it becomes a serious error when it denies the higher truth beyond. For Christ is also the eternal Son of God, who in
infinite love renounced his glory and 1. Ele‑ majesty, and lowered himself to a
menu o
Truth in All f fallen race, entering into all its wants,
Theorise. trials, and temptations, yet without
sin, and humbled himself, even to the death on the cross, in order to emancipate men from the guilt and power of sin, and to reconcile them to God. He is the one undivided God‑man, who, as man, calls out all our sympathies and trust, and, as God, is the object of true worship. In this respect we accept fully the faith of the Church in all ages, and consider the divinity of our Lord as the corner‑stone of Christianity. We hold, with Ritachl and Pains, to the moral nature of the God‑manhood of Christ, but without sacrificing his eternal divinity. We would go as far with the Kenoaia theory as the unchangeable nature of God permits, and as the unbounded love of God demands. We dissent from the dyophysitic and dualistic psychology of Chalcedon, and hold to the inseparable personal unity of the life, and at the same time to the genuine growth of Christ, without asserting, with the Kenoticiata, a growth of the divine Logos, who is unchangeable in his nature; but we substitute for this impossible idea s gradual communication of the divinity to the God‑man.
This is, in substance, the Christ of the Catholic creeds and the Protestant confessions of faith.
He is a mystery indeed to our intel8. The lectual and philosophical compre‑
Myetery hension, but a mystery made manifest
of Christ. as the most glorious fact in history‑
the blessed mystery of godliness, the inexhaustible theme of meditation and praise'for all generations. How the whole fulness of untreated divinity can be poured out into a human being passes our understanding, but not more, perhaps, than the familiar fact that an immaterial and immortal soul made in God's image, and capable of endless perfectibility, inhabits and interpenetrates a material and mortal body. And deeper and grander than both mysteries is the infinite love of God which lies back of them in the very depths of eternity, and which prompted the incarnation and the death of his only‑begotten Son for the salvation of a sinful world. Yet this love of God in Christ, whose " breadth and length .and height and depth pasaeth knowledge " (Eph. iii. 18, 19), is more certain and constant than the light of the sun in heaven and the voice of conscience in man.
It has been thought best not to discuss in this article the bearing of the denial of the virgin‑birth
of our Lord upon the problems of chrietology. Origen and other early Fathers, whose names have a prominent place in the development of christology, emphasized the virgin‑birth as an integral element of Christ's divinity. The purely human origin of Christ from a human father and mother favors strongly, if it does not necesei‑
S. Limits tats, the view that Christ was only a
of This man andprecludes the view that he was Article. either preexistent or essentially divine. Nor has it seemed necessary to take into consideration the view of the contemporary school of historical critics, Pfleiderer, Wernle, and others, who make a sharp distinction between Paul's theology and the much simpler claims Christ made for himself, and who regard Paul as the inventor of the deity of Christ and other doctrines which the Church has always held. This article sesames the integrity of the four Gospels, and that the Pauline epistles interpreted but did not originate the doctrines concerning Christ's person.
(PHILIP ScanFFt) D. S. ScaAFr.
XI. Additional Note; Certain questions which have come up in the recent dogmatic consideration of the person of Christ require an additional statement. That this problem engaged the early attention of the church is evident by the birthstories of Matthew and Luke, the stories of the baptism, the Logos‑doctrine of the Fourth
z. Preex‑ Gospel and the Epistle to the He‑
	iatence.	brews, and Paul's conception of preex
		istence. In addition to the orthodox
theory of the Logos, or the second person of the
Trinity, who assumed human nature in Jesus Christ,
and the speculations of those who have advocated
the several Kenotic theories (see KEN08I8), various
attempts have been made to do justice to the New
Testament teaching concerning preexistence. (1)
The preexistence is ideal. According to a form
of expression common in the time of Jesus, things
of exceeding worth, as the ark of the covenant, the
temple, Jerusalem, are conceived as already exist
ing in heaven with God before they are manifested
on earth. Thus the transcendent ground of the
person of Christ was within God's eternal knowl
edge, so that in the divine idea and purpose of
redemption Jesus had eternal existence (cf. Har
nack, Dogma, vol. i., Appendix L). Or, the mean
ing of preexistence is that Christ in human form
is the revelation of the eternal cosmic principle
through which in creation and redemption God is
disclosing himself (W. A. Brown, Christian The
ology in Outline, pp. 179‑180, 347, New York, 1906).
(2) The " heavenly man " preexisting in the image
of God (I Cor. xv. 47, cf. Col. i. 15‑17; II Cor. viii.
9) does not assume human nature, but becomes
incarnate in Jesus Christ. This interpretation,
originating in Paul's antithesis of flesh and spirit,
found a congenial soil in the religious ideas of the
time‑a logical deduction backward drawn from
belief in the risen Christ (cf. O. PHeiderer, Pauliv
ism, part L, chap. iii., London). Or, the" heavenly
man " had a preexistent life, and this life was divine
not is the absolute sense, but as conferred upon him
by God, thus identical in principle with the glorified
life (C. H. von WeizsAeker, Apostolic Age, book IL,

Chrietology	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	64
Christopher, Saint
chap. ii., §§ 10‑11, New York, 1894). Or, again,
in one aspect the Logos is to be regarded as the
eternal Humanity in God, the " Archetype of the
not yet created Man," which became incarnate in
Jesus Christ (T. C. Edwards, The God‑Man, Lon
don, 1896).	(3) W. Herrmann holds that the pre
existence was not ideal, but personal‑a contra
diction indeed, to be removed only when the riddle
of time in which we now conceive reality had been
solved for us (Die Religion im YerhaLtniss xum
Welterkennen and zur Sittlichkeit, p.438, Halle, 1879).
	As to theories of incarnation several tenden
cies are evident. (1) The ethical aspect of the
incarnation is increasingly emphasized. The tra
			ditional christoIogy has been based
	z. Incar‑ on the essential disparity of the divine
		nation.	and human natures. This was held
			to be necessary in order to safeguard
the integrity of the two natures. But however
carefully the statement of the doctrine was pro
tected, it did not escape the force of the criticism
in the preceding text (see VI., 2, § 2). To meet this
difficulty, therefore, attention has been directed
away from the two‑nature doctrine on its.purely
metaphysical side to the ethical and religious as
pects of the incarnation. As in the traditional
view, God and man are here affirmed in all the
integrity of their spiritual being, but the point of
view is changed. It is not so much a question of
nature and essence and hypostasia as of psycholog
ical experience and character, of inner development
and historical influence, i.e., of the moral and spiri
tual consciousness of Jesus Christ in which the pur
pose of God is revealed and realized, and the unity
of God and man are disclosed. Accordingly, the
proof of the incarnation is found in Jesus's con
sciousness of his vocation, in his grace and truth, his
dominion over the world, and his success in estab
lishing his community with attributes analogous to
his own. This ethical estimate of Jesus results in a
religious valuation of him. We call Christ God
because he has for us the religious worth of God
(Ritschl). (2) The incarnation is conceived of as
an immanent necessity in the love of God to self
expression. Again, if man was created in the image
of God, and his perfection was possible only in
union with God, then an incarnation of one who
should enable man to consummate this union was
necessary apart from sin. Thus, incarnation for the
sake of redemption, instead of being an afterthought
of God, an accidental expedient in behalf of man,
was involved in the essential ethical relation of
God to the creation (B. F. Weatcott, " Gospel of the
Creation," in Commentary on the Epistles of St.
John, London, 1885). (3) The proof of the divin
ity of Christ is becoming less external and dogmatic
than internal and ethical. If in the earlier argu
ments the greater stress was on the application to
Christ of Old Testament terms referring to God, the
ascription to him of names, attributes, and works
of God, the New Testament designation of him as
Son of God in a metaphysical sense, and the fact
that he was an object of religious worship, in more
recent thought the principal emphasis is laid on
the uniqueness of his moral character, the might of
his mural appeal to the conscience and the will, the
transformation in experience which follows obedience to his leadership; in a word, in him is a revelation of that which is most real in God and moat ideal in man‑love. This ethical impulse to the interpretation of Christ, which among many recent attempts of the same kind was disclosed in Bushnell's incomparable tenth chapter of Nature and the Supernatural‑" The Character of Jesus Forbids His Possible Classification with Men "‑has by no means lost its force, and every modern treatment of the person of Jesus pays tribute to this demand. (4) The incarnation is increasingly regarded in an essential relation to the redemptive work of Christ. Not, then, the atonement irrespective of the life of Jesus, but‑a truth which was deeply voiced by Athanasius in The Incarnation of the Word‑God comes to man both to reveal and to realize the ideal oneness of God and man. Thus the incarnation is the atonement (cf. J. M. Wilson, The Gospel of the Atonement, London, 1899). (5) Further, the cosmic relations of the incarnation are receiving renewed attention. Here several currents meet and mingle: the Pauline conception of the universal significance of Christ (Col. i. 15‑17), the federal, based on the natural, headship of Christ, the pantheistic trend which discerns in the particular the essence of the universal, and evolution which finds the goal and crown of the creation in the ethical and religious consciousness. Christ is, accordingly, the supreme expression and consummation of the Logos of God in which the whole creation finds its interpretative principle and end. C. A. B.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: I. For O. T. Chriatology consult the works cited under Mssarwa. For N. T. Chriatology consult the works on N. T. Theology, especially: w. Beyechlag, N. T. Theology, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1898; E. Reuss, La Th6ologia chrgtie»na au siMa apoatolique, 2 vole., 8traeburg, 1884; J. J. Van Ooaterzee, Theology of N. T., London, 1879; B. Weiss, Bibliaeha Theologie den N. T., Stuttgart, 1903, Eng. tranal., 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1882‑83; H. H. Wendt, Lehre Jeau, 2 vols., GSttingen, 1888‑90, Eng. tranal., London, 1892; G. B. Stevens, Theology of N. T., New York, 1899; E. P. Gould, Biblical Theology of N. T., ib. 1900. Consult further: b. F. Mogen, Chraetua der Menachen‑ ured Gotteeaohn, Goths, 1889; W. F. Gees, Christi Person uad Werk, 3 vole., Basel, 1870‑78; H. Bushnell, God in Christ, New York, 1877; I. A. Darner, Chrfatliche Glaubenalehra, ii. 267 eqq., Berlin, 1880; P. Schaff, Person of Christ, New York, 1882; A. B. Bruce, Kingdom of God, Edinburgh, 1889; J. A. Beet, Through Christ to God, pp. 215‑301, London, 1892; J. Stalker, Chriatolopy of Jesus, ib. 1899; A. M. Fairbairn, Philosophy of the Christian Religion, pp. 358‑379, ib. 1902; N. Schmidt, ProPhet.of Nazareth, New York, 1905.
IL‑III. The beet detailed account of the development of doctrine with its environment is still Neander, Christian Church, i. 575‑808, 830‑840, ii. 405‑488, 478‑504. Especially valuable are the histories of doctrine, particularly: Harnaek, Dogma, vola i ‑iii.; I• A Darner, History of the Development aj the Doctrine of the Person a/ Christ, Edinburgh, 1859; F. Nietzsche, Dopmenpeechichte, Berlin, 1870; A. Reville, Histoire du dogma de la diroiniM de JAua Christ, 3d. ed., Paris, 1904, Eng. Eranel., Hiet. o/ the Doctrine of (ha Deity of Jesus Christ, London, 1870; K. R. Hagenbaeh, Hiet, of Doctrine, vol. i., Edinburgh, 1880; F. Loofa, Dogmanpeechfichte, Halls, 1893; R. $eeberg, Lehrburh der Dogmeageaeh%rhte, 2 vole., Erlangen, 1895‑98; G. P. Fisher, Hiat. of Christian Doctrine, New York, 1898; Hefele, Concalienpeachichfe, vol. i., Eng. tranal., vole. i.‑ii. Consult also: D. Petavius, De tleeolopicia dopmatibua, 5 vole., Paris, 1844‑b0 (collects sate‑Nicene and Nicene testimonies); G. Bull, De/enaio ficiei Nicmno;, Oxford, 1886 (s standard); E. Burton, Testimonies of data‑Niasne Fathers to tha Diaisity o/

86	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Ohristolosy
Christopher, Saint
Christ, Oxford, 1829 (also s classic); F. C. Baur, Die chriaUiche Zehre room der Dreieinigkeit and Menachwerdunp Gottea, 3 vola. Tiibingen, 1841‑43; H. Voigt, Die Lehre des AUwnaaiua, Bremen, 1881; W. Mackintosh, Study of the Doctrine of Jesus as Developed from Judaism and Converted into Dogma, Glasgow, 1894; O. PHeiderer, Early Christian Conception of Christ, London, 1905; B. B. Warfield, in Princeton Theological Review, 1905, pp. b29‑b57, 1908, pp. 1‑37, 14b‑188; Schaff, Christian Church. ii. 544‑580, iii. 70b‑740.
IV.‑VII. Consult, besides the works on the history of doctrine cited above (especially Harnack, Dogma, vole. iii.‑iv.): Schaff, Christian Church, vol. iv.; W. A. Arendt, Leo der Grosse, Mainz, 1835; J. Fulton, The Chaludonian Decree, New York, 1892; L. L. Pains, Critical History of the Evolution of Trinitar6aniam, Boston, 1900; J. O. Dykes, in Expository Times, Oct., 190b‑Jan., 1908; Hefele, Conciliengeachichte, vole. iii. iv., Eng. trawl., vole. iii. v.
VIII. Original documents are, Lutheran: Formula Concordias (convenient in Jacob's edition, vol. i., Philadelphia, 1893); J. Brenz, De personals unions duarum mar turarum in Chriata,1580; idem, De majeatate domini nostri, 1582; M. Chemnitz, De duabua raturia in Christo, Frankfort, 1578. Reformed: Admonitio Neoatadieneie,1577; L. Dansaus, De duabua naturia a Chemnitio, Geneva, 1581; H. Zsnchi, De incarnations fUii Dei, Heidelberg, 1593; the ehristological writings of T. Beza and Z. Ursinue. For specific discussions consult, Lutheran: F. H. R. Frank, Thsolopie der Concordienjormef, iii. 185‑?98, Erlangen, 1886; C. P. Krauth. Conservative Reformation and its Theology, pp. 458 eqq., Philadelphia, 1872; H. E. Jacobs, Book of Concord, vol. ii., ib. 1893. Reformed: H. L. J. Heppe, Reformirte Dogmatik, pp. 351 eqq., Elberfeld, 1881; Schaff, Creeds, i. 285 eqq., 317 eqq. Critical: M. $chneckenburger, Zur kirchlichen Christolopie, Pforzheim, 1881; idem, Vergleichende Daratellunp des luthsriachen and reformirten Lehrbspri/ja, Stuttgart, 1855. General works are those already cited of Dormer, Rvmill.; Nietzsche, $eeberg, and Baur; R. A. Lipeius, Dopmatik, pp. 441183, Brunswick, 1893. Consult also H. Schultz, Die LcAre room der Gotdheit Christi, Communimtio idiomatum, Goths, 1881; A. Ritschl, Christian Doctrine of JuatifuaCion and Reconciliation, pp. 418 sqq., Edinburgh, 1872.
IX. On the Giessen Bide, the Saxon Solids decitio, Leipaie, 1824; J. Feuerborn, Seiagraphia de divino Jssu Chriafo . , 1621; idem, Kwwcnypa#ia XporoAoyait? Marburg, 1827; B. Mentzer, Neuesaria et juste de%rbio, Glasses, 1824. On the TBbingen side: L.Oeiander, De omniprcasentia Christi hominie, TObingem,1820; T. Thumm, Majeatatia Jeau Christi BeavBpWrov, ib. 1821: idem, TarsvaovcypaOia sass, ib.1823; ActaMentseriara, ib.1825. On the ^nman Catholic aide: Bellum ubiquisticum vetus et norntsm,1)illindan,1627; Alter urul newer lutheriacherKatrenkrieo son der Ubiquitdt, Ingolatadt, 1829. Historical and critical: J. F. Cotta, Historic; doctrines de duplice atatu Christi, in his ed. of Gerhard's Loci theolopici, iv. 80 eqq., TObingen, 1762‑88; J. E. I. Waloh, Einleiturp in die Teliyionstreitapkeiten, i. 208, Jena, 1733; F. C. Bsur, ut sup., ii. 450; G. Thomaeius, Christi Person and Work, ii. 391‑450, Erlangen, 1857; I. A. Dormer, ut sup., ii. 788‑809; R. Rocholl, Realprtiaenz, pp. 198 eqq., Gfitereloh, 1875.
X. 1. For the Racausan Catechism (Eng. travel. by T. Rees, London, 1818) see Socrxus; J. Priestley, Early Opinions concerning Jesus Christ, Birmingham, 1788; I. Kent, Religion innerhalb der Grsnzen der bkaasn Vernunft, Kbnigaberg, 1793, Eng. travel., Religion within the Boundary a/ pure Reason, Edinburgh, 1838; W. E. Chaining, Works, 8 vole., Boston. 1874; T. Parker, Discourse of Matters Pertaining to Religion, ib. 1847; A. Coqueret, Chr%atolopie, 2 vole., Paris, 1868; J. Msrtinesu, Studies of Christianity, London, 1858; idem, Essays Philosophical and Theological, 2 vole., New York, 1879; idem, Religion as Affected by Modern Materialism, London, 1874 idem, Seat ot Authority in Religion, ib. 1890; F. H. Hedge, Reason in Religion, Boston, 1875; bf. J. Savage, Out of Nazareth, ib. 1904._
2. D. F. Strauss, Die chriatliehe Glaubenalehre in ihrer geachichUichsn Entwicklung and im Kampfe nit der nodermas Winaenachaft, ii. 193 eqq., Tiibingen, 1841 (a work as destructive of Christian dogmatics as his Leben Jeeu is of the evangelical history); A. E. Biedermann, Christi lie7u Dogmat%k, Zurich, 1889 (more serious, but almost equally revolutionary in its results); E. Marine, Die III. 5
Pera6alichkeit Jeau Christi. Mit beeonderer RilekaieAt out die MyUwlopien and Mysteries der altsn YIiUcer, Leipeie, 1881 (s strange compound of the mythical views of Strauss and the mystical interpretation of Swedenborg).
4. On the Kenotia theory: J. L. K6nig, Die Mensehwerduny Gottea, Mainz, 1844; G. Thomaeius, Beiblfpe sw kirchlichen Chriatolopie, Erlangen, 1845; idem, Christi Person and Werk, ib. 1856; T. A. Liebner, Die chrieUieka Dopmatik, G6ttingen, 1849; J. H. A. Ebrard, ChrsaUiche Dopmatik, Kiinigaberg, 1851‑52; J. P. Lange, Positive Dopmatik, pp. b95‑782, Heidelberg, 1851; W. F. Gees, ut sup.; H. L. Martenaen, ChrisUiche Dopmatik, Berlin, 1853, Eng. trawl., Edinburgh, 1888; F. Delitzsoh, System der bdbliechen Paycholopaa, pp. 325 eqq., Leipeio, 1881, Eng. trawl., Edinburgh, 1865; J. Bodemeyer, Die Lshre room der Kerwaia, GSttingen, 1880; K. F. A. Kahnis, Die lutherq$che Dopmatik, iii. 343, Leipaie, 1888; L. 8eh5berlein, Die Geheimniaea des Glaubena, Heidelberg, 1872; R. Kiibel, ChrisUiches Lshrsyatem, Stuttgart, 1878; J. J. roan Ooetersee, Christian Dogmatics, London, 1878 (moderately and cautiously Kenotic); F. Godet, in Studies on the New Testament, Edinburgh, 1878; idem, Commentary on . . . John, ib. 1881; E. de Preeeene8, JEaua Christ, Paris, 1888, Eng, travel., London, 1866; idem, La Divinitk de J&ua Christ, in Revue chrEtisnna, iii. 841 eqq.; H. M. Goodwin, Christ and Humanity, New York, 1875; H. Crosby, The True Humanity of Christ, ib. 1881; F. J. Hall, The Kenotie Theory, London, 1898; J. Know, Die snipe Gott7uid Jeeu Christi, Leipaie, 1904; W. LBtgert, Gottea Sohn and Goan Geist, ib. 1904.
For adverse criticism of the Kenoeis theory consult: I. A. Dormer, ut sup., Eng. travel., II, iii., pp. 100 eqq.; idem, in Jahrbticher filr deutachs Theolopit, 1858, 1868; idem, ChrisUicha GlaulxnalsAre, ii. 387 eqq., Berlin, 1880, Eng. trawl., Edinburgh, 1880‑$2. The fullest , account in Eng. is in A. B. Bruce, Humiliation of Christ, Leot. iv., Edinburgh, 1881. Dr. Hodge, Systematic Theology, ii. 439, New York, 1871, notices the Kenotic theories of Thomsaiue, Ebrard, and Gese, and condense them.
In general, I. A. Dormer, ut sup. The following English works deserve notice, though mostly oonfinad to an exposition and defense of the Chalcedonian dogma: R. J. Wilberforce, The Doctrine of the Incarnation or ow Load, London, 1852; H. P. Liddon, The Divinity of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, ib. 1888. The ablest discussion of Christ's person and work is A. M. Fairbairn, Plan of Christ in Modern Theology, London, 1893. Consult further: C. Gore, Incarnation o/ the Son of God, ib. 1891; J. Denney, Studies in Theology, chaps. ii.‑iii., New York, 1895; "Christologie" in Hauck‑Herzog, RE, iv. 4‑58; M. Brtickner, Die Etttetshung der pauliniaclren Christoloyie, Strasburg, 1903; G. KrOger, Das Dogma room der Draieinipkeit and Gott Msnsahhetl, TObingen, 1906 (dedicated to Harnack, written from the Unitarian standpoint); $. Faut, Die ChrdaWlopie salt Schletermacher, i)are Geachichts and ihre BepHindunp, Ttibingen. 1907.
CHRISTOPHER, SAINT: A saint highly honored from very early times both in the Greek and Latin churches. According to the mai;tyrologies of Ado, Usuard, Notker, and others, as well as the Martyrologium Romanum, he lived at Samoa in Lycia, averted many to Christianity, and died a martyr under the emperor Decius, or, according to some accounts, under an emperor (or king) called Dagnus. No Samoa in Lycia, however, is known, and Dagnue is otherwise unheard of; the name may be a corruption of Daza, the original name of the emperor Maximin II. (305‑314). The later forma of the Christopher legend are in the highest degree fantastic. For example, a manuscript of Fulda describes him as of gigantic stature, with the head of a dog, and decks out his life and death with most silly wonders. Somewhat more attractive and credible is another version, containing apparently elements of old Germanic mythology, according to which the giant Christopher at first served the devil, then in order to know Christ, one said

Christopher, Saint	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	88
Chromatins
to be stronger than the devil, undertook the duties
of a ferryman. Finally a child, whom he was
carrying across the river on his shoulders, disclosed
himself as the Savior, forced the giant beneath
the waves by his ever increasing weight and so
baptized him, giving him the name of Christopher
(" Christ‑bearer "). The veneration of Christo
pher was general in the East, in Italy, Spain, France,
Germany, and other lands. Mention of his wonder
working relics is frequent, as of his head, said to
have been carried from Constantinople to France
after the capture of the city in 1204, and of his
leg, said to have been kept in Constantinople till
1453. He was au attractive figure to medieval
art and poetry, and is represented as a huge fellow
wading through waters, carrying a child on his
shoulders, and with a green staff in his hand. His
picture is frequent in the vestibules of churches as a
sort of guard. Brotherhoods of St. Caristopher, es
pecially for the care of travelers, are mentioned up
to the Reformation. His day in the Greek Church is
May 9, and in the Latin July 25. (O. Z sc>3s.Ent. )
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The older Vita are to be found in ASB,
	July, vi. 12fi‑149; in B. Paz, Thesaurus anacdotarum
	nwiasimua, II. iii. 27‑122, Augsburg, 1721; and in Ana
	lecfa Bollandiana, ad. C, de f3medt and others, 1.121‑148,
	z. 393 lOb. Paris, 1882, 1891. All the different elements
	of the legend are combined by Jacobus de Varagine (q. v")
	in the Golden Legend. Consult: J. Grimm, Deutsche
	MyOwlopie, pp. 49509, GBttingen, 1844; H. P. Hunt,
	Vie de S. Chriatophe, 6oiaAOna, 1881; A. f3inemue, Die
	Legends vow heiligsn Chriatoph urmT die Plaatik and Ma
	lerei, Hanover, 1888; Lc Grand S. Christophe de Palatine,
	son hisRoiro authentique et as poluufarim daps isa deux
	mondea, par ores Lorraine bibliophiles, Nantes, 1890; A.
	Muaeafia, Zur Chriatoph‑Lepende, Vienna, 1893; $. Rich
	ter, Der deutsche Christoph, Berlin, 1898.
	CHRISTOPHER, DUKE OF WUERTTEMBERG,
AND THE REFORMATION IN VMRTTEMBERG:
Christopher, duke of Wiirttemberg, 1550‑68, was
born at Urach (22 m. s.e. of Stuttgart) May 12,
1515; d. at Stuttgart Dec. 28, 1568. When he
was six months old, his mother, Sabina of Bavaria,
fled to her native laud, and in 1519 his father,
Uric, was driven from his country. The boy
came into the hands of Charles V. and his brother
Ferdinand, but was well educated by Michael
Tiffernus. At the court of Charles V., from which
he fled in 1532, and in France, where he spent eight
years, he grew up a statesman and soldier. His
father, who in 1534 regained his country and re
formed it, made him governor at Mompelga,rd, and
in 1544 brought about his marriage with Anna
Maria, daughter of the margrave George of Bran
denburg‑Ansbach. The reading of the Bible and
the writings of the Reformers gave Christopher a
firm and clear Evangelical faith, which he proved
in filial reverence and love toward the often severe
father and obstinate mother and in restless activity
for his people and the Evangelical Church.
	On Nov. 6, 1550, he succeeded his father as duke
and soon obtained a leading position among the
Evangelical princes. He presented the Confessio
W irtembergica, prepared by Brenz, to the Council at
Trent, and sent Brenz and other theologians to
defend it, but they were not heard. He then
prohibited the mass in the parish‑churches, abol
ished the Interim, removed the images, altars, field‑
chapels, and all remains of the former religious service, turned the male monasteries into schools with Evangelical abbots, but allowed the nuns to die in their monasteries; those, however, who left were provided for. He gave a new discipline to the Evangelical Church of Wurttemberg, introduced poor‑boxes in 1552, and appointed four The Refor‑ district‑physicians for the care of the
mation in sick. The marriage‑law was regulated
Wurttem‑ by act of Jan. 1, 1553; the activity of berg. the higher church‑authorities by the visitation act. The religious service, in the simplicity given to it by Blaurer and Schnepff (qq.v.), and the catechetical instruction of the youth were regulated by the Kleine Kirchenordnung of 1553, which was superseded by the Grosse Kirchenordnung of May 15, 1559, including also school, sanitary, and poor regulations. The duke treated the church‑property of the Evangelical Church with perfect disinterestedness, divided the large parishes for the better care of the congregation, established new parishes in the Black Forest, cared for the repair of the churches, and enacted in 1559 that church‑registers should be kept. He insisted that the teaching of the Confessio Wirtembergica should be maintained, and issued harsh injunctions against Schwenckfeld and all " sectaries." His harahnem‑= was felt especially by the Baptists and by Bartholomaus Hagen, preacher at Dettigen, who was suspected of Calvinism but was convinced of his error at the Stuttgart Synod in Dec., 1559. The university received new regulations in 1557. The scholarship founded by his father was applied to the education of theologians who had received a humanistic preparation in the monastic schools. Students of other faculties, who were prepared in the pedagogical schools at Stuttgart and Tubingen, were assisted from the funds of the church‑property. By the school‑regulation of 1559 popular education was promoted; the sacristan now acted also as teacher.
Christopher yeas anxious for the reunion of the different religious parties, proposed in 1552 a national council, and avoided all malicious faultfinding. Calvinism he disliked much, especially as it made its inroad into the Palatinate, but he respected the religious courage of the elector Frederick of the Palatinate and did not favor his exclusion from the religious peace. He promoted Protestantism iii Austria by supporting the Slavic press at Urach under the former imperial captain Hans Ungnad. He offered a refuge at Tiibingen to the former papal nuncio Petrus Paulus Vergerius. In 1557 he solicited the king of France for the oppressed Waldensians, in 1559 for the Protestants; in 1561 he sent Beurlin (q.v.) and Andrea to Paris, and even went in 1562 with Brenz to Zabern to attend a colloquy with the Guises to win France over to Protestantism, but saw himself at last shamefully deceived, though Catherine
Christo‑ de Medici offered him the office of pher's In‑ a supreme viceroy. In the interest
fluence	of Protestantism his active mind was
	Abroad.	long busy with matrimonial plane
		for the daughters of Renata of Ferrara
and for Queen Elizabeth of England. He aided the
Reformation by his advice and by sending theo‑

87	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Christopher, Saint
Ohromatiua
logians to the Palatinate, in the raargravate Baden
Pforzheim, in the domain of Count Helfenstein,
in the country of Oettingen, in the free‑towns of
Rothenburg, on the Tauber, and Hagenau, also in
the remote duchies of Julich‑Clever and Brunswick
Wolfenbiittel, whose Duke Julius, his cousin, fol
lowed him implicitly. The ecclesiastical reservation
carried through by Ferdinand at the Religious Peace
of Augsburg (q.v.) Christopher opposed as an
impediment to Protestantism and a denial of the
principle of religious liberty. His hopes, however,
in Maximilian IL, the son and successor of Fer
dinand, his friend, who had been influenced by the
spirit of the Reformation, were not realized. He
helped exiled Englishmen in 1554‑55, the Walden
sians in 1557, and in a quiet manner, not to excite
the wrath of the emperor, in 1568 William of Orange
in the war of liberation in the Netherlands. For
his people and the Evangelical Church of Germany
Christopher's death came too soon. His efforts
for his people's welfare, his zeal for the Church and
Protestantism, bas pure intentions mark him as one
of the ablest princes of Germany. His reign and
that of his son Louis (1569‑93) foam the golden
age of Wiirttemberg. 	G. BO$$ERT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. C. Pfister, Herzog Christoph von Wilrtlemberp, 2 vole., Tiibingen, 1819‑20; B. Kugler, Chriatoph, Herzog von Wdirttemberp, 2 vols., Stuttgart, 1868‑70; C. F. $tfilin, Wilr#e»tberpfaehe Geachachte, vol. iv., Stuttgart, 1873; E. Schneider, Wiirttemberpiache Reformationepeach%chie, Stuttgart, 1887: Wiirttemberpiaehe Rsrcherepeechichtc, Stuttgart, 1893; E. Schneider, W!'artkmberpiarhe Geachichte, Stuttgart, 1896; V. Ernst, Brae/wecAaei des Herzopa Chriatoph, 3 vole., Stuttgart, 1899‑1902.
CHRISTOPHORUS: Pope 903‑904. In the autumn of 903 he overthrew Leo V. and seized the papal throne; but a few months later he met the same fate at the hands of Sergius III. According to Herimannus, he became a monk; Vulgarius, on the other hand, says that he was murdered in
prison. 	(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: JaBd. Repeats, i. 443‑444; Bower, Popes, ii. 306.
CHROIDE‑GANG (Hrodegandus, Ruotgang, Ruggandus): Frankish bishop; b. in Hasbania (ex pogo Hasbaniensi, in the Belgian province of Limburg) early in the eighth century; d. at Metz Mar. 6, 766. He was the son of Sigramnus and Landrada, who belonged to one of the noblest families of the Ripuarian Franks, was set aside for the Church, admitted into the clergy of the court, and was raised by Charles Martel to the post of referendarius, a position influential in secular as well as in spiritual affairs. In 742 he was made bishop of Metz by Pepin, and became the means of reestablishing the long‑interrupted intercourse of his country with Rome. When Stephen II. was hard pressed by the Lombards, Chrodegang received from Pepin in 733 the commission to go to Italy and to accompany the pope to Gaul, which he accomplished successfully; for this he was rewarded by the pope with the dignity of archbishop, the use of the pallium, the privilege of having the cross borne before him, and of consecrating bishops, although Metz was not an archbishopric. His property he gave to the needy, for the founding of church‑establishments, particularly of monasteries (among which
Gorze and the reestablished Lorsch were notable), and for the beautifying and renovating of churches. In 764 he journeyed to Rome in quest 'of relics, but his chief claim to be remembered is found in his exertions in behalf of ecclesiastical discipline and morals, which were in a sad plight in the Gallic Church. This task Boniface had in part accomplished. Chrodegang considered that the most proper means of accomplishing this end would be to carry over the discipline and mode of life of the regular clergy into that of the secular clergy. He enforced strictly the rule of Benedict of Nursia, strengthened the work begun by Eueebius of Vercelli, Augustine, and his predecessors among the Franks, and drew up a rule of thirty‑four chapters. This was in great part a verbal repetition of Benedict's rule (cf. Hauck, ii. 60), retaining even the term clauatrum for his new institution, though ex, changing episcopus and archzdipcortus for a6bas and prmpositus, and canonici for ‑manachi. The vita canonica, the keeping of the home canonic(e, and so on, are mainly the same, differing however in two places, necessarily so, since the complete identification of the secular clergy with the regulars seemed hardly profitable. These differences were (1) the distinction between major and minor orders, with their interrelations, and (2) the vow of poverty, which was not required of the canonicals. The rule in its first form (cf. Mansi, Concilia, xiv. 31314) is intended only for the cathedral of Metz. Later it was enlarged to eighty‑six chapters and has now a more common form, in which it found a place in the Regina Aquisgranensis, 817 A.D. That Chrodegang thus helped to diffuse Roman customs through Germany was noted by Paul Warnefried, who tells us also that Chrodegang was bishop of Metz for twenty‑three years, five months, and five days. He lies buried in the monastery of Gorze, and his epitaph is to be found in Mabillon, Vdera Analecta., Paris, 1723, 377. (E. FRIEDBER(f.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources for a history are in Paulus warno
	fridue, Liber de eproscopia Me#ensibue, ed. G. H. Perta,
in MGH, Script., fi (1829), 267; the Epitaphium, ed.
E. Diimmler, in MGH, Poeta• latina aroi Carolina, i (1881),
108‑109; and the Vita by John of Gorse, ed. Perta, in
MGH, Script., a (1852), 552‑b72, and in A3B, March,
i. 352 eqq. (cf. G. H. Perta, Ueber die Vita Chrodepanpi,
Berlin, 1852). Consult: Rettberg, XD, i., i§ 87‑88;
Hauck KD, ii. 48 aqq.
CHROMATIUS, cry‑mg'shivs: Bishop of Aquileia from 387 or 389; d. 406 or a little later. He was a highly respected and much revered contemporary of Ambrose, Rufinus, and Jerome, who owed to him many encouragements in scientific endeavors. In the dogmatic controversies of the time he was a bold defender of orthodoxy. The destruction of Arianism in Aquileia was his work. To the emperor Honorius he presented an opinion on Chrysostom, who was suspected at the Byzantine court, and Honorius officially transmitted it to his brother Arcadius. His exegetical writings include a treatise on the Gospel of Matthew, seventeen short writings, and an excellent popular homily on the beatitudes. The best edition of his works is that by P. Braids (Udine, i816), reprinted in M PL, ax. 247‑368, where
the literature is also given.	G. KROGER.

Chronicles, cooks of	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	68
CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF.
I. Name.
II. Range and Divisions. III. Place in the Canon.
IV.	The Teat.
	The Aramaic Targum (¢ I).
The Syriac Translation of the London Polyglot (¢ 2). The Septuagint (¢ 3).
The Latin Translation of Jerome (¢ 4). The Maeoretio Text (¢ 8).
V. Contents and Purpose. VI. The Author and His Sources.
L Name: The Hebrew title, Dibhre hayamim, of the two historical books standing, in the English Bible, between II Kings and Ezra may be translated " the occurrences of the times "; for the first word expresses the content (history), the second the form (chronological). As this refers to time, the content can be only the sum of deeds or fortunes of men. But this meaningless general title can be but the practical abbreviation of a longer one, which either added the subject referred to (as in I Chron. xxvii. 24, " of King David "), or named a particular period within the whole time. In view of the greater part of the subject‑matter, the (lost) explanatory clause could be only " of the Kings of Judah." Indeed, the Syriac gives the name " The Book of the Reign of the Days of the Kings of Judah, which Bears the Name Sepher D'bdryamin "; the Arabic title is similar; and the Septuagint reads in Codex Alexandrinus and elsewhere " Deeds (?) of the Kings of Judah." Strangely enough, the Arabic, after translating the title adds, " the Hebrew is dibra hayyamim"; in the Syriac the title is followed by the Hebrew name in the Syriacized form D'bdryamin. The title " Chronicles " dates back to a comment by Jerome in his " Preface to the Books of Samuel and Kings " (translated in NPNF, 2d aeries, vi. 490).
II. Range and Divisions: The Masoretic notes at the end of Chronicles reckon 1,858 divisions, evidently meaning verses separated by a colon; actual count in the editions of Opitz and Michaelis gives the number as 1,764. Computations based upon amaller"commata" am as follows: the Talmud gives 5,880 (cf. H. L. Straek, Proiegomertacritica in Ydus Testamentum Hebraicum, Leipeie, 1873, p. l l), the Syriac 5,603, Nicephorus 5,500, codices of the Septuagint and Synopsis (cf. E. HIoatermann, Analekta zu Septuaginta, Hezapla and Patrist4k, Leipeic, 1895, pp. 45, 81) 5,000, the Canon Mommsen only 4,140. The division into two books is comparatively modern, unknown to the Masora and the canon‑catalogues. Origen (cf. Eusebius, Hist. eccl., VI. xxv. 2), Epiphanies, Synod of Laodicea, Athauasius, and Refines state expressly that Chronicles, given by the. Septuagint as two books, is to be looked upon as one. The Septuagint divides it after the death of David, a principle adopted by the Syrian and Arabic; the former has, however, another division after II. v. The codex Amiatinus of. the Vulgate has blank spaces after I. ix. and I. xix., and writes I. x. 1 and II. i. 1 m red ink, suggestive of early division at those points.
III. Place in the Canon: Tradition has two places for Chronicles among the Kethubhim
(see CANON oP SCRIPTURE, L). The order followed by the German manuscripts and by the printed Hebrew Bibles is: Ps., Prov., Job, the five Rolls (arranged according to the Jewish church‑calendar), Dan., Ezra‑Neh., Chron. The position of Chronicles, following Ezra, suggests to the memory the remark of the Mishnah: "Chronicles is given only for investigation "; Daniel and Ezra were edifying to the congregation, whereas Chronicles was rather scholastic in character. More likely, however, is it that Daniel and EzraNehemiah seem to belong together, as on the one hand, a statement of the divine programme and the story of its partial fulfilment, and, on the other hand, as possessing literary kinship, since both belonged to the time of Cyrus, and both were largely transmitted in Aramaic. The Talmudic order is similar: Ruth, Ps., Job, three Rolls, Dan., Esther, Ezra‑Neh., Chron. The other arrangement is the totally different one of the Masora: Chron., Pa., Job, Prov., the Rolls, Dan., EzraNeh.; as though Chronicles together with Ezra, ragging from Adam to Jaddua, furnished the historical setting for the rest of the Kethubhim (cf. Augustine, Christian Doctrine, II. viii. 13, in NPNF, tat series, ii. 541). According to a Masoretic codex Tschufutc (13 `Adath dibburim, cf. H. Straek, in G. A. Kohut, Semitic Studies, London, 1897, p. 570) this order is that of the Land of Israel, and is the only correct one, to be adopted ultimately by all scribes; where the other, in which Chronicles or Esther stand at the end, is called a corruption by the people of the Land of Sinear. Among the old translations of the Christian Church is the fanciful order given by Juniliua and by Epiphanius. The other transmitted catalogues either join Chronicles to Ezra, to Kings, or separate them. That gives four arrangements: (1) Kings, Chron., Ezra (so Origen, Cyril of Jerusalem, Canon of the Apostles, Apostolic Constitutions, Council of Laodicea, Gregory Nazianzen, Amphilochius, Athanasiusin his "Easter Letter," Vulgate, Rufinus, Ethiopic Bible); (2) Kings, Chron., . . Ezra (Melito, Augustine, Codex Alexandrines, Codex Amiatinus, Canon of Hippo, Deereta Gelasii, Canon of Mommsen, the Second Order of Caesiodorus); (3) Kings, . . . Chmn., Ezra (First Order of Casaiodorus, Jerome in "Preface to the Books of Samuel and Kings"); (4) Kings, . . . Ezra, Chron. (Rescript of Innocent L). In general, it seems that where Jewish scholasticism did not influence the Christian Church the tatter's arrangement was ruled by the conviction that Ezra‑Nehemiah was intended to be the continuation of Chronicles, which latter in its relation to Kings bore in the Septuagint correctly the name " Deeds (?) of the Kings of Judah."
IV. The Text: For the verification of the Maeoretic text there are excellent means in the translations from the early Hebrew. The Aramaic Targum is a translation which shows,
1. The on the one hand, a close following of
Aramaic	the letter of the text and an endeavor
	Targvm.	to reproduce it correctly; and, on
		the other hand, au attempt to satisfy
the spiritual hunger which mere names and
brief statements must create in the hearers

gg	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Chronicles, Books of
anxious for edification and entertainment. This could be brought about by etymological interpretation (as in I Chron. viii. 33: " He was called Ner because he lighted the lamp, Hebr. Ner, in the synagogue "); or by an interpretation of the text more in harmony with the spiritual vision of later Judaism, to which the war‑heroes of old had become doctors of the Law. The zeal of late Judaism for interpretation recognizes no limits; it knows how to harmonize, to combine, to do away with differences and contradictions. The spirit which beguiled the prophets of Ahab is Naboth'a (II Chron. xviii. 20); the Syrian archer (II Chron. xviii. 33) is Naaman; Jabez is identified with Othniel (I Chron. iv. 9); Ner's original name is said to have been Abiel (I Chron. viii. 33). On II Chron. xxviii. 3 it comments that Hezekiah's life was saved from the fire by divine intervention. But the Midrash‑additions do not hinder in most cases from recognizing the text which lay before the authors of the Targum. Hence it is worth while for the textual critic to consult this earliest translation in restoring the text.
A Syriac translation, not found in the Peahito, with a translator other than he who rendered Ezra, is found in the London Polyglot alongside of its Arabic translation. This latter is an excellent help in correcting the many textual mistakes of 2. The the Syriac; but where both have the Syriac same omission, it is difficult to deter‑
Transla‑ mine whether the omission is purposed tins of the by the translator (as perhaps in I
London Chron. xxvii., xxvi. 13‑‑32; II Chron.
Polyglot. xvi. 12) or whether it is due to a corrupt Syriac text, or to a shorter Hebrew text (II Chron. xxvii. 8, also wanting in Codex Yaticanus, cf. II Chron. x. 2). The numerous agreements of the Syrian with the Targum show a thorough acquaintance with Jewish traditional interpretation. While the translator tries to apply the lesson of history to his time, makes blunders on account of his deficiency in historical knowledge, and takes delight now and then in etymological dallying, he supplies few of the Midrashic excursuses so characteristic of the Aramaic. The additions to the text are either helps to a correct understanding (as in II Chron. xviii. 6, xvi. 10), do away with apparent contradictions (so in II Chron. xxi. 6, xxii. 3), are based upon scholastic theories (as in I Chron. viii. 33, 34, 39, 40, ix. 2), or attempt to give to the story a greater definiteness and completeness, using for that purpose not legend but Biblical lore (II Chron. xxi. 11, xxxii. 1, 9, xxxiii. 20; I Chron. vi. 13, xix. 16). The longest addition is found in II Chron. xi. where w. 4‑17 are taken from I Kings xii, and xiv. For the rest, the translator followed very closely his Hebrew copy and was very anxious to give the idiom of the Hebrew, but here the sparseness of tradition as to the meaning of technical expressions led him into many queer errors (as in I Chron. xv. 16, xx. 3, xxix. 19; II Chron. viii. 5, ix. 27, xxx. 3, etc.). Many of his odd mistakes ass due to a misreading of the Hebrew text (I Chron. xi. 8'; II Chron. xxiv. 4, xxv. 13, 16). But because he permits himself to be influenced by the Hebrew
letter his translation deserves to be considered wherever it differs from the Hebrew.
	Of the Greek translations, since remarkably few
variants of Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion
have come down (Field, in his Hexapla, Origenis
Hexaplorum quce superaunt, London, 1867, gives
also those of Lucian), only the Septuagint requires
attention. It is a most important witness, since it
has no other object in view than to rexi4er the
Hebrew text into Greek, which it generally does
in such a way that the Greek can with certainty
be reconverted into the original. Seldom is there
au un‑Hebraic sentence (like II Cliron. xxxvi. 13).
There is abundant proof that Chronicles had a
translator different from Kings (cf. A. HIoetermann,
		Die Bilccher Samuelis and der Konige,
8. The Mach, 1887, on II Kings xxiii. 7). SeDtua‑ Unfortunately, with the mass of
Sint. names appearing barbaric to the copyists such a confusion has been imported into the genealogical tables that, as Origen and Jerome complain, it is difficult to decide how the original read. Moreover, the many recessions underlying the codices used by Swete differ so much that the exegete, in spite of the many editions of the Septuagint, is still obliged to reconstruct for himself its original readings by comparing the different recessions. In parallel passages that reading is preferable which in the context gives the better sense while differing most from the Hebrew, since the Greek has often been brought by Jews into harmony with the text of their times. Consequently where there is au excess or a deficiency in the teat, the one which has it is to be considered nearer the original than the one which agrees more closely with the Hebrew. But it does not follow that the Hebrew should always be corrected by the Septuagint, though it may be that the aberration can be detected through the Greek as due to purpose or mishap on the part of the Hebrew. As already noted, it was the habit of the scribes to search for parallels in other Biblical books, sad to write any addition either in the margin or in the text; in such cases, the recession which has the shorter text is to be preferred if the Hebrew text contains the longer text. Again, it may happen that the inferior Septuagint text which has the shorter reading is still to be preferred to the better Septuagint text with the longer reading, if this reading can be shown to have its parallel elsewhere.
In his preface to Chromatiua Jerome asserts that it was his purpose in his Latin translation to correct the many variations in the Septuagint by means of the Hebrew; in the preface to Domnio and R.ogatianus he makes evident that he used the old Latin translation of the Septuagint. To be absolutely sure in the use of his Hebrew authority he had the help of a Jewish rabbi of Tiberias, with whom he went over the entire book.
4. The In using Jerome's translation one has
Latin
Translation therefore to bear in mind, in the of Jerome. first place, that his endeavor was to give an intelligent Latin translation, and, secondly, that in spite of his own higher culture and better taste he permitted himself to be influenced by the Jewish interpretations of his

Chronicles, Books of	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	70
Chrysologns, Petrno
teacher. He has the good sense to follow Lucian's
Septuagint in I Chron. iv. 22 rather than the Jewish
fiction of the Targum. But when, contrary to
his custom, he translated in the same verse the
proper names Jokim, Kozeba, Joaeh, and Saraf, his
action can be explained only as due to the influence
of his Hebrew teacher.
	When one tries, with the help of the versions,
to solve the many riddles found in the Maeoretic
text, the latter proves to be a descendant of an
older type which has come to its present condition
through omissions or additions, misreadings or
scribal errors, corrections or interpretations. But
even this older type is not the text written by the
author. It bears like marks of change, but for
want of older witnesses it is less frequently pos
sible to bring proof of the fact. For example, I
Chron. i. 11‑16, 17°‑23 according to the Septuagint
are very likely additions; similarly I Chron. i. 4‑10,
30‑34', 35‑54; I Chron. ii. 3° are transferred from
Genesis; I Chron. xi. 10‑41° from II Sam. xxiii.
(cf. A. HIoatermann, Geschichte Israels, Munich,
1896, p. 157). Against such designed augmentation
exists another kind due to scribal errors, as
when, owing to the identity of I Chron. viii. 28°
and ix. 34°, the copyist repeats viii. 29‑‑38 in ix.
			35‑44. It is natural that to such
		6. The	additions correspond omissions, as
	Xasoretio when a scribe having copied out of the
		Teat.	wrong column, noticing his mistake,
skips as much of the right as he copied from the
wrong. For it is certain I Chron. x. 1 is the con
tinuation of a story which had begun a new book,
the beginning of which was loot and thus the story
became unintelligible. How much confusion may
be created by the omission of a single word may
be seen in I Chron. iv. 7‑10, where the student is
at a lose what to make of %; (verse 8) and Ja'bez
(verse 9) until he adds with the Targum wekoz, at
the end of verse 7. Similarly the Lucianic codices
still retain in I Chron. ix. 18 the two words which
were lost in the Hebrew. In these cases the
claim of antiquity is with the versions. In other
cases the right reading exists alongside of the wrong
one, as when in I Chron. vii. 5 one copyist wrote a
meaningless word, and another put the correct
reading in the margin, whence it found its way again
into the text, where both stand to‑day. These few
examples suffice to show that the original text of
Chronicles was written in a more careless orthog
raphy than that of the books generally used in the
community. For that reason it was misunder
stood and misinterpreted by punctuators and
translators. In very early times it had already
undergone correction and variation, had been ex
tended by interpretations and quotations of parallel
passages, and had lost its original form through
additions and omissions. The consequence is that
it, more than any other Biblical book, needs a
thorough revision before it may be used as a witness
or its claims denied.
	V. Contents and Purpose: To understand these,
use moat be made of Ezra‑Nehemiah, which con
stitutes the second half of Chronicles. Examina
tion of Ezra i. 1‑3' (‑II Chron. xxxvi. 22‑23)
proves the unity of Chronicle&‑‑Ezra‑Nehemiah. For
the meaning of the repetition is (cf. Nestle, TSK, 1879, p. 517) that the author thereby indicates that the story of Chronicles is continued in EzraNehemiah. Just as Ezra‑Neh. falls into three sections (cf. A. HIoatermann, Geschichte lsraels, Munich, 1896, pp. 215‑216) so with Chronicles, as follows: (1) I Chron. i. ix., the Book of Genealogies, gives the place of Israel in the Adamic family of nations, a tabular ramification of its tribes, mostly of Judah and the Davidic family, of the Benjamitea of Saul's family and of Jerusalem, of Levi and Aaron, and of a few families of Joaephitea. (2) The second section, I Chron. x.‑II Chron. v., ends (as the Syriac correctly surmises) not with the death of David (I Chron. xxix.) but with the dedication of Solomon's temple. It describes how David became Israel's sole king, how he prepared the way for the temple, selected its site in Jerusalem, and collected the means for its construction; how the personnel of its service was organized and how Solomon became the divine means for the accomplishment of David's purpose. (3) The third section, II Chron. vi. to the end, narrates the history of the temple till its destruction, tells of good days and evil, of pious and godless kings, of faithful and neglected temple‑service, of obedience and disobedience of prophetic teaching, and ends with the edict of Cyrus. It was evidently the purpose of the historian to bring before the little, politically dependent congregation of the insignificant second temple, which had been built by self‑sacrificing religious zeal in obedience to the prophetic word, the ideal of ancient Israel as the adopted congregation of the living God, revealing in its history both a stimulus and a warning.
VI. The Author sad His Sources: The Talmud says (Baba Bathra i. 14‑15), "Ezra wrote his book (Ezra‑Nehemiah) and the genealogies in Chronicles." Modern critics conclude from doubtful indications that the author wrote in the beginning of the Greek period and, from his full description of cult and clergy, that he was a priest or a Levite. Certain it is that he wrote at a time when the memorabilia of Ezra and Nehemiah were consulted for the understanding of their time. Of high importance are the questions, what the author accomplished, and how he obtained and handled his material. From the second half of his work (Ezra‑Nehemiah), where he contents himself (cf. A. HIoatermann, Geschichte Israels, pp. 216‑217) with giving extracts from the autobiographies of Ezra and Nehemiah and from other official documents, the student may conclude that he used a similar method elsewhere. For I Chron. i. ix. there was a multitude of genealogies valued the more highly the more the Dispersion and the little colony at home attempted to figure as the continuation of classic Israel. From the Lucian Codex (I Chron. v. 1?) one receives the impression that tl)e genealogies existed in the Book of Kings; so m I Chron. ix. 1, according to the Syriac. The same is true of the other two sections. The author knew the Book of Isaiah (II Chron. xxxii. 32), in which at this time stood already chapters xxxvi. and xxxix., also Samuel and Kings (II Chron. xx. 34, xxiv. 7, 23, xxv. 26, etc.), and the hymns of David and

71	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Chronicles, Books of
		Qhrysologus, Patron
	his chief musician. To appreciate our author
	rightly it is important to have a clear conception of
this extensive Book of Kings. It is certain that it
was finished only in the days of the Restoration,
	that it treated in the same manner as the canon
ical Books of Kings the history of both kingdoms.
From this one may infer that Chronicles was in
tended to be a revised, enlarged edition of Kings, for
	the use and benefit of the new congregation, to
pave the way to a theodicy.	As the new Israel
	renewed its life around the new temple and wished
	to know of the past and of its organization, there
	were written books about the first years and the
	last years of David, one about Solomon, one about
	the Judaic kings, and one about the Iaraelitic kings.
The last three still existed in 560 s.c.	Besides
	these there was a collection of Judaic prophetic
	narratives. Then grew up the traditional inter
	pretations of the schools, vitalizing dead names,
	and finally the traditions of priests and Levites and
important families.	While it is true that imagina
	tion has here a wide field, and that not all epochs
	received equally careful attention, nevertheless
	both author and editor acted in good faith, for the
	latter only arranged the matter which he extracted
	from the former, where he employed new material,
	cited his sources, and his statements could be veri
	fied. The picture of the beginning of the cult
	which the chronicler and his forerunner carried in
	their soul may be totally different from that of
	modern critics, but the material which underlies
	that picture they neither invented nor did they
	purposely change its meaning. The historical
	books of the Bible, including Chronicles, were writ
	ten for the practical need of the community, and
	the test by which they are to be judged is whether
they satisfied it or not.	Just here lie the limits of
	their value to the modern historian who would like
	to reproduce out of authentic documents a picture
	of persons and events as the immediate eye‑wit
	nesses had it. Like all historical books, even more
	so, because of its origin, Chronicles demands an able
	and cautious examination, if one would not sin against
	the Biblical book, nor against the science of impartial
historical investigation.	(A. KLO$TERhIANN.)
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: The beat editions of the Hebrew text are
	by S. Beer and F. Delitzech, Liber Chronicorum, Leip
	eic, 1888, and by R. Kittel, in SBOT, New York, 1895.
	Critical discussions are by: A. Kuenen, Historisch‑lcri.
	tiec)t Onderzock . . . des ouden Verbonda, i. 433‑b20,
	Leyden, 1887 (very thorough); K. H. Graf, Die geachichh
	lichen Bficher des Allen Testaments, pp. 114‑247, Leipsic,
	1886 (important); J. Wellhaueen, De gentibua et familiia
	Judaia gate in 1 Chron, ti.‑iv. enumeranlur, G&ttingen,
	1870; idem, Prolegomena, pp. 178‑237, Berlin, 1883,
	Eng. trans]., pp. 171‑227, London, 1885; G. T. Ladd,
	Doctrine of Sacred Scripture, Vol. i. passim, New York,
	1883; W. E. Barnes, Religious Standpoint of the Chroni
	cler, in American Journal of Semitic Languages, Oct., 1896;
	G. B. Gray, Studies in Hebrew Proper Names, chap. iii.,
	London, 1898; W. Sunday, Biblical Inspiration, ib. 1896;
	books on introduction, notably Driver, Introduction,
	chap. 33,., and C. H. Cornill, Einledtung, pp. 268‑276,
	Freiburg, 1891. Among the beat of the commentaries
	are. C. F. Keil, Leipaic, 1870; $. Oettli, in Rurzgelaeater
	Rommentar, Munich 1889; and W. H. Bennett, in the
	EzPoaitor's Bible, London, 1894. Very thorough dis
	cussions are to EB, f. 783‑772, and DB, i. 389‑397. The
	Germ. tranaL in Kautzaeh'a Die heilxge Schrdtt dee Allen
	Testaments, pp 937‑1012, Leipaic, 1898, is very useful
	for its paragraphing and indication of sources of the text.
CHRONICON PASCHALE, cren'i‑con pas‑cd'le (" Easter Chronicle," also called Chronicon Alezandrinum, or ConstantinoPolitanum): A chronological work, probably composed by a cleric who belonged to the entourage of Sergius, patriarch of Constantinople, 610‑638. It extended from the creation of Adam to the year 629, but the beginning and end are lost, and, as preserved, it stops in 627. The name "Easter Chronicle" is derived from the computation of the Easter canon, which forma the basis of Christian chronology. The author, except for his own time, confined himself to copying the sources (Euaebius, John Malalas, and others). The so‑called Byzantine or Roman era is used for the first time as basis of the chronology. The Chronicofl paschale was edited by L. Dindorf in the Corpus ScriPtorum historicorum Byzantinorum (2 vole., Bonn, 1832), reprinted in MPG, xcii. 69‑1028.
G. KRf?(iER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Gelzer, Sextus Juliua Africanus and die byzantinische Chronopraphie, ii. 1, Leipeie, 1885; K. Krumbacher, Geachichte der byzanti,niachen Idteratur, Munich, 1897 (where the literature is given).
CHRONOLOGY. See TIME, RECKONING OF.
	CHRYSANTHOS, cri‑san'thes, NOTARAS, na
td'ras: Patriarch of Jerusalem; b. in the second
half of the seventeenth century; d. at Jerusalem
1731. He was the nephew of the celebrated Do
sitheos (q.v.), patriarch of Jerusalem; having
completed his studies at Padua and Paris, in the
year 1700 he was created bishop of Caesarea in
Palestine by his uncle, whom he succeeded in the
patriarchate in the year 1707. He was a man of
scientific culture and also a strong, energetic church
man. With force and success he applied himself
to church reform in Palestine, by which he made
bitter enemies of the Roman Catholics while doing
much for his own monasteries. He encouraged
theological science, to which he contributed by his
own writings, such as the " History and Descrip
tibn of the Holy Land" (Venice, 1728) and "On
the Mysteries of the Great Church " (last ed. Venice,
1778). For the Greek Church he did great service
through his edition of the " History of the Patriarchs
of Jerusalem" by Dositheos. Le Quien in his Oriena
Christianus has borrowed liberally from Chrysan
th03. 	(PHILIPP MEYER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. Fabricius, Bibliotheca Grdca, xi. 792, xiii. 479 aqq., 14 vole., Hamburg, 171864.
CHRYSOLOGUS, Iris"o‑l‑v'gva, PETRUS, pfftrps (" Peter the Golden‑worded ") : Archbishop of Ravenna; b. at Imola (22 m. e.s.e. from Bologna) 406 (7); d. at Ravenna 449 or 450. He was a contemporary of Leo the Great, and stood at the head of the Church at Ravenna at the time when that City
was the capital of the Western Empire. As a patron of art he is still remembered (cf. V. Schultze, Archaeologic der altchristlichen Kunst, p. 85, Munich, 1895). He is still more famous as an orator: his sermons betray everywhere that they dealt with a select and pampered public, which listened leisurely and " delighted in being startled," and they show a continuous striving for the sensational and the unusual. They are better written than most‑sermons of those times, bear witness to religious experience and moral earnestness, and at times carry

Chhrryy~et m°' p°tru`	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	72
one away with their pathos and the energy of their condensed diction. But finally the sententious unrest, the compression, the avoidance of the simple, and the presence of much that is obscure or grotesque induce tedium in the reader. Yet throughout a great talent is recognizable, and much which would otherwise be repulsive is useful to the historian. In his sermons, gathered by Felix, archbishop of Ravenna (d. Nov. 25, 724), his by‑name does not appear; it is found first in Agnellus (chap. 47), and seems to have been given him in order that the Western Church also might have its Chrysostom. What Agnellua knows of his life is taken partly from local tradition; how uncertain this had become in 400 years is proven by the mass of chronological errors and the confusion among the Peters, the bishops of Ravenna. That modern biographers know as much of Chrysologus is due to the fact that they take the Roman Breviary (Dec. 4) as a reliable source. The year of his birth and that of his death are equally uncertain (by Oct. 24, 458, Neo, bishop of Ravenna, appears). He was named Peter by his parents in anticipation of future greatness (cf. MPL, Iii. 497), but that he was educated in a monastery can not be inferred from sermon 107. Agnellus says that Sixtus III. (432440) made him bishop contrary to the wishes of Ravenna. It is doubtful whether all the sermons in the edition by Felix are genuine. The title " s. Joannia episcopi " which some of them bear in various manuscripts is strange, and may have been due to the copyist's confounding Chrysologus with Chrysostom, and a help to the confusion is the fact that the former used the letter's sermons liberally. Sermon 149 is undoubtedly a translation of the speech of Severianus of Gabala delivered in the year 401 (cf. MPL, Iii. 599a, with Neander, Chrysostomus, ii., 3d edition, Berlin, 1848, p.114). How much of this absorption of foreign matter into his sermons is due to Chrysologus himself is impossible to determine; but the principal matter is undoubtedly authentic. As a dogmatician, Chrysologus wrestled with the problem of a theodicy (sermon 101); in spite of his letter to Eutyches, he leaned strongly toward Monophyaitiem, attacked Pelagianism, was dependent upon Augustine (sermons 11 sad 30), sympathized with Paulinism (sermons 108‑116), " and at the feasts of the Saints preached more of faithful endurance than of works " (sermon 128). In his polemics he never named his adversary, but combated Ariana, Pelagians, Nestoriana, Novatiana, and llsanicheana. Sermon 6 was highly prized by the ancients, sermon 35 seems to have been used by Fulgentiua, sermons 50, 142, 143 found a place in the Roman Breviary, while sermons 67‑72 are valuable for the history of catechetice. In sermon 34 (MPL, Iii. 299a) Chrysologus combated the conditional immortality of the Stoics from the teat I Cor. xv. 52; in sermon 61 he touched upon the same subject, and the conclusion of sermon 62 asserted that the resurrection has the character of eternity because it is accomplished through the eternal Christ, which is better rhetoric than logic.
(F. AxxoLn. j
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Sermons, together with the authorita‑
tive life by Agnellue, were published Venice, 1750, re‑
printed in MPL, Iii.; German select tranal, by M. Held,
Kempten 1$74. The life is also in MOB, Script. ra.
Lanpob., 1878, pp. 307‑37b. New material is gathered by
F. Liverani, in 3picidepium Liberianum, pp 12b‑203,
Florence, ' 1883. Consult: H. Dapper, Der heilige Petrue
Chrysolopua, Cologne, 1887; the biographical sketch by
Held is in his tranal., ut sup.; L. S. Tillemont, MEmoires
. eccdEsiastiqwa, xv. 184‑196, 884‑887: Ceillier, Auteura saer", a. 8‑18; J. Feaeler, Inetitutiones yatrolopios,
ed. B. Jungmann, ii. 2, pp. 240‑258. Innsbruck, 1898;
DCB, i. 517‑518; KL, ix. 1898‑1900.

CHRYSOSTOM, cris'ea‑tam.
Life to 398 (¢ 1).
Patriarch of Constantinople, 398 (§ 2).
His Opponents and Controversies (¢ 3).
The Synod ad Quercum (§ 4).
Chrysoatom Banished (¢ 5).
Writings (§ 8).
His Significance and Doctrine (¢ 7).
John Chrysoatom (Jodrdnea Chrysostomos, " John the Golden‑mouthed"), patriarch of Constantinople was born at Antioch, probably c. 345 or 347; d. near Comana, in Pontus, Sept. 14, 407. The name " Chrysostom," borrowed from Dion of Prusa, was given to him soon after his death. He came of a rich patrician family, and his father, Secundus, died anon after his eon's birth; the boy was brought up by his mother Anthusa. At twenty he was among the pupils of the rhetorician Libaniua at Antioch, and attended the lectures of the philosopher Andragathius. He intended at first to follow the law, but the details of the life displeased him, and he decided to leave the world entirely, finding a companion in his fellow student Basil, of whom nothing more is known. He busied
><. Life to himself now with the Scriptures, and
	398.	prepared for baptism, which he received
		three years later from Meletius, bishop
of Antioch (c. 368, certainly before 370, in which
year Meletius left Antioch). Almost immediately
after, he seems to have been ordained as a reader.
His teachers in this period were Diodorus of Tarsus
and a certain Karterius, of whom nothing more is
known; his friends were Maximus, later bishop of
Seleucia, and Theodore, bishop of Mopsuestia.
He himself tells of the strictness of the ascetic life
which he now led in his mother's house. Declining
a bishopric about 373, on his mother's death a year
or two later he betook himself to a mountain soli
tude near Antioch, where he spent four years in
ascetic exercises with an old Syrian monk, and two
more alone in a cave, until need of medical treat
ment brought him back to Antioch about 380.
Probably in the early part of the neat year, he
was ordained deacon by Meletius, and priest by his
successor Flavian at the beginning of 386. In
this capacity he labored in Antioch for twelve years,
laying the foundations of his fame as a preacher
and teacher and distinguishing himself by the
holiness of his life.
When Nectarine, the successor of Gregory Nasianzen in the episcopal see of Constantinople, died on Sept. 27, 397, intrigue was busy with the new choice. The weak emperor Arcadiua was entirely in the hands of his chamberlain Eutropius, for whom the choice was interesting only as subaerving his political plans. Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, more diplomat than bishop, endeavored to

yg	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Chryeoloa'as, Petrao
		Chrysostom
fill the place with one of his creatures, Isidore by name; but Eutropius, pursuing the policy inaugurated by Theodosius the Great in 381, was not disposed to support the Alexandrian influence in this manner, and gave Theophilue his 3. Patriarch choice between consenting to the of Conatan‑ elevation of John or facing serious tinople, 398, charges. He chose the former course, and John was consecrated on Feb. 26, 398. He threw himself with energy into the task of reforming manifold abuses, especially among the clergy. He drove out the "spiritual sisters," with whom many of them were living in a nominally spiritual marriage, and checked the parasitic habits of others who were mere hangerson to the rich; he cut down the ecclesiastical expenses, and applied the saving to hospitals. Naturally his reforms made enemies for him, but they were powerless as long as the court was on his side. Before long, however, he came into conflict with the all‑powerful favorite, whose shameful conduct he fearlessly rebuked; but before Eutropius could avenge himself, he fell from power (399), and was obliged to take refuge in the very church where he had himself violated the right of asylum to others a few years earlier. Chrysostom protested him from the soldiers who rushed in to seize him.
Meantime the number of the devoted prelate's enemies was growing. Among them are named various ecclesiastics who were dissatisfied with his strict rule, and a number of rich and worldly women whose lives he had rebuked. He made fresh enemies at a council held at Ephesus in 400, where he deposed six bishops who had obtained their office by simony. The empress, however, who now held the reins of government, still upheld
3. His Op‑ him, and when a male heir to the ponents and throne was born (401), he seems to
Controver‑ have officiated at the child's baptism.
	des.	His position was none the less insecure,
		as was shown in the purse of his con
flict with Severianua (q.v.) of Gabala who had
gained a footing in Constantinople and was push
ing his ambitious plans there. Chryeqstom for
bade him to preach; Severianus yielded and retired
to Chalcedon, but Eudoaa forced Chrysostom to
recall him. A more dangerous foe was Theophilus
of Alexandria, who had by no means given up his
designs for the aggrandizement of his see. He
found a new occasion to press his claim that the
bishopric of Constantinople belonged to his pa
triarchal jurisdiction. In the Origenistic contro
versy which then agitated the Egyptian Church,
Theophilus found many of the monks of the desert
recalcitrant and unwilling to give up their beloved
teacher Origen. Four among them of special
influence, the " long brothers " Dioscorus, Ammo
nius, Euaebius, and Euthymius, were banished by
Theophilus, and went first to Palestine; pursued
thither by the enmity of Theophilus, they went on
to Constantinople. Chrysostom behaved guard
wily and sought to effect a reconciliation. The
ophilus at first did not answer, and then adopted a
haughty tone. When it appeared that Eudocia
took the side of the monks, he bent all his energies
to their destruction and that of Chrysostom, who, he thought, stood behind them. He did not go himself to Constantinople, but sent Epiphanius of Salamis, whose narrow zeal was easily enlisted, to carry on the campaign against the alleged Origenism of C6rysoetom. Epiphanius departed in ill humor without accomplishing anything, and died on the way home.
	Chryeoetom now ruined himself with the empress
by preaching vehemently against the luxury of
women's dress, in a way which she and others
thought was aimed directly at her. Theophilus
carne to.Conatantinople at her summons, and found
the train laid. He had assembled the bishops on
whom he could count in a church in a suburb
of Chalcedon, on the imperial estate called
" The Oak" (whence the gathering is known by
the Latin name, Synodus ad Quercum), in the
autumn of 403, and began his synod when all
was ready. There were thirty‑six present, of
whom twenty‑nine were from Egypt (Photius,
who has preserved a part of their proceedings,
says forty‑five, but perhaps some signed after
		ward). The charges brought against
4. The Chrysoatom, by some of his own Synod ad clergy, were for the moat part of no
	Quercum.	importance, and showed nothing but
		the enmity of the accusers. Yet he felt,
as he sat with forty friendly bishops in his palace in
Constantinople, that the situation was a very dan
gerous one. Summoned to appear before the hostile
synod„ be made the condition that those who had
expressed their intention to destroy him‑The
ophilus, Acacius, Severianus, and Antiochus
ahould be excluded. Meantime application had
been made to the emperor to compel his attendance
in case of hesitation; when he still delayed, he was
condemned in his absence and deprived of his
bishopric. The emperor was notified and requested
to enforce the sentence. Although it was obviously
illegal, Chrysostom yielded to force and, when the
emperor had confirmed the deposition, went into
exile at Preenetua (or Pronectus), in Bithynia
(28 m. n.w. of Nicaea), after he had sought to
calm the excited people in a wonderful sermon.
The next night something alarming happened in
the imperial palace‑Theodoret speaks of an earth
quake, but neither Socrates nor Sozomon give this
‑and it was put down to his banishment. The
temper of the people, too, was threatening. The
ophilus thought it beat to depart in haste, and a
few days later an imperial messenger was sent to
recall Chrysostom.
The peace, however, was not of long duration. Two months later the strife broke out afresh, on a fresh affront to the empress's vanity. The prefect Simplicius had erected a silver statue of her on the south aide of the great church, which was dedicated with loud rejoicinga; and Chrysostom complained, in a sermon, of noisy popular festivities which disturbed the devotions of the faithful. Again he was accused of intending to insult the emprees• and once more she set herself to effect his downfall. A synod assembled in Constantinople, instructed by the absent Theophilus, and the pliant bishops, with but few exceptions, followed

Ohu ,, B shoprio of	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	74
the imperial will. The method to be employed gave rise to lengthy discussions, until shortly
before Easter, 404, the emperor or$. Chrys‑ dered Chrysostorn to leave his church.
ostom	since he had been condemned by two
Banished. synods. The bishop said he would
yield only to force; and force was employed on Thursday in Holy Week, the adherents of Chryaoatom being driven out of the church by a violent onslaught. He himself remained in the suburbs, strengthening his party, until on June 10 his enemies moved the emperor to further measures, and on the 20th, after an affecting farewell, he took ship for Asia Minor, the country indicated for his banishment. The same night a fire broke out in the cathedral church, for which his adherents were blamed, and they were severely repressed. A feeble old man named Araacius, the brother of his predecessor, was put in his place on June 26.
But while Chrysostom was on his way to Cucuaus in Armenia, his friends were not idle. Four bishops went to Rome with a letter from him, to move Innocent I. in his favor. The acts of the synod which had first condemned Chrysostom were sent to Innocent shortly after by thq opposite party, and he saw that the sentence had been illegal. He wrote to Theophilus that the affair should be brought up before a general council, and exhorted Chrysostorn and his adherents to steadfastness. Honorius, the Western emperor and brother of Arcadius, also wrote to the latter in favor of the banished bishop, but without suttees. The outcome was a breach of communion between Old and New Rome. After the death of Arsacius (Nov. 11, 405), Atticus became bishop in the following spring, and persecuted the " Johannites " with renewed severity. Chrysostorn himself was ordered transferred from Cueusus to Pityus, a still more desolate place; but the hardships of the journey were too much for him, and he died near Comana, the modern Tokat, in Sivas, Asia Minor. Thirty years later his remains were solemnly translated to Constantinople and buried with honor in the church of the Apostles, Theodosius II. thus atoning for the deeds of his parents.
The writings of Chrysostom may be divided, according to his biographer Palladius, into " homilies, treatises, and letters." The list known as the Catalogue Augustanus (from a lost Augsburg MS.) numbers 102 separate titles, including none which is not genuine. His sermons cover practically the whole Bible, including, for example, seventy‑six on Genesis, ninety on Matthew, eighty‑eight on John, fifty‑five on Acts, and 242 on the Pauline epistles, without counting those on Galatians, which are preserved only in the form of a connected com‑
mentary worked up from the sermons. 6. Writings. There are also discourses for all the
principal festivals, and a large number on various saints, of which the moat notable are the seven on Paul. The " treatises " are partly apologetic and partly practical, the latter being the more numerous. The earliest we have are two letters to Theodore, afterward bishop of Mopauestia, who, on account of a love‑affair, was thinking of returning to the world. To justify his declination
of a bishopric, about 373, he addressed to his friend Basil the six books " On the Priesthood "; according to Socrates, the composition of this work falls in the period after his ordination as deacon, i.e., after 381. To this period probably belong also the two books " On Penance," and the three against the enemies of the monastic life. The superiority of the single life is dealt with in a work on virginity, written about 380, and two smaller works of about the same period, " To a Young Widow " and " Against a Second Marriage." With these may be classed the two pastoral letters of his early Constantinople days, directed against the abuses in clerical life already referred to. His letters, about 245 in number, are almost all from the period of his second exile, and give an interesting picture of his life and his cares. Of works improperly attributed to him there is no lack. The liturgy bearing his name is not his, though its relation to that of Antioch deserves a closer investigation than it has yet received‑as does the " Synopsis of the Old and New Testaments." The " Incomplete Work on Matthew," consisting of fifty‑four sermons, is a Latin original composed by an Arias toward the end of the sixth century.
The significance of Chrysostom's work does not lie in the domain of scientific theology, on the development of which he had but little influence. He was preeminently a practical man, and it was through practical teaching that he left his mark. A disciple of the school of Antioch (q.v.), he displayed throughout his life the characteristics of that school. The pupil of Diodorus of Tarsus is easily to be recognized in his sober exegesis, occupied with determining the literal sense of his text. Constantly bearing in mind the needs of.his flock, he naturally did not carry the exegetical principles of his school to the extreme which is found in the commentaries of Theodore of Mopaueatia; but he was a master of the art of developing practical truths for everyday life from the Scripture. Thus his sermons surpass Origen's in practical value as far as they are inferior to them in speculative insight. His was not, in any case, a systematic mind; the logical development of dogma from point to point he left to others. Where the Church had decided, the question was nettled for him. He took his stand on the Nicene theology, and was ready to defend it against all comers. In order fully to understand and respect this position, one must remember the difficulties in which the church teachers of Antioch were placed‑how they had to contend not only against pagans and Jews, but against Christian sects of every description, the various kinds of Gnostics, Novatiana, y. His Sig‑ Arians, Manicheana, and many others.
nificance In his anthropology and soteriology and Chrysostorn faithfully represents the
	Doctrine.	teaching of Diodorus. Man, consist
		ing of body and soul, is disposed both
to good and to evil, and thus there is no room for
Manichean dualism. For the development of the
first man, as he was created perfect and immortal
by God, the possession of free will proved fatal.
Not knowing how to use his freedom, man rebelled
against God and brought on himself all the corrup‑

76	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Chryeoetom
Ch., Bishopric o!
Lion of mortality. Thus sin spread from our first parents to the whole race. He expressly controverta the view, however, that sin is as integral part of our nature. Then death followed as a consequence of sin. From this position man attains the good by means of his free will, which can turn away from evil; but this is only possible by means of divine grace. Yet the operation of grace does not impair our free will; our own decision must come first, and then God begins to do his part. That the East took so little interest in the controversy about grace is due largely to the position assumed by the school of Antioch and especially by Chrysostom. His ascetic inclination is shown not only in his early writings, but in many, passages of his sermons. His Eucharistic doctrine is specially noteworthy; he asserts emphatically the identity of the bread and wine with the body and blood of Christ, going so far as to say that Christ drank of his own blood at the Institution. The change is caused by the words of institution repeated by the priest; their operation is analogous to that of the words of creation spoken by God. The consequence of this view for his conception of his office is obvious, and in this point his influence on succeeding ages is important. It should be added that he never had au opportunity to develop his thoughts carefully; they were uttered in sermons of which only a small part probably was prepared beforehand, and perhaps received no very thorough revision after they had been taken down in shorthand. What made his preaching so powerful was not only the native rhetorical force which he undoubtedly possessed, but his skill in illuminating the questions of daily life from the Scriptures, in guiding men in their path through the world. He could venture to preach in his own way, " and not as the scribes." He boldly rebuked the rich, to ouch an extent that he was sometimes blamed for it, and no fear of the displeasure of the powerful ever restrained him from declaring the truth of
God. 	(ERWIN PREUBCHEN.)
Brntxoonwrxiy: The Opera were published in 13 vole., Paris, 1718‑38, and Venice, 1734‑41. Selections are translated in NPNF, 1. ser., vole. ix.‑xiv. The best account of the life and activities is in L. S. THlemont, Minwirea . . , ecc7kaiaatiquea, xi. 1‑405, b47‑828, Paris, 1708. In English the beat single work is W. R. W. Stephens, St. Chrysoatom, his Life and Times, London, 1883. On the life consult further: A. Neander, Der heilige Chryeoatomua, 2 vole., Berlin, 1848, Eng. tranel., London, 1845; E. Martin, S. Jean Chryaoatome, 3 vole., Montpellier, 1880; R. W. Bush, Life and Times of Chryaoatom, London, 1886; F. H. Chase, Chrysoatom, a Study in the Hiat. of Interpretation, Cambridge, 1887; A. Puech, S. Jan Chryeoatome, Paris, 1891; Schaff, Christian Church, iii. 933‑941 et passim; idem, St. Chryeoatom and St. Augustine, New York. 1891; DCB, i. b18‑635; J. H. Willey, Chryeoatom the Orator Cincinnati, 1908. On special subjects connected with Chryeoatom consult: F. Ludwig, Johannes Chryeoatomus in aeinem YerhdZtnia zum byiantiniaelun Hot, Braunsberg, 1883; C. Molinea, Chryeoatome arateur, Montauban 1888; L, Ackermann Die Beredaamkeit 'deg . . . Johannea Chrysoatomua Wiirsburg, 1889; 8. Haidacher, Die Lehre des . Johannes Chryaoetomua fiber die ,Schriftinapimtion, Salzburg, 1897; G. Marshal, St. Joan Chrysoatome, Paris, 1898.
CHUBB, THOMAS: English Deist; b. at East Harnham, near Salisbury, Sept. 29, 1679; d. in Salisbury Feb. 8, 1747. He was a tallow‑chan‑
dler's assistant all his life, and had only a most elementary education. After Whiston published his Primitive Christianity Revived (1710) Chubb wrote for his own amusement a defense of the idea of the supremacy of the One God and Father expressed in the preface; the manuscript was shown to Whiaton, who corrected it and had it published under the title The Supremacy of the Father Asserted (London, 1715). This brought Chubb into notice, he obtained patrons, and wrote many tracts which were much read and talked about, and Jonathan Edwards noticed and criticized his doctrine of free will; lack of knowledge and training, however, impair the value of his work. His principal writings were A Discourse concerning Reason (London, 1731), in which he undertook to show that reason is a sufficient guide in matters of religion; The True Gorged of Jesus Christ Vindicated (1739), in which he advocates the pregnant idea that Christianity is not doctrine, but life; and The Author's Faretvell to his Readers, published in Posthumous Works (2 vole., 1748), which is the most complete summary of his opinions. He denied special providence, miracles, literal inspiration, and apparently the resurrection of Jesus. He was a man of exemplary life, attended church faithfully, and considered himself a Christian. See DElsnf, L, § 6.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Bteplxen, Hiat. of English Thought in as 18th Century, i. 183, London, 1880; J. Cairns, Unbelief in the 18th Century, ib. 1881; DNB, x. 297‑298.
CHUIt, BISHOPRIC OF: A bishopric named from the capital of the Swiss canton of Griaons. The valley of the upper Rhine was incorporated with the Roman Empire in 15 B.C., after the subjection of the Rhsetii. Communication with Italy was provided by two great roads, one over the Septimer, the other over the Spliigen. Where the Rhine bends to the north, a casteltttm was erected for their defense, and this was the origin of the town of Chur. When Christianity penetrated this region is uncertain. The oldest information shows a Christian community already fully organized. In 452 Bishop Abundaatiua of Como signs the decrees of a Milanese synod for himself and for the bishop of Chur, who is absent. The only notice going further back is the fantastic legend of the British king Lucius (see ELEUTHERU6), who is said to have labored as a missionary under Marcus Aurelius, at first in Germany and finally in the vicinity of Chur; but this is mere legend, though relics of a certain Lucius are mentioned in a petition of Victor II. of Chur to Louis the Pious in 822. The Roman bishopric of Chur seems never to halve gone out of existence; its continuance in the sixth century is attested by an inscription (of later dates
it is true) in the monastery of St. Lucius, commemorating Bishop Valentinian, who died in 548; and in the seventh by the signature of Bishop Victor at the Council of Paris, 614. This is explicable by the fact that the Roman population was never exterminated. The Alamaani settled in eastern Switzerland, but Theodoric maintained peaceful relations with them, and the old institutions were not disturbed. The connection with Milan still continued in 842, but was dissolved not long afterward, and Chur was incorporated with the ecclo‑

Church Army
Church, The Christian	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	78
siastical province of Mainz. In the Frankish pe
riod the diocese was practically coterminous with
the present canton of Grisona. Under Louis the
Pious the diocese had more than 230 churches.
The principal monasteries were I)isentis, first men
tioned in .73u, and Pfeffera, founded about 731.
The diocese was maintained through, the Refor
mation changes, though moat of its inhabitants
became Protestants. At present its jurisdiction
embraces the Roman Catholics in the cantons of
Grisona, Zurich, Glarus, Schwyz, Uri, and the prin
cipality of Liechtenstein. 	(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. von Mohr, Codex Diplomatieus, Sammtunp der Urkunden rur Geachichte Cur‑RBtiene, 3 vole., Char, 1848‑81; Rettberg, KD, i. 218, ii. 132; P. C. Plants, Dae alts Rntien, Berlin, 1872.
CHURCH ARMY: An organization of laity inside the Church of England for aggressive mission efforts, founded by Rev. Wilson Carlile (q.v.) in 1882. It is tile resultant of four similar movements started simultaneously and independently at Kensington, London, by Mr. Carlile (" The Church Militant Mission "), at Richmond, London, by Rev. Evan Hopkins (" The Church Gospel Army "), at Oxford by Rev. Francis Scott Webster (" The Church Salvation Army "), and at Bristol by Rev. Charles Isaac Atherton, canon of Exeter (" The church Mission Army "). The present headquarters are at 55 Bryanaton Street, Marble Arch, London, W. In 1883 the first army organ, The BattleGxe, was begun, and the first army training home was opened at Oxford, which in 1885 was moved to London. In 1885 the first conference of officers and workers was held, at which the report was made that whereas in Jan., 1884, the Army had only fifteen lay officers, then it had forty‑five, and that its income was £2,500 in regular subscriptions and £4,000 in working people's pence. The Church Army Blue Book for 1906 shows that at the end of 1905 the Army had 318 evangelistic officers, eighty‑four men's labor home managers and assistants, forty‑six associate evangelists, 285 mission‑nurses, and twenty‑three associate mission‑nurses.
The great object of the Army is to reach the unchurched and submerged masses with all agencies which tend to uplift soul and body. It differs from some similar movements in that it works inside the Anglican Church. It never begins operations in a pariah without being invited by the vicar, works under his direction, and stays as long as he thinks it desirable. Its converts, therefore, help to increase the number and efficiency of the church agencies. At first there was prejudice against its name and its utterly unconventional methods for gathering a crowd, its out‑of‑door preaching and testifying, and to its employment of laity, both men and women, generally of very little or no culture and often of past lives of vice and crime, to speak on Christian themes and win new hearers and professed Christians to a deeper religious experience. There was also considerable disorderly conduct on the part of its audiences. But now the Army is accepted both by the Church, whose errant children it recalls, and by the classes benefited as an accredited helper and friend. It has
now much to do with the body, having "labor homes, work test shelters, labor relief depots for men, women, and youths who are unemployed, criminal, inebriate, unfortunate, outcast; coffee taverns, lodging homes, boarding homes, employment agencies, fresh air homes, old clothes department; test, farms for emigrants and others "; and undertakes to send emigrants to Canada. But spiritual work, after all, commands the first place, and " the Church Army works in town and country parishes by trained evangelists and misaionnursea working under the clergy; in country places by vans continually itinerating; in crowded slums by pioneer tent evangelists; in workhouses and reformatories by special missions; in convict establishments and local prisons by special services, personal interviews, and aid to discharged prisoners." Its lay workers are largely recruited from the working class, but they are carefully trained and under strict discipline. The Church Army is a limited liability company; each member of the executive is responsible up to £100, and each patron or president up to ten shillings, in the event of the winding up of the Society.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Rowan, Wilson Carlile and the Church Army, London, 190b; The Church Army Blue Book (annual).
CHURCH BUILDING, TAXATION FOR: Originally (see TAXATION, ECCLESIASTICAL) all the property of each diocese was vested in the bishop, who had, accordingly, to provide for all necessities, including church‑building. The Roman decrees of Simplicius (47b) and Gelasius (494) prescribe a division of this property into four parts, one to serve for the Fabrics ecclesi~e (q.v.), i.e., both building and the maintenance of public worship. Similarly, in Spain one‑third was set apart for this purpose (Synod of Tarragona, 516). A different principle came up in the Teutonic law, by which, since the church in a sense belonged to the landowner, he was required to provide for keeping itunlesa, indeed, he chose to let it fall into decay. The church authorities strove against this conception; e.g., the Synod of Frankfort (794) conceded this kind of ownership only on condition that the church should not be allowed to fall into decay. Nevertheless, the later ecclesiastical principles are really founded on Frankish law. After the development of the system of benefices (see BENEFICE), the holders of benefices were required to contribute for this purpose from what they had over their necessary living (coyegrua). And in case of necessity the parishioners were obliged, as had been the case in the Frankish law, to bear their part of the burden. There is evidence that this provision was sometimes enforced in the Middle Ages, though the wealth of the Church and the generosity of benefactors made it seldom necessary. There was great local diversity in the laws on this whole subject; and the Council of Trent, which settled the standard of modern Roman Catholic practise, failed to unify them, leaving plenty of room for local traditional customs and laws. According to its decree (Sera. xxi. 7, de reformw bone), a distinction is made between patronal and other churches. In the case of the latter, the bur‑

77
RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
den falls primarily on the building‑fund, though usually the capital is not to be touched, nor even the income entirely exhausted. Appeal is rather to be made to the classes who are bound to contribute by local law or custom; to all who receive income from the church, the holders of the benefice and tithes in particular, in a proportion to be judicially determined; if there are not enough of these, to the parishioners, including non‑resident landowners, in cams the tax is real and not personal ‑and only in this last case is the exaction independent of the taxpayer's personal belief. In patronal churches the patron is included among those who share this obligation; but only (by the present interpretation) when he receives a portion of the " fruits " of the benefice. In cathedrals the burden rests first on the building‑fund, if there is one; if not, upon the bishop and chapter, then upon the cathedral clergy, and finally upon the diocesan clergy. In some places, as in Prussia, a certain
I. Meaning and Use of the Word.
II. The Church in the New Testament. The Intentions of Jeans (¢ 1). The Rock Apostle (¢ 2). Relations of the Twelve (§ 3). The Kingdom and the Church (¢ 4). Membership of the Church (§ bj. Church Offices Determined by Church Needs (¢ 8). IlI. The Church in Traditional Christianity.
1. In Primitive Catholicism.
Church Army
Church, The Chrlstisa
percentage of the fees in each church is levied for the support of the cathedral. In the Protestant churches of Germany, the obligation comes primarily upon the building‑fund and next upon the congregation, and is frequently a land‑tax.
(E. FRIEDnERCf.)

CHURCH CHEST (Ger. Kirchenkasten, Lat. Arcs ecctesi&,): Properly a receptacle for church funds, but applied also to the funds themselves. Then it signifies the portion of the revenues appropriated for the expenses of divine service and for the maintenance of the church building (see FABRICA ECCLEBIAv'). In a narrower sense it is a box (Lat. trunczla, Fr, franc) put in a church to receive offerings of money, which seems to have originated in connection with the Crusades. Innocent III. (1198‑1216) ordered that one should be put in every church, and, in spite of opposition and i mocking jibes, the custom persisted.
CHURCH, THE CHRISTIAN.
Tendency toward Legalism (¢ I).
Significance of "Catholic Church" (¢ 2).
The l:gnatian Episcopate (§ 3).
The Cyprianio Episcopate (§ 4).
Views of Augustine (15).
2. Later (or Roman) Catholicism in East sad West.
Eastern Church Mystical (¢ I).
Western Church Goveramental($ 2).
" Papal " and " Episcopal " Systems (¢ 3).
I. Meaning sad Use of the Word: The word " church " (from Greek kyriakon, " the Lord's," i.e., " house" or "body ") meant in original Christian usage either the universal body of Christian believers or a local congregation of believers. In the Romance languages the idea is expressed by a word from another root (Fr. Egliae, Ital. chiesa, from Greek ekkldsia " the [body] called together " or " called out "). The Old Testament had two words to express the idea, `edhah and kahal (Lev. iv. 13, 14), both meaning " assembly," the latter implying a distinctly religious object. In modern usage the term is employed to denote also the building in which a body of Christians meets for worship. An extension has taken place in recognized usage in accordance with which men speak of the Buddhist or the Jewish Church, meaning the whole body of believers in Buddhist or Jewish teaching.
II. The Church in the New Testament: It has been disputed whether Jesus intended to found a church, i.e., a particular, organized association of his disciples, differing specifically from the existing national unity of Israel. He proclaimed the nearness of the kingdom of God, and then announced that it was already present. His discourses dealt with this kingdom, with the con‑
1. The ditions for membership in it, and with Intentions the blessing to be enjoyed within it.
of deans. The ,question is whether there is a
connection between the foundation of such an organized body of believers as has been mentioned and the heavenly kingdom which is to be set up in the world by divine power. The state‑
IV. Protestant Doctrine of the Church.
Wyclif'e Teaching (¢ I).
Luther's Teaching (¢ 2).
Questions Left Unsettled by the Reformers U 3).
Calvinistic Doctrine of the Church (¢ 4)•
Poet‑Reformation Doctrines of the Church (4 5).
Pietistic and Rationalistic Doctrines (4 8).
ments and parables in the Gospels do not, with the exception of Matt. xvi. 18, 19, bear on this question. In the parables, for example, of the sower, of the wheat and the tares, of the net, there is no word of any binding connection among those who enter the kingdom. In that of the leaven there is indeed the idea of the spread of the kingdom as a body with an objective unity; but we are not told how or to what extent an organic form is destined for it, nor how far it is to be distinguished from the organic association of Israel.
But in truth the disciples were actually, by the very fact of their adherence to Jesus, connected with each other. They formed the flock of the Good Shepherd (Luke xii. 32; John x. 1‑15). They were associated by the fact that they and they alone were the children of the kingdom which. had already made its appearance in the world. The opposition and hatred which they, as well as their Master, were to find on the part of the Jewish people and the world plainly made it necessary that they should exhibit an external unity, and herein dissociate themselves from their former fellows in nationality and religion.
There is thus nothing surprising in the fact that Jesus speaks in two places of a community of his own which he is to found; it is surprising only that there are no more definite or detailed statements on the subject. It is significant that the first time that he spoke of this was when he had just received the first clear, divinely inspired confession of faith in him, and when he was beginning to prepare his disciples for his death. In that place (Matt. avi.

Church, The Christian	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	?8
18) he spoke of that community in a general way;
but is the other (Matt. xviii. 17 aqq.) he referred
more definitely to the association of his followers
as met together to deal with events and needs
affecting their ‑inner life. According to the former
passage, he intended to build his 8. The church upon the rock Peter, who just
8'°°k before had taken the lead among the Apostle. disciples with his confession. The word and its historical fulfilment must be construed by the context. It will not do to interpret the rock as faith in Christ. Peter is not the foundation in the sense in which Christ applies the term to himself (Matt. xxi. 42). But the church was originally built, as the Acts testify, upon the preaching sad work of this " rock‑man," though other apostles were joined with him (Eph. ii. 20; Rev. xxi. 14; Gal. ii. 9). Whether the promise in regard to the foundation had anything to do with a continuous government of the church, or with a line of successors to Peter, is one of the funds, mental points of controversy between Protestants and Roman Catholics.
The twelve apostles were indeed designated for a position of prominence in the future organization by the status which they acquired in relation to Jeans during his earthly ministry, as witnesses of his deeds and the hearers of his words (John xv. 27; Acts i. 21, 22). But no definite difference in
authority was provided between them 3‑ Bela‑ and other disciples; and their work
tions of seems to insist not in the internal the
Twelve. erection of the churches, but rather,
as soon as these were once established, in further dissemination of the message. Christ spoke of sending " prophets and wise men and scribes " to give this message (Matt. xxiii. 34); but nowhere did he sum up such activities as are thus indicated into the terms of a fixed and limited office, or prescribe the meaner in which any persona were to be appointed to discharge them. The names here used recall the pre‑Christian dispensation, when such limits and external ordinances did not exist. To the preaching of the gospel of the kingdom and the cultivation of a religious and moral life in the power of that gospel, baptism (q.v.) was added by Christ's own ordinance, as would be known even without the gospel record by the way in which the rite at once took its place and in which it is spoken of by Paul as an essential element of Christianity. The act of baptism in itself had, as the baptism of John shows, no necessary connection with entrance into au organized society; but as soon as there was a society of Christians, it undoubtedly belonged to that. Finally, the Lord's Supper (q.v.), as he had instituted it for his disciples, was celebrated by them as a main element in their corporate edification. Evidently, therefore, the foundations already discussed were laid not only for a wider extension of the kingdom of God and for the development of the new life in its individual members, but for a cor¢orate connection between them. Yet so far no reason has appeared for the negation of a theory upon which the new Christian community, spreading throughout Palestine and thence among the
heathen, might still live under the external institutions of the old covenant, until the great revelation of the kingdom which was expected at the return of its Lord. The working out of the truth expressed in the saying about putting new wine into old bottles was left to the increasing knowledge of the disciples, as conditioned by their wider experience.
The existence and development of the church is inextricably interwoven with the realization of the kingdom of God in the world. It would be wrong to press such differences as appear between the two conceptions as though the kingdom were the inner or ideal, and the church the
4. The external or real. The kingdom has
	Kingdom	a real existence in its subjects and
and the		their actual relations; it accom
		plishes its destiny by means of the
external preaching of the word, and announces
itself by external fruits. The church, on the other
head, although like other associations of men it is
an external union, is what it is only by virtue of its
inner connection with Christ, who remains in the
midst of it. There is nothing of an external nature
which (if the words of Jesus ass the only criterion) is
necessary to the existence of the church which does
not also belong to the realization of the kingdom.
It is commonly said that the church was defi
nitely founded with the descent of the Holy Ghost
on the day of Pentecost, and in fact it did on that
day enter upon its career with full powers. But it
must not be forgotten that the gathering was com
posed of the disciples who had already formed a
coherent body in the name of Christ; to whom he
had already said " Receive ye the Holy Ghost "
(John xx. 22); and from whose number, by a, cor
porate act, the number of the apostles had been
filled out after the fall of Judas. It had thus
already been living and working, at first as as
association within the larger one of Israel, though
with its own meetings for worship and its own
officers. The name ekklesia. was undoubtedly
applied to it very early, before the beginning of
Paul's ministry, since he uses it as the universally
current title for both Jewish and Gentile asso
ciations. It is commonly applied to the separate
local bodies of which he spoke, but he used it in
the same way for the whole body of Christians
whenever he had occasion to mention it, in the
older epistles (Gal. i. 13; I Cor. x. 32, xii. 28, xv.
9) as well as in that to the Epheaia,na, which some
have tried to separate in this particular from the
others; and it is so used in Acts ix. 31.
Whether general or local, the church consisted of those who were " sanctified in Christ Jesus " (I CoF. i. 2) or " called to be saints " (Rom. i. 7), with a possible allusion to the etymological connection between kletoi, " called," and
6. teem‑ ekklesia. Paul's conception was charac‑
bership of terized by a deep sense of the unity the
	Church.	censtauted by the possession of " one
		Land, one faith, one baptism " (Eph.
iv. 5); and elsewhere the entrance into this united
fellowship, both with Christ and with each other, was attached to baptism (Gal. iii. 27; I Cor. xii. 13). If the question is asked whether the church as an
‑,‑	V_11 ~r,9*VAMMd1VAW

79	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Church, The Christian
institution stands outside and above those who compose it, or simply consists of them, the answer must be that in the apostolic use of the word it is regarded as having its existence wholly in those who are called, not as though it had come to them from without but as though they were, by their calling and reception of the message of salvation and baptism, united with each other and with Christ into one body. Paul indeed spoke once of a " Jerusalem which is above " (Gal. iv. 26) as the mother of Christians, and therefore as preexistent; but this is not the same thing as the earthly church. He had in mind a common Jewish and apostolic conception, difficult now to realize, of a reality preexistent in heaven which was the prototype of the Old Testament theocracy, which had for its offspring the members of the church on earth, who were born from above, which, finally, was one day to descend in its completeness when the full revelation of the kingdom takes place (Heb. xii. 22; Phil. iii. 20; Rev. xxi. 2). The name " church " was applied solely to the earthly fellowship, not to the company of the departed saints (as in the later conception of " church triumphant ")‑though in a sense to them, as to the heavenly Jerusalem, the faithful on earth " are come " already. The various vital functions and activities of the church relate to mutual edification in God, whose word is to " dwell in them richly " (Col. iii. 16); to the promotion of the moral and religious life in the individual members by loving admonition, encouragement, and care. All the members of the church were regarded as having (just as under the old covenant, Ex. xix. 6) a priestly position before God (I Pet. ii. 5, 9; Rev. i. 6, v. 10); they were to offer to him themselves, their bodies, their acts of praise, thanksgiving, and brotherly love as a sacrifice (Rom. xii. 1; Heb. xiii. 15, 16). Each member had his own part in the common work of edification; but the special gifts which enable him to perform it varied (see CHARIBMATA).
This leads to the question of offices in the apostolic church. The word diakoniai, " ministries," in I Cor. xii. 5, denotes special functions incumbent upon definite members of the body in the service of the whole. While the word " office " is generally applied more strictly to functions committed to a particular man, whether by church or state, the New Testament has no word for offices in this sense. The functions coming under this head would naturally cover the external direction of the church, in so far as this required definite institutions and formally appointed and recognized officers. So the elders, or episcopoi, stood at the head of the churches, and deacons were charged with the care of material needs and especially of the poor. Formal appointments or election and formal installation occurred; but the
8. Church New Testament nowhere gives a law
Oboes De‑ prescribing this course. The needs of
b9~ h the church determined the arrange‑
	Neede.	went. Thus the apostles, originally
		appointed by Christ to the headship
of all his disciples were obliged to abandon first the
detailed care of the poor, and then, under the pres
sure of their wider tasks and frequent absence from
Jerusalem, the regular direction of the internal affairs of the church there. Besides the offices mentioned, prophecy was allowed to work freely under the impulse of the Holy Spirit. For the exercise of the function of teaching or admonition, the possession of the necessary charisma was held to suffice. The elders naturally took a prominent part in the instruction and exhortation that found place in the gatherings (I Tim. iii. 2, v. 17), but participation in it was by no means confined to them. The office of the apostles was unique, resting upon its special institution by the Lord, concerned with the establishment of his kingdom and the original spread of the Gospel, and thus incapable of transmission to others.
There was a notable difference between the churches of Jewish and those of Gentile origin, the former desiring to give the latter only such a position in the church of God as the proselytes of the gate held under the old dispensation, while Paul, on the contrary, regarded both classes alike as saints and members of the body of Christ. The association of the various local communities into one church was not expressed by any formal constitution, but by the free communion of fraternal love. At the close of the apostolic period, the epistles of John, while insisting strongly on the necessity of this loving union, laid down no rules governing external unity and said nothing of ecclesiastical forma. Nor is there any warrant [according to the views of some modern scholars] for seeing in the " angel " of Rev. ii., iii. the early stage of an episcopal office; they are not the heads and rulers of the seven churches, but rather represent in each case the characteristic spirit of the particular church. See ORGANIZATION OF THE EARLY CHURCH.
III. The Church in Traditional Christianity.1. In Primitive Catholicism: Out of the ekklesia of the apostles, and principally on the territory covered by Jewish Christianity, grew up a postapoatolic development which is called the Catholic Church. From the Evangelical standpoint we can but recognize in its conception of the way of salvation and the nature of the church a notable declension from the original principles, which continued progressively down to the Reformation. Christianity maintained itself, indeed, as an organic whole against the assaults of persecution on one aide and heresy on the other; it set up as a permanent standard for its religious belief the New Testament writings admitted to be apostolic, together with the canon of the Old Testament; and it undertook on the basis of these to formulate a summary of the common faith in its Rule of Faith
(q.v.). But even in the subapoatoliC period there
is evident a general weakening of the original spirit,
a lack of vital comprehension of the plan of salva
tion as at first revealed, and a tendency toward a
legalistic conception and regulation of Christian life,
		as well as to a conception of the church
	1. Tend‑ which found its essence in external
	ency ordinances. And these ordinances, ea
	toward pccially as pertaining to the govern
Le~lism. ment of the church and the priest
hood, continued to develop until they ended in what
is known as Roman Catholic Christianity. The

Church, The Christian	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	80
explanation of this early development is not to be found, as the Tubingen school attempted to show, in a fusion of Jewish and Pauline Christianity. It is rather to be sought in the fact that with the decay of the apostolic spirit and the wide expansion of Christianity the forces prevalent among men before Christ's coming, which had been for a while held in check, resumed their sway as primitive fervor decayed. The postapoatolic church needed, in view of its position in the world, a more definite external organization; it is in the meaning and form given to thin that a perversion of primitive Christianity is discerned. In the first stage of this development there was a diversity of tendencies in regard to the doctrine concerning the church. Clement of Rome, admonishing the Corinthians to unity and subjection to those who are over them, drew a parallel between the organization of the ruling office in the church (i.e., of an episcopate as yet identical with the presbytery) and the divinely appointed ordinances of the old law; between the gifts which the presbyters brought to God in prayer and the sacrifices of the Jewish priests. Somewhat later, however, a free prophetic voice was heard in the Shepherd of Herman, which ventured to rebuke and warn the officers of the church. Its main subject was the purification of the church by repentance. The high place which the church had taken in the minds of Christians is shown by the idea that (recalling Paul's " Jerusalem which is above ") it existed before the world, and that the world had been created for it.
	Presently, in Ignatius and in the Muratorian
Fragment, a "catholic church" appears. The
original significance of this phrase has been much
discussed, and is still uncertain. Even at the date
of these passages, it had already developed more
than one sense. The church was called catholic
when it was spoken of as constituting a united
whole made up of different parts; and these parts
were both local churches and single members.
Ignatius compared the relation of the local church
		to its bishop with that of the catholic
2. gignia_ church to Christ; and similarly the canoe of Muratorian Fragment speaks of a "Catholio catholic church whose edification the Church." writers of the epistles had in mind even when addressing local churches or individuals. $ut the idea of a universal church comes out moat strongly in contrast with the heretics who by their personal beliefs and practises separated themselves from the great body of Christians. With this catholicity was connected the idea that this church alone had the necessary character of embracing all true believers, the love that holds fast to unity, and the primitive Christian truth. The epithet " catholic " designates here not its extension throughout the whole world, but the inclusion within it of all Christians, wheresoever they dwell. As yet the definite sense applied to the term by Roman Catholicism was not expressed by it. This is met first in the question of what constituted valid membership in this church; and according to the Catholic conception there was required the recognition of a definite external organization, ordained by God, and the ac‑
ceptance of a confession of faith sanctioned by the church.
	The idea	of the episcopate comes out with
remarkable definiteness and dignity in the Ignatian
epistles. Each local church was subject to its
bishop, who stood in the place of Christ, with his
presbyters about him like the apostles. Ignatius
left unanswered the questions how the bishops as a
class reached this position, how individual bishops
were raised to it, how far they were endowed with
special spiritual gifts and the churches assured
against error on their part. The extent to which
		the elevation of the episcopate to
8. The such a position met a felt want of the
	Ignatian	times is shown by the calmness with
Epieoopate. which it was accepted universally,
		with no record preserved of any dis
cussion on the subject. [This circumstance is
naturally urged by Roman Catholic apologists,
together with other arguments, as proving the
apostolic and consequently divine origin of the
episcopal office.] In the general view (cf. es
pecially Irenaeua and Tertullian), the bishops
stood in the place of the apostles, whose teaching
office they continued, and thus guaranteed the
preservation of the truth. Their succession from
the apostles involved a second " note " of the
church‑apostolicity. From the idea of a specially
guaranteed possession of the truth by the bishops
in virtue of their historical connection with the
apostles grew the belief in a particular charisma
attached to their office. From Tertullian can be
seen how the priestly title was attributed to the
rulers of the church, and especially to the bishops,
although the mediatorial functions later attributed
to them were of gradual development. The church
thus possessed a sacerdotal order, and the bishop
stood out as high priest, pontifex maximus (Ter
tullian, Hippolytus, Apostolic Constitutions). The
Alexandrian theology, as in Clement and Origen,
did nothing to check this development. It did,
indeed, insist on the inner and spiritual aide of
the church, and claim independently to recognize,
in its Christian gndsis, the truth of the doctrines
handed down by the apostles. But it had no word
against the authority of the episcopal office, in
which it recognized the inheritance of the apostolic
pastoral function. Its philosophic and aristo
cratic gnesis was not fitted to contend for the
spiritual character of true Christianity in the New
Testament sense. A vigorous reaction did set in
with the rise of Montanism, which attempted to
purify the church by casting out such members as
were stained with mortal sin and holding those
who remained to a high standard, in virtue of a
spirit from above which was not subject to these ex
ternal offices. Thus Tertullian said, "The church
is essentially and chiefly spirit," and contrasts
this " church as spirit " with the " church as the
body of the episcopate." But the spirit of Mon
taniam was not that of the New Testament; and
it could not alter the course of the Catholic Church,
which was then hard at work building up in the
world its well‑organized kingdom.
A powerful representative of the progress of the latter is found in Cyprian, for whom the bishops are

81	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Church, The Christian
now essentially and without distinction the rulers of the church, endued with divine authority. The government of the whole church belonged to the episcopate as a whole. Such strong statements appear as " the bishop is in the church and the church in the bishop," " the church is a people united with the priest," " he can not have God as father who has not the church as mother." The last was uttered against Novatianism,
4. The to whose members Cyprian denied the
	(3yprtanio	possibility of salvation on the ground
Episcopate. of their schism, and the validity of
		whose baptism he refused to admit.
In regard to the conception of priesthood, which
for him was centered in the bishop, it is observed
that in the Lord's Supper the priest stood in the
plate of Christ, did what Christ did, offered the
body of Christ (see Mess). Even if all his expres
sions, like those of Augustine, can not be taken in
the sense in which the later Catholic Church would
understand them, they still lead up to the highest
function attributed by the latter to its priests.
But Catholicism owes to Augustine the most and the deepest of the statements which express its mind on the subject of the ch ch. Their occasion was a new separatist movement favor of enforced sanctity, that of the Donatists. ~ Augustine had a deep and vivid conception of the inner, spiritual being of the church, of the operate n of the Spirit of God in it and in its members, of hrist living in it and them, of all‑pervading and al uniting love. Consequently it was not a mere contro rsial argument against the Donatists when he di tinguiahed in his doctrine of the church as the bod of Christ between " the true body of the Lord " and " confused " or " pretended " one, a distinction ' interpreted by his opponents as though he belie ed in
6. Views two churches. According to his view
	of	of grace, it is entirely a matter of the
Augustine. free grace of God who. among the mem‑
bers of the visible church is a member of the true body; and those who are predestined, even though they are outside the visible unity, yet belong to the invisible church. Still, it is the will of God to bring these into external communion, and participation in the blessings of salvation and real Christian love are possible only within this. He did not lay as much stress as Cypriau upon the divine right of the episcopate; but this was admitted by his opponents and by himself, and against the Manicheans he did appeal to the " succession of bishops " in the apostolic sees. The question then arose which of the two organizations, both provided with sacraments, priesthood, and episcopate, and both appealing to apostolic tradition, was the true Catholic Church. Augustine answered it by saying that the church had spread, according to the purpose of Christ, throughout the whole earth; and thus only that communion from which the Donatiats had severed themselves could claim the title of Catholic‑‑assuredly not their small sect, confined to a few districts in Africa. He made the belief of the individual Christian depend upon the authority of the church as catholic in this sense of the word, God having confirmed it " partly by miracles, IIL‑8
partly by the multitude of adherents "; indeed, he went so far as to say " I could not believe in the Gospel if the authority of the church catholic had not forced me." How the authoritative judgment of this Catholic Church upon questions of doctrine and the Christian life was to be expressed Augustine did not definitely state; he regarded the Church as represented in its episcopate, but did not name any constituted organ for a declaration of the truth by this episcopate as a unit.
Besides Augustine's statements, there is another important definition in the Commonitorium of Vincent of Lerina, which is. in substantial agreement with them. According to him, there is a " test of universal understanding," by which we are bound to believe good semPer, good ubique, good ab omnibus creditum eat. Here, instead of an authority of the Church as one whole, an overwhelming majority must suffice, which comes more definitely to a majority of ,the " sacerdotal orders " and " rulers." Vincent contemplated further definition of the traditional doctrine; and this led to the questions how such a consensus is to be attained in order to assure people of the truth of such later definitions, and how far what is supposed to have been contained implicitly in the original deposit may be elevated to the rank of as article of faith. The Church as itself an object of faith requiring formal recognition was made a part of the formula of the African baptismal confession, and directly introduced into' the Constantinopolitan supplement to the Nicene Creed (381), "in one Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church," and into the Apostles' Creed.
8. Later (or Roman) Catholicism in East and West: The foregoing has traced the development of the idea of one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church, with its priesthood and episcopate, which was common to both Eastern and Western Christianity. But the East laid much less stress upon the sacerdotal and episcopal office as a system of government analogous to the legal discipline of the state; and it is noteworthy that both the schisms which arose out of questions relating to such organization (Novatianism and Donatism) were of
Western origin. The Greek Church 1. Eastern dwelt more on the idea of communion
Church with the Incarnate Savior in devout Xyatioal• contemplation and knowledge, and
upon the representation of the work of redemption in the rich mysteries of the liturgy: Thus the priestly and episcopal organization never attained an established external unity for the whole church; and, without objection from the East, the " one Catholic Church " developed there into a number of communities belonging to various states or countries and closely allied in their supreme government with the secular polity. To the Kaman claims it opposed the idea of Christ as the sole head of the Church; and it developed no infallible organ for the decision of questions of faith. The possibility of development of the original sacred deposit, as maintained by Vincent of Lerins, was no longer strongly'affirmed,.and ultimately stagnation overtook any attempt at dogmatic inquiry.
In the West, on the other hand, the definite or‑

Church, The Christian	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	82
	ganization of the church at large took shape in the
	papal monarchy; the further history of Catholicism
	and its idea of the church is really a history of the
	Roman primacy (gee POPE, PAPACY, AND PAPAL
	SYSTEM). Irenasus had placed the Roman church,
	as founded by Peter and Paul, in the forefront of
	his appeal to apostolic succession and tradition,
	finding in it the preeminent survival of primitive
	leadership, and on this ground requir
	9. Western lag from the other churches agreement
Church with it. This	historical basis
	~, for deference tpurely Roe developed into
	dogmatic insistence on the supremacy
	and infallibility of the church founded by Peter;
	just as Cyprian's view of the unity of the church
	as represented by and summed up in Peter and the
	authority given to him grew into the assumption
	and the dogma that this unity must have its per
	manent visible representatives in the successors of
	Peter, each of whom becomes the visible head of the
	church, the representative of Christ. Pope Leo I.
	claimed for his see the " cure of the church univer
	sal," making it the head of the body from which
	the other members can not be separated and live.
	Though he thought of discipline and polity, not of
	the communication of grace or of the establishment
	of doctrine, his statements are strong enough to
	afford a basis for all the later claims of the papacy.
	It found powerful support in the recognition of its
	primacy by the emperors (cf. especially an edict
	of Valentinian in 445), and in the political position
	of Rome, while the German emperors in their day
	built up their whole ecclesiastical fabric on the as
	sumption of subordination to one central authority.
	The process waa a logical continuation of the im
	pulse which had early endeavored to bring Chris
	tianity to expression and to s firm position in the
	world by a solid constitutional organisation. More
	over, the medieval nations, both Latin and Teu
	tonic, had a marked craving for a representation of
	the divine and the heavenly by visible and tangible
	things‑of the one heavenly Lord by the one Roman
	vicegerent, the crucified Savior by the host in the
	mass, the blessings of salvation by the sacraments.
	In ire way the papacy did indeed, in its greatest
	representatives, a Gregory VII. or an Innocent III.,
	accomplish much to fulfil this ideal., They held
	the church together amid all the wid tumults of
	the life of their day; they protected true moral
	and religious interests against the invasion of the
	world, and they stood for the maintenance of
	ethical discipline‑though it is also true that they
	identified these interests with their own claims,
	that human ambition sad avarice was not always
	excluded from their acts, and that finally the eternal
	commandments of God were subordinated to human
decisions.
The high papal conception of the church's constitution was not yet, however, a dogma sanctioned by a formal decision on the part of the church. Against its prevalence were not only the secular power (which endeavored to reverse the process and subject the church to itself) and the national spirit on which that power could rely (as m France against Boniface VIIL), but also the consciousness on the part of the bishops of the meaning of their office
and a recollection of the earlier history of the church; while the inequalities of papal character and the great schism tended to stir up a spirit of protest and rebellion. Thus the so‑called 8. 61 Papal 99 « episcopal system " (see EPI8C0‑
„ ~ ~‑ PACY) was worked out mainly by
copai'$ French theologians, such as Gerson and
	Systems.	D'AillY, and represented in the great
		councils, where the theory was heard
of a " universal catholic church " distinct from the
Roman. The latter, consisting of pope, cardinals,
bishops, and clergy, might err, and was subject to
the authority of general councils, which represented
not only the classes named, but also all true mem
bers of the body of Christ, and in which Christian
princes and delegates of the universities were to
have a voice.
But the papal theory raised its head once more when the councils had succeeded in restoring unity, and dominated the Lateran Council under Leo X. The Thomist Sylvester Prierias (q.v.) maintained against Luther the proposition " The Church universal is essentially the assembly of all believers, practically the Roman Church and the pope; representatively the Roman Church is the college of cardinals, practically it is the pope." Of this view the Jesuits were the principal upholders. Bellarmine maintained against the Protestants the definition of the church as " the company of men bound together by confession of the same Christian faith under the rule of legitimate pastors and especially of the one vitas of Christ on earth." The Council of Trent did not venture to make an outspoken decision between the papal and episcopal theories; and such a decision was expressed only after the latter had repeatedly tried to enforce its claims (see GALLICAN1sM; Eats, CONGRESS OF; JAN9ExD3T Cauxca), in the Vatican Council of 1870.
	IV. Protestant Doctrine of the Church: The
first medieval Christian body which, while holding
fast to the general Christian faith, abandoned that
doctrine of the church sketched above was the
Waldenses. They considered themselves members
of the church of Christ and partakers of his salva
tion, in spite of their exclusion from organised
Christendom, recognizing at the same time a
" church of Christ " within the organization whose
heads were hostile to them. There is not, however,
in their teaching any clear definition of the nature
of the church or any new principle in reference to it.
The first theologian to bring forward a conception
of the church radically opposed to that which had
been developing was Wyclif; and Huss followed
him in it. According to him the church is the
		" totality of the predestinated
1. Wyoli!'s	there, as in his doctrine of grace, he
	followed Augustine, but took a stand
	point contrary as well to Augustine's
as to that of	later Catholicism in his account of the
institutions	and means of grace by which God
communicates the blessings of salvation to the
predestined,	excluding from them the polity of
priest, bishop, and pope. He denied the divine
institution both of papal primacy and of the epis
copate as distinct. from the presbyterate, and attrib
uted infallible authority to the Scriptures alone.

88	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Church, The Christina
The idea of both Wyclif and Ruse was thus not of an actually existing body of united associates, but merely the total of predestined Christians who at any time are living holy lives, scattered among those who are not predestined, together with those who are predestined but not yet converted, and the faithful who have passed away.
Luther defended Wydif's definition at the Leipsie Disputation of 1519, in spite of its condemnation by the Council of Constance. But his
own idea was that the real nature of !d. Lu‑ the church was defined by the words ther's following its mention in the creed‑
Teaching. „ the communion of saints," taking the word " saints " in its Pauline sense. These (although sin may still cling to them) are sanctified by God through his word and eatramente‑‑saeraments not depending upon an organized, episcopally ordained clergy, but committed to the church as a whole; it is their faith, called forth by the word of God, which makes them righteous and accepted members of Christ and heirs of eternal I life. Thus the Lutheran and, in general, the Calvin‑
ist conception of the church depended from the I first upon the doctrine of justification by faith. In harmony with Luther's teaching, the Augsburg Confession defines the church as " the congregation of saints in which the Gospel is rightly taught and the sacraments are rightly administered." In one sense the church is invisible, since the earthly eye can not tell who has true faith and in this sense is a " saint," but in another it is visible, since it has its being here in outward and visible vital forma, ordained by God, in which those who are only " saints " in appearance have an external share. The church, too, always has need of some sort of external forma, of human ordinances, in which to clothe the administration of the means of grace, the preaching of the word, and public worship; but these must not claim divine sanction or unconditional obligation. There was, however, one thing on which Luther insisted as eeeentialthat the public administration of the means of grace entrusted to the church by God should be performed only by persona duly called to that function, who were to feed the flock with the word of God. His conclusion of its necessity is drawn not from any divine revelation or law, but from the nature of the case and the need of a settled order. The division of offices, the placing of superintendents or bishops over the pastors of the local churches, was considered a matter of variable human arrangement. While Luther rejected the papal claim to condition salvation by its forms and ordinances, declaring them anti‑Christian and opposed to Cod's will, he recognized the possibility of sanctified believers and true members of
the body of Christ living within the Roman
Church, because even there, in spite of all corruption, the power of the word and sacraments was still working. Here is a difference between the Reformation view and other postapostolic conceptions of the church. For the first time there were two bodies with opposite religious principles, each accusing the other of grievous error, and yet one of them admitting a communion in
grace with the other, and indeed with all Christians of whatever name who cling to the fundamental elements in the message of salvation. It was in this sense that the Reformers taught one catholic church, spread throughout the Christendom of all times and places, the unity of which ladled external organisation, but was sufficiently established by its possession of one invisible head, one faith; one baptism. Its holiness is shown by the fact that Christ is its head, and that the sanctifying grace of God works within it; its apostolicity, by its original foundation at the hands of the apostles and its continued resting upon their word.
The view here set forth left unsettled a number of questions which then came up for the first time and influenced later theological movements. To what extent the pure preaching of the Gospel and due administration of the sacraments was necessary; how far the name of a church of Christ might be given to a particular church which was lacking in these requisites; how far an effort should be made to attain a pure expression of Evangelical truth in the shape of creed and dogma‑these were some of the questions. The last led to the distinction between essentials and non‑essentials, and to that between the Gospel, or the simple preaching of the word of God as a source of life sad grace, and theological dogma. Another question was the external government of the church. If it was not regarded as s matter of divine institution, who was to establish and exercise it? Who
dons Left was to organic the churches that
	Unset‑
tled	were springing up outside the ancient
	~~ or traditional Christendom? Luther
	seems to havecontemplated originally
	a free organization by these true believers them
	selves into a church with simple, Evangelical wor
	ship and discipline; but historical circumstances
	led to this function, as well as the continued direc
	tion of the church, being left largely to secular
	princes and magistrates, as charged by God with the
	maintenance of morality and order among Chris
	tian people and with the enforcement of the first as
	well as the second table of the decalogue. This
	result was brought about partly by the fact that
	for years a hope was cherished of a reunion with
	the old episcopate, and such institutions as were
	set up were regarded as to some extent provisional.
	So by degrees the organ of the supreme direction of
	the Lutheran Church came to be in the hands of
	consistories appointed by the local secular govern
	ment, and the share of the other members of the
	I church was reduced to an assumed tacit ConBefit to
	legislation. Melanchthon's later teaching differed
	somewhat from Luther's. He was influenced by
	a fear of spiritualistic fanaticism and s desire to
	see the Evangelical religion firmly and practically
	established. He considered the Christian church
	~ visible on the ground of its self‑expression in the
	~ preaching of the word and administration of the
	sacraments; and he emphasized its institutional
	character much more than Luther. He clung as
	long as possible to the desire for reunion with the
	great, firmly established traditional church. Among
	Lutheran theologians it was not till after Chemnita
	that the doctrine appeared and prevailed which

Church, The Christian
Church Diet	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	84
distinguished between the visible church as the " assembly of the called " and the invisible church existing within this, as the sum of all the really faithful or sanctified or regenerate. This distinction belonged originally to the Calvinists (see below); though, unlike them and Wyclif, the Lutheran theologians had in mind not the predestined, but all who were within the real, existing inner body. The idea of the objective and external use of the means of grace is thus no longer connected, as by Luther, with the idea of a church which is still proclaimed invisible, but with that of a visible church within which the saints also, partake of those means of grace. The Lutheran Church is thus in its essence an institution existing for the communication of grace by these means, in relation to which the individual members assume a receptive attitude.
The Reformed leaders also designated the church as the congregation of believers or saints, and made the preaching of the pure word of God a condition of its existence. But they laid stress on the distinction between the visible and the invisible church, taking their conception of the latter from Wyclif and Huss. Zwingli not only allowed the significance of the sacraments to drop out, but even minimized that of the revealed word, outside of the sphere of influence of which he believed that there were elect among the heathen. Of this last belief Calvin knew nothing, though he, too, considered the church as the invisible fellowship of the predestined; and he emphasized much more than Zwingli the necessity of the word and sacraments, laying besides a peculiar stress on the exercise of government and discipline, through teachers, pastors, and elders. The definite Calvinistic conception found expression more or less in the various confessions.
Thus the Heidelberg Catechism de4. Calvin‑ lea the church generally as " a iatia Doc‑ company elected to life," assembled trine of the by God through his Spirit and his
Church. word. That of Geneva has the phrase " body of the faithful whom God predestinated to eternal life "; but besides this church, which is recognized by faith alone, it speaks of a visible church with definite signs. The Westminster Confession mentions both visible and invisible aide by side. The great difference between Lutheran and Calvinist views lay in their attitude toward the means of grace. The church could not be to the Calvinist an institution for conveying grace, on account of his idea of the absolute sovereignty of God and the operation of the Spirit as entirely independent of created means. Again, the energetic effort to sanctify God's people for his service led to a sort of new legalism in both corporate and individual life among the Calvinists; while Lutheranism tended either to a Quietism in which the church contented itself with offering the means of grace and the individual with receiving them, or to a worldly spirit which abused the liberty of the children of God.
As to the question of external organization and government, Zwingli wished discipline to be exercised not by special ecclesiastical organs, but by those who stood in general at the head of the Chris‑
tian people, thus leading to Erastianiam (see Exasxus). The theory of necessary independence of the state was a later growth. As for organization, different theories were held. Presbyterianism developed its teaching and ruling elders, and its general synodal constitution based on the local presbyteries; the Independents or Congregationalists erected no general organization, identified the functions of pastor and elder, and put discipline and the decision of questions affecting the church into the hands of the local churches; Quakerism
denied that any such forms or laws 6. Post‑ were permissible, appealing to Scrip‑
Reforma, ture in support of its contention. The tion Doc‑
trines	of the Church of England is a
	the of peculiar one. While the doctrine of
Church. its Articles on the Lord's Supper is
distinctly Calvinistic, it defined the church, under the influence of Melanchthon's later teaching, is " a visible congregation of faithful men " with the pure word of God and due administration of the sacraments. With ita'episcopal organization, it preserved more the character of official Christianity than any other Protestant body; but the doctrine of the necessity of the apostolic succession supposed to be there preserved was not stated in the Articles, and did not become influential until a later period.
After the dominion of Protestant orthodoxy, which marked the period with both its strength and its weakness, followed another in which the newly aroused subjective piety departed more or less from the rigid forma of corporate church life. The tendency of Pietism was rather to erect " little churches" for the satisfying of spiritual needs;
and the devotion which thus found e. Pietistic expression took on a narrow, legal‑
	istic, and rather Calvinistic character.
Ration‑
alistic Doo‑ Then came rationalism with its relig‑
trines. ious indifferentism and lack of belief
	in the importance of the church, as
that importance had been understood in both early
and Reformation times. To it the church was
merely an association on a par with other human
and earthly societies, and it asserted with great
positiveness that Christ himself had no intention
of founding a church in the received sense of the
word. But it would require far too much apace to
trace in detail all the later variations of local or
individual attitude toward the complicated ques
tions which have been here discussed. It may,
however, be remarked that the tendency to form
churches wholly independent of the state and
receiving no support from it is characteristic espe
cially of the Reformed bodies, though, as we have
seen, it can not be traced back to Zwingli or to
Calvin. Connection of any kind with the state
was felt to be prejudicial to the liberty of self
expression claimed for the Christian Spirit. The
" free church " movement manifested itself first
and most forcibly in Scotland, in the Secession
Church of 1733, the Church of Relief of 1752, the
union of both under the name of United Presby
terian Church in 1847, and particularly the Free
Church of 1843, the two last having effected a
further union in 1900. See CHURCH AND STATE.
		(J. KOBTLINt.)

86	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Church, The Christian
Church Diet
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the early church and its constitution the beat book is E. Hatch, The Growth of Church Institutions, London, 1887. Consult further: W. 3clater, Original Draught of the Primitive Church, Oxford, 1840; $. Davidson, Ecclesiastical Polite of the R'. T., London. 1850; L. Coleman, Ancient Christianity Exemplified, Philadelphia, 1852; 'T. Witherow, The Form of the Christian Church . , the Constitution of the N. T. Church, Edinburgh, 1888; C. J. Vaughan, The Church of the First Dare, London, 1890; J. Hammond, What does the Bible sag about the Church, ib. 1894; O. Pfleiderer, Christian Origins, New York, 1906; J. C. V. Durell, The Historic Church. An Essay on the Conception of the Christian Church . . , in the sub‑Apostolic Age, Cambridge. 1906; K. Adam, Der Kirchenbegrijf Tertulliana, Paderborn, 1907; DCG, i. 324‑330.
On the idea of the church: K. Hackenachmidt, Anfgnge des katholiachen Rirchenbepri)ja, Strasburg, 1874; R. Seeberg, Studien zur Geachichte des Beprd ffa der Kirche. Erlangen, 1885; W. Palmer, Treatise on the Church of Christ, 2 vole., London, 1842; W. G. Ward, Ideal of a Christian Church, ib. 1844; E. Sehdrer, Esquiaee dune fhtorie de Z'ipliae chrEtienne, Paris, 1845; J. J. White, Exposition of the Church and its Doctrine, Philadelphia, 1855; R. Whately, Kingdom of Christ Delineated. London, 1860; J. Bannermann, The Church of Christ, . . Nature. Powers, Discipline, and Government, 2 vole., Edinburgh, 1868; idem, Scripture Doctrine of the Church, ib. 1888; Ecce EccTeaio, . . the Essential Unity of the Church in all Ages, New York, 1868; H. R. Reynolds, Ecc7eaia, Church Problems, London, 1870; $. $. $ehmueker, Unity of Christ's Church, New York, 1870; J. J. McElhinney, Doctrine of the Church, Philadelphia, 1871 (with bibliography); J. KSatlin, Doe Weaen der,Kirche each Lehre and Geachichte des N. T.'a, Goths, 1872; E. M. Goulburn, The . . . Church; its divine Ideals, Ministry and Inatitutiona, London, 1875; A. de Gasparin, L'Pgliae aelon l'evangile. 2 vole., Paris, 1878‑79; H. Schmidt, Die Kirche, Leipaic; 1884; E. D. Morris, Eateaiolopy, New York, 1885; W. Bornemann, Ksrchenideale and Kirchenrejormen, Leipsie, 1887; H. J. Van Dyke, The Church, her Ministry and Sacraments, New York, 1890; F. A. Milne, Eccleaiology, Boston, 1894; A. Westphal, Qu'eeE.ce qu'une tpZiae, Paris, 1896; J. B. Johnson, The Church and tle Sacraments, London, 1898; E. A. Litton, Church o/ Christ in its Idea, Attributes and Ministry, ib. 1898; P. F. Jalaguier, De l'eglaae, Paris, 1899; C. Gave, The Church and the Ministry, London, 1900; G. D. Boardman, The Church (ecclesia), New York, 1901; J. Ireland, Church and Modern Society, 2 vole., ib. 1903‑04; H. Gallwita, Die Grundlapen der Kirche, Leipaie, 1904; G. Vos, Teaching of Jesus concerning the . . . Church, New York, 1904; A. H. Charteris, Church of Christ, its Life and Work, London, 1905; E. C. Dargan, Eccleaiology, Louisville, 1906; J. W. Legge, Eccleaiological Essays, London. 1906; J. A. Kern, The Idea of the Church, Nashville, 1907.
On the constitution of the church: R. Parkinson, The Constitution of the Visible Church, London, 1839; F. D. Maurice, The Kingdom of Christ: . Principles, Cony atitution and Ordinances of the Catholic Church, 2 vole., ib. 1842; F. Brandea, Die Verfasaung der Kirche reach evangelisehen Grundatilzen, 2 vola., Elberfeld, 1867; G. A. Jacob, Ecclesiastical Polite in the New Testament, New York, 1874; J. Cunningham, The Growth of the Church in its Organizations and Institutions, London, 1888; J. H. Rigg, Comparative View of Church Organizations, Primitive and Protestant, ib. 1887; W. D. Killen, Framework of the Church, Edinburgh, 1890; J. Jebb, Divine Economy of the Church, Philadelphia, n.d.
On the aim and mission of the church: J. Harris, The Great Commission, London, 1852; J. Sanford, Mission and Extension o/ the Church, ib. 1862; W. H. Fremantle, The World as the Subject of Redemption .... the Functions of the Church, ib. 1885; J. M. Lang, The Church arid its Social Mission, New York, 1902.
CHURCH COUNCIL (conctZium ecclesite, Rirchenrat): A meeting of the authorities of the Church to take counsel and make decisions in regard to church affairs. Councils may be ecumenical, of the whole Church, or of the Church of a single country, or of a province, or even of a single church,
in which case it is a committee chosen from a congregation to represent it (see COUNCILS AND SYNODS). In the Roman Catholic Church originally the laity had no share in the councils, but in the course of time assistants had to be found among them for the clergy, especially in financial matters. These assistants were at first chosen by the church authorities; only in the nineteenth century have the laity had a right to take part in the selection. In regard to councils in the Evangelical churches,
600 CONGREGATIONALISTS, IV.; and POLITY.
(F. H. JACOasoNt.)
CHURCH DIET, GERMAN EVANGELICAL (DEUTSCHER EVANGELISCHER KIi7CHENTAG)
A convention of delegates from the Evangelical churches of Germany‑the Lutheran and Reformed, the churches of the Union, and the Mora.viana. Originating in 1848, its chief aims were: (1) to unite the German Evangelical churches; (2) make provision for the Church in case of a separation of Church and State; (3) to oppose 'the unbelief of the time; and (4) to ameliorate the miserable condition of the people. The real conductor of the whole undertaking was Von BethmannHollweg, professor of law at Bonn, who presided over the first session and was the leader until the last meeting. In 1848 he published a treatise, Yorschlag einer cvangelischen Kirchenverstzmmlung im laufenden Jalare 18.8, in which he advocated a call to all Evangelical Christians of the German nation. Simultaneously and independently, the idea occurred to Philipp Wackernagel (q.v.), of Wiesbaden, and two of his friends, P. Heller, pastor of Kleinheubach‑on‑the‑Main in Bavaria, and Dr. Haupt, then pastor of Rimhorn in the Hessian Odenwald. Their ideas found ready acceptance at a conference of ministers from Frankfort and the neighboring states, Nassau, Hesse, and a part of Bavaria; and a commission was appointed to " discuss and prepare the convocation of a general ecclesiastical convention of Evangelical Germany."
The first general convention was held Sept. 21, 1848, at Wittenberg. Five hundred participated in it, the leaders being such prominent men as Von Bethztlann‑Hollweg, Stall, Wackernagel, Schmieder, Dorner, Nitz6ch, Muffler, and Krummacher. Of the resolutions adopted the following are the most important: (1) The Evangelical communities of Germany meet for the purpose of forming a church alliance. (2) The Evangelical Church Alliance is not a union which obliterates the confessional churches, but a confederation of churches. (3) The Evangelical Church Alliance comprises all ecclesiastical communities which stand upon the basis of the Reformed confessions, especially the Lutheran, the Reformed, the Union, and the congregations of Brethren. (4) Each community which joins the Alliance retains its relations to the State and its independence in matters of teaching, service, and constitution. (5) The aim of the Evangelical Church Alliance i6 the care and advancement of all common interests of the church communities belonging to it. The Eiacnach Conference (q.v.), which was called into life in 1851, did not come up fully to the idea of the church alliance, but the Congress for Home Missions was an immediate

Church Discipline	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	88
result of the efforts for a church alliance. The Church Diet was at first held every year, later every second year. In 1872 the last Diet was held at Halls. Although it did not bring about church alliance, it was for a quarter of a century a rallying‑point of living church ford.
(WIL88LZt<I BAUxt.)

CHURCH DI3CIPLIftE.
I. In the Apostolic and PoetsDOetolio Periods. II. In the Roman Catholic Church. III. In the Lutheran Churches. Methods and Results (I i). Modern Requirements (J 2). IV. In the Reformed Churches. The Zwingfian System (¢ r). Calvin's Basal Principles (¢ 2). Genevan Ecclesiastical Tribunals (13). In France (¢ 4): In Great Britain (¢ b). In Holland and Germany (¢ 8). Modern Modifications (¢ 7). V. In the United Steles.
Church discipline is a means of securing and maintaining the spiritual purity of the Christian Church. This exercise arises from the fact that the Church is a human institution, the members of which are subject to the limitations and weaknesses of humanity. The Christian congregation, therefore, like every other community, needs a means of self‑protection in order to suppress or eliminate whatever might impair or destroy its life. But, from the constitution of the Church, the character of its discipline is purely spiritual. Therefore the only means which can properly be employed is exclusion, partial or total, of those whose acts jeopardize it.
I. In the Apostolic and Postapostolic Periods: The center of the Scriptural doctrine of ecclesiastical discipline is Matt. xviii. 15‑18; and its practical application in the apoatolical church is learned from I Cor. v. and II Cor. ii. 4‑8. A member of the Corinthian congregation had married his stepmother, and the congregation had suffered the deed. Paul then wrote to the Corinthians that the offender should be excommunicated, and " delivered unto Satan." His words produced such an impression, not only on the congregation, but also on the offender, that, when he wrote again to the Corinthians, Paul could recommend mercy. It is, however, not only for such flagrant offenses as the above that Paul demands punishment, but also for minor failings by which a man is made a burden to his fellow men (II Them. iii. B); and he warns the congregations against heresy, for it eats like a canker (II Tim. ii. 17). A heretic, after admonishing him once or twice in vain, avoid (Tit. iii. 10); do not even bid him Godspeed (II John 10, 11). The punishment, however, moat never be administered in a spirit of retaliation. Church discipline, though necessary for the selfprotection of the church, has as its aim the reclamation and reconciliation of the offender; hence in the spirit of love it moat dictate its punishments (II Cor. ii. 6‑8). That the discipline is exercised by the Church is indicated in all the passages cited except that from Titus, where the direction is given for personal guidance alone (cf. verse 9). The
apoatolical institutions of Excommunication (q.v.) and reconciliation lived on in the poatapoatolic church, and during the period of persecution became even more peremptory. Under Decius, whose goal seems to have been the total destruction of Christianity, there occurred, by the aide of the most admirable examples of faithfulness, so frequent instances of defection that a special regulation for the reconciliation of the lapsed became a necessity. This regulation, which continued valid down to the fifth century, established a course of penance which ran through various stages, and comprised a period of several years; but its severity naturally called forth devices of evasion and subterfug~e, such as the libelli of the confessors (see LAPSED), and church discipline became somewhat lax. A reaction toward greater severity followed, and the Moataniata declared that the excommunicated ought to remain for their whole life in a state of penance, while the Novatiana affirmed that the Church had no right at all to forgive the lapsed, though the Lord might be willing to do so. Meanwhile the developing organization of the Church had reached the department of discipline, and the penitents, who had been excommunicated. and desired to be received back into fellowship, were divided into four classes and compelled to pass through as many stages of penance (see ExcolaMUNICATION).
II. In the Roman Catholic Church: The union of Church and State led to developments in discipline, the moat important of which was the imposition of civil penalties for spiritual offenses. This was carried to the extreme of capital punishment, inflicted for heresy in the case of the Spanish bishop Priacillian and six companions, 385 A.D. The many sentences of deposition from office accompanied with exile during the controversial period attest the alliance of Church and State in the infliction of church discipline. Penitential discipline in its four grades was continued from the earlier period and was sanctioned by the councils of the fourth century. Yet the alliance of Church and State and the controversial activities produced a concentration of disciplinary attention upon heresy which allowed grave offenses against morals to go unpunished. A noteworthy exception to this was the refusal 'of Ambrose of Milan to administer the communion to Theodosius I. because of a massacre by the ratter's soldiers in Theesalonica. In the early Middle Ages the extension of the Church among the barbaric races brought about further systematization. Discipline. was administered by the bishops through synodical courts. The Penitential Books (q.v.), particularly the Liher ycenitentialia of Halitgariua of Cambrai, were written for the guidance of confessors. Besides excommunication, the penalties of the Anathema and the Interdict (qq.v.) were developed. Penance (see PENANCE, REPENTANCE), including auricular confession (see CONFESSION OF Slxa) and priestly absolution, became a sacrament, and the system of Indulgences (q.v.) was originated which later became so great a scandal and was one of the primary causes of the Reformation. GEO. W. Gnalox>s.
III. In the Lutheran Churches: According to

87	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	church Discipline
the Evangelical Lutheran conception, exclusion from the sacraments forms the core and center of church discipline. The employment of this discipline (the power of the keys) is a part of the practical duties of the pastor. The pastor who administers the sacrament dare not knowingly admit an unworthy person, since to do so is to participate in the sin. But on the basis of Matt. aviii. and I
Cor. v. the congregation has a right to :. Methods cooperate in church discipline since it and may not tolerate offense in its midst.
Results. The ban, even if uttered by the pastor,
always proceeds in the name of the congregation; but participation by the congregation in church discipline is little developed in Lutheran state churches in consequence of the peculiar organization of the congregations. Instead of the congregations, the coneistories received authority to assist the pastor in this exercise. The early practise was that a member of the congregation, charged with public sine, was at fist admonished by the pastor as his confessor, and if he did not change his conduct, he was excluded from the Lord's Supper; this was called the small ban. If the sinner remained stubborn, he was excluded from churchly‑ communion altogether, was put under the so‑called great ban. If he were in any way compromised before the congregation, the permission of the consietory had to be obtained, and the soealled great ban could be pronounced by the consietory or the state only after investigation. The whole procedure was looked upon not as a real punishment, but as a means of discipline. The ban could be nullified when the sinner showed repentance. He was readmitted on condition of publicly asking the forgiveness of the congregation. This procedure was called church penance, which is consequently not an act of punishment, but of reconciliation. If the sinner died without church penance, he was buried in a separate place without the services of the minister and the congregation. Church discipline so conducted was doomed to failure because it was not rooted in the consciousness of the congregation. During the seventeenth century, from an act of reconciliation church penance degenerated into an act of punishment which at first was imposed by the consistories and then by secular courts. Attempts were made by men like Johann Valentin Andrea and $pener to restore the old church discipline, but without success. Pietism produced no changes in this exercise, and rationalism completed its destruction. In most states church discipline was expressly abolished, and today there are only sporadic instances of it.
With the reawakening of churchly life a desire for the reintroduction of church discipline made itself felt. $chleiermacher's draft of a church constitution contained propositions to this effect; during 1840‑80 the question was earnestly dis‑
!a. >etodera cussed because of the reproach which
	the lack of discipline caused the
	meats.	churches and sects, also because of
		the social element which crept into
the old church constitutions. Since the intro
duction of civil marriage and the abolition of com
pulsory baptism there has been felt anew the need
of measures against such as despise ecclesiastical marriage and baptism. The state dote not oppose the imposition of church discipline as long as it is of a purely religious nature and is not public.
(G. Uarsoxrr.t)
N. In the Reformed Churches: The Reformed Church has always emphasized that faith without moral submission to the law of God is inconceivable, but it was only Calvinism that laid the responsibility for the regulation and discipline of the moral life of the members upon the church. According to the common Evangelical view, the power of the keys was exercised by the preaching of the Word, but Calvinism found it expressed chiefly in Christian penitential discipline as divinely "ordered.
The German‑Swiss Reformation brought about not only religious knowledge, but an immediate ethical renovation of popular life. There existed, however, as yet no churchly discipline. Zwingli
		tried to preserve it from the medieval
	1. The	Church in so far as it aid not conflict
		with the new doctrines, but the secular
	syn.
	tem.	authorities were much more successful
		in influencing the moral education of
the people. An authoritative position in regard to
matrimonial matters only was assumed apart from
the civil authority in 1525. A tribunal was created
consisting of two secular priests, two members of the
larger council, and two members of the smaller
council; but this institution was still far removed
from an organisation of the ecclesiastical congre
gation, it simply reported its findings to the secular
authority. Although there existed a desire for an
independent church discipline also in the sphere of
the German‑Swiss Reformation, Zwingli was satis
fied with the discipline carried through by the
Christian secular authorities, as he deemed the
discipline itself of more importance than the
method by which it was attained. The sermon,
he thought, gave the idea, while the civil authority
was the executing organ in the union of State and
Church.
In strong contrast with this surrender of ecclesiastical independence, there reappeared in Geneva under the guidance of Calvin the original type of strict moral discipline, based entirely upon the church. Calvin laid down his dogmatic views concerning ecclesiastical organization and discipline in his Institutio, especially after 1543, in great detail, and they form the basis of his practical efforts. The normal form of the church must be shaped according to Scripture. The body of Christ (" Institutes," IV. iii. 2) must be governed according to that political order and form which Scripture prescribes (IV. vi. 9; of. x. 1, i. 15, iv. 1; " Gallican Confession," 29). Thus discipline or government becomes the third constituting function of the right church (Opera, xiii. 283; " Belgic Confession," 29). But apart from depend‑
W Calvin's eats upon Biblical forms, Calvin had the conviction that the church could not exercise her educational function without a corresponding organisation. Discipline aims primarily to prevent desecration of Christ's congregation and his holy sacrament, the betterment of the individual is considered second.

Church Discipline
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	$g
ary. If the interest of Calvin had been confined to individual discipline, he would have been satisfied, like Zwingli, with the moral surveillance which was zealously and often rigorously exercised by the magistrate. But as the honor of Christ seemed to him to demand the independent exercise of ecclesiastical functions, he could not tolerate the refusal of a parochial organization. The church can solve her ethical problem only if she forma herself according to her own principles. Calvin realized his plan only after his expulsion from Geneva, in his independent congregation at Strasburg, and thence brought it back to Geneva.
Immediately after his return in 1541, the Ordonnances ecchssiastiquea were drawn up and approved by the two councils and the assembly of citizens. The church order establishes as a basis the four offices (pasteura, dodeurs, ateciens, diaerea) which the Lord instituted for the government of his church. It is the task of the people to create a congregation that enjoys the blessings of God in a becoming manner and with a mature consciousness, especially in the sacraments. For the regales supervision over the congregation, the college of elders is instituted (officially called Consistoire), consisting of the clergymen and twelve members of the different colleges of council. The lay elders are elected by the smaller council on the initiative of the pastor. Their discipline covers 3. Genevan matters of faith and morals. Smaller Eccleaiasti‑offenses were adjusted by the personal
cal Tri‑ admonition of an elder; obstinate
	bnnels.	Winners were summoned before the
		college which met every week. If
they remained in their rebellious disposition, they
were excluded from the Lord's Supper or the
congregation of believers. Obstinate opposition
against the religion of the state and its institutions
was reported to the secular authorities, who in
flicted their own penalties. There resulted an
intolerable confusion of ecclesiastical and secular
power; these conditions, however, were due not so
much to the peculiar ecclesiastical theories of
Calvin as to the spirit of the time, which could not
conceive the possibility of different religions exist
ing side by side in one single State. It is rather
due to Calvin that, in spite of this general view,
the Church was not absorbed altogether in the State.
The spirit of the ordinances of Geneva rules in all later Reformed church orders. In the French Protestant Church the purely ecclesiastical character of discipline found a clearer expression, owing to the fact that this church had to be In built up independently of the State
France. and even in opposition to it. It is the difference between theocracy and free churchiam. The degrees of discipline were the same as in Geneva. The discipline of the Church extends not only over gross vices, but strives after honesty and modesty in the whole conduct of life. It was also earnestly intent upon the preservation of the right confession.
The church order of Lasso in London dates from 1550. It shares the view of Calvin that the Church, according to the word of God, needs a special government and discipline with a presbyterial
constitution, but it embodies a freer democratic spirit. Puritanism in England received its characteristic stamp from Scotland. The congregation
of strangers, formed by John Knox 8. In Great in Geneva, followed closely in the
Britain.	wake of Calvin, and their Book of
Common Order (1558) took whole pages from the " Institutes," but after their removal to Scotland the fear of hierarchism led them into the paths of Lasso. Under its king Christ and according to his word in Matt. xvi. and xviii., the congregation roles itself by its officers: ministers, or teaching elders; rtffing elders, including the pastor, for the supervision of morals in the congregation; and deacons. Presbyterial Puritanism found its completion in the Westminster Standards of 1647, the discipline of which exerted great influence upon the whole non‑episcopal EnglishAmerican Protestantism.
Another group is formed by Holland, East Frisia, and the German Lower Rhine, the ecclesiastical discipline of which was based upon the orders of the Wesel Convention (1568) and the Emden Synod (1571). Here the chief stress is laid upon the moral and social organization. The Lord's supper belongs only to members of a constituted church.
Each elder possesses his own district, 8. In 801‑ and his duty is chiefly pastoral. The
land and elders are to visit the members of the
Germany. congregation regularly, together with
their pastor. Upon this solid substructure the different degrees of discipline were built up. In the other German territories which received their Calvinism from their rulers, efforts to introduce church discipline were made, but in many cases they were obstructed by unfavorable conditions. Hesse‑Cassel derived its order of discipline from the time when it was Lutheran, but the Palatinate furnished the example for other territories. Here it was only in 1750 that the congregations received presbyteries, and not till a century later was a presbyterial order thoroughly worked out and put into operation at the time when in other territories the Reformed Church was reconstructed, after the Thirty Years' War. The organization of the college of elders and the degrees of discipline correspond exactly to the French church order, but the whole is put into the frame of the State, the presbyteries being dependent upon the secular authorities.
Modern times have greatly modified or in part abolished the old orders of discipline, not only in Germany, but also in France and Switzerland. The principle of alliance superseded the order of individual congregations. The Dutch Church has
preserved considerable remnants of the 7. Modern old discipline, but the firmest eon‑
BodiSce,‑ nection with their historical origin
tiona.	has been maintained by the Pres‑
byterian churches‑their strict order of church‑membership forma still a solid basis of discipline. The Scottish Free Church returned even consciously to the old traditions. In Germany the old remnants of Reformed discipline are being met with the beginnings of a general Evan‑
gelical reorganization.(E. F. KARL MULLER.)

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
89
V. In the United States: In the Episcopal Church the discipline is ]aid down in the canons. It relates mainly to the clergy; but laymen can be kept from the sacrament of the Lord's Supper on conviction of serious offenses.
In the Presbyterian Church discipline is in the hands of the session, or the governing board df each local church, consisting of the pastor and elders; but, if the party feels aggrieved, as appeal can be made to the next higher court, the presbytery, thence to the synod, and thence to the general assembly. The method of trial in all such cases is minutely ]aid down in book ii. of the Form of Government. In the Northern Presbyterian Church, reference to the highest court can only be made when the points involved are doctrinal or constitutional. Discipline is defined to be " the exercise of that authority, and the application of that system of laws which the Lord Jesus Christ has appointed in his church." The subjects of discipline are " all baptized persons." The offense must be public, or such as demands the cognizance of the church judicatory; but private exhortation must first be employed.
Similar in definition and practise of discipline are the Dutch Reformed and German Reformed churches. Cf. The Constitution of the Reformed Church in America, articles xi.‑xiv., and Constitu;,ion of the Reformed Church in the United States, part iii.
In churches holding the congregational polity discipline is a matter for the local congregation, which may be advised by a council composed of ministers and delegates from other congregations, though the recommendations of the council are not obligatory upon the local church. Cf. H. M. Dexter, Congregationalism, pp. 188‑195, Boston, 1876.
In the Methodist Church " an accused member shall be brought to trial before a committee of not less than five, who shall not be members of the quarterly conference (and, if the preacher judge it necessary, he may select the committee from any part of the district), in the presence of the preacher‑in‑charge, who shall preside at the trial, and cause exact minutes of the evidence and proceedings in the case to be taken. In the selection of the committee the parties may challenge for cause." The various causes of such action are stated. " The accused shall have the right to call to his assistance as counsel any membei in good and regular standing in the Methodist Episcopal Church." If the pastor‑in‑charge dissent from the finding of the committee, he may appeal to the ensuing quarterly conference. Ex_ gulaion is the penalty for unworthy conduct on the part of accused members. Cf. The Doctrine, and Discipline of the Methodist‑Episcopal Church, 1880, pp. 144‑151.
For further discussion see DEGRADATION; DEPOSITION; CHURCH GOVERNMENT; JURISDICTION, ECCLESIASTICAL; and INQUISITION.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The history of discipline may be traced in Schaff, Christian Church i. b01‑503, ii. 187‑192, iii. 356‑
359, iv. 371 sqq., and Neander Christian Church, i. 217‑
221, ii. 213‑218, iii. 137 aqq., 45; sqq., iv. 347 sqq. Con‑
sult also: DCA, i. 568 eqq,; AL, u. 1581‑90. For the
history of discipline in the early Church the sources Pre
Church Discipline
Church Extension Society
the Didache, the works of Tertullian (especially De panitentia). Hippolytus, Cyprian (especially De lapaia), the Apostolica! Constitutions, and the Canons of the early councils. Consult: N. Marshall, Penitential Discipline o/ the Primitive Church reprinted in the Library of AngloCatholic Theology, Oxford, •1844; J. Kaye, External Government and Discipline of the Church of . . . the First Three Centuries, London, 1855; G. N. Bonwetach, Die Oaechichte lea Montaniamua, pp. 108‑118, Erlangen, 1881; Hefele, Corvcilienpcachichte, i. 225 sqq., 248.
For the Catholic Church consult: F. W. H. wasseraehleben, Bussordnunpen der aberdlBudiachen Kirche, Halls, 1851; F. Frank, Die Bueadisciplin der Kirche, Mains, 1888; T. L. Green, Indulgences, Sacramental Absolutions, and the Tax Tables of as Roman Penitentiary, London, 1872 (Roman Catholic apologetic); R.. Gibbinge, The Taxes of the Apostolic Penitentiary; or the Prices of Sins in the Church of Rome, Dublin. 1872 (Protestant polemic); F. Probst, Sacramentale and Saaamentalien, T3bingen, 1872; vaeandsrd, The Inquisition, London, 1908; and literature under IxqvISIxrox.
For the Lutheran Church consult: O. Goeachen, Doc. trine de diaciplina eccd. . ~ , Halls, 1859; A. L. Richter, Geachichfe der avaugeliachenKirchenverfaasunp in Deutachland, Leipeic, 1851; idem, Kirchenrecht, ed. Kahl, ¢ 227, ib. 1888; F. A. Tholuok, Vorpeachichte den Rationaliamua, II. i., pp. 190 sqq., Halls, 1853‑82; G. K. E. F. Fabri, Ueber Kirchenaucht, Stuttgart, 1854; O. Meter, Kirchenzuchl, Rostock, 1854; idem, Lehrbuch den deuh achen Kirchaurechta, GSttingen, 1889; C. I. Nitsaeh, Praktischa Theodopie, i. 221 sqq., Bonn, 1859; Schaff, Creeds (for the standards); H. E. Jacobs, Book of Concord, 2 vole., Philadelphia, 1893.
For the Reformed Churches consult on the general question, besides the works of Goeschen and Richter above: A. L, Richter, Die evaupeliachen Kirchanordnungan den IB. Jahrhuuderta, Weimar, 1848; $. Miller, Manual of Presbytery. ed. J. G. Lorimer, Edinburgh, 1842; G. V. Lechler. Geaehichte der Preabyterial‑ and Synodalroerfasaunp, oLeyden, 1854; C. B. Hundes6agen, Beitrdpe zur Kirchenvar/asaunpapeachichte, Wiesbaden, 1884; G. Galli, Die ZuUuriachan and calvinisclun Kirchenatrafen, BresIsu, 1879; K. Ricker, GrtsndadRae re/ormirter Kirchenverjaaaunp; R. 8taehelin H. Zuwapli, i. 445 sqq., ii. 137 eqq., 440 sqq., Bae91, 1895‑97; E. Egli, Analecta reformatorea, i. 99 sqq., Zurich, 1899; F. W. Kampfechulte, Joh. Calvin, i. 385 sqq., ii. 354 sqq., Leipeic, 1899; La Discipline ecclEainatiqua den Epliaea r,;formEes de France, ed. D'Huieeesu, Charenton, 1887; J. Aymon, Toua lea aynodea nationaux den !•gliaee rlformles de France, The Hague, 1710; [W. Dunlop], A Collation of Confessions of Faith, Catechisms, Directories, Books of Discipline . . , Edinburgh, 1722; J. Bannermann, The Church of Christ, ib. 1888; J. Cook, Styles of Writs, Borne of Procedure and Practice of the Church Courts of Scotland, ib. 1870; W. Pierce, Ecclesiastical principles . . . Of five Wesleyan Methodists, London, 1873; T. B. Hardern, Church Discipline, its Hint. and Present Aspect, Cambridge. 1892; Reitsms en van Veen, Acts . . , on particulisre aynodtre. Groningen, 1892‑99.
For the United States, besides the works mentioned in the text, consult: T. C. Upham, Ratio diaciplino, Portland, 1844; F. Wayland, principles and practice of Baptest Churches, New Yor, 1&57; R. Emery, Hiat. of the Discipline of the Methodist Episcopal Church ib. 1884; R. H. Tyler, American Ecclesiastical Law, Albany. 1866; T. B. MeFalls and B. Sunderland, Manual of Presbyterian
Lays and Usage, Washington, 1873; A. T. McGill, Church Government Philadelphia. 1890: J. Fulton, index eanonum, New York, 1892; J. Andrews, Church Law, ib., n,d. Vol' iii, of 9chaff's Creeds contains the texts of the principal atandarde.
CHURCH OF ENGLAND. SEE ENGLAND, CHURCH OF.
CHURCH EXTENSION SOCIETY: A society founded in Chicago in 1905 for the purpose of as. eiating Roman Catholic home missionary work in the United States. The movement was inaugurated and organized by Rev. Francis C. Is;elley, then pastor at Lapeer, Mich. The object of the

Church of	lead
Church of Eg
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
society is to raise funds for the erection and main
tenance of churches and chapels in those numer
ous Western and ~outhern districts where the Cath
olic population is so small and scattered that
self‑supporting parishes are either an impossibility
or, at least, can subsist only in distressing conditions.
The means adopted to this end is a systematized
contribution of two cents per week from all Cath
olics in the United States. The movement soon
became popular, and at present it counts among
its governing officers many of the most promi
nent bishops and archbishops of the country. A
monthly paper, Extension, the official organ of the
society, is published in Chicago under the direction
of Father Kelley. 	JAMES F. DRISCOLL.
CHURCH FATHERS: A title of honor applied to the early writers of the Christian Church. It was originally given to the bishops; when appeal was made to their testimony as representatives of the teaching office of the Church, it was an easy transition to the inclusion with them of venerated writers of an earlier period, even though they had not held the episcopal office. Thus by the fifth century the term " Fathers " is found used in very much its modern sense. Antiquity alone, however, is not held sufficient to confer this title, as Vincent of Lerins clearly states (Commonitorium, ii. 24); Hilary of Poitiers (on Matt. v.) says that Tertullian " by his subsequent error destroyed the authority of his approved writings." Accordingly modern Roman Catholic theologians, among~whom the title is moat strictly used, are accustomed to require four qualifications‑orthodoxy of doctrine sanctity of life, the approbation of the Church, and antiquity. For the Latin Church the line of the Fathers closes with Pope Gregory I. (d. 804); for the Greek Church with John of Damascus (d. 754). See APOSTOLIC FATHERS; DOCTOR; PATRI$TICS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. R. Crooks and J. F. Hurst, Theological h'ncycfopmdsa and MeDwdofopy, pp. 39399, New York,
1894.
CHURCH FEDERAnON.
I. The United States. The National Federation of Churches (§ I). Its Aims and Achievements (§ 2). II. Great Britain and Other Lands.
The term " church federation " has come into use in recent years to designate the spirit and methods of cooperation and unity that in varied ways are bringing Protestant Churches and Christian bodies into organized affiliation and united action in matters of common interest and service. As a movement it is for the most part confined to the fellowship of the Churches that hold to historical and Evangelical Christianity. As a practical working force it has found expression especially in the United States and Great Britain and in countries where foreign missionary work is carried on by societies supported by these nations.
I. The United States: Historically the federation movement in the United States is linked with the development of the spirit of unity which found expression in the nineteenth century through the American branch of the Evangelical Alliance (q.v.).
80
A conference held in New York, Dec. 3, 1899, took steps which resulted in the organization of the National Federation of Churches
1. The Na‑ and Christian Workers. A letter was tionai Fed‑ then prepared and sent out by the Ex‑
eration of ecutive Committee expressing the hope
Churches. that it might be the forerunner of a " National Federation of all our Protestant Christian denominations, through their official action." At the annual meeting held in
I	Washington, Feb., 1903, action was taken requesting " the highest ecclesiastical or advisory bodies of the Evangelical Churches to appoint representative delegates to a National Conference." Thirty denominational bodies having an aggregate membership of over seventeen million members responded and were represented by nearly five hundred delegates in the great Interchurch Conference on Federation held in New York, Nov. 15‑21, 1905.1 By a substantially unanimous vote a Plan of Federation was adopted and recommended "to the Christian bodies represented in the Conference for their approval." This plan created a " Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America " and became operative when approved by two‑thirds of the constituent bodies. Such approval having been received, the council was organized and its first meeting was held in Dec.' 1908.
The preamble to this Plan of Federation expresses the conviction that " in the providence of God, the time has come when it seems fitting 2. ][to Aims more fully to manifest the essential
and oneness of the Christian Churches of Achieve‑ America, in Jesus Christ as their manta. Divine Lord and Savior, and to promote the spirit of fellowship, service, and •cooperation among them." The object of the Federal Council is stated in the Constitution to be: " (1) To express the fellowship and catholic unity of the Christian Church. (2) To bring the Christian bodies of America into united service for Christ and theworld. (3) To encourage devotional fellowship and mutual counsel concerning the spiritual life and religious activities of the Churches. (4) To secure a larger combined influence for the Churches of Christ in all matters affecting the moral and social conditions of the people, so as to promote the application

The following is the list of Churches represented: he Baptist Churches of the United States; the Free Bap~iet General Conference; the Christians (Christian Connection); the Congregational Churches; the Disciples of Christ; the Evangelical Association; the Evangelical Synod of North America; the Friends; the Evangelical Lutheran Church, General Synod; the Methodist Episcopal Church; the Methodist Episcopal Church, South; the Primitive Methodist Church; the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church in America; the Methodist Protestant Church; the African Methodist Episcopal Church; the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church; the General Conference of the Mennonite Church of North America; the Moravian Church; the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America; the Cumberland Presbyterian Church; the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist or Presbyterian Church; the Reformed Presbyterian Church; the United Presbyterian Church; the Protestant Episcopal Church; the Reformed Church in America; the Reformed Church in the United Stalks of America; the Reformed Episcopal Church; the Seventh‑day Baptist Churches; the United Brethren in Christ; the United Evangelical Church.

91	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Church of	land
		Church of
of the law of Christ in every relation of human life.
(5) To assist in the organization of local branches
of the Federal Council to promote its aims in their
communities." The difference between federated
union and organic church union is clearly defined
in the stipulation that " this Federal Council shall
have no authority over the constituent bodies
adhering to it: but its province shall be limited to
the expression of its counsel and the recommending
of a course of action in matters of common interest
to the Churches, local councils, and individual Chris
tians." The Council " has no authority to draw up
a common creed or form of government or of worship,
or in any way to limit the full autonomy of the
Christian bodies adhering to it."
	Historically this national movement " for the
	prosecution of work that can be better done in union
than in separation" has found initiative and en
	couragement through federated activities, State and
local. The Interdenominational Commission of
Maine was organized in 1892, and is composed of
members appointed by official State bodies repre
	senting the Baptist, Free Baptist, Christian, Con
	gregational, and‑ Methodist Churches. The prin
	ciples under which this Commission acts seek to
secure practical reciprocity among these denomina
	tions, both inthe planting of new churches and in the
	readjustment of forces when through overmultipli
	cation of churches or decrease in population con
	ditions exist that demand consolidation through
	union and comity of action. The plans of the Com
	mission aim not to organize so‑called " union
	churches," but to consolidate religious forces, still
	leaving them within the limits of denominational
	fellowship. The secretary of the Commission, who
	has held this poeitionsince its work began in 1905,
	bears testimony " that in thirty‑seven of the fifty
	one cases entered on the records of the Commission
	consultation respecting the clash of interests has
	sufficed to relieve the strain: mere friendly con
	ference has led to an adjustment of the difficulties.
	Many other cases, without such mention as would
	justify entrance on the records, have been adjusted
	by the same friendly means, and in a great many
	other instances still an effective influence has bin
	exerted in ways that have maintained an ideal
	of fraternal cooperation which has tended to ele
	vate very much of the church work of the State
	from the low level of partizan and sectarian strife."
	Commissions similes to that in Maine exist in other
	states, but their work as yet has not been as effect
	ive in its results. In the aggregate, however, consul
	tation and comity are increasingly taking the place
	of competitive action in home mission and church
	extension work. The State Federations organized
	in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, and
	other commonwealths have already proved the need
	and effectiveness of united effort. In their pur
	poses they have a common aim, but in methods
	they are working along lines suggested by local
	environment and limited by executive resources.
	IL Great Britain and Other Lands; Church
	federation in England and Great Britain is largely
	a movement unifying the activities of Nonconform
	ist Churches in matters of common interest. Its
	organizing center is the National Council of the
Evangelical Free Churches which was founded in 1894. Membership in this Council comes through local Councils. " The Churches constituting the local Councils are the Congregational, the Baptist Churches, the Methodist Churches, the Presbyterian Church of England, the Free Episcopal Churches, the Society of Friends, and such other Evangelical Churches as the National Council may at any time admit." The total number of Councils in 1906 was 897 with more than fifty District Federations. The latest report says: " The aim of our Movement has from the beginning been preeminently spiritual, and the main work of the local Councils in all parts of the country has been United Missions." The relation in which the Free Churches stand to the Established Church of England has been a powerful factor in drawing them into close and effective fellowship. The work of the local Councils includes activities not only evangelistic, but social and philanthropic.
In other lands church federation is already a potent factor in the unifying of Christian forces represented through missionary organizations. The Standing Committee of Cooperating.Chrietian Missions in Japan is made up of representatives from nearly all the different missions. Since its organization in 1902 it has exerted a notable influence in advancing plans of comity and cooperation. At the great China Centenary Missionary Conference held at Shanghai in May, 1907, steps were taken to federate all of the Christian forces in the empire. In India the missionary workers are laboring not only to federate their activities, but achieve definite plans of organic church union. This spirit of unity and desire for closer fellowship is illustrated in action that is being taken in every part of the world by those having in charge the missionary work of Protestant Churches.
The indications multiply that church federation stands for a movement of profound significance in its relation to the present and future history of Christianity in its institutional life and fellowship. E. B. SANFORD.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. B. Sanford, Church Federation, New York, 1905 (contains reports of the Interchurch Conference on Federation); Federation (the quarterly published in New York by the Federation of Churcheein New York City); the Annual Report of the National Federation of Churches, of the Committee of Cooperating Missions (Japan), and of the National Council of Free Churches (England).
CHURCH (CHURCHES) OF GOD: The name of several religious bodies in America.
1. The Church of God is North America, popularly known as WinebrennarIana, is s Baptist denomination founded by John Winebrenner in 1830. The founder was born at Glade Valley, Frederick County, Md., Mar. 25, 1797; d. at Harrisburg, Pa., Sept. 12, 1880. He studied at Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa., and learned theology under Dr. Samuel Helfenstein. Called to the pastorate of the German Reformed Church at Harrisburg, Pa., he was ordained at Hagerstown, Md., Sept. 24, 1820. His earnest preaching resulted in a revival, in which he opposed theaters, dancing, gambling, lotteries, and racing, thus causing opposition which resulted in official charges against him. He severed his

Church of God
Church Government	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	92
	Q
relations with his charge and with the Reformed
Church in 1825, but continued his ministry in and
around Harrisburg, extensive revivals of religion
following.. His theological views gradually changed
as the result of his study of the Bible. Congre
gations were formed at a number of points, and
several ministers were ordained. In Oct., 1830,
six of these ministers met in Harrisburg and agreed
to form a body to be called the General Eldership
of the Church of God, the term " general elder
ehip " being used to distinguish this body from the
eldership of the local church.
In doctrine the Church is prevailingly Arminian and orthodox. It is largely premillenarian, and practises three ordinances: baptism, by immersion; the Lord's Supper, observed in the evening; and washing of feet. The local church polity is presbyterial, each church having its own board of elders and deacons. The churches within a given district are associated together for cooperation in general work. The pastors and other ordained ministers within a district, together with an equal number of lay elders, constitute an annual eldership which appoints the ministers to the various charges. These annual elderehips elect an equal number of ministerial and lay delegates, who constitute the general eldership, changed in 1905 from a triennial to a quadrennial body, the highest judicatory of the denomination.
The Church now reports two annual elderships in Pennsylvania, two in West Virginia, two in Oklahoma, and one each in Maryland, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Kansas, Arkansas, and Oregon. A general eldership, composed of delegates from the annual elderehipa, was organized in 1845, and the General Eldership of the Church of God organized in 1830 became the East Pennsylvania eldership. In 1866 the title of the general eldership, as also those of the annual elderships, was changed to the form, The General Eldership of the Churches of God. The total membership is estimated to be about 40,000, with 500 ministers. The general eldership controls the institutions of learning, of which there are three (Findlay College, Findlay, O.; Fort Scott Collegiate Institute, Fort Scott, Kan.; and Barkeyville Academy, Barkeyville, Pa.), and the publishing house and book store at Harrisburg, Pa. Each annual eldership is engaged in missionary work in its own territory, and frontier mission work is carried on by the general eldership in Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Oregon, and Washington. There is a Woman's General Missionary Society, which, through the Board of Missions of the general eldership, supports four American missionaries, ten or twelve native workers, and a number of Bible readers in Ulubaria and Bogra Districts, Bengal Province, India.
C. H. FORNEY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Winebrenner, Brief Views of the Church
of God, Harrisburg, 1840; idem, A Treatise on Regeneration, ib. 1844; idem, Practical sad Doctrinal Sermons, ib. 1860. The church paper is the Church Advocate, Harrisburg, Pa.
2. The Church of God and Saints of Christ (the "Black Jews ") are chiefly negroea who claim to be the descendants and representatives t;f the true
Jews; it is held that the latter were originally a
black people and that the descendants of the lost
tribes have changed color through mixture with
the Gentiles. The Church was founded at Topeka,
Kan., in 1897 by William S. Crowdy, who claimed
to be called " to be a prophet of God sent to the
whole world." The Saints respect both Jewish
and Christian law and ritual, and interpret the
Scriptures literally. Their system of doctrine is
presented in Crowdy's manual, The Bible Story
Revealed (Philadelphia, 1902). Among the princi
pal points of belief are: repentance the first step to
the kingdom; the seventh day the Sabbath; absti
nence from wine and strong drink; foot‑washing;
prayer in the words of Jesus; the holy kiss; religion
the exercise of love, charity, and hospitality; the
law of Moses completed, supplemented, or abolished
by the law of God in Christ. The ministry con
sists of the Prophet Crowdy, two bishops (one in
Africa), evangelists (whose functions are those of
visitation), and elders or pastors of churches. The
polity is presbyterial, with an annual " Board
Meeting," and a quadrennial General Assembly.
There is also an annual celebration of the Passover
with mingled Hebrew and Christian rites. The
organization reports about one hundred churches
(seven in Africa) and 8,000 to 9,000 members.
The largest church and the denominational head
quarters are in Philadelphia. Business enterprises
are conducted in connection with many of the
churches, a farm colony is located at Belleville,
Va., and the establishment of a widows' and or
phans' home and a training‑school there is con
templated. 	W. H. LnxxnsEE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The organ of the denomination is the
Weekly Prophet, Philadelphia.
3. The Adventist Church of God, a branch of the Seventh‑day Adventists. See ADVENTIaTB, 5.
4. The Churches of God in Christ Jesus, popularly known as the Age‑to‑come Adventists. See AnvENTIaTa, 6.
6. The Mennonite Church of God in Christ. See MENNONITES.

CHURCH GOVERftMENT.

Meaning of the Expression (§ 1).
The Reformed Church Government (§ 2).
Fundamental Differences of Lutheran View (§ 3).
German Reformers not Opposed to State Government (§ 4).
State Government Accepted in Luther's Time (§ fi).
Actual Views of Luther and his Contemporaries 0 6).
Influence of the Idea of the Common Priesthood (¢ 7).
Modern Development of German Church Government (§ 8).
[The following article is a condensation of the article Kirchenregime'tt in the Hauck‑Herzog RE; for more general discussion of the subject see POLITY.
Church government in the speech of to‑day denotes that particular conduct of the ecclesiastical community which is not effected by means of the spiritual administration of word and sacraments, but by means which on occasion may be of civil constitution. Prior to the Reformation the pastor was called rector, and regere ecclesiam (" to govern the Church ") indicated his spiritual care over

RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Church of Clod
Church Government
the congregation through the word and sacra
ments. Church government is thus, originally, the
	pastoral, though logically also the epis
i. Meaning	copal, and, in the last resort, the pa
of the Ex‑	pal cure of souls; because the bishop
	pression.	is properly the pastor of his diocese,
		and the pope‑at all events according
to the doctrine of the curia‑parochua mundi (see
CURE OF Sours). However, the divinely given
authority for the spiritual control (poteatas eccle
3i(IStiCCI ; see AUTHORITY, ECCLESIASTICAL) em
braces, according to the theory then in vogue, every
regulative function, whether in a proper sense
spiritual or not; that is, certain functions not
within the direct sphere of word and sacrament,
provided only the same appear expedient to the
bishop or pope, as the case maybe, with relation
to the cure of souls. Hence prior to the Refor
mation church government was regarded as part
and parcel of the episcopal, or ultimately papal,
cure of souls. It was only after the establishment
of the Reformers' principle, that this theory con
flicts with Scripture, and that the ecclesiastical
authority which is to be exercised by the spiritual
office in virtue of divine commission comprises
rather the sole administration of word and sacra,
meats, and not, in addition, external control, that
the institution of church government as a power
by itself could become developed and was actually
developed. The idea of church government is this
sense is Protestant; the Roman Catholic Church, in
so far as it has continued upon the pre‑Refor
mation basis, still construes the matter as falling
within the spiritual province of ecclesiastical
authority.
Of the two Protestant Church bodies in which, upon the basis of the aforesaid Reformation doctrine, a scheme of church government has taken shape distinct from the spiritual economy it is pertinent to consider first the Reformed Church; and in fact its Calvinistic branch is of exceptional interest in this connection. The task of organizing the Protestant Church in France was
z. The Its‑ complicated at the outset by the hosformed tility of the government. 1n the Church face of this enmity, the Church had to
Govern‑ organize as an independent association. meat. Starting with Calvin's tenets that the church organization described in the Acts of the Apostles and the pastoral epistles is ordained by God to be directed by a college of elders, sad that this Church is an example or article of faith for every particular congregation, it developed this assumption, following Calvin's interpretation of Eph. iv. 11 sqq., Rom. aii. 7, and I Cor. xii. 28, into the doctrine that in accordance with the aforesaid divine arrangement there are two kinds of elders; namely, not only bearers of the teaching office‑who, in agreement with the Lutheran Church, were held to be restricted to teaching and the administration of the sacraments ‑but also " ruling " elders, who were regarded as filling the spiritual, but not the teaching office (Calvin's "Institutes" IV., chaps. i.‑v., Xi., xii.). Pastor and ruling elders together constituted the governing body of the congregation (Fr. cortsis‑
faire, cf. K. Ricker, Grundsatze reformirter Kirchertverfassung, Leipsic, 1899, pp. 102 eqq., 141 sqq.). Then there came together from the congregations, comprising a definite group, certain delegates of the consiatoires, both teaching and ruling officers, to form committees (" synods "), through whose agency the corresponding church circuit was governed, the same as the congregation by the agency of the consistoire. Further, the French Evangelical Church as a whole is governed by a general synod (cf. G. von Polenz, Geschichte des franzdsisehen Calvinismus, 4 vols., Goths, 18.57; G. V. Lechler, Gesch.ic)rte der Presbyterial‑and Syrtodolverfdssung, Leyden, 1854, pp. 64 sqq.). The essential basis of the [Reformed] church government is thus clearly apparent in the main, even though now and then its lines of distinction coalesce. It rests upon divine authority just as in the pre‑Reformation Church; save that this commissioned authority is not imparted to the teaching elders, but only to the ruling ones. Yet the former take part, and indeed as weighty personages, in the sessions of the governing bodies, though this is only because they administer the order of salvation, and because all church government, in the nature of the case, has no other object than to render possible and make sure the order of salvation; hence the teaching presbyters enjoy their influence upon church government not as retainers of a divine commission to rule, but as expert representatives of their divine commission to teach; so much so, for instance, that in questions of doctrine the non‑spiritual members of synods have no voice. These fundamental ideas of the French constitution of presbyterial‑synodal church government have undergone, in the course of time and in connection with their development in German territories, various alterations an account of which properly belongs to church history.
Two fundamental points differentiate the Lutheran theory of church government both from the pre‑Reformation and Roman Catholic theory and from the Calvinistic‑Reformed the‑
3. Funds‑ cry. In the first place, the Lutheran
mental Church does not assume that there
Differences is any form of church government
	of	ordained by divine commission, coin
Lutheran cidently with the institution of the
	View.	Church, but rather esteems every
		form of government admissible by
whose operation sufficient provision is made for
the rightful administration of word and sacra=
meats. Hence there is no Lutheran dogmatic basis
of church government; and Lutherans accord to
the claim of the Reformed that there is no such
higher dignity than that of a theological opinion.
The second point is the fact that the Lutheran
Church, when, in accordance with the imperial
decree of 1526 at Speyer, it developed the State
Church polity, virtually from the very start placed
church government in the State sovereign's hand.
In consequence of these two differences the ques
tion of Lutheran church government is much more
complicated than that of the pre‑Information
Church, or of the Roman Catholic or of the Reformed
Churches.
It has been asserted that the Reformers' ideals

Church Govorn‑out	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	94
were inconsistent with state government of the Church; and some (notably so F. J. Stahl, in
Kirchenverfaseung nach Lekre and ;. German Recht der Proteatanten, Erlangen, 1840,
Reform‑ 2d ed., 1862; Lathes the Kirche and era not Union, Berlin, 1859) have inter‑
flpposed to preted these ideals as tending in the
State Gov‑ direction of the pre‑Reformation con‑
erament. ception; others (as A. L. Richter, in
the Zeitschrift fur deutsches Recht and die Rechtawasaenschaft, iv., 1840, pp. 1 aqq.; lehr_ bucla den Kirchenrechta, Leipsie, 1$41 aqq.; Geachichxe der evangeliachzn Kirchenverfassung in Deutschland, 1851) think that they sympathize with the presbyterial‑synodal organization. This difference of opinion shows how alight is the foundation for either aide. Both views have arisen from the rational desire to obtain historic support and Reformation authority for party strivings‑the product and expression of modern times‑and the contentions of both Stahl and Richter are inadmissible. The chief argument against Stahl's theory is the attitude of the Reformers with reference to the actual institution and organization of church government by the territorial sovereigns: it is incompatible with a conception of polity fundamentally contrary. Richter, on his aide, to demonstrate his proposition of presbyterial‑synodal ideals of organization on the part of the Reformers, assumes that their views underwent a change somewhere about 1525; before that time their ideals were presbyterial‑synodal, but, owing to their experiences with Anabaptism and the Peasants' War, the said ideals were crowded out, and the Reformers were obliged to admit the actual necessity of church government under territorial sovereignty. Richter submits thin contention without more particular evidence, which would be hard to find. He forgets, for one thing, that the principles from which the territorial sovereignty form of church polity is deduced theologically were extant even prior to 1525, and were declared by the Reformers; on another aide, that not until after that year did the Reformation begin its ecclesiastical organization, so that only the ideas realized by the Reformers after that year are in question; it was not in the spirit of that age to project and formulate ideal systems of organisation without practical conditions to uphold them.
R. $ohm in his Kirehenreeht (Leipsie, 1892) has defended the thesis that the territorial sovereignty form of church government came about in oppo‑
sition to Luther's doctrine and after g. State his death, and that it was s product Government of the pusillanimous faith of Luther's
Accepted contemporaries and successors, being is Luther's closely related to the reaction, eapeTime. dally on Melanchthon's part, to Ro‑
man theories and to the conaietorial fabric which grew out of their influence, and the reenforoement of these conaiatories with temporal means of coercion. This thesis is untenable. If historical evolution be taken just as it stands, and the literature of the sixteenth century be considered as a whole, there can be no doubt that the government of the Church by the sovereigns of the State
was in harmony with the Reformers' theory; provided in this connection is understood by church government not the Reformers' " ecclesiastical authority " (see AUTHORITY, ECCLE8IABTICAL), but all that is involved in a legal direction of the church organism. The theory in question is not in any way taught by Melanchthon exclusively, as had been occasionally affirmed before Bohm; but in its main outlines it is apparent as early as Luther's tract An den Adel deutacher Nation (cf. O. Mejer, Die Grundlagen den lutherischcn Kirchenregiments, Rostock, 1864, pp. 26 aqq.), and it is elsewhere taught by Luther and others. It is clearly implied in the Lutheran confessional writings (Auga. Con., art. xxviii.; Art. Schmal., de potentate papa, pp. 354‑355; Larger and Smaller Catechisms, pp. 361, 363, 448, and elsewhere; moat plainly in Auga. Con. rariata, article on marriage of priests, in Hale, Libra symbolici, p. L.). Its theological basic thoughts come to light in a long array of liturgies and other kinds of promulgations on the part of the Reformatory territorial sovereigns.
	The Church as a corporate unity separated from
the State is a thoroughly modern idea, to Luther
		thoroughly unknown (cf. 8ohenkel,
6. Actual TSK, 1850, p. 1; Hundenhagen, ZKR,
Views	i., pp. 451 aqq.; W. Kahl, Yerachieden‑
of Luther heft der katholischen and evongeliachen
and his Anschauung caber daa Yerhaltnis Von
Contem‑	Staot and Kirche, Leipaic, . 1886; O.
	poraries.	Mejer, Rechtsleben der deutschen evan
		gel2:achenLandeakirchen, Hanover, 1899,
pp. 28 aqq.; K. Rieker, cat sup., pp. 55 aqq.). In
this unity two powers work aide by side, the two
swords of the Middle Ages; but this indicates
merely a " division of the administrative organiza
tion of the single body "; the well‑known and so
often misunderstood utterances of Luther an to the,
relation of the temporal to the spiritual power are
not intended to mean that the temporal power has
nothing at all to do in the Church, but rather that
within the one body two members, each in its
office, have to cooperate for the weal of the whole
organism, only neither is to encroach upon the
other within its rightful sphere. The spiritual
commission of the teaching order than appears to
be confined to the word sad administration of the
sacraments (that in, ecclesiastical power in Luther's
sense of the term); the authority of the governing
order appears to be directed toward rightfully up
holding the laws of God as expressed in the Ten
Commandments, especially according to the first
table of the same, to the end that no unlawful
form of divine service be endured in the land.
From these premises everything essential to the state
control of church government proceeds with logical
finality. Nor is this conclusion impaired by the
fact that the Reformers themselves accounted the
government's position not so much a source of
rights as a sum of obligations the government
was to fulfil, a responsible office which called
into play all those prerogatives which moderns
are wont to denigrate as corollaries to a " govern
ment."
To be sure, alongside there lines of thought are

ga	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Ohnroh Qoverament
also to be found certain documentary indications
of the germs of a second and divergent theory; not
one, however, that reaches backward toward the
	pastoral form of church government, but one out of
which, in favoring circumstances, a presbyterial
synodal polity might have grown.	There is here
is mind, above all, that fundamental principle of
Protestantism, the common priesthood. For even
	though it be true that this principle was conceived
	by the Reformers only as a religious
	7. Infiu‑ principle (so that things were carried
	ence of the too far when in earlier times it was
	Idea of the attempted to derive from this basis
	Common independent administration and oon
	Priesthood. gregational tenets, and set these up as
	express doctrines of the Reformation),
	it is none the less an overshooting of the mark on
	another side when modern writers like Bohm (ut
	sup., p. 510) and Rieker (ut sup., p. 79) profess to
	credit this thought with no influence at all upon
	the constitution of the Evangelical Church (of.
	E. Sehling, in ZKR, 1894, p. 229, and Kirehenge
	adzgebureg enter Moriz von Sachsera, Leipsic, 1898,
	pp. 3 sqq.). If, conformably to the well‑known
	doctrine of the Lutheran confessional writings (cf.
	the same collected with the pertinent citations in
	O. Mejer, Lehrbuch des Kirchenrechta, GSttingen,
	1869), the congregation of believers is bound by
	the obligations of faith to see to it that sufficient
	provision is made at all times for the rightful ad
	ministration of word and sacraments, and if,
	furthermore, this congregation is charged with
	responsibility before God in this matter (APoI.,
	p. 292, and elsewhere), it follows that the congrega
	tion as a congregation must see to it that this divine
	commission is properly exercised by those whom
	it appoints to this end. Upon such bases a pres
	byterial‑synodal church government might very
	well be constructed. But these ideas were not
	developed, because, as above set forth, they were
	thrust aside and suppressed by the system of terri
	torial sovereignty that governed the Church. Or,
	slightly changed, they were introduced into the
	territorial system by the teaching that since each
	member of the congregation is bound to contribute
	according to the measure of his ability toward the
	maintenance of a rightful and adequate adminis
	tration of the word and sacraments, and since the
	territorial sovereign possesses an especially high
	measure of such ability (in virtue whereof he is
	designated as membrum ecchai&, pracipmum), he
	must accordingly apply all his power entrusted to
	him by God toward the satisfaction of that obli
	gation. By this process the government of the
	Church might practically fall into the hands of the
	territorial sovereign alone; because the means at
	his disposal pre so vastly superior to those of all
	other church‑members that these, in comparison,
	find nothing further to do (Luther's Bedsaken von
	1630. Erlangen ed., liv., p. 179; Art. Schmal., p. 350;
	Mejer, ut sup., pp. 109 eqq., cf. 27, 36, 48). The
	idea of me»sbrum ecclesia Trrceciptcum, to be sure, is
spin and again	by subsequent absurd
	usage; but it always carries the assumption that
	the territorial sovereign has the power to apply
	his governing rights to the furtherance of ecde‑
siastical ends. This was the case in the Reforma
tion period and in general so long as his rights were
regarded and exercised as operative private rights.
According to the civil law of to‑day, however, the
governing rights of the territorial sovereign are in
the nature of public powers, which reach no further
than their corresponding official obligations. The
doctrine of membrum ecclesace yorocigruum is there
fore antiquated, and has no significance in present
praxis. On the other hand, conjointly with the
custodica prioris tabuhe, it constituted, down to the
middle, or thereabout, of the nineteenth century,
the principal foundation upon which the territorial
sovereignty rule of the Church was declared to be
a part of the territorial governing office, and as
such was regarded as an adjunct of state supremacy.
	Meanwhile, after some beginnings of changing
views that were even earlier apparent, since the
middle of the eighteenth century the point of view
according to which church government is admin
istered by the State has changed more and more.
		In place of the purpose to uphold the
	8. Modern first table of the Ten Commandments,
	Develop‑ there intervened, as Territorialiemn
	meat of (q.v.) came into power, the humani
	Germaa tarian‑political aim to make the State
	Church religiously a unity, to the end that
Government. quiet and peace, the supreme ends of
		the State, be achieved; and when a
subsequent further evolution of think brought
the tolerance principle into play, for this aim was
substituted one deriving from freedom of conscience,
which determines state activity on this side to‑day.
The theory of the Church was neat changed by the
natural right school; the Church is not an institu
tion founded by God, but a society, an association
within the State. But several equally legitimate
churches standing aide by aide in the State can
be treated by the state government only as church
associations which govern themselves; and if
among them there is a Lutheran Church, its status
dote not differ from that of any other, and the right
of the State in its government becomes a mere
Kirchenlwheit (jus circa sacra), which is essentially
the police control of associations. This appears the
more equitable since the new constitutional pmg
res has brought matters to such a pass that the
popular representatives have acquired directly or
indirectly a determining influence in legislation
and certain other specific rights of government,
indeed the satire sphere of operation; since, further,
all representatives in the Diet have equal voice‑
the Reformed, the Roman Catholic, and the non
Christian members the same as the Lutherans
and this equality of influence on the part of non.
adherents of the Lutheran Church is inconsistent
with its constitutional parity. Accordingly there
are projects on every side in the direction of a
logical transformation of the territorial sovereignty
form of church polity into corporate a&‑govern.
ment. It has been previously remarked that the
Reformers' theology opened the way to progress
in this direction; and that the example of the
Calvinistic Reformed Church was not far removed,
even though the Tatter's dogmatic tenets were not
here to the purpose. And in fact it is true that

Church History	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	98
as soon as the collegialistic and constitutional State theories gained force and were here earlier, there later, here more, there less, carried into execution, likewise in the Lutheran Church the congregations have employed presbyterial church committees; synods have been constituted of representatives of these committees for districts; and finally a general synod for the land, or, where several Lutheran denominations exist, a synod of the denominations has been brought together as the general representative body of the church. So the Lutheran Church is acquiring the organization of a corporate Church, in virtue whereof it governs itself.
E. SEar.Irla.
CHURCH
7. Nature and Aim.
II. Church History and Secular History. III. Sources.
Written Sources (5 1).
Unwritten Sources (¢ z>.
TV. Duty of the Historian.
Investigation Q 1).
Presentation of Results
	(¢ 2)•
V. Periods and Epochs.
1. Sacred or Biblical History.
9. Christian History or Ecclesiastical History Proper.
HISTORY.
a. Ancient Christianity.
b. Medieval Christianity.
o. Modern Christianity. VI. Value.
VII. Literature.
1. Ancient Historians.
2. Historians from 1500 to 1800.
3. Historians from 1800 to 1900.
4. Manuals of Church History in One or More Volumes.
5. Histories of Doctrine.
8. Chronological Tables.
7. Atlases.
I. Nature and Aim: Church history embraces, in the widest sense, the whole religious development from the creation to the present time, and is continually growing in bulk. In a narrower sense, it is confined to a history of Christianity and the Christian Church from the birth of Christ and the Day of Pentecost, when Christianity made its first appearance in an organized form as distinct from the Jewish religion. The historian has to trace the origin, growth, and fortunes of the Church, and to reproduce its life in the different ages. The value of his work depends upon the degree of its truthfulness, or exact correspondence with the facts. Church history is not a heap of dry bones, but life and power: it is the Church itself in constant motion and progress from land to land, and from age to age, until the whole world shall be filled with the knowledge of Christ. It is the most interesting part of the world's history, as religion is the deepest and most important concern of man, the bond that unites him to God. It embraces the external expansion and contraction of Christianity, or the history of missions and persecutions, the visible organization of church polity and discipline, the development of doctrine and theology, the worship, with its various rites and ceremonies, liturgies, sacred poetry and music, the manifestations of practical piety, Christian morality, and benevolent institutions; in one word, all that belongs to the inner and outer life of Christianity in the world. It is a panorama of God's dealings with the human race, and man's relations to God under all aspects. It shows the gradual unfolding of the plan of redemption‑a plan of infinite wisdom and goodness, in constant conflict with the Satanic
powers and influences which are struggling for the ascendancy, but are doomed to ultimate defeat, and to be overruled for good. It is the greatest triumph of God's wisdom to bring good out of evil, and to overrule the wrath of man for his own glory and for the progress of truth and righteousness. Church history is a book of life, full of warning and precept, of hope and encouragement.
II. Church History and Secular History: These differ as Church and State, as Christianity and humanity, as the order of grace and the order of nature; yet they are inseparably connected, and the one can not be understood without the other. Among the Jews the spiritual and secular history together form the one history of theocracy. Both currents intermingle in the Byzantine Empire, in the European States and the Latin Church during the Middle Ages, in the period of the Reformation, during the colonial period of America, and in all countries where Church and State are united. Gibbon's History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire is in great part also a history of the rise and progress of Christianity, which survived the fall of Old and New Rome, and went forth to conquer the barbarian conquerors by Christianizing and civilizing them. Every history of the papacy is also a history of the German Roman Empire, and vice versa. No history of the sixteenth century can be written without constant reference to the Protestant Reformation and Roman Catholic reaction. The Franciscan, Dominican, and Jesuit missions along the St. Lawrence, down the Mississippi, and in Mexico, Florida, and the islands of the Caribbean Sea, and the Puritan settlements of New England are the beginning, alike of the ecclesiastical and secular history of North America.. In modern times the tendency is more and more toward a separation of the spiritual and temporal powers; nevertheless, the Church will always be influenced by the surrounding state of civil society, and must adapt itself to the wants of the age, and progress of events; while, on the other hand, the world will always feel the moral influence, the restraining, stimulating, and sanctifying power of Christianity, which works like a leaven from within upon the ramifications of society.
III. Sources: These are mostly written, though in part unwritten. The written sources include (1) The official documents of ecclesiastical and civil authorities, such as acts of councils, creeds, liturgies, hymn‑books, church‑laws, papal bulls and
encyclicals. (2) The writings of the 1. Written personal actors in the history, and
Sources. contemporary observers and reporters,
such as the Fathers for ancient Christianity, the Schoohnen for medieval, the Reformers and their opponents for the Reformation period. (3) Inscriptions on walls, pictures, churches, tombstones, and other monuments. The history of the Hebrew religion has derived much light from modern discoveries of monumental remains in Egypt, Babylonia, and Assyria (qq.v.), the deciphering of the hieroglyphic and cuneiform inscriptions, the Moabite Stone, and the code of Hammurabi. See INaCRIP1RONa; MOAHITE STONE; and HAMMBRABI AND HIS CODE.

97	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Church History
The unwritten sources are works of Christian art, such as churches, chapels, pictures, sculptures, crosses, crucifixes, relics, and other monuments which symbolize and embody Christian ideas. The Roman catacombs, with their vast extent, their solemn darkness, their labyrinthine mystery,
their rude epitaphs and sculptures, 8. Un‑ their symbols of faith, and their relics
written of martyrdom, give a lifelike idea of
Sources‑ the Church in the period of perse‑
cution, its trials and sufferings, its faith and hope, its simple worship and devoted piety. " He who is thoroughly steeped in the imagery of the catacombs will be nearer to the thoughts of the early Church than he who has learned by heart the moat elaborate treatises of Tertullian or Origen." The basilicas are charaoteristic of the Nicene period; the Byzantine churches, of the Byzantine age and the Eastern and Russian Church; the Gothic cathedrals, of the palmy days of medieval Catholicism; the Renaissance style, of, the revival of letters. Even now, moat churches and sects can be best appreciated in the localities, and in view of the monuments and the people, where they originated, or have their center of life and action.
IV. Duty of the Historian: The historian moat master the sources in the original languages in
which they were written (Greek, Latin, 1. Investi‑ Syriac, Coptic, and the modern lan‑
eation. guagea of Europe); separating the
genuine from the spurious, the original from corruptions and interpolations, sifting the truth from falsehood, the facts from fiction and partizan judgment, comparing the accounts of all actors, friend and foe, narrator, eulogist, advocate, and antagonist, whether orthodox or heretic, whether Christian, Jew, or Gentile, aiming in all this laborious investigation at " the truth, the whole truth, sad nothing but the truth."
He must, then, reproduce the clearly ascertained facts and results of his investigation in a faithful and lifelike narrative, so as to present the objective course of history itself, as it were, in a photograph, or rather in an artistic painting; for a photograph gives a dull view of the momentary look of a person, while the portrait of the artist combines the changing moods and various aspects of his subject into a living whole. The genuine
writer of history differs as much from 2. Pres‑ the dry chronicler, of isolated facts
entation and dates as from the novelist. He
of Results. mgt represent both thoughts and
facts. He must particularize and generalize, descend into minute details and take a comprehensive bud's‑eye view of whole ages and periods. He must have a judicial mind, which deals impartially with all persons and events coming before his tribunal. He moat be free from partizan and sectarian bias, and aim at justice and truth. It is the exclusive privilege of the divine mind to view all things sub specie crternitatis, and to seethe end from the beginning. Man,,, know things only consecutively and in fragments. But history is its own best interpreter; and the farther it advances the more one is able to understand III. 7
and appreciate the past. Historians differ in gifts and vocation. Some are miners, who bring out the raw material from the sources (Flacius, Baronius, Tillemont, Gieseler, Denifle, Harnack, Pastor); others are manufacturers, who work up the material for the use of scholars (Bosauet, Mosheim, Gibbon, Dollinger, Milman, Neander). Some are wholesale merchants, some retailers. Some are bold critics, who open new avenues of thought (Ewald, Baur, Renan); others popularize the results of laborious researches for the general benefit (Hagenbach, Merle, Hale, Preasens5, Fisher).
V. Periods and Epochs: These represent the different stages in the religious development of the race. They must not be made arbitrarily, according to a mechanical scheme (such as the centurial division, introduced by Flaciua in the "Magdeburg Centuries," and followed by Mosheim), but taken from the actual stops or starting‑points (which is the real meaning of "epoch," from Gk. epech8, " to atop,y' 11 to pause") and circuits (Gk. pCridoi) of the history itself. The following are the natural divisions:
1. Sacred or Biblical History: The history of divine revelation, from the creation to the close of the apostolic age, running parallel with the Scriptures, from Genesis to Revelation. Here distinction must be made between the dispensation of the Law and the dispensation of the Gospel, or the history of the Old Covenant religion and that of the New Covenant religion.
2. Christian History or Ecclesiastical History
proper, from the beginning of the apostolic age to modern times. Subdivisions:
(a) History of Ancient Christianity, embracing the first six centuries to Gregory I. (590): Greco‑Latin, Patristic, Catholic, the common stock from which the Greek, the Roman, and the Protestant churches have sprung. Subdivisions: (1) The life of Christ and the apostolic age. (2) The age of persecution, to Constantine the Great and the Council of Nicaea (325). (3) The age of the union of Church and State, of the formulation of Christian doctrine, and ecumenical councils (to 590). Some historians carry ancient Christianity down to Charlemagne (800) and the beginning of the Holy Roman Empire and the temporal power of the papacy. In this case there is a fourth subdivision, from Gregory I. to Charlemagne (590 to 800). But Charlemagne belongs to the Middle Ages and the Germanic phase of Christianity.
('b) History of Xedieval Christianity, from the close of the sixth to the beginning of the sixteenth century, or from Gregory the Great (590), the first medieval pope, to Luther (1517). The\ Greek and Roman churches, divided since the controversy of Photius and Pope Nicholas L, pursue their independent course. The papacy receives its full development, the Holy Roman Empire is the dominant power, religious thought gradually moves toward the Reformation, and Western Europe comes more and more into prominence. Subdivisions: (1) The missionary period, Gregory I. to Gregory VII. (594‑1050); the Church spreads among the Celtic, Slavonic, and Teutonic races of Northern and Western Europe, Mohammedanism

Church History	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	98
originates and grows, the Great Schism occurs between‑the East and the West. (2) The absolute papacy, Gregory VII. to Boniface VIII. (10501294)‑the period of the Crusades, the rise of the mendicant orders, scholasticism, the rise of the universities and Gothic architecture, the development of heretical sects, and the Inquisition. (3) The decline of the papacy and signs of the Reformation, Boniface VIII. to Luther's theses (1294‑1517)the " exile " of the popes at Avignon, the papal schism, the reforming councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basel, Wyclif, Hues, Savonarola, Wessel, the German mystics, Eckhart and Tauler, the Renaissance, the discovery of printing and the New World.
(c) History of Modern Christianity, from the Reformation (1517) to the present time. Protestantism and Romaniam; founding of the various Evangelical Churches (the Lutheran, Calvinistic, Anglican, etc.); restoration and revival of Romaniam; the Council of Trent; Jesuitism; Jansenism; the Puritan conflict in England; the Westminster Assembly; the restoration of the Episcopal Church under Charles IL; the expulsion of the Stuarts; the Edict of Toleration; the organization of the dissenting denominations (Presbyterians, Independents, Baptists, Quakers); the settlement of North America.; Pietism and the Moraviaua in Germany; the rise of rationalism in Germany, deism in England; the Methodist revival in England and the Colonies; the French Revolution and spread of infidelity; organization of philanthropic agencies, the Sunday‑school, and modern missions; progress and triumph of ultramontane Romanism, culminating in the Vatican Council (1870); conflict of faith with rationalism and infidelity; growth of the churches in the United States on the basis of the voluntay principle; unioniatic movement among English‑speaking Protestants; the new criticism, based on the historic study of the Scriptures and early church history, shaking traditional views of the Old Testament and the person and mission of Christ. Subdivisions: (1) The age of the Protestant Reformation and the Roman Catholic Counterreformation or reaction (1517‑1648). (2) The age of scholastic and polemic cenfessionalism, in conflict with non‑conformity and subjective piety (1650‑1750). (3) The age of rationalism and religious revival and church union (1750‑1900).
VI. Value: The study of history enables one to understand the present, which is the fruit of the past and the germ of the future. It is the richest storehouse of wisdom and experience. It is the best commentary of Christianity. It is full of comfort and encouragement. It verifies on every page the promise of the Savior to be with his people always, and to build his Church on an indestructible rock. It exhibits his life in all its form and phases, and the triumphant march of his kingdom from land to land and generation to generation. Earthly empires, systems of philosophy, have their day, human institutions decay, all things of this world bloom and fade away, like the grass of the field; but the Christian religion has the dew of perennial youth, survives all changes, makes steady progress from age to age, overcomes all persecution from without, and corruption from
within, is now stronger and more widely spread than ever before, directs the course of civilization, hnd bears the hopes of the human race. The history of the world is governed in the interest, and for the ultimate triumph, of Christianity. The experience of the past is a sure guaranty of the future.
VII. Literature: Only works on general church history will be mentioned here.
1. Ancient Historians: Euaebius (d. 340)" Church History" from the birth of Christ to Constantine the Great, 324‑and his successors in the Greek Church, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret. The Latin Church (e.g., Ru&nus) contented itself with translations and extracts from Eueebius and his continuators. The Middle Ages produced moat valuable material for history (chronicles, papal bulls, theological treatises, etc.), but no great general church history; the Reformation first called forth the spirit of critical inquiry.
2. Historians from 1800 to 1800: Matthias Flacius (d. 1575) and other Lutheran divines of Germany wrote the " Magdeburg Centuries" (Latin, Basel, 1559‑74), covering thirteen Christian centuries in as many volumes‑the first history from a Protestant point of view, in opposition to the claims of Romaniam (see MAGDE131URG CErrrURIES). In defense of Romanism, and in refutation of Flacius, Ceesas Baronies (d. 1607) wrote in Latin " Ecclesiastical Annals," in 12 folio vole. (Rome, 1588 sqq.; new ed., by A. Theiner, Bar‑le‑Duc, 1868 sqq.), continued by Raynaldus, Spondanus, Theiner, and others‑a work of extraordinary learning and industry, but to be used with caution. Tillemont (d. 1698), in his invaluable MQmoires (16 vole., Paris, 1693‑1712), wrote the history of the first six centuries from the sources, in bibliographical style and in the spirit of the more liberal Gallican Catholicism. Gottfried Arnold (d. 1714), of the Pietistic school of Spener, in his Unparteiische Kirchen‑ and Ketzerhistorie (4 vole. folio, Frankfort, 1699 sqq.; to 1688 A.D.), advocated the interests of practical piety, and the ' claims of heretics and schismatice, and all those who suffered persecution from an intolerant hierarchy and orthodoxy. J. L. Moaheim (d. 1755) wrote his " Institutes of Ecclesiastical History " (in Latin, Helmstadt, 1755, and often since in several translations) in the spirit of a moderate Lutheran orthodoxy, with solid learning and impartiality, in clear style, after the centurial 'arrangement of Flacius, and furnished a convenient text‑book, which (in the translation of Murdock, with valuable supplements) has continued in use in England and America much longer, than in Germany. J. M. Sehroeekh's Christliche Kirchengeschichle (35 vole., Leipeic, 1768‑1803), continued by Kirc&engeschichte self der Reformation (10 vole., 1804‑12), is far more extensive and far leas readable, but invaluable for reference, and full of information from the sources. It forsakes the mechanical centurial division, and substitutes for it the periodic arrangement. H. P. K. Henke (d. 1809) followed with a thoroughly rationalistic work (6 vole., Brunswick, 1795‑1806; continued by J. S. Voter, 3 vole.. 1818‑20).

99
S. Historians from 1800 to 1900: August Neander, a converted Israelite, professor of church history in Berlin (d. 1850), marks an epoch in this branch of theological literature; and by his truly Christian, conscientious, impartial, truth‑loving, just, and liberal, and, withal, thoroughly learned and profound spirit and method, he earned the title of " Father of Church History." His Allgemeine Geschichte der ehristliehen Religion and Kirche (8 vole., Hamburg, 1825‑52), though incomplete (it stops with the Council of Basel, 1430), and somewhat diffuse and monotonous in style, is an immortal monument of genius and learning. It pays special attention to the development of Christian life and doctrine, and is edifying as well as instructive. It has been naturalized in England and America by the translation of Professor Torrey (5 vole., Boston, 1847‑52; 12th ed., 1872; new ed., with a complete index, 6 vole., 18$1), and will long be studied with profit, although in some respects superseded by more recent researches in the first three centuries. Equally valuable, though of an altogether different plan and spirit, is the Kirchengeschichte of J. K. L. Gieseler (5 vole., Bonn, 1$24‑56), translated first by Cunningham in Philadelphia (1846), then by Davidson and Hull in England, and revised and completed by H. B. Smith of New York (5 vole., 1857‑SO). The text is a meager skeleton of facts and dates; but the body of the work consists of carefully selected extracts and proof‑texts from the sources which furnish the data for an independent jtidgment. F. C. Baur's work on church history, partly published after his death (5 vole., Tiibingen, 1853 aqq.), is distinguished for philosophic grasp, critical combinations, and bold conjectures, especially in the treatment of the apostolic and poatapoatolia ages, and the ancient heresies and systems of lootrine. K. R. Hagenbach's Kirchengeachichte (7 vole., Leipsic, 1869 sqq.; revised ed., by Nipgold, 1885 sqq.) is a popular digest for the educated lay reader. Philip Schaff's History of the Christian Church (3 vole., New York, 1859 sqq.; Germ, ed. of the 1st three vole., Leipaic, 1868, revised ed. of same in English, New York, 1882‑1907) is written from the Anglo‑German and Anglo‑American standpoint. H. C. Sheldon's History of the Christian Church (5 vole., New York, 1894) is by an American Methodist. England has produced greater works in special departments than in general church history ‑‑e.g., Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Mihnau's Latin Christianity, Stanley's Jewish Church and Eastern Church, Farrar'a Life of Christ, The Apostle Paul, and Early Days of Christianity, J. B. Lightfoot's Apostolic Fathers, Trench's Lectures On the Mediceval Church, the Texts and Studies ed. J. A. Robinson. George Waddington presents the general history to the Reformation inclusive (6 vole., London, 1833 aqq. ); his work is superseded by J. C. Robertson's History of the Christian Church to the Reformation (3 vole., London, 1854 sqq.; new ed., 8 small vole., 1875). The older work of Milner (d. 1797) is written in popular style for edification. The most valuable contributions of modern English scholarship to ancient church history are found in Smith and Cheetham's
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Church History
Dictionary of Christian Antiquities (2 vole., London, 1s75‑‑so> and smith and wave's Dictionary of Christian Biography (4 vole., 1877‑87). The largest Roman Catholic church history of recent times is Abbb Rohrbacher's Histoire universelle de l'eglise catholique (25 vole., Paris, 1842 sqq.).
¢, Xannals of Church History is One or More volumes: (a) Roman Catholic: J. J. I. von D81linger (Vienna, 1836, unfinished; Eng. trawl., 4 vole., London, 18402); J. A. Mahler (posthumous, ed. P. B. Gams, 3 vole., Regensburg, 1867‑70); J. B. Alzog (10th ed., by F. X. Kraus, 2 vole., Mains, 1882; Eng. trawl., 4 vole., London, 1879‑82; 3 vole., Cincinnati, 1878); F. X. Kraus (3 parts, Trevea, 1872‑75; 4th ed., 1896); J. Hergenrbther (4th ed., ed. J. P. Kirsch, 3 vole., Freiburg, 1902 aqq.); F. X. Funk (4th ed., Paderborn, 1902); C. J. von Hefele (4th ed., by A. Knspfler, 1905). (b) Protestant: K. A. Hale (11th ed., Leipsic, 1886; a masterly miniature picture; Eng. trawl., New York, 1855); C. w. Niedner (2d ed., Berlin, 1868; very learned and very heavy); J. H. Kurtz (14th ed., by N. Bonwetach and P. Tachackert, 2 vole., Leipaic, 1906; Eng. tranal., 3 vole., New York, 1888,89); A. Ebrard
(4 vole., Erlangen, 1865‑67; polemically Reformed); J. J. Herzog (3 vole., Erlangen, 1880‑‑82; moderately Reformed); E. Chastel (French, 4 vole., Paris,
1859‑‑74; new ed., 1881 aqq.); H. Schmid (2 vole.,
Erlangen, 1881); K. A. Hase, Yorlesungen~ (4 vole.,
Leipsic, 1885 aqq.); R. Bohm (9th ed., Leipaic,
1894; Eng. transl., London, 1895); w. . Moller
(3 vole., Freiburg, 1889‑94; 2d ed., by H. von
Schubert and G. Kawerau,1897‑1902; Eng. transl.,
London, 1892‑1900); Karl Milller (2 vole., TG
bingen, 1892‑1902); F. Loofa (Halls, 1901); H. von
Schubert (2d ed., Tiibingen, 1904). By American
and English scholars are G. P. Fisher, History o f
the Christian Church (New York, 1887); J. F. Hurst,
History o f the Christian Church (2 vole., New York,
1897‑1900); A. H. Newman, Manual of Church His
tory (2 vole., Philadelphia, 1900‑03); Cheetham and
Hardwick, Church History _(4 vole., London, IM).
8. Histories of Doctrine: G. Milnscher (4 vole., Marburg, 1797‑1809); F. C. Baur, Lehrbuch der Dog»engeachichte (Tiibingen, 1847; 3d ed., 1887); idem, Vorlesungen, ed. by his son (3 vole., Leipsic, 1865‑67); A. Neander (ed. J. L. Jacobi, Berlin, 1857; Eng. tranal., 2 vole., London, 1858); K. R. Hagenbach (5th ed., Leipsic, 1867; Eng. trawl., 2 vole., Edinburgh, 1880); w. G. T. Shedd (2 vole., New York, 1863); G. Tliomasiua (2 vole., Erlangen, 1874‑76); F. D. Nitzach (Berlin, 1870; unfinished); A. Harnack, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte (3d ed., 3 vole., Freiburg, 1894‑97; Eng. trawl., ? vole., London and Boston, 1895‑1900); idem, "'''iss der Do9men9esehichte (4th ed., Freiburg, 1905; Eng, trawl., New York, 1893); F. Loofs (3d ed., Halls, 1893); R. Seeberg (2 vole., Leipsic, 1895‑98); G. P. Fisher (Interaationat Theological Library, 1896); Ii. C. Sheldon (4th ed., 2 vole., New York, 1906). See Dooaaa, DoonswTiae.
i 6. Chronological Tables: H. ti. Smith, History of the Church of Christ in Site Chronological Tables (New York, 1880); F. X. Kraus, Synchronistische Tabellen zur Kirchengeachichte (Trevea,

Church Order
Church Registers
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
1876); idem, Syttchroniatische Tabellen zur christlichen Kunstgeschichte (Freiburg, 1880); H. Weingarten, Zeittafeln and Ueberblicke zur Kirchengeachichte (6th ed., by C. F. Arnold, Leipaic, 1905). 7. Atlases: K. Heueai and H. Mulert, Atlas zur Kirchengeschichte, (i6 maps with 18 pages of introduction and index (Tiibingen, 1905). The general historical atlases of R. H. Labberton (14th ed., Boston, 1889), F. W. Putzger (24th ed., Bielefeld, 1900), and E. A. Freeman (accompanying his historical Geography of Europe, 3d ed., London, 1903) are also useful for church history.
The main activity in recent times in historical investigation and treatment has been devoted to the first three Christian centuries, including the work of Harnack, Funk, Kattenbuach, Lightfoot, Robinson, McGiffert, and many others. The Middle Ages are receiving an increasing amount of attention; names worthy of mention in this field are DSllinger, Ehrle, Denifle, Schwane, Kirsch; and Finks among Roman Catholics, and Karl Miiller, Hauck, DZirbt, Sabatier, Creighton, Stubbs, Lea, and others among Protestants.
(PHILIP ScaAlFt) D. S. SCHAFF.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For fuller information cf. Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, i. 1‑63, New York, 1882; and introductions to other general works on church history. Further, Schaff, What is Church History,* Philadelphia, 1848; W. G. T. Shedd, The Philosophy of History, Andover, 1861; H. B. Smith, The Nature and Worth of the Science of Church History, in his volume of essays, Faith and Philosophy, pp. 49‑87, New York, 1877; J. De Witt, Church History as a Science, in the Bibliotheca Sacra, 1883; E. A. Freeman, The Me" of Historical Study, London, 1888; A. C. MeGitfert, The Study of Church History, in theBibliotheca Sacra, 1893; W. Bright, The Study of History, in Waymarka o/ Church History, London, 1894; Lord Acton, The Study of History. London, 1895; A. Harnack, Daa Chriatentum and die Geach%chte, Leipeio, 1895; K. Lamprecht, What la Hiatoryf travel. from the Germ. by E. A. Andrews. New York, 1905.
CHURCH ORDER (Ger. Kirchenordnung)
The general ecclesiastical constitution of a State. The early Evangelical Church attached less importance to ecclesiastical ritual than the preReformation Church had done. As early as 1526 Luther observes in Deutsche Messe and Ordnung files Gottesdiensts : " In sum, this and all other forma are so to be used that where they give rise to a misuse they should be forthwith set aside, and a new form be made ready; since outward forma are intended to nerve to the advancement of faith and love, and not to the detriment of faith. Where this they cease to do, they are already dead and void, and are of no more value; just as when a good coin is debased sad retired on account of its abuse, and issued anew; or when everyday shoes wax old and rub, they are not longer worn, but thrown away and new ones bought. Form is an external thing, be it ever so good, and thus it may lapse into misuse; but then it is no longer an orderly form, but a disorder; so‑that no external order stands and avails at all of itself, as hitherto the papal forma are judged to have done, but all forma have their life, worth, strength, and virtues in proper use; or else they are of no avail and value whatever " (1Verke, Weimar ed., xix. 72 aqq.). According to Lutheran ecclesiastical teaching (Formula of Con‑
100
cord, IL; Solids declaratio, x.; Apology, ziv.; Melanchthon's Loci, 2d redaction in CR, xxt. 555‑556; the Saxon Visitationabuch of 1528; etc.) a uniform liturgy is requisite only in so far as it is indispensable to uphold proper doctrine and the administration of the sacraments; whereas in general the rightful appointment of the external functions of church officers and their sphere in the congregations is committed to the church governing board of the state authorities. The spontaneous development of church law, and especially the regulation of divine service, the sacraments, and discipline, as Luther ideally conceived it, proved impracticable, and gave place, though not invariably so, to definition on the part of temporal sovereigns. All these regulations, especially those of governments and cities, by means of which the canonical church forms that had previously prevailed in the land were modified in a reformatory direction, while the newly developing church system became progressively established, are called " Church Orders." Those of the sixteenth century are the most important (cf. E. Sehling, in ZKR, xxix., 1897, pp. 328 aqq., and introduction to his edition of the Church Orders, i., Leipaic, 1902).
	A Church Order usually begins with a dogmatic
part in which the agreement of the State Church
with the general Lutheran confessions is set forth
with more or less of detail (Credettda); then follow
regulations concerning liturgy, the appointment of
church officers, organization of church government,
discipline, marriage, schools, the pay of church and
school officials, the administration of church prop
erty, care of the poor, etc. (Agenda, q.v.). A sys
tematic topical arrangement is by no means al
ways adhered to. As a rule, later compilations
have made use of earlier forms, and thus the Orders
are grouped in families. 	E. Sf;131.nsa.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. C. Kbnig, BibiioWuca apendorum, Zeller‑
feld, 1728; J. J. Mower, Corpus juris euangeliorum eccle
eiaatiCi, 2 vole., Z811ichsu, 1737‑38; A. L. Richter, Die
euanpelisclun Kirchenmdnunpen dew 16. Jahrhunderta, 2 vole., Weimar, 1848.

CHURCH PATRON SAINT (patronus sanctus): The particular saint to whom a church is dedicated, and under whose protection it stands. The early Church in a great variety of ways put guardian saints in the place of the tutelary deities (dei titulares) known to the pagan religions in connection with specific objects and relationships. In primitive times church patrons were taken especially from the number of the martyrs, who were esteemed to be influential mediators with God. Then when the worship of saints had developed from the veneration of martyrs, the guardian patrons were selected from among the saints not only for separate churches, but also for countries, dioceses, orders, cloisters, cities, congregations, gilds, brotherhoods, etc. The possession of relics of a saint in a certain church often determined his choice as patron. When subsequently the custom arose of naming churches after some Christian mystery‑as, for instance, the Holy Trinity, the Holy Ghost, the Sacred Heart of Jesus‑it came about that a church might be commended to the protection of a saint without bearing his name, thus creating the distinction

101	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Church Order
		Church Registers
between a protective and a titular patron. In
accordance with its teaching as to the saints and
veneration of relics, the Roman Catholic Church
has developed a special doctrine concerning venera
tion, election, alteration, etc., of church patron
saints (cf. the decree confirmed by Urban VIII.,
Mar. 23, 1630, in L. Ferraris, Btbliothecs Prompts
caawnica, 11 vole., Venice, 1782‑94, s.v. patroni
ssncti).
	The Reformers and Protestants generally have
retained the old custom of designating churches after
saints and Christian mysteries for the purpose of
thus bestowing upon them a definite, distinguishing
name. In the choice of it, more or less deference
is shown to the preferences of the congregation and
the founder.		E. S>,arrnto.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. E. C. Walcott. 6aarod ArdwTopy, av.
	•' Patron," London, 1888.
		CHURCH REGISTERS.

Early Church Books (¢ 1). Medieval Registers (§ 2). The Beginnings of Modern Registers (§ 3). Contents and Character (¢ 4). Value for Other than Church Uses (¢ 6). Ecclesiastical and Civil Registers <§ 8). Collections of Church Registers (¢ 7).
The German word Ifirclaenlnich has different meanings. It refers to church books in the sense of " service‑books," and to parish books which recorded inventories, rents, income, ecclesiastical celebrations, and other matters referring to worship; but in modern times the word has generally taken the meaning of registers of sacramental acts, such as baptism, marriage ceremonies, confessions, and funerals.
An especially old and remarkable example of a " church book " in the older sense is that of Oldesloe, which begins before 1371 and contains a table for determining Quinquagesima Sunday, the pastoral epistle of Bertram, bishop of Lilbeck (1376), lists of pastors, also of tithes, income of pastors, donations, etc. Church books of another kind, but differing from modern church registers, are the cartularies of bishops in England, as, for instance, the Register of John Pontiesara (1282‑1304) and the Registers of John de Sandals and Rigaud de Aeserio, bishops of Winchester, 1318‑23 (London and Winchester, 1897). These books contain everything relating to the government of bishops.
The church book in the sense of a
:. Early register of ecclesiastical celebrations
Church	is important for the history of modern
Books.	registers, since in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries it was transformed into the church register of baptisms, marriages, etc., for instance in Mecklenburg and Holstein. Land‑registers and registers of taxation go back much farther in Germany into the fifteenth century, in England, France, Italy into the fourteenth or thirteenth, even earlier. Another source for the date of personal records are the church bills found in the older parish registers. A more thorough knowledge of the history, nature, sad importance of church registers began only when efforts were made to collect and test existing material. Church registers, or at least compilations
corresponding to them, are traceable to the civilized nations of the earliest times, for instance the Egyptians. The Hebrews had also their records of birth and genealogical tables. In the Roman empire registers of births may be traced back to the time of the kings; from the time of Augustus are found registers of marriages. As Christianity took its rise in the Roman empire, it accepted to a certain extent the existing elements of culture. The diptyches (see LIHER Vrrm; Saurrmoxis, CHR.IBTIAN) were adopted from the Romans, and adapted to Christian usages, the members of the congregation being registered not for military reasons or for the levying of taxes, but se citizens of the kingdom of God. Besides the dates of birth, there were also recorded dates of marriage and of death. These " sacred books and tablets " were important preeminently from a historical standpoint, as they contained the names of bishops, martyrs, and benefactors.
The diptyches did not develop into church registers of the modern kind, nor were they of any importance for the modern Church, owing chiefly to the degeneration of culture after the destruction of the Roman empire, and to a perverted tendency of the medieval Church. Instead of the diptyches of the deceased and living,
a. Medieval churches and monasteries adopted
	Registers.	necrologies and morilogiea, in which
		were entered especially the names of
donors and benefactors. They were usually called
" books of life " (see LIBER Vim.>v). Besides
these, there were in existence church books in
the older sense, that is, registers of taxes, inven
tories, etc. On account of the lack of personal
registers, princes and lords had their own family
books, while the age of other people had to be
determined, even as late as the sixteenth century,
by the testimony of living persons. At the close
of the Middle Ages the census in the modern
sense was instituted in flourishing cities like Augs
burg and Breslau.
	The Renaissance had a wholesome effect upon
the development of church registers, in France and
Italy as early as the beginning of the fourteenth
century. A register of baptisms from Cabriares
near Vaucluse dates from 1308, fragments of a
register of marriages and deaths in Middle France
from 1335 and 1336. In Italy the use of such
registers may be traced to the fourteenth century.
In Spain the famous cardinal Ximenez in 1497 at
the Synod of Toledo ordered the introduction of
baptismal and matrimonial registers; soon after
ward similar orders were issued in Portugal. In
		Switzerland and Germany church
3. The Be‑ registers go back to the time of the ginnings of Reformation. Earlier attempts had
Modern	not been successful. The first bap‑
	Registers.	tismal register in Zurich dates from
		1525, the register of marriages in
Strasburg from the same time. Church registers
in Constance began in 1531, and in Frankfort,
Thuringia, Saxony, and Bohemia about the same
time. In the imperial city of Nuremberg they
existed from 1524, in Silesia from 1534, under the
influence of the Silesian Reformer Hem; the other

Church 8e~ School iaters
Church		THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
	as
territories followed soon afterward, in the early sixties of the sixteenth century. The number of these registers, since the enormous losses resulting from the Thirty Years' War, especially in Electoral Saxony, can be estimated only approximately. There is reliable information of the existence of more than 150 registers dated 1522‑83. The earlier introduction of church registers in Italy and France moat be ascribed to the independent influence of the classical renaissance, which became of i importance in Germany only after its union with the religious efforts of Luther. In the Netherlands the Reformation was for a long time suppressed and its confessors were exiled, but a synod in 1574 changed these conditions, and church . registers were soon generally introduced; but there are extant fragments of earlier date. From Germany the use of church registers penetrated the Scandinavian kingdoms at a comparatively late date. In Denmark they were introduced by royal order in 1646, in Norway in 1685, in Sweden in 1686. As in Germany, so in England, the general introduction of church registers followed separation from the Papal Church, by order of King Henry VIII. in 1538. In spite of this unevsngelical origin, the introduction of church registers in England was accompanied by immediate success. There have been preserved not less than 812 church registers from the year 1538, 1,822 from 1528 to 1558, and 2,448 from 1558 to 1600. From 1551 date the first evidences of church registers in Scotland; in Ireland their general introduction took place only in the nineteenth century. In transoceanic countries personal registers were used from settlement there by the civilized peoples of Europe. The earliest church register is that of the Dutch in Reciiff, Brazil, 1633. The East India House in London preserves church registers from Bombay from 1703, from Bengal dated 1713, from Madras dated 1743. Of Roman Catholic church registers there are only sporadic cases in Germany at the time of the Reformation. Their general introduction followed the decrees of the Council of Trent in 1563. These decrees referred only to registers of baptisms and marriages; records of funerals were introduced in 1614 by the Rituals Romanum. During the Thirty Years' War church registers were sometimes taken away from the Evangelicals and continued by the Catholics, so that the supposed antiquity of some Catholic registers has no basis in fact.
The church registers did not consist solely of lists of baptisms, marriages, and funerals; a church register at Lehrbaeh in Hesse contains not less than twelve columns. The registers, especially those of the seventeenth century, are frequently a rich source for the history of church discipline. The registers of the catechumens and con‑
4. Contents firmed form a part of the church record and which is very important for the history Character. of Christian worship. They may be traced back to the first period of the Reformation. The moat curious church records are found among the so‑called family books. There the members of the congregations are arranged alphabetically according to families, and their resi‑
dences, with the religious acts performed on them, are given. In this way there originated chronicles of whole villages; so, for instance, the village of Dankerode in the Hartz mountains. Another noteworthy class is found in the so‑called ministerial books which were introduced after 1686 in Sweden. They consist of six different parts: Register (1) of births and baptisms; (2) of deaths and funerals; (3) of marriages; (4) of catechetical examinations, at home; (5) of newly admitted members; (6) of members who had moved to other parishes. The most interesting part is the fourth, which contained records of religious instruction, of examinations, and of attendance at the Lord's Supper, and notes on conduct and discipline before and after marriage.
After the church registers had become known and been generally introduced in all civilized states of Europe, about the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth century, their value and importance began to be appreciated from other points of view, and they were used as sociological sources, first in England after the seventeenth century. After Natural and Political Annotations upon the Bills of Mortality, by John Graunt (London, 1666 and 1676), there followed a rich literature of similar character in England, France, Germany, Holland, Italy, and Sweden. It is true, many of these productions were merely sociological, but some of them included the theological aide, as, for instance, William Derham'a Physical Theology (London, 1713). This work formed the model for Die gbttliehe Ordnung in den g. Value for Veranderungen des menschlichen GeOther than schlechts, by Johann Peter Siisamilch
Church (1741, 3 vole., 1776), and Mohaen, a
	Uses.	physician, published in his work on
		vaccination for the first time a history
of church registers of baptisms, and deaths. Thus,
a powerful influence was exerted upon them by the
rapid growth of sociology and statistics, and the
attention of large circles was called to them. After
the end of the seventeenth century extracts from
church registers were ordered to be made by the
pastors and superintendents of Brandenburg
Prusaia and sent to the government offices in
Berlin for purposes of vital statistics. The keeping
of church registers became dependent upon the
orders of civil authorities; this led to their general
adoption and to stricter enforcement of rules, but
at the same time the registers lost much of their
churchly character as they were used chiefly in
court and for purposes of taxation and for military
purposes. In conformity with the general law of
Prussia, every pastor had to make one copy of his
church register and send it to the local court.
Electoral Saxony and Austria issued similar orders.
In the course of time personal records were sep
arated altogether from the Church and entrusted to
the municipal authorities, civil lists taking the
place of church registers. This was due in France
in part to the Revolution, in part to the peculiar
development of the royal authority. King Francis
I. issued as early as 1539 an order making church
registers subject to the supervision of the munic
ipal courts. Under Louis XIV. the keeping of

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Church Reffintera
Church and School
church registers was altogether due to himself and
the secular government, according to a decree of
		1667. Further decrees were issued in
6. Ecclesi‑ France in 1736 and 1792. They were
astical and received into the civil code of Napo
	Civil loon, and with the Napoleonic con
Registeis. quests were carried over to Belgium
		in 1796, then to Holland and to several
states of Germany. In Germany, the entire aep
aration of civil affairs from connection with the
Church was brought about especially by the revo
lutionary movement of 1848. The Prussian con
stitution of 1850 provided for the introduction of
provisions like those of the French in regard to
records of persons. This provision was made a
law in Prussia in 1874; accordingly, special civil
registry‑offices were introduced, and from that time
church registers lost their importance in public
affairs. In 1875 these same decisions were applied
to the whole German empire. Clergymen are not
eligible as registry officers. In 1895 civil registers
were introduced also in AustriarHungary. But
with the enactment of these laws church registers
did not disappear in Germany; nn the contrary,
they regained their original significance and were
given back to the Church. In place of the secular
authorities, the ecclesiastical leaders, in Prussia
the members of the consistories and of the Evan
gelical Superior Church Council, assumed the super
vision of the church registers. The kingdom of
God and the civil order of the State are two different
spheres with their own special aims and purposes.
Registration of baptisms and of admission into the
congregation, of marriages and funerals, of attend
ance at confessions and the Lord's Supper, and of
spiritual discipline are facts for the church regis
ters, while data concerning physical births and
deaths, matrimony from the civil point of view, to
gether with all facts concerning the physical and nat
ural being of man, area matter of the civil registry.
	In modern times collections of church registers
have been undertaken; there is a genealogico
statistical center in Denmark, in the academy of
Sweden, and in state archives in Mecklenburg and
Oldenburg. But in case of such collections dupli
cate copies should always be made, because it is
		essential that at least one copy of the
7. Collec‑ church register remain with the local
	tions of church. The collections should be
	Church under the supervision of church author
Registers. ities and be deposited in church ar
		chives, not in state archives or other
secular institutions. As a result of the French
Revolution and subsequent wars, the church rec
ords of Alsace‑Lorraine, the Netherlands, the Rhine
Palatinate, the Lower Rhine, and the duchy of
Berg are in state archives or in superior district
courts. In Prussia and German Austria‑Hungary
the church registers were left with the churches,
in spite of the introduction of civil registry‑offices.
Recently attempts have been made in Germany,
Denmark, Sweden, Austria, England, and Belgium
to consolidate the different collections of church
registers for statistical purposes. In Belgium a
general index for all old church registers was pre
pared in 1865. In Austria a statistical central
commission was instituted in 1882 for a similar purpose. In England au enormous amount 'of material has been collected in the Record Office, on the basis of the Parish Register Act of 1882.
(E. JACOBS.)
B113WOGRAPHY: J. C. W. Auguati, Handbuch der chriatlichen
	Archdolopie, iii. 890‑730, Leipaic, 1837; J. 8. Burn, Riot.
	of Parish Registers, also of the Registers of Scotland, Ire
	land . . . London, 1882; J. Jastrow, Die Vnlkezahf
	deutacher Stddte, Berlin, 1878; R. E. C. Waters, Pariah
Registers in England, London, 1883; A. Trusen, Daa
preuaeiachs Kirchererecht sin Berrichs der evanpeliachen
Landeskirche, Berlin, 1894; E. Friedberg, Lehrhurh des
eoanpeliachen and katholiechen Kirchenrec7Ua, Leipeie,
1895; Episcopal Registers of the Diocese of Winchester,
London, 1897; J. Gmelin, in Deutsche, lieachiehtabdltler, i
(1900), 55‑170; Krieg, in Korreapondenablatt des (;eaa»u.
roereina der deutschen lleachichb‑ and Alterlunuvereine,
1907, no. 25, pp. 192‑195.

CHURCH AND SCHOOL.
Public Schools not Originally Maintained by the Church (§ 1).
Influence of the Reformation (§ 2).
Pietism (§ 3).
Compulsory Education (§ 4).
Religion and Coercion Exclusive (§ 5).
Compulsory Religious Instruction not Desirable ($ 6).
Position and Attitude of Teachers (f 7).
Denominational and Undenominational Schools 0 8).
Clerical Control of Schools (§ 9).
The question of the relation of Church and School did not become a burning one until after the Reformation, when the modern State began to recognize its duty to provide public elementary schools for its subjects and make school‑attendance obligatory. Since compulsory attendance was the necessary condition for the success of public elementary schools, the Church, from its very nature prevented from employing coercion, could not compete with the State in this field. It was necessary, therefore, for Church and State to come to an understanding, particularly as the latter never organized its achoolsystem de novo, but took over and developed the educational organization of the Church.
The proposition that the School is thedaughter of the Church is not confirmed by the history of the early Church. Religious education was considered the business of the family and the community; and education in any other sense was a private
matter. During the Middle Ages :. Public the Church maintained schools for Schools not future clerics and a few noblemen, and
Originally prepared children for confirmation. Maintained It was Charlemagne who gave the first by the great impetus to popular education.
Church. Even at the close of the Middle Ages
the writing‑schools in Germany were maintained either by the cities or by private individuals, not by the Church.
With the Reformation, the Church assumes a different attitude toward popular education. Luther insists on the establishment of schools; and Me‑
lanchthon declares that the union of s. Influence Church and School is necessary. Popof the Ref‑ ular education is demanded for relig‑
ormation. ions reasons; but the right to provide
for the same is recognized as belonging to the State. The existing elementary schools in the towns were reorganized; and the introduction

Church and School	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	104
Church and State
of religious instruction gave them the character of
public schools. Similar schools were founded in
the country villages. All these schools were quite
elementary in character, religion, reading, and
writing forming practically the only subjects of
instruction; but for more than two centuries they
offered the only educational opportunity to the
great majority of the population.
Even such schools could exist only under favor
able circumstances. Before the Thirty Years' War
there were not many of them left; and after the war,
when the ideas of Ratke and Comeniua began to be
effective, the tendency was to try something new,
		rather than to reestablish the old
	3. Pietism. system. In this movement the Piet
		ista took the lead. The public school,
as revived by them in the interest of religious edu
cation, was introduced by various German states,
but first by Prussia in 1763. The State recognized
the service of the Church, and even entrusted the
	supervision of these schools to the clergy, who
were regarded as officials of the State. The example
		of Prussia was followed by Bavaria
	.y. Compel‑ (1802), Denmark (1814), Austria
	sory Edu‑ (1869), and France (1882), with the
	cation.	enforcement of school‑attendance.
		Holland, England, and the United
	States have attained all that is necessary by leas
incisive measures. In Italy and Spain education is
	compulsory only from the sixth to the ninth year,
	and wretched conditions prevail even to‑day in the
	Roman Catholic states of South America. In
	Russia attendance at an elementary school shortens
	the period of military service.
	Ever since the State took charge of elementary
	education and made it compulsory there has beet
a movement in progress toward the emancipation of
	the schools from the clergy; and for over a hun
	dred years three questions have been in dispute:
	(1) Is compulsory school‑attendance consistent
	with religious instruction? (2) Ought the school
to be denominational or undenominational? (3)
	Does the control of the school belong to the
	clergy or to trained achoolmen?
In principle, religion and coercion exclude each
	other. This i's a matter about which Protestantism
	is now becoming more sensitive, and it is possible
	that the present protest against compulsory religious
	instruction may develop into a general protest against
	all enforced culture. Of course, no similar protest
	is heard from Rome. The Roman Church, accus
	tomed to the maxim "compgl them to come in," is
		striving for power, and, for this reason,
	5. Religion seeks control of the schools. It is
	sad Coer‑ willing for the State to enforce .educa
tion Ex‑ tion, so long as the Church is benefited
	elusive.	thereby. It has no feeling for the
		inner conflict between compulsory
education and freedom of conscience, regarding
	coercion as necessary in view of present social and
	religious conditions. So much the stronger, how
ever, is this feeling in Protestantism. To be sure,
in the training of children a certain amount of
coercion is necessary, since the pathway of educa
tion leads through obedience to freedom. Par
	ticularly in religious instruction, though, is it
desirable to keep the end in view and gradually diminish coercion as freedom is approached. The custom of the early Church to leave religious instruction to the family justified itself. Even if it is evident that the religious instruction of the family needs to be supplemented, still it is clear that the school can not replace the family, since the teacher always represents the law, while religion requires freedom. There have been many school‑teachers of large religious nature who have touched the hearts and consciences of their pupils without employing coercion; but still the fact remains that the prevalence of religion is not due to the religious instruction given in the public schools.
As regards the parents, even in modern states they can be compelled to send their children to schools where religious instruction is given. This is justified on the ground that the children are minors; and that whatever arbitrary control over the children the parents may lose is more than made up for by the mental growth of the children. But while the State can enforce education, the Church is prevented from doing this and moat, therefore, protest when its services are throat upon those who do not want them. An effort has been made to conceal the nature of this 6. Compel‑ religious coercion by insisting that sory Re‑ instruction in the Bible has to do with ligious In‑ historical information only. While
struction such an argument might be applied not Desir‑ to mere church history, it is inappliable. cable here. It involves a misunderstanding of the moat important part of the subject. Two methods have been employed to escape this difficulty. Either religious instruction has been banished from the school entirely; or an effort has been made to modify it to meet the needs of dissenters, which is impossible if they are atheists. If the Church is to exercise educational activity, provision must be made for it. For instance, one whole school‑day may be set apart each week for the instruction .of youth in religious subjects, as is the case in France. Also in Italy, Holland, England, and some states of the United States the state schools are non‑religious in principle. No cogent argument can be brought against such a system, for religious instruction is certainly not the business of the State. After all, the interests of Christianity are furthered by it. By assuming the responsibility of instruction in the usual school branches, the State makes it possible for the Church to concentrate its efforts in the religious field. It is not so much the mere separation of Church and State that seems objectionable as the severing of an old historical union that has richly justified its existence by its works.
This solution of the old problem would relieve the teacher of the embarrassment of teaching things that are possibly not an expression 7. Position of his own inmost convictions‑‑a and Atti‑ difficulty often experienced by minis‑
tude of tern. The teacher should either be alTeachers. lowed to teach religious subjects in his own way, or else be relieved of the duty entirely. It must be added, however, that this separation of Church and State, in the manner in

108	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Church and School
		Church sad state
which it has been accomplished in Holland, France,
England, and the United States, has aroused oppo
sition in the ranks of the teachers. Conscious of
their high calling as educators, rather than as mere
instructors, they are unwilling to see religion ban
ished from the schools, however much they may be
opposed to the domination of the schools by the
Church.
	Through modern emigration the various religious
sects have been mixed together, especially in the
cities. Practical considerations make it necessary
				that the children of a community where
8. Denomi‑ a number of confessions are repre
	national	sented shall all attend one school; and
and Unde‑ thus originated the undenominational
	nomina‑	school. This arrangement gives chil
		tional	dren of a confession that is in the
	Schools.	minority the advantage of a larger
				and better equipped school than they
could attend otherwise. Further, such schools
are favored by the spirit of tolerance and liber
alism now prevailing in religious matters, and
by the non‑religious character of the modern State.
Against undenominationalism it is urged that the
public school, as an educational institution, can
least of all dispense with religious instruction, which
forma the basis of all instruction; that religion,
which carries with it the literary and historical
studies, can not be separated from all other sub
jects and made an independent study; that the
personality of the teacher will of necessity make
such schools either Protestant or Catholic; and
that spies of the opposite confession will then under
mine the confidence between the children and the
teacher. The force of these objections can not be
denied. It is clear that a school that educates
moat have harmony among its pupils; but in this
view denominationalism in the school becomes a
postulate of pedagogy, not of the Church. There
is no question as to the importance of the Church
for education. The question is whether practical
theology or pedagogy is the better qualified to
dictate the method to be employed in using the
educative material contributed by the Church. It
is plain that theology needs pedagogy as badly as
pedagogy needs theology.
	Among the reasons that have decided teachers
against the denominational school one remains to
be mentioned: the usual [in Germany], but not
				necessary, supervision by the clergy.
g. Clerical Reasons alleged in favor of clerical
	Control	control are: the splendid pedagogical
			of	services rendered by the Church
	Schools.	through such men as Comenius,
				Francke, Niemeyer, and Schleier
macher; the fine background of religious life
which the clergy bring to the school, and their
unselfishness in the work; the confidence expressed
in the clergy by the State in turning over to them
the public schools after the Reformation; and, not
least, the high culture of the clergy. Against such
control it is argued that the public school is only
following the higher institutions of learning in
emancipating itself from clerical guardianship;
that the uneducated teachers of the clerical regime
have been replaced with teachers trained scien‑
tifically in the theory sad practise of pedagogy; that the clergy have not kept abreast of the growing science bf education, and are, therefore, unprepared for the work; that this work is prejudicial to their high calling as ministers of the Gospel; and, finally, that clerical control benefits chiefly the ultramontanes. The clergy themselves are becoming less prejudiced in the matter and are beginning to admit the force of these arguments; and, on the other hand, their more prudent opponents recognize that it is the duty of the Church, not of the State, to keep a lookout over the religious and moral welfare of the public schools.
C. GEYER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the theory of education in relation to Church and State consult: C. Diekmann, Der bibliecha
tachichtaunterrscht in der Vdkeechule, Leipeie 1878; ~. A. L. Baur, GrundzUpe der Eraiehunpalehre, Giessen, 1887; R. H. Quick, Remarks About Moral and Religious Education, in his Essays, London, 1887; G. A. Coe, Education in Religion and Morale, New York, 1884.
On the history of education consult: K. Schmidt, Geachichte der Pddagogik, KSthen, 1889; w. C. Grasby, Teaching in Three Continents, London, 1891; J. Payne, History of Education, ib. 1892; J. Bbhm, Geachichte der Pr<dagopdk, Nuremberg, 1893; $. G. Williams, History o/ Modern Education . . . from the Revival of Learning to the Present, Syracuse, 1896; T. Davidson, History of Education, New York, 1900; E. G. Dexter, History of Education in the U. S., New York, 1904.
On the question of religious instruction in various countries consult in Germany: E. $achsse, Du Lehre von der kirchlichen Erziehung, Berlin, 1897; J. Beyhl, Die Befreiung der Volkaeehullehrer aua der peiatluhen Herracha/t, Berlin, 1903; F. Naumann, Der Street der Konfeasionen um die Schuk, Berlin, 1904. In France: L. Duchesne, Autonomies ecclEaiaatiquea. ‑0glisea e4par&a, Paris, 1905. In England: Of the Education Acts, 1870‑91, there are discussions by A. E. $teinthal, London, 1891; C. w. A. Brooke, ib. 1897. Of those from 1870 to 1902, by Sir H. Owen, and by w. A. Casson and G. C. Whiteley, both London, 1903. On the Act of 1902 consult: C. E. Benham, H. H. Hanson, H. Mothersole, E. C. Rawlings, all London, 1903; also: w. H. Carnegie, Church and the Schools; Churchman's View of the Education Controversy, ib. 1905. In the U. $.: $. T. Spear, Religion and the State, New York, 1878; J. Conway, Respective Rights and Duties of Family, State and Church in Regard to Education, ib. 1890; J. H. Crocker, Religious Freedom in American Education, Boston, 1903.

CHURCH AND STATE.

I. General Treatment. Scope of Subject (¢ 1). Ancient Rome and the Eastern Empire (¢ 2). Rise of Papal Temporal Power (¢ 3). Subordination of Church to state (¢ 4). The Modern State (¢ 5). Relations with Rome (¢ 8). The Evangelical State Church (¢ 7). Tendency toward Separation (¢ 8). Decadence of Protestantism in Germany (¢ 9). Self‑Government for Church the Remedy (§ 10).
II. The United States. Philosophical Background (¢ I). Colonial Period (¢ 2). Conditions after the Revolution (¢ 3). Special Legislation (¢ 4).

I. General Treatment: Since the Christian community presents itself outwardly as a part of the social order, for the regulation of which the State exists, the question arises, What shall be the relation between Church and State ? From the point of view of the different confessions this quesstion might be variously answered. However,

Church and State	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	108
disregarding minor distinctions, three answers are possible: The State may rule the Church and
administer ecclesiastical affairs for its z. Scope of own purposes; the Church may rule
Subject. the State and use the temporal
authority to further the interests of the Church; or Church and State may be completely separated, each confining itself to its own sphere, and neither exercising any authority over the other. As a matter of history, however, Church and State have seldom been completely independent of each other, the one . occupying itself solely with things spiritual, the other restricting itself to things temporal. The Roman Catholic Church still insists on having a voice in the control of temporal affairs, and the Protestant states of Europe usually claim a considerable share in ecclesiastical affairs. The difficulty of coordinating the ecclesiastical and the political authority as two distinct systems, or, indeed, of effecting any great innovation where the Church is concerned, is to be accounted for on historical grounds. The fundamental legal ordinances involved here are not made by act of will, but are passed along from one period to the neat, from one community to another. Laws and rights are inherited; and in no field is this so true as in that where religion is concerned. Even where new forces have effected the most complete changes, the effort is made to prove that each form links itself back on the old. The time of King Josiah, which saw the reconstruction of the Israslitic tradition in the spirit of the new law; the Pseudo‑Isidor, who represents the asserted increase in the power of the hierarchy as an old right; even the Reformation itself, which claimed so frequently to restore the primitive Church‑ill bear witness to the statement.
From the very beginning the relation between religious worship and temporal authority was a
most intimate one. The chief of
2. Ancient the tribe, as likewise the king of the
Rome and first community that could be called
the Eastern a state, united in himself the functions Empire. of judge, military leader, and priest.
He represented his people in their relations toward one another, toward their enemies, and toward God. Religion was an affair of the State. In the later development the ruler might transfer his priestly duties to a special class of priests, but the close relation between religion and rule remained. At the advent of Christianity into the world's history the Roman emperor, as pontifex Maximus, stood at the head of the religious system in the Roman Empire. It was not his object, however, to suppress the foreign gods worshiped in Roman possessions in the interest of the Roman deities whose high priest he was. In so far as these foreign gods had their states over which they ruled, ell, including Yahweh, were regarded juristically as free and equal, though Yahweh was deposed after the destruction of Jerusalem. The God of Christianity, on the other hand, having no visible kingdom, was not a deity in the Roman sense of the word. Hence the persecution of the Christians as atheists. With the advent of the Christian emperor the organization of the Church and its relation to
the State was definitely determined for centuries
to come. The position of pond fex Maximus which
Constantine united with his arbitrary authority
had not been depreciated by the decay of the old
Roman f: ith. He was the absolute head of the
Church. Even after the title of pontifex maximus
had been dropped, toward the end of the fourth
century, the office remained. The designation
episcopua uxiversalis is only a Christian translation
of the heathen expression. To be sure, the em
peror no longer performed the functions of a priest,
but he united in himself all ecclesiastical authority.
He appointed and disciplined the priests and exer
cised a protectorate over the legea regiee, those
duties toward God which were required of every
one. Laws and rights were created by the dictum
of the emperor. Thus the Church became, an
institution of the State, and at the same time a com
pulsory institution. The very persecution which,
in the name of religion, had formerly been directed
against Christianity was now employed to uproot
heathenism, as well as to put down dissent within
the Church. To be a citizen of the empire one had
to be an orthodox Christian. This system, which
was moat consistently developed in the Eastern
Empire, after its separation from Rome, became
the heritage of the Russian autocracy. Though
Russia has had its Holy Synod since the time of
Peter the Great, the Czar remains the only source
of authority in the Church, and uses the ecclesias
tical organization to strengthen the State. Con
sequently withdrawal from the state church is not
permitted.
The second characteristic relation of Church to State was developed in the Western Empire.
While the temporal power in the West 3. Rise of gradually waned after the division of Papal Tem‑ the empire, the ecclesiastical organizaporal Power. Lion remained intact; and, when the
ancient State disappeared, the pope virtually succeeded the emperor as pontifex mazimus and appropriated as much temporal authority as was consistent with his priestly character. This transition of authority may be said to have begun in the year 445, when Valentinian III. promulgated a law requiring obedience to the ordinances of the pope. Thus the religious dream of a civitas dei was fused with the Roman tradition of an imperium mundi. Over against this papal State stood the Germanic tribes. Their conversion had been accomplished without difficulty, but for
~i	this very reason it had not been profound. Their indifference toward the Roman Church is explained by their relation to Arianism. Goths, Burgundians, and Vandals had their own churches, which were separate from those of the provincials. The bishops were representatives of the king, and the subjected Roman provincials were treated just as the Phanariota are treated by the Turks. Even the conversion of the Franks did not greatly improve the position of the Roman Church. The Frankish king suffered no foreign interference in ecclesiastical affairs, not even from the pope himself. Here material interests take precedence, and the Church assumes importance chiefly as a large property‑holder. In fact, it was the Franks

107	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Church and State
who discovered the process of secularization. With the restoration of the Western Empire by Charlemagne Byzantine ideas came into play. The Roman idea of a papal imperium mundi was apparently dormant. When, therefore, Germany became the center of gravity of European history it was quite natural that the bishops should be advanced to the position of temporal princes, in the interest of the State. Otto the Great completed this innovation by taking under his protection the spiritual head of these princes, the pope himself. Thus the functions of the bishop were largely secularized. Investiture with property constituted his title, and his chief duty was to aid in carrying on the business of the empire. Without any premonition of the danger ahead of them, the Germanic people entered upon this fatal course.
It remained for Gregory VII. to lift the veil and show the Church in its character of a ruling power. With him begins the period of the so‑called spiritual universal state, which lasted for several centuries. Just as formerly the State had ruled the Church, so now the Church, to a large extent, ruled the State. The officials of the Church were brought under the authority of Rome, and such public interests as education, charity, care of the sick, and even legislation and the administration of justice, were made affairs of the Church. As against the powerful Roman hierarchy the State, crude, undeveloped, and split by dissensions, was practically helpless. It should be added, however, that not infrequently the State rebelled against having to take a subordinate position; and toward the close of this period it developed such legal institutions as placetum regium and reeursus ab abuse to curtail ecclesiastical authority. In view of this fact, the spiritual universal state must be regarded as theory, rather than 'reality, and the relation of Church to State during this period as one of legal coordination, but with the preponderance of competency on the aide of the Church.
The Renaissance brought a revival of the ancient idea of the State, and with this a transformation of the relation of Church to State. The
4. Subor‑ new state made it its chief function to dination of advance the welfare, or happiness, of Church to its subjects, but, since preparation for
	State.	eternity was seen to be essential to
		human welfare, the State now ex
tended its activities into the ecclesiastical field.
In short, to a greater or less extent, it took over
the organization of the Church and assumed re
sponsibility for the intellectual and spiritual well
being of the people. The famous sentence Dux
Cliviw est papa in suis terris, the reform‑program
of the Bavarian grand dukes, of George of Saxony,
of Louis XIV., of Joseph IL, and finally the Con
stitution civile du clergy of 1790‑all these give
proof of the characteristic relation between Church
and State which had its origin in the Renaissance.
It was the fate of the Reformation to fall in the
midst of this political development. It was neces
sary that the new Christian community should have
an outward organization; but whence was this to
come? Considered juristically, that was a grave
question. For Luther, however, it presented no
difficulties. It was sufficient that means of grace be provided, and immaterial how this might be accomplished. In the end, it was found that the simplest arrangement was to entrust the care of the Church to the existing authorities. Thus arose the German state churches, as the mature product of the state of the sixteenth century. The Reformation did not recognize the necessity for an ecclesiastical organization distinct from that of the State. The Church was a homogeneous mass, and each temporal prince fostered that particular section which was conterminous with his temporal domain. With the appearance of dissent and the rise of other confessions, the inadequacy of this simple arrangement‑ became manifest. The solution of the difficulty was offered by the theory of natural right, which was expounded by Hobbes (q.v.) and Rousseau. This is the view that the State is based upon an original agreement among the people, who delegate to the sovereign whatever authority he has. Every church, just as the State, is a community; but the State remains the supreme community, in which these other communities take their place. Thus the State again becomes secular in character. To be sure, the temporal prince retains his authority over the churches. This he no longer claims on Christian grounds, but , by right of jus territoriale. In this way the territorial system was developed (see TERRITOFLIALIBM). It should not be forgotten that this was the form in which tolerance first asserted itself. The next step in the development was Collegialism (q.v.), which is only a palliated territorialiam. The ruling prince remains the highest authority in the Church. The only result was that now a sharper distinction was drawn between jura circa sacra, rights which are naturally incident to the position of a sovereign, and jury in sacra, rights which are deduced from the Church. The fact that these rights are exercised through two sets of officials is merely incidental, being due to considerations of convenience. Prussia affords the classic example of this kind of relation between Church and State.
Whatever may be characteristic of the present position of the Church in its relations to the State has not been brought about by any
g. The essential change in the Church, but by
Modern the wonderful development of the
	State.	modern State and the rapid growth
		of constitutional government. The
State, as the political organization, holds the su
preme authority, which can not be modified or
limited, except by the State itself. Such a self
limitation, however, is the striking characteristic
of the modern constitutional State. The people
have been given a voice in the government. In
sharp contrast to the police‑state, which absorbed
everything, has been the fostering care exercised
by the government over private organizations for
the conduct of affairs of public interest. This new
position taken by the State has been particularly
favorable to the manifestations of religious life.
Religious liberty is now generally secured to all by
state constitutions. At the head of the various
societies, or organizations, which now enjoy a cer‑

Church and State
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
tain independence under the law, stand those great religious communities called churches. Legally they occupy a very high position; ' and the reason for this is clear. Their functions are not merely of a private nature; from time immemorial the interests of the Church have been regarded as national and ethically equal with the affairs of the State itself. In a word, religion is a matter of public interest, and is recognized as such by the State. To be sure, the Church is subject to the State; otherwise the sovereignty of the State would be a fiction. On the other hand, the modern German state waives its right to take the Church so closely under its control as did the old policestate. In fact, the constitutional state regards it as essential that the independence of the Church be maintained. This principle has been often proclaimed, e.g., in the Frankfort Grundrechte and in the Prussian Constitution. Thus the Church is quite properly given the position of a separate community, existing under the State and working for the public weal. The legal terminology employed to characterize this relation of Church to State recognizes self‑government as the essential feature. The French law, which has.beeome typical, speaks of tulles reeonnus, not as a juristic person, but as a part of the public authority, and calls the local organizations dablisaements publiquea, analogous to political communities. Hence the protection and aid rendered to the Church by the civil government.
While theoretically the State may subordinate the Church completely to itself, in practise it does not do it. The degree of authority 6. Relations exercised varies, as does also the with Rome. degree of independence enjoyed by the Church. In view of the fundamental conception of the State, the Roman Catholic Church is given too much latitude in Germany and the Protestant Church too little. In reality, the Roman Catholic Church is not simply a selfgoverning state church, holding itself subject to the State. It remains that same remarkable worldpower which in the Middle Ages chased with the State the functions of government. If the power of Rome has been greatly diminished in the modern State, this has been accomplished only by force. In principle, the Roman Church has yielded nothing. The manner in which the present organization of the Roman Catholic Church in Germany came into being is characteristic. The German states entered into agreements with the Holy See just as they world make treaties among themselves regarding secular things (see CONCORDATS AND DELIMITIN(f Bums). France led the way in the Napoleonic Concordat. The necessity of restoring the lost equilibrium at once manifested itself, and, too, in a curious manner. All the states, on their own initiative, proceeded to supplement the treaty with Rome by promulgating laws to give them a certain supervision over the Roman Catholic Church. Here the articles organiquea furnished the model. Of course, such restrictions have never been recognized by the pope; and the fact that they are directed against him only serves to emphasize his position as a temporal ruler. In following such a cousae, the State puts itself in the
position it occupied during the Middle Ages, when it sought to assert its authority against Rome by means of the now obsolete placetum regium, recursus ab abuau, nominatio regia, and by the exclusion of personae minus grate (see PreoET; NoarnseTto RE(#IA). That the State is unable to substitute for these ancient institutions something more in accord with present political ideals and conditions can be due only to a lack of confidence in its own sovereignty. The inner contradiction between the theory and practise of the State in the matter of exercising its authority toward the Roman Catholic Church is strikingly shown in, cases where the pope is actually invoked to curb some Romanist official who is attacking state institutions. Thus, through the force of tradition, the modern German state has been placed in this false and extremely objectionable attitude toward Rome.
Quite different in this regard is the position of the Evangelical Church. In contrast to the Roman
Catholic Church, which claims such a y. The large interest in the control of external Evangelical affairs, the Protestant body, whose
	State	interests are spiritual rather than
Church. temporal, would be satisfied to occupy
the modest position of a self‑governing body within, the State. As a matter of fact, however, the Evangelical Church in Germany has never attained to that measure of freedom and independence which the constitutional state recognizes to be its right. Despite all the assurances on the side of the government, the old territorial system, the administration of church affairs by the State, continues to thrive. It is futile to assert that it is not the State, but the sovereign in person, who rules the Church; for, in public affairs, the person of the ruler can not be separated from the State. In Germany it seems to be taken as a matter of course that the Evangelical Church ought to be, and must be, ruled by the State. Of course, the Church enjoys a certain academic freedom; also the provision is maintained that the State shall exercise its rule here through separate authorities. It was a further step in this direction when the preselit synodal system was introduced in the last century. The local parishes have their administrative boards, and send their representatives, clergy and laymen, to the Synod. The General Synod, the highest representative body, cooperates with the sovereign in the matter of ecclesiastical legislation. The logical outcome of this process of development should have been complete self‑government for the Church; but such has not been the case. Indeed, this entire movement is only a phase of that more general movement whose object has been to develop and strengthen the State. The Church is organized along parallel lines with the State, and church administration remains state administration. Just as in things temporal the sovereign remains supreme, despite local self‑government and popular representation, so in things ecclesiastical.
The present relation between the State and the Roman Catholic Church is recognized as unsatisfactory, and on both aides there has been a tendency to change it. To be mentioned particularly is that significant modern movement on the

109	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Church and State
part of the State whose object has been the complete separation of Church and State. In this new departure the United States took the 8. Tendency lead. Since then, strange to say, this
Toward essentially Calvinistic idea has been Separation. carried out by such Roman Catholic countries as Mexico, Brazil, Cuba, and most recently by France. One might almost say that the separation of the Church from the State is recognized by a republican government as an obligation. Such separation is due to hostility toward the Church, and its object is the subordination of the Church. The Protestant sees nothing objectionable in this. In his view the fact that the State claims s certain surveillance over the outward organization of the Church has no significance for the inner life of faith. The Roman Catholic, on the other hand, who carries his religious sentiment into these external things, strenuously opposes any influence of the State in this direction. The Toleranzantrag of the Center, which was introduced in the German Reichstag in 1900, is suggestive. Under the guise of demanding freedom for the Church in general, it embodies the complaints of the Roman Catholics. It demands, among other things, complete freedom for the cure of souls throughout the empire, for the erection of church buildings and the holding of religious worship, and also demands the removal of the p7acetum and of all restrictions placed by the State upon religious societies and associations. It is this last point, the question of religious orders, that is not so easily conceded. Here economic interests come into consideration; and it is unlikely that the existing laws limiting the acquisition of property by mortmain will be changed in the interest of religious orders. This Toleranzantrag makes no mention of ministerial education. The State now provides for the education of ministers, but whether it will be able to nationalize the clergy, and thus remove present religious dissensions, is doubtful. The Evangelical Church gives the State no occasion to resort to radical measures; but naturally a separation of the Roman Catholic Church from the State carries with it a similar separation as regards the Evangelical Church. This is illustrated by recent events in France.
While the old territorial state rendered a magnificent service in rescuing the Gospel, the close embrace of the State now threatens
g. Deca‑ the Church with suffocation. The dente of Evangelical Church in Germany Gas Protestant‑ completely lost the support of the
ism in masses For them it is an institution
	Germany.	of the State, or of the aristocracy, and
		part of the system which they oppose.
It is regarded as one partie du gouvernemenE, just as
was the Roman Catholic Church in France in the
eighteenth century. But how is any other con
dition possible under a church regiment whose
fundamental principle is that the Church must
subserve the political interests of the State? As the
Prussian state law puts it, the Church must show
'' gentleness and tolerance in doctrine and beha
vior," and it " must abstain from all interference
in private and family affairs." It must maintain
" quiet and order," " quiet and peace "; and that is the main consideration for the State. This program is carried out by German officials with perfect fidelity to duty, and with as much love to the Church as the Church, in its present depressed condition, is able to inspire in them. Naturally, the legal pastor moat fit into this rEgime. The result is that in any great religious movement, for instance against Rome, the ecclesiastical organization may leave a Protestant people completely in the lurch. Political interests predominate; but such interests, which come and go with ministries, do not coincide with those of the Evangelical Church, whose chief interest is to extend the Kingdom of Jesus Christ.
While it would be a mistake for the Evangelical Church in Germany to aim at immediate separation from the State, the remedy for exist‑
	ro. Self‑	ing evils lies in that direction. There is
Government no doubt that complete separation is
for Church only a question of time; but for the
the Remedy. present what the Protestant Church
		needs is that measure of independence
which, in theory, the modern State accords to it.
The attainment of self‑government is the serious
task that the Church now confronts. But those
who uphold the old territorial system ask if this is
practicable. Here the only thing worthy of earnest
consideration is the question of the continued
existence of the state church. It has been argued
that independence for the Church would bring with
it a dissolution of the religious body into innu
merable sects, thus destroying the national charac
ter of the Church. Although the small religious
society offers advantages in the way of individual
freedom, it must be admitted that the large com
munity best provides for the service of the Master.
The fear, however, that the Church would disinte
grate if released from the grasp of the State is
ungrounded. The removal of the antiquated terri
tori9l system does not mean necessarily that hence
forth there would be no relation whatsoever between
Church and State. Between the territorial system
and the French system of sheer separation there is
a mean. Self‑government for the Church consti
tutes this mean. Under such a system the Church
would be freed from the stifling domination of the
State, without being reduced to the position of a
mere company, or association. Such a relationship
for the Church would not be inconsistent with its
popular character. In France the two branches of
the Evangelical Church have been placed in the
position of secular organizations; but even in such
a guise they continue to flourish as national
churches. The various branches of the Protestant
Church in the United States are also popular in
character, the general impression to the contrary
notwithstanding. In each case the Church is some
thing more than the aggregate of local organiza
tions. Over and above the local society stands the
denomination, the Church, to which others than
the members of such organisations belong. It is a
spiritual body; but as such it is formally organized.
It is provided with s constitution, and is recog
nized by law.
From a juristic point of view the relations be‑

Church and State
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG '
tween Church and State resulting from self‑government on the part of the Church offer no difficulty. From a practical point of view the question might be raised: Has the Evangelical Church in Germany the strength and vitality to maintain itself without the support of the strong arm of the State? It should be remembered, however, that it has been just this antiquated system of state government for the Church that has made such a question possible. A‑people is educated by its institutions; and in this respect the Evangelical population of Germany has been badly educated. If the Evangelical Church is now without confidence in itself this condition of affairs is due to centuries of state domination over the Church. It may be admitted that independence for the Church would involve a difficult period of transition, but it is assumed that the State would continue to aid the Church until the Church had become self‑supporting. For the relations between Church and State in different countries see the articles upon the countries and states. See also the numerous related articles, such a9 CHURCH, THE CHRISTIAN; CHURCH GOVERNMENT; JURISDICTION. ECCLESIASTICAL; POLITY; and RELIGIOUS CORPORATIONS. (OTTO MAYER.)
II. The United States: The relations of the religious and political institutions in the United States differ radically from those found elsewhere in Christendom, and need to be considered separately. The American people are without an ecclesiastical establishment provided by organic law. The popular description of this condition is that there is " a ecmplete separation of Church and State in the United States." While thin phrase holds the kernel of a truth, it does not fairly express that truth. The fact of the political separation is unduly emphasized, while the real connection between the two institutions is overlooked.
At the time of the settlement of this country it was universally regarded as a normal function of
the civil power to see to it that all t. Philo‑ subjects, in theory at least, sustained
sophical some definite ecclesiastical relation;
Back‑	and the aggregate of such relations as
ground.	had the sanction and support of the
civil power constituted an ecclesiastical establishment. American political philosophy as it developed through the colonial and early national periods preserved the concept that the civil power is charged with a duty in respect to the religious affairs of the people, that it has an ecclesiastical function to perform; and it developed this concept to the effect that it is a normal function of the civil powers to make it politically possible and legally convenient for all the people to sustain voluntary ecclesiastical relations, or to sustain none at all. Under the American political system all ecclesiastical relations must be voluntary, must be without political penalty, and must be legal; but the demand upon the civil government as the physically dominant institution of society to realize these conditions is as great as it ever was to protect a state church. This obligation of American civil governments is now confirmed by a public opinion which has been gaining strength through four generations sad is now generally accented
without controversy. It is now expressed in a series of guaranties and limitations contained in the organic law of the several commonwealths, in a well‑developed system of statute legislation providing definite legal procedure covering many ecclesiastical relations, and in a body of notable judicial decisions rendered by the civil courts of last resort defining under ever changing circvlmstances what shall be the relation of Church and State.
Historically, this development has been as follows: At the outbreak of the American Revolution the
colonies were divided ecclesiastically
s. Colonial into three groups. In one group, conPeriod. silting of New York, New Jersey,
Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, the direct establishment of the communion of the Church of England, without, however, a resident episcopacy, was more or less complete in law. In a second group, consisting of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Connecticut, the congregational form of ecclesiastical organization on the basin of the territorial pariah was established in law and in fact. In a third group, consisting of Rhode Island and Pennsylvania, no ecclesiastical establishment had been developed either in law or in fact. Wherever there was an establishment, what may be described as the civil church law was largely political and administrative in its character. As a result of political revolution the direct establishments by royal authority were nullified in law and degraded in popular estimation. The indirect establishments in the New England commonwealths, inasmuch as they were based upon provincial legislation and local administration, remained undisturbed for some years. There remained, however, as survivals of the direct establishments a number of incorporated parishes in New York and Virginia and a few in other states. As the remains of a still earlier establishment in New York, there were several incorporated Reformed Dutch churches which had received special protection by the terms of the Treaty of Breda (1664). During all the colonial period dissent had resisted the legal church establishments, especially the system of taxation for their support.; and after the overthrow of British sovereignty a demand developed for a divorcement of political and ecclesiastical affairs. An illustration of the sentiment prevailing at the close of the Revolution is to be found in an act of the Assembly of Virginia of the year 1785, the preamble of which declares that " to suffer this civil magistrate to intrude his powers into the field of opinion, and to restrain the profession or propagation of principles on the supposition of their ill tendency, is a dangerous fallacy which at once destroys all religious liberty," and that " it is time enough for the rightful purposes of civil government for its officials to interfere when principles break out into overt acts against peace and good order."
At the formation of the Federal government religious liberty was secured to the people of the United States, as far as the action of Congress was concerned, by provision of the Constitution (art. iv., chap. 3 and the first amendment). It will be seen that both of these provisions are limitations upon the

111	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Church and State
powers of Congress only. That body might pass no law in order to establish a state religion, neither could it provide any religious test as a
3. Condi‑ qualification for holding office under dons after the Federal government. The framers
the Revo‑ of the Constitution did not under‑
	lution.	take to protect the religious liberty of
		the people against the action of their
respective state governments. Religious affairs
were declared to be within the sphere of domestic
relations, and therefore reserved to the control of
the states. The development of the local pecul
iarities in the ecclesiastical institutions of the sev
eral sections of the country continued without
interruption. The colonial legislatures had granted
a few charters of incorporation to local churches,
and this practise was continued for a few years by
the state legislatures. It was, however, soon aban
doned because of the popular sympathy with the
complaint that ouch particular charters of incor
poration constituted special legislation secured
through political influence. After the Revolution
there arose a demand in the middle states for a
uniform procedure by which the local organizations
of all religious denominations might receive a cor
porate form. To meet the needs of the time legis
lation was enacted which introduced the second
stage in the development of American ecclesiastical
policy, viz., the era of the general statute. The
first general statute that could serve the churches
of all denominations became law in New York on
April 6, 1784. An act of similar intent and like
provisions was passed in 1793 by the state of New
Jersey, and, these two statutes with their subse
quent revisions became the models for similar
statutes in many of the northern states. These
early statutes resulted from the necessity of pro
viding legal trustees with a standing in court, in
whom might rest the title to property devoted to
religious purposes. They were enacted at s time
of little religious interest and of bare toleration of
religious bodies by legislators. The powers con
ferred upon religious corporations that might come
into being under these general statutes were very
limited; and in no state were such corporations
allowed to be self‑perpetuating. . Partiality to re
ligious denominations on the part of the state
legislatures was dreaded, and there was also a very
real fear among the lawmakers themselves lest
something might be done toward recreating an
ecclesiastical establishment. The method of pro
viding for the incorporation of religious societies
by means of a general statute has developed un
equally in different sections of the country, and it
has not yet been adopted by all the states. As late
as 1866, the states of Rhode Island, Virginia, and
South Carolina had no such statute; and in 1896 a
general statute of incorporation was still forbidden
by, constitution in the states of Virginia and West
Virginia.
t1 third stage in the development of American civil church law has come as the result of specializing legislation with reference to religious organizations in two directions. In one direction increased discrimination has been made between ecclesiastical bodies proper, and other social, edu‑
cational, and philanthropic organizations. The second form of specialization, however, is of far more importance than the first. In the
	4. Special	states having the most highly developed
Legislation. legislation the general provisions of
		the statutes have, from time to time,
been supplemented by special optional provisions
affecting convocations of particular religious de
nominations. The demand for this class of legis
lation has in nearly every case come from the
churches themselves. As the denominations have
grown in strength and their members have devel
oped a more, intelligent interest in their own special
features of polity, many of them have made efforts
to find legal expression for the essential features of
their respective polities. Through these supple
mental provisions, there has been wrought into the
statute law of many of the states the recognition of
purely ecclesiastical functionaries. It can not now
be said to be the intention of the legislatures to
keep the control of the temporal affairs of the
churches in the hands of corporations, " inde
pendent of priest, bishop, presbytery, or synod or
other ecclesiastical judicatory." There has devel
oped in recent years a marked legislative cordiality
toward the churches. While at the beginning of
the nineteenth century the avowed policy in
American legislation was to treat all religious in
terests alike by doing as little as possible for any
of them and forcing all to conform to one procedure,
at the beginning of the twentieth century the policy
seems to be to treat all interests alike by giving to
each all that is asked.
The early concept of religious organization in American law was very naturally that of a simple and completely autonomous local society. To denominations whose types of, polity correspond to this concept the legislation of the general statute era has bees satisfactory. The special optional provisions referred to, have, therefore, been enacted for the benefit of churches having polities by which the local bodies sustain a definite relation to some more general authority. It has been those denominations which have an administrative or episcopal type of organization that have shown the greatest energy in securing denominational legislation of the kind mentioned. At the present time twenty‑five distinct religious denominations have thus bees specially legislated for. The statutes of sixteen states now contain special provisions for the incorporation and regulation of Protestant Episcopal churches. Eight states make similar provision for Roman Catholic churches, and seven states for Methodist Episcopal churches. The privilege that is being accorded, to religious bodies of having such legislation enacted as best developed their respective polities is resulting in what may be defined as a legal crystallization of ecclesiastical polity. Presbyteries, conferences, synods, class, conventions, superintendents, overseers, presiding elders, vicars general, bishops, and archbishops, have come to have a legal status by virtue of their ecclesiastical status and legal powers incidental to their spiritual jurisdiction. Such features of ecclesiastical organization as secure recognition in the civil law are thereby less liable to alteration than the non‑legal

Church and State
Churchyard
features, and more capable of resisting the influences of social environment.
The fundamental principles of political philosophy which were to regulate the relations of Church and State among the American people had been well defined and generally accepted while the nation was still confined to the original states along the Atlantic coast; and successive expansions of the national domain have not resulted in any radical changes of policy. The same principles have been applied by the Federal government in Alaska, the Hawaiian Islands, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands. Nowhere has the civil power failed in its function of affording legal protection and procedure for religious organizations, and nowhere have the churches exceeded these legal powers and infringed upon civil rights. The alien peoples who have come under American political training give evidence of appreciating the altered relation of Church and State. After more than one hundred years of teat under all conditions, it is now as true as at the beginning of American national life that the full and free right to entertain any religious belief, to practise any religious principle, and to teach any religious doctrine which does not violate the laws of morality, and which does not infringe personal rights, is conceded to all. The law knows no heresy, is committed to the support of no dogma and to the establishment of no sect. GE03i.(lE JAMES BAYLES.

Bi8LI0aRAP8r: W. E. Gladstone, The State in its Relations
	with the Church, 2 vole., London, 1841; 6. T. Coleridge,
	On the'Conetitution o/ Church and State, ib. 1852; T. R.
	Birks, Church and State, ib. 1889; J. W. Joyce, The Civil
	power in its Relation to the Church, ib. 1889; E. de Pres
	eened. Church and French Revolution, ib.1889; J. RQttiman,
	Kirche and Stoat %n Nordamerika, Basel. 1871; E. Fried
	berg, Die Grenzen awiechen Staat and K%rche and d%e
	Garantisn pepen deren VerleEaunp. Ttibingen. 1872: J. P.
	Thompson, Church and State %n the United States. Boston.
	1873; J. 8. Mill, State Interference with Church Property,
	in his Dissertations, 4 vole., London, 1873‑7b; J. Her
	genr5ther, The Catholic Church and the Christian State.
	London, 1878; H. Geffeken, Church and State, their Re
	lations historically Considered, 2 vole., London. 1877;
	M. Minghetti, Staat and Kirche, Goths, 1881; F. Nippold,
	Die Theoris der Trennung von Kirche and 3taat, Bern,
	1881; P. Hinsehius, Allpemeine Daratellunp der Vsrhtilt
	niaas von Staat and Kirche, Freiburg, 1883; A. P. Stanley,
	Essays chiefly on Questions of Church and State. London,
	1884; De Gabriac, L1Dlise et 1'Etat, Paris. 1888; W.
_	Armitage, Sketches of Church and Stets %n the First Eight
	Centuries, London, 1888; P. Schaff, Church and State in
	the United States. New York, 1888; U. Bslaani, The Popes
	and the Hohenstaufen, New York, 1889; A. T. Innes,
	Church and State, Edinburgh, 1890; C. Benoist, L'hat
	et uplise, Paris, 1892; P. E. Lauer, Church and State in
	New England, Baltimore. 1892 (Johns Hopkins Univer
	sity Studies, 10 eer., nos. 2‑3); K. Rieker, Die rechtiicha
	Stellunp der evanyeliachen Kirche Deutschland@ in ihrer
	peschichtlichen Entwicldunp. Leipsic. 1893: W. Kahl,
	Lehrsystem des Kirehenrech<a and der Kirchenpol%tik, i.
	248 eqq„. Freiburg, 1894; D. A. Wirgmsnn, The Church
	and the Civil Power, London, 1894; F. 6atolli, Loyalty W
	Church and State, Baltimore, 1895; W. D. end J. B.
	Johnston, Relations between Church and State, Ann Arbor,
	1898‑97; T. Mommeen,. R6mischaa StrafrachE, Leipaia.
	1899; T. Kaftan, Vier Rapitel ‑von der Landeakirche,
	Sleswiek, 1903; W. D. Abraham, Church and State in
	England, London, 1905; M. Lecomte, Rapport au almat
	aur Is projet de loi eonxrna»t la sEparation des eglisea et de
	l'etat, Paris, 1905; E. Troeltxh, in P. Hinneberg, Die
	Kultw der Gepenward. I. iv., Leipsic, 1905: P. $abatier,
	A prapoa de la e6paration des bplieea et de 1'dtat, Paris,
	1908, Eng. transl., Droasstablish»tsnt %n Franca, New York,
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
1908: W. BirneY. Franca and the Pope; the Separation of
!he Churches and the French Republic. New York, 1907:
A. Eitel. Der Kirchsnataat unter Kltmena V., Berlin.
1907.
CHURCH TRIUMPHANT: 1. A church founded by a Mrs. Beckman (d. 1883), who claimed to be the " spiritual mother of Christ in the second coming" and declared George Jacob Schweinfurth the " Messiah of the New Dispensation." Mr. Schweinfurth left the ministry of the Methodist Episcopal Church, became a follower of Mrs. Beckman, and subsequently the leader of her followers. Headquarters of the body were established at the Weldon Farm, six miles from Rockford, Ill. The Church accepted the Bible as the word of God, but denied the essential divinity of Christ, holding that he received the spirit of God, became free from sin and its curse and so divine. Schweinfurth claimed equality with Jesus in this respect and was accepted as the " Christ of the second coming." The Church is now extinct, and when moat flourishing numbered only twelve congregations with 384 communicants.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. K. Carroll, Religious Forces of the United
States, pp. 105‑108, New York, 1898.
2, A religious and communistic society, having headquarters at Estero, Fla., founded by Cyrus F. Teed, and also known as the Koreahan Ecclesia. See COMMUNISM, IL, 4.
CHURCH VISTTATIONS: A method of ecclesiastical supervision of churches and church work. This institution has for its purpose the oversight of church government, and is a means of securing insight into, and of promoting, church life. As early as the fourth century it was the custom of the Eastern Church for the bishops or their deputies to visit the churches of the diocese. In the West also this visitation by the bishop dates from an early time. This institution was especially cultivated in the Frankish Church. There visitations took place when the bishop traversed his diocese to perform the rite of confirmation. Under Charlemagne the bishop was aided and controlled by the count or his mayor. They jointly held the synodal court
(Sendgericht), punishing not only eccleEarly siastical offenses, but also sine like Practise theft, perjury, sorcery, etc. The
	and Its	decay of visitations in the following
	Decay.	period was due to two causes : (1)
		the bishops were more and more
estranged from their spiritual calling by becoming
secular princes; (2) the custom of redemption
that is, exemption from penalties on payment of a
sum of money‑was introduced into the synodal
courts, making them an important source of revenue.
The Council of Trent ameliorated these conditions,
and made it the duty of the bishops to visit their
diocese either every year or every second year,
according to its size.
Visitations became important again at the time of the Reformation. They were the means of carrying out the Reformation in individual territories. That in electoral Saxony became the model and basis of the others. The first impulse in this direction came not from Luther, but from Jacob Strauss in Eisenach (1525) and from Nicolaue

118	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Church sad State
Churchyard
Hausmann, preacher at Zwickau. Both showed the necessity of such oversight. Induced by the fanatics and the Peasants' War, Luther strongly urged the elector to order a thorough visitation. It was immediately begun, and, although at first only sporadic, it soon revealed its necessity. In 1526 Luther proposed a general church‑and achoolvisitation, which was carried out by a commission of clergy and laymen in 1527‑29. The Saxon book of visitation, composed by Melanchthon, ‑richt der Visitatoren an die Pfarhern ym Kurfurstenthum zu Sachsaen (1528), was generally adopted
as the model. There the principle of Revival church government by the state found
During its first expression. The visitation
the Refor‑ included in its scope the official conmation. duct of the pastors, the order of church
service, confession, and church discipline. The whole constitution of the Lutheran Church has its basis and model in this institution. Because of their historical value the proceedings of the visitations were published, either as a whole or in part, those of the Wittenberg district by Winter (1862), those of the district of Jiiterbogk by Gotze, those of Magdeburg by Danneil (1864). Burkhardt planned a comprehensive history of the German church‑ and school‑visitations in this period, but only the Saxon visitations appeared (1879). Nebe published in 1880 (in abstract only) the proceedings of the visitations of the bishopric of Halberstadt from 1564 to 1589; the complete visitations in the Guelphic states from 1542 to 1544 were published in 1897 by Kayser. While the first visitations were extraordinary measures, they were soon made a stated order. The Prussian articles of 1540 order one annually, and moat of the later church orders contain ordinances for periodical repetition.
After the Thirty Years' War these functions attained again their former importance and contributed greatly to the restoration of order and church life. In the eighteenth century they degenerated, but were reinstituted in their old form in the German state churches in the nineteenth century, largely through their advocacy at the Eisenach conference of 1852‑53. They recur regularly, two to six years apart. The superintendent or general
superintendent is the visitor, often in Modern cooperation with an officer of the state;
Practise. or a commission is instituted with the
superintendent as leader. The visitations are usually held on Sunday and consist of a sermon by the pastor, an address by the visitor, an examination of the conditions of religious instruction, discussion with the ministers and teachers, the vestry or the house fathers, revision of administrative affairs, of church registers and buildings, of the cemetery, etc. The question has been discussed whether in them visitations the element of devotion and churchly revival should predominate, or whether they should be conducted merely for the purpose of obtaining information. 1n this respect there is no uniformity in the different German state churches, nor do they agree on the question whether part should be taken by synodical
representatives.
III: 8
(G. Uz;naoRrrt.)
BmLiooasrex On the early and the Lutheran visitations: J. Auerbach, De viaitationum ecdeaiw progreesu a primia tempxibua, Frankfort, 1882; A. L. Richter, Geachiehte der eaanpeLiachen Hircluuverfaasunp in Deutschland, pp. 43 eq9.. LeiPai0. 1861; C. A. H. Burkhardt, Ge8chichts der sachaiachsn R%rchen‑ and Sehut‑Vieetatqorun, 16d¢46. ib. 1879; K. Kayser, Die raformatoriechen Ifirchanvisitationen do den aelfutchan Landen, 16.bt‑.#l,, Gottingen, 1897. On Roman Catholic rules concerning visitations consult L. Thomaesinue, Va6ua ac nova eceleaiw . . . i"ebvcEio expoaifo, 3 vole., Lucca, 1728; P. Melohere, De ~can~onica dioceaium roiaitatione. Cologne, 1893; Bingham, OriDsnu, books V., IX., XVIL; KL, e.v. " Vieitationen."

CHURCHWARDENS: Two lay officers in each parish of the Anglican communion, whose duty is to have charge, ‑with the vestry, of the temporalities of the church, and to see that provision is made for the maintenance and orderly celebration of public worship. In England one is usually nominated by the incumbent and the other elected by the parishioners; in the Protestant Episcopal Church both (called " senior " and " junior " wardens) are elected by the congregation annually in Easterweek.
CHURCHYARD: Conformably to the contemporary Greek and Roman custom, the primitive Christian burial‑places lay outside the community. There was no difference in this respect between corporate cemeteries and private grounds, between the subterranean and those on the surface. East and West, this actual condition is the same. It appears that this custom was broken for the first time within the pale of Christendom through the circumstance that Constantine the Great was entombed in the Church of the Apostles at Constantinople‑‑a decisive precedent for the future. For that matter, during antiquity in general there was provision for urban burial as a mark of special honor (trirtutis rausm)‑Augustus and Trajan, for instance, at Rome; and, without exception, the Vestals. Under a flexible construction there also soon followed eminent ecclesiastics (e.g., Ambrose) and persona of worldly distinction, but first and foremost the martyrs and saints, whose bodies were exalted and lodged in the neighborhood churches. During the fourth century it was even customary in Egypt to preserve mummified bodies of saints in their homes. In fact, what was originally the exception began to be the general rule toward the end of the fourth century, so that secular and spiritual authorities were obliged to forbid the multiplication of burials in churches. Finally a compromise was arranged whereby burial inside the church was granted in exceptional cases by episcopal authorization; whereas to the congregation as such was made over the ground enclosing the church (atrilCm ecclesia : " churchyard "). This ground, it is true, did not attain to the high esteem of the church interior; but still it availed, being consecrated, as holy ground; while the vicinity of the sacrificial mass and of the sanctuary prayer contributed also,. in a degree, to enhance its favor. See CEMETERIES.
The medieval Church exercised unrestricted authority over the churchyard, which it regarded as an adjunct of God's house. The same right of asylum protected them both (cf. German Friedho/,

phplnrony~r~
nrohinx of women
in the sense " safeguard ")• By consecration a
particular seal was imparted to the churchyard;
and a dedication of the church demanded likewise
s new consecration of the churchyard, though not
vies versa.	The execution of a bloody sentence on
this ground	involved excommunication. The not
infrequent	custom of fortifying the churchyard,
together with the church, for the protection of the
church was	eeolesiastically contested, indeed, but
not annulled. On the other hand, it is required
that the graveyard be well fenced in or hedged.
Special plots are reserved for the priests. The
graves of children who die without baptism are
located in	a place distinct from the rest of the
cemetery.	No one who has not departed this life
consecratedin peace with the church may be laid to rest in
	ground.
A tall cross must be set up in the middle of the cemetery. Another necessary requirement is a charnel‑house (oeauarium), into which the disinterred bones are gathered. There belongs lastly to the structural completeness of the cemetery the lantern of the dead, a round or polygonal tower with a top‑piece for the reception of a perpetual light. Its origin inheres, perhaps, is the symbolism of light; but popular credulity saw is this light a means of defense against evil spirits. Artistic decoration of the graveyard appears to have been the exception in medieval times. Such an exception is the renowned Campo Santo in Pisa, begun in 1278, and further embellished in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The Church of Rome has retained the observances and canonical regulations of medieval usage, but only in isolated instances‑as with reference to tombstone inscriptions and the maintenance of cemeteries adjoining the churehhave the same been supplemented with new regulations.
Cemetery development in the Greek Church generally parallels that in the West. The Greek Church likewise classes the graveyard with consecrated things, provides for it official dedication, and reckons with the possibility of desecration.
	The Reformation consistently broke with the
medieval conception of the cemetery as locus
religioaua, and at the same time did away with the
specific Roman Catholic burial rites. With all
this, however, the duty by no means lapsed of
showing a pious regard for the resting place of the
dead. The church Ordinances dwell on the matter
frequently. Modern legislation has revised former
cue~nne and legal usages. Interment in the
churches, with exceptions of princes and bishops,
has bees forbidden. And alongside the confeo
eonal cemetery for believers, there has grown up
the municipal cemetery for non‑confessors.
VICTOR Scaorrrzx.
BW .wourar: Lieu of works germane to the eubieot will
be fogy under BostsL and Crxaras:ae.
CgQRCH YEAR ; The comprehensive term given to the regular succession of seasons, feasts, and fasts in the calendar of the Christian Church, independent of the civil calendar although to some extent making use of it for convenience of reckoning. The simplest basis of division is that denoted by the week of seven days, which was in use among
THE NLW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
the Jews from early times, and had been introduced into Roman usage shortly before the beginning of the Christian era, replacing the period of eight days (internundinum). Both Jewish and Gentile Christians, accordingly, were prepared to accept this division, although they rejected the pagan, names for the days of the week, and preferred to call Sunday the Lord's Day (dies dominiea, h&mera kuriakket), numbering the others in order as feria seconds, tertia, etc. With this for a basis, and Sunday, the commemoration of the resurrection of Christ, se the earliest approach to a recurrent festival (see SuNney), the entire sequence of festivals and seasons gradually grew up (see FaesTS AND Fgsmwez8, IL, and the articles on the separate days thus distinguished).
In the Western Churches which have adopted such a chronological scheme the ecclesiastical year begins with the first Sunday in Advent, which is always " the nearest Sunday to the feast of St. Andrew" (Nov. 30), whether before or after (i.e., the first Sunday after Nov. 26). There are four Sundays in this season of preparation for Christians. In the Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches one or two " Sundays after Christmas " follow as the case may be to the feast of the Epiphany (Jan. 8). In the German Lutheran Church Dec. 28 ip the " second Christmas," a Sunday from Dec. 27 to Dec. 31 is the " Sunday after Christmas," and a Sunday from Jan. 2 to Jan. b is the " Sunday after New Year" (which is also observed as a church day). Sundays after Epiphany are numbered in order, there being from one to six of them according to the date of Easter. Then three Sundays, named Septuagesima, Sexagesima, and Qumquagesimafrom the approximate distance to Easter, lead up to the forty days (forty week‑days,. the Sundays not being included as fasting‑days) of lent beginning with Ash Wednesday and terminating in the festival of Easter. The next five Lord's days are known as Sundays after Easter, and the whole period of fifty days following Easter, with the feast of the Ascension occurring on the fortieth, is a time of the highest spiritual joyfulnew. The paschal season terminates with the festival of Pentecost (Whitsunday), which falls on the seventh Sunday after Easter (the sixth Sunday after Ea6ter being the "Sunday after Ascension day "). The succeeding Sundays to the end of the church year are designated in the Roman Catholic Church Sundays after Pentecost, in the Anglican and Lutheran after Trinity, the Feast of the Holy Trinity falling in all these bodies on the octave of Pentecost. There may, be from twenty‑three to twentY6eight Sundays after Trinity, twenty‑four to twenty‑nine after Pentecost.
In the Eastern Church the year is divided into three parts without reference to the date on which it begins (Sept. 1); the part preparatory to Easter, called tribidion after the book containing the liturgical forms used during the season, begins with the " Sunday of the Pharisee and the Publican " (so called from the Gospel for the day), which corresponds to the last Sunday after Epiphany in the Western reckoning; the paschal season (peniklwstarion) extends to and includes the first Sun‑

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Churohsard
Churn nC of Women
day after Pentecost (the Greek feast of All Saints) and the remaining period (okto8choa) has its Sundays designated, according to the evangelical lections, either as " Matthew Sundays " (second to fourteenth after Pentecost) or as " Luke Sundays " (fifteenth after Pentecost to the Western second in Advent and those after Epiphany). See CALENDAR, THE CHRISTIAN.
The following are the earliest and latest dates on which the various church says named can fall:
First Sunday in Advent, Nov. 27‑Des. 8. f3eptusgeaima Sunday, Jan. 18‑Feb. 22.
Ash Wednesday, Feb. 4‑Mar. 11.
Easter. Mar. 22‑Apr. 25.
Ascension Day, Apr. 30‑June 3. Whitsunday, May 10‑June 13.
Trinity Sunday. May 17‑June 20.
13MUZOGRAPEIT: Consult the literature oiled under France AND FEBTIVALB, especially the works of AuRUeti, Hingham, Binterim, and Cruser: J. C. W. Augueti, Die Post# der allm Clatatan, Leipei0.1817‑20; F. H. i3,heinwald. Die kirchliehe Arcnaaogic, pp. 154‑257, Berlin, lsao: H. Aft, Der cnrial. lieAs Coitus, part 2, das Kirchanjahr, ib~ 1880 W. I. Kip, The Hiat., Objsd and Proper Obearroaahoeaf Lent, New York, 1875; $. Butcher, The Ecclesiastical Calendar, London, 1877; A. H. Grant, Church Seasons, HiaWrical and Poetical, New York, 1881; Handbuch der thaolopisc7un Wiaaem scha/ka, ad. O. Z6okler, iv. 381 eqq., Nbrdlingen, 1885; A. Tail, High Days of as Christian Yew, London, 1890; DCA, ii. 2064‑b9 (gives lief of the celebrations and their names in the different calendars); the literature under CALENDAR; COMMON PRAYER. Boon or.

CHURCH, ALFRED JOHN: Church of England classical scholar; b. in London Jan. 29, 1829. He was educated at Lincoln College, Oxford (B.A.,1851), and was curate. of Westport St. Mary's, Gloucester, 1853‑56; of St. Peter's Chapel, St. Marylebone, London, 18818; rector of Ashley, Tilbury, Gloucestershire, 1892‑97; professor of Latin in University College, London, 1880‑87. In theology he is an orthodox liberal Anglican, with a distinct appreciation of the value of higher criticism. His reputation rests upon his many pleasing tales from the Latin and Greek classics and from church history, those from the latter being such as The Story of Jerusalem (London, 1880); " To the Lions " (1889); The Crusaders (1904).

CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM: Dean of St. Paul's; b. in Lisbon Apr. 25, 1815; d. in Dover Dec. 9, 1890. He entered Wadham College, Oxford, 1833 (B.A., 1836; M.A., 1839; hon. D.C.L., 1875); was fellow of Oriel 1838‑52; tutor 1839‑42; junior proctor 18445; rector of Whatley, Somerset, from 1852 to 1871, when he became dean of St. Paul's. He was select preacher at Oxford 1868, 1876‑?8, 1881‑82. The religious influences to which he was subjected at Redlands, near Brik•al, where he attended school 18283, were narrowly evangelical; at Oxford, however, he was drawn into the Tractarian movement and he became an intimate friend of Newman. A striking incident of his career was the veto by the proctors in convocation at Oxford, Feb., 1845, of the proposition to condemn Newman's Tract 90, in connection with the degradation of William George Ward (q.v.). The veto was pronounced by the senior proctor, Henry Peter Guillemard, but it was inspired by the junior proctor, Church. As dean he restored St. Paul's Cathedral, readjusted its revenues, and
reorganised its staff; he was faithful and zealous, but unostentatious. He translated The Catechetical Lectures of S't.Cyril of Jerusalem (London, 1838) for Pussy and Newman's Library of the Fathers, wrote The Beginnings of the Middle Ages (1877) for the Epochs of Modern History series, and, with Canon Pager, revised Keble's edition of Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity (Oxford, 1888). He published a critical study of St. Ansel= (London, 1870); an essay on Dance (first printed in the Christian Remembrartcer, 1850; reprinted with a translation of Dente's De nwaarchia by his son, F. J. Church, 1878); Sponsor (1879) and Bacon (1884) in the English Men of Letters series. His last work was The Oxford Move. mad (1891).
Bnuroaserer: Mary C. Church. Life and Lct<srs of Dann Church. London, 1894 (by his daughter); A. B. Donaldeon. Richard William Church, ib. 1906; DNB, supplement, ii. 8‑9.
CHURCHES OF GOD IN CHRIST JESUS. See ADVENTISTS, 6.
CHURCHING OF WOMEN: According to the prescriptions of Lev. mi., women were regarded an ceremonially unclean after childbirth (see DzttrztaMICNT AND PURIFICATION, CEREMONIAL, L, 1, 12; IL, 1, 11), and, especially since Mary submitted herself to the ordinance of purification (Luke ii. 22), the idea found entrance into the Church. Dionysius of Alexandria, in his epistle to Baeilides (MPG, a. 1281), treats it as a matter of course that pious mothers will not approach the Lord's table until ceremonially clean, and Zonaras and Balsamon gave it canonical force. According to the ritual laid down for the first visit to the church (Goar, Etechologion, p. 267), the mother was to present herself on the fortieth day after delivery with her child and its sponsor; the priest offered a prayer for her complete purification, and another for the child, accompanied with the sign of the cross; then, carrying the child, he led the mother within the church with au appropriate formula. In an Ethiopian ritual mother and child were anointed on the forehead with holy oil. The Western Church took a different view. Gregory the Great wrote in answer to a question of Augustine of Canterbury that recent mothers might indeed abstain for a time from communion out of reverence, but that they were not to be condemned if they received it soon after childbirth; and this decision passed into the canon law (Decreta Gregori4, iii. 47). The Western custom, however, was to bring the mother formally to church, with the child, usually on the fortieth day, and the conception of purification still maintained itself, symbolised by the aspersion with holy water at the church door. Au office for the " benediction of women after childbirth " is contained in the Rituals Romanum as edited by Paul V, in 1614. The priest, wearing a white stole, meets the woman at the door, and after the recitation of Pa. xxiv. holds out one end of his stole to her and inducts her into the church; she kneels before the altar while certain prayers are said, ending with a blessing. The Reformation in Germany, for the most part, abolished the ceremony as giving rise to misconceptions and abuses, though some churches retained it,

Chytrsaue circumcision
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
giving an evangelical character to the rite, and the ".duty of thanksgiving after safe delivery was frequently insisted on. In the rationalistic period the practise of giving a special blessing to the mother was usually dropped, though to this day it is usual to ask the prayers of the congregation for her and for the child at her first appearance in church: and several of the moat recent Lutheran servicebooks contain an office for her benediction at the altar after the public service.. [Such an office is also contained in the Book of Common Prayer
	. of the Church of England. Its title in the
first book of Edward VI. was " The Order of
the Purification of Women," but this was altered
in the second to " The Thanksgiving of Women
after Child‑birth, commonly called the Churching
of Women."] 	(GEOx(3 RIETSCHEL.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. J. Stephens, Book of Comnson Prayer with Notes, iii. 1751‑63, London, 1853.
CHYTRAEUS, kai‑tri'vs (li0Ci3HAFE), DAV>D
The last of the " Fathers of the Lutheran Church "; b. at Ingelfingen (43 m. n.n.e. of Stuttgart), Wiirttemberg, Feb. 26, 1531; d. at Rostock June 25, 1600. As a pupil of Melauchthon he belonged to the mediating theologians. He was no original genius, but owing to his disposition and power of work he was a scholar of almost encyclopedic knowledge, but without the gift of preaching. His organizing and academical activity was effective. He was the center of the University of Rostock, a pure personality, filled with love of peace, not willingly harsh, but rather timid, and inclined to avoid conflicts. He studied at Tubingen and at Wittenberg, where he lived in Melanchthon'a house, and attended Luther's lectures on Genesis, those of Paul Eber, and others. After a brief return to Tiibingen (1547), he lectured at Wittenberg on Melanchthon's Loci, on rhetoric, and on astronomy. He accompanied his friend Johannes Aurifaber to Rostock, whither he was called after a visit to Italy, in 1550. His work was to introduce beginners into the doctrine of salvation, expound the classics, and deliver encyclopedic and exegetical lectures on the Old and New Testaments. Rostock was thenceforth his home. He enjoyed in a high degree the favor of the duke, to which he responded by a mixture of frankness and sometimes rather nauseating servility. After the division of the country (1555), Chytraeus entreated the dukes to build up the university, which was slowly effected in spite of personal, political, financial, and physical difficulties. The office of university‑superintendent he declined, but he was looked upon as the pillar of the institution. He was also busy with ecclesiastical regulations, opposed the Flacian adversaries of the Formula of Concord who had been driven from the duchy, sad looked upon the plan of some princes to call a general synod of all Evangelicals as hopeless. Another field of labor opened for him in Austria. Emperor Maximilian IL, who sympathized with Melanchthon, granted to the Lutheran estates of Lower and Upper Austria in 1568 the free exercise of religion on the basis of the Augsburg Confession, with the condition that they first agree upon a church‑discipline. The estates elected a com‑
mission for that purpose, and Chytra;us, known for his moderation, was invited to assist. In the beginning of 1569 he arrived in Austria. Of the fourfold work‑the preparation of a liturgy, an order for superintendents and consiatories, an exposition of the Augsburg Confession, and an eramen ordinandoru'm‑the first two were speedily prepared. The third was beset with difficulties on account of the Flacian ministers, not to speak of delays from other causes. Finally the free exercise of religion was obtained, sad Chytraeus, praised by the emperor, returned home, underrating the depth of the antagonistic principles. The publication of the liturgy caused a bitter controversy, which the emperor terminated by force. By his work in Austria the estates of Styria had their attention drawn to Chytreews, and he was invited to rearrange church matters there, after the religious compromise had been confirmed by Archduke Charles. He arrived at Graz Jas. 2, 1574. Despite difficulties, the church‑discipline was completed in May, 1574. With a vote of thanks he returned home and took up his relations with the Scandinavian kingdoms. Being attacked by Antonio Possevmo for his activity in Austria and his influence in Sweden, he wrote a rejoinder (Wittenberg, 1584), and he replied to a request from Antwerp to give his opinion on a catechism, in 1581.
His works include: (1) Exegetical: glossatory, dogmatizing commentaries of alight importance. (2) Dogmatic: a Catechesis (Wittenberg, 1555, and often) imitating Melaachthon's Loci, a short, comprehensive, and able work, used for almost a century in universities, gymnasia, and public schools, and recommended even m agenda; De studio theoloyi,tv recta incltoando (1562; enlarged, Rostock, 1572), belonging also to the Melauchthonian type, and following closely the Augsburg Confession, the Apology, the Wittenberg Concordia, and the Sehmalkald Articles; De morte et vita teterna (Wittenberg, 1581), the first attempt at a complete eschatology in the Melanchthoniau spirit; it even gave occasion for a charge of crypto‑Calvinism; the colorless Regulce vitce (1555), following the
deoalogue, were originally composed by Melauchthon. In treating of single doctrinal points a more
Lutheran tendency is perceptible, consistent with his participation in the work of the Concordia; but Chytraeus found the forma of the true doctrines " mediocriter cronstituta " in the Formula of Concord, and deplored the damnation of the excluded (Reformed) churches. (3) Polemical: the re‑
joinder to Poseevino and a wntrovereial letter against the provost Georg Coeleatinua concerning the " history of the Augsburg Confession." (4) Of his philosophical, or rather methodological,
writings the R.eguka etudiorum (beat ed., Leipaic, 1595.) had a fax‑reaching influence; the rich contents of the Prceoepta rhetoricce inventionis (Wittenberg, 1558) suffer by its fragmentary character. (5) In his historical works, written with care and freshness, Chytrxus appears to better advantage than in his theological writings; the proper scientific treatment, however, is lacking. The very popular Ont»nasticon theologicurn (1557) was an attempt to combine a theological encyclopedia

117	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Chytreena
Cirlsumoisdon
and a Hebrew dictionary; it displays the knowl
edge of church history possessed at the time. De
lectione historiarum recte instittlenda, (Rostock,
1563) shows little criticism, but is important for
the history of historiography. The Historic der
A‑ugsptergischen Confession (Rostock, 1571; Latin,
Frankfort, 1578) was the first special work on a
part of this period based upon origins[ sources.
The Chronicon Saxonia; (Wittenberg, 1585; Leipaic,
1593), written in the manner of annals from a
religious point of view, was appreciated in all
Europe. In his very carefully prepared genea
logical labors Chytrneus was encouraged by Duke
Ulrich, and in general his historical writings bear,
so to speak, the official stamp of the duchy of
Mecklenburg, as, following the custom of his time,
he preferred to give the result of his researches in
academical lectures. Chytrs;us's publications in
clude also the works of others edited by him and sev
eral volumes of a public character; his " Orations "
were many and interesting‑a collection of thirty
aix was published posthumously by his son David
(Hanover, 1614). 	GEORG LoEsciam.
BIBLIOaaAPHT: The early source is O. F. BchUta, De vita Davidia Chytraro . . , 3 vole., Hamburg, 1728. Coneult: T. Preeael. David Chytrmus, Elberfeld, 1862; O. Krabbe, David ChyErama, Rostock, 1870.
CIARAN, kf'ar‑an (KIERAN), SAINT, OF CLONMACNOISE, "the son of the carpenter": Irish saint of the first half of the sixth century. He studied under Finnian at Clonard, where he had Columba and Brendan among his fellows, and under Ends, at Aran. He founded the monastery at Clbnmacnoiae (in King's County, 8 m. s.w. of Athlone) after 540, and died at the age of thirtythree. The accounts of his life contain much of the miraculous. Clonmacnoise became the moat nations[ of the Irish monasteries and more than half of them, it is said, followed its rule. The site is still a place of pilgrimage on St. Ciaran'a day (Sept. 9).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lanigan, End. Hiat., i. 31, 468, ii, b0‑81; A. P. Forbes, Kalendars of Scottish Saints, pp. 435‑436, Edinburgh, 1872; C, de $medt and J. de Backer, Acta sanctorum Hitrernica, pp. 155‑180, Edinburgh, 1888; A. Stokes, Lives of Saints from the Book of Lianwre, pp. 117‑134, 282‑280, 355‑359, Oxford, 1890; J. Healy, Ineula aanctorum at doctorum, pp. 258 eqq., bb0‑b85, Dublin, 1890.
CIARAft (KIERAN), SAINT, OF SAIGIR: Bishop of Oesory, one of the " twelve apostles of Ireland." His " Lives " say that he was born while Ireland was still heathen, that he studied for twenty years at Rome and was ordained bishop there, and that while returning home he met Patrick, who prophesied of a future meeting in Ireland; he is also said to have been a contemporary of Finnian of Clonard and of Ciaran of Clonmacnoiee, and to reconcile these statements his life is lengthened to three hundred or more years. He established himself as a hermit at Saigir (4 m. e. of Birr, or Paraonatown, King's County), where others joined him, and in time the great monastery of Seirkieran arose, a center for the preaching of the Gospel and a large industrial community noted for its wealth. Some identify him with a saint who is said to have
passed over to Cornwall and labored and died there under the name of Piran.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lanigan, ECCt. HiEE., 1. 29‑33, ii. 7‑9, 98, 101; C, de Smedt and J, de Backer, Acts eanctorum Hitxrnica, pp. 805‑818, Edinburgh, 1888: J. O'Hanlon, Lives of the Irish Saints, iii. 115, Dublin [i875].
CIBORIUM, ai‑bo'ri‑am: Originally the canopy which, borne by four columns, surmounted the altar, but afterward specially applied to the vessel in which the host was kept. See BALDACHIN; VESSELS, SACRED, $ 3.

CILICIUM, ai‑lis'i‑um (CILICE): A garment of coarse goat's hair, such as was worn in ancient, times by soldiers, sailors, and peasants; made principally in Cilicia, whence the name. It was worn by penitents on Maundy Thursday at their reconciliation in the church. The same name was applied from about the end of the fourth century to the hair shirt worn by monks and other ascetics next to the skin as a measure of self‑discipline. Cassias knows of the practise, but disapproves it as an innovation, and as tending to vainglory, besides hindering the monk in his daily task. The custom, however, spread widely, and became a normal characteristic of the ascetic. The hair shirt was worn either constantly or at certain times. Sometimes it was replaced by a girdle of the same material, worn about the legs or arms, or (after the sixteenth. century) by one made of wire, sometimes with sharp points turned inward. (A. HAUCK.)

CIRCUMCELLIOftES, aer"cvm‑sel"i‑o'nfz: North African fanatics who appear in the Donatiat controversy about 340. That they were of pagan origin (Thilmmel, pp. 85‑86) can not be proved, nor did Donatiet schism call them into being‑they had already sprung up from both ecclesiastical and social conditions. They seem to have called themselves agoniatici (with reference to II Tim. iv. 7) and designated their leaders, Axido and Fasir, as leaders of the saints. The Donatiat Tichonius characterizes them as " superstitious " because of their unnecessary religious observances including things not regularly instituted, and as seekers after martyrdom; he says they overrun whole provinces because they can not live in peace with others anywhere. That they were socialistic appears from attacks upon property, the use of threatening letters and violence to prevent the execution of properly imposed sentences, and their interference between masters and slaves. Donatua of Bagee, a Donatist bishop, endeavored to make use of them against the orthodox party, and this led to an outbreak of persecution in North Africa. See DONA‑
Tlsnd.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Thllmmel, Zur Beurtheilung des Donor tismua, Halls, 1893; and literature under DONATIaM.
CIRCUMCISION: Strictly and properly, the removal of the foreskin (or a portion of it), accomplished by drawing the part forward and cutting transversely‑whence the name, from circumcidere, " to cut around." The word is loosely used, however, and often does not have this precise signification. Mutilations of the sexual organs of both male and female are common as general

niroumo
Oiidca
teroiwn.
national or tribal customs of peoples in the barbarous or eemicivilized state. The first of such mutilations to become known to modern Europe
was circumcision as practised by Jews Meaning and Mohammedans (true circumcision
and Use of	as defined above), by whom the cus
the Tam.	tom has been camel on to the higher
	stages of culture. When wider knowl
edge of the	earth and its inhabitants brought to
light other more or less similar customs, it was natu
ral to give to each the name already known. So
it has come	about that practises differing widely in
operative method and results, if not in significance
anti origin,	are all alike called " circumcision,
and the term, in actual usage, is almost synonymous with mutilation of the sexual organs. A complete and satisfactory study of circumcision has not yet been published. When it is, the first endeavor will necessarily be to clear up the confusion of thought manifest in this vague use of the term and resulting from it. Preliminary to a fruitful investigation, the various mutilations moat be precisely defined and named, their relations must be determined, and such se may not properly be classed and considered with circumcision must be set aside. Incidentally this introductory study will probably modify somewhat‑perhaps very considerably‑the statements now common concerning the wide extent of circumcision, ascribing it as an indigenous practise to Africa, Asia, North and South America, Australia, sad the islands of the Pacific.
In the search for significance and origin practically no help is to be obtained directly from any people who circumcise. The explanation uniformly given and considered quite sufficient by the
givers is " We follow the custom of the Significance fathers." Indirectly, however‑by and noting and comparing details of the
Origin.	operation, and acts and remarks con‑
nected with it or with the circumcised and uncircumcised statue‑‑significance may be dis‑
covered. Circumcision serves as a national o tribal sign (Hebrews, Jews, and certain African
tribes), or a mark of distinction for classes or individuals (ancient Egypt [?], cf. Joaephus, Apion
ii. 14; Clement of Alexandria, Strom., i. lb; Orige on Rom. ii. 13; negroea of the Niger delta, ef.
Journal o f the Anthropological Institute, xxix., ne aer.,u., 1899, p. b8). It passes as a bodily adorn
went (cf. the peculiar Masai mutilation, best de‑
scribed in Yerhandlungen tier Berliner Genellacha
felt Anthropologic, Apr. 27, 1895, pp. [302}‑[303]
cf. H. H. Johnston, The Kilima‑njaro Expedition,
London, 1888, p. 412, note). It is regarded as hygienic precaution or grounded in reasons o
physiology (for cleanliness, to moderate sexual desire, to prevent venereal diseases, to secure off‑
spring, to remove as abnormal development, etc.).
The operation marks the entrance to maturit, being closely connected with the so‑called initiation ceremonies, and sometimes a severe test of co
and endurance (cf. C. Niebuhr, BeechreeTrung ‑von
Arabian, Copenhagen, 1772, p. 269; R. F. Bur
ton, Personal Narrative o f a Pilgrimage to E
Medinah and Meccah, vol. iii., London, 1856, p.
courage
THE NEW 9CHAFF‑HERZOG
r
a
w
a
y note; * David Livingstone, Missionary Trawls
	and Research, in South Africa, New York, 1858,
	pp. 184‑165; Zeitachrift far Ethnologic, vi., 1874,
	pp. 37‑3g; C. M. Doughty, Travels in Arabia Dener
	ta, vol. i., Cambridge, 1888, pp.128‑129; accounts for
	South America, collected by Plose, see below); the
	circumcised state is necessary to the full enjoyment
	of the rights and privileges of manhood (cf. refer
	ences already cited and Zeitachrift fur allgemeine
	Erdkunde, new Folge, iv., 1858, p. 357, for the
	island of Rook, east of New Guinea; J. Sibree, The
	Great African Island [Madagascar], London, 1880,
	p. 217). Such explanations may account for the
	retention of the practise in later times; but they are
	speculations of a more advanced culture and do not
	indicate the origin, which moat be consistent with
	primitive knowledge and thought. Nor is the
	origin found by naming circumcision a rite of
	religion. It remains to explain why and how this
	peculiar mutilation became a religious rite, and the
	attempts to . do eo (making it a development of
	phallic worship, or of human sacrifice as a substitu
	tionary act, or symbolic) are, like the explanations
	already referred to, products of later times and too
	conjectural to be convincing. AB smatter of fact,
	in moat cases religious significance is not apparent.
	It has been asserted among the ancient Mexicans;
	but a careful examination of the early accounts
	offers little support for the statement that they
	either circumcised or practised any distinctly sexual
	mutilation. It ie found among Hebrews and Mo
	hammedans. The case of the former will be con
	sidered below. The latter have adopted it as a
	part of their religion because the first Mohammed
ans observed it, and with them it was already the
	"custom of the fathers." The more intelligent seem
	to have regarded it as one of the requirements of
common decency (it is not commanded in the
	Koran, but taken for granted‑‑cf. the fact that
	there is no mention of circumcision in the decalogue
or the older laws of the Pentateuch. The com
	mentators class it ae one of the usages of fi(rah,
" natural religion "; cf. J. Wellhausen, Rate .arabi•
	ashen Heidentuma, Berlin, 1897, pp. 167 aqq.). The
	Bedouin women of Medain Salih may be allowed
	to speak for the more ignorant and primitive (of.
	Doughty, ut sup., vol. i., p. 410). And some con
	nection with the sexual life is the significance most
	frequent, most prominent, and moat primitive, so
	far as information goes (cf. references already cited
	and Zeitachrift Pr Ethnologic, x., 1878, p. 399;
ftEdinburgh Medical Journal, a., 1864‑65, p. 222;
Revue d'Anthropologie, 2d set., iv., 1881, p. 292;
~,	'Verhandlungen tier Berliner Geseflschaft fur Anthro‑
pologie, Apr. 28, 1877, p. [180]; Zeitaelirift fur
fEthnologic, x., 1878, p. 18; A. Bastian, Die deutsche
Expedition an tier Loango‑Kuate, Jena, 1874, p.
177; Riedel and Valentijn for Dutch East Indies,
).
quoted in Plow, Knabenbeachneidung, pp. 21, 22,
24). To conclude that the primary significance is
indicated herein is consistent with the knowledge
and conditions of the time when circumcision must

*The note ie omitted in later editions of Burton. It ie
copied by Julius Wellhsueen in the first edition of his Retie ambieehan Heideniume (Berlin, 1887). D. 215, end omitted
80~	in the second edition

119	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
have arisen; it is easier to explain the other significances as secondary to this than to explain it as secondary to any of them; and the conclusion is confirmed by the fact and phenomena of " female circumcision " (improperly so called), i.e., the cutting off of the internal labia, which is almost, if not quite, as common se the male mutilation and as a rule accompanies it‑a fact which has generally been ignored and its significance strangely overlooked.
In the circumcision of Hebrews and Jews three things are noteworthy: (1) Its marked religious significance; (2) the early age at which
Hebrew the operation is performed; (3) the sad Jewish absence of all trace of a female muti‑
Circum‑ lation. Evidence is not at hand to
	vision.	prove indisputably whether these
		features are original or secondary.
The Biblical data are scanty, and when they were
committed to writing primitive practises were
already followed because they were " the custom
of the fathers." Circumcision is stated to be " a
token of the covenant " and the covenant itself,
and its institution is attributed to the Almighty
(Gen. xvii.10‑‑11). It was regarded as the indis
pensable requisite to the right relation with God,
participation in his worship, and s share in his favor
being exacted of " strangers " and slaves (Gen.
xvii.12‑14; Ex. xii. 43‑48)‑‑in later times of prose
lytes. The popular mind went a step further and
looked upon circumcision as the guaranty o€ the
divine favor, a conception strenuously combated
by the prophets (Jer, iv. 4, vi. 10, ix. 25‑26;
Ezek. aliv. 9; cf. Dent. a. 18, age. 6). These
ideas appear in the New Testament (Acts vii. 8,
51, xv. 1; Rom. ii. 28‑29, iv. 11). Indications
are not lacking, however, that in its origin and early
significance Hebrew circumcision did not differ
from that of other peoples.* If the statement that
" Iehmad was thirteen years old when he was
circumcised " (Gen. avii. 26) preserves an old and
true tradition, it indicates that the age in early
times was the usual one of maturing manhood.
The account of a general circumcising at Gilgal in
the time of Joshua (Josh. v. 2‑9) has still more the
mark of an old tradition, which the scribe who
wrote it down thought necessary to explain in the
light of the custom of his own time (verses 4‑7
being generally considered an interpolation); if
so, it evidences that the Hebrews originally cir
cumcised at the same age as other peoples, and
the circumcision of a number at one time, with the
hint of a special place of circumcision, is in accord
with custom frequently found (cf. B. 8tade, in
ZATW, vi., 1886, pp. 132‑142). The use of flint
knives (cf. Ex. iv. 25) is also noteworthy, being
a circumstance not uncommon, even after better
cutting tools have been obtained, and indicating,
perhaps, the antiquity of the practise. The Dinah
story (Gen. axxiv.) makes circumcision a pre
requisite to marriage. The passage Ex. iv. 24‑‑26,
commonly called (with slight reason) J's account
a Cf. 9tsdae, quoted in Ploee; $nabenbuehneiduno. n. 12: " In preezilic time circumcision in Israel was solely a tribal sign; only in the Exile did it acquire the s3gniliadaos of a religious symbol (Heb. otA)."
of the origin of circumcision, is evidently a mutilated and incomplete fragment of a longer narrative, and the text of what is preserved is uncertain. Ire meaning is well‑nigh unintelligible and it affords no secure basis for inference. Yet, if anything is dear from it, it is a connection between circumcision and marriage or the sexual life (for an interesting discussion of this passage, tracing parallels with the use made of the severed foreskin by various tribes, ef. H. P. Smith, in JBL, aav.,1906, pp. 1d‑‑24).
Cssai.>es C. 8sxxrasrt.
Bnanroassrer: The literature is enormous, but much of it may be dismissed as " freakish," the subject being am which has naturally proved attractive to erratic minds; almost all of the more serious treatises consider the prso• ties too exclusively from the Biblical or Jewish point of view. The beet treatment in existence is that of H. Ploss, is Des Kind in Brouah and Big* der YBtker, 2d ed.. LotDei0. 1884, vol. i.. DD. 847r394, with which should be compered the chapter on Der Ab>ch7uas der $%nderjahre, vo1 ii.. pp. 411‑448. The same author's l>tenhi&fiichu and EfAnolapiacha fiber $,wbenbeschneiduny, Leipsie, 1888 (reprinted from Archie for Ouchichte der ;ifedicin and ~sedicini~ (ieapraphie, viii.. 1886), is s partial repetition of what is contained in the earlier work with not much that is new. An article, Die BeeeAneidunp, by R. Andrea, in Atrhiv NIr Anthroyolopie, :iii (1880). pp. 68‑78, is worth consulting with Ploee, who by no mesas exhausted all the materiel available when he wrote. Binge then a large amount of valuable mattes has accumulated in the pages of anthropologioal and ethnographical journals, the works of special investigators, and books of travel. The studies of the natives of Australia by Baldwin Spencer F. J. Gillen, A. W. Howitt, and others may be specially mentioned. Die BeaAnsidunp in ihrrr DaacAi"ichen, ethnopraphiadwn„ relipiBsan and rnedidnisehen Bedeulunp, ed. A. Glsasbarg, Berlin, 1898. is a cane treatment of various phases of the subject. The works on the Moesic law_ Old Testament theology, Hebrew archeology, sad the Biblical oommentariee may be consulted for the conventional treatment; and for Jewish conceptions and prsotisas, JA iv. 92‑102.
CIRCUMCISION OF CHRIST, FESTIVAL OF. See Nrw‑Ys.,tx'a FrsTivAl..

CISTERCIAN, eie‑ter'ehiana.

Origin and Character of the Order (1i). Golden Age of the Order (g 2). Gradual Decay of the Order (1 3). History Since the Reformation (14).
A certain Robert (d. 1108; life in ASS, Apr., iii.
862‑878) retired from his position as prior at Mon
tier Is Cells to become head of a company of an
chorites in the forest of Molgme, northwest of
Dijon. The monks objected to his strict rule,
however, and in 1098 with twenty followers he
		withdrew and founded a monastery
	:. Origin at Meaux (Let. Ciatercium, 20 m. se.
	sad Char‑ of Dijon) in Burgundy. A papal
aster of the command required him to return to
	Order. Moldme (1099), and he was succeeded
		as abbot at Cftesua. by Alberie, who
composed the Inatituta monachomn CiBtercienattsm
de Motianw roeniantdum. Alberio was succeeded by
the able and pious Englishman Herding (or Stephen;
see HARDINp), who came near seeing the end of the
monastery for want of novices. But the en
trance of the young Bernard (see BIDRNAI3D or
CraravAVx) and thirty of his friends brought s
change. From this time on the number of monks
increased and daughter monasteries were estab
lished‑at La Fertd, 1113; Pontigny,1114; Morimud

THE NEW SGHAFF‑HERZOG
and Clairvaux, 1115. Bernard became abbot of the last. To these establishments others were added by Citenux and the daughter foundations. It soon appeared necessary to regulate the relation of the monasteries to one another, and this was done in a manner which formed a new stage in the development of monasticism; for the first time a union of monasteries was effected by a formal constitution. The Charts. charitatis, the result of the deliberations of the abbots, formed the‑basis, which was further expanded by resolutions‑ of subsequent general chapters.
The characteristic peculiarities of the order may be comprised in the following points: (1) A strict observance of the letter of the rule of Benedict. (2) The greatest simplicity, even poverty, in the mode of life; the very churches should be devoid of all show and adornment. (3) The subsistence of the monasteries to be derived exclusively from agriculture and cattle‑raising‑an arrangement from which sprang the importance that the order obtained in the cultivation of the land and colonization. (4) Besides the monks, lay brothers (conversi, laici., bartxiti) are also to be received; as the monk, in accordance with the regulations, while‑ not' freed entirely from labor, has mostly to devote himself to devotion and choir‑service, so the lay brother is chiefly occupied with manual labor; the example of Mary and Martha is often quoted; there were also laborers (mercenarii, afterward called /amiliares) mentioned as early as the statutes of Alberie, who were freemen serving for pay (since the possession of serfs was precluded on principle). (5) As concerns the relation of parent and daughter monasteries, each monastery has a certain authority over its filiations. At the head stands Citeaux, but the four oldest under‑monasteries also enjoy an exceptional position: their abbots visit the mother monastery once every year, and with Citeaux, one of them stands at the head of each of the five divisions (line&,) of the order. But all these authorities ass subject to the general chapter, which meets annually at Cftesux, in which all abbots have a voice, and which has not only the highest legislative power, but also the decision in all cases of questions which may arise. (fi) It was considered highly important at the beginning that there should be no loosening of diocesan bonds. The foremost representative of this idea is Bernard (cf. De moribus et offictisria• 33‑37, in MPL, clxxxii. g30‑‑834; De Conaid., III. iv. 4‑18). Afterward,
however, this principle was greatly neglected. I
almost all these regulations can be perceived
contrast to those of the Cluniacenaians, and this
contrast was intentional, for the latter were con eidered as having apostatized from the true nature
of monasticism. Bernard also at first was severe
and bitter against them (Epist., i.), but later he was
much more lenient (APol. ad GuQ.). Peter the
Venerable of Cluny was still more friendly (cf .
e.g., his Epiat., i. 28, in MPL, clxxxix. 112‑159, iv. 17=ccx3ix. of the letters of Bernard, MPL, clxaxii. 3981?). Thus the tension was relaxed, but did not disappear altogether. Devotion to the Virgin Mary, the tendency of the time, was not only accepted by the Cistercians, but their fervency
nature
heightened it. Mary is the patroness of the order; the general chapter of 1134 declares that all churches of the order shall be dedicated to her, and it devoted to her a special liturgical office on Saturday.
The golden age of the order extends to the second half of the thirteenth century. Different
causes contributed to a powerful s. Golden growth of the order: besides tie Age of the monastic tendency of the age, there
Order.	were especially the personality and
the labor of Bernard, who is considered as the real saint of the order, and from him the Cistercians are frequently called Bernardines. Pious contemplation was coupled with activity in agriculture and strictly regulated authoritative relations and government, in which all took part. At the death of Bernard the number of convents was 288, and in vain did the general chapter try to atop their increase; at the end of the century there were 529 abbeys, to which were added yet 142 in the thirteenth century until about 1270. Then began a standstill. During the fourteenth century forty‑one were added, m the fifteenth century twenty‑six, so that the whole number was 738 during the medieval period. In the mean
time some foundations were discontinued: to the tined Clarceuallis belong 353 (half of the entire number). From France to Hungary, Poland, and
Livonia; from Sweden to Portugal; from Scotland to Sicily, Cistercian monasteries were found. During the period of prosperity the connection with Citeaux and the other mother monasteries was maintained. In the outward construction of the monasteries as well as in the mode of life of the monks, especially in the regulation of religious worship, a conformity existed which united the Cistercians of the different countries among themselves and separated them from all other communities. In the Spanish peninsula the knightly orders of Alcantasa, Calatrava, and Truxillo (qq.v.);
in Portugal the order of Aviz (q.v.) were connected with the Cistercians In northeastern Germany and further to the east the Cistercians rendered great service to civilization by their colonizing activity. Marshes were drained and forests were cleared; orchards and vineyards were planted on a gigantic scale; and cattle and sheep were raised. The improvement of its property was the principal aim of each monastery. This period has been lucidly described by Winter (cf., however, Hauck,
n RD, iv., Leipsic, 1903). During the twelfth century a and into the middle of the thirteenth the Cistercians
a occupied an important position in the government
of the Church. Not a few of them were made
cardinals. Arnold of Cfteaux under Innocent III.
e undertook the crusade against the Albigenses.
as Innocent III. charged them with so. many things
e that the chapter of 1211 asked for moderation.
, Honorius III. and lnnoccaf IV. overwhelmed them
with privileges.
In the task of influencing spiritually the masses the mendicant friars took precedence of the Cistercians. The great facility with which they went from place to place made them at the same time more efficient instruments for the popes.

121	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cistercian&
Tension between the two orders is evident in the exclusion of the mendicant friars from the studies
of the Cistercians, and in the rule that
3. Gradual no member of the order should go
Decay of to confession to a priest of another
the Order. order. Yet the decay of the order was
due mainly and essentially to inner causes. The riches accumulated through industry and economy gradually exercised a detrimental influence on the life of the brothers. The remark of Caesarius of Heisterbach (q.v.) on the ancient monasteries, "Religion brought forth riches, riches destroyed religion," proved true also with regard to the Cistercians. To this must be added the impossibility of further colonization. Deprived of its strongest outward incentive, the order rapidly declined in inner zeal and energy. The life became lax. General chapters sought to stem the tide, and popes also tried to interfere (as Clement IV. in 1265 and Benedict XII. in 1335). The fourteenth century and later witnessed the financial decay of many monasteries. Under the laxity of discipline and the increasing demoralization the former industry and strict economy suffered. While it proved impossible to reform the entire order, two new congregations were organized in the fifteenth century, the Congregatio regularis observsntice regnorum Hispsnicorum in Spain (1425) and the Congregatio Italics S. Bernardi, definitively confirmed by Julius II. in 1511 in Lombardy and Tuscany, which separated almost entirely from the order and observed greater strictness. It must also be mentioned that, under the incitement of the mendicant friars, the Cistercians cultivated scientific pursuits to a certain degree and founded sttulia generslia, of which the college of St. Bernard at Paris was the most important. These measures, however, were not sufficient to induce scientific productiveness on a large scale, and services rendered by the Cistercians in that line are insignificant compared with those of the Dominicans and Franciscans.
Through the Reformation the order lost all its possessions in England and Scotland, Denmark,
Sweden and Norway, and the greater
4. History part in Germany. It retained them
Since the in France, but after the concordat of
Reforms‑ 1516 it suffered under the appoint‑
tioa.	ment of abbots in commendsm by the
royal power. Even the Counterreformation did not help the order much: It had no more any important practical tasks, and the large body of the order proved incapable of returning to the austerity of ancient monasticism. Nevertheless, efforts of this kind were not wanting and led in part to the formation of new branches, such ‑as the Congregatio Lusitsna, confirmed in 1567‑‑by Pius V., the Feuillants after 1506, who spread in France and Italy, and others in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The reform, surpassing in austerity even the Carthusiana, which was introduced by Abbot RancS in the monastery of La Trappe did not attain to much importance until after the French Revolution. From these branches must be distinguished the congregations, improperly so called, which united after the fashion
of provinces, when the lines and the relation of filiation had lost much of their importance, such as the Polish or Pelpline and the Upper German, with the monastery Salem (Salmansweiler) as center. Many interesting details concerning conditions in the seventeenth century are learned from notes of a monk of Raittenhaslach (Drey Raiser reach Cislertz, Cistereiereser‑Chronik, iv.,1892, 45 sqq.) in 1605, 1609, and 1615, and in Joseph Meglinger's Iter Cisterciense von 1667 (MPL, clxxxv. 156r1622), and from the journey of Abbot Laurentius Scipio of Osaegg to the general chapter in the year 1667(Cistercienser‑Chronik, viii., 1896, 289). In spite of all losses, the number of Cistercian monasteries was still great in the last quarter of the eighteenth century. From that time on the order received blows which left only a few scanty remains of this once powerful community. In Austria Joseph II. confiscated a large number of the monasteries; the French Revolution dissolved the order in its mother country; its most venerable places, Cfteaux and Clairvaux, have since then been partly destroyed. New losses were caused by the decree of 1803 passed by the imperial deputation and by the secularization in Prussia in 1810. In 1834 the abbeys in Portugal and 'in 1835 those in Spain were abolished, and the like fate befell the Polish under Nicholas I. On the other hand, a restoration of the former abbey Senanque in the Vaucluse took place in 1854, which was followed by the founding of some others.
At present the order consists of: I. The Observantia comvaunis, comprising (1) the Congregalio S. Bernardi in Itslia ; (2) the vicariate in Belgium; (3) the Austro‑Hungarian province of the order; (4) the Swiss‑German province. II. The Observantia medic, to which belong (1) the congregation of Senanque; (2) the Trappenses mitigati of Caaamari. III. The Obsewvantis stricts (Trappists), who, however, were entirely separated in 1892 from the jurisdiction of the general abbot chosen by the Observsntia communis. More particulars concerning the present organization and rules of the different congregations are given in the article Ueber die Obserusnzen der Cistereienser in the Cistercienser‑Chronik, vii (1895), 117 sqq.
S. M. DEiTTBCH.
BIaLIMIRAPHY: The only reliable source for the early his‑
tory of Cttesua is the Exord%um ord%nia Ciatercienaia (the so‑called Exord%um partrum), by Stephen Handing, in MPL, clxvi. 1501‑10. Of a partly legendary character is the Exordium magnum O. C., MPL, clxxav. 99b‑1198. For the time from lllb to 1153 Bernard of Clairvauz and the older biographies of him must be consulted. An important source for the history of the order are the resolutions of the general chapters, of which the most oopious collection is is Martkne and Durand, Thesaurus
novas, iv. 1243‑1848, Paris, 1717. The basis of all later works on the order is L. Janauschek, Origittum CiateN cisnaium, vol, i., Vienna, 1877, containing the first trustworthy list of all Cistercian abbeys. Collections of the regulations of the order are contained in P. Guignard, Las Monument primiti/a de la rt?gle Ciatercienne Dijon, 1878; Nomoatimn aeu antiquioree O. C. oonatitutionea a Juliano Paris, Fukardimontie abbafa coZlectas, Paris. 1884, od%tio ndaa . . . usque ad rostra temyora deducts a R. P.
Hug. BEjalon, 9oleemes, 1892. Consult further: C. de
Viseh, Bibliotheoa aeriptoream saeri O. C., Dousi, 1849,
Cologne, 1858; B. Tisaier, Bibllotheaa padrum C%atercien
aium, 2 vols., Bonofonte, 18809; Angelus Manrique,
Ciatercienaium . . . annalium tom% iv, Lyons, 1842‑59
(reaching to the year 1238; very important, yet to be

CitiesXLsin Palestine
used with critical oars): D'Arbois de Jubainville: etudes
our t'EWt ;nikrieur den abbaya Cieterciennes au It. et au
Is. eie?eJes. Paris. 1850; Frans Winter. Die Cistemsenaer
des norddatlichea Deutschtands Us sum Auftreten der Beb
telorden, a vale., Goths, 1868‑71 (an excellent work).
Many contributions are found in Sludien u"d bfitkilunpen
aua dam Bened%ktiner and Ciatercienserordsn, WVrsburg.
1879 eqq., and in the Cietarcisneerahronik. Bregens, 1889
eqq. The literature on the different monasteries is found
in Jsnsuechek, ut sup. Additional material may
found in J. L. von Moeheim. Institutes of Becl. Hirt., ii. 44, London, 1883: R. C. Trench, Lecturer on Medieval Church Hut., pp. 110 eqq., New York, 1878; H. C. 8heldon, Hist. o/ the Christian Church: the Mediarnaf CAurc)t. DP. 271‑287, ib. 1894; W. W. Capes, Rnp. Church in l.ffh and 15th Centuries, passim, ib. 1900; W. R. W. 8tephene, Enp. Church, IOBtI‑It7t, pp. 213, 266‑283, fb. 1901; Cistercian Order, its Ob7set, Us Ruts. BY a r Priest. Cambridge, U. 6., 1906; W. A. P. Mason. Beginnings of the Cistercian Order, in Transactions of the Royal Histonaal ,Society, nv (1906): Schaff, Christian Church, v. i., pp, $37 sqq.
CITIES Ift PALEST=.
origin (5 1). Cities and villages (5 2). Sites and Names (5 3). Features and Characteristics (5 4).
The Israelitic cities went of the Jordan is moat cases were of Canaanite origin. An astonishing
number of fortified places is named in I. Origin. the Amarna letters and in the Egyptian lists. These waned cities were ruled by petty princes, whose authority extended to the neighboring villages. Examples of such strongholds are Jerusalem, Ge$er, Lachish, Megiddo, etc. The Old Testament narrators were well aware that these cities were conquered by the Israelites only at a relatively late period (cf., e.g., the case of Jerusalem, II Sam. v. 8‑9). There were, however, cities of Israelitic origin. Many settlements of the invading tribes must have grown gradually into villages and cities, which were later walled in (Josh. six. 50; I Kings xii. 25). In the Greek period the founding of cities was quite usual; in many cases, however, some older city was merely enlarged and renamed. Herod the Great wen especially devoted to building (see HEHOD wNn $m Fwmtzy). Ca;sarea, Phasa:lis, and Herodeion, Alexandreion, Hyrcania, and other strongholds were built during his reign.
City and village are always distinguished in the I Old Testament; a city is a walled stronghold (`sr hornah, Lev. axv. 30), in contrast to the unprotected villages and the scattered hamlets (1.apri'm.
Lev. xxv. 31; kepharim, I Chron. s. Cities axvii. 25). Further, in the cities, the sad seats of the princes and the lords of Pillages. the land, civilisation made more rapid progress than in the open country. At times this distinction was unusually marked, for, in the various migrations which overran the laud, the invaders first occupied the open country, while the cities remained for a long time in the hands of the original inhabitants. Among both the Canaanites and the Israelites the unprotected villages were under the jurisdiction of the cities (cf. the expression " mother in Israel," applied to a city, II Sam. xx. 19, sad "a city sad the villages thereof," Num. xxi. 25, 32, xaxii. 42). In the Greek period the distinction was that the cities (pdeie) had a oon‑
TBE NEW BCHAFF‑HERZOG
stitution and privileges different from those of the villages (kbmai ; cf. kihnapoleia in Mark i. 38).
The choice of a site for a settlement was largely determined by the presence of a supply of
water, though Jerusalem is a note‑
3. Sites worthy exception. Numerous places
	and	are named after their fountaine
Names. En‑gedi (" Fountain of the Kid"),
En‑shemesh (" Fountain of the Sun "), and others. Another consideration was that the site should afford a certain protection; elevations were therefore preferred. All larger fortified cities were built upon hills or mountain elopes. It is generally difficult to explain the names of towns; except where the common appellations are used (`ttyin, "fountain"; bath, "house"; `ir, "city"; etc.). The common attempts at etymological explanation may generally be rejected, for the names usually belong to the ancient pre‑Ieraelitic language, and have often changed greatly is the course of centuries. In the explanations. given in the Old Testament the name has often evidently given rise to the legend (e.g., Gilgal, which is explained to signify the rolling off of a reproach, Josh. v. 9). It may be remarked that many places bore the name of the divinity who was worshiped there (Beth‑el, " the Beat of El "; Beth‑shemesh, " the House of the Sun "; etc.). It is unlikely that two names were in use for the same place in the earliest period. Most of such cases found in the Old Testament seem either to have arisen from misunderstanding, or else to have been adapted for harmonietic.purposes. For example Jebus‑Jerusalem is a name freely invented from the tribal came of the Jebueites. Only in the Greek period did a change of names become the fashion (Samaria to Sebaste, etc.).
Aided by the excavations at Megiddo Taenach, Geser, Lachish, and elsewhere, the picture of an
ancient city can be reconstructed to a 4. Features certain extent. Confined to a small
and Char‑ space, with thick walls made of clay
actsristlcs, bricks or of medium‑sized rough‑
hewn stones, these cities may be compared in many respects to those found to‑day in Palestine. The streets were narrow and tortuous; the houses (see HOUSE) were small; and the gate or gates, close to which was the only open square (Gem. xxiii. 10; Ruth iv. 1; II Sam. xv. 2; II Kings vii. 1, etc.), were built in an angle of the wall. The houses usually had the natural rock for their rear wall; indeed, they were little more than enlarged caves built up is front. The roofs of the lower houses formed the street in front of those built higher up; paved streets are first found in the time of the Herode (Josephus, Ant., XX. ix. 7). A regular,police is not employed even now, but night watchmen are mentioned is the Old Testament (Ps. exsvii. 1; Cant. iii. 3, v. 7; Ira. xxi. 11). The work of cleaning the streets was left to the dogs (Ian. v. 25; see Doos). Trades and shops of the same kind were grouped together in particular streets (see COMMERCE AMONG TAE ANCIENT IaRAEL1TH'8; HeNnIORAlrrs, HEBREW). Every walled city must have been well supplied with cisterns in the rocks, for it was rarely possible to

I$8	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	0
01rynr tine
introduce water from outside within the circuit of the walls; uncovered pools were common (tee JERUSALEM; WATER SUPPLY IN PALESTINE).
I. BENZnNoER.
Brsrtooswrar: A. Billerbeok, Der. Patung8bau On allen Orient. Leipeio, 1903; the publications of the PEP, particularly the Survey of Western Palestine, 7 vole., and of Eastern Palestine, 1 vol.; C. R. Condor, Tent Work in Palestine. 1880; idem. HetA and Moab, 1883; (i. 6ehuthacher Across the Jordan, 1888 idem, The Jaulan, 1888; (i. Armstrong, Names and Playa in the O, and N. T. and Apocrypha, 1887; F. Petrie, Tel e1 Hay, laehieh, 1891; F. J. Bliss, A Mound of Many Cities, 1894; and the Quarterly Statenunta. Consult also the literature under Pernerma and under the articles discussing the several cities.
CITY MISSIONS.
I. In Germany. II. In the United States.
The New York City Mission (1I).
I. In Germany: City missions constitute one form of home mission work, necessitated by the peculiar conditions of life in large cities and because the needs and moral shortcomings caused by these conditions can be supplied and corrected most usefully and effectively by a union of existing activities and by a uniform plan of action. A city mission was organized in Glasgow in 1826 by David Nasmiths (q.v.), who as secretary of twenty‑three Christian societies saw the necessity of uniting them more closely and employing a number of faithful workers in missionary service without connection with an individual congregation. His suggestion was followed by the city of London in 1835, under the vigorous cooperation of Lord Shaftesbury (q.v.). In Germany it was J. H. Wichern (q.v.) who, after his return from the Wittenberg Church Diet of 1848, suggested among the friends of the Rauhss Ha= in Hamburg the organization of the " Hamburg Society for the Inner Mission," calling attention to the London City Mission. His association had the twofold task of bringing about a closer union of existing agencies and practising missionary activity in Hamburg after the model of London, with due regard, however, to specifically German conditions, by organizing special committees for the visitation of the poor, for the care of needy artisans, for journeymen and apprentices, for the circulation of good literature, for the union of young merchants, and for the suppression of public immorality. In course of time these separate committees were replaced by local district societies which were in close connection with their respective parishes and became the basis for similar societies in other cities. The first suggestion for similar efforts in Berlin proceeded also from Wichern. But real success was not attained here until 1874, when Dr. B. B. BrUckner, general superintendent of Berlin, devoted his energies to this work. His efforts were continued in 1877 by Court Preacher Adolf Sttscker and Privy Councilor J. R,. Bosse, the latter minister of public worship and instruction. They were assisted by two theological inspectors and thirteen city missionaries. In Apr., 1906, there were six theological inspectors and sixty‑two city missionaries, including eight women. During 1905, 95,000 visits were made, including 4,677 because of unbaptized children, 3,539 because of
couples who had discarded the marriage ceremony, and 959 because of children brought into the criminal courts. Thirty‑three hundred children were enrolled is sixty‑nine Sunday‑schools and religious services were held in twenty‑four places. Other organisations which serve missionary purposes in Berlin are the " Young Men's Christian Association " (since 1882); " St. Michael's Christian Association " (since 1883); an association called " Service for the Unemployed " (since 1882); and especially the " City Committee (now called " Main Association ") for the Inner Mission " (since 1899). According to statistics of 1899, seventy other cities of Germany had followed the example of Hamburg and Berlin. There is a distinction made between assistants of the congregations (Gemeindehelfer) and city missionaries in the more restricted sense of the word. The former confine themselves to the work of deacons, while the duties of city missionaries are of an evangelizing nature. The latter, therefore, aim to serve classes who are compelled to work on Sundays, and those who have no permanent home such as fishermen, seamen, the unemployed, and prisoners. They also combat drunkenness and immorality, circulate Christian tracts, and lecture to reconcile social distinctions. In 1888, under the influence of the present emperor and empress, there was called into existence the " Evangelical Church Aid Society " to support all efforts for the suppression of irreligious and immoral conditions in Berlin and other large cities and in the industrial districts of Prussia. A select committee of this association supports the existing city missions and tries to call others into life. (H. RAHLENHECg.)
13. In the United States: City mission work is done in moat of the large; cities of the United States, the call for such work being specially urgent here because so large a part of the enormous emigration from all over the world finds its permanent home in our cities. Many of these people who leave their church homes on the other side of the ocean would drift into utter godlessness were it not for the effort of the city missionary, who seeks them out and brings them into vital connection with some existing church organization. Furthermore, the inevitable tendency toward the separation of the well‑to‑do classes from the very poor leaves whole sections of some of our cities with only those whose incomes hardly suffice to maintain church services. Unless they are to be wholly abandoned, some outside means must be provided for their religious upbuilding‑a legitimate field for city mission activity.
There are three ways in which city mission work is carried on in the United States. Individual churches establish missions, which the mother church supports, and for which it furnishes both volunteer and paid workers. Such missions are often organized as churches, having the ordinances, but dependent on the mother church both for the necessary means of support and for ecclesiastical government. In other cases a denomination organizes a city mission society, appealing to the denomination for the needed financial support, and directing the work along denominational tines. In New York City, for example, there are such

City missions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Olark
societies managed by the Methodist, the Baptist, and the Protestant Episcopal denominations. The third method is that of lmdenominational work. The different denominations smite their forces, and put missionaries into the field, who are not supposed to teach the distinctive tenets of the denominations, but work directly and exclusively for the moral and spiritual regeneration of those to whom they are sent.
Taking the New York City Mission and Tract Society, as the largest and oldest of such oganizationa, as a norm, the following may serve as an illustration of the methods of work
:. The New This society began over eighty years York City ago, and at first was purely volunteer
	Mission.	in its corps of visitors. The aim was
		to visit the churchless population,
and invite them to the house of God, at the eagle
time leaving at each dwelling some religious litera
ture. In 1833 the first paid agent was employed,
as the work had grown beyond the ability of the
volunteers to accomplish all that was needed. At
present there are between sixty and seventy paid
workers, the majority of them being women, since
women can do much work among the tenement
house population that men can not accomplish.
In 1866 the society was incorporated so as to be
able to hold property.
As churches followed their members to more favored portions of the city, large sections were left without church accommodations, making it necessary for the visiting missionaries to establish tenement house prayer‑meetings and Sundayschools. Some of those who were thusinfiuenced for good asked to have the ordinances administered to them, which necessitated the erection of suitable structures for worship, and the carrying on of proper church activities. The first of these churches was built by the City Mission in 1867 in a crowded part of the city. Because of the cosmopolitan nature of the population, preaching and teaching is carried on in English, German, Italian, Yiddish, Arabic, Greek, Japanese, and in English among the Chinese. In New York City overcrowding has gone on to an extent unknown elsewhere in the world. Many a block measuring only seven hundred feet by two hundred contains a population of 2,500 people. In certain districts whole blocks are filled with Israelites, while in others only Italians are to be found, and in yet others only Bohemians or negroes‑a condition which increases both the need and the difficulties of sty mission work.
In course of time the New York City Mission found it necessary to employ regularly trained nurses for those who for various good reasons could not go to a hospital. Furthermore, as time passed and experience grew it was found that many other things besides the preaching of the Word and the instruction of Sunday‑school scholars was called for. The result was the establishment of what are called is modern parlance " institutional churches," aiming to minister to the threefold nature of mss‑to his body, his mind, and his spirit. This necessitates kindergarten work, library and gymnasium facilities with appropriate attend‑
124
ante, fresh‑air work in the summer, and clubs of various kinds both for boys and girls.
Regularly ordained men administer the ordinances, and the women missionaries aid in the work of house‑to‑house visitation. Since trained workers can do the best work, the City Mission years ago established a regular training‑school. A building was purchased and fitted up where those in training live together under the case of a superintendent. The course is one year, and includes lectures and practical work. The total coat for each student is only $125.00 a year.
At present the City Mission owns property to the amount of about $600,000 free of encumbrance. This includes three coetly and well‑equipped church buildings, a Christian workers' home where the women missionaries live, a training‑school, and a sort of settlement house on the lower west aide of the city, which has already in it au organized Italian Church. The annual expenditure is about $65,000 a year, which comes from purely voluntary sources. The doctrinal basis of the churches formed under the care of the society is the Apostles' Creed. The churches, of which there are two German, two Italian, and two English, govern themselves in all matters spiritual, though the directors of the City Mission hold the veto right over any action that the churches may take. This right has never been exercised. The property is held by the society, but the churches have the use of it without payment other than the usual offertory taken for actual expenses. This does not suffice for the defraying of all outlay by any means, and the City Mission provides the balance. Since its establishment the City Mission has received about $375,000 in legacies besides large gifts for the erection of its church edifices.
A. F. SCHAUFFLER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On I. consult: E. G. Lehmann, Die Sfadb
mission, Leipeic, 1875; E. Kayser, Die evanpelieche Stadtmisason, Goths, 1890; E. Evers, Die Berliner Stadtmiaaion, Berlin, 1902 T. aehi;fer, Leit/aden der inneren Miaadon, Hamburg 1903 end the periodical Fliepende BlBtter aua dam Rauhen Hauae, 1849‑1907. On II. consult: S. L. Loomis, Modern Cities and the Religious Problems. New York, 1887: W. S. Ufford, Freak Air Charity in the United States, ib. 1897: E. Judson, The Institutional Church, ib. 1899: J. Strong, Religious Movements for Social Betterment, ib. 1900; W. H. Tollman, The Better New York, ib. 1904. The beet sources of information are afforded by the reports of the various societies, annual and in none cases monthly, e.g., of the New York City Mission and Tract Society, The Brooklyn City Mission and Tract Society, The City Mission Society of Boston, The Albany City Tract and Mission Society; also the Circulars of Informataon of the Armour Mission in Chicago. For London consult: J. M. Weylland, Thane Fifty Years, London, 1884 (deals with the London City Mission); C. Booth, Lice and Labour, 14 vole., ib. 1903 (in three aeries; one of these deals with the religious forces working upon city problems).
CIUDAD, JUAN (JOHN OF GOD). See eseR>:rY, BROTHERS OF.
CLAIRVAU%. See BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUx; CISTERCIANS.
CLAP, THOMAS: Fifth president of Yale College; b. at Scituate, Mass., June 26, 1703; d. in New Haven Jan. 7, 1767. He was graduated at Harvard 1722; was minister of Windham, Conn., from 1725 till his induction as president of Yale,

126	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Clark City Xissions
1740. He was already noted for stringency of discipline and pronounced Calvinism, and as president his course was somewhat arbitrary and autocratic, but nevertheless was marked by regard for sound scholarship and propriety. The college funds were increased in legitimate ways and two new buildings were added; the college church was organized and the professorship of divinity was established. He sympathized with the " Old Lights " in the disputes stirred up by Whitefield and the revival preaching of his time. He resigned the presidency in 1766, a few months before his death. Besides many controversial pamphlets he wrote An Essay on the Nature and Foundation of Moral Virtue and Obligation,* intended for a textbook (New Haven, 1765), and The Annals or History of Yale College (1766).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. B. Dexter, in the Papers of the New Haven
Colony Historical Society, v. 247‑274, New Haven, 1894.
CLARE (CLARA), SAINT, AND THE POOR CLARES: The founder of an order of women parallel to the Franciscans, and the order itself. Clara Scefi was born at Assisi, of a noble family, July 16, 1194. At the age of eighteen she was expecting to be married, when a sermon of St. Francis showed her the vanity of earthly things. Under his direction she put on sackcloth and went out to beg for the poor. On Palm Sunday (Mar. 18, 1212), she took the three vows, and went to reside provisionally in the Benedictine convent of St. Paul. Soon she was joined by her younger sister Agnes, and Francis made a little cloister for them near the church of St. Damian. Others, including her mother and youngest sister, joined her here; and she acted as head of the community until her death, Aug. 11, 1253. She was canonized by Alexander IV. in 1255.
The growth of her order was rapid; and it was not long before all the larger towns to which the Franciscans came had also a convent of Poor Clares. At the end of the sixteenth century, even after the Reformation had diminished the number, there were still 900 houses, with some 25,000 sisters, under the immediate direction of the general of the Franciscans, and a scarcely smaller number under the diocesan bishops.
Until 1219 Clare and her associates had nothing but the oral counsels of Francis to follow. In 1219 Cardinal Ugolino gave them the rule of St. Benedict, with some additions in the direction of severity. Later, Francis and Ugolind drew up for them a rule in twelve chapters, analogous to that of the Friars Minor. It prescribed the strictest poverty, confinement to the enclosure of the convent, fasting and abstinence, and prohibited the holding of any property, even by the convents. This rule was formally confirmed by Innocent IV. in 1246, and accepted by the majority of the convents. By degrees however, varieties of observance grew up, and in 1264 Pope Urban IV. attempted to enforce a revised rule, with certain mitigationa in the matter of fasting and income for their support. This was accepted in moat countries; but there were (and are still) some convents in Italy and Spain which adhered to the primitive rigor, and claimed the exclusive right to the name
Clarisses, while the others were known as Urbaniste. At the beginning of the fifteenth century the strict reform of St. Coleta, based upon the original rule of Francis and Ugolino, was introduced in all the convents over which she had influence. Upon the representation of the Franciscan John Capietrau to Eugenius IV. that the rule contained more than a hundred precepts binding under pain of grievous sin, the pope ruled in 1447 that the only precepts binding under pain of mortal sin should be those relating to the three vows, the enclosure, and the election or deposition of an abbess. This is still the case. The Capuchin Sisters, originating in Naples, 1538, and the Alcantarines, 1631, taking their name from the reform of St. Peter of Alcantara, are simply Clarieses of the strict observance. The Poor Clares have houses in England and Ireland. They established themselves in the United States in 1875, where they have (1907) five houses.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: ASB, August, ii. 739‑788; Life of St. Claire, Dublin, 1854; F. de Mole, Vie de S. Claire d'Aesiae, Paris, 1858; P. Jouhennesud, Vie do S. Claire d'Anise, Limoges, 1873; Joseph de Madrid, Vie, de S. Claire d'Aariae, Paris, 1880; E. wauer, Entakhuep and Auabreituny' lea Rlarieeenordsne, Leipeio, 1908. The Repula was published in Italian at Barcelona, 1844, and in French at Laval, 1851. On the order insult: E. Lempp, in ZKIi, aiii (1892), 181‑24b: Currier, Religious Orders, pp. 249‑‑252.
CLARENDON, CONSTITUTI=ONS OF. See Bxcs‑
zm, TaonAs.
CLARElYI (CLARElYIftI). See FxeNCrs, SAINT, or Assisi, AND THE FRAmciscAN ORDER, 111., 17.
CLARK, FRANCIS EDWARD: Congregationalist, founder of the United Society of Christian Endeavor; b. at Aylmer, Quebec, Sept. 12; 1851. He was graduated at Dartmouth is 1873 and Andover Theological Seminary in 1876, after which he was pastor of Williston Church, Portland, Me. (1876‑83), and of Phillips Church, South Boston (1883‑87). In 1881 he founded the Society of Christian Endeavor, and in 18$7 resigned his pastorate to devote his entire energies to its promotion. Since that year he has been president of the United Society of Christian Endeavor, and ,is also president of the World's Christian Endeavor Union and editor of The Christian Endeavor World, the official organ of the society. In the interest of the society he has traveled over the world. Among his publications may be mentioned Young People's Prayer Meetings (New York, 1887); Our Journey around the World (1894); World‑Wide Endeavor (Boston, f897); and A New Way around an Old World (New York, 1900).
CLARK, GEORGE WHITFIELD: Baptist; b. at South Orange, N. J., Feb. 15, 1831. He was graduated at Amherst in 1853 and Rochester Theological Seminary in 1855, and was pastor at New Market, N. J. (1855‑59), Elizabeth, N. J. (1859‑‑68), Balaton Spa, N. Y. (1868‑73), and Somerville, N. J. (1873‑77). He retired from the active ministry in 1877 on account of ill health, and since 1880 has been engaged in missionary, financial, and literary work for the American Baptist Publication Society. Besides a History

pl~arl~ce
THE NEW SCHAFF‑IiERZOG
of the First Baptist Church of Elisabeth, N. J. (Newark, 1863) and a Gospel Harmony in English (New York, 1870), he has written a Commentary on the New Testament (9 vole., Philadelphia, 1870‑1907).

CLARK, THOMAS MARCH: Second Protestant Episcopal bishop of Rhode Island; b. at Newburyport, Mass., July 4, 1812; d. at Middletown, Conn., Sept. 7, 1903. He was graduated at Yale 1831; studied in Princeton Theological Seminary 1833‑35 and was licensed as a Presbyterian at Newburyport 1835; was ordained priest in the Protestant Episcopal Church 1838; became rector of Grace Church, Boston, 1836; of St. Andrew's, Philadelphia, 1843; assistant at Trinity, Boston, 1847; rector of Christ Church, Hartford, 1851; was consecrated bishop of Rhode Island, 1854. His books include Lectures to Young Men on the Formation of Character (Hartford, 1852); The Primary Truths of Religion (New York, 1869); Readings and Prayers for Aid in Private Demotion (1888); Reminiscences (1895).

CLARK, WILLIAM ROBINSOft: Church of England; b. at Inverurie (13 m. n.w. of Aberdeen), Aberdeenshire, Scotland, Mar. 28, 1829. $e studied at King's College, Aberdeen, and Hertford College, Oxford (B.A., 1864), and was ordered deacon in 1857 and ordained priest in the following year. He was curate of St. Matthias', Birmingham (1857‑58) and of St. Mary Magdalene, Taunton, in 1858, where he was vicar 1859‑80. From 1870 to 1882 he was prebendary of Wells, and since 1883 has been professor of philosophy in Trinity College, Toronto. He was lecturer of St. George, Toronto, 1882‑85, and lecturer in history in Trinity College, Toronto, 1883‑91, as well as Baldwin lecturer in the University of Michigan in 1887, and Slocum lecturer in the same university in 1899. In 1900 he was elected president of the Royal Society of Canada. He translated Hagenbach'a History of Doctrines (3 vole., Edinburgh, 1880‑‑81) and the major portion of Hefele's History of the Councils (to 787, 4 vole., 1871‑96), and has written, besides other works, Witnesses to Christ (Baldwin Lectures; London, 1888); Saroortarola : his Life arid Times (1892); The Anglican Reformation (1896); The Paraclete (Slocum Lectures, 1900); and Pascal and Port Royal (1902).

CLARKE, ADAM: Wesleyan preacher, commentator, and theologian; b. at Moybeg (near Kilcronaghan, 2 m. e. of Draperatown), County Londonderry, Ireland, c. 1762; d, in London Aug. 28, 1832. He became a Methodist in 1778, and was in a succession an exhorter, local preacher, and regular preacher. His first circuit was that of Bradford, Wiltshire, to which he was appointed in 1782. He served in various places and traveled throughout Great Britain, achieving fame as a preacher, and being president of the British Conference in 1806, 1814, and 1822. After 1805 he held an appointment in London, where he was a member of the committee of the British and Foreign Bible Society for several years, and one of the advisers of its Oriental publications, in addition to editing certain ancient documents of state in continuation
of the Ftedera of Thomas Rymer. He resigned from this task in 1819, having retired four years previously, in view of his impaired health, to Millbrook, Lancashire, where he resided until his return to the vicinity of London in 1823. He was also active in the service of the Wesleyan Missionary Society from its inception in 1814, making two missionary journeys in 1826 and 182$ to the Shetland Islands, where he established Methodism. The moat important of his numerous works was his commentary on the Bible (8 vole., Liverpool, 1810‑26), which long had an extensive circulation. He also published a Biographical Dictionary (6 vole., London, 1802) and its supplement, The Biographical Miscellany (2 vole., 1806). His Miscellaneous Works were edited in thirteen volumes by J. Everett (London, 1836‑37).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: An Account of the Infancy. Religious and Literary Life of Adam Clarks, 3 vole., London, 1833 (vol. i. is autobiographical, vole. n., m. by his daughter. M. A. Smith, with an Appendix by his eon, J. B. B. Clarks).
Consult lives by J. Everett, London, 1843; J. W. Ethor‑
idge, ib. 1858: 8. Dune, ib. 1888; and DNB. a. 413‑414.

CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN: Unitarian; b. in Hanover, N. H., Apr. 4, 1810; d. in Boston June 8, 1888. He was graduated at Harvard 1829, and at the Cambridge Divinity School 1833; was pastor in Louisville, Ky., 18330; became pastor of the newly organized Church of the Disciples, Boston, 1841, and remained there till his death, with the exception of an interval between 1850 and 1853 when the church was temporarily disbanded. He was a director of the Unitarian Association from 1845, was chosen its secretary in 1859, and helped to form the National Conference of Unitarian Churches in 1865. He was a leader of the antislavery movement, and an efficient member of the Sanitary Commission during the Civil War; at a later period he advocated civil service reform. He was prominent in educational work in Boston, an overseer of Harvard, and a trustee of the public library. In 1867 he was made professor in the Harvard Divinity School and gave lectures on comparative theology, Christian doctrine, and other subjects, from which his important books, Steps of Belief (Boston, 1870) and Ten Great Religions (2 pasta, 1871‑83) were developed. The Church of the Disciples was founded expressly to allow its members entire freedom of individual belief, and he prepared a Service and Hymn Book (1844) for its nee, combining the features of ritualistic and nonritualistic worship. Of his other original works mention may be made of the History of the Campaign of 1812 and Defence of Gen. William Hull [his grandfather] for the Surrender of Detroit (1848); The Christian Doctrine of Forgiveness of Sin (1852); The Christian Doctrine of Prayer (1854); Orthodoxy, its Truths and its Errors (1866); Common Sense in Religion, essays (1874); Essentials and Non‑essentials in Religion (1878); E
Epochs in Religious History (1881); Legend of Thomas Didymus, the Jewish skeptic (1881; reissued as The Life and Times of Jesus, as Related by Thomas Didymus, 1887); Anti‑.Slavery Days (New York, 1883); The Ideas of the Apostle Paul Translated into their Modern Equivalents (Boston, 1884);

127	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA		Clark
		1.	Clarke
Manual of Unitarian Belief (1884); Every Day
Religion (1886); Vexed Questions in Theology (1888);
The Problem of the Fourth Gospel (1886). He edited
The Western Messenger at Louisville 1836‑39 and
printed in it the first poems of Emerson; with
W. H. Charming and R. W. Emerson he prepared
the Memoirs o f Margaret Fuller Ossoli (3 vole.,
1852); and published many magazine articles,
addresses, sermons, and pamphlets.
Bmrroc;xePWT: J. F. Clarks, Autobiography, Diary, and Correspondence, ed. Edward Everett Hale, Boston, 1891.

CLARKE, JOHN: Early American Baptist, with Roger William founder of Rhode Island; b. probably in Suffolk, England, Oct. 8, 1609; d. in Newport, R. L, Apr., 1676. He was 'a highly educated physician who left England as a persecuted separatist and arrived at Boston Nov., 1837, just as drastic measures were being taken by the Massachusetts government against Anne Hutchinson and John Wheelwright (see ANxaroMrwlvrsns AND ANTIlvonslex CoN•raovi,ltsnc8, IL, 2). Whether from sympathy with Mrs. Hutchinson's views or from his aversion toward intolerance, he cast in his lot with the banished party and became a leader in the search for a home where liberty of conscience could be enjoyed. The climate of New Hampshire having been found too severe, the party led by Clarks and William Coddington secured, through the good offices of Roger Williama, the right to settle on Rhode Island; and in March, 1638, the nineteen made members entered into a covenant to subject their persona, lives, and possessions to the Lord Jesus Christ, and to do his will as revealed in Holy Scripture. Yet they guarded jealously the principle of liberty of conscience by providing that "none be accounted a delinquent for doctrine provided it be not directly repugnant to the government of laws established." In 1641 the law establishing liberty of conscience was reiterated and fortified. Clarks had much to do with the uniting of the Rhode Island settlements with Providence under s charter procured by Williams, and is thought to have drafted the law‑book, which provides for democracy and liberty of conscience. If not an antipedobaptist before he left England, he became such probably as early as 1641, certainly by 1844, when Mark Lukar, an antipedobaptist, became associated with him in a church at Newport, of which Clarks had been pastor from about 1641. While visiting Lynn, Mass., in 1651, Clarks and two fellow workers were arrested and fined, and one of them was whipped. Thereupon Clarks published Ill Netoes from New England (London, 1852), in which he vindicated the principles of liberty of conscience and believers' baptism. The neat twelve years he resided in England se representative of his colony. In 1863 he secured from Charles II. a charter which provided for complete evil and religious liberty. To the Newport church many Baptist churches owe their origin. ALBERT H. NzwmAN.
Bnwrooserer: Records of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in New England, vol. i.. Providence, 1858; J. Callender, An Historical Discourse an the Civil and Religious Affairs of As Colony of Rhode island and Providence Plantations, Boston, 1789; $. G. Arnold,
HieE. o/ the State of Rhode Island, vol. i., New York, 1859; I. Backus, Hiet. of New England, with particular Referonce to the Denomination of Christians called Baptists. Newton, Man., 1871; H. 8. Barrage, Hist. a/ the Baptieta in Nam England, ib. 1894; A. H. Newman, Hist. of do Baptist Churches in the U. S., ib. 1898; DNB, z 482.

CLARgE, SAMUEL: The name of four prominent English theologians.
	1. English non‑conformist; b. at Wolaton (22
m. s.w. of Leicester), Warwickshire, Oct. 10, 1599;
d. at Isleworth (11 m, s.w. of London), Middlesex,
Dec. 25, 1683. He was educated at Coventry and
Emmanuel College, Cambridge, was ordained about
1622, and held charges at Knowle, Warwickshire,
Thornton‑le‑Moors and Shotwick, Cheshire, but his
‑Puritan tendencies soon exposed him to the rebuke
of his ecclesiastical superiors. He held a lecture
ship at Coventry, but was inhibited by the bishop
from preaching, only to give offense by a similar
course at Warwick. In 1633 he was presented to
the parish of Alcester, Warwickshire, whence he
went, seven years later, to protest to the king against
the et cetera oath. In 1642 he went to London
and was chosen curate of 8t. Bennet Fink. There
he was a governor and twice president of Sion
College, and was also a member of the committee of
oldainels in 1643. He was one of those who pro
tested against the execution of the king, and opposed
the lay‑preaching permitted by the Independents.
After the Restoration he took part with his close
friend Richard Baxter in the Savoy Conference,
and was ejected from his living in 1862. He re
moved to Hammersmith in 1666 and later went to
Ieleworth, where he spent the remainder of his life.
Among his numerous works, valuable on account
of the sources used, which are now frequently
almost inaccessible, special mention may be made
of the following biographical collections: The Saints
Nosegay (London, 1642) ; A Mirror or Looking‑Glass
both for Saints and Sinners (164$); The Marrow
of Ecclesiastical History (2 vole., 1649‑50); General
Martyrology (1651); English Martyrology (1652); and
Limes o f Sundry Eminent Persona an the Later Age
(1683). He also published, among other works,
England's Remembrartcer (London, 1857); A Dis
course against Toleration (1660); and Book of Apo
thegms (1881).
Bnraoassrar: His autobiography was prefixed to the
Lines of Sundry Eminent Persons, 1888; s Memoir by
G. T. Clarks, a descendant, was prefixed to the reprint of the Saints Nosegay, London, 1881; DNB, z 441‑142.

2. Orientalist; b. at Braekley (16 m. a.w, of Northampton), Northamptonshire, 1625; d. at Oxford Dec. 27, 1869. He entered Merton College, Oxford, in 1640, but left the university during its occupation by the royal troops. After the surrender he returned (M.A., 1648). In 1849 he was appointed the first architypographus of the university and was also upper bedell of the civil law. In 1650 he was master of a school at Islington, where he assisted Brian Walton in his Polyglot Bible, his attention being directed chiefly to the Hebrew teat, the Aramaic paraphrase, and the Latin translation of the Persian version of the Gospels. He returned to Oxford in 1658 and was reelected to both his former positions. In addition to his work for

Ciarke
ClaudianuB Malsertns
Walton, he wrote Scientice metrics et rhythmics, seu tractatus de prosodica Arabica (Oxford, 1661), white the Masaereth Beracoth Titulus Talmudic‑ (1667) is also ascribed to him.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. b, Wood, AOienie	Bliss, iii. 882‑88b, 4 vole., London, 1813‑20; DNB, z.
	¢4p‑441.
8. Biblical commentator, eldest son of Samuel Clarks the non‑conformist; b. at Shotwick (8 m. n.w. of Chester), Cheshire, Nov. 12, 1826; d. at High Wycombe! (24 m. s.e. of Oxford), Bucks, Feb. 27, 1701. He received his education at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, and was appointed fellow in 1644, but was deprived of his fellowship seven years later for refusing to take the oath of allegiance to the Commonwealth, At the Restoration he held the rectory of Grendon Underwood, Bucks, but was ejected for non‑conformity in 1682. He then settled at High Wycombe. In theology he was Baxterian, and extended divine inspiration to the veraediviaiona of the Bible. His chief work was his Old and New Testaments with Annotations and Parallel Scriptures (London, 1690), beside which mention may be made of his Survey of the Bible (1894), designed to supplement his earlier work, and The Divine Authority of the Scriptures (1699).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: DNB, a. 442‑443. Where further literature is given.
4. Philosopher; b. at Norwich Oct. 11, 1675; d. in London May 17, 1729. He was educated in his native city and at Caius College, Cambridge (B.A., 1895). There, in 1697, he prepared a Latin translation of the Traifk de physique by Jean Rohault, to which he added notes based on Newton's Principia. The work was long the standard textbook of its subject at Cambridge and went through repeated editions. In 1898 Clarks became chaplain to John Moore, bishop of Norwich, and held this post for twelve years, in addition to the rectory of Drayton near Norwich and a small living in the city. In 1704‑05 he delivered the Boyle Lectures on The Being and Attributes of God, the Obligations of Natural Religion, and the Truth and Certainty of the Christian Revelation (2 villa., London, 1705‑08). These addresses won him the reputation of the leading English metaphysician for the next quarter of a century, but his rationalism exposed him to the criticisms of the ultraconservatives on the one hand, while his orthodoxy brought upon him the attacks of the deists on the other. In 1706 he assailed the doctrine maintained by the nonjuror Henry Dodwell that the soul receives immortality only through baptism, and in the same year was presented to the rectory of St. Benet'a, London, holding this until 1709, when Queen Anne made him rector of St. James's, Westminster. There, however, he gave offense in 1712 by his Scripture Doctrine o f the Trinity, which exposed him to the charge of Arianism. A ‑prolonged controversy ensued, and the matter was finally taken up by the House of Convocation, the lower house being especially hostile. The upper house practically dropped the case, and Clarks refrained from giving further offense, although .he does not seem to have altered his views. About 1718 he was appointed master of Wigaton's Hospital, Leicester, but the remainder
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
128
of his life was devoted to philosophy rather than theology. He became involved in a controversy with Leibnitz, Clarks declaring that time and space have a real existence, and the correspondence was published at London in 1717. He had many adherents among the Latitudinarians and metaphysicians, including Bishop Berkeley, Arthur Collier, Francis Hutcheson, Bishop Butler, William Whiston, Sir Isaac Newton, and Bishop Hoadly. The High‑church party, on the other hand, was hostile to him. Clarke's writings included, in addition to those already mentioned, sermons, a Latin translation of Newton's Optics (London, 1706), and editions of Caesar (1712) and the Iliad (1729). They were collected and edited by Bishop Benjamin Hoadly in four volumes (London, 1738).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Whiston, Hiato,•ical Mew's of . . . Dr. Samuel Clarke, London, 1741 (contains A. A. Syke's Eloproum of Samuel Clarks, and T. Emlyn's Memoirs o1 Dr. Samuel Clarks); the Life, by B. Hoad1Y, was
prefixed to his Works, ib. 1738: DNB, z. 443‑448.

CLARKE, WILLIAM NEWTON: Baptist; b. at Cazenovia, N. Y., Dec. 2, 1841. He was graduated at Madison (now Colgate) University (B.A., 1881) and Hamilton Theological Seminary, Hamilton, N. Y. (1863). He held Baptist pastorates at Keens, N. H. (1863‑89), Newton Centre, Mass. (1869‑80), and Montreal, Canada (1880‑83). He was professor of New Testament interpretation in the Toronto Baptist College 1883‑87, and pastor at Hamilton, N. Y., 1887‑90. Since 1890 he has been professor of Christian theology in Colgate University. Isis theological position " is intended to present the substance of the Scriptural teaching,
interpreted by Christian thought, m the light of modern knowledge." He has written a Commentary on the Gospel of Mark (Philadelphia, 1882); Outline of Christian Theology (New York, 1898); What Shall We Think of Christianity t (1899); Can 1 Believe in God the Father? (1899); A Study of Christian Missions (1900); and The Use of the Scriptures in Theology (1905).

CLARKSON, THOMAS: Antislavery agitator; b. at Wiabeach (35 m. n. of Cambridge), Cambridgeshire, England, Mar. 28, 1760; d. at Playford Hall, near Ipswich, Sept. 26: 1846. He studied at St. John's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1783). In 1785 he won a prize for a Latin essay upon the negative aide of the question " whether involuntary servitude is justifiable " (Eng. transl., London, 1788; enlarged, 1788). Thenceforth the story of his life is the history of the antislavery struggle. He labored with indefatigable perseverance in collecting, and disseminating information, and spent most of his modest fortune upon this cause. His labors were crowned with success under the lead of William Wilberforce (q.v.). Of his many writings concerning slavery the most
important is The History of the . . . Abolition of the African Slave Trade by the British Parliament (2 vole., London, 1808; new ed., 1839). He also wrote A Portraiture of Quakerism (3 vole., 1806); Memoirs of . . . William Penn (2 vole., 1813); An Essay on the Doctrine and Practice of the Early Christians as they Relate to War (1817); Researches, Antediluvian, Patriarchal, arid Historical concerning
. x;. x; ..

199	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	W
U kpLuna gin,
the Way in which Men first Acquired their Knowledge of God and Religion (1838); Essay on Baptism (1843); The Grievances of our Mercantile Seamen (1845).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Taylor, Biographical SkeICI1 D, , Th0111W Clark&^ London, 1839; J. Elms, Thomas Clarkson, a Monograph, ib. 18b4: DNB, z. 484‑4b8.

	CLASS‑MEETING: A part of the discipline of
the Methodist Churches, whereby the members of
a congregation are divided into sections or classes,
over each of which is a class‑leader, appointed by
the pastor, whose duty it is (according to the Book
o f DieciPline of the Methodist Episcopal Church,
pt. i., chap. ii., § 1): "I. To see each person in his
class once a week at least; in order (1) To inquire
how their souls prosper. (2) To advise, reprove, com
fort, or exhort, as occasion may require. (3) To
receive what they are willing to give toward the
relief of the preachers, church, and poor. II. To
meet the ministers and the stewards of the society
once a week;. in order (1) To inform the minister
of any that are sick, or of any that walk disorderly,
and will not be reproved. (2) To pay the stewards
what they have received of their several classes in
the week preceding." The class‑meeting is said to
have arisen accidentally in 1742 in connection with
a plan to pay off the church debt contracted by
building the edifice at Bristol. The members were
divided into sections of twelve, and one of each
section was appointed to call regularly every week
upon the others of his section to receive their con
tributions. They soon began to report delin
quencies in conduct on the part of those whom
they visited, and the possibilities of the plan in
providing a means of discipline for the congregations
was at once apparent to Wesley. He introduced
the plan in London, and it became a distinctive
feature of Methodism. At first the leaders called
personally upon each member at his own house;
but this was found inconvenient and a common
meeting‑place was appointed. The leader began
and ended each meeting with singing and prayer,
and about an hour was spent in conversation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Tyeaman, Life of John Wesley, vol. i., pp.
377‑380, London, 1878.
	CLAUDE, DEAR: A French Calvinist preacher
and controversialist; b. at Sauvetstdu‑Dropt, in
the department of Lot‑et‑Garonne, 3819; d. at
The Hague Jan. 13, 1887. He studied theology at
Montauban, and was ordained in 1845. He held
charges at La Treiese and St. Affrique, but became
pastor at Nimes in 1654. Here he lectured before
the Academy in 1658 on homiletics and practical
exegesis. In 1881 he presided over the provincial
synod held at Nimes, and opposed so vehemently a
project of reunion with the Roman Catholic
Church brought forward by the Prince de Conti,
governor of Languedoc, that he was inhibited
from preaching in the province. In October, 1881,
he went to Paris, called by Countess Turenne, in
order to refute a treatise by Nicole who sought
to show that transubstantiation had always been
held in the Church. In 1862 ~ he was appointed
professor and pastor at Montauban. When the
government forbade his preaching here also, he
returned to Paris, and was in 1888 called as pastor
		IIL‑9
of the Protestants to the capital by the consistory
of Charenton. In 1888 and 1889 he took part in
the celebrated controversy with the Jesuit Nouet
and the Jansenist Arnauld on the mass; and in
1878, on the invitation of Mlle. de Duras, he
had a discussion with Boesuet in her presence,
which, however, resulted in her conversion to
Bossuet's faith. On the revocation of the Edict
of Nantes he retired to The Hague. He was an
eloquent preacher and one of the most profound
thinkers of his day. Among his works are:
Rdponse sex deux tra" de Nicole, sur la per
PEtuit6 de la foi (Charenton, 1685); Relation auc
cincte de l'" otk aont maintenaret lee esglisea r&
form6es de France (1886); Traitk de l'Euchariatie
(Amsterdam, 1888); Rlponae au livre de M. Arnauld
" ° De la perpdtuiU de la foi" (f,,luevilly, 1870); La
dE,fenae de la Reformation contra le livre intituFk
"prqug6a lEgitimes contra lee Cnlvinistea" (Que
villy, 1873; Eng. tsansl., by J. Townsend, A Do
fence of the Reformation, 2 vole., London, 1816);
Traitk de la lecture des Pyres et la justification
(Amsterdam, 1685); Las plaintes des Protestants
cruellemznt opprim6s dens Is roysume de Franca
(Cologne, 1888; Eng. transl., An Account of the
Persecutions . . of the Protestants in France,
London, 1886). Certain posthumous writings were
published at Amsterdam in 1888 and 1889, and
selections were translated into English; some have
proved very popular, e.g., On the Composition of a
Sermon (latest ed., London, 1853).
G. Borta‑r‑Mwvxr.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: [Devisee. A. R. de lal, d"~ de la vie de M. Ckmde, Amsterdam, 1887; E. and ~`. Hug, La Prance proteatante, ad. H. L. Bordiar. Paris, 1877‑88; Lichtenberger, E31t, iii. lee‑199, Paris, ls7&.

CLATJDIAftUS MAMERTUS: Viennese philosopher and theologian; b. at or near Lyons c. 425; d. at Vienna between 470 and 474. His brother Mamertus, before 482 bishop of Vienna, called him there as a presbyter. He devoted himself to church music and appears to have compiled a lectionary. Apollinaris Sidonius celebrated the industry of the two brothers (in Epiatohe, iv. 11). The hymns ascribed to him are by other authors. His letter to Sapaudus (Engelbrecht, Unterauchungen fiber die Slvrache des Claudianus Mamertus, p. 203, Vienna, 1885), in which he laments the decay of the sciences, has historical value. About 470 he wrote his main work,De state animce, in which he showed acquaintance with Jerome and dependence upon Augustine. Of the Greek Fathers he cites only Gregory Nazianaen; he was unacquainted with the work of Nemisius of Emesa, " On the Nature of Man." Plato was to him king of philosophers, though Plotinus's Enneads influenced him greatly; in the use of the categories of Aristotle, he was a forerunner of the Schoohnen. His work is used by Cassiodorus (MPL, lxx. 12'T9). Berengar of Tours studied and valued it (MPL, clxxviii. 1889), and Nicolas, secretary to Bernard of Clairvaux, gave him and it the highest praise (MPL, cell. 499 C.). He was one of the most consistent and positive champions of the dualism of soul and body, against the naturalistic conception of the soul as a mere product or " harmony " of the body, held by such

men as Tertullian, Hilary of Poitiers, Casian, and Faustus of Riez. His arguments for a spiritual substance have reappeared substantially in works of Thomas Aquinas and Descartes. (F. ARNOLD.)
BDnjoossrst: The Episfda as Sidonsum is in M(iH,
	Aud. ant., viii (1887),	fit: 1511emont, Mb
	w,o;rea. zvi.119‑128. 741, of. Hiefoire littiraire do 1a France,
	ii. 442‑448: M. Schultze, C7audianw Mamsrtus fiber dw
	weeen der seele. n. lass; F. veberwee. ceschidds
	der Philo~9e. ii. 121. Berlin. 1888, ED$. travel.. i. 3b2
	8b4. New York, 1872: De Is Broiee. Mamerti Claudiasi
	vift ejusque doebina de anima hominie, Paris. 1890; C. F.
	Arnold. Cmeariw von Arsiats and din palliechs Hirehe
	.etnsr zees. pp. 89, 131, a25‑s2e, Leivme.1894.
CLADDI:US (Tiberlus Claue>ius Germanicus): Roman emperor 41‑54 s.a. His name comes
into connection with the history of primitive Chn
tianity through the steps taken by him against the
dews in Rome. Soon after his accession, in op
sition to the policy of his predecessor, Caligula, h
had restored to them religious liberty. M time
went on, he saw himself obliged, at least as con cerned the Roman Jews, to return to a policy o repression. It is to this that Suetonius allude
(Claudiua, xav.). This measure affected the Jewish couple Aquila and Priecilla, who were then resi‑
dents of Rome (Acts avui. 2). The reference o
8uetonius to " Chrestus " has given rise to a long‑
standing controversy whether he means to impl
that the disturbances were caused by the preaching
of Christianity (about which Suetonius evidently
knew little, if he represents Christ as living in Rome
or whether he refers to a later, otherwise unknown, Jewish agitator named Chrestus. The possibility of the former hypothesis is confirmed by other events in the Apostolic Age (Acts xvii. b eqq, XXi• 27 eqq.); but it is unlikely that such a gross mistake was made by Suetonius, who must have known from Tacitus, with whom he was acquainted, that Christ had already been put to death at Jerusalem in the time of Tiberius. Considering, moreover, the active intercourse between the Roman Jews and Palestine, it is hard to believe that the Messianic controversies should have taken fifteen or twenty years to reach an acute stage in Rome, and that, on the other hand, the Christian community there should have already attained sufficient importance for their relations with orthodox Judaism to cause disturbances of so serious a nature as to necessitate such severe measures on the part of a government is general friendly to the Jews. The exact date of the expulsion is unknown. Orosiua (Hilt., VII. vi. lb) assigns it to the ninth year of Claudius (49 A.D.). Josephus is silent on the point. The vague term " lately " of Acts aviii. 2 offers no objection to this date. Dio Cassias (la. ft) apparently refers to a different procedure; it is impossible to harmonise
the two accounts.	VICTOR Scavrmz>s.
THE NM CHAFF‑HERZOG
Btnraoassra:: H. Lehman% Claudius and Hero and ihre
	Zeit, vol. i.. Go" 1868; H. Vogeletein and P. Wager,
	QesehidJe der Judas in Rosy, i. 18 eq4.. Berlin, 1889;
	B. Bahmidt, Anttinpe doe CAtama in der Btadt Ross,
	Heidelberg, 1879: T. Kohn, Rots and das Chriatentum,
	Berlin, 1881: s. Kneuoter, AnfasOe du rdmisches Cluis
	feahant, Werube. 1881: $eh8rer.	• i. 602‑803,
	iii. 31‑38, 74, Bug. travel.. I. ii. 99. II. u. 238‑237. 288:
	Mueller, Christian Church, i. 76‑08.
180
		CyA~, MATTHIAS: German author; b.
	at Reinfeld (10 m. w. of Lflbeck) Aug. 15, 1740;
	d. at Hamburg Jan. 21, 1815. He studied law at
rd. and spent the moat of his life at Wandsbeck,
	ss auditor of the Bank of Bleswick‑Holstein at
	Altona, and as private citisen. Elio writings are
	poems and articles published over the signature
		Aemua in the Wandslxcker Rote sad other
	periodicals. He issued the first collection of these
	contributions at Hamburg in 1775, and the last is
	1812 (8 vole., 13th ed., 2 vole., Goths, 1902), en
	titling his work Aamus omnia aua aecum porRane,
	oder s8mtliche Werke des Wandsbecker Boten.
	Claudius was not a theologian, nor were his essays
	homiletic or devotional, while his poems are never
	used as hymns in the churches. His leading char‑
s‑ acteristice were practical Christianity, expressed in
e the language of the people, and earnestness, thinly
po‑ veiled by irony and humor. In tendency he was
e decidedly opposed to the rationalism of his time„
e even though he ridiculed the pedantry of an anti‑
quated orthodoxy. He became involved in a con‑
f troversy with Friedrich Jacobi, in which he based
s his own position on the Biblical proof of redemp‑
tion through Christ, and his general view was that
philosophy and human reason are subordinate in
f credibility to revelation.
Breraoassrsr: The Works were edited by C. Redlich, 2
	y	vole	Cloths. 1882; selection& an in Met'er's Yolksb4cha'.
Nos. 881‑883, Leipa:o. 1889. His life was written by
g	C. Monckeberg. Hamburg. 1889: W. Herbst, Cloths,
y	1878: K. $tookmeyer. Basel. 1895. Consult also C.
Redlich, Die poebechsn BeitrDys sun Wand' Bobs
	pesammeit. Hamburg, 1871.
	CLAUDIUS OF TURIN: Bishop of Turin, an
example of the type of statesman bishop under
Charlemagne and Louie the Pious; b. in Spain in
the latter half of the eighth century; d. in Turin
before 832. Although a pupil of Felix of Urgel,
the leader of the Adoptiomata (see A»orrlomw),
he did not share his heretical views. He is neat
found at the court of the king of Aquitaine as a
priest, instructing his fellow clergy in Scriptural
learning. Immediately after his accession, Louis
the Pious sent Claudius to Turin as bishop to
instruct the ignorant population in the Holy Scrip
tures, and to cope with the piratical Mohammedans
in the maritime Alps. Charlemagne had acquired
large territories is northwestern Italy by his defeat
of the Lombards, and used some of these lands to
endow the church there, which had been plundered
by the Arian Lombards. Feudal service in the
field was required of the prelates in return. Clau
dius himself relates that he rendered such service
against the Moors, taking his literary work with
him to the campaign. He produced commentaries
in the form of catenae on Genesis (811), Exodus
(821), and Leviticus (825), also on Matthew (815),
Galatians (81fi), and Epheeiane (817). His works
were read throughout Gaul. At the request of the
abbot Theodemir, he wrote a work on the books of
Kink which is mostly a compilation from Augus
tine, Gregory, Isidore, Bede, and Rabanus. Some
expressions in it brought him under suspicion of
Nestorianisun; and Theodemir laid his commentary
on I Corinthians before the bishops and dignitaries
at court for judgment. Claudius wrote s defense.

131	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Claudins
		Clemen
of which a copy was seen in the monastery of
Bobbio in 1461, but it has since been lost, and is
only known by the rejoinders of Dungalus and
Jonas. He gave offense also by his attitude to
ward the veneration of images, which among the
half‑civilized people of his diocese amounted to
idolatry. He accepted Augustine's views on pre
destination, but overlooked that side of his teach
ing which sets forth the Church as the abiding
means of communication between God and man.
He disapproved of the increasing honor paid to the
bishop of Rome, and did not favor pilgrimages to
Rome. He denied that Peter had received power
to bind and loose, and spoke of a double primacy
among the apostles, one given to Peter for the Jewish
mission, and one to Paul for the heathen. These
and other expressions, together with the fact that
he removed not only images, but even the crosses
from his churches, gave rise to deep suspicion, and
Theodemir wrote to him that it was reported he
had founded a new sect contra regulam f def, calholicm.
There is no evidence to support the view that he
was the real founder of the Waldensians; though
he may, in a sense, be numbered among the pre
cursors of the Reformation.	(R. Fosst.)
BraLrOaaAPBy: The beet collection of the works is in MPL,
	civ., evi. Consult: T. Forster, Drei Erabiaehbfe roor 1000
	Jahren (Claudius von Turin, . . .), GQtexsloh, 1874; H.
	F. Reuter, Geachichte der relipi6aen AufklBrunp im dfih
	tetalter, i. 18‑24, Berlin, 1875; A. Ebert, Oeachirhte der
	Literalur des Mittelalkra, ii. 222‑224, Leipaie. 1880;
	Wattenbach, DGQ, 8th ad., i. 155, 206, 207; %L, iii.
	439‑ 437.
	CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS. Bee DE1rILE
MENT AND PURIFICATION, CEREMONIAL.
	CLEMANGES, cl5"mdazh' (CLAMANGES),
NICHOLAS P0ILLEVILLAIR, pwal"le‑vfl"lair, OF:
A French theological author and ecclesiastical
statesman; b. at Clamangea near Chhlons‑sulL
Marne, 90 m. n. by e, of Paris, c. 1387; d. at
Paris in 1437. Like Gerson, his teacher, he
was educated at the college of Navarre in
Paris where, by his studies in the classics, he
attained a degree of excellence in rhetoric that
his contemporaries thought almost Ciaeronian. The
influence of ancient literature revealed itself only
in his style, however, as his interests in life were
entirely churchly and theological. At an early age
he entered the arena of ecclesiastical' politics, devo
ting himself with great earnestness to furthering
the movement for the healing of the Great Schism
(see BCBISM). In 1397 he became papal secretary
to Benedict XIII. In 1405 he accompanied Bene
dict on a journey to Genoa, and remained there on
the tatter's return to Avignon in the fall of the
following year. There was, however, no formal
separation; and when Benedict in 1408 threatened
the, royal house of France with excommunication,
the odium aroused fell in full measure upon the
head of Nicholas, the supposed author of the
obnoxious bull. Partly out of fear of possible con
sequences, partly in obedience to along cherished
desire, he abandoned his canonicate at Langres
and retired to a Cistercian cloister, first at Val
profonds, and then at Fontaine‑du‑host. There he
gave himself up to serious Biblical study, which,
he said, he had hitherto neglected. Aside from letters addressed to such friends as Gerson and D'Ailly, he composed a number of treatises dealing with the errors and corruptions that he saw in the Church of his time. De fructu eremi and De fructu rerum adversarium deal with the beneficent influence which solitude and misfortune may exercise on the inner life. De novis festivitotibvs non inatittiendis protests against the harmful multiplication of holy days, and De studio theologico extols the life of the active pariah priest above that of the student. In his Oratio ad Galliarum Princi.Pes (c. 1411) he pleaded for a cessation of the civil strife that was sapping the life of France. He threw himself with energy into the movement that culminated in the Council of Constants, depicting with power and feeling the degenerate state of the Church in his De ruins ecctesiee, or De corrupto ecclesim atatu (1401). His authorship of this work has been denied by some. He was displeased at the action of the Council of Constants in decreeing the deposition of the three rival popes, believing that the recognition of Benedict would have brought harmony to the Church. He was more fortunate than his friend Gerson in retaining the favor of the men in power in France. He sided with Philip of Burgundy against the Dauphin; and when in 1425 their reconciliation seemed at hand, he returned to his earliest occupation as lecturer on rhetoric and theology at the college of Navarre. He holds a high place in the history of the early French renaissance, and as a precursor of the " humanistic reformation." His ecclesiastical ideals, which the brain of a Wydif converted into revolutionary principles, allowed the humanist scholar to remain a faithful son of the Church. (B. BESS.)
Btstrooaerar: An incomplete ad. of the Opera was put out by J. M. Lydiue, 2 vole., Leyden, 1813. The beet socount of Climangee is by G. Voigt, Die Wiederlxkbunp des kJwsixhsn Aitsrfhu9na, ii. 349‑3b8, Berlin, 1881; A. Mints, Nicholas do CUnanpea; as vie at sea 6crita, f3traeburg, 1848; G. Bchuberth. Nikolaus von C7dmasnpea als verfasaer, Gmeeenhsin, 1888; Hefele, Concilienyeachichte, vol. vi.; ICL,. ix. 298,308; Creighton, Papacy, i. lbl, 221, 301‑303, 375.

CLE)ilElY, CARL CHRISTIAN: German Protestant; b. at Bommerfeld (a suburb of Leipsic) Mar. 30, 1865. He studied in Tiibingen, Halls, Berlin, and Leipsic (Ph.D., 1889), and after being an assistant pastor in London 1889‑90, became privat.docent at Halls in 1892. In 1903 he accepted a call to Bonn as titular professor of New Testament exegesis and systematic and practical theology, and was also an assistant in the university library 1903‑05. In 1899‑1903 he was general secretary of the Evangelischer Bond, and since 1902 has been convener of the international committee for the promotion of the Evangelical Church among the Czechs. His theological position is scientific. He has written Die Chranologie der paulinischen Briefs (Halls, 1893); Die Einheitl£ehkeit der paulinischen Briefs (Gottingen, 1894); Niedergefahren xu den Tote» (Giessen, 1900); Paulus, sein Leben and Wirken (2 vole., 1904); Schleierttaachers Glattbenslehre (1905); Die Apoatelgeschichte im Lichte der neteeren text‑, quellen‑ and historiach‑kritischen Forachtcngen (1905); Die Entstehteng des Neuen

clement	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	lag
Testaments (Leipaie, 1908); and Predigt and b ibliacher Tent (Giessen, 1908).
CLEMENT: The name of fourteen popes and three antipopea.
Clement L See CLEMENT or ROME.
	Clement 1L (Suidger): Pope 1048‑47. After the
abdication of the nimoniacal pope Gregory VI.,
Henry III., the German king, then all‑powerful in
Rome, nominated Bishop Suidger of Bamberg in
a synod held in St. Peter's, Dec. 24, 1046. He
took the title of Clement IL, and crowned Henry
and his consort on the following day. In January
he held a synod with Henry to condemn simony,
though allowing those ordained by simonises to
retain their clerical position. He died Oct. 9,
1047. 	(A. HAUCK.)
Breraoassra:: The Epistoiae st prioilepia are in MPL, ate.; Jsff6, Repeats. i. bZb: F. Gregoroviue. Hint. of the City of Roma, iv. b7‑89, London, 1898; J. Langen, Qeschichte der r6misehen Kirehe, iii. 438, Bonn, 1892; Hauck, KD, iii. 589 sqq.; Bower, Popes, ii. 342; Mibnan, Latin Christianity, iii. 237‑238; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 378.
Clement III. Antipope 1080‑1100. See GuiBEBT OF RAVENNA.
Clement III. (Paolo Scolari): Pope 1187‑91. A Roman by birth, he became cardinal bishop of Paleatrina and was elected pope at Pisa Dec. 19, 1187. In the following February he wan able to enter Rome, which his two predecessors had never visited, and by the end of May the differences between the papacy and the senate were composed. Continuing the policy of Gregory VIII., he also brought about peace with the empire, agreeing to crown the young Henry VI. and terminating the strife between papal and imperial claimants of the archbishopric of Trevea, and demanding in return the restoration of the Staten of the Church to their safest under Lucius III. By these mutual concessions peace was restored in Apr., 1189. Clement's principal motive for this attitude was the condition of affairs in the East, where Saladin had defeated the Christian forces at Hattin on July 4 and 5, 1187, and Jerusalem had fallen on Oct. 2. Thin news had aroused a zeal in Christendom which exceeded even that of the first crusade. Clement used every means in his power to forward the undertaking. . The maritime cities of Italy made great preparations; peace was restored between Venice and the king of Hungary, who. claimed Dalmatia; the aged emperor Ferderick I. took the crone (Mar., 1188); and the legate Henry of Albano prevailed upon the kings of England and France to lay aside their differences and support the crusade. The death of the emperor on June 10, 1190, was a heavy blow to Clement's hopes; and he did not live to see the end of the crusade. The conflict with the king of Scotland over the possession of the bishopric of St. Andrews, inherited from his predecessors, was terminated by him in 1188, not altogether in favor of the Roman See. The final settlement declared Scotland immediately subject to the pope, and freed it from the legatine authority which the archbishops of York had claimed over it. Fresh difficulties arose in another quarter on the death of William II. of Sicily (NOV. 18, 1189). Clement claimed the rights of a suzerain over the
kingdom, and invented with it the illegitimate
Tancred, whom a faction of the Norman barons
had net up as king. This brought on a new
struggle with the Hohenstaufen dynasty, and
Henry VI. was marching on Rome when Clement
died, Mar. 13, 1191. 	(A. HAUCK.)
BrerxoassPSl: JsffB. Repeats, ii. bib; J. M. Wattericb, Romanorurn pontihcum . roils', ii. 893, Leipeic, 1882; F. Gregorovius, Hiet. of the City of Rome, iv. 817‑825, London, 1898; J. Langen, Geaclvichte der rdmischen Kirche, iv. 575, Bonn, 1893; W. von Gieeebreeht, Oeachichfa der deutadien Karoaerssit, vol. vi., Brunswick, 1898; Hefele, Coneilisnpeechichte, v. 737 eqq.; Bower, Popes, ii. 529b31; Milmsn, Latin Christianity, iv. 448; Nesader, Christian Church, iv. 118‑129.

	Clement IV. (Guido Le Gros): Pope 1285‑88.
He wan born at 8t. Gilles on the Rhone, of a nobly
Provengal family, studied law, and practised it
with distinction at the court of Louis IX. On the
death of his wife he took orders and received rapid
promotion, becoming bishop of Puy in 1258 or 1257,
archbishop of Narbonne in 1259, and cardinal
in 1282. After a four months' interregnum, the
French party among the cardinals elected him
pope Feb. 5, 1265. In the distracted state of
Italy he could only approach Rome with great
precaution, reaching Perugia through the Ghibel
line towns in the disguise of a mendicant friar.
Here he held his court for some time, and after
Apr., 1288, mostly at Viterbo. The principal
question of his pontificate wan that of Sicily, in
which he followed the policy of Innocent IV. in
opposition to the Hohenstaufen. On Feb. 28,1265,
he invested Charles of Anjou with the kingdom, in
return for certain money payments and a promise
to abolish the institutions of Frederick II. as far as
they affected the Church. Clement, however, soon
became dissatisfied with Charles's conduct, and
was thinking of negotiating with Manfred when
news came of the battle of Benevento and Man
fred's death (Feb. 28, 1266). He rebuked Charles
still more strongly for his bloodthirstiness and
avarice, but was obliged by the difficulties of his
position and the traditional policy of the Curia to
maintain his alliance. When the young Con‑din
appeared in Italy, Clement excommunicated him
after unheeded warnings, and remained undaunted
even after Conradin'n victory on the Arno, the
brilliancy of which was soon obscured by the
fatal defeat of Tagliacozzo. That he contributed
to or approved of Conradin's execution is improb
able. Charles of Anjou went on in his own way
more high‑handedly than ever, and Clement had
every reason to fear that the Hohenstaufen would
be the only ones to make war upon the Church
when, just a month after the last of them, he died
on Nov. 29, 1268, leaving the reputation of a just
and noble‑minded ruler. 	(A. HAUCK.)
BaLioassrsr: A. Potthaet, Repeats pontificum liomarwram, ii. 1642, Berlin, 1875; E. Jordan, Lea R9piatres de Ct&nent IV, Paris, 1893 sqq.; M(iH, Epia6. Pont.,
I	iii (1894), 827 sqq.; F. Gregorovius, Hint. of the City o/
Rome, iv. 359, London, 1898; Muratori, 3criptores, III.
i. 594, ii. 421; Hefele, ConeiiieapescAiehk, vi. 28 sqq.;
Bower, Popes, iii. 9‑lb; Milman, Latin Christianity, vi.
87‑117; Neander, Christian Church, iv. 288 et passim.

Clement V. (Bertrand de Goth): Pope 1305‑14. The non of a nobleman of Aquitaine, he wan made

lag	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Moment
archbishop of Bordeaux by Boniface VIII., and elected pope at Perugia June 5, 1305, after the conclave had lasted eleven months. His coronation took place in Lyons. Under Philip the Fair's influence he remained in France, residing first at Bordeaux, Poitiers, and elsewhere, and fixing his seat at Avignon in the spring of 1309. He is accused by Villani of avarice, nepotism, and simony; he certainly surrounded himself with the pomp of a worldly sovereign, and was suspected of a criminal attachment to the beautiful countess of P6rigord. Another fault was the weakness of character which made him a slave of the cold and unscrupulous king, and to the suppression of the Template (q.v.). At the same time another process was begun against Boniface VIII., which Philip pressed for personal reasons, refusing, however, to push it to extremes and contenting himself with the bull of April 27, 1311, in which Clement declared that Philip was innocent of Nogaret's deeds of violence and of the plundering of the papal treasure (see BONIFACE VIII.), and annulled Boniface's excommunications and interdicts, especially the bull Unam sanctum. In the affairs of the Empire Clement pursued a vacillating course; he had recommended the election of Philip's brother Charles of Valois, but willingly recognized Henry VIL, and crowned him in the Lateran, June 29, 1312. When Henry, however, fell out with Robert of Naples, Clement took the letter's side, threatening the emperor with excommunication. On Henry's death (Aug. 24, 1313) he named Robert imperial vicar for Italy, claiming the supreme exercise of the imperial power during the vacancy for himself. His own death followed a few months later (Apt. 20, 1314). His collection of decretals, which he meant to form a seventh book in the great collection, though first formally confirmed by his successor John XXIL, is known under the name of Clementine (see CANON LAW, IL, 6, J 3).
(A. HAUCK.)

Bn3rtoaawrav: Rayeatum, edited by the Benedictines, Rome, 9 vole. and appendix, 1886‑‑92; his Tractatua cum Heinrico VIL, ed. J. Schwalm, is in iif0'H, Conat. imper., iv. 1, pp. 338 sqq.; J. Schwalm, Neu@ AktenatQeke cur Qeaehiehts . . . Cfsmene V.. Rome, 1904, i., DD. 492‑498. The old Vito are collected in It. Baluse, Vices ;a‑;a" Avsnionenaium, i. 1‑82, Sb‑1b2, Paris, 1893. Consult: Muratori, Scriptoru, III. i. 878, ii. 441; L. Ktinig, Die papstliche ICammer unkr Ckmens V., Vienna, 1894; E. Berohon, HiM. du gape ClEment V.. Paris, 1898; F. Laooete. Nouveliss Etudes our CIEfnent V., Bordeaux, 1898; Hefele. Concitienpeschichts, vi. 394 eqq.: Pastor, Popes, i. 68‑81, 88‑84 et passim; Bower, Popes, iii. b8‑72; 114ilman, Latin Christianity, vi. 373‑d81; Nesnder, Christian Church, v. 70, 841, notes 2‑23.

Clement VL (Pierre Roger): Pope 1342‑52. Originally s member of the Benedictine order, councilor and keeper of the seals to Philip the Fair, then archbishop of Rouen, he was elected pope at Avignon May 7, 1342. A talented man and a brilliant orator, he was wholly devoted to the French policy, and refused the pressing invitation of a Roman deputation, which iueluded Petrarch, to return to Rome. He vigorously carried on the struggle with Louis the Bavarian, favored by the divisions in the electoral college and by the emperor's weakness. Louis showed his readiness to
submit to any humiliations, but Clement was
obdurate. In the spring of 1346 he pronounced
the emperor's excommunication and deposition.
At his bidding Charles of Luxemburg was inform
ally chosen as Charles IV, by the three archbishops,
John of Bohemia, and Rudolph of Barony (July 11,
1346). Louie died Oct. 11, 1347. The failure of
the attempt to set up another claimant in his place
justified Clement's assertion of the necessity of
papal confirmation. Fortune seemed to favor him.
The republican rising in Rome under Cola di Rienzo
(May‑Dec., 1347) fell to pieces of itself. Queen
Joanna of Sicily, suspected of the murder of her
husband, appeared before him and was acquitted
and allowed to retain her crown. Needing money,
she sold the county of Avignon to the pope for
80,000 florins, Charles IV. renouncing his claims
to it. To please the Romans and to fill his treasure,
Clement reduced the period between jubilees from
a hundred to fifty years. In connection with the
jubilee of 1350, the scholastic doctrine of the super
abundant merits of Christ was extended to include
those of the saints, and the right to distribute the
indulgences based upon it was formally claimed
for the successors of Peter. Clement died Dec. 6,
1352. 	(A. HAUCK.)
Bn3nroaswrav: The Epistola ad archiepiscopum Trevirsnsem is in J. P. 8ehunk, Beitrltge sur mainsiedwn OeacAichta, ii. 474. Mainz, 1789; the Sermo adv. Hainricum, ib. ii. 332 eqq. The older Vita are collected in P‑ Baluse, Vito paparum Aroenionsnaium, i. 243‑322, Paris, 1893. Consult: M. FreYbers. Die BteRunp der deutschea fkistlichkeit sur Wah1 Karl@ IV., Halls, 1880 C. Moller, Der Bampf Ludvaipe . . mit der r6mi,eehen ICurie, ii. 183 eqq., T86ingen, 1880; F. Gregorovius, Hilt. o/ the City o/ Rome, London, 1899; Hefele, ConeilienpeseAichts, vi. 883: Pastor, Popes. vi. 8 et passim; Bower, Popes, iii. 98‑104; Milman, Lain Christianity, vii. 136‑198; Neander, Christian Church, v. 41‑43.
Clement VII. (Robert, Count of Geneva): Antipope 1378‑94. He was a canon in Paris, bishop of Thdrouanne, and finally cardinal. The French cardinals who deserted Urban VI. chose him pope at Fondi. He soon lost hope of maintaining himself in Italy, and returned to Avignon. The struggle between the rival claimants is narrated under Urban VI. Its course was unfavorable to Clement, in spite of his attempts by seductive promises to stir up Louis of Anjou and Charles VI., and he died, no nearer the goal of his ambition, Sept. 16, 1394.
(A. HAUCK.)
Basrroassra:: N. Valoie, La Prance et is grand schisms, vol. ii.. Paris. 1898; ides, in RAmieche Quartalec)<rift, 1893, pp. 170 eqq.; J. Fraikin, Nonciatursa de ClEment VII, vol. i., Paris, 1908; Bower, Popes, iii. 141; Pastor, Popes, i. Passim; Creighton, Papacy, i. 72‑144.
Clement VIII. (Egidio Mut(oz): Antipope 14251429. He was canon of Barcelona when three cardinals of the party of Benedict XIII. (q.v.) elected bun to succeed the latter. He was recognized by Alfonso V. of Aragon, but never attained any importance and resigned his claims July 26, 1429.
(A. HAUCK.)
Bxsrtoaawrat: Hefele, ConeiZienpeeehiehts, vii. 398, 417; Bower, Popes, iii. 212; Pastor, Popes, i. 274‑277.
Clement VII. (Giulio de' Medici): Pope 1523‑
1534. He was born May 26, 1478, the illegitimate eon of the Giuliano who was murdered in the con‑

clement	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	134
spiracy of the Pazzi. He joined the Knights of St. John, and was prior of Capua when his cousin ascended the papal throne as Leo X. Gaining from him a dispensation from the impediment of illegitimacy, and then a declaration that he was not illegitimate after all, since his parents had been secretly married, he became archbishop of Florence and cardinal, occupying a position, of great influence at Rome. On Nov. 18, 1523, he was elected to succeed Adrian VI. His position was extremely difficult, between the conflicting powers of the Empire and France, which he endeavored to play off against each other in order to increase the temporal dominions of the papacy
	Policy To‑ and the power of his family. Charles
	ward France V. expected him to continue the
and 	alliance of his predecessor with the
	Germany.	Empire; but he first assumed a
		neutral position, and then entered
into close relations with Francis I. After the battle
of Pavia (Feb. 24, 1525), he caw himself obliged to
conciliate the emperor, and made an alliance with
him. Charles's power seemed, however, so threat
ening to Italy that Clement entered (May 22, 1526)
the league composed of France, Venice, Florence,
and Milan. After an interchange of diplomatic
communications, in which Charles spoke his mind
very clearly as to the pope's course and appealed
to a general council, hostilities broke out in the
summer. The league came to a sudden and humil
iating end, and on May 6, 1527, Rome was taken
and plundered by the German Landslcnechts under
the Constable of Bourbon. The temporal power
of the papacy was threatened with annihilation;
but Charles was unwilling to go so far, and in
November, on Clement's promise of neutrality,
restored him his liberty and his states. Clement
now aimed at restoring to his family the dominion
of Florence, which he attained at the peace of Bar
celona (.dune 29, 1529). On Feb. 24, 1530, he
crowned Charles at Bologna; the emperor kissed
his feet according to custom, but was more power
ful in Italy than his predecessors had been for many
a day, and Italian independence was lost.
Clement still hoped at least to see his authority upheld in Germany by the imperial power. Neither he nor the Curia understood the position there; Campeggio's action as legate at the Diet of Nuremberg (1524) proved entirely unsuccessful, and the foundation of the League of Regensburg in the same year had not much better results, since it led to the formal organization of the Protestant party in the Empire. After the treaty of Barcelona and that of Cambrai (Aug. b, 1529), pope and' emperor seemed likely to work together for the
Events in suppression of Protestantism; but
	Germany.	when Campeggio appeared at the
		Diet of Augsburg in 1530 to propose
confiscation, fire and sword, and the Inquisition,
Charles was not inclined to go with him until after
much further investigation, and renewed his re
quest for a council to be summoned within six
and held within eighteen months. Clement, disin
clined as he was, did not dare openly to reject the
proposal, but he threw all manner of obstacles in
the way of its fulfilment. Time went by without
anything being done, even after a fresh personal interview with Charles at Bologna.; and Clement began gradually to draw closer to Francis I. again. He had discussed the marriage of his niece Catherine with Francis' second son Henry as early as the middle of 1531; and this union, consummated Oct. 27, 1533, only set the seal to the alliance which was practically resolved upon in two meetings between pope and king at Marseilles about the same time. Francis had all along opposed the idea of a council, and the pope's unwillingness was only increased by the new association. To be fair, one must admit that it was out of the question for him to call such a council as the Protestants wanted, while such a gathering as he might have approved would have done no good. The council idea was really only a stick which Charles kept to beat the pope with, in the hope of furthering his own political and ecclesiastical plans.
The worst reproach that can be brought against Clement's policy is its utter fruitlessness and purely negative character. During his pontificate the new doctrines made giant strides in Germany, Scandi‑
		navia, and Switzerland, acquired con
	His Policy siderable power in France and England,
Fruitless and threatened even Italy and Spain.
	and Futile. Clement's policy, intended to strength
		en himself and his family as temporal
powers, really helped his ecclesiastical opponents.
The loss of England was a consequence of this
	policy (see CRAMMER, Taonqwa). This, the per
	petual insistence of Charles upon a council, the
discord of his Florentine relatives, and the general
failure of his plans so preyed upon Clement as to
hasten his end, which came Sept. 25, 1534, leaving
the papacy notably poorer in both temporal and
	spiritual power for his rule. 	(A. Heuc$.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bullarium Roma»um, vi. 26, Turin, 1860; P. Balan, Monuments aa'culi xvi., Innsbruck, 1885: idem, La Politico di Clemente VII, Rome, 1884; w. Hellmg, Die politiache Beziehuregen Clement@ VII. zu Karl V.,
i	Laipeio, 1889; 8. Ehees, Rbmiacht Dokumente zur Go‑
schichte der EheacheidunpHeinrichaVlll., Paderborn, 1893;
idem, in RSmiache Quartalachri ft, 1891, p. 292, 1892, p.
220; Hefele, Couc6liengeach%ehte, ix. 325 eqq.; Rsnke.
popes, i. 74‑98, iii. 28‑98; Bower, Popes, m. 302‑310;
Creighton, Papacy, vi. 275 eq4.: Milman, Latin Chris
tianity, vii. 220‑273; Neander, Christian Church, vii. 47
49, b2, bb‑b8.
Clement VIII. (Ippolito Aldobrandini): Pope 1592‑1605. He was elected in a short but stormy conclave (Jan. 10‑‑30), as the candidate of the " cardinals' party," which aimed at vindicating the independence of the Curia against Spanish influence. This was the teak of his pontificate; he accomplished it slowly but surely. In French politics he took the side of the League against Henry of Navarre, and proceeded with great caution toward his reception into the Church, giving him solemn absolution on Dec. 17, 1595. His good understanding with Henry IV. helped to free the papacy from the power of Spain and to restore French influence in Italy. Henry's support made it possible for Clement in 1598, on the extinction of the direct line of the house of Este, to resume possession of the duchy of Ferrara as an ancient =ion and in return the pope allowed the toleration sf the Huguenots by the Edict of Nantes.

186	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Olemsat
Other important events of his reign are the diplomatic decision of the controversy between the Jesuits and the Dominicans on the question of grace, and the burning of Giordano Bruno (q.v.) for heresy in Rome (Feb. 17, 1800). He enlarged and defined the rules for the censorship of books, and revised the breviary by the~bull Cum in eccleaia (1802); for his work in revising the Vulgate see Bisl.>n VERSIONO, A, IL, 2, 1 b.
(A. HAUCK.)
BMAoaawrax: Buliarium Rofianum, iz. 618. Turin, 1886: A. Degert, Le Cardinal d'Ossat, to role, sea n4pociationa h Rome, Pte. 1894; Ranks, Popes, ii. 39 eq4., iii. 27274; Bower, Popes, iii. $28.
	Clement I%. (Giulio Rospigliosi): Pope 1887
1889. He was born at Pietoia Jan 28, 1800, made
cardinal in 1857, and chosen pope June 20, 1887,
as the candidate of the French party. In order to
oppose a united Christendom to the Turks, he
urged Louis XIV. to the peace of Aix‑la‑Chapelle
(1688). Acting in harmony with Louis, he attempt
ed to reconcile the warring factions in the church
of France by the Paz Clemmtina (see Jeats>rat,
CoxxEnlus, JerrsExisns), though a fresh outburst
of strife was destined to follow his death on Dec.
9, 1689. 	(A. HAUCK.)
Bmrsooawrar: Bultarium Romanmn, :vii. 612, Tutin, 1889; Bower. Popes, iii. 332: Ranks. Popes, ii. 330 eqq.; De Bildt, Christine de BuBde et k aondave de Ctdrrent 1%. (1889‑1670), Paris, 1908.
Clement %. (Emilio Altieri): Pope 1870‑78. After a five months' conclave, he was elected on Apr. 29, 1870, as a compromise candidate, because he was eighty years old. He left political questions mainly to Cardinal Paluzai, who was adopted by him and took the name of Altieri. Paluzzi was to blame for the outbreak of the conflict with Louis XIV. over the droit de r4gole (see REGALE). Another international question was stirred up by the unsuccessful attempt to withdraw the privilege of extraterritorial immunity from the foreign ambassadors in Rome. Clement died July 22, 1878.
(A. HAUCK.)
Bmntoaasrar: Ballarsuea Roausnum, vol. :viii., Turin,
1869; Ranks, Popes. ii. 417 eqq., iii. 44b‑4b3: Bower, Popes, iii. 332.
Clement %I. (Giovanni Francesco Albani): Pope 1700‑21. He was born at Urbino, and was elected pope when comparatively young, only fifty‑one, on Non. 23, 1700. Though he had not been formally the French candidate, he maintained close relations with France. His learning and his political acumen are indisputable; but his foreign policy was unlucky. At the beginning of his reign, his protest against the assumption of the kingly title by Frederick I. of Prussia showed the traditional incapacity of the Curia to understand the circumst‑ of Protestant countries. In the war of the Spanish Succession, while maintaining an appearance of neutrality, he secretly favored the Bourbon side. As this came more and more to light,' his relations with the emperor were increasingly strained‑so far that he even threatened him with excommunication. The entry of imperial troops into the Papal Statue compelled him to make peace with Joseph I. (Jan. 15, 1709), acknowledging Charles III. as king of Spain and promising to
invest him with the crown of Naples. This embittered Louis XIV. and Philip of Anjou against him. Another trouble was the coa8ict over ecclesiastical jurisdiction in Naples, which lasted even beyond the peace of Utrecht. In the controversy between the Dominicans and the Jesuits over the advisability of allowing the Chinese converts to retain certain pagan customs, he decided in favor of the former; the Jesuits. apparently submitted, but the conflict continued. In the Janeeniat controversy, on the other hand, he strongly supported the Jesuits (see JnxsieN, CORNELIUB, JANBENIBM; QvESrtxr.). He achieved considerable results as a reformer of the internal administration of his states and of the Roman clergy, supported learning and art, and was a liberal benefactor of the poor. In 1713 he issued the famous bull Unigenitue against Jansenism. He died March 19, 1721.
(A. HAUCK.)
Bnrxooawrav: Epistda et bravia asleda, 2 vole., Rome, 1724; Buliwium Romanum, vol. aai., Turin, 1871; Rank's, Popes. ii. 428 eqq., iii. 483‑488. 471 173; Bower. Popes, iii. 33b‑338. The bull Unipanitus is given in Reich, Documents, pp. a88"a89.
Clement %11.. (Lorenzo Corsini): Pope 1730‑40. He was born April 7, 1652, and rose in life as a protftd of the Albani family, taking Clement XI. for his model as pope, though without his gifts. He did not attempt to mingle in the wider politics of Europe, but made unsuccessful attempts to assert ancient feudal claims to Parma and Piacenza (1731) and to incorporate with the Papal States the small but ancient republic of San Marino (1739). The power of the Church was limited byCharles III. and his minister Tanucci in Naples, and by Philip V. in Spain; and in France the literary and scientific opposition to the papacygrew more pronounced. His services to foreign missions were considerable, and his domestic policy creditably followed that of Clement XI. He died Feb. 6,1740. (A, He>?cs.)
Bisraoossray: Builatium Romanmn, vole. ariii., aiv., Turin; Pastor. Popes, i. 380: Ranks, Pope, ii. 431; sower, Popes, iii. 340.
Clement %M,. (Carlo Rezzonico): Pope 17589. He was born in Venice March 7, 1893, made cardinal in 1757, and on July 6 of the next year elected pope. It is impossible to decide whether he was a convinced friend of the Jesuits or simply their tool, either directly or indirectly through the influence of Cardinal Torreggiani. Though the order had been suppressed in Portugal, France, Spain, Naples, and Sicily, he solemnly confirmed and approved it by the bull Ahoatolicum pasceredi munua (Jan. ?, 1765), and in that beginning Arcimarum aaluti declared under an interdict the countries which had expelled the Je811jt8, glowing them alone to say mass and administer the sacraments there during it. The bull called out vehewent opposition, and the popular outburst in favor of the society on which he had counted did not occur. Some of the cardinals implored him to moderate his support of it, but without effect. As a blow at the Bourbon courts, he took notice of some reforming measures adopted by the duke of Parma,, an unimportant member of the family. A sharp and threatening brief (Aliud ad dpoatolatua, Jan. 30, 1788) was addressed to him; it rebuked

element alert or eIe>ranarls
him as a contumacious vassal, pronounced null and void the measures which limited ecclesiastical freedom, and menaced him with excommunication. The duke, inspired by his grandfather Louis XV‑, replied by arresting and then expelling all the Jesuits in his dominions. The Bourbon kings all protested against the brief and the use which it made of the bull in ctena Domini, and insisted on its withdrawal and the suppression of the Society of Jesus. Clement was stubborn, and the sovereigns proceeded to use force, Louis XV‑ Occupying Avignon and the Comtat Venaiesin, and the king of Sicily taking possession of Benevento and Ponte
Corvo and preparing to go farther. Clement ha
called a secret consistory for Feb. 3, 1789, to
the situation; but in the preceding night he die
of apoplexy, a natural result of such heavy care is a man of his age. 	(A• HAUCK.)
BIBLI06BAP87: A. von Reumont, (iexlvichte der Stadt Rom, III. ii. 868. Berlin, 1870; Itanke, Popes, ii. 443‑448 Bower. Pop", iiL 847‑369.
Clement XIV. (Lorenzo Ganganelli): Pope 1781774. He was the eon of a physician, b. at Arcan
gelo, in the Papal States, Oct. 31, 1705; he enters
the Franciscan order, became a consultor of th
inquisition, and was made cardinal is 1759. H had been an advocate of reconciliation with th
Bourbon courts, and it has been often asserts
that he promised before his election to suppress the Jesuits. He was chosen only after s t
months' conclave, marked by incessant intrigu He disappointed those who looked for a speed decision of the burning question by adopting cautious and temporizing policy. He gave t
Jesuits new privileges, and declared to Louis X V.
he could neither censure nor suppress a institute confirmed by nineteen of his predecessors;
but, on the other hand, he refused to see the general of the Order, and closed his eyes to the fact that laws which infringed on ecclesiastical prerogatives had been passed in Portugal, Naples, Venice, the electoral provinces of Bavaria and Maine, sad even in the Empire under Maria Theresa. The brief directed against perms was recalled, and the bull In ctena Domini (q.v.) no longer solemnly read. Conciliation, in fact, was offered to all the estranged powers: an understanding was reached with Portugal; and the nunciature at Lisbon was reestablished. But the ambassadors of France, Spain, and Naples insisted pertinaciously on the suppression of the Jesuits. France and Naples held ecclesiastical territory, ss it were a pledge for the granting of their demands; there was talk in all three kingdoms of a formal renunciation of papal authority sad the establishment of an independent patriarch. The pope now resolved to suppress the Order. It was important, however, that the step would content the Roman Catholic powers, and not rather give the signal for fresh attacks. Clement seems to have first assured himself cautiously of this. The devout Maria Theresa was so attached to the Order that he had to use his authority to detach her from it. Then he took the first definite steps, as sovereign of the Papal States; on Oct. 17, 1772, the Jesuits were removed from the Collegio Romano and the Roman seminary on s pretext, cad then
three
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
a
9‑
e
e.
y a
n
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑
their houses in the Papal States were closed, generally after a visitation. The support Previously given to the exiled Portuguese Jesuits was withdrawn. Finally, on July 21, 1773, Clement signed the brief Dominos ac Redsmptor poster, entirely suppressing the Order. It was signed only after it had been submitted to the Catholic powers, and not published until Aug. 16. In this document he gave as the ground for his action that the Order was no longer bringing forth the rich fruits for which it was designed, and cited other instances of the suppression of regular orders. He explained his long hesitation as due to the need of diligent in‑
d ' veetigation and mature deliberation. Not a word
discuss implied the abandonment of any claim made by the
d	Church or its head; his censures of the Order were not based on the popular charges. The decree was at once put into execution in Rome. Several of
the fathers who were proved to have concealed or misappropriated money, property, or documents belonging to the Order were imprisoned, and Ricci,
the general, was put under strict surveillance. The news gave great satisfaction in many quarters;
d	France and Naples restored the papal territories in
e	Apr., 1774. Only in the non‑papal countries of
	Prussia and Russia were the Jesuits allowed openly
e	to continue their ministrations. Much obscurity
d	hangs over the close of Clement's life. The asser‑
tions that he repented of his action and declared
it had been wrung from him by force, and that he was poisoned by the Jesuits, have been often made and as often denied. He died Sept. 22, 1774, leaving is the Museum Pio‑Clementinum a monument to his uncontested devotion to art and learning, though the moat diverse views have been and will always be held as to his general character.
(A. Hwucg.)
BIBIdOaBAPBY: Letters. Wile a disoorsi di (ianpanedli, Flor epos, 1845; Cdementie XIV. epiatolar ac brevia, ad. s Tlieiner, Paris, 1852. Consult: A. von Rsumont, Qattpanalli, Papal Clenunt XIV., Berlin, 1847; J. CrdtinesuJoly, ClErnent XIV. et den JEauitsa, Paris. 1847; A. Theiner, (ieechicRte den Pontificata Clemens' XIV., 2 vole., Paris, 1853; (i. X. D. Rsvignsn, Cllynent %111. et CumwnE XIV:, Paris. 1855; Bower, Popes, iii. 359‑389; R,snke. Popes, u. 449‑461.

CLEMENT: A missionary bishop of the Celtic or old British Church in the Eastern parts of the
Frankish domains who, like Adalbert (q.v.) in Neustria, stood in the way of the Romanizing innovations of Boniface in the first half of the eighth century (see BoNIIrwcE, SAINT). We know of him only from the accounts of his opponents, who stigmatize him as a " heretic, misleader of the people, disseminator of error, servant of the devil, and false priest." He was married and had two sons. Justifying himself by the Mosaic law, he rejected the canonical prohibition of marriage with the widow of a deceased brother. He had views
of his own on predestination and election, and seems to have held to some sort of universalism. He disputed the authority of the Fathers, Augustine
and Jerome, and did not acknowledge the supremacy of the pope. At the instigation of Boniface a
Frankish synod in 745 condemned him to imprisonment; a Roman synod added the anathema of the Church. Nevertheless Clement held fast to the

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
isv
opinions and practises of his fatherland. His ul
•imate fate is not known. 	A. WERNER.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rettberg, KD, i. 324‑32b; H, Hahn, Jahrbucher des frBnhiachen Reicha, pp. 87‑82, Berlin, 1883; P. JaffB, Bibliotheca rerum (iermanicarum, iii. 133, 138149, Berlin, 1888; J. H. A. Ebrard, Die iroecho#iache Miaaionekircha, Gilteraloh, 1874; A. Werner, Banitakue, pp. 113, 273, Leipeic, 1875; Hauck, KD, i. bll.

CLEIIIENT OF ALEXANDRIA.

His Life (¢ 1). His Literary work (¢ 2). His 6ignificance for the Church (¢ 3). His Eclecticism (¢ 4). His Dependence upon Philosophy (¢ b). His Relation to Ethics (¢ 8). And to Scripture and the Church (¢ 7).
	Clement of Alexandria (Titus Flavius Clemens),
one of the most distinguished teachers of the Church
of Alexandria, was born about the middle of the
second century, and died between 211 and 216.
He was certainly not born in Egypt (Strum., i. 1).
The indication of Athens as his birthplace by
Epiphaniue is supported by the classical quality of
his Greek. His parents seem to have been pagans,
		of the well‑to‑do class. The thorough
	:. Me Life.	ness of his education is attested by his
		constant quotation of the Greek poets
and philosophers. In quest of the best instruction,
he traveled in Greece, Italy, Palestine, and finally
Egypt. He became the colleague of Pantlenus,
the head of the catechetioal school of Alexandria,
and finally succeeded him in the direction of the
school. During the persecution of Septimius Seve
rus (202 or 203) he sought refuge with Alexander,
then bishop [possiblygf Flaviada] in Cappadocia,
afterward of Jerusalem, from whom he brought s
letter to Antioch in 211.
The trilogy into which Clement's principal remains are connected by their purpose and mode of treatment is composed of the Protrepticus (" Ezt ltortation "), the Pxdagogus (" Iytatructor "), and the Stromata (" Miscellanies "). Overbeck calls it the boldest literary undertaking in the history of the Church, since in it Clement for the first time attempted to set forth Christianity for the faithful in the traditional forms of profane literature. The Protrepticua forms an introduction inviting the reader to listen, not to the mythical legends of the heathen gods, but to the " new song " of the Logos, the beginning of all things and creator of the world. He demonstrates the folly of idolatry and the pagan mysteries, the horrors of pagan sacrifice, and shows that the Greek philosophers and poets only guessed at the truth, while the prophets set forth a direct way to salvation; sad now the divine Logos speaks in his own person, to awaken all that is good in the soul of man and to lead it to immortality. Having thus laid a foundation in the knowledge of divine truth, he goes on in the Pmdagogua to develop a Christian ethic. His design does not prevent him from taking a large part of his material from the Stoic Musonius, the master of Epictetus; but for Clement the real instructor is the incarnate Logos. The first book deals with the religious basis of Christian morality, the second sad third with the individual cases of conduct. As with Epictetus, true virtue shows itself with him in its external ev‑
oment
Clement of Alezaa3ris
idences by	a natural, simple, and moderate way
of living. The Stromata goes further and aims at
	the perfection of the Christian life by
s. His initiation into complete knowledge.
Literary	The first of these works is addressed
	Work.	to the unconverted, the second to the
		new Christian, and the third appeals
to the mature believer. It attempts, on the basis
of Scripture and tradition, to give such an account
of the Christian faith as shall answer all the demands
of learned men, and conduct the student into the
innermost realities of his belief. Clement entitled
this work StrBmatei8, "patchwork," because it dealt
with such a variety of matters. He intended to
make but one book of this; at least seven grew out
of it, without his having treated all the subjects
proposed. The absence of certain things definitely
promised has led scholars to ask whether he wrote
an eighth book, as would appear from Eusebius
(VI. xiii. 1) and the Florilegia, and various attempts
have been made to identify with it short or frag
mentary treatises appearing among his remains.
In any case the " excerpts " and " selections "
which, with part of a treatise on logical method,
are designated as the eighth book in the single
(11th century) manuscript of the Stromatd, are not
parts of the Hypotyposes which Clement is known to
have written. This work was a brief commentary
on selected passages covering the whole Bible, as is
shown in the fragments preserved by (Eoumenius
and in the Latin version of the commentary on the
Catholic Epistles made at the instance of Cassio
dorus. Besides the great trilogy, the only complete
work preserved is the treatise " Who is the Rich
Man that Shall Be Saved? " based qn Mark x. 17‑31,
and laying down the principle that not the posses
sion of riches but their misuse is to be condemned.
There are extant a few fragments of the treatise on
the Passover, against the Quartodeciman position of
Melito, and only a single passage from the " Eccle
siastical Canon " against the Judaizers. Several
other works are only known by their titles.
The significance of Clement in the history of the development of doctrine is, according to Harnack, that he knew how to replace the apologetic method by the constructive or systematic, to turn the simple church tradition into a scientific dogmatic theology. It is a marked characteristic of his that he sees only superficial and transient disagreement where others find a fundamental opposition. He is able to reconcile, or even to fuse, differing views to an extent which makes it almost impossible to attribute to him a definite individual system. He is admittedly an eclectic (Strum., i. 37). This attitude determines especially his treatment of 3. His Sig‑ non‑Christian philosophy. Although
nificance	the theory of a diabolical origin for it
for the is not unknown to him, and although
	Church.	he shows exhaustively that the phi
		losophers owe a large part of their
knowledge to the writings of the Old Testament, yet
he seems to express his own personal conviction
when he describes philosophy as a direct opera
tion of the divine Logos, working through it as well
as through the law and his direct revelation in the
Gospel to communicate the truth to men. It is

Clement of eleaadrla	THE NEW	‑HERZO(i	!88
Clement of Rome
true that the knowledge of the philosophers was
elementary, fragmentary, and incapable of imparting true righteousness; and it was far surpassed by the revelation given through the law and the prophets, as that again was still further surpassed by the direct revelation of the incarnate Logos; but this idea of relative inferiority does not prevent him from showing that his whole mental attitude is determined and dominated by the philosophical tradition. Thus he emphasizes the permanent importance of philosophy for the fulness of Christiara knowledge, explains with special predilection the relation between knowledge and faith, and sharply criticizes those who are unwilling to make any use of philosophy. He pronounces definitely against the sophists and against the His hedonism of the school of Epicures. Eclecticism. Although he generally expresses himself unfavorably in regard to the Stoic philosophy, he really pays marked deference to that mixture of Stoicism and Platonism which characterized the religious and ethical thought of the educated classes in his day. This explains the value set by Clement on gnosis. To be sure, he constantly opposes the heretical gnosis. Faith is the foundation of all gnosis, and both are given by Christ. As faith involves a comprehensive knowledge of the essentials, knowledge allows the believer to penetrate deeply into the understanding of what he believes; and this is the malting perfect, the completion, of faith. In order to attain this kind of faith, the " faith of knowledge," which is so much higher than the mere " faith of conjecture," or simple reception of a truth on authority, philosophy is permanently necessary. In fact, Christianity is the true philosophy, and the perfect Christian the true Gnostic‑but again only the " Gnostic according to the canon of the Church " has this distinction. Also, he rejects the Gnostic distinction of " psychic " and " pneumatic " men; all are alike destined to perfection if they will embrace it.
From philosophy he takes his conception of the Logos, the principle of Christian gnosis, through whom alone God's relation to the world and his revelation is maintained. God he considers transcendentally as unqualified Being, who can not be defined in too abstract a way. Though
S. His De‑ his goodness operated in the creation
	pendence	of the world, yet immutability, aelf
	Upon phi‑	suffiewncy, incapability of suffering
	losophy.	are the characteristic notes of the
		divine essence. Though the Logos is
most closely one with the Father, whose powers he
resumes in himself, yet to Clement both the Son
and the Spirit are " filet‑born powers and first
created "; they form the light stages in the
scale of intelligent being, and Clement distin
guishes the Son‑Logos from the Logos who is im
mutably immanent in God, and thus gives a foun
dation to the charge of Photius that he " degraded
the Son to the rank of a creature." Separate from
the world as the principle of creation, he is yet in
it as its guiding principle. Thus a natural life is a
life according to the will of the Logos. The Incar
nation, in spite of Clement's rejection of the Gnostic
Docetism, has with him s decidedly Docetic clan
aster. The body of Christ was not subject to human needs. He is the good Physician; the medicine which he offers is the communication of saving gnosis, leading men from heathenism to faith and from faith to the higher state of knowledge. This true philosophy includes within itself the freedom' from sin and the attainment of virtue. As all sin has its root in ignorance, so the knowledge of God and of goodness is followed by well‑doing. Against the Gnostics Clement emphasizes the freedom of all to do good.
Clement lays great stress on the fulfilment of moral obligations. In his ethical expressions he is influenced strongly by Plato and the Stoics, from whom he borrows much of his terminology. He praises Plato for setting forth the 6. His greatest possible likeness to God as
Relation the aim of life; and his portrait of the to Ethics. perfect Gnostic closely resembles that of the wise man as drawn by the Stoics. Hence he counsels his readers to shake off the chains of the flesh as far as possible, to live already as if out of the body, and thus to rise above earthly things. He is a true Greek in the value which he sets on moderation; but his highest ideal of conduct remains the mortification of all affections which may in any way disturb the soul in its career. As Harnack says, the lofty ethical‑religious ideal of the attainment of man's perfection in union with God, which Greek philosophy from Plato down had worked out, and to which it had subordinated all scientific worldly knowledge, is taken over by Clement, deepened in meaning, and connected not only with Crt, but with ecclesisatical tradition.
The way, however, to this union with God is for Clement only the Church's way. The communication of the gnosis is bound up with holy orders, which give the divine light and life. The simple faith of the baptized Christian contains all the essentials of the highest knowledge; by the Eucharist the believer is united with the Logos and the Spirit, and made partaker of incorruptibility. Though he lays down at starting a purely spiritual conception of the Church, later the exigencies of his controversy with the Gnostics make him lay more stress on the visible church.
y. And to As to his use of Scripture, the extraScrlpture ordinary breadth of his reading and and the manifold variety of his quotations
	Church. from the most diverse authors make
		it very difficult to determine exactly
what was received as canonical by the Alexandrian
Church of that period. Though he uses the Apoo
ryphal Gospels, our four alone have supreme author
ity for him. For the other New Testament writings
he seems not to have had as definite a line of de
marcation; but whatever he recognized as of
apostolic origin had for him an authority distinct
from, and higher than, that of all other ecclesiastical
tradition. 		(N. BonrwETSes.)
BIBLIOdRAPHT: The beet text of Clement is is course of
	publication by O. 8tithlin, to be in 3 vole., vole. i.‑ii.,
	Leipeic,1905‑08: that by J. Potter, 2 vole., Oxford, 1715, in
	reproduced in MPG, viii.‑ix. T. Zahn has given a Supple
	menlum Ctemenainurt in his Forschu"gn, iii. 1‑178, 319‑
321, Erlanaen, 1884. The best Ena. trsnet. is m dNF.

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Clement of Alexandria
Clement of Rome
ii. 171‑804. An exhaustive bibliography to 1888 is in ANF, Bibliography, pp. 38‑42 ; s list of later works is given in Harnack, Litkratur, ii. 1, pp. 4‑5. On the criticism of the text consult: C. C. J. Bunsen, Analacta Ants‑Nieces. i. 157‑340. London, 1854: T. B. Mayor, in Classical Review, ix (1894), 38b‑391; O. BtAhlin, Beitrdpe our Renntniea der MSS. den Clemens Alex., Nuremberg. 1895; W. Christ, Phslolopiaehe Studien as ClamenaAiaxandrinue, Munich, 1900.
General discussions are: C. E. Freppel, C16nunt d'Alozandrie, Paris, 1873; B. F. Weeteott. General Hint. of N. T. Canon, pp. 339‑340, 350‑354. London, 1875; C. Bigg, Christian Platonieta of A7exandrfia, pp. 38‑114, Oxford, 1888; KrBger, History, pp. 182‑173; 9cha$, Christian Church, ii. 781‑785 et passim; Harnaok, L'stteradar, i. 298327, 838,841, ii. 1, pp. 1 eqq.; O. Stiihlin, TU, new series, Vol. v., 1901; DCB, i. b59‑587: KL, iii. 508‑517; O. Bardenhewer, Oeachia5te der allkimMichen 1%ttemtur, Vol. ii., Freiburg, 1903.
On the teaching of Clement consult: F. J. Winter, Die Ethik den Clement eon Alexandrien Leipeie, 1,882; J. H. Miiller, Id6ea dogmatiquea de CIEment d'Alexarulrie. $traeburg, 1881; J. Kaye, Some Account of the Writings and Opinions of Clement of Alexandria, London. 1835: J. Cognat. C16rnen6 d'Alexandrie, as doctrine et 8a poUmique, Paris. 1859: W. Scherer, Alamesa non Alexandrian and nine Erkenntniaaprinz%pien, Munich, 1907.
On his relation to earlier teaching consult: C. Meik.
Clemens Alex. in seiner Abhdnpipkeit roan der priecAiachen Philoaophie, Leipeie, 1879; E. Hitler, in Hermea, zai (1888), 128‑133; E. Kutter, Clemens Alex. and das N. T., Giessen, 1897; E. de Faye, CLt!ment d'Alexandria, Paris, 1898.
On Clement as s hymniet consult Julian, Hymnology.

CLEMENT OF ROME.
Discordant Traditions (¢ 1).
Relationship to the Flavians (12). The First Epistle (¢ 3).
Questions Unsettled (¢ 4).
Second Epistle and Other Writings (15).
	According	to tradition Clement was an early
bishop of Rome and a distinguished Christian
author. But of the writings attributed to him
most are certainly not his and not one is undis
		puted, and the facts of his life are no
r. Discord‑ better authenticated. He is men
ant Tra‑		tinned in all the lists of the early
	ditions.	bishops of Rome, though there is no
		agreement about the place of his name.
Irenaeus (Hcer., III. iii. 3), representing the Roman
tradition of c. 180, gives Peter, Lines, Anencletus,
Clement; with this agree Eusebius (Hist ecel. and
Chron.), Epiphanies (Hcer., xxvii. 6), and Jerome
(De trir. ill., xv.), though the last‑named is aware
that some of the Latins give a different order, and
he, as well as Epiphanies, gives the form Cletus
for Anencletus. A different order occurs first in
the " Chronicle " of Hippolytus, where Clement
takes third place, before Cletus; this order recurs
in the Catologus Liberidxius, and is accepted by
Augustine, Optatus, and others. In the Apostolic
Constitutions also (vii. 46), Clement immediately
follows Lines, the variant name now giving two
distinct persons, Cletus and Anencletus. The
catalogue of the time of Sylvester reverts to the
older order, while the LeTier Feliciantisy fusing this
and the Liberian, gives Peter, Lines, Cletus, Clem
ent, Anencletus. According to the epistle to James
attributed to Clement (preceding the Clementine
Homilies), Peter designated Clement as his suc
cessor, and himself installed him. This view
probably originated with the purpose of bring
ing Clement into closer relation with Peter;
and the lists which put Clement third, between Lines and Cletus or Anencletus, are very likely attempting a compromise between it and the other tradition. It is safe to say that Clement does not belong to the epoch immediately following the apostles, but that two men came between him and Peter. He was not bishop of Rome in the strict sense, as the first epistle shows that there was no bishop there in his time. The developed episcopal idea of a later age was carried back in the attempt to trace the succession to the apostles; and the earliest authorities justify no more than the assertion that he was one of the leading presbyters, or perhaps the first of them.
Irenaeus (ut sup.) makes Clement a disciple of the apostles. Origen (on John i. 29), Eusebius, Epipha,nius, and Jerome identify him with the Clement mentioned by Paul in Phil. iv. 3, and Chrysostom (on I Tim.) even makes him a companion of Paul on all his journeys; while the Jewish‑Christian Clementine place him in the closest relations to Peter. Various attempts were made to combine these conflicting views. The Apostolic Constitutions regard Lines as appointed by Paul, Clement by Peter. Refines regards Lines and Cletus as having performed episcopal functions in Peter's lifetime, and Clement as appointed by the apostle when both were dead. Epiphanies explains that Clement was appointed by peter indeed, but laid down his office for a time, during which Lines and Cletus held it. Modern scholars have usually doubted his being a disciple of the apostles, even when they admit his authorship of the first epistle to the Corinthians. The identification with the Clement of Phil. iv. 3 is abandoned by most of these scholars.
Another mooted question concerns the assertion of the Homilies and Recognitions that clement was a connection of the imperial house. a. Relation‑ It is in any case necessary to substiship to the tuts Domitian for Tiberius, whom the
	Flavians.	Clementine name in order to secure
		greater antiquity. Assuming that not
only the Fla,vie Domitilla mentioned by Eusebius,
but also the consul Flavius Clemens whom Domitian
put to death, belonged to the Christian community,
we should have two prominent Christians of the
name of Clement in Rome at the same time. The
pseudo‑Clementine literature identified them as
one person. Von Gebhardt and Harnaek leave
the question undecided, while Lightfoot is inclined
to regard them as two persons. Really nothing is
known of Clement's life except what the first
epistle tells us. It is even uncertain whether be
was of Jewish or pagan descent, though both views
have found convinced advocates.
Among the numerous writings which bear the name of Clement, decidedly the most important are the two epistles to the Corinthians. Until 1875 only one manuscript of these was known, as imperfect copy forming part of the famous Codex Alexdndrinus, from which Junius published them with a Latin translation (Oxford, 1633); new editions were made from the manuscript by Wotton (Cambridge, 1718), Jacobson (Oxford, 1834), Tischendorf (Leipsic, 1863, 1873), Lightfoot (Lon‑

Clement of B,oms	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	140
Qlementina
don, 1889), told Von Gebhardt and Harnaek (Leip
aic, 18`lb), besides facsimile reproductions in 1856
and 1879. In 1875, however, appeared the first
complete edition, based upon a new manuscript
discovered is Constantinople. Von Gebhardt still
considered the Alexandrine manuscript the more
authoritative, and there are reasons for holding
this view, even since further light has been thrown
on the question by the discovery of a Syriac and a
Latin version, the latter only of the first epistle.
	This first epistle is an official communication
from the Church of Rome to that of Corinth, which
was then divided by controversies apparntly re
lating to the position and authority of the pres
byters. In order to put an end to the strife, the
Roman Church intervenes, apparently unsolicited,
and sends a deputation to Corinth, " to be witnesses
between you tend us." The official character of the
letter comes out more clearly now that it exists
complete, and new light is thrown on the relation
			of the Roman Church to the others.
3. The First It is true there is no question of a con
	Epistle.	etitutionally established primacy, but
			the Roman Church, as the most ma
ture and firmly settled, keeps a watchful eye on
the concerns of the others. The Clementine
authorship is attested by Dionysius, bishop of
Corinth (of. Eusebius, Hint. eccl., iv. 23), lreneeeus
(Nor., III, iii. 3), Clement of Alexandria, and
Origen. In the East the letter was read in public
worship as Scripture. Attempts made by Calo
vius (1673) and others to deny its authenticity
were revived with Semler, Ammon, and later
with Baur and Schwegler; but the arguments of
such critics have not been found decisive. The
majority of scholars now hold that it was written
is the first century, though many of them leave
the question of authorship unanswered. Doubts
have been expressed in recent years about the
prayer in chap. 59, but Lightfoot and others
have rendered improbable the theory of a later
addition; the question is still unsettled whether
this prayer is an official formula of the Roman
Church or the composition of Clement.
	The attempt to determine the date of the epistle
depends, first, on the question whether the perse
cution at Rome mentioned at the outset was that
under Nero or that under Domitian. The earlier
critics preferred the former, which gives 64‑68 as
the date.	Scarcely any modern scholars, except
Hefele and Wieseler, adhere to this view. On the
other hand, sufficient reasons forbid placing the
date as late as the second century. According to
sliv. 3 there are still some presbyters in office who
were instituted by the apostles, and similarly v. 3
seems to assert that members of the Church con
temporary with Peter and Paul are living; there
			is no trace of Gnostic heresies; the
	4. Ques‑ constitution of the Church, in both
	dons Un‑ Rome and Corinth, is not the episco
		settled.	pal, but the presbyterial. Most su
			thorities, accordingly date the epistle
between 93 and 97; Lightfoot would come down
as far as the reign of Nerva, and Harnack's latest
opinion is in favor of the end of Domitian's (93‑95),
which is supported by Hegesippus (in Eusebius,
Hilt. eccl., iii. 16). Diverse views, again, have been held as to the doctrinal standpoint of the epistle. Schwegler, followed by Reuach, considered it a compromise between Jewish Christianity and Paulinism. Lemma's view that the author was a fanatical Jewish Christian is disproved by the way in which he speaks of Paul and uses the Pauline epistles and Hebrews. However, Paul's propositions appear here as little more than mere formulas. His great doctrine of justification through faith is indeed strongly expressed (xxxii. 4); but the obligation of doing good works is derived only from the will and example of God, without the mention of any relation between justifying faith and moral power.
	The second epistle, completely known only since
1875, is regarded by most scholars as a homily,
rather than a letter. The question remains in
what church and by whom it was delivered. Har
naok's theory that it is of Roman origin, perhaps
written by another Clement, the one mentioned
by Herman in his Shepherd, is scarcely tenable.
Lightfoot thinks it originated in Corinth, which is
likely. Its date is chown to be in the second cen
tury by its attitude toward the New Testament
		canon and toward Gnosticism. Be‑
g. Second tween 130 and 140 is the most probable
Epistle time. Its teaching contains some and Other peculiar points, which can not be
	Writings.	pressed to show that the author
		belonged to a separate sect, but mean
only that he lived in a time of little exact dogmatic
formulation. Of the numerous other writings
which have borne the name of Clement, it may
safely be said that the Homilies and Recognitions,
in the various forms comprised under the name
Clementina (q.v.), are not by him; nor are the
Apostolic Constitutions (q.v.). The two " Letters
to the Virgins " are worth notice. They exist only
in a Syriac version in a codex belonging to the
Remonstrant seminary at Amsterdam, and were
first printed by Wetstein in 1752, then more care
fully by Beelen (Loewen, 1856, with a Latin ren
dering, which Funk improved and appended to his
Opera patrumopoatolicorum, vol. i., Tiibingen,1887).
The theories of their origin range between two
impossible extremes.‑one medieval, that of Cot
terill; the other Clementine, that of Villeoourt
(who edited the epistles for MPG) and Beelen
(ut sup.). The form they presuppose for eccle
siastical customs and ascetic practise belongs to
a later time, possibly that of Cyprian‑but not
too much later, since they were probably known
by Epiphanius (Hter., xxx. 12), and certainly by
Jerome (Ad Jovin., i. 12). They must have been
originally one book, and were perhaps divided into
two (as Harnack suggests) to take the place of the
two epistles of Clement, which were contained in
the older Syria manuscripts of the New Testa
ment. This would account for their ascription to
Clement, as nothing else does.
(G. UHnaoxrrt.)
BaL:oassray: The boat text and discussion is in J. B.
Lightfoot, The Apostolic Fathers, part i., S. Clement of
Rome, a Revised Text with Introductions, 2 vols., London,
1890; text alone in idem, The Apostolic Fathers . . . ed.
J. R. Harmer, ib. 1891. Translation is in AN F, ix. 229‑

141	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	oiw'°at o>! lgoms
ementtnw
268, sad is Christian Classic Seri", vol, vii., London, 1892. Neat to Lightfoot's the beat discussion is R,. A. Lipeius, Do Clementis Romani epiatola, Leipeio, 1855; idem, Chrmudogie der rthnischen B%arhB/a, Kiel. 1889. Consult further: M. J. Wopher, Din Brisfa du . . Ciemens and PdycarPua. Tfibingen, 1830; C. J. Von Hefele, Patrum apoatol%eorum opera, ib. 1842; E. W. E. Renee, Histoira do la thEokpie chrltianns, ii. 809 eqq.. Paris. 1852; A. R. M. Dreseel, Patrum apoatolicorum opera, Leipeic, 1857; J. Donaldson, History o/ Christian Literature, i. 90‑153, London, 1884‑68; idem, Apostolic Father% pp. 113‑190, ib. 1874; F. C. Baur, LehrbucA der Dopmanpsaehichta, i. 155. 249 et passim, LeiDei0. 1885; T. Zahn, Hirt den Herman, Goths, 1888; A. Hilgenfeld, Din apostdiaehen V titer, Halle, 1883; idem, Clementia Romani epietolce, Leipeio, 1878; J. M. Cotterill, Persprinw Protaw, Edinburgh, 1879; idem, Modern Criticism and Clement'a Epistles to Virgins, ib. 1884; F. X. Funk, in TQ, 1879, pp. b39eqq.; idem. Opera patrum apoatolicorum, vol. ii., TObingen, 1881; $. Maietra, CiSrnent de Row, sow hieto%ra, 2 vole., Paris, 1883‑84; C. TA. Hoole, Apostolic Fadera . .
trend. into English, with %nbroductoryNotaa, London, 1885; Harnsck, in TU, v (1888), 8284; idem. Litteratur, i. 780 et passim, II. i. 251 eqq., 442, 438 eqq., II. ii. 298, $04 eqq.; E. Burton, Apostolic Fathers, part i., Epistles of Clement, with Introduction, London, 1888; W. Wards, Untareurhunpan sum srstan Ctemenabriafa, GSttingen, 1891; C. T. Cruttwell, Literary History of Early Christianity, 2 vole., London, 1893; Krtiget, History, pp. 21‑28, 82‑‑83; Schaff,, Christian Church. ii. 838‑851; DCB, i. 664‑669; AL, iii. 449‑458.
CLEMEPTIIPA. The Homilies (§ 1).
Doctrinal Teachings (§ 2). The Recognitions (§ 3).
The Epitome (§ 4).
Discussion of the Clementine Problem (§ 6).
Relation of the Recognitions to the Homilies U 6).
The " Clementine " discussed in this article are a very remarkable and still in many points mysterious group of early Christian writings, closely related in their contents and evidently coming from a single source, of which three are still extant ‑the Clementine Homilies, Recognitions, and Epitome. For the collection of decretale made by Pope Clement V. and intended by him to form a seventh book in the great collection, also known as " Clementine," Bee CANON LAW, IL, 6, § 3.
Tutrianue was the first, in his Pro canont'bus aPostolorum (1573), to give information about the Homilies, using a manuscript which has apparently disappeared. They were published :. The in 1672 by Cotelerius from a manuHomilies. script in the library of Paris, which, however, stopped with the nineteenth homily, and offered a very corrupt text. The first complete editon was that of Dressel (1853), from a newly discovered manuscript in the Ottobonian library at Rome. Lagarde made the first attempt to give a critically accurate text in 1865. The book consists of two letters to the apostle James and twenty " homilies " also addressed to him. The first letter purports to be from Peter, asking James to keep secret the special doctrines he has transmitted to him. The second is supposed to be from Clement, announcing that Peter has appointed him his successor in Rome, and charged him to send James an account of their long association. Clement, having sought truth in vain in the philosophical schools, hearing something of Jesus, decides to go to Judea for an answer to his questions. In Alexandria he meets Barnabas, who conducts him to Peter at Ca;earea Stratonis. Peter
instructs him in Christianity, and invites him to be
present at the disputation with Simon Magus which
is soon to take place. It lasts three days. At the
end Simon, defeated, takes flight; Peter remains
a while, founds a local church, and sets apart
Zaccha;us as its bishop. Before himself following
Simon, he sends Clement, with Niceta and Aquila,
to bring back news of him. They do not find him
in Tyre, but meet some of his friends, with one of
whom, Appion the Alexandrian grammarian, Clem
ent disputes till Peter arrives. Together they con
tinue their journey, Peter preaching to the heathen
and founding churches. On the way Clement
narrates his own life‑how his parents and two
brothers have mysteriously disappeared long before.
Nicety and Aquila turn out to be his brothers.
Discourses sad dialogues are interspersed with these
events. Simon arrives here, and the principal
disputation follows, lasting four days, on divine
revelations in visions, on the most high God, and
on evil. Simon is defeated and retires, but pres
ently, by his magic arts, changes the appearance
of Clement's brother Faustus into his own likeness.
In this form Peter sends him to Antioch, where
the real Simon has many adherents, to make s
recantation of all his teaching. Peter having or
ganized a church in Laodicea, departs for Antioch.
	This romantic narrative, however, is only s
framework for doctrinal development. The doc
trine has two sides, a metaphysical and an ethical,
which allows irreconcilable views to be stated
side by side. The aim of human life is the attain
ment of the highest good, only possible through a
true knowledge of God and of all things, which sin
prevents man from gaining without revelation.
		God revealed himself first in creation,
s. Doctrinal and then, this being obscured by sin,
	Teachings, through the " true Prophet." He is
		to be recognized through prophecy,
and, once known, must be followed implicitly. He
has appeared not in one single person, but under
divers forms and names. Eight persons have had
a special relation to this revelation‑Adam, Enoch,
Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, and Christ;
Adam, Moses, and Christ stand above the others,
Christ being the highest. The primeval revelation
in Adam, the Mosaic teaching, and Christianity
are essentially identical. Christianity is purified
Mosaism, with the addition, however, of preaching
to the heathen and baptism. The death of Christ
does not mean salvation to the author, and he 'is
silent on the Resurrection. The fundamental doe.
trine of the one God, the Creator, develops in
two different directions‑‑one decidedly pantheistic,
and another which leads not less strongly, by an
ethical road, to a totally opposite view of the uni
verse. Here God is still one, but personal, and
described in the most anthropomorphic terms.
Man, made in his image, is free, and hence comes
sin. The devil is always seducing men, and the
" true Prophet " teaching them again how to serve
God. If evil comes out of freedom, there can be
only one end to it, eternal punishment. The
author has evidently tried to reconcile these two
conflicting tendencies, especially in his teaching on
evil. All property is sin; the eating of fish is

Olsmentiaa	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	142
alera'y
forbidden; marriage, though considered s defile
ment, is allowed, and even praised;, frequent
ablutions are recommended or commanded. The
episcopate appears as a living institution; the
bishop some up in himself, as the representative of
Christ, the local church, and James, the bishop of
Jerusalem, the whole Church.
The Recognitions are extant only in the trans
lation of Rufinua. The name is taken from the
technical language of the drama, and refers to the
reuniting of Clement's family. The Latin version
exists in numerous manuscripts, without as yet an
adequate modern edition. The arrangement of the
material corresponds on the whole to that of the
main body of the Homilies. Barnabas, however,
			comes to Rome instead of Clement to
	3. The Rec‑ Alexandria. A report is given of all
	ognitions. three days of the first disputation
			with Simon, varying considerably
from that is the Homilies. Instead of the second
disputation with Simon, there is a three days'
discussion on fate between Peter, Clement, and
his	father and brothers. The end is much the
same, but it goes further to narrate the foundation
of a church in Antioch and the baptism of Clement's
father. In doctrine it shows fewer peculiarities
than do the Homilies and it gives the impression of
R revision to suit a certain class of readers.
The Epitome, first published by Turnebua (Paris,
1555), then by Coteleriua in his Patres Apostolici,
is an extract from the Homilies, with the addition
of a portion of Clement's letter to James, another
from the account of his martyrdom by Simeon
Metaphrastea, and a conclusion from the narrative
of a miracle performed by him which is attributed
to Ephraim, bishop of Cheraon. Dresael published
			an edition based on a new collation of
		4. The	manuscripts (Leipaic, 1859), with a
	Epitome. variant copy which differs from the
			first only by taking is more of the
Homilies. These extracts have no important bear
ing on the main questions at issue. Great hopes
were based on the appearance of Lagarde's edition
of a Syriac version (1861), but this throws no new
light on the origin and history of the group. The
narrative matter continued to interest long after
the original significance of the books was forgotten.
It was taken into the body of medieval legend,
and has been thought to have influenced the devel
opment of the Faust‑story.
		The scientific discussion of the whole question
really began with Neander, who in the appendix
to his Genetische Entwicklung der gnostiscTcere Systems
(1818) gave an exposition of the doctrinal content,
and Baur, who drew a good deal of evidence for
his conception of the primitive Church from the
			Homilies. He considered the book,
	g. Discus‑ originating in the Roman Church, to
	sion of the be an evidence of the prevalence of
	Clementine Judaism there, and the ecclesiastical
		Problem. constitution shown in it to be the
			basis of the Catholic system. In op
position to him appeared the thorough work of
Schliemann. He was the first to argue the priority
of the Homilies and the dependence of the Recog
nitions. Schwegler accepted this view, and con‑
sidered the Homilies to show the turning‑point from Ebionitism to fusion, while the Recognitions marked the conclusion of this process, the stage of neutrality and peace.
Up to this point the literary question of the relation of the two books and their origin from older writings had been neglected. Hilgenfeld's epochmaking work took this up. He saw the original in the Recognitions and a recasting, in the Homilies. On the basis of minute investigation, he evolved the theory of an earlier " Preaching of Peter,"
written at Rome not long before the 6. Relation destruction of Jerusalem, in the interof the Rec‑ eat of Jewish Christianity. On the
ognitions indications of polemical attitude, he to the traced a aeries of recastinga; he
Homilies. thought it likely that the opponent of
Peter in the original work was not Simon Magus but Paul, then becoming successively the representative of Basilidian, Valentinian, and Mareionite Gnosticism, the last in the Homilies, which he believed to have been recast from the Recognitions at Rome under Anicetus (151‑161). Against Hilgenfeld, Uhlhorn undertook to defend the priority of the Homilies once more, contending that a fragment of the nucleus was to be found not, as Hilgenfeld had thought, in Recogn. i. 27‑72, but in Hom. xvi.‑xxix., and that the birthplace of the whole group was neither Rome nor Asia Minor, but eastern Syria. This he considered to be proven by the composite nature of the doctrinal system, moat closely related to that of the Elkesaitea, though influenced by Hellenic culture and showing distinct Stoic elements. His theory was that the original work was composed there about 150, and the Homilies adapted from it about 170, with a view to a propaganda in the pagan world, especially at Rome. For this purpose Clement was introduced and Roman local color added. The Recognitions would then be a further adaptation made in Rome not long after 170, more acceptable because of its nearer approach to orthodox Christianity.
The next important contribution to the discussion was Lehmann'a, who took a middle course between Hilgenfeld'e and Uhlhorn's, separating the Recognitions into two parts of different authorship (i.‑iii. and iv.‑x.), of which the first is earlier and the second later than the Homilies. This treatment was carried further by Lipaiua, who found the nucleus in a hypothetical Acts Petri of strongly antiPauline tendency written some time before 150; tracers of this work are found in the extant Acts Petri et Pauli (in Tiaehendorf, Ada aPostolorum apocrypha, Leipsic, 1851), but revised in an orthodox sense. A fragment of this was worked up in an anti‑Gnostic sense about 140‑145, the result again expanded by the addition of the Clement romance, and further adapted into an early form of the Recognitiona, of which two later forms exist, one strongly anti‑Mareionite in the Homilies, the other in the present Recognitions, in which the dogmatic interest is subordinated to the ethical, and the specifically Ebionite matter is eliminated. Langen took quite a different view, presupposing a " Preaching of Peter " composed in Rome after 135, with the purpose of claiming for Rome the primacy of

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Jewish Christendom lost by Jerusalem. This was revised at Ca=sarea shortly before 200 is a strongly Jewish‑Christian sense, to support the claim of Caesarea to the primacy, and gave us the Homilies, while the Recognitions are a fresh version made in favor of Antioch early in the third century.
None of these views has obtained universal acceptan'‑ It is impossible to assert the absolute priority of either the Homilies or the Recognitions, or to regard one as a working‑over of the other. Opinions as to date of composition differ more widely than ever. Where there used to be practical unanimity in referring the works to the second century, 170 or 180 at latest, Harnaek has said that they can not go further back than the first half of the third. The importance of the Clementine, for early church history, asserted by Baur and Schwegler, is now abandoned. (G. UsL>3oxrrj'.)

Bnatroaasra:: A bibliography to 1888 is in ANF Bibliogrsphy, pp. 92J85; cf. Kr6ger, History, p. 371, and Harnack, Litterntur, ii. 2, pp. 518‑519. Eng. travel. is in ANF, viii. 77‑211, 21b‑348. Consult: Kr0ger, History, pp. 371‑377; A. Neander. Die paeudoclementdniachen Homilum, Berlin, 1818; F. C. A. 8ahwegler, Des nachapostolische Zeitdkr,, i. 386‑408, 481‑490, TObingen, 1848; A. Hilgenfeld, Die ckmenhnischan Recap»ihonen and Hornilien, Jens, 1848; J. Lehmann, Die clenuntiniachsn Schrifkn, Goths, 1889; R. A. Lipeius, Die Quellen der rSmisehen Pebvs‑Sage, Kiel, 1872; A. B. Lutterbeek, Die Cienunt4nen, Giessen , 1872; [W. R. Cassels], Supernatural Religion, ii. 1‑37, 336‑354, London, 1879; Harnsck, Dogma, i. 311 eqq ; idem, Lib taratur, i.144, 212‑213, 322 eqq., ii., part 1, 701; C. Bigg, in Studia Bibdiea, ii. 157‑193, Oxford, 1890; J. Langen, Die Hiemeneromanc, Goths, 1890; DCB, i. 587‑578; Schaff, Christian Church, ii. 43b‑442.
CLERGY.
I. The Name. II. The Doctrine of the Clerical Office. Not Instituted by Christ as a Distinct Office (¢ 1). But Necessary and Indispensable ($ 2). View of Roman and Greek Churches (¢ 3). The Lutheran Doctrine (¢ 4). The Reformed and Anglican Doctrine (§ b). III. The Call. IV. Legal Status of the Clergy.

The clergy constitute the entire body of public servants or ministers in the Christian Church, duly set apart for their office by Consecration or Ordination (qq.v.); the remainder of the Christian community, in contradistinction to the clergy, constitute the Laity (q.v.).
L The Name: The English word "clergy " (and the French clergy, clergie) is from ecclesiastical Latin (elerieua =" clergyman, priest, clerk "; see CLERK) and is more remotely connected with the Greek kl&os, " lot," which was applied to the clergy " either because they are the lot of the Lord, or else because the Lord himself is their lot and portion " (Jerome, Epist., Iii., ANF, vi. 91; cf. Acts i. 26; Num. aviii. 20; Dent. a. 9, aviii.2, LXX.). Another term of ecclesiastical Latin is aptrittales. Paul had designated as " spiritual " certain Christians in whom the spirit of Christ manifested itself with special power (I Con xiv. 37; Gal. vi. 1; d. Irenfeus on I Cor. ii. fi, Ha:r.,V. vi. l; Theodoret on I Cor. ii. 15). The priest, according to C)lrym (" On the Priesthood;" iii. 4; NPNF, 1st eer., ia. 46),has a vocation instituted neither by "man, nor
olomsattaw
Q1ersY
angel, nor archangel, nor any other created power, but the Paraclete himself." According to Peter Lombard (Sent., iv., diet. 4), the office is a mantle spirituals; all the seven grades of holy orders are spiriluules ; the ordo is " something sacred by which the power of the Spirit is imparted to the ordained." In consequence of this point of view the designation " spirituales " and its German equivalent " Geistliche " were transferred to the incumbents of the office.
]7. The Doctrine of the Clerical Office: Christ promised and .sent the Holy Spirit to his congregation here below, and instituted the sacraments. According to Roman Catholic and Anglican belief he also instituted a special statue within his congregation, which in distinction from the rest of the congregation should be furnished with the prerogatives of the spiritual profession. Thus he called the Twelve, made them his companions and representatives, and in Matt. aviii. 18 he gives his disciples the assurance that whatever dispositions they shall adopt as his disciples, in his name, and for the continuation of his work shall be effectual as of divine, not human ordination. Protestant bodies other than the Anglican reject these claims. In the farewell addresses, John xiii.‑evil., the assembled disciples are considered in a twofold relation: on one side as the founders appointed by Jesus himself for his congregation, on another 1. Not In‑ side as the congregation itself, left atituted by behind by Jesus on earth; but not as Christ as s an ordained mate of administrators
	Distinct	with a commission over the rest of the
		congregation. In John xx. 21‑23 the
risen Christ reveals to those present the transforma
tion which his resurrection has effected in their re
lation to his person, and in their attitude toward the
world; but what he says does not apply to them and
I their contingent successors in distinction from the
i rest of the congregation. In II Cor, iii. 3‑10 Paul treats of the glory of the New Testament ministration, but not of its particular institution; in Eph. iv. 11 the emphasis rests on the " he " (Gk. autos): by him, the exalted Christ, are they all given who labor for the congregation, but the passage knows naught of a special act of institution by Jesus when living in the flesh. Again it is stated in Acts ax. 28‑29 that the Holy Spirit has appointed the persons addressed as " overseers," but not that this was done by means of a special ecclesiastical act. In reality there confront us in the New Testament all kinds of designations with respect to such as were active in the instruction and administration of the congregations: " elders " (Gk. preabyteroi ; Acts xv. 2, xa. 17; I Tim. v. 17; Titus i. 5; James v. 14); " those over you " (proistamenoi; I Thess. v. 12); "those which have the
~ rule over you " NVotcme>zoi ; Heb. xiii. 7); " over‑
seers " or " bishops " (episkopoi ; Acts xx. 28; ~ Phil. i. 1; I Tim. iii. 2); " deacons " (diakortof ;
Phil. i. 1; I Tim. iii. 8, 12); " pyre Py (poi. Eph. iv. 11); " angels " (dag0elor; ; Rev. i. 20)~
" evangelists •• and `• teachers " (euanggeliatai, didaskaloi; Eph. iv. 11). The most evident inference from any of these names is the special activity of those mentioned; there can be no question

810.217	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	144
of a hierarchy, or an organism continuing unchanged in its main features. And the most that can be said is that at that early period the New Testament congregations were not wanting in defined personalities, active in their charges; in this respect the Corinthian congregation constituted no exception.
But the clerical profession is indispensable though it is not the immediate institution of Christ.
For the means of grace by word and 2. But Neo‑ sacrament conferred by Jesus on the eaaary and congregation moat be administered;
Indi°pen‑the powers which are present in the
sable. congregation through the Spirit of Christ must be organized and directed. To this end there is need of definite personalities who belong to the congregation and are no less dependent, as individuals, upon the means of grace and powers bestowed on the congregation than the congregation as a whole, but who still ,assume a position of leadership within the congregation; which leadership is authoritative for the congregation in so far as the holders of this office administer these gifts and powers in the name and according to the will of the Lord. To this extent there is e clerical or spiritual profession and a spiritual office, and there must be both of these so long as Christ's congregation lives on earth separated from its Lord by the confines of the visible, and associated with the unchristian world.
Historical evolution parted into two conceptions of the clerical office, of which one has' found its expression in the Roman sacerdotium, the other in
the Protestant ministerium ecclesias‑
8. View of any. As early as the poetapostolic o~
and 	k age, the celebration of the Lord's Sup‑
t7hnrohea. per was accounted valid only when
conducted or authorized by the bishop (Ignatius, Ad Smyr., viii.). The right to baptize devolves principally on the bishop; on the presbyters and deacons " not without the authority of the bishop," Tertullian, De bapt., xvii.; on the priest, Apostolic Constitutions, VI. xv. 1. The bishops and other priests have been entrusted by the apostles with the charge of doctrine (Apostolic Constitutions, VI. xviii. b); they must be heard, for through them the Lord speaks (Augustine, Serm., class ii. 20). In the celebration of the sacrament the priest accomplishes a sacrifice which far surpasses the act of Elijah on Carmel; the priest excels rulers, for his authority extends to heaven. From this doctrine developed the Roman theory of the priest's profession, s mediation between God and men (of. the Roman catechism, part ii., chap. 7; see PRIEBT). The view of the Greek Church of to‑day is substantially the same. The consecration of priests is a sacrament wherein the Holy Spirit, through a bishop, ordains duly elected candidates to the office of administering the sacraments and feeding Christ's flock.
Luther rejected the theory that the clerical dignity depends upon any ecclesiastical consecration. " Were there not in us a higher consecration than the pope or bishop gives, there would nevermore a priest be made by pope or bishop's consecration; neither could he celebrate masses or preach or absolve " (An den ehriatlichen Add). But at the
same time he was convinced of the necessity of a
special profession. " The Church requires the
		4. The word of God, baptism, the sacrament
	Lutheran of the altar, the use of the keys, and,
	Doctrine. lastly, we know the Church out
		wardly by the fact that it consecrates
or calls church ministers, or has offices to be
administered. For one must have bishops, pastors,
or preachers who shall publicly and expressly dis
pense, administer, and exercise the aforesaid four
articles of salvation on account and in the name of
the Church, and also‑much rather, indeed‑by
reason of Christ's institution " (V on den Conciliis
and %irchen, part iii.). He holds that the clerical
profession is not rendered unnecessary by the uni
versal priesthood. "Although we are all priests,
yet we can not, nor should we, all preach and teach
and rule: one must then certainly, from the entire
body, separate and elect some to whom such duties
shall be committed; and he that wields the same
is not a priest on account of the office (as all the
others are), but a servant of all the others " (Ex
position of Psalm ex.). To hold that the spiritual
profession is instituted by God is not inconsistent
with these views of Luther, since the work it must
carry forward is instituted by God; hence the
Lutheran confessions ' s,nd dogmaticians without
hesitation designate the profession as of divine
institution. From this theory there deviates a new
doctrine, represented principally by Kliefoth and
Vihnas, according to which the clerical profession
is instituted immediately by Christ, being entrusted
with the fulfilment of the means of grace, not as
trustee on the part of the congregation, but as ex
clusively empowered thereto by the Lord; and that
the same has been perpetuated throughout the cen
turies by the imposition of heads. This doctrine,
which is not substantiated by Scripture, has been con
tested especially by Htifling, Hofmann, and Harless.
	The Calvinists likewise reject the Roman idea
of priesthood, though they strongly emphasize the
divine institution, authorization, and organization
of ministers (Confession of Basel, xv.‑xx.; Gallican
Confession, xxix.; Geneva Catechism, De verbo Dei;
		Second Helvetic Confession, xviii.).
		6. The Divine election is confirmed through
	Reformed the appointment to office (Confession
and
	of Basel, xvii.). The Anglican Church
	Doctrine.	makes membership in the clerical pro
		fession dependent upon reception by
act of the privileged estate itself (cf. the Latin
text of the Thirty‑nine ,Articles, art. xxiii., and
the forma of the Book of Common Prayer on the
" Making, Ordaining, and Consecrating of Bishops,
Priests, and Deacons ").
III. The Call (Vocatio): The cooperation of the congregation in the calling of its clergy is very old. The circumstance that Paul makes no mention of this cooperation in Titus i. b, in connection with the commission to appoint presbyters, is not a convincing argument to the contrary, since exceptional conditions in Crete may have compelled Titus to disregard the cooperation of the congregation; or, what is just as possible, he may have executed the commission in conference with the congregation. In favor of the cooperation of the congregation are

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
found more or less distinct references (Didache, xv. 1; Cyprisu, Epist., xxxviii., lxvii. 4; Chrysoatom, " On the Priesthood," iii. Ib; APoatdic (;'onatitur dons, vii. 31; Leo the Great; EFist., a. 8; Synod of i Orldana, ii. 7, iii. 3; Missals Frnrecorum, allocutio in ordinations presbyteri). That, as a matter of fact, this right of the congregation was often enough greatly encroached upon is not to be disputed. But the Council of Trent did not revoke the right in principle, merely pronouncing the opposite procedure to be just as valid (Session xxiii., chap. 4).
Luther distinguished two kinds of calling. The first proceeds from God alone, without any medium; and this calling must have external signs and witness. The other calling needs no signs; it comes about through men and is previously confirmed by the command of God on Mount Sinai: Love God, and thy neighbor as thyself. From this view of Luther's has been evolved the Lutheran doctrine of the vocatio immediate and mediate. With reference to the latter the Augsburg Confession requires that he who holds a clerical office moat be " duly called." Lutheran dogmaticians generally recognize the cooperation of the congregation. It is to be observed that this vocation is always understood as to a definitely circumscribed sphere of operation.
According to Calvin (" Institutes," IV. iii. 17) the vocalic must come about "with the consent and approval of the people; but other pastors ought to preside at the election." According to the Geneva ordinances the clergy do the electing and the laity voices rte consent (Second Helvetic Confession, xviii.). A detailed description of the election as conducted by the whole congregation is found at the close of the Lituxgia in ecclesia peregrittortim at Frankfort‑on‑the‑Main, 1554. W. CeaPARI.
	IV. Legal Status of the Clergy: In the United
States, there being no ecclesiastical establishment,
the clergy, with the exception of chaplains in the
Army and Navy and those attached to legislative
bodies, have no governmental connection. The
clerical profession is, however, recognized in the
statute law of all the States and Territories. In law
a clergyman, priest, or minister is one who has been
regularly authorized to preach the Gospel and ad
minister the ordinances of religion, according to the
rules of the religious body to which he is attached.
The legal status of the clergy remains so long as this
clerical office is recognized by the body to which
they belong. The law grants them exemption from
military duty and from service in petit juries. In
the case of grand juries thin exemption is sometimes
optional. The law also grants the clergy the right
to solemnize marriage, which right is shared by a
number of civil officials, and is purely statutory.
Under some State laws providing for the incorpora
tion of religious bodies the minister in charge may
be elected a trustee and thus a member of the cor
poration. The profession of pastor or minister in
any general religious body does not in law develop
any contract for his support, while he is bound by
the laws of the body as to his official and personal
conduct so long as his office is recognized; but no
ecclesiastical connection can impair his civil and
property rights. A minister is under no legal ob
		IIL‑10
ligation to mantain his ecclesiastical connection. The law reads into a contract of a minister for employment by a local church all the rules of the denomination that recognises his standing as a minister as though such rules had been inserted in the call. Where the religious society is an independent organisation, the salary is generally fixed by the qualified electors of the society, and certified by the trustees having control of the temporalities of the Church. For salary is alien upon all the church property other than that held in trust. See ORDINATION; BENEFIT OF CLERGY; BIaHOP; EPIBCOPACr;
DEACON; PRESBYTER; PRIEST; ORDERS, HOLY; etc. GEO. J. BAYLES.
Btstsoonerav: For the Roman Catholic doctrine consult: %L, iii. b37‑647; De Mares, De diaaimine deriocrum at iaicorum, ad. Baluse, pp. 84‑93, Venice. 1770: H. Rump. Das allgemoine Priestarthtmt der Christen, Mttneter, 1890; W. Schanz, Daa Laien‑ and das himmliaehe Prieatsrfhum, Freiburg, 1873; H. Hurler, Theolopim dop»wDieo cotnpendiem, vol. Iii., chap. .. De ordine." Innsbruck, 1893.
For the Lutheran: %. Ullmann, preface to T3% for 1849; Ci. C. A. von Hulese, Rirdre and Amt, Stuttgart, 1863; J. W. F. Hbfiing, OrundasW evanpdisdWufhr tiader RirrAanroer/astunp. Erlangen, 1863; B. Lechler, Die neutastamentdiche Lehre vom hsiiipsn Amts, Stuttgart, 1867; w. Preger. (3eschichte vom paietlinhen Amt., Nbrdlingen, 1857; A. F. C. Vilmar, Die Lshre room peieUiehm Amts, Marburg, 1870.
For the Reformed and Anglican sides consult: Bingham, Origin", books iv., vi.; Calvin, Institutes, L, iv. 3; d. B. Lightfoot, The Christian Ministry, new ad., New York, 1894; E. A, Litton, The Church of Christ, in its Idea, Attributes and Ministry, London, 1861; C. Wordsworth, putlinu o/ the Christian Ministry, ib. 1872; C. Gore, Ministry of the Christian Church, ib. 1889; 'H. J. Van Dyke, The Church, her Ministry and Sacraments, New York, 1890; W. Lefray, The Christian Ministry, London, 1891. The subject is trested in works on the Enoyolopodia of Theology (q.v.) and on Practical Theology. Gee the literature under OauWsTtoN.
CLERICT73, JOHANNES (JEAN LE CLERC):
	Reformed theologian; b. at Geneva mar. 19, 1657;
I d. at Amsterdam Jan. 8, 1738. He studied at
	Geneva tinder Turretin and Mestrezat, and later
	went to Grenoble, Saumur, Paris, and London,
	where for some months he preached to the Reformed
	fugitives from Savoy and published his Ece
	theologico under the name of Liberiua de $aneto
	Amore. By studying the works of lWenne de
	Courcelles and Epiacopiue he was drawn over to the
	Dutch R,emonatrants, went to Amsterdam, and
	was appointed there professor of literature and
	philosophy in the Remonstrant Seminary. Here
	he developed a great activity in all branches of
	science. He published much and corresponded with
	many scholars. In his Entretiena (Amsterdam,
	1884) he maintained that reason is an infallible
	guide in judging of all that man needs to know for
	salvation, but in other writings he declared his
	belief in revelation and defended himself against
	the charge of Socinianiam. As a theologian his
	chief service was his contribution to a better un
	derstanding of the Bible, free from dogmatic preju
	dices. 	H. C. RooaEt.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: An anonymous life in Latin was published Amsterdam 1711; A. des Amorie van der Hoeven. Ds Joanne Ct, ib. 1843.
CLERK: The name originally need, in its Latin form clerk=, to designate all ordained persons, or members of the " clergy " (q.v‑). From the fact

THE NEW
sCHAFF‑HERZOG
148
1159 damaged the position of Cluny still more, and neither the reforms of his successors nor the attempt of No II. in 1289 to entab6. Decline. liah a seat of learning in Paris, the College of Cluny, had permanent effects. The independent position of the abbey was partially abandoned by No I. in 1258 when it wan placed under the protection of Louis 1X., which led later to subjection to the trench crown. First the Avignon popes claimed the right to name the abbots‑John XXII. and Clement VI. put in their own relations‑and from 1458, when Charles VII. of France appointed John of Bourbon, an illegitimate member of his house, the kings dominated it. From 1528 to 1822 it was held in commendam by the family of Guise. At the Reformation, with the suppression of the English, German, end Swiss houses and the attainment of independence by the Spanish and Italian, the congregation loaf its international character. During the Guise period the abbey suffered severely in the warn of religion; in 1582 the Huguenots destroyed a great part of the fine buildings and dispersed the library. Cardinal Richelieu held it in succession to the last regular abbot, sad attempted in 1834 to combine the congregation with that of St. Maur, an act which was reversed tenyeare later by his succeenorArmand, prince of Coati. The next abbots were Cardinal IIIazarin (1854‑61) and Cardinal Rinaldo d'Erte,, brother of the duke of Modem and protector of France at Rome (1862‑72). After him followed an interregnum of eleven yearn, and then it was held from 1883 to 1710 by the Cardinal de Bouillon. In 1790 it was suppressed by the Constituent Assembly, which cold the magnificent church to the commune for 100,000 franca, and thus brought about its almost complete destruction. The Muse de Cluny in Paris, originally built (1334) as the Parisian headquarters of the abbot, preserves a splendid, collection of antiquities, a large part of which came from the abbey. (G. GRQTZMACHEn.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Parts of the records, ad. A. Bernard and A. Bruel, Recuait des ehartes do l'Ab6aye do Cluny tfOtF1l10, b vole., Paris, 1876‑94; and G. F. Duckett, Record Evidence anwnp die Archives of Cluny, 4 vole.. Lewes. 1888‑88. The early account is M. Merrier and A. Qusrotaros, Bibliotheoa Ciuniaceasie, Paris. 1614. Consult: L. Niepae, Lea Stal7es do Cluny, Gee chartea at la bibLiothlqus, Lyons, 1882; E. 9sakur, Die Cluniacenaer bin sun Mute des 11. JahrhundarG, 2 vole., Halle, 1892‑94; Vial‑' lotions and Chapters‑General of the Order of Cluni, ItBB1688, London, 1893; Cluny: luminars eacri morweterii Cluniacensis, Paris, 1898; Helyot, Ordrss monoetiquss, voL v:; Heimbuoher, Orden and Ronprapabonsn, L 116 eqq.; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 381, 417‑419: Hauck, RD, vol. iii.; RL, iii. 664‑b81; Schaff, Christian Church, v. 1, DP. 330 eqq.
COADJUTOR: An assistant to a cleric who it partly or wholly incapacitated; appointed either temporarily or permanently, and in the latter care with or without the right of succession. By the canon law a pariah priest thus incapacitated may obtain an assistant or vicarius from his superiors; but this appointment is temporary and revocable, and the Council of Trent expressly forbids the right of succession to be given‑though thin has not been held to prevent the pope from making exceptions. The title coadjutor is regularly applied to such an assistant given to a bishop. By ancient law no
CLEYi6R11ES8: A term applieu to mental as opposed to spiritual ,abi'li'ty. It it related to, but not identical with wisdom, is often connected with it (cf. Jas. iii. 13), but generally with the distinction that cleverness it referred to the worldly ride of knowledge and ability, wisdom to the spiritual side. Frequently it hat an ironical undertone, implying the reverse of simplicity and humility.
The Jewish nation owns cleverness as an inheritance from Jacob. Its most brilliant representative in the Old Testament is Solomon. In the New Testament the word expressing the idea is p)lronimoa, the principal passage it Matt. a. 18.
	_	p ° . 	m.	ve a	rning _~__ mind
successor to a bishop could be chosen in his lifetime, and the duties of an incapacitated bishop were performed either by neighboring prelates or by a specially denigrated internentor (dispenaator, intercessor). Such arrangements were usually made by the provincial council; sometimes the pope was consulted, and this causa episcopatis wan gradually reserved to him. The ancient principle, laid down by the Council of Niceea, that there should not be two bishops in one city wan respected at least formally by the denigration of the coadjutor from the title of home other nee (see Blsaor, TrrunsR). According to the Council of Trent, coadjutors may be appointed only in cane of urgent necessity, and not with right of succession unless the pope, after full investigation, approver the necessity sad the person chaser. The diocesan bishop may make the request, with the assent of his chapter; or the chapter may take the initiative in care of the incapacity or refusal of the bishop, in which case the decision rata with the pope. A coadjutor with right of succession enters on the full jurisdiction immediately upon the decease of his principal, without further formality. (O. M>raESt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Grunsu. Ds eoadjutoribue apiscoporum, Breslau, 1894; Held, Daa Rec6l our Aufstatlunp sine Roadjutora, Munich. 1848; A. L. Richter, Lebrbueh des . Rirrhenrechta, Leip®o, 1888; E. Friedberg, Lehrbuch des . . . Rirehenrechta. D• 172, Leipeio,189b; Bingham, Oripines, books iv.‑vi.
COAft, TITUS: Missionary; b. at Killingworth, Corn., Feb. 1, 1801; d. at Hilo, Hawaii, Dec. i, 1882. He was a cousin of Asahel Nettleton (q.v.), by whom he was influenced as also by Charles G. Finney; he studied at Auburn Theological Seminary 18313; spent several months in Patagonia examining the country for the American Board 1833‑34; railed for Hawaii late in 1834, in July, 183b,took up his residence at Hilo, and spent the i rent of hit life there, with the exception of a brief visit to America in 1870‑71. He was a man of great physical strength, endowed with tact and evangelistic gifts. " In three months from the time he first set foot on the shores of Hawaii he began to preach in the native tongue. Before his first year closed the audiences drawn to hear the Word by his peculiar power reached many hundreds. And in sin years from his arrival threefourths of the adult population of his pariah, to the number of more than seven thousand, were gathered into the bonds of Christian fellowship." He was an authority concerning the Hawaiian volcanoes. He published Adventures in Patagonia (New York, 1881); Life in Hawaii, an Autobiographic Sketch, 1886,81 (1882).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the autobiography, consult: Mrs..
L. B. Coon, Thus Coan, s Memorial, Chicago, 1885.
COBB, HENRY PITCHIE: Reformed (Dutch); b. in New York Nov. 15, 1834. He was graduated at Yale in 1855 and studied at Union Theological Seminary 1856‑57. He was a Presbyterian missionary to Persia under the auspices of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions in 1860‑82 ; pastor of the Reformed Church ' at Millbrook, N. Y., 1886‑81, and since 1882 has been corresponding secretary of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Reformed Church in America. He
tearing their Baptism (Amsterdam, 1810) against the views of John Smyth (q.v.), and An Advertisemeat concerning a Book Lately Published by Christopher Latone and Others against the Exi7ud English Church at Amsterdam (1812), which called forth an Animadversion from Henry Ainsworth (1813). He is said to have been the most effective writer among the Separatists.
CLINICAL BAPTISM: The name of clinici was applied, from the third century, to those who were baptised at home is illness by sprinkling, not immersion. Cyprian, the first in whom the word is found, disapproves of it (Epist.,lxiz.) but asserts
the full validity of such baptism. On the	r

147
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
of the tenth century, after Frankish civilization and religious institutions had suffered from the incursions of the Normans and Saracens, a general movement of monastic reform began,
:. Founds‑ which is associated with the abbey of tion, 9io. Clung in the diocese of Mficon and the present department of SaBne‑et‑Loire. This was founded by Duke William the Pious of Aquitaine in 910, and Berno, a Burgundian of noble family, who had already distinguished himself by the reform of two other abbeys, was placed at its head. The act of foundation placed it under the special protection of the apostles Peter and Paul, and of the pope, which meant exemption from all other jurisdiction, temporal or spiritual. This relation, while it protected the abbey from the exactions and ambitions of local magnates, committed it to a constant interest in the development of the papal power.
	The Benedictine rule formed the basis of the new
institutions, with the addition of the capituhuzes
of Aix‑la‑Chapelle of 817 and the reforms of Bene
dict of Aniane. Special stress was laid upon the
renahciation of private property and the abstinence
from the flesh of quadrupeds, and silence was en
joined. The recitation of the psalms and reading
of Holy Scripture were enforced, and unconditional
obedience to the strict monarchical government
		of the abbot required. On Berno's
z. Odo, Sec‑ death in 92? his disciple Odo sucond Abbot, ceeded him. The new abbot, a man
	9xy‑94r.	of Singular spiritual and intellectual
		power, undertook a wide reform of
monastic life, on the strength of a privilege of John
XI. (931) which permitted him to assume the over
sight of more than one monastery and to receive at
Clung monks from those houses which had not been
reformed. He succeeded in bringing back a num
ber to primitive strictness, though most of them
remained independent of Clung. With the support
of Leo VII. and Alberic, the secular ruler of the
city, he reformed several abbeys in Rome itself, as
well as other Italian monasteries, including Subiaco
and Monte Cassino. When he died in 941 at Tours
the reform had spread throughout all France, and
as far south as Palermo. His sermons and other
writings with a life by an Italian monk are in MPL,
cxxxiii.
Under Berno's successor Aymard there were 160 monks at Clung, but as yet only five of the larger abbeys were directly under the jurisdiction of its abbot. Mai olus, its next head, was highly esteemed and favored by the emperor, Otto L, who was credited with a design to place all the monasteries in his German and Italian dominions under Clung. Majolus died in 994, and was succeeded by Odilo, a typical eleventh century abbot in
3. Odilo, his combination of rigorous asceticism
Fifth Abbot, and mystical piety with wise and skil994‑ro49. ful management. Under him the reform spread into Spain, and through the influence of Clung the native rule of Isidore was generally replaced by that of Benedict. From Odilo's time dates the definite beginning of a °` congregation," the reformed or newly founded monasteries being placed in permanent dependence upon
rnerInont
Cluny
the mother house. He had a great influence upon the youthful Otto III., though not equal to that of the Italian reformers, with whose work the French is now for the first time demonstrably connected (see CwxeLnorrrw). Poppo carried the movement into Germany, becoming abbot of Stablo in the diocese of Liege and of St. Maximin in that of Troves, and wielding a powerful influence under Henry II. and Conrad IL, the latter of whom entrusted to him a number of great imperial abbeys, including St. Gall.
By degrees the reform movement widened to embrace social life outside the monastery walls. The efforts of Odilo to enforce the " Truce of God," a notable blessing to agriculture and commerce, are universally recognized as important. The reformers attacked the problems of
4. Reform‑ general church life, combating simony, ing Influ‑ clerical marriage, and the uncanonical
	once.	marriages of the laity. A definite
		program, however, was first laid down
by Abbo of Floury and the reformers of Lor
raine, in the full enforcement of the canon law.
Henry III, found powerful support in the leaders
of the movement, especially Odilo and Petrus
Damianus, for his efforts to improve the condition
of the Church; and when the papacy, now raised
from its degradation, took the lead in the general
effort for betterment, it found its main allies in the
monks of Clung. They were not, however, at first
decidedly on the aide of the pope as against the
emperor, and in the conflict between Henry IV.
and Gregory VII. the successor of Odilo, Hugo I.
(1049‑1109), remained practically neutral. His
influence was especially great under Urban IL, the
first Clunisc Pope. In 1089 he began the building
of the great basilica, the largest church in the world
after St. Peter's at Rome. The first Cluniac house
was established in England with the help of William
the Conqueror, and, though there were not many
direct colonies in Germany, the spirit of Clung
spread there through the cognate reforms of St.
Blasien and at Hirschau.
The first symptoms of decline appeared under Abbot Pontius, who in 1114 mediated between Paschal II. and Henry Y. and four years later offered an asylum to Gelasius II. fleeing from the emperor, as Ansehn of Canterbury had found one there in 1097. The deposition of Gelasius and the election of his successor Calixtus II. took place in the abbey. Under Pcter the Ven‑
g. Peter the arable the Conauetudines Cluniacenses
Venerable, were drawn up. In‑ contrast with the
Abbot	aristocratic constitution of the Cis‑
	risz‑55.	tercisne, they emphasize the mon
		archical and centralized system of
Clung. Without the permission of its abbot no
novice might be received into the congregation,
and each must present himself at the mother house
within three years from his reception for the abbot's
benediction. Peter arrested the Process of decline,
and the congregation had 314 houses at his death.
But the predominant position of Clung began to be
taken by the Premonatratensians, and then still
more by the Cistercians. The declaration of Hugo
III. for the imperial claimant of the papacy in

C00luny0061un	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	148
1159 damaged the position of Cluny still more, and neither the reforms of his successors nor the attempt of No II. in 1269 to estab6. Decline. lish a seat of learning in Paris, the College of Cluny, had permanent effects. The independent position of the abbey was partially abandoned by No I. in 1258 when it was placed under the protection of Louis 1X., which led later to subjection to the trench crown. First the Avignon popes claimed the right to name the abbot‑John XXII. and Clement VI. put in their own relations‑‑and from 1456, when Charles VII. of France appointed John of Bourbon, an illegitimate member of his house, the kings dominated it. From 1528 to 1622 it was held in commendam by the family of Guise. At the Reformation, with the suppression of the English, German, zed Swiss houses and the attainment of independence by the Spanish and Italian, the congregation lost its international character. During the Guise period the abbey suffered severely is the ware of religion; in 1562 the Huguenots destroyed a great part of the fine buildings and dispersed the library. Cardinal Richelieu held it in succession to the last regular abbot, and attempted in 1634 to combine the congregation with that of St. Maur, an act which was reversed ten years later by his successor Armand, prince of Conti. The next abbots were Cardinal Mazsrin (1654‑81) and Cardinal Rinaldo d'Eate,, brother of the duke of Modem and protector of France at Rome (1662‑72). After him followed an interregnum of eleven years, and then it was held from 1683 to 1710 by the Cardinal de Bouillon. In 1790 it was suppressed by the Constituent Assembly, which sold the magnificent church to the commune for 100,000 francs, and thus brought about its almost complete destruction. The Muse de Cluny in Paris, originally built (1334) as the Parisian headquarters of the abbot, preserves a eplendid.collection of antiquities, a large part of which came from the abbey. (G. GxfYxznsecaEx.)
Bnnrooawrav: Parts of the records, ad. A. Bernard and A. Bruel, Recueil den Marks de 1'Abbaye do Cluny 80t31d10, 5 vole., Paris, 1878‑94: and (3. F. Duckett, Record Evidence among the Archives of Cluny, 4 vole., Lewes. 188888. The early account is 114. Merrier sad A. Queretsnue, Bibliot>MOa Cluniacensia, Paris, 1814. Consult: L. Niepae, Lea Statiea de Cluny, lea charter et la bibliof7kue, Lyons, 1882; E. 8sokur, Die Cluniaeenaer bin our Mills den 11. Jahrhundarle, 2 vole., Halle, 1892‑94; Viai‑' tationa and Chapters‑General of the Order of Cluni, 18et81688, London, 1893; Cluny: laminate soeri monaaterii Cluniacaneee, Paris, 1898; Helyot, Ordrea monasHquea, vol. v.; Heimbueber, Orders and %onprpaDionan, i. 118 eqq.; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 381, 417‑419: Hauck, HD, vol. iii.; ICL, iii, 654‑01; Schaff, Christian Church, v. 1. PP. 330 aqq.
COADJUTOR: An assistant to a cleric who is partly or wholly incapacitated; appointed either temporarily or permanently, and in the latter case with or without the right of succession. By the canon law a parish priest thus incapacitated may obtain an assistant or vicarius from his superiors; but this appointment is temporary and revocable, and the Council of Trent expressly forbids the right of succession to be given‑though this has not been held to prevent the pope from making exceptions. The title coadjutor is regularly applied to such an assistant given to a bishop. By ancient law no
successor to a bishop could be chosen in his lifetime, and the duties of an incapacitated bishop were performed either by neighboring prelates or by a specially designated interyentor (dispercsator, intercessor). Such arrangements were usually made by the provincial council; sometimes the pope was consulted, and this causes epiacofxalis was gradually reserved to him. The ancient principle, laid down by the Council of Nica'a, that there should not be two bishops in one city was respected at least formally by the designation of the coadjutor from the title of some other see (nee Blsaor, TITULAR). According to the Council of Trent, coadjutors may be appointed only in case of urgent necessity, and not with right of succession unless the pope, after full investigation, approves the necessity and the person chosen. The diocesan bishop may make the request, with the assent of his chapter; or the chapter may take the initiative in case of the incapacity or refusal of the bishop, in which case the decision rests with the pope. A coadjutor with right of succession enters on the full jurisdiction immediately upon the decease of his principal, without further formality. (O. MiraaEat.)
BrsLIoassrax: t3. (Irnnau, De coodjutoribue apiecoporum, Braden, 1894; Held, Doe Reckl sur AuWung vines %oadTutors, Munich, 1848: A. L. Richter. Lehrburh den . . Rirrhsnrechts, Leipsio, 1888; E. Friedberg, Lelerbueb des . . . ICirehenruhte, p. 172, Leipsio, 1895; Bingham, Oripinea, books iv.‑vi.
COAR, TITUS: Missionary; b. at K7lingworth, Corm., Feb. 1, 1801; d, at Hilo, Hawaii, Dec. 1, 1882. He was a cousin of Asahel Nettleton (q.v.), by whom he was influenced as also by Charles G. Finney; he studied at Auburn Theological Seminary 18313; spent several months in Patagonia examining the country for the American Board 1833‑34; sailed for Hawaii late in 1834, in July, 1835, took up his residence at Hilo, and spent the rest of his life there, with the exception of a brief visit to America in 1870‑71. He was a man of great physical strength, endowed with tact and evangelistic gifts. " In three months from the time he first set foot on the shores of Hawaii he began to preach in the native tongue. Before his first year closed the audiences drawn to hear the Word by his peculiar power reached many hundreds. And in six years from his arrival threefourths of the adult population of his pariah, to the number of more than seven thousand, were gathered into the bonds of Christian fellowship." He was an authority concerning the Hawaiian volcanoes. He published Adventures in Patagonia (New York, 1881); Life in Hawaii, an Autobiographic Sketch, 1836‑‑81 (1882).
BIBLIOGRAPHY'. Besides the autobiography, consult: Mrs.,
L. B. Cosa, Titus Coon, s Memorial, Chicago, 1885.
COBB, HENRY NITCHIE: Reformed (Dutch); b. in New York Nov. 15, 1834. He was graduated at Yale in 1855 and studied at Union Theological Seminary 1856‑57. He was a Presbyterian missionary to Persia under the auspices of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions in 18802; pastor of the Reformed Church ' at Millbrook, N. Y., 1866‑81, and since 1882 has been corresponding secretary of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Reformed Church in America. He

149	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	•	Cluny
Ooooeino
was chairman of the executive committee of the Ecumenical Conference on Foreign Missions held in New York in 1900 and was a deputy to the Missions of the Reformed Church from Oct., 1904, to May, 1905. He has written Far Hence : a Budget of Letters from Our Mission Fields in Asia (New York, 1893).
COBB, SA1tFORD HOADLEY: Presbyterian; b. in New York Feb. 4, 1838. He was graduated at Yale in 1858 and Princeton Theological Serxrinary in 1862, was pastor of Reformed churches at Schoharie, N. Y. (1864‑71), and Saugerties, N. Y. (1871‑83), the Westminster Presbyterian Church, Grand Rapids, Mich. (1885r‑94), and the Presbyterian Church of Greenwich, Conn. (19001901). He made a tour of the world in 1883‑84, visiting the various mission fields, and has written The Story of the Palatines (New York, 1897) and The Rise of Religious Liberty in America (1902).
COBB, 3YLVAlIUS: Universalist; b, at Norway, Me., July 17, 1798; d. in East Boston, Mass., Oct. 31, 1866. His early life was that of a New England farmer's son of the time. He became a Universalist before reaching his majority, began to preach in 1820, was ordained in 1821, and settled in Waterville, Me., where he organized the first Univerealiet church in the State in 1826. He was pastor at Maiden, Mass., 18287, removed to Waltham in 1838, and to East Boston in 1841. Much of his time was given to evangelizing tours which made him widely known as preacher and lecturer. He was a member of the Maine and Massachusetts legislatures. In 1839 he began the publication of The Christian Freeman and Family Visitor, a weekly paper devoted to Universalism sad the antislavery and temperance causes, and continued it till 1862, when it was united with The Trumpet, Mr. Cobb remaining as editor till 1884. In 1858‑59 he carried on discussions in The Freeman with the Rev. Nehemiah Adams on the subject of endless punishment, and with the Rev. C. F. Hudson upon annihi)ationiem, which were afterward published in book form. He wrote A Compend of Christian Divinity (Boston, 1845) and The New Testament with Explanatory Notes and Practical Observations (1864).
BI8LIO68APH:7: 8. Cobb, Autobiography, with Memoir by 8. Cobb, Jr., Boston, 1887 (the Autobiography goes to his forEY‑>ir'st year and is continued in the dfsnwir).
COBLENZ ARTICLES. See Ears, CON(i1rF$8 oh. COCCEIUS, JOHAftl(ES, AND HIS SCHOOL.
i. Johannes Cooaeius.	Doctrine, (§ a>.
	Life andChsraoter (§ 1). II. His SohooL
	Literary Works (§ 2).
L Johannes Cocceius: Dutch theologian; b. at Bremen Aug. 9, 1603; d. at Leyden Nov. 4, 1669. He was the son of the municipal secretary Timann Koch. Early in life he showed extraordinary ability in the ancient languages, and his knowledge of Greek was deepened through his association with Metrophanes Kritopulos, who for s time lived at Bremen. Among his theological teachers was Ludwig Crocius. In 1625 he went to Hamburg to continue his Hebrew and rabbinic
studies under a learned Jew. In the year 1629, to complete his theological education and "to escape the dissolute life of the German universities," Cock (so he wrote his name until that year) went to Franeker, Holland. He had as teacher there, besides Maccovius and Amesius [William Ames], tire great Orientalist Sixtinus Amana, at whose suggestion he published Talmudic studies which
brought him the recognition of Grotius.
:. Life After a short visit to other Dutch uniand versities he returned to Bremen and
	Character.	accepted in 1630 the professorship of
		Biblical philology at the Gymnasium
Illustre. The University of Franeker called him in
1636 to the chair of Hebrew. His commentaries on
passages about Antichrist and his "Introduction to
Ephesiane " brought him a theological professor
ship in 1643. As successor to Fr. Spanheim the
elder in 1650, he moved to Leyden. His peaceful
character, which even opponents such as the worthy
Voetius duly acknowledged, made an agreeable
impression in that age of unmeasured wrangling.
Though full of pure piety, be withdrew from the
common life of the church, for as a German he
never felt at home in the precision of strict Dutch
Calvinism.
As an author he was extremely productive. The "Collected Works" of Cocceius, completed later, appeared in eight volumes, Amsterdam, 1673‑?5; a 2d ed., revised and corrected, Frankfort, 1689, repr., 1702; inferior ed., 10 vole., Amsterdam, 1701, and 2 vole., Opera anecdote, 1706, principally letters. Previously unprinted letters appear in the Thesaurus of Hottinger, xvi. 34. His works may be arranged as follows: (1) Commentaries, which treat of the principal books of the Bible, viz., Job, Ps.,
Eccles., Cant., Jer., Mal., John, Rom.,
s. Literary Gal.‑Col., Tim.‑Titus, Heb., Jude, Works. Rev. (2) Works on Biblical Theology;
Summa dodrina de f axlere et testamenW Des, Leyden, 1fi48, enlarged ed.,1664; Summa theologise ex Sacris Scriptoria rePdita, Leyden, 1662, reprinted, Amsterdam and Geneva, 1665; vol. vi. of his " Collected Works," Amsterdam ed., contains his Aphorisms per univeraam theologiam; finally his last work, Ezplicatio catecheneos Heydellxrgensis, setting forth his system of doctrine. (3) Dogmatics and Ethics; Disputationes . . . de via salutzs ; Brevis repetitio quorundam illustnum tocarum Yeteria et Novi T eatamenti, qui de A atiehriato agunt; an anti‑Socinian polemic in justification of an edict of Sept. 19, 1653, Equitis Poloni (Jones SchlitingP)AlOOlog2.a . . ezaminata; several tracts directed against the Jesuits Walenburg and Masenius, Sacra Scripture; lootentia demonstrate, Jac. Macenis factata probatio Scripturaria, Admonitio de prsacipio futei ecctesi(R reformatce, De ecclesia et Babylone disquiaitio, and a number of tracts on the Sabbath. (4) Academiaal Lectures, the most important of which are inaugural addresses given when taking his positions as professor or as rector in the different universities where be labored. (5) Philological Works; among which may be mentioned Duo tituli thalmudici sanhedrsn et maccoth; Defenaio alters auctoritatia verbs ditwni Veteria Testaments ; the great Lexicon et ommentarius

Co00ele~‑6ysriv
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
aernlonia Xebraici, et Chaldaici, Amsterdam, 1669 and often.
Cocceiua based his theory of life upon the Bible, and in this lies his significance. In contradistinction to devotion to church and orthodoxy, he recommends a life in and through the Scriptures. Against Hoornbeek'e "Authority of the Church" he put that of the Bible only, which was to him a wonderful expression of the deeds and words of God. Consequently all his theological concepts received a Biblical coloring; and his peculiarity was not scholastic but Biblical in origin. Concordant with this was the essentially practical bent of his theology, in which lived a mild type of the German‑Reformed spirit, deviating not in doctrine, but in disposition from later Calvinism. To be sure, Biblical theology does not operate through mere uniform exposition. Cocceiua unlocked its treasure by means of the central idea of the covenant of God. Not that he originated "Federal Theology," the roots of which lay in the Reformation, while its outline had through Calvin's influence long passed current in Holland by means of the activities of Hyperius, Olevian, and Bullinger. Perhaps Cocceiua received the idea from Raph. Eglin's De fiedera 3. Doctrines. gratice (Marburg, 1613). What was new was the dynamic force of his Biblical theology, on the lines of which he carried out the conception, and the richness of knowledge of Biblical history with which he enriched it. His main work, De ftedere et teatamento Doi, portrays in bold and clear outline the whole Scriptural teaching on salvation. The relation between God and man is represented as a covenant at first existing as a divine order, then as a compact between God and man. Then came the covenant of works, under which developed the first step in sin, followed by the proclamation of the " covenant of grace." Though faith then took the place of works, this faith was no new law and Christ no new lawgiver. The power of the " Covenant of Grace " consists in this, that in contradistinction to the " covenant of works" it develops into a "Testament." This method runs through Cocceius's exegetical works; everywhere in the Old Testament he finds Jesus Christ. Though differing in the mode of interpretation, he nowhere departs from the doctrine of his Church. It is his merit to have turned from the abstract deductions of orthodoxy to the position of Calvin. In his doctrine of the Church, by keeping the sacraments in the background and by understanding, law spiritually, he greatly assisted Pietism. Though he found a place in the covenant of grace for the decalogue, the New Testament idea of a sanctified life and disbelief in the necessity to keep special days led to the dispute upon the Sabbath question. It was through this that the Church became aware of the peculiarities of his doctrine; the polemical Mareaius and the worthy puritanic Voetiua entered the fray.
II. His School: Meanwhile Cocceiua died, but the battle continued with renewed fury. A schism in the Church was narrowly averted; on the Sabbath question the pupils outdid the prudent, practical master, the affray involved the laity whom the Biblical sermons of Cocceius had made theo‑
logians, from there it entered politics, the " Vaetians " being the Central party, and the Cocceians the Remonstrants. A change in the prayer‑book was widely resented, and such Cocceiana as Heidanus, W. Momma, and J. van der Waeyen were expelled from the universities. The neighboring synods urged peace "in the name of the communion of the saints," and the consistory of Amsterdam observed strict impartiality; none the leas in 1694 it was necessary for the Court to curb the parties. The practise was adopted, and continued until last century, of appointing a Voetian for the chair of systematic theology, a Cocceian for the chair of exegesis, and a Lampean for the chair of practical theology. The last‑named school was founded by the moderate Cocceian Fr. A. Lamps (q.v.), who did much to heal the breach of the parties. A complete change for the better was brought about in the Cocceian system through Fr. Burmann's Synopsis Theologi,ce, the text‑book of later " Federalists." Among the friends and pupils of Cocceiua were the Burmanns, father and son, Heidanus (d. 1760), J. Braun, and the great exegete Campegiua Vitringa.
(E. F. KARL MOLLER.)
Bat:oanera:: Elio autobiography, completed by his eon, J. H. Cocceius, is prefixed to the"Collected Works," ed. of 1873‑78. His life is also given in Nic6ron, M6moiru, viii. 193 sqq., and in A. J. van der As, BioprapAiach Woordenbosk der Nsderlandsu, iii. 518 eqq., Haarlem, 1852. Consult: F. A. Tholuak, Do# akademiache Letwn den 17ten Jahrhunderta, ii. 228 eqq., Halls, 1853; G. Frank. Geschichte der protestanDiachen Theolopis, ii. 240 eqq., Leipeia, 1885; H. L. J. Heppe, Gesehidrtc des Pielismus and der Myst%k in der reformirkn Kirche, pp. 218 eqq., Leyden, 1879; A. Ritschl Geschichts des Piatiamue in der rstorm%rten Kirche, pp. 130 eqq., Bonn, 1880.
COCHLAEUS (DOBftECg, WEftDELSTINUS), JOHANNES: Roman Catholic controversialist; b. at Wendelatein (near Schwabach, 9 m. s.s.w. of Nuremberg), in Middle Franconia, Jan. 10, 1479; d. at Breslau Jan. 10, 1552. He was the son of a peasant, and began his studies comparatively late. He first studied in Nuremberg, where Heinrich Grieninger, a humanist, was teacher of poetics. In 1504 he entered the University of Cologne where Count Hermann von Neuenar, Ulrich von Hutten, and other humanists were his associates. He also was on intimate terms with Carl von Miltitz who later became papal chamberlain. From 1510 till 1515 he taught at St. Sebald in Nuremberg and edited several of his manuals, which were highly esteemed. During the years 1515‑19 he traveled in Italy as tutor to three nephews of WI1li'bald Pirkheimer. Here the laxity of morals and lack of religious zeal confirmed a dislike already formed for Italian and Roman affairs. Although repelled by scholastic theology, he studied with great zeal the Bible, Origen, Chrysostom, and Augustine, and, in 1517, acquired the degree of doctor of theology at Ferrara. At Rome he was consecrated priest and appointed deacon of the Church of Our Beloved Lady at Frankfort‑on‑theMain. On his return to Germany he was inclined to side with Luther, but changed his mind to retain good relations with the episcopal court of Mainz and with Hieronymus Aleander of Worms, who applied to him personally for the purpose of