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his lucid logical order and clearness of exposition have never been equaled by any of the Schoolmen. His greatest work is the Summa theologica.,, which has remained a classical standard in Roman Catholic theological schools down to the present time. The second part of the Summa is devoted to moral theology in its highest and broadest as well as its more practical aspects. In treating of the virtues he does not confine the discussion merely to what constitutes right or wrong (sin), but deals equally with the higher ideals of Christian perfection, thus combining moral and ascetic theology. Among the illustrious masters of the Franciscan school may be mentioned, besides Alexander of Hales (q.v.), who joined the order when already advanced in years, the mystical St. Bonaventura (q.v.) and Johannes Duns Scotus (see DUNS SCOTUS), whose moral as well as doctrinal principles, speculatively considered, are often divergent from those of Aquinas, whence many animated and subtile controversies between the representatives of the Dominican and Franciscan schools. The secular clergy of this epoch is well represented by writers such as William of Paris (d. 1249), who composed divers treatises on moral subjects, e.g., Summa virtutum et vitiorum, De fate et legibus, De Temediis tentationum, De claustra animce, De pcertitentia, and others. During the ensuing period covering the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries scholasticism suffered a marked decadence due to various causes, chief among which may be reckoned the rivalry and controversies between the schools, particularly the disputes concerning nominalism and realism, and the great schism with its demoralizing influences. The broad, synthetic treatment of theological questions was abandoned and scholastic discussion became overcharged with inane subleties and hair-splitting distinctions. Moral theology shared in the general decadence and. no works of importance were produced during these two centuries.

6. The which lasted until nearly the close of Modern the seventeenth century. Among the

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as a moral theologian, Cardinal Johannes de Lugo (d. 1660). Among the moralists of the Benedictine order were Ludovicus Blosius (d. 1566), J. Graffius (d. 1620), and Joseph Saenz de Aguirre (q.v.). The secular clergy was represented during this period of revival by such writers as Carlo Borromeo, bishop of Milan (q.v.), and St. Francis de Sales, bishop of Geneva (q.v.), who labored so strenuously for the reform of ecclesiastical discipline and Christian morals. Toward the end of the seventeenth century and onward the science of moral theology again declined, because of the prevailing tendency in the schools to reduce it to mere casuistry. Discussion of the underlying principles was lost sight of and undue attention was given to the solution of concrete cases of conscience with the result that this branch of theology lost much of its dignity and scientific character. It was now completely separated from ascetic theology and was almost exclusively occupied in drawing a line between what should be considered sinful and what could be tolerated as free from sin, and in defining the degree of sin (mortal or venial) involved in a given act of transgression. Discussion of the virtues and the principles of Christian life and perfection was passed over as pertaining to either dogmatic or ascetic theology. Not a few of the casuists were accused of laxity in their decisions, and the situation was not helped by the long and bitter controversies between rigorists, probabiliorists, and probabilists (see PIiOBABiLisM). Hence the obloquy that has come to be attached to the word casuistry. During this last period of the history of moral theology no writer has arisen comparable with the great masters of previous epochs. The one who comes nearest to this standard, though yet far distant, is Alphonso Maria di Liguori (q.v.), the founder of the Redemptorist order. His works comprise a complete treatise of moral theology and other practical treatises for the use of confessors, viz., Praxis confessarii, Homo aPostolicus, Examen ordinandorum, etc. Seeking a media via between the prebabiliorista and the ultra last exponents of probabifism, he evolved a system known as equiprobabilism. On this account and because of the recognition bestowed on his works by the official Church, his writings and their interpretation have been the subject of not a little controversy. The last half-century has been fertile in the production of condensed manuals of moral theology chiefly of the practical or casuistic type for the use of confessors and theological students. Among the more popular may be mentioned those of Jean Pierre Gury (q.v.), Augustinus Lehmkuhl, Edward Genicot, and two remarkable treatises, De theologia marctti fundamentals and De virtutibus theologicis, by Thomas J. Bouquillon (d. 1902), professor at the Catholic University of America.

JAME$ F. DRISCOLL.

BIBLIOaRAHY: J. B. Hogan, Clerical Studies, pp. 197-249 Boston, 1898; A. Tanquerey Synopsis theolopiw moralis; vol. ii., pp. xxi.-Iii., New York, 1908: S. Alphonaus Liguori, Theologia moralis, pp. axvii.-cxlviii., Mechlin, 1$45; T. Bouquillon, Theolopia moralia fundamentalia, Introduetio, §§ 1-14, Bruges, 1893; Paul de Broglie, La Morale sans Dieu, Paris, 1886; Catechismus Conc. Trident, Tournsi, 1890; Charles Gay, La Vie et lea vertus ahr6tienrtes, Paris, 1878; J. Perrone, De virtutibua fides, aPei et catstatia, Regensburg, i865.