THE NEW
SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
Editor‑in‑Chief
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
Editor‑in‑Chief
of
Supplementary Volumes
LEFFERTS A. LOETSCHER, Ph.D., D.D.
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF CHURCH HISTORY
PRINCETON THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
BAKER BOOK HOUSE
GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN

TOTE NEW
SCHAFF‑HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
EDITED BY
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
(Editor‑in‑Chief )
WITH THE SOLE ASSISTANCE, AFTER VOLUME VI., OR

GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.
(Associate Editor)
AND THE FOLLOWING DEPARTMENT EDITORS
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D.
(Department of Systematic Theology )
HENRY KING) CARROLL, LL.D.
(Department of tenor Denominations)
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.
(Department of Liturgics and Religious Orders)
JAMES FREDERIC McCU$DY, PH.D., LL.D.
(Department of the Old Testament)

HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.
(Department of the New Testament)

ALBERT HENRY NEWNAN, D.D., LL.D.
(Department of Church Hidm y)
FRANK HORACE PIZETELLY, F.S.A.
(Department of Pronunciation and 7Vpography)
VOLUME X
REUSCH ‑ SON OF GOD
BAKER BOOK HOUSE
GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN
1953

EXCLUSIVE AMERICAN PUBLICATION RIGHTS
SECURED BY BAKER BOOK HOUSE FROM FUNK AND WAGNALLS
	PHOTOLITHOPRINTED BY CUSHING ‑ MALLOY, INC.
ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
		1953

EDITORS
SAMUEL XACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
(EDITOR‑IN‑CHIEF.)
Professor of Church History, New York University.
GEORGE	WILLIAM GILNORE, M.A.
	(AssOCIATE EDITOR.)
New York,
Formerly Professor of Biblical History and Lecturer on Comparative Religion.
Bangor Theological Seminary.
DEPARTMENT EDITORS, VOLUME X
	CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH,	JAMES FREDERICK MCCQRDY, Ph.D.,
	D.D.,	LL.D.,
	(Department of Systematic Theology.)	(Department of the Old Testament.)
Professor of Systematic Theology. Chicago Theological
Seminary.
HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D.,
(Department of Minor Denominations.)
Secretary of Executive Committee of the Western Section
for the Fourth Ecumenical Methodist Conference.
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.,
(Department of Liturgics and Religious Orders.)
Rector of St. Gabrael's, New Rochelle, N. Y.
Professor of Oriental Languages. University College.
Toronto.
HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.,
(Department of the New Testament.)
Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New
Testament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass.
ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D.,
(Department of Church History.)
Professor of Church History, Southwestern Baptist
Theological Seminary, Fort Worth. Tex.
FRANK HORACE VIZETELLY, F.S.A.,
(Department of Pronunciation and Typography.)
Managing Editor of the STANDARD DICTIONARY, etc.*
New York City.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME X
JUSTIN EDWARDS ABBOTT, D.D.,
Missionary in Bombay, India.
HANK ACHELIS, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Halle.
FRANKLIN CARL ARNOLD, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Breslau.
BRUNO BAENTSCH (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor, University of Jena.
FERENCZ BALOGH, D.D.,
Professor of Church History, Reformed Theological Acad
lemy, Debrecaen, Hungary.
HERMANN GE03ELG JULIUS BECK,
Consistorial Councilor and First Preacher, Bayreuth.
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH,
D.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological
Seminary.
EARL BENRATH, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Konigsberg.
IMMANUEL GUSTAV ADOLF BE27ZIN
GER, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
German Orientalist and Vice‑Consul for Holland in Jerusalem.
CARL BERTHEAU (t), Th.D.,
Late Pastor at St. Michael's, Hamburg.
EDWIN MUNSELL BLISS, D.D.,
Author of Books on Missions, Washington. D. C.
AMY GASTON CHARLES AUGUSTS
BONET‑MA'URY, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Church History, Independent School of Divinity,
Paris.
GOTTLIEB NATHANAEL BONWETSCH,
Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Gdttingen.
GUSTAV BOSSERT, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Retired Pastor, Stuttgart.
JOHANN FRANZ WILHELM 80USSET,
Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of
Gottingen.
FRIEDRICH HEINRICH BRANDEB,
Th.D.,
Reformed Minister and Chapl~in at Btickeburg, Schaum•
burg‑Lippe.
EARL BURGER (t), Th.D.,
Late Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Munich.
JOHN CAIRNS,
Clergyman of the United Free Church of Scotland,
Dumfries, Scotland.
PAOLO CALVING,
Pastor at Lugano, Switzerland.
HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D.,
Secretary of the Executive Committee of the Western Section
for the Fourth Ecumenical Methodist Conference.

CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME X.
JOHN FLEXING CARSON, D,D.,
Pastor of the Central Presbyterian Church, Brooklyn,
New York.
JAMES CARTER,
Professor of Church History and Sociology, Lincoln Univer
sity, Pa.
PAUL CHRIST (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Zurich.
FERDINAND COHRS, Th.Lic.,
Consietorial Councilor, Ilfeld, Germany.
WILLLAM HENRY COX,
Editor‑in‑Chief for the Salvation Army.
SAMUEL CRAM ER, Th.D.,
Professor of the History of Chriatian~i , University of Am
sterdam, and Professor of Practical 'l ileology, Mennonite
Theological Seminary, Amsterdam.
AUGUST HERMANN CREE<ER (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Systematic Theology, University of
Greifewald.
SAMUEL E<ARTIN DEUTSCH (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, University of Berlin.
FRANZ WILHELX DIBELIUS, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Supreme Consistorial Councilor City Superintendent, and
Pastor of the Kreusidrche, Dresden.
ERNST VON DOBSCHUETZ, Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Breslau.
RICHARD WILHELX DOVE (t),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Ecclesiastical Law, University of Gottingen.
PAUL GOTTFRIED DREWS, Th.D.,
Professor of Theology, University of Berlin.
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.,
Pastor of St. Gabriel's, New Rochelle, New York.
SIMEON BILLINGHAM DUNN, D.D.,
Of the Editorial Staff of the New York Observer.
EMIL EGLI (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, University of Zurich.
CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH DAVID
ERDMANN (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Honorary Professor of Church History, University of
Breslau.
JOHN OLUF EQJEN, Ph.D.,
Professor of Theology, Auburg Seminary, Minneapolis,
Mium
E. FABIAN, Ph.D.,
Gymnaeial Professor in Zwickau, Saxony.
CHRISTIAN THEODOR FICKER, Ph.D.,
Emeritus Pastor at Eythra, near Leipsic.
FRITZ FLIEDNEBr (t), M.D.,
Late German Evangelist in Spain.
FRANK HUGH FOSTER, Ph.D., D.D.,
Professor of History, Olivet College, Michigan.
FRANZ HERMANN FRANK.(t),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Erlangen.
GUSTAV WILHELX FRANK (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Dogm atics. Symbolics, and Christian
Ethics, University of Vienna.
ALBERT FREYBE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Emeritus Gymnasial Professor„Parchim, Mecklenburg.
GEORG FROBOESS,
Director for the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Prussia.
WILHELM GASS (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Heidelberg.
DAVID PERCY GILMORE, B.A.,
Specialist in Germanics. Brooklyn, N. Y.
GEORGE WILLIAM GIILMORE, E<.A.,
Former Lecturer on Comparative Religion, Bangor Theo‑
1 ~ro ~emiaary. Associate Editor of '1'HE NE~ ScEAr1a‑
11E.ZOO ENCTCLOPEDIA OH RELIGI009 KNOwLEDoE.
WASHINGTON GLADDEN, D.D., LL.D.,
Pastor ‑f the First Congregational Church, Columbus, Ohio.
FRANZ GOERRES, Ph.D.,
Assistant Librarian, University of Bonn.
LEOPOLD EARL GOETZ, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Philosophy, University of Bonn.
WILHELX GOETZ (t), Ph.D.,
Late Honorary Professor of Geography, Technical High
School, and Professor, Military Academy, Mach.
GWILYM OSWALD GRIFFITH,
Pastor of the Sixth Avenue Baptist Church, Brooklyn, N. Y.
GEORG GRUETZMACHER, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Extraordinary Professor of Church History, University of
Heidelberg.
HERMANN GUTHE, Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsie.
WILHELX HADORN, Th.Lic.,
Pastor in Bern and Lecturer on New Testament Exegesis,
University of Bern.
ARTHUR CRAWSHAY ALLISTON
HALL, D.D., LL.D.,
Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Vermont.
JULIUS HAMBURGER (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Munich.
ADOLF HARNACK, Ph.D., Th.D., Dr.
Jur., N.D.,
General Director of the Royal Library, Berlin.
EDWIN FRANCIS HATFIELD (t), D.D.,
Late Stated Clerk of the Presbyterian General Assembly,
New School.
ALBERT HAUCK, Ph.D., Th.D., Dr.Jur.,
Professor of Church History, University of Leipeic, Editor
in‑Chief of the Hauck‑Herzog Realencyklop&die.
CARL FRIEDRICH GEORG HEINRICI,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Leipaic.
HEINRICH HERMELINK, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Privat‑docent in Church History, University of Leipeie.
JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRANZ MAS
HEROLD, Th.D.,
Ecclesiastical Councilor, Dean and City Preacher, Neustadtr
an‑der‑Aisch, Bavaria.
JOHANN JAKOB HERZOG (t),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Reformed Theology, University of
Erlangen.
PAUL HINSCHIUS (t), Th.D., Dr.Jur.,
Late Professor of Ecclesiastical Law, University of Berlin.
OSWALD HOLDER‑EGGER, Ph.D.,
Professor at Berlin and Director for the Publication of the
Monuments Germanirs H%akniea.
KARL HOLL, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Berlin.
HENRY SCOTT HOLLAND, D.D.,
Canon of St. Paul's Cathedral, London.

CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME X.
	GEORG HOLZ, Ph.D.,
	Professor of German Ian ~uaK ed Literature, University
	o Lerparo.
‑ 	JOHN HORSCH,
Pastor at Soottdale, Pa.
CARL BERNHARD HUNDESHAGXN (t),
Th.D.,
Late Professor of New Tstament Exegesis at Bonn.
GEORGE McPHERSON HUNTER,
Secretary of the American Seamen's Fiend Society.
KARL JOHANNES HERMANN JACOBY,
Th.D.,
Profssor of Homiletics, University of HBnipberg.
MARTIN ICAEHLER, Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatic and New Tstament Exegesis,
University of Halle.
ADOLF HERMANN HEINRICH KAMP
HAUSEN (t), Th.D.,
Late Profssor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of
Bonn.
FERDINAND FRIEDRICH WILHELEt
KATTENBUSCH, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Profssor of Dogmatic, Univgraity of Halle.
EVIL FRIEDRICH BAUTZSCH,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Profseor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Halls.
PETER GUSTAV KAWERAU, Th.D.,
Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Provost of St. Peter's, Ber.
lin. and Honorary Professor, University of Berlin.
GEOTTLOB KIRCHHOFER,
Minister at Schaffhausen, Switzerland.
OTTO KIRN, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatic, University of Laipsic.
RUDOLF KITTEL, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Profssor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsio.
GZ03LG HEINRICH KLIPP39L (t), Ph.D.,
Late Rector at Verden, Prussia.
HEINRICH ADOLF KOESTLIN (t),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Privy Councilor in Cannatadt, formerly professor of
Theology. University of Giessen.
THEODOR FRIEDRICH HERMANN
HOLDE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Erlangen.
HERMANN GUSTAV EDUARD KRUEGER,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, university 01 Giemsm.
ERNST RUEHN, Th.D.,
Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Dresden.
ABRAHAM HUENEN (t), D.D.,
Late Profssor of Theology, University of Leyden.
EUGEN LACHENMANN,
City Pastor, Leonberg, Wffrttemberg.
GEORG BITTER VON LAUBMANN (t),
Ph.D.,
Late Director of the Royal Library, Munich.
LUDWIG LEMME, Th.D.,
Professor Of Systematic Theology, University of Heidelberg.
C. H. WE. LEPPINGTON,
Fellow of the Royal Economic Society, England.
ORLANDO FAULSLAND LEWIS,
General Secretary of the Prison Association of New York.
E. LICYIL391L (t),
Late Pastor in Plochingen, Wasttemberg.
RUDOLF LTECHTENHAN, Th.Lic.,
Pastor at Buck Canton of Zurich, Switzerland.
PAUL LOBSTEIN, Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics in the Evangelical Theological
Faculty, University of Strasburg.
GERHARD LOESCHKE, Th. Lie.,
Privat‑docent in Church History, University of Bonn.
FRIEDRICH ARMIN LOOPS, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Halle.
WILHELM PHILIPP FRIEDRICH
FERDINAND LOTZ, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Profssor of Old Tstament Exegesis, University of Erlangen.
CHARLES HALLAN MCCARTHY, Ph.D.,
Professor of American History in the Catholic University,
Washington, D. C.
HERMANN MALLET (t),
Late Pastor in Bremen.
PHILIPP MEYER, Th.D.,
Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Hanover.
GEROLD MEYER VON KNONAU,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of History, University of Zurich.
ALEXANDER MICHELSEN (t), Ph.D.,
Late Pastor at Ltlbeck.
CARL THEOD03EL MIRBT, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Marburg.
ERNST FRIEDRICH KARL MUELLER,
Th.D.,
Professor of Reformed Theology, University of Erlaugen.
GE03ELG MUELLER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Inspector of Schools, Leipsie.
CHRISTOF EBERHARD NESTLE,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor in the Theological Seminary, Maulbronn,
W Urttemberg.
ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Church History Southwstern Baptist Theo
logical Seminary, fort Worth, Texas.
THEODOR JULIUS NEY, Th.D.,
Supreme Coneietorial Councilor, Speyer, Bavaria.
JAN JACOB VAN OOSTERZEE (t),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Utrecht.
CONRAD VON ORELLI, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and History of
Religion, University of Basel.
KARL HERMANN PAHNCKE,
Ecclesiastical Inspector, Public Schools, Pforta, Prussia.
ANTON FRIEDRICH LUDWIG PELT (t),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Superintendent in %mmits.
CARL PETER (t), Th.D.,
Late Consiatorial Councilor, Jens.
CARL PFENDER,
Pastor of St. Paul's Evangelical Lutheran Church, Paris.
EDUARD CHARLES PLATZHOFF
LEJEUNE, Ph.D.,
Formerly Privat‑docent in Philosophy at Geneva.
LYMAN PIERSON POWELL,
Rector of St. John's, Northampton, Mass.

CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME X.
WALDO BELDEN PRATT, Mus.D.,
Professor of Music and Hymnology. Hartford Theological
Seminary. Cones.
ERWIN PB.EQ$CBEDT, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Pastor at Hirschhorn‑on‑the‑Neck., Germany.
EDUARD GUILLAUME ZUG2NZ
REUSS (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor oTheology, University of Strasburg.
	OTTO EARL ALBRECHT RITBCHL, Th.D.,
	Professor of Sya tOmStle ih801ogy in the Evangelical
	Theological Faculty. Bonn.
RUDOLF ROCHOLL (t), Th.D.,
Late Ecclesiastical Councilor. DOeseldorf.
(iUBTAQ RVDLOFF.(t), Th.D.,
Late Superintendent in Wangenheim.
VARL HEINRICH BACK (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology at Bonn.
DAVID SCHLEY SCHAFF, D.D.,
Professor of Church History. Western Theological Seminary.
Pittsburg, Pa

PHILIP SCHAFF (t), D.D., LL.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, Union Theological
Seminary, New York, and Editor of the Original
SCHArHH&$LOO ENC7CLOPdRDI•.
CHRIBTOF (OTTLOB VON $CHEQB.L (t),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor in Nuremberg.
CARL BCHMIDT (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Strasburg.
EDMUND SCHMIDT,
Pastor in Brappits. Prussia
OSWALD SCHMIDT (t),
Lets Superintendent in Werdau, Saxony.
JOHANNES SCHNEIDER,
Emeritus Pastor, Darmstadt.
CARL WLLHELM BCHOELL (t),
Ph.D., D.D.,
Late Pastor of the Savoy Church, London.
EARL SCHORNBAUB, Ph.D.,
Pastor in Alfeld. Prussia

MABIHILIAN VICTOR SCHULTZE,
Th.D.,
Professor of Church History and Christian Archeology,
University of Greifewald.
LUDWIG THEODOR SCHULZE, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Retired Professor of Systematic Theology. University of
R~toak.
REINHOLD $EEBE8G1, Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Berlin.
EMIL BEHLING?, Dr.Jnr.,
Professor of Ecclesiastical and Commercial Law, University
of Erlangen.
WILLLAX AMBROSE SHEDD, D.D.,
Missionary, Urumia,Persia.
FRIEDRICH ANTON EMIL $IEFFERT,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Bonn.
ERNEST GOTTLIEB BIHLER, Ph.D.,
Professor of Latin, New York University.
EDUARD $IMON$, Th.D.,
Extraordinary Professorof Berlin.Practical Theology. University

PHILIPP FRIEDRICH ADOLPH ' T8E0
DOB, SPAETH (t), D.D., LL.D.,
Late Professor in the Lutheran Theological Seminary,
Mt. Airy. Philadelphia

ANTHONY eNABTA$IOQ $TAMOULI,
Formerly Member of the Editorial Staff of Atiantis. New York.
CHARLES JANEWAY $TILL3k (t), LL.D.,
Late Professor of History, University of Pennsylvania.

HERMANN LEBERECHT BTB,AGB, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Extraordinary , Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and
Semrtre Languages, University of Berlin.
LEWIS CLINTON STRANG,
Author and Christian Science Practitioner, Boston, Mass.

RUDOLF BTUEBE, Ph.D.,
Head Minter. Nioolsi Gymnasium, Leipeie.
JAMES WEBTFALL THOMPSON, Ph.D.,
Associate Professor of History, University of Chicago.

CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, LL.D.,
Emeritus Professor of Hebrew, Harvard University.

PAUL TBCHACSERT, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History University of Gdttingen.
JOHANN GIERHARD WILHELIC
DHLHORN (t), Th.D.,
Late Abbot of Lokkum, Germany.
EBERHARD VIBCHER, Th.D.,
Professor of Theology, University of Basel.

WILBELBi VOGT, Ph.D.,
Gymnaeisl Rector, Nuremberg.

HENRI VmLLEDMIER, Th.D.,
Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, Univeesit?
Of Lausanne.
JULIUS AUGUST WAfiENMANN (t),
Th.D.,
Late Conaistorial Councilor, GSttingea.

HANS WAITZ, Th.D.,
Pastor in Darmstadt.
CARL HEINRICH VON WEIZ
8AEC8ER (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Tffbingen.

JOHANN JABOB WERNER,
Privst‑docent in Medieval Philology, Zurich.

FRANCIS METHERALL WHITLOCK,
Pastor of the Bethlehem Congregational Church, Cleveland,
Ohio.

AUGUST WQENBCHE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Retired Titular Professor, Dresden.
RUDOLF ZEHNPP'QND, Ph.D.,
Pastor in Oranienbaum.

OTTO ZOECBLER (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Churoh Hietory and Apologetics. Univer
sity of Greifewald.
RICHARD OTTO ZOEPF)Q'EL (t), Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology. University of $trssbarg.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑vOLS. I‑g
	The following list of books is sup plementary to the bibliographies given at the end of the articles
contained in vols. I.‑X., and brings the literature down to Feb. 20, 1911. In this list each title entry
is printed in capital letters. It is to be noted that, throughout the work, in the articles as a rule only
first editions are given. In the bibliographies the aim is to give either the best or the latest edition,
and in case the book is published both m America and in some other coilntry, the American place of
issue is usually given the preference.
ABBOTT, E. A.: The Son of Man: or, Contributions G. the Study of the Thoughts of Jesus, London, 1910.

	ArmcA: R. E. Dennett, Nigerian Studies; the re
lY	and political System of Yoruba, New
ork, 1910.

ALEXANDRIA: CSCO, vol. IX., fasc. II., contains Severus Ben el Mogaffa: Historaa Patri,archarum Alexandrinorum, vol. I., faso. II., ed. C. F. Seybold, Vienna, 1910.
APOCRYPHA: J. Maller, Beitrage zur Erkldrung and Kritik des Buches Tobit, in Revue de l 'orient chrbtien, 1910.

APGLPGETICS: J. F. Love, The Unique Message and the Universality of Christianity, New York and Chicago, 1910.
W. D. Mackenzie, The Final Faith; a Statement of the Nature and Authority of Christianity as the Religion of the World, New York, 1910.
ARMENIA: T. E. Dowling, The Armenian Church, London, 1910.
M. Ormanian, L lglise arminienne. Son histoire, sa doctrine, son regime, sa discipline, sa litMrature, son pr6sent, Paris, 1910.
AsYLUnz: J. C. Cox, The Sanctuaries and Sanctuary Seekers of Medianval England, London, 1910.
ATONEMENT: J. B. Champion, The Living Atonement, Philadelphia, 1910.
C. C. Morgan, A Lawyer's Brief on the Atonement, Boston, 1911.

AUGUSTINE: W. J. S. Simpson, St. Augustine and African Church Divisions, London, 1910.
Sandi Aurelii A ustini	de civitate
	dei libri XXII., ~ E. Hoffmann,	I., libri
	i.‑xiii., Vienna, 1910.
BABYLONIA: C. Fossey, L'Asayriologie en 1907. G‑M&alites. Explorations et foualles. Langues aum6rienne et assyrienne. Geographie et histoire, religion, droit, vie priv6e, astronomie, rriMorologxe, litt6rature, varia, arcUologie, influence‑8 babyloniennes, Paris, 1910
R. F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Letters belonging to the Kouyunjik Collections of the British M‑eum, vol. ix., Chicago, 1910.
H. Schneider, Kultur and Denker der Babylonier and Juden, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1910.
BACON, F.: G. W. Steeves, Francis Bacon: a Sketch of his Life, Works, Literary Friends, etc., London, 1910.
BERNARD or CLAmVAVx: St. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux. Selections from his Letters, Medztationa, etc., rendered into English by H. Grimley, London, 1910.
BIBLE	TExT: Der Cambridger Psalter, Hamburg,
	1911.
H. A. Sanders, The Old Testament Manuacript in the Freer Collection. Part I.: The Washington Manuscript of Deuteronomy and Joshua, New York, 1910.
A. Souter, Novum Testamentum Greece, London, 1910.
H. J. Vogels, Die Harmonistik im Evangeliumtext des Codex Cantabrigiensis. Bin Beitrag zur neutestamenilichen Textkritik, Leipslc, 1910.
BIBLE VERSIONS: J. O. Bevan, Our English Bible: The History and Its Development, London, 1911.
W. J. Heaton, Our Own English Bible: its Translators and their Work, London, 1910; The Bible of the Reformation, London, 1910.
J. P. Hentz, Hist. of Lutheran Versions of the Bible, Columbus, Ohio, 1910.
W. Muir, Our Grand Old Bible. Being the Story of the Authorized Version of the English Bible, Told for the Tercentenary Celebration, London, 1910.
Fourteenth Century English Bible Versions, ed. A. C. Pauis, Cambridge, 1904.
BIBLICAL CRITIcisns: F. C. Conybeare, History of New Testament Criticism, London, 1910.
R. Kittel, The Scientific Study of the Old Testament. Its Principal Results, and their Bearing upon Religious Instruction, London, 1910.
BIBLICAL THEOLOGY: T. X. Cheyne, The Two Religions of Israel. With a Re‑examination of the Prophetic Narratives and Utterances, London, 1910.
M. Dibelius, Die Geisterwelt im Glauben des Paulus, Gottingen, 1909.
P. C. Purves, The Gospel according to Hosea and the Master's Gospel, London, 1910.
H. C. Sheldon, New Testament Theology, new rev. ed., New York, 1911.
J. Weiss, Paul‑ and Jesus, Berlin, 1909.
BLAURER, T.: Briefwecksel der Briider Ambrosius und Thomas Blaurer, 1509‑15.1,8. Hers‑geg1ben von der badischen historischen Kommisston, ed. Traugott Schiess. Vol. i.: 1509 bis Juni 1538. Vol. ii., August 1538 bis Ende 154,8, Freiburg, 1905‑10.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑VOLUMES I‑X
KANT: F. Pinski, Der h6chsle Standpunkt der Tranzendental Philosophie. Versuch einer Vervollst4ndigung and systematischen Daratellung der letzten Gedanken Immanuel Kants, Halle, 1911.
R. M. Wenley, Kant and his Philosophical Revolution, Edinburgh, 1910.

KEMPis, T. 1.: R. Storr, Concordance to the Latin Original of De imitatione Christi, New York, 1910.

KNox, G. W.: The Gospel of Jesus, the Son of God. An Interpretation for the Modern Man, London, 1910.
LEIGHTON, R.: Archbishop Leighton's Practise of the Presence of God: a Tercentenary Volume with Biographical Introduction by D. Butler, London, 1911.
LITURGY: F. C. Eeles, Traditional Ceremonial and Customs Connected with the Scottish Liturgy, New York, 1910.
T. Schermann, Der liturgische Papyrus von der Balyzeh. Eine Abendmahlsliturgae des Ostermorgens, Leipsic, 1910.
LOBSTEIN, P.: An Introduction to Protestant Dogmatics, Chicago, 1910.
LUKE: B. S. Easton, Linguistic Evidence for the Lucan Source L, in JBL, xxix (1910), 139180.
LUTHERANS: E. Weber, Der Binfluss der protestantischen Schulphilosophie auf die orthodoxlutherische Dogmatik, Leipsic, 1908.
MCCABE, J.: The Evolution of Mind, London, 1910.

MAGIC: T. de Cauzons, La Magic et la sorcellerie en France, Paris; 1910.
MANNING: V. de Marolles, Kardinal Manning, Mainz, 1911.
MAYR: S. Beissel, Geschichte der Verehrung Marias im 16. and 17. Jahrhundert, Freiburg, 1910.
MISSIONS: W. O. Carver, Missions and Modern Thought, New York, 1910.
J. Jackson, Lepers: Thirty‑six Years' Work Among Them. Being the History of the Mission to Lepers in India and the East, 187.41910, new ed., London, 1910.
H. F. Williams, In Four Continents; a Sketch of the Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church, U. S., Richmond, Va., 1910.
W. T. Coppin, John Martin; Pioneer, Missionary, Hero, and Saint, London, 1911
J. P. Jones, The Modern Missionary Challenge; a Study of the Present Day World Missionary Enterprise; its Problems and Results, New York and Chicago, 1910.
H. C. Mabie, The Task worth while or, the divine Philosophy of Missions, Boston 1910.
Alexander Tomory: Indian Missionary, Edinburgh, 1910.
METHODISTS: G. Alexander, The Doctrines and Discipline of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, Nashville, Tenn., 1910.
W. J. Townsend, H. B. Workman, and G. E. Ayres, New History of Methodism, 2 vols., London, 1910.
MOHAMMED, MOHAMMEDANISM: M. Bromhall, Islam in China. A Neglected Problem, London, 1910.
J. Strzygowski, Beitrdge zur Kunstgeschichte des Mittelalters von Nordmesopotamxen, in Materiaux Pour Npigraphie et L'histoire musulmanes du Diyar‑Bekr par M. van Berchem, Heidelberg and Paris, 1910.
MGNABTICI$M: M. Dix, Instructions on the Religious Life. Given to the Sisters of St. Mary, New York and London, 1910.

MORALITY, MORAL LAw: See FAITH, above.
E. Westermarck, Ursprung and Entwickelung der Moralbegrife, vol. Ii., Leipsic, 1909.

MYTHOLOGY: W. Schmidt, Die Mythologie der austronesischen Volker, Vienna, 1909; idem, Grundlinien einer Vergleichung der Religionen and Mythologien der austronesischen Volker, Vienna, 1910.

NAYILLE, E.: La Dgcouverte de la loi sous le Roi Josias. Une Interpr4tation egyptienne d'un texte biblique, Paris, 1910, Eng. transl., The Discovery of the Book of the Law under King Josiah, London, 1910.
NEBTORIANS: W. A. Wigram, An Introduction to the History of the Assyrian Church; or the Church of the Sassinid Persian Empire, 1006lf0, A.D., London, 1910.
NESTORIUS: Le Livre d'Heradide de Dumas. Traduit en frangai3 par F. Nau, aver le concurs du R.. P. Bedjan et de M. Bribre. Suivi de texte grec des trois homilies de Nestorius sur les tentations de Notre‑Seigneur et de trois appendices: Lettre d Cosme, Presents envoyt=s d'Alexandrie, Lettre de Nestorius aux habitants de Constantinople, Paris, 1910.

NICtEA: E. A. W. Budge, Texts Relating to Saint Mena of Egypt and Canons of Nicwa in a Nubian Dialect, London, 1910.
NIETZSCHE, F.: S. Friedlander, Friedrich Nietzsche: Eine intellektuelle Biographic, Leipsic, 1911.
D. Halevy, The Life of Friedrich Nietzsche. Translated by J. M. Hone, London, 1911.
A. M. Ludovici, Nietzsche, London, 1910.
Works, vols. vii.‑ix., New York, 1911.
NON‑CONFORMISTS: J. Ritson, The Romance of Nonconformity, London, 1910.
NORTH AFRICAN CHURCH: F. Martroye, Genseric. La Conquete vandale en Afrique et le destruction de l'empire d'occident, Paris, 1907.
W. J. S. Simpson, St. Augustine and African Church Divisions, New York, 1910.

OESTERLEY, W. O. E., The Psalms in the Jewish Church, London, 1910.

ORDINATION: T. A. Lacey, A Roman Diary and other Documents Relating to the Papal Inquiry into English Ordinations, London, 1910.

ORGANIZATION: C. G. A. Harnack, Constitution and Law of the Church in the First Two Centuries, New York, 1910.

ORR, J.: The Faith of a Modern Christian, London, 1910.
PALESTINE: W. Harvey and Others, The Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem, London, 1911.
PARABLES: L. G. Broughton, The Kingdom Parables and their Teaching, New York and Chicago, 1910.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑VOLUMES I‑X
EGYPTIAN EXPLORATION FUND: E. Neville, The Eleventh Dynasty. Temple at Dear‑el‑Bahari. Part II. With Architectural Descrigtions by Somers Clark. 16th Memoir of the Egyptian Exploration Fund, 1911.

ENGLAND, CHURCH OF: J. F. Kendall, A Short History of the Church of England, New York, 1911.
F. J. Kinsman, Principles of Anglicanism London, 1911.

EPIPHANIUs: K. Holl, Die handschrifdiche Ueberlieferung des Epiphanius (Ancoratus and Panarion), Leipsic, 1910.
EPISCOPACY: D. Stone, Episcopacy and Valid Orders in the Primitive Orders in the Primitive Church. A Statement of Evidence, New York, 1910.
EsCHATOLOQY: See above, DOSSCRUETZ.
ETHICS: T. C. Hall, History of Ethics within Organized Christianity, London, 1910.
EUSEBIUS OF C.ESAREA: Eusebii Hieronymi epistula!. Pars I. Epiatula' I. LXX., ed. I. Hilberg, Vienna, 1910.
ESORCIsM: F. J. D51ger, Der Exorzismus im altchristlichen Taufritual. Eine religionsgeschichtliche Studie, Paderborn, 1909.
EzRA‑NEHEMIAH: J. Theis, Geschichtliche and literarkritische Pragen in Esra i‑vi., in Abhandlungen, alltestamentliche, vol. ii., part 4, Munster, 1910.
FAITH: J. G. W. Herrmann, Faith and Morals. 1. Faith as Ritschl defined it; 2, The Moral Law as understood in Romanism and Protestantism, London, 1910.
J. Lindsay, The Psychology of Belief, London, 1910.
GARvIE, A. E.: The Christian Certainty amid the Modern Perplexity, London, 1910.
GEIGER, A.: L. Geiger, Abraham Geiger, Leben and Lebenswerk, Berlin, 1910.
GERMANY: W. Konen, Germanenbekehrung. Part
	I. Die Heiden ~~r,ed%gt and der Germaltenbe
	kehrung, DUsseTdorf, 1910.
GOSPELS: W. M. F. Petrie, The Growth of the Gospels as Shown by Structural Criticism, New York, 1910.
T. J. Thoburn, The Resurrection Narratives and Modern Criticism. A Critique of, Prof. Schmiedel's Article in the Enoyclop~dux Biblica, London, 1910.
J. M. Wilson, Studies in the Origins and Aims of the Four Gospels, London, 1910.
HALL, F. J.: The Trinity (Dogmatic Theology, Vol. iv.), New York and London, 1911.
HEBREws, EPISTLE TO THE: F. Dibelius, Der verf"ser des Hebraerbriefea. Eine Unterauchung zur Geschichte des Urchristentums, Strasburg, 1910.
HEGEL, G. W. F.: The Phenomenology of Mind, 2 vols., Transl., with Introduction and Notes by J. B. Baillae, London, 1910.
HERRMANN, J. G. W.: See FAITH, above.
HEXATEUCH: See below under NAvILLE.
H. M. Wiener, The origin of the Pentateuch, Oberlin, O., 1910.
HINnumm: Brahm Sankar Misra, Discourses on Radhasoami Faith. An Exposition of the Principles of the New Religious Order, Benares, 1910.
HOLY SPIRIT: W. E. Biederwolf, A Help to the Study of the Holy Spirit, New York and Chicago, 1911.
HUGUENOTS: J. Bloundelle‑Burton, The Fate of Henry of Navarre, London, 1910.
HUTTEN, U. VON: D. S. Jordan, Ulrich von Hutten " Knight of the Order of Poets," Boston, 1910.

INNOCENT XI.: F. de Bojani, Innocent XI. Sa corre8pondance avec sea rbnces ,g1 Septembre 1676‑31 Dkembre 1679, Rome, 1910.
IsALAH: M. Glazebrook, Studies in the Book of Isaiah, New York, 1910.

ISRAEL, HISTORY OP: D. Chwolson, Beitrdge zur Entwickelu des Judentums Leipsic, 1910.
S. Daisches, j Jews in Baby"ia in the Time of Nehemiah according to Babylonian inscriptions, London, 1910.
A. Loisy, The Religion of Israel, New York, 1910.
L. Lucas, Zur Geschichte der Juden in .4. Jahrhundert, Berlin, 1910.
D. Neumark, Geschichte der jadischen Philoso. phis des Mittelaltzrs mach problemen dargestellt. Vol. II., part 1. Die Grundprinzipwn;
Eart 3: Attributenlehre, ist half: Altertum, erlin, 1910.
N. Peters, Die jzidiache Gemeinde von Elephantine‑Syene and ihr Tempel im 6. Jahrhundert vor Christi, Freiburg, 1 10.
W. M. F. Petrie, Egypt and Israel, London, 1910.
ITALY: G. Buschbell, Reformation and Inquisition in Italien um die Mitte des XVI. dahrhunderts, Paderborn, 1910.
P. Villari, Mediaroal Italy from Charlemagne to Henry VIL, London, 1910.
JAINISM: Nyayhvatara: The Earliest Jaina Work on Pure Logic, by Siddha Sena Divakara, Calcutta, 1909.
JESUS CHRIST: C. M. Bishop, Jesus the Worker; Studies in the Ethical Leadership of the Son of Man, London, 1910.
A. Drews, The Christ Myth. Translated from the Third Edition (revised and enlarged) by C. Burns, Chicago and London, 1910.
F. H. Dudden, Christ and Christ's Religion, Edinburgh, 1910.
F. R. M. Hitchcock, Christ and His Critics. Studies in the Person and Problems of Jesus, London, 1910.
A. Niemojewski, Gott Jesus im Lichte fremder and eigener Forschungen samt Daratellung der eroangelischen Astralsto,$'e, Astralszenen and Astralsyateme, 2 vols., Munich, 1910.
JOB:	N. Schmidt, The Message of the Poets; the Book of Job and Canticles and some Minor Poems in the Old Testament, New York, 1911.
JOHN THE APOSTLE: E. H. A$kWlth, The Historical Value of the Fourth Gospel, London, 1910.
P. Ferguson, A Month with the Apostle John.
A Study of his First Epistle, London, 1910.
G. T. Jowett, The Apocalypse of St. John; a brief Contribution to the Controversy as to Date and Authority thereof with a short History of its interpretation, New York, 1910.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑VOLUMES I‑X
BOSBUET, J. B.: E. Longuemare, Bossuet et la soci4t,6 franfaise sous Is rhgne de Louis XIV., Paris, 1910.

BoURIGNON, A.: A. R. Macewen, Antoinette Bourignon, Quietist; her Life and Doctrines, New York, 1910.
BowNE, B. P.: C. B. Pyle, The Philosophy of Borden Parker Bowne and its Application to the Religious Problem, Columbus, O., 1910.
BROOKS, P.: J. Gregory , Phillips Brooks: A Study for Present‑day Preachers, London, 1911.
BRAanmNIsnI: H. Brunnhofer, Das Buch der hundert Pfade (Catapatha Brahmana), die dlteste Quedde der Ritualwissenschaft, Bern, 1910.
BUDDHISM: T. Richard, The New Testament of Higher Buddhism, New York, 1911.
J. Wettha Sinha, The Singularity o Buddhism, unah Introduction and Notes by . L. Woodward, London, 1910.

BURI<ITr, F. C.: The Earliest Sources for the Life of Jesus, London, 1910.

BURMA: R. T. Kelly, Burma; the Land and the People, Boston, 1911.
CATHARS~s, AmBROSIUS: J. Schweizer, Ambrosius Catharinus Politus (11,84‑1663), ein Theologe des Reformationzeitalters. Sein Leben and seine Schriften, Munster, 1910.
CHARLES V.: E. Armatrong,The Emperor Charles V., 2 vols., new ed., London, 1910.
CHINA: A. Little, Gleanings from Fifty Years in China. Revised by Mrs. A. Little, London, 1910.
E. H. Parker, Studies in Chinese Religion, New York, 1910.
CHRIBToLOGY: W. Olschewslu, Die Warzeln der paulinischen Christologie, Konigaberg, 1909.
CHURCH HISTORY: H. Appel, Kurzgefasste Kirchengeschichte fllr Studierende Part 1. Alte Kirchengeschichte, 1909. Part 2. Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters, Leipsic, 1910
B. W. Bacon, The Founding of the Church, London, 1910.
F. W. Butler, The Permanent Element in Christianity, London, 1909.
L. David and P. Lorette, Histoire de l'6glise, Paris, 1910.
S. M. Deutsch, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte, Bonn, 1909.
E. A. Edgehill, The S o Power, as seen in the Christian Church in is Second Century, London, 1910.
Canon E. E. Holmes, The Church her Books and her Sacraments, New York, 1910.
W. KMler, Idee and Pers6nlichkeit in der Kirchengeschichte, Tubingen, 1910.
M. Mamtius, Geschichte der lateinischen Literatur des Mittdalters, I. Teil: Von Justinian bis zur Mute des 10. Jahrhundert, Munich, 1910.
C. Platts, Pioneers of Faith, London, 1910.
Sir W. M. Ramsay, Pictures of the Apostolic Church, its Life and Thought, Philadelphia, 1910.
K. Sell, Christenthum and Weltgeschichte bis zur Reformation, Leipsic, 1910.
CLEMENT oh ROME: Bruchstucke des ersten Clemenabriefes, ed. F. Rdech, Strasburg, 1910.
ConsENIUs, J. A.: The Great Didactic. Tsanslated into English and edited with biographical, historical and critical Introductions by W. %eatinge, part 1, London, 1910.
COMMON PRAYER, Booa oh: J. H. Benton, The Book of Common Prayer and Books Connected with its Origins and Growth; Catalogue
9the Collection of Josiah Henry Benton, oston, 1910.
ConIPARATIvE REmaiow: A. Churchward, The Signs and Symbols of Primordial Man. Being an Explanation of the Evolution of Religious Doctrines from the Eschatology of the ancient E
Fley
ftians, London, 1910.
. B. evons, The Idea of God in Early Religions, London, 1910.

CONSCIENCE: T. H. Lipscomb, Conscience and its Culture or through Conscience to Christ, Nashville, Tenn., 1910.

CoosE, G. A.: The Progress of Revelation Sermons chiefly on the Old Testament, Edinburgh, 1910.

CREATION, BABYLONIAN AccoUNTs oh THE: A. Kirchner, Die babylonische %osmogonie and der biblische Sch6pfungsbericht. Eon Beitrag zur Apologie dea biblischen Gottesbegrifea, Munster, 1910.

DANIEL: E. Hertlein, Der Daniel der Rhmerzeit, Leipsic, 1908.
DAN= R. W. Church, Dante, new ed., London, 1910.
F. Flamini, Introduction to the Study	of the
	Divine Comedy, Boston, 1910. 	,,
DEmIAR$: A. Krarup and J. Lindbmk, Acta Pontifu;um Danica, vol. iv., 1471‑9.g, Copenhagen, 1910.
DIoNysIUs: A. B. Sharpe, Mysticism, its true Nature and Value. With a Translation of the mystical Theology of Dionysius and of the Letters of Carus and Dorotheus, London, 1910.

DISEASES AND THE HEALING ART: L. Kotelmann, Die Opthalmologie bet. den alien Hebrdern. Aus den alt‑ and neutestamentlichen Schriften wit Beracksichtigung des Talmuds dargestellt, Hamburg, 1910.
DIvoRcE: H. J. Wilkens, The History of Divorce and Remarriage. Compiled from Holy Scripture, Church Councils, and Authoritative Writers, London, 1910.

DOBSCHUETZ, E. voN: The Apostolic Age, New York, 1910; The Eschatology of the Gospels, London, 1910.
Docmm, HISTORY OF: G. N. Bonwetsch, Grundriss der Dogmengeschichte, Munich, 1909.
A. Humbert, Les Origines de la theologie moderne. I. La Renaissance de l'antiquW chr& tienne (1460‑1620), Paris, 1910.
DODS, M.: Early Letters of Marcus Dods, London, 1911.
DOGMA, DOGMATICS: See below LOBBTEIN.
J. H. Snowden The Basalf Beliefs of Christianity, New York, 1911.
EGYBT: E. A. W. Budge, Facsimiles of E~ tian
	Hieratic Papyri in the 'British M'ZeumTrlt
	ish Museum, 1911.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑VOLUMES I‑X
PASCAL: A. Crazier, Les Derniers Jours de Blaise Pascal. 9tude historique et critique, Paris, 1911.
PASTORAL THEOLOGY: W. J. Davies, The Minister at Work, London, 1910.
PAUL THE APOSTLE: R. J. Fletcher, A Study of the Conversion of St. Paul, London, 1910.
M. Jones, St. Paul the Orator, London, 1910.
R. Knopf, Paulus, Leipsic, 1909.
E. Vischer, Der Apostel Paulus and sein Werk, Leipsic, 1910.
PAUL IV.: L. Riess, Die Politik Pauls IV. and seiner Nepoten, Berlin, 1909.
PERSECUTIONS: J. Visser, Der Christenvervolgingen in de eerste eeuwen na Christus, Kempen, 1910.
PERSIA: V. B6rard, Revolutions de la Perse. Les Provinces, les peuples, et le governement du roi des rois, Paris, 1910.
Ella C. Sykes, Persia and its People, New York, 1910.

PERU:	C. R. Markham, The Incas of Peru, London,
	1910.
PESSIMISM: A. VSgele, Der Pessimismus and das Tragische in Kunst and Leben, Freiburg, 1910.
PETRIE, W. M. F.: see above, ISRAEL, HISTORY OF.
PTLEIDERER, 0.: Primitive Christianity; Its Writings and Teachings in their Historical Connections, vol. 3, London, 1910.

PHILIP OF HESSE: P. Wappler, Die Stellung Kursachsens and des Landgrafen Philipp von Hessen zur Tauferbewegung, Munster, 1910.
PHILO: E. Br6hier, Pl~.lon, Commentaire allegorique des Saintes Lets, Greek Text with French Translation; Paris, 1909.
PIERSON, A. T.: Knowing the Scriptures; Rules and Methods of Bible Study, London, 1910.
PLATONISM: N. Hartmann, Platos Logik des Seins, Giessen, 1909.
POPE, PAPACY: W. E. Beet, The Rise of the Papacy, London, 1910.
H. K. Mann, The Lives of the Popes in Middle Ages, vols. v.‑viii., London, 1910.
L. Pastor, History of the Popes from the close of the iddle Ages, vol. x., London, 1911.
Regesta Pontificum omanorum. lubenle regia societate Gottingensi congessit Paulus Fridolinus Kehr. Vol. i., Italia pontifieia live repertorium privilegiorum et latterarum a Romanis
Yonti~icibus ante annum MCLXXXXVIII. MIX ecclesiis, monasteriis, eoneessorum singulisque personis concessorum, vol. iii., Etruria, Berlin, 1908.
PRAGMATISM: J. M. MacEachran, Pragmatismus, sine neue Richtung der Philosophae, Leipsie, 1910.
A. W. Moore, Pragmatism and its Critics, Chicago, 1910.
PROPERTY, ECCLESIASTICAL: A. Hauck, Die Entstehung der geistlichen Territorien, Leipsic, 1909.
PSALMS: See above, OESTERLEY.
PSYCHOTHERAPY: R. M. Lawrence, Primitive Psytho‑Therapy and Quackery, Boston and London, 1910.
PUNISHMENT, ETERNAL: C. K. Irwin, Eternal Punishment. The Teaching of the Church and Holy Scripture upon the Doctrine, London, 1910.
PUNISHMENT, FUTURE: Add to bibliography: W. Jackson, The Doctrine of Retribution, philosophically Considered (Bampton lectures), 1875.
REFORMATION: F. Thudichum, Die deutsche Reformation 1517 bis 1587, vol. ii., 1525‑37, Leipsic, 1909.
RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY OF: H. E. Warner, The Psychology of the Christian Life, London, 1911.
RITUALISM: F. G. Henke, A Study of the Psychology of Ritualism, Chicago, 1910.
ROBINSON, C. S.: Add to list of his writings: Annotations upon Popular Hymns: for Use in Praise‑Meetings (New York, 1893).
SABBATH: Add to bibliography: G. Schiaparelli, Astronomy in the 0. T., chap. ix., Oxford, 1905.
A. T. Clay, Amurru, the Home of the Northern Semites, pp. 55 sqq., Philadelphia, 1909.
SANCTIFICATION: P. Fleiseh, Zur Geschichte der Heiligungsbewegung. I Heft. Die Heiligungsbewegung von Wesley bis Boardman, Leipsie, 1910.
SAVONAROLA, G.: T. Sardi, Girolamo Savonarola giudicato da un suo contemporaneo. Documenti inediti publicati da A. Bianconi, Rome, 1911.
SOCIAL SERVICE: W. F. Crafts, A Quarter Century of . Legislation . . Relating to Moral and Social Reforms, Washington, D. C., 1911.

BIOGRAPHICAL ADDENDA‑VOLUMES I‑%
BIOGRAPHICAL ADDENDA
ATWILL, E. R.: d. at Kansas City Jan. 24, 1911.
BERTHEAU, C.: d. at Hamburg Dec. 19, 1910.
BRADHrORD, A. H.: d. at Montclair, N. J., Feb. 18,
1911.
DAWSON, W. J.: Accepted call to First Presbyterian Church, Newark, N. J., 1911.
FERRIS, J. M.: d. at Flatbush, h. I., Jan. 30, 1911.
FUNCEE, O.: d. at Bremen Dec. 26, 1910.
HAsTINGs, T. S.: d. at New York Apr. 2, 1911.
KLosTERMANN, E.: called to Strasburg as ordinary professor of N. T. theology.
KHIEG, K.: d. at Freiburg Jan. 24, 1911.
MEAD, C. M.: d. at New Haven Feb. 15, 1911.
PARET, W.: d. at Baltimore Jan. 18, 1911.
ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA
Vol. vii., p. 251, col. 2, lines 7 and 6 from bottom: Read " Donizo . . . Domnizo " for " Donizone . . . Domnizone."

Vol. viii., p. 143, col. 2, line 14: Read " Odhner " for " Odlmer."

Vol. viii., p. 162, col. 1, line 17, first word: Read " Papacy " for " Popes."
Vol. viii., p. 236, coI. 1, line 21 from bottom: Read " Nagot " for " Magot."
Vol. viii., p. 487, col. 2, line 40: Read " S. D. F." for " G. D. F."
Vol. ix., p. 120, col. 1, article Polycrates: Insert after line 2 " by his controversy with Pope Victor on the cele‑."
Vol. ix., p. 122, col. 1, line 14 from bottom: Read " den Ursprung " for " den Alter."
Vol. ix., p. 132, col. 2, line 9 from bottom: Read " Giesebrecht " for " Gieselbrecht."
Vol.	ix., p. 143, col. 2: Read " H6LscHER " in
	signature.
Vol. ix., p. 163, col. 2, lines 18‑17 from bottom: Read " Jan van Ruysbroeck " for " Henry Ruysbroek."
Vol. ix., p. 174, col. 1, line 17: Remove " (qxj."
Vol. ix., p. 175, col. 1, line 1: Read " I. F. E." for " J. E. F."
Vol. ix., p. 289, col. 1, line 21: Read " Batterson " for " Patterson "; line 24: Read " E. E." for
" R. E."; line 47: Read " J. W." for " J. A."; line 53: Read " F. N." for " F. W."
Vol. ix., p. 337, col. 1, line 20: Read " 1723 " for " 1743 "; line 21: Read " Vlis " for " Blis "; line 10 from bottom: Read " Gunkel " for
" Gunkelchen."
Vol. ix., p. 338, col. 1, line 21 from bottom: Read " Apocrypha=" for " Apocryphi "; line 19, from bottom: Read " Beloved of God."
Vol. ix., p. 339, col. 1, line 6 from bottom: Read " Abralue " for " Abrafmx "; line 4 from bottom: Read " Vassilyew"for " Bassilyew."
Vol. ix., p. 340, col. 1, line 20‑‑ Read " B. Beer " for " G. Beer."
Vol. ix., p. 342, col. 1, line 2 from bottom: Read " Bousset " for " Bossuet "; col. 2, line 6: Read " Couard " for " Conrad."
Vol. ix., p. 479, col. _1, line 11 from bottom: Read " 1911 . . . $101,000 " for " 1908 . . .
$65,000."
Vol. ix., p. 422, col. 2, fine 37: Read " 1570 "for " 1557 "; line 39: Read " Boo" " for " Bocakag."
Vol. x., p. 19, col. 2: In signature read " G. E." for " D."
Vol. x., p. 38, col. 2, line 3 from bottom: Change signature to " H. CREMER."

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations in common use or self‑evident are not included here. For additional information concerning the works listed, see vol. L, pp. viii.‑xz., and the appropriate articles in the body of the work.
dDB . . . . . . . . . I ASn° d°utw& Bioprophis, Leipaio,
1875 aq ., vol. 53, 1907 ddro . . . . . . . . . .,adroeraua g _ _____. ,
AJP..........
	AJT	.
AKR.........
dLKG........
American J~ouraal of Philology, Baltimore, 1880 eqq.
American Journal of Theology. Chicago. 1897 sqq.
Archiro Jftr katholischss Kirchsnracht,
i Innsbruck, 1867‑81, Mains, 1872 sqq.
Ardtiro far Litterotur‑ and KirdbrWesdddue den btittdattsrs, Freiburg. 1885 sqq.
Am. . . . . . . . .. . . .American
	dMA	jAbhandlungen der MOnchensr Akadamia,
		Munich, 1783 eqq.
		Ante‑Mans Fat7rcra American edition
		by A. Cleveland Gjoze, 8 vole. and in
	ANF	due, Buffalo. 1887: vol. ix., ad. Allan
Menaiea, New York, 1897
	Apoo .		Apocrypha apocryphal
	Apo, .		Apdopra, 2polopy
	Arab 	Arabia
	Aram 	......	.Aramaic
art.. . . . . . . . . . . . . article
Arc. 8ohmsl . . . . . Schmalksld Articles
ASB .. . . . . . . . . . I Adso "t• ed. J. Bollard and others.
			Antwerp, 1843eq Q
	A3M			Acts sanetorum ordtass 8. Benedicti, ed.
			J. Mabilloa, 9 vole., Paris, 1888‑1701
	Ass yr .			AmYrisa
A, T. . . . . . . . . . . .Alfas Testament, " Old Testament "
An
	4V: Con .		Augsburg Confession
	A. V	.....	....	.Authonaed Version (of the English Bible)
Baldwin, 	(J. M. Baldwin, Diary % Philosophy
. , and Payehdopy, 8 vole. m New York,
Dictionary	1901‑05
Bardeahewer, ~ O. 8ardenhewer, Geadtichte der akkirclr Geachichte . . . . lichen Litteratur, 2 vole., Freiburg, 1902
Bnrdenhewer, ~ O. Bsrdenhewer, Patrdopic, 2d ed., FreiPatrdopie .... burg, 1901
Bsyle. ~ The Dictionary Historical and Critical of Dictionary . . . , Mr. Peter Bayk, 2d ed., 5 vole.. London,
				1734‑38
Bensinger,		I.	Benainger, Hebrdisehe Ardv9doQie, 2d
	Arehnolopis~ 			ed Freiburg, 1907
Bingham,	~ J. Bingham, Oripinea eedwiaaticor, 10
. ,				vole., London, 1708‑22; new ed., Ox
				ford, 1855
			M. Bouquet, Recueil des hiatoriens des
Gaut" at de la France, continued by
various hands. 23 vole.. Paris. 1738‑78
~ Archibald Bower, Hiatory of the P
. to 1768, tostinued by S. H. ox, 8 vole., Philadelphia, 1845‑47
Baptist Quarterly Rsroiato. Philadelphia,
Bouquet. Rccueih
Bower, Pope. ..
BQR.. .. . . . . . . . 1887 sqq.
	BRG		See JaH6
Cent. .. .... . . ...Canticles, Bong of Solomon
cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . caput. ohsptar '
Ceillier. Auteura, R'•Ilier, Xistoire du auteura saerh d
	aa~ris .	eJ°r°°' 18 vole. is 17, Paris,
		1858‑‑
Chros . . . . . . . . . . . Chrosieort, " Chronicle "
I Chron .. . .. . . . . .I Chronicles
II Chron . . . . . . . . II Chronicles
	CMG 	C°° inscription‑ Grcaoarum, Berlin,
		1825 sqq.
	CIL	C inacrigtionum Latinarum, Berlin,
		eqq.
	CIB	C inacriptionum Scmitimrum,Paris,
		1881 sqq.
	cod 	code,
	cod. Theod		codes Tluodaeiasw
Col .. . .. .. .. . ....Epistle to the Colossians
	Col., cola. . . . . . . oo umncolumns
	ConJ	...	. 	.ConJesswnea. Confessions •.
I Cor.. . . . . . . . . . .First Epistle to the Corinthians
II Cor .. . . . . . . . . . Second Epistle to the Corinthian,
	COT 			See Schrader
	CQR .. . . 	. . .° Church Quarterly Reoieta. London.
1875 sqq.
Creighton,
	Papacy ....
C	roJormatorum,	begun at Has
	. vol. Izuia.,	Berhn and Leipeic,
	1905eq q.
`M. Creighton, A History of the Papacy from the Great Schism to the Sack o1 Rome, new ed., 8 vole., New York a do
London, 1897
~Corpueaeriptorum Cbridianorum orisstaitum, ed. J. B. Chabot, I. Guidi, and others, Paris and Leipeio, 1903 aqq,
Corpus scriptmum eedesiasticotam Latinwum, Vienna, 1887 sqq.
Corpus scriptorrtm historic Byaantina:, 49 vole. Bonn, 1828‑78
C. W. furrier. History of Religious Orders,
Carrier. Religious
Orders .. . . . .. Z=.jo
rkr 1898
D.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Domrat
Dsa.. . . . . . . . . . . . Daniel
J. Hastings. Dictionary of the Bi6G., 4
	DB	vole. and extra vol	Edinburgh and
		New York, 1898‑1904
W. Smith ad 8. Cheetham, Dictionary
	%Christian Antiquities, 2 vole., London,
	18Th‑ 80
~ W. Smith and H. Waco, vDictionary Christian Biography.
187T‑87
J. Hastings J. A.Belbie, and J. C. Lambert,
DCG • • • • • • . . . ~	A Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels, 2 vole., Edinburgh and New York, 19081908
Deut . . . . . . . . . . . . Deuteronomy
De vir. ill. . . . . . . . De viris iUustribus
	DCQ .		$ee Watteabsch
		L. Stephen and S. Lee. Dictionary of
	DNB 	National BioprapAg, 83 vole. and
		supplam~ent 3 vole., London, 1885‑1901
Driver, Introduo‑ S. R. Driver, Introduction to the Literature
	the Old Testament, 10th ed.. New
	Lion		: 9t the 1910
	E		Elohiet
		T. K. Cheyna and J. S. Black, Encydo
	EB .	. . . . . . . . . ~ p~din 13'tbliea, 4 vole., London and
		New York 1899_1903
	Ecei .		Ecdeaia, ' Glhum,6 ; eedaaiaatieua, " ec
		clesiastical "
	Eccles 	Ecclesiastes
Eccles . . . . . . . . . . Ecdeeiastious
ed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . edition: edidit. .. edited by"
Eph . . . . . . . . . . . . Epistle to the Epheeiana
Epist . . . . . . . . . . . Epiatda, Epietoia, Epistle," " Ep A=ne "
Erach and Gru‑ J. 8. Erech and J. G. Gruber, Aapamcina
	her Encyklo‑ ~ EncykLopadia der TVisaenachaJtes and
p~is ... .... . Kilnstc, Leipeio. 1818 eqq
	E. V		Englieh versions (of the Bible)
Ea .. . . . . . . . . . . . . Eaodua
	Eaek. . . . . . .Esekiel
	fame 	fasciculas
	Fr 	French
Friedrich, RD.. J. Friedrich, Kirdunptachichte DeutsehI lands. 2 vole.. Bamberg, 1887‑89
Gal . . . . . . . . . . . . . Epistle to the Galatians
Gams Series ~ P. B. Game, Series spiacopornm eedesia
episcoporum . . Cathdica, 12egenaburg, 1873, and sup‑
			plement, 1886
Gee and Hardy. ~ H.~wb~
	Documents	atiroe of	r Documents
		• ' '	London, 1898
Germ . . . . . . . . . . . German
GGA . . . .. . .. , . Gsttinpixhe Gdehrte Anasipen, G6ttingen, 1824 sqq.
Gibbon Decline E. Gibbon. History of the Decline and
	Fall of tie Roman Empire, ed. J. B.
and ~aQ •	Bury, 7 vole., London, 1898‑1900

		C. G Tie Sources and Literature of
	Grove, Sows	EnpfHistory . . . to 1/,86, London,
		1800
	Hab 	Habakkuk
Haddsn sad (A• W• Hadd°n and W. Stubbs, Councils
Stubbs, Coup‑ jt	a"d Ecclesiastical Documents Relating
	to Great Britain and Ireland, 3 vole.,
et'La. . . . . . . . . .Oxford, 1889‑78

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Refers to patrietie works on heresies or
	Hasr .. . . . . . . heretT.Wlian a De. a;acrf,Ptaoner
			the Pros hair, of irenious, the
			Panarion of Epiphanius, etc.
	Hag	.		Haggai
HsrduinCon‑	J. ffs	Conedliorum odlectio repia
	cilia		'. 	..	.	maxima. 12 vole., Paris, 1715
	A. Harnack History of opme . . ft=
He.,, Dogma the 8d Geinaan edition, 7 vole.. Boston,
		1895‑1900
8srnsok, Litlera‑ A‑ Harnaek, Geschichte der altcAria$ichen
	Cur 	...	qtr big Euaebiua, 2 vols. in 3,
			Lai 1893‑1904
Hauck, KD . • A. hIsuck, Rirchengeachichte Deutaek‑
•	lands, Vol. i., Leipaic, 1904; Vol . ii.
1900• Vol. iii.. 1906; Vol. iv.. 1903
8suck‑Her	~Ryl°p4die far proteataatiade The_
~g.	dogie and Kirche founded by J., J‑
	RE	.....	. . Herzog, 3d ed. by A. Hauck, Leipeic,
			1896‑1909
Heb .. . . . . . . . . . . . Epistle to the Hebrews
	Hebr .		ebrew
Hefele,Concilien‑ C• J. XT Refele Conciliengeachichtet con‑
0eschichte .. . . . ,	tinned b	J. kergenr6ther, vole. i.‑vi.,
	viii.‑Ix 	reiburg, 1883‑93
Heimbucher~Or‑ M. Heimbucher Die Orden and Konpre‑
den and lion‑ patwnen der kathdiachen Kirdhe, 2d ed
prepationen. . . 3 vols., Paderborn, 1907.
Helyot, Ordre, . J P. Helyot Hiatoire lea ordrea monae‑
monaetiquee.	p~• 1rd~nstai~9 82 vols.,
Henderson, Doc‑ E. F. Paris, 	Select Historical Docu‑
umenta of the Mia~dde Apes, London, 1892
Hint .. . . . . . . . . . . . History, hiatoire, hiatoria
Hint. ecd.... .. . H~ ~esiaatica, ecdesios, " • Church
Host . . . . . . . . . . . . Homidia, homiliai, " homily, homilies "
	Hoe 	. . . . . . . . . . . Hoses
	Isa	. . . . . . . . . . . . Iesiah
	Tta1	Italian
	J	Jahviet (Yahwist)
	JA 	. . . . . . . . . . . . Journal Asiatique, Paris, 1822 eqq.
Jacobus,	.. • A Standard Bel, Dictionary, ed. M. W. Ja‑
Didiry.	cobus, . E. E Nourse . . and A. C.
	Zenos New ork and London, 199
Jaff6, BRG ..... P. Jaffd, Bibliotheea rerum Germanicarum, 6 vole., Berlin, 1864‑73
P. JaffB Repeals pontiicum Romanorum
Jaff~. Roseate. _ _	ad annum 1198, Berlin, 1851;
2d ed.. Leipsic, 1881‑88
	JAGS . 	Journal (tf the American Oriental Society,
		New Haven, 1849 aqq
		Journal of Biblical Literature and Exem
		sit. first appeared as Journal of the
	JBL .	. . . . . . .	Society of xblical Literature and Bse
			0eeis, Middletown, 1882‑88, then Bos
			ton ol q.
			Th feu"oAd°M' 12 vole., New
			York, 1901g	,
			The combined narrative of the Jahviat
			(Yahwiat) and Elohis6
	Jer .		Jeremiah
	Josephus, Ant	Flav'us Josephus, " Antiquities of the
		Jews "
Josephus Aps . Flavius Josephus, " Against Apion "
Joseph W . .Life of Flavma Josephus
Josephus; War. . . Flavius Joaephue, The Jewish War "
	Josh 	Joshua
JPT . . . . . . . . . . J°hr' far protestantiache Thadopie, ,
	Leip®c 1875 eqq
JQR . . . . . . .. . . The Jewish Quarterly Review, London, ,
JRAS . . . . . . .. . Journal °I the Royal Asiatic Society, Lon
	don, 1834 sqq.
J	of Theological Studies, London,
. 1899
J. Julian q A Dictionary of Hymnology,
	revised edition, London, 1907
Julian, Hyny.
noloy . . . . .
RAT . . . . : . . . . . . See Schrader
	KB .		8ee Schrader
RD . . . . . . . . . . . Bee Friedrich, Hauck, Iiett~berg
	Welter and 1Vdte s Kirchenlexikon 2d
RL . .. .. . . . . .. . eel., by J. Hergenr5ther and F. Kanlen,
		12 vole., Freiburg, 1882‑1903
	(G. Krilger, History of Early Christian
Kriiger, History.( Literature in the First Three Centuries,
Hrumbaoher.
Geaehichte. . .
Labbe, Concilia
New York, 1897
K. Krum ~ 	r, Geschidvte der byzarr
	897 ~ 	r' 2d ed.' ‑‑Munich,
P. Labbe,. Saaorum eonciliorum nova of amrolieesma cdlectio 31 vole., Florence an Venice, 1759‑98
Lam . . . . . . . . . . . . Lamentations
Lsnipan, Eul. ~ J. Lanigan, Ecclesiastical History of Ire‑
		land to the 131h Century, 4 vole„ Dub
		lin, 1829
	Let 	Latin, Latiniaed
L~ev . . . . . . . . . . . .
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑
L~eviiioUB
m
Lichtenberger, 1 F• Lichtenberger, EncydoPbdie lea eci‑
ESR . . . . . . . . 1~ rol%p%euses. 13 vole., Paris, 1877‑
Lorena, DGQ , , ~ O. Lorenz, Deulachdande Geacht7
ton in fiudalter, 3d ed., Berlin, I88LXX . . . . . . . . . . . The Septuagint
T Mace	I Maccabees
it me.	II Maccabees
Mai, Nova col‑)A. Mai, Scriptorum veterum nova cd‑
tctui!' . . . . . . . . lectiot 10 vole.. Rome, 1825‑38
Mal . . . . . . . . . . . . . Malsohi
Mann, Popes . R. C. Mann, Lives of the Popes in the Early Midle Ages, London, 1902 eqq‑
• G. D. Manzi, actorum onc;liorum
Mansi, Concilia. ~ Venice, cdlectio nova172, 31 vole., Florence and
	8
	Matt 	Matthew
		Monuments Germa,u;e hiatorica, ed. GY3
		H.
		Peru and others Hanover and er
		n. 1828 aq9 Ttie following abbrevia
		tions are used for the sections and
		subsections of this work: Ant., An Eioui
		datea, Antiquities ' ; Acct. ant. ~fuo
		lores antiquiasimi " Oldest Writers
		Chron, man? Chronim minors, Legge;
		Chronicles ; Dip , Diplomats, Di
		plomast Documents ; Epiaa., EPia
		td®. Letters ‑ Gent. Pont. Rom.,
		Geata ponttJleum 'Romanorum, •• Deeds
		of the Popes of Rome ‑ Leg •, Lsgea,
		Laws Lib. de dite, Lz'bdli de dice
		inter regnum et aaardotium aa•culorum
		xi. of xii. conacriPti, Books concerning
MGH , , , . , , , , ,	the Strife between the Civil and Eccle‑
eiaatical Authorities in the Eleventh
and Twelfth Centuries Nee ., Ne
crolopia Germania•, 7fecrology of
Ge 11
	rmsny	Poet. Let. a^roa• Car •,
PPosts Gatini a:va Cardins, ' Latin
Poets of the Caroline Time ". poet.
Lat‑ ‑ad‑ Mi. Poole Latini me3ii aroi,
Latin Poets of the Middle A~ es ‑Script. ScriPtoree ' Writers' • ~cript. rar. Germ., ScriPtorea rerum Oermanicaru Writers On German Subjects'; Script. rer. Lanpob. Seriptores rerum Lenpobardicarum et IEadicarum, ' Writers on Lombard and Italian Subjects "; Script, rer. Meroa• ScsiPtorea rerum Merovingicarum, •• Rrritem on Merovingian Subjects "
	Mio .		Micah
H. H. Milinan. History of Latin Chrta.
Milman Latin	t%ani	Indudinp Cleat of the popes to
	Christianity . ,	idurlos	V., 8 vole., London,
		1860‑81
i	C. Mirbt. Qudlen cur Geachichte lea PaPsE
	Mirbt. Qudlan	lama and lea rihniachen Katholiciamus,
		Tiibingen, 1901
MPG ... .... .. . J. P. M~gne. Patrdogia• euraua compktua, aeries Qraca 162 vole., Paris 1857‑88
MPL . . .. . . . . . . ~ J. P. Migne, 7‑aErodopia• tarsus coon yletua
			esr6ea rue, 221 vole., Paris, 1844‑8~
	M13	MSS 	Manuscript. Manuscripts
Muratori , Scrip‑ J L. A. Muratori, Rerun Italicarum slip.
Cores. • . • , • . . . Cores, 28 vole., 1728‑b1
			Neues Archiro der (isselladaaft Jtlr diem
	NA 	........	. deutsche Geachichtalcurda, Hanover,
			1878 eqq.
Nah . . . . . . . . . . . . Nahum
	n.d. 	no date of publication
Nesnder Chris‑ A. Neander General History o) fhs Christian Glhnrch.. a" Religion and Church, d vole.. and index Boston, 1872‑81
	Neh .	Nehemiah
N i c e r o n, Md‑ ( R. P. Niceron MEmoirea pour aeroir h
moirss .... ...	fhiatoire lea hommea illushEa , , . , 43
	vole., Paris, 1729‑45
Nielsen, PaF• K. Nielsen History of the Papacy in
Pact'.	the	York, 1906 Century, 2 vole., Naw

Nippold, Papacy. ~ F' Nippo 1908 ld The Papacy in the Nineteenth
	Century, New York 1900
NRZ . . . . . . . . . ~ Nuq~krhw Zeitachrift, Leipeio, 1890
Nowaek, Archd‑ W~owaek Lehrbuch der AebrAiachen
dopie . . . . . . . . ArchSdopie, 2 vole.. Freiburg, 1894
n.P. . . . . . . . . . . . . no place of publication
The Nicene and Post‑Nicene Fathers, lot
NPNF ... . . . . . . aeries, 14 vole., New York, 1887‑9; 2d
	series, 14 vole., New York, 1890‑190
N. T. . . . . . . . . , , ~ New Testament, Noroum Teatamen6um
		Nouveau Testament, Nauu Testamen!
	Num . . . . . . . . . . 	Numbers
	Ob	Obadiah

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
	O. B. B	. . . . . . .; Ord° aar'°B Benedict% " Order of 8t.
		Benedict "
	O. T		Old Testament
	OTJC .		8ee Smith
	P		Priestly document
		L. Pastor, The Hiatory~ the Popes from
Pastor, Popes. . . ~ the CZoat of the M e Apes, 8 vole.,
		London, 1891‑1908
	PEA 	I P°trta scciesia• Angiieano;. ed. J. A. Giles,
		34 vole. London, 1838‑4(S
	PEF .		Paleatine exploration Fund
	I pet	First Epistle of Peter
	II Pet .		$econd Epistle of Peter
		B. PlatinaVLivea of the Popes lrom .
Platina, Popes.. LGregdory 11. to . . . Paul Il., 2 vole.,
onon, Of.
Pliny, Hint. net... Pliny, , Hiatoria nwtural%a
Potthsat, Wep‑~A. ~ottl~ 	~'uath~ a Q~dt,'~medht~
	''•''••' 	merke, Berlin, 1898
	Prov .		Proverbs
	Ps 	Psalms
	PSBA		. . . j Proceedings o1 the Society of Biblical
		I Archeoiopy London 1880 sqq.
	q.v., qq.v		:	auod (oqnua~ , History owhich see f the Popes,
Ranks, Popes. Jj L~3 vvole., London, 1908
	RDM .			Revue den deux mondea, Parse, 1831 sqq.
	RE			$ee Hauck‑Herzog
Reich, Docu‑ ~ E. Reich, Select Documents Illustrating Me‑
	menta . . 		. diaroal and Modern History, London, 1905
	REJ .			Revue den 6tudee ju%vea, Paris, 1880 sqq.
	Rettberg, KD			I F• w. Rettberg, Kerchenptachichte Deuteth
			lands 2 vole., GSttingen, 1848‑48
Rev ... . . . .. .. .. .Book o1 Revelation
RHR . ... ... . . . .; Revue de L histoirs den religions, Paris, 1880 q.
E. C. Ridaon Alphabetical Subject In‑
Riehardson En‑ J dex and Index Encydopaedia to Period‑
ical Articles on Religion, 1880‑88, New York, 1907
A. L. Richter, Lehrbuch den katholiaehen
and evangdiachen Kirehenrechta, 8th
	.........	~ ed. by W. Kahl, Leipaic. 1888
Robinson, R e‑ ( E. Robinaon Biblical Rewardyes in searches, and j Palatine, f3oaton 1841 and Later Later Re‑
eearches .......
R^b•naon. E,uro
	peen H%atorti. .
Palatine, hoeton 1841 and Later
cydopaedia...
Richter, Kirchen‑
recht
Biblical of the whole, 3 vole., 1887
J. H. Robinson, Readings in European
llietory , 2 vole., Boston, 1904‑08
Robinaon and J. H. Robineon and C. A. Beard, Devdop
	Beard, Modern ~ ment qJ Modern Europe, 2 vole., Boston,
	Europe 	1907
	Rom		Epiatle to the Romans
RTP .... .. . . .. .; Revue de Uusolopae et de philosophic,
		Lausanne, 1873
	R. V		Reviaed Version (of the English Bible)
	awe .		eaculum$amue5' century "
	I Sam . 		. . .I
	II $am		..	..	.II Samuel
				$itaungaberiehk der Berliner Akadamfe,
	SBA . 			Berlin, 1882 sqq.
•	• (F. Max Miiller and others, The Sacred
	3BE 	....	..	Books of the East% Oxford, 1879 eqq.,
				Vol. xlvni., 1904
				Sacred Books of the Old Testament (" Rain
	$BOT .				bow Bible ). Leipeic, London, and
				Baltimore, 1894 sqq.
Schaff, Christian P. $ohaff, History or the Christian Church, Church .. .... . vole. iiv., n., vii., New York,1882‑92, Vol. v.., 2 parts, by D. $. Schaff, 1907‑10 ~ P. Schaff, The Creeds of Christendom,
Schaff, Creeds... 3 vole., New York, 1877‑84
E. Schrader, Cuneiform Inscriptions and
Schrader, COT. . ~ the Old Teetament, 2 vole., London,
1885‑88
E. $ehrader, Die KeiZinachriften and daa
AZte Testament, 2 vole., Berlin, 1902‑03
E. Schrader, ReilinachriJUiche Bibliothek,
8 vole., Berlin, 1889‑1901
'E. $ehOrer, GeacAichte den jild%achen
Volkea im Zeitalter Jean Christi, 4th ed.,
3 vole., Leipsic,1902sqq.; Eng. eranel., b
• vole., New York, 1891
	Script .		3avptorea, •. writers Scrivener, ~ F. H. A. Scrivener, Introduction to New Tea‑
Introduction . . tamend Criticism, 4th ed., London, 1894
	BOW .		3entenNct, " Sentences "
	8. J. 	Societaa Jeeu, Society of Jesus "
	3MA . . 	. . . . . . 13ia ua Munich, 80 sqq.
		~ Aka‑
Bmith, Kinship. Kinahip..iW: R. Smith Kinship ..d Marriage in
Schrader, KAT.
Schrader, KB...
BohOrer,
	Gseda%ehte .... .
Smith. OTJC. . . ~ W• R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church, London, 1892
Smith, Prophets.. { W~ Es$Century, phth	heLondon,	95 Israel . . . to
Smith, Rel. of W. R. Smith, Religion of he Semites,
	$em .		London, 1894
	8.P. C. K		•,• . iSociety for the Promotion of Christian
		Knowledge
	8. P. G. . . • 	. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
		' ~ in Foreign Parts
	e49• .		and following ~
3trom . . . . . . . . . . ..3tromata, " Miscellanies "
	s.v		eub voce, or sub verbo
Bwete, Introduc‑ ~ H. B. 8wete, Introduction to the Old Tes‑
	tion .	. . . . . lament in Greek, London, 1900
	8yr .		8yriac
Thatcher and (O. J. Thatcher and E. H. McNeal, A McNeal, 3ourcaj Source Book for Medieval History, Book ... . . . . . . 1 New York, 1905
	I These 	First Epistle to the Thessalonians
	II Theee .		8econd Epistle to the Thessalonians
	ThT 	T~°log~.ache TijdachrdJt, Amsterdam and
		Leyden, 1867 sqq.
Tillemont. M& ~ L.. $. is Nain de Tillemont, Memo%rea
.. ,	eedEaiast%quea den six premiere
		a%Mea,. 16 vole., Paris, 1893‑1712
	I Tim .		Firat Epistle to Timothy
	II Tim 	.$econd Epistle to Timothy
		Theolopiacher Jahreabericht, Leipeie, 1882
	TJB .		1887, Freiburg, 1888, Brunswick, 1889
		1897. Berlin, 1898 sqq.
	Tob		Tobit
	TQ	..	. ~ Theologische QuartalachriJE, TObingen,
			1819eq q.
			J. A. Robinson, Texts and Studies,
	T3 		Cambridge, 1891 eqq
	TSBA .			~Tr°na°d%ona of the ~ociety of Biblical.
			Archaologb, London, 1872eq q.
	TSK			Theolopiache Studien and Kritiken, Ham
			burg, 1828 sqq.
			Texts and Unterauchunpen sur Geaehschtt
	TU .	due' altchnaUichen Litteratur, ed. O. von
		Gebhardt and A. Harnack, Leipeic,
		1882 sqq.
Ugolini, Theaau‑B. Ugohnue, Thesaurus antiquitatum
	rue 	i aacrarum, 34 vole., Venice, 1744‑69
	V. T. . . 	. . . . . Vetus Teatamenlum, View Testament, "Old
		Testament "
Wattenbach,	W• wattenbach, Deutachlauda Geachichta‑
	DGQ . 	~ueU en. 5th ed., 2 vole., Berlin, 1885;
		8th ed., 1893‑94; 7th ed., 1904 sqq.
Wellhauaen,	J. Wellhausen, Rate arab%achen Fleiden‑
	Heidentum .	fume Berlin, 1887
We'	J• R'ellhsuaen, Prolegomena cur Geachichle
	Prolepomana~ 	laraela, 8th ed., Berlin, 1905, Eng.
tranal.. Edinburgh, 1885
		Zeitachrift far Aaayriologie, Leip;ac,
	ZA .	lgg0.g8. Berlin, 1889 sqq.
		T. Zahn, Einleitung in daa Neut Teata‑
Zahn, EinZei‑	ment, 3ded
			., Leipsic, 1907; Eng. tranal.,
	lung	.......	Introduction to the New Testament, 3
			vole., Edinburgh, 1909
			T. Zahn, Geachichte den neuteatamenE‑
	Zahn, Kanon .	.	lichen Kanona, 2 vole., Leipsic, 1888‑92
			Ztitaehrift fttr die altteatamentliche Wia‑
	ZATW .	aenachaft, Giessen, 1881 sqq.
ZDAL. . . . . . . . . ~ Zmtechnft fitr deutschea Alterthum and deulacheLiteratur Berlin, 1878aqq
ZeitachriJt der deutachen morgenl8ndiaclun
	ZDMG .. GeadlachnJt, LeiPsic, 1847 sqq.
	ZDP. . 	. . . ~ Zeitachrift fur deutsche PhiloZopie, Halls,
		1889 sqq.
	ZDPV		ZeitachriJt den deutadun Paldatina‑Ver
		eina, Leipsio, 1878 sqq.
	Zech		Zechariah
	Zeph .		Zephaniah
		Zeitechrift ftir die hiatoriadve Theolopie,
	ZHT .		published successively at Leipeic,
		Hamburg, and Gotha, 1832‑75
	ZKG . 	..	. . . ~ Zeitachrift iir K%rdureeschichte. Goths,
			1878 aqq
	ZKR 		ZdtschriJt fsir Kirchenrecht, Berlin, TO
			bingen Freiburg, 1881 eqq
	ZKT .			. Ze'tachriJt Jiir kalhoZiache T)teoZogie, Inns
			bruck, 1877 sqq.
	ZKW	.......	~ Zeatachraft fur kirchliche Wiaaenachaft and
			kirchlichea Leben, Leipaie, 1880‑89
	ZNTW .			I ZeitschriJt ffir die neuteatamenUiche Wia
			senschnJt. Giessen, 1900 sqq.
	ZPK• ~ Zeitachrift fir Protatantiamua andRirehe,
• . • ... • • Erlangen, 1838‑78
			Zeitachraft ftir vrieaenachafUiche Theolopis,
	ZWT .			Jena, 7858‑80, Halls, 1881‑87, Leipei0.
			1868 aqq.

SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION
The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew:
N = ' or omitted at the	f = z
	beginning of a word.	M=b	= p
3=b
		b=phorp
.=bhorb	,=y	y
a=g	5=k
I=ghorg=khork	7=r

7=d	5=1
		f~J = s
`1=dhord	n=m
		~=ah
1=h
	3=n	n =t
1=w	D=a
		11=thort

The vowels are transcribed by a, e, i, o, u, without attempt to indicate quantity or quality. Arabic and other Semitic languages are transliterated according to the same system as Hebrew. Greek is written with Roman characters, the common equivalents being used.
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
When the pronunciation is self‑evident the titles are not respelled; when by mere division and accentuation it can be shown sufficiently clearly the titles have been divided into syllables, and the accented syllables indicated.
a as in sofa a it tt arm a ""at
tt
A if fare
e it tt pen'
" fate i " " tin machine o " " obey 8 ""no
e as in not 8 " " nor u " " full' fl " " title o " " but
tt	tt
	bum
CLi	pine
au " "	out
ei " "	oil
ill tt t. 	few
~ In accented syllables only; in unaccented syllables 1t approximates the sound oL ! beneath it. indicates thed t
en
iu	as in duration
C = k `° " eat
ch	" " church
cw = qu as in queen
f	tt It fancy
g (hard)	'I go
	tt tt loch (Scotch)
hw (tah) `# tt why
7	" " jaw
soon o n ae 1n ink. Nasal n (as to French words) is rendered n.	over. The letter n, with a dot
' In German and French names ti approximates the sound of a is dune.

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
REUSCH, reish, FRANZ HEINRICH: German Old Catholic; b. at Brilon (78 m. n.e. of Cologne) Dec. 4, 1825; d. at Bonn Mar. 3, 1900. He was educated at the universities of Bonn (1843‑45), Tdbingen, and Munich (1845‑47), and the seminary of Cologne (1848‑49); he was ordained to the priesthood in 1849, chaplain of St. Alban's at Cologne until 1853, when he returned to Bonn as lecturer in the theological seminary there, and in 1854 became privat‑docent in the Roman Catholic theological faculty of the university of the same city. In 1858 he was appointed associate professor of OldTestament exegesis, and three years later became full professor, while in 1873‑74 he was rector of the university. The Vatican Council of 1870 marked an epoch in the life of Reusch, after he had already written his commentaries on Tobit (1857) and Ecclesiasticus (1861), as well as a Lehrbuch der Eirleatung in das Alte Testament (1859) and Bibel and Natur, Vorlesungen fiber die mosaische Urgeschichte and ihr Verhaltnis zu den Ergebnissen der Naturforschung (1862). As a theologian he had taken a position with the liberal wing of the Roman Catholics, as evidenced by his editorship of the Theologisches Litteraturblatt from 1866 to 1877. His refusal to subscribe to the declaration of papal infallibility, however, caused him to be suspended and excommunicated, and he then took an active part in organizing the Old Catholic Church, being made general vicar by Reinkens, and also acting as pastor of the Old Catholic congregation at Bonn. With the abolition of the requirement of celibacy in his denomination in 1878, Reusch resigned his offices, though he continued to give instruction in religion, as well as to conduct occasional services and to hear confessions.
His change of confession turned Reusch from OldTestament exegesis to the history of the Roman Catholic Church after the Reformation. Here belong, accordingly, his Luis de Leon and die spanische Inquisition (1873), Der Prozess Galileis and die Jesuiten (1879), and, above all, his Index der verbotenen Biicher (2 vols., 1883‑85). Together with J. J. I. von D6llinger (q.v.) he published the Selbstbiographie des Kardinals Bellarmin (1887) and the GeschichAe der Moralstreitigkeiten in der romischkatholischen Kirche seit dem sechzehnten Jahrhu»dert (2 vols., 1889), and after DSllinger's death he edited his Briefe and Erklarungen fiber die vatikanisehen Dekrete (1890) and Kleinere Schriften (1890). X.‑1
During this latter period of his life Reusch also
wrote, besides numerous briefer contributions, Die
deutschen Bischofe and der Aberglaube (1879) and
Beitrage zur Geschichte des Jesuitenordens (1894),
while his last work was his Briefe an Bunsen von
romischen Kardindlen and Prdlaten (18187) mit
Erlduterunyen (1897). 	(L. K. GOETZ.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. K Goetz, Franz Heinrich Reusch 18,261900, Gotha, 1901; J. F. von Schulte, Der Attkathoticismua, Giessen, 1887; J. Mayor, Franz Heinrich Reuseh, Cambridge, 1901; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, face. xxxiv. 1078‑79.

REUSS, reis, EDUARD GUILLAUME EUGENE: Biblical scholar; b. at Strasburg July 18, 1804; d. there Apr. 15, 1891. His preliminary studies were pursued at the gymnasium of his native city, during which his bent was developed for accurate scholarship; he continued work first at the University of Strasburg, where his dissertation De statu literarum theologicarum per s4xcula VII. et VIII. was written (1825), after which he went to GSttingen and later to Halle and Jena, and finally to Paris, where he worked under Sylvestre de Sacy. In 1828 he became privat‑docent in the Protestant seminary at Strasburg, in 1829 licentiate in theology with the thesis De libris Veteris Testamenti apocryphis, extraordinary professor in 1834, professor in 1836, and'he entered the theological faculty in 1838. During the rest of his activity there he held many offices of importance and influence.
Reuss did not permit himself to engage in a wide field of research, and had no interest in either dogmatic or practical theology, while he preached only three times. Philosophic speculation also had no attraction for him, and he confined his efforts to Biblical science, in which he evinced the talents of a historical investigator, showing patience in pursuing details and diligence in collecting facts. An illustration of this is the fact that he projected his work on the history of the Old Testament as early as 1834 but issued it only in 1881 (Geschiehte der heiligen Schriften des Alten Testaments, Brunswick). Graf was one of his students and was influenced by him in the line of work carried on by himself and further developed by Kuenen and Wellhausen. A like importance attaches to his work on the New Testament, his original edition of Die Geschichte der heilVen Schriften Neuen Testaments appearing in Brunswick, 1842 (6th ed., 1887; Eng. transl., Hist. of the Sacred Scriptures of the N. T., Edinburgh,

Router
Revelation
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
1884), in subsequent editions growing greatly in size, comprehensiveness, and completeness. His general attitude had some connections with the Tiibingen school, but was much more conservative. His Bibliotheca. Novi Testamenti Grmci (1872) is the result of twenty‑years of unremitting toil. His work as a teacher was no less effective than his literary labors, fitting his teachings to the needs of his students, and eschewing the merely pedantic, and he lectured in both French and German. The results of his first lectures in French was a demand for the printing of his work, and this ended in his Hist. de la tUologie chr6tienne au sibcle apostolique (2 vols., Strasburg, 1852; Eng. transl., Hiat. of Christian Theology in the Apostolic Age, 2 vols., London, 1872‑74). Other works which may be noted are Die johanneische Theologie (Jena, 1847); Hist. du canon des saintes tscritures dana l'6glise chrdienne (Paris, 1863; Eng. transl., Hist. of the Canon of the Holy Scriptures in the Christian Church, Edinburgh, 1884); La Bible, traduction nouvelle avec introductions et commentaires (16 vols., Paris, 1874‑81); Notitia codicis quatuor evangeliorum Graaci (Cambridge, 1889) ; and a large number of luminous contributions to the Revue de thhologie (1850‑67) and to other periodicals. He also collaborated in the complete edition of Calvin's works (see CALVIN, JOHN, Bibliography), for which he furnished the prolegomena.
(P. LOBBTEIN.)
BIHLIOGBAMY: Reuse' correspondence, ed. K. Budde and H. J. Holtzmann, appeared at Giessen, 1904. Consult: T. Gerald, Eduard Reuss, 1804‑91, Strasburg, 1892; idem, Edouard Reuss. Notice biopraphique, Paris, 1897; A. Grots, in Vie chr&ienne, May, 1891; H. Holtzmann, in Protestantische Kirchenzeitung, 1891, pp. 38593; P. Lobstein, in Evanpile et libert6, 1891, nos. 20‑23; idem, in Revue chri!tienne, viii (1891), 481‑487; J. H. W. Stuckenberg, in Homiletic Review, xxiii (1892), 8182; C. A. Briggs, General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture, passim, New York, 1899; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, fasc. xxxiv. 1079‑1080.
REUTER, rei'ter, HERMANN FERDINAlWD: German Lutheran; b. at Hildesheim Aug. 30, 1817; d. at Kreiensen (35 m. s.w. of Brunswick) Sept. 17, 1889. He was educated at the universities of Gottingen (1837‑38) and Berlin (1838‑40), and in 1843, after having published his De erroribus qui wtate media doctrinam christianam de sancta eucharistia turpaverunt (Berlin, 1840) and Johannes ‑von Salisbury: zur Geschichte der christluhen Wissenschaft (1842), he began as privat‑docent his lectures at Berlin, which were eventually to range over the entire domain of the historical theology of the time. In 1845 he published at Berlin the first volume of his Geschichte Alexander des Dritten and seiner Zeit, which he later entirely rewrote (3 vols., Berlin, 1860‑64). In 1852 he became associate professor at Breslau, where he lectured primarily on church history, though he also gave courses in systematic theology‑, During this period, besides editing the Allgemeines Repertorium fiir die theologische Litteratur, of which he was the head from 1845 to 1860, he published ln's Abhandlungen zur syslematischen Theologie (Berlin, 1855). Immediately after the publication of this collection Reuter was called to Greifswald as professor of theology. He now began to restrict himself more and more to symbolics, the results being shown in his Ueber die
fenthumlichkeit der aittlichen Tendenz des Protestaatismus im Verh&tnis zum Katholizismus (Greifswald, 1869).
In 1866 Reuter returned to Breslau as professor of church history. Pursuing the theme already begun in his history of Alexander III., he wrote his Geschiehte der religifen Aufkldrurug im Mittelalter vom Ende des achten Jahrhunderts bis zum Anfang des vierzehaten (2 vols., Berlin, 1875‑77). In 1876 he was called to Gbttingen as the successor of Duneker. Here he was appointed abbot of Bursfelde in 1881, having been a consistorial councilor at Breslau since 1869. In 1887 he issued his Augustinische Studien (Goths, 1887), and in the same year received, in honor of his seventieth birthday, the Kirchengeschichtliche Studien of T. Brieger, P. Tschackert, T. Kolde, F. Loofs, K. Mirbt, and his son, A. Reuter (Leipsic, 1888). Reuter also contributed largely to theological periodicals, especially to the ZKG, of which he was one of the founders.
(T. KoLDE.) ,
BIBLJoaBAPHr: Worts pesprochen an dem Sarpe des Proes‑
sora Hermann Realer, Gotha, 1889; T. Brieger, in ZKG,
Vol. xi.
REUTER, QUIRIINUS: German Reformed; b.
at Mosbach (20 m. e. of Heidelberg) Sept. 27, 1558; d. at Heidelberg Mar. 22, 1613. He was educated at the Sapienzkollegium, a theological institution in Heidelberg, and when the Reformed were dismissed from it in 1577 by the Lutheran Louis VI., he received a scholarship at the Dionysianum, an institute for indigent scholars. In the following year (1578) he accepted a call to Neustadt. In 1580 he went to Breslau as the tutor of the eldest son of Andreas Dudith, whom he succeeded in winning over completely to Reformed views. He quickly became the confidant of Dudith, whose Orationes he published posthumously (Offenbach, 1590). During his residence in Breslau, Reuter is said to have written his De signtftcatione cometarum, but early in 1582 he was recalled by John Casimir to Neustadt. He did not, however, leave Breslau until the end of Mar., 1583. His teacher Ursinus had died on the sixth of the same month, and at the suggestion of Dudith Reuter edited the works of ursinus (3 vols., Heidelberg, 1612).
Reuter's initial duties in Neustadt were teaching and preaching. He was soon appointed third pastor at Neustadt, and in 1584 was the opponent of Jakob Gryneeus in the disputation between the Lutherans and Reformed. Soon after he became teacher at the P&dagogium, and in the same year was made pastor at Bensheim, while in 1587 he was called to the pastorate of Neuhausen near Worms. Three years later he was appointed second teacher at the Sapienzkollegium, but in 1593 became the pastor of the Reformed church in Speyer. In 1598 he succeeded Pareus as ephor of the Sapienzkollegium. Four years later he was appointed professor of Old‑Testament theology at Heidelberg, a position which he retained until his death. Reuter was the author of Cen&ura catecheseos Heidelbergensia diatriba de ubiquitate; Tradatus de ecclesia; Aphorismi theologici de vera religione; De cultu Dei naturali, De lege morali non abrogata; Utrum inter ecdesiam Lutheranam et pontificiam sit speranda

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Renter
	Revelation
conjunctio; De reformatione ecclesics; and a com
mentary on Obadiah. 	(J. SCHNEIDER.)
Braw0GRAPHr: The original source is an oration by Simon $tenius issued in 1813. Dependent upon this are: P. Freher, Theotrum virorum clarorum, 2 vols., Nuremberg, 1888; M. Adam, Vita! clarorum virorum, pp. 390 .qq., Frankfort, 1708; C. G. JScher, Gelehrten‑Lsrikon, 10 vols., Bremen, 1750‑87; J. Schwab, Quatuor seeulorura rectorum in academia, Heidelberg. 1788; ADB, EaVill. 328‑329.
REUTERDARZ, rei'ter‑ddl, HENRIK: Swedish archbishop; b. at Malmo (20 m. s.e. of Copenhagen) Sept. 10, 1795; d. at Upsala June 29, 1870. After completing his education at the University of Lund, he became, in 1817, docent at the theological seminary at the same city, associate adjunct in the theological faculty in 1824, and prefect of the seminary in 1826. Several years later he was made first adjunct of theology, was appointed chief librarian of the university in 1838, full professor of theology in 1844. With all his duties Reuterdahl found time for literary pursuits. Together with J. H. Thomander, Bergquist, and others, he founded the " Theological Quarterly " in 1827, and in 1838 published the first volume of his Svenska kyrkans historia (3 vols., Lund, 1838‑63), a work in which the ecclesiastical material is obscured by details of secular politics, though its author's careful investigation of original sources renders it important for future investigators. In 1844 Reuterdahl was elected deputy to the diet for the theological seminary, and was repeatedly reelected, even after being appointed provost of the cathedral at Lund in 1845. He was minister of religion, 1852‑55, and in this capacity sought forcibly to prevent any defections from the Swedish church through sectarian movements, thus arousing considerable opposition. In 1855 Reuterdahl was chosen bishop of Lund, and in the following year was appointed archbishop by the king, as well as prochancellor of the University of Upsala. During his administration sweeping reforms were carried out by Charles XV. in 1865, whereby the clergy ceased to form an estate in the diet. Reuterdahl, reluctantly acquiescing, held the first general synod under the new order of affairs in Sept., 1868. In the winter of 1869 severe illness put an end to his public career.
(A. MIC1mLsENt.)
REVEL, ALBERT: Waldensian; b. at Torre Pellice (21 m. s.w. of Turin), Italy, Jan. 2, 1837; d. at Florence Nov.‑, 1888. He was educated at the Waldensian college of his native place, at the theological school at Florence, and in the New College (Free Church), Edinburgh; was ordained in 1861; became professor of Latin and Greek literature in the Waldensian college at Torre Pellice, 1861, and professor of Biblical literature and exegesis to the Waldensian Church, Florence, 1870. He was the author of L'Epistola di $. Jaeobo (Florence, 1868); L'Epistola di S. Clemente Romano d Corinti (1869); Antichita bibliche (1872); Teoria del culto (1875); Le origini del Papato (1875); Cento lezioni sulla vita di Gesu (1875); Storia letteraria dell' antico Testamento (Poggibonsi, 1879); Manuale par to studio della lingua ebraica (Florence, 1879) ; 1 Salmi; verzione a commento sopra i Salmi i.‑xi. (1880); 11 Nuovo Testamento, tradotto sW testo originals (1881);
Le sette chiese dell' Asia Minore (1886); Enciclopedia delle scienze teologiche (1886); Letteralura ebraica (2 vols., Milan, 1888); and 1 sells suggelli (Apoc. IV.VII.; Florence, 1890).
REVELATION.
Origin and Meaning (§ 1). Biblical History (1 2). Dogmatic History (§ 3). Modern Method (4 4). Subjectivism (¢ 5). Depreciation of the Historical and Personal (§ 8)• Theory Based on the Bible and Positivism (5 7). The Doctrine of the Word of God (§ 8). Philosophic Adjustment of this View (§ 9).
	Revelation is the act of God in disclosing or com
municating truth to the human soul. The concept
here becomes a subject of theological discussion as
a scientific technical expression. Doubtless it comes
		from the Greek Bible (apokalyptein,
	:. Origin phaneroun, deloun, gnorizein), where
	and the variety of representation indicates
	Meaning. that, as later in the language of prayer
		and hymn, no fixedness of idea had
yet been reached. The idea embodied in the later
technical term was distinctly that of an act of God,
direct or indirect. Ecclesiastical Latin first pro
vided definite form by laying down the term revelare,
with manifestare for narrower usage. With the
Christian era philosophy ceased to employ itself
exclusively with the concept of God; so religious
phenomena, and consequently also the idea of reve
lation, were taken under consideration, especially
after the advent of the genus‑concept of religio,
which is not found in the Bible. With increasing
measure religio and revelare become twin‑thoughts;
the idea of . revelation became estranged from its
original historical ground and both were subjected to
comparative generalization and lifted to the rare at
mosphere of abstraction. The utmost content com
prehended in these conceptions may be denoted as
that which constitutes the ground of religion. The
variety of meanings is not improbably due to sub
servience to expediency in theological system‑build
ing. Fundamental to all views is a making or
becoming manifest, whether the object enter within
the horizon for the first time (either existing previ
ously or coming into existence simultaneously), or
the removing of an impediment to its realization
(either without or within the recipient). By this
the conveyance of the description, originally re
ceived by sensible appreciation, to the spiritual real
ization is for the most part effected, if this also
mediates through sense. The process of revelation
presupposes consciousness for its object, and through
taking possession of intuition for the sphere of re
ligion, there fall to revelation, as its content, the
actual or possible subjects of a religious character.
	Thought on these points originated in connection
with the historical monotheism of the Bible. God
is represented as opening intercourse with men by
		various means. Theophany or the ap
	s. Biblical pearance of angels alternates or com
	History. bines with speech. Miraculous events
		assume the value of signs. Decisive
experiences of the people or of divinely appointed
persons are conceived as specially designed dis
pensations of God. Prophecy comes to the front,

Revelation	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	4
retiring what resembles oracle (Uiim and Thummin; q.v.), and by the prophets God now speaks directly to the people. Thus the word coming from God takes its authoritative place. In the immediate pre‑Christian period, under the impression that prophecy has been silenced, apocalyptic revelation takes its place. Instead of continuous intercourse with God there arises tradition with the dogma of sacred Scripture and its inspiration, more and more extraordinary, in representation. Dependence upon Hellenism introduced the allegorical method of interpretation. This dogma of Old‑Testament Scripture was carried over for the estimation and treatment of the New, with two points of difference. First, the Jewish representation dealt with reflection upon events in the past; the New arose under the sense of a living intercourse with God. Second, and more significant, Judaism directs its inquiry to the transcendent God who controls the world; the New Testament realizes more intimately than in olden time the relation with God, and this through the presence of the Holy Spirit. In the fellowship of the risen Christ all are in the most direct communion, as were the prophets. This assurance is dependent on the knowledge of the person of him who was sent by the only true God (John xvii. 3). Jesus is more than prophet; he not only speaks the word of God, but this was made a human person in him, manifesting the invisible God. What this person represents historically, is transmitted and interpreted by the Spirit of God and Christ in the hearts of believers. In this Christ are all the treasures of wisdom but not their acquirement, for redemption is the instrumental good.
Two elements, more distinct in thought than in life, are contained in the New‑Testament idea of the Spirit of Christ in Christianity: the distinctive significance of the historical fact named Christ; and the immediate contact of every Christian with God through his Spirit. The conception of 3. Dogmatic the former is identified with the re‑
	History.	ceived account of it, and subsequently
		with the Bible. With the completion
of the double canon of Scripture, the other element,
conscious possession, either had to lose itself in the
confirmation of crystallizing tradition, or aim to
sustain its independence by new productivity, which
it did in Montanism (q.v.) and Ecstasy (q.v.), or in
eclectic Biblieism or mysticism. In the next place,
the Church in awe of traditionalism fell a victim to
the confusion of dogma and revelation. This, to
gether with the native equipment and training of
the Greek theologians, resulted in positing the op
eration of revelation as the advancement of knowl
edge, and the validity of such knowledge was to be
deduced from the idea of the supernatural mode of
transmission. In support was adduced, in depend
ence upon Scripture, the proof of the Spirit and
power evidenced by the accordance of prophecy
with fulfilment and by miracle. This resulted, in
the course of the Middle Ages, in the problem of the
relation of the reason to the materials of traditional
thought (see sCIIOLAWTICIBM). Previously an Ob
servation of far‑reaching consequence comes into
view. The mission to the Greeks was fond of fall
ing back upon the philosophic and popular mono‑
theism for a basis of connection, and for a counterpart to revelation. This gave rise to the assumption of a revelation in all religions, even in the ethical, and the claim was made for these remnants or rays of light, in behalf of the revealer or Logos. The Reformation planting itself on the Bible destroyed irremediably the assurance that church doctrine and revelation coincide. Protestant orthodoxy in the interest of dogmatism followed with the reenforcing dogma of the inspiration of an infallible text. The strain of attack drew out, on the part of reason, the theory of an original revelation, of the innate ideas, and of the two books of nature and conscience. The period of the Enlightenment (q.v.) brought forth the idea of a supernatural instruction as a supplement to a rational foundation given in and with creation. A philosophic followed by a literary criticism demolished the dogma of a miraculously constructed text. The supernatural instruction was said either to be substantially corroborated by reason (Wolff), or to be a temporary

episode until rational knowledge was ripe and self‑sufficient (Semler, Leasing). Finally, the possibil
ity itself of such a revelation comes to be challenged
(Reimarus), and ordinary rationalism presumes, on
the basis of deism, to have done with revelation as
superfluous, impossible, and unreal. Meanwhile,
earnest treatment of Scripture turns from the valid
ity of dogma to the unity of Biblical history. Ro
manticism (q.v.) instilled a reaction as to the value
and origin of religion. The mystical infusion is not
to be disregarded after Schleiermacher. To this
influence of psychological and anthropological em
piricism only one more point of view has been added,
which may be termed ethnological empiricism.
Under its banner, Comparative Religion (q.v.) is
prosecuted, which is a statistic of religions with ret
rospect of their origin and growth, which again in
respect of the study of the sources is denominated
history of religion, and on the basis of the evolu
tionary hypothesis is elaborated into a philosophy
of religion.
During the long period of orthodox thought the concept of revelation served to insure an otherwise inaccessible content. To remain certain that this
was received intact, the representation 4. Modern of the communication was wrought out Method. without regard to the facts of historical
and individual personal life. Ecstasy as the intermission of personal life is valid in the strictest sense, and miracle as interruption is a
mark for the recognition of revelation, particularly in rationalistic supernaturalism (see RATIONALISM AND SUPERNATURALISM), at the risk of losing a content, however, otherwise inaccessible. In straining
the point of the mode, the content was neglected, with which, however, revelation originally started out. The resulting modern movement has, in all its variations, the observation of the human phenomenal form of revelation in the forefront. The problem presents itself in the relation of human autonomy to divine operation, and further in tense ethical subjectivism. This is most evident in the consideration of prophecy. The matter of content, however, readily recedes into the background, while the problem becomes epistemological because

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Revelation
the content whose form of transmission is under
examination is itself spiritual. Within this anthro
pocentric, exclusively earthly horizon two funda
mentally distinct series of observation have found
room: one, the historical empiricism from Bengel
to Hegel, to the modern science of religion; the
other, the psychological, proceeding from " the
inner testimony of the Holy Spirit," through
Schleiermacher, to the agnostic mysticism of the
religion of the indeterminate or blank religiousness.
	According to Aristotle (see RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY
OF), the practical activity of reason consists in the
judgments of formal thought, from which results
the overestimation of coordinating abstractions and
		of empty universal formal concepts.
	g. Sub‑ Such a fate also befalls the considera
	jectivism. tion of the religious life from which
		depends the understanding of revela
tion. Employed by the universal concept of r6lig
ion, revelation is either not universal and then not
essential to religion, or else remains as an insepsr
rable accompaniment. Theology presumes to find
in revelation the cause of religion, and the term
offers itself conveniently to denote that unknown
quantity through the effective entrance of which
into the soul‑processes the appearance of religion
in the inner household may be explained. The
points of connection with the ideas of natural re
ligion and revelation lie already at hand for the
correlation of these ideas. The axiom is assumed:
no revelation, no religion, whether in history or in
personal life. What, however, is thus thought of as
revelation is compared throughout with the preva
lent idea of religion according to psychological de
termination. In this collation immediacy of the
religious relation or the original capacity for relig
ious experience in every human being coalesces with
revelation. R. A. Lipsius emphatically pronounces
mystical experience to be the vital center in relig
ion and the essential in revelation. This experience,
however, is not a disclosure, since it gives rise to a
feeling never fully tangible to apprehension. Turn
ing the thought around, it appears evident that re
ligion, so far as its content is concerned, would never
get beyond the speaking of tongues. But the fun
damental perception is everywhere at hand, wher
ever the fact of religion is found in universal relig
iousness fundamentally independent of history. In
case this religiousness is found in connection with
an atheistic philosophy, it affords revelation even
without deity. The transfer of the ecclesiastical
technical expression to formal analogies observed
in other departments of life affords means for closer
comparison. Discoveries have been made, whether
by search or fortuitously, which have been desig
nated revelations. The ingenious conception of the
thinker (especially of the artist), or vision, offers
itself as analogous to the flash of the religious spark.
If thought be not reinforced by conviction, with
reference to the content of religion, from elsewhere,
namely, from the more securely grounded ethical
consciousness, or if the pious only experiences him
self and the self‑assigned relation to the non‑ego,
then the fear arises that such revelation may be no
more than self‑deception of the imagination, or pos
sibly a universal strained representation, without
foundation in fact (Feuerbach). Against such a subjectivistic dissection of the generalized concept of revelation recourse from the abstract theory of religion to comparative religion affords no relief. There is, indeed, no little mention, in such presentations, of revelation underlying all religions, without going into the concept of it. Nevertheless it is admitted (Thiele) that a class of religions of revelation is to be abstracted; namely, those conscious of the possession of revelations. Meanwhile there remains for this consciousness, so long as religion is assumed to be nothing else than becoming inwardly aware of an inevitable superior power, nothing but the verdict that it is an imagery of the fancy pertaining to psych6logical movements otherwise explainable. If it is only a matter of influences and their psychological exercise, then the specially religious lies either in the content, or perhaps on the side of the elaborating soul and its mode of apprehension. In either case the special mediation of religious operations drops out and with this also the occasion for applying the notion of revelation. If not set aside, its universalized use serves 0 generalize the Biblical religions with the others, by presenting them merely as particularly shaded modes of the universal concept of religion.
This entire point of view is guilty of a depreciation of the historical. Schleiermacher was aware of this when he declared ethics to be the book of forms for history, and history to be the book of illustra‑
tions for ethics; only it is to be borne 6. Depre‑ in mind that by ethics he meant the
ciation of formulation of the natural laws of so‑
the Histor‑ cial life. The uniform laws, therefore,
ical and are essential; the variations of phePersonal. nomena are secondary. So also as re‑
gards the religious; they are varieties similar in kind to the species of a genus. So far, however, the introduction of the historical treatment of religion does not alter the case. For if the steps of religious movement are deduced not from what is characteristic in religion, but from the progress of mental culture, the illumination of ethical views, or the repletion of philosophical thought‑in short, from influences whose representations are independent of religion‑then religion and its line of development remain the same, namely, the ever fundamentally invariable religiousness. Only its reflex imagery in consciousness and its spiritual elaboration vary. Consequently the standard for judging these influences lies outside of the religious, according to this position. In this connection also appears, with some logical consequence, a departure in the use of the concept of revelation. Originally denoting an impulse giving rise to the fact of religion, its given historical connection leads to the observation that religiousness in the strongly exercised becomes itself revealing upon the passively susceptible. As these transmissions must fulfil themselves in the active appropriation of impulses, and their use is determined by influences from without, these mediations must ultimately be of indifferent importance or must act as inhibitions, just as soon as religiousness becomes first‑hand or original. Inasmuch as this form of revelation again removes itself from the field, 0 thought of a relig‑

Revelation
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOQ
8
ious content communicated thereby can no longer be entertained, or the unvarying consciousness of dependence continues to hold the ground, remaining fundamentally awry with respect to all individual or historical supplementing. The concept of revelation is consumed by the naked idea of causation. The reason is that the phenomena dealt with are taken from the observation of things in general without respect to the peculiarity of personal life; except that it is impossible to banish reflex imagery from consciousness, although this receives treatment only in accordance with the nature of those phenomena. The main matter is not altered by substituting for the differentiation of the class in varieties the series of necessary development, i.e., for things coexistent things in succession. The resultant ever remains the exercise of the unvarying basis in religious consciousness. If this is as a matter of fact once conceded, its practical elaboration or " revelation," just as readily on an atheistic as a pantheistic hypothesis, is of itself understood.
In this way, the idea of revelation has become a mere adjunct to that of religion, and with doubtful advantage; for it serves partly to make prominent
the nativity of religion in every indiq. Theory vidual, and partly to describe in a
Based on vacillating manner the religion's recip‑
the Bible rocal activity. In contrast, the idea and has been positively remanded to its
Positivism. original field; i.e., for the historical life.
This has taken place in the name of the Bible, on the part of the later Biblicists, and on the ground that religion exists only in historical positivism (Ritschl). History is the department of those facts which pertain to acting persons, their practical conduct, and its effects. Here the setting of aims or ends is a matter of fact. Room is afforded for the transactions of God apart from his universal activity according to lavr. It may find play in events, in the formal complexity of things, or in the appointment of particular persons. Such transaction invades effectively the whole; for the receptive mind it is at the same time presentation. It is to be called revelation by manifestation. In reaction to the self‑analyzing intellectualistic conception, revelation by divine act merely has ob‑. tained acceptance (Hofmann). The question then occurs, What raises a fact or group of facts in their revealing value above doubt? Two answers are possible: the one points to the unity of universal design; the other to the admission that the revealing fact may not be satisfactorily deduced from historical conditions. These considerations may mutually support or may oppose each other. Both result in recognizing in Jesus Christ the focus of historical revelation. That is to say, they will admit, as real revelation, only history determined through him. Another path leads to this point. If the personal lite be held in view, its ethical quality looms up as important, and so also, in connection with the Bible, the fact of human sin. It throws light upon the necessity of a special revelation, pro. ductive of the view that it is to be regarded as one phase of the redemptive activity of God (Krauss). As redemption appears to generalizing thought in the aspect of a particular form of revelation, so here
this appears as an instrumental effort of divine activity for the conquest of evil wrought by sin. Its unique position within the comprehensive divine activity becomes self‑evident as well as characteristic. However forcefully this special activity of God in the manifestation of Christ is set forth, it yet falls subject, so far as it is presentative, to the conceptual appropriation of man. Then the old question reappears‑whence comes the warrant for the corresponding conception and a reliable transmission, if even this presentation constitutes an indispensable part of the redeeming act. Further, how is certainty to be gained that God is acting and making revelation in any other way than in his universal world‑activity? Does not special history dissolve on every hand into the stream of human evolution in conformity with law? Within this, the merely negative marks of an undeducible content of the fact or uniqueness of the personal manifestation of Christ will not submit to proof. The transcendence above nature and the revelation value of the fact has become questionable. Here the most recent critical movement has applied the fruits of oriental study to the Old Testament.
The Bible places the word foremost among the instruments of revelation. Word and act are not exclusive in simple meaning or in human life. Word is not without act; it may be a most
8. The forceful act, but wordless act is never Doctrine revelation. Revelation has not to do of the Word with an all‑working power that must
	of God.	be provided with the word by the con
		templation of its impression on man
who has fallen under its influence; but it knows
the speaking God. God avails himself of human
thought and speech to make himself known and
his speech intelligible, so far as knowledge of him
is requisite for sinners to overcome by it sin and
death. How much, according to the Biblical mode
of thought, the divine act, for the sake of continu
ing disclosure, is in need of the opening of the
mind to conceive and of the understanding to ex
plain, is shown in that the incarnate Word attains
only to effective revelation by the aid of the Para
clete. As indispensable as this instructive disclo
sing activity may be, so positive is this effected
Word of revelation; it is not merely the inade
quate expression of what is, according to its nature,
ineffable. Without hesitation this intuition so
obtained is regarded even to its very form of state
ment as that designed and imparted by God con
cerning himself and his will (I Cor. ii. 9‑10). The
operation of God by his Spirit upon men is not lim
ited to the generation of his Word; for it is the
comprehensive challenge, which calls forth the re
lation to him in all phenomenal forms: but the
formation of words belongs to it essentially. Such
influence of the Holy Spirit restricts itself not to
impulse and feeling; it makes requisition upon all
the forms of thought. The indwelling Spirit is not
thought of as a power operating externally upon the
conscious activities which mediate through the
senses. The characteristic figure within the hori
zon of this circle is not the genius who founds sects,
but the prophet prepared for martyrdom; the mes
senger of the word which laid a task upon him.

7	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Revelation
This statement concerning a process which interrelates manifestation and inspiration, the permanent result of which is the word of God (C. J. Nitzsch; Rothe), produces itself as the expression of present experience. Just as soon as the thread of continuity is broken, as among the Jews after the exile and in the post‑Apostolic Church, perception becomes readily darkened. That, however, not merely its Caput mortuum is present, is proved by the experience that this word may by proxy represent the manifestation more effectively than the manifestation itself, where there is a thorough activity of the Spirit. This statement of the selfrevelation of God does not explain how religion originated on the whole or primarily. The knowledge concerning God, who may then be sought and rediscovered in his world‑activity, is presupposed in all revealing action; the Bible knows nothing concerning a monotheism discovered only in late times. The fact of religion is presupposed for all men, and not until the state of religious necessity appears does revelation come under observation. Revelation is fundamentally always the self‑evidencing of God for the recognition of him, and only subsequently does it extend itself also to the correlative. Wherefore, the knowledge of God has just the opposite force, within these limits, of humanly found and humanly conditioned thoughts concerning the divine. For it no simpler or more absolute testimony can be given than that of the first petition of the Lord's Prayer. Neither are the depths of deity exhausted in every dimension nor are the means provided for the impenetration of the universe in detail (theosophy); only the reality and verity of the acquaintance with the self‑revealing God are assured.
It has already become clear that the historicity of revelation is not alone to be proved in the fact that it fulfils itself in actuality that must first be understood in order to be described;
9. Philo‑ much rather the emphasis rests upon sophic Ad‑ the complex happening, evidently in justment of fulfilment of a purpose, in which the
	this View.	indicating word is involved in a cor
		responding onward movement. So it
may well be said of revelation, that it generates a
development; in a certain sense also that it devel
ops in its results. Only that such revelation must
not be taken as analogous to the process in nature,
but is to be conceived as the manifestation of a
training according to design; for otherwise there
would be a becoming manifest by means of, but not
a revelation to, human consciousness. If abstract
metaphysics, to the extent of deism, has assumed
too disparate a conception of the highest being for
alternative activity with the finite, then modern
anthropology takes too disparate a conception of
the subjectivity of persons to get any farther with
respect to influence upon them than a stimulus to
self‑propulsion. Both exclude such a revealing op
eration of God, which is something else than a con
dition of the well‑ordering of the whole. Therefore
the God‑man must be, apart from the ethical, a
cosmic ordering and with him and in him is revela
tion (Dorner). At this point comes to view the de
pendence of the various forms of the conception of
revelation upon cosmology. Something of this kind seems to be unavoidably bound up with the solution of the problem of the natural or the supernatural character of revelation through the generalizing of this idea, which is really indigenous only to the circle of New‑Testament religions. Therefore, it is advisable, in its theological treatment, not to, overlook how, in its origins, revelation serves, not only to weigh the knowledge of God afforded by it over against other representations; but, much more, to. distinguish it as the true over against the deceptions; and not to forget how positively revelation is identified in thought, not merely with the reality of contact with God, but above all with the truth of the knowledge of God. In the restriction of the concept to this one side of the comprehensive activity of God, by which he founds the new life and within it the perfect religion, it preserves its peculiar significance, and is indispensable for the maintenance of the understanding of the religious relation on the high level of personal life, be it in the form of religiousness or of positive religion.
(M. KAHLER.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: For the Biblical side consult the literature named in and under BIBLICAL THEOLOGY; and for the dogmatic side the works on systematic theology named in and under APOLOGETICS; DOGMA, DOGMATICS; DOCTRINE, HISTORY OF; and INBPIRATIGN. Consult further: R. Seeberg, Revelation and Inspiration, New York, 1910; J. Leland, The Advantage and Necessity of Christian Revelation, shown from the State of Religion in the Ancient Heathen World, 2 vols., London, 1788, Philadelphia, 1818; H. Alford, Consistency of the Divine Conduct in Revealing the Doctrines of Redemption, 2 vols., London, 1842; F. D. Maurice, What is Revelation? A Series of Sermons on the Epiphany, ib. 1859; idem, Sequel, to the Inquiry, " What is Revelation f " Letters in Reply to Maned's Examination of Strictures on the Bampton Lectures, ib. 1880; K. A. Auberlen, Die gattliche• 08enbarung, Basel, 1881, Eng. tranel., Tho Divine Revelation, Edinburgh, 1887; E. Krauss, Die Lehre wonder Offenbarung, Gotha, 1888; A. B. Bruce, The Chief End of Revelation, London, 1881, new ed. 1887; R. W. Dale, Epistle to the Bphesians, its Doctrine and Ethics, lecture viii., ib. 1882; G. T. Ladd, The Doctrine of Sacred Scripture, 2 vols., New York. 1883; J. Robson, The Bible; its Revelation . . , London, 1883; C. A. Row, Revelation and Modern Theology, ib. 1883; J. H. A. Ewald, Revelation: its Nature and Record, Edinburgh, 1884; H. Rogers, The Superhuman Origin of the Bible, London, 1884; W. W. Olssen, Revelation, Universal and Special, New York, 1885; S. J. Andrews, God's Revelations of Himself to Men as successively made in the Patriarchal, Jewish, and Christian Dispensations and in the Messianic Kingdom, ib. 1888; R. H. Hutton, Essays Theological and Literary, 2 vols., London, 1888; J. F. Weir, The Way, the Nature, and the Means of Revelation, Edinburgh, 1889; G. P. Fisher, The Nature and Method of Revelation, New York, 1890; E. Cowley, The Writers of Genesis and Related Topics, Illustrating Divine Revelation, ib. 1890; W. D. Thomson, Revelation and the Bible. A popular Exposition for the Times, London, 1890; R. F. Hor ton, Revelation and the Bible. An Attempt at Reconstruction, ib., New York, 1892; E. R. Palmer, Development of Revelation, London, 1892; D. Van Home, Religion and Revelation, Dayton, Ohio, 1892; J. Macgregor, Revelation and the Record, London, 1893; S. J. Andrews, God's Revelations of Himself to Men, New York, 1901; C. B. Brewster, Aspects ofRevelation, London, 1901; J. R. Illingworth, Reason and Revelation, ib. 1902, new ed., 1908; T. Simon, Entwickluny and ofenbarung, Berlin, 1907; H. Bavinek, The Philosophy of Revelation, New York, 1909; J. Wilson, How God has spoken. Or, Divine Revelation in Nature, in Man, in Hebrew History and in Jesus Christ, Edinburgh, 1909; J. Orr, Revelation and Inspiration, London, 1910; G. Henderson, The Bible a Revelation from God, Edinburgh, 1910; DOG, ii. 520‑528; Vigouroux. Dictionnaire, faso. xxxiv. 1080‑‑83.

8,bvesz
Revivals of Religion
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
8
REVESZ, IMRE: Hungarian Reformed; b. at Debreczin (116 m. e. of Budapest) Jan. 14, 1826; d. there Feb. 13, 1881. He was educated at Debreczin (1841‑51), and after completing his studies at Vienna, Berlin, and in Switzerland, became, in 1856, pastor at Debreczin. In 1861 he was elected to the Reichstag, though he resigned a few months later to devote himself exclusively to pastoral and literary labors. He distinguished himself in the defense of his church, when, in 1856, Leo Thun, the Austrian minister of public worship, drafted a new system of government for the Hungarian Protestants which completely destroyed consistorial independence. Three years later an imperial patent was issued directing the Hungarian Lutherans and Reformed to organize in accordance with the royal charter. Both churches protested, while R6vdsz presented arguments from history to show that the autonomy of the Protestant bodies could not be changed without the consent of their own synods. He likewise addressed a memorial to the foreign powers, which was presented, in English translation, to the British ambassador and printed in The Edinburgh Review (1860). He was a member of the Protestant deputation which unsuccessfully sought to gain audience with Francis Joseph I. in Jan., 1860, and after his return he drew up and published a program for passive resistance to the execution of the obnoxious patent. The program was, however, confiscated by the government, and R& v6sz, among others, was summoned to appear before the civil courts. He now wrote his " Defense of the Hungarian Protestant Church " (Sirospatak, 1862; which appeared in its essential parts in German in the Protestantische Kirchenzeitung, 1861). In 1860 the obnoxious patent was withdrawn, and the suits against Rdv6sz and other Protestants were quashed.
In 1870 RAvdsz founded the monthly Figyelmezti, which he conducted for nine years, and in this he combated the German Protestant Union (see PROTESTANT UNION, GERMAN). Among his numerous works, all of them in Hungarian, special mention may be made of the following: " Basal Principles of Protestant Church Organization " (Szarvas, 1856); " Jan Erd6si, the Hungarian Reformer " (Budapest, 1859); " Life and Works of the first Hungarian Reformer, Mathias Bir6 of D6va " (1863); " Calvin's Life and Calvinism " (1864); and a Hungarian translation of the sermons of Frederick William Robertson (3 vols., 1864‑69).
F. BALOGH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Balogh, in The Catholic Presbyterian,
London, 1861, pp. 418‑427; B. Kuzmani, Urkundenbuch
zum bsterreichischen evangeliachen Kirchenrecht, Vienna,
1856.

REVILLE, r@‑vii', ALBERT: French Protestant: b. at Dieppe Nov. 4, 1826; d. at Paris Oct. 25, 1906. He was educated in his native city and at the universities of Geneva and Strasburg; was assistant pastor at Nimes in 1847‑48; pastor at Luneray in 1848‑51; and of the Walloon church at Rotterdam, 1851‑73 ; professor of the history of religions in the Co116ge de France, Paris, 1880‑1906, as well as president of the section in the tcole pratique des hautes 4tudes for religious sciences in the same city after
1884. He translated J. H. Scholten's Geschiedenis der godsdienst en wijsbegeerte (Leyden, 1853) under the title Manuel d'histoire compare de la philosophic et de la religion (Paris, 1861); and wrote L'Autltentieitg du Nouveau Testament (1851); De la rdemption (1860); Essais de critique religieuse (1860); Audes critiques sur l'6vangile selon Saint Matthieu (Leyden, 1862); Manuel d'instruction religieuse (1863; Eng. transl., London, 1864); Theodore Parker, sa vie et ses wncvres (1865; Eng. transl., London, 1865); Histoire du dogme de la divinite de Jesus‑Christ (1869; 5th ed., 1906; Eng. transl., History of the Doctrine of the Deity of Jesus Christ, London, 1870; revised, 1905); Histoire du diable, ses origines, sa grandeur et sa d9cadence (Strasburg, 1870; Eng. transl., The Devil, his Origin, Greatness, and Decadence, London, 1871); Prolggomenes de l'histoire des religions (1981; Eng. tranal., London, 1884); Les Religions des peuples non‑cirdis6s (2 vols., 1883); The Origin and Growth of Religion as illustrated by the Native Religions of Mexico and Peru (Hibbert lectures, London, 1884; French tranal., Paris, 1885); La Religion ehinoise (2 vols., Paris, 1888); and J4sus de Nazareth (2 vols., 1897). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Polybiblion, 1897, pp. 199‑203; P. AlphandAry, in RHR, 1906, pp. 401‑423; Revue chritienne, 1896, pp. 416‑417; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, fasc. xxxiv. 10831084.
REVILLE, JEAN: French Protestant, son of the preceding; b. at Rotterdam, Holland, Nov. 6, 1854; d. at Paris May 6, 1908. He was educated at the universities of Geneva, Paris, Berlin, and Heidelberg; was pastor at Sainte‑Suzanne (1880‑‑83); teacher of the Evangelical religion in the Lyc6e Henri Quatre, Paris (1884‑‑86); instructor in church history in the 1Jcole pratique des hautes Etudes, Paris (1886‑94); and professor of patristics in the Protestant theological faculty of the University of Paris (1894‑1907); succeeded his father as professor of the history of religions in the College de France. He was also editor of the Revue de l'histoire des religions after 1884. Among his numerous works special mention may be made of La Religion d Rome sous les &v~res (Paris, 1884); Les Orlgines de l'Episcopat (1894); Paroles d'un litre eroyant (1898); Le Quatrikme .9vangile, son origine et sa valeur historique (1900); Le Protestantisme lib6ral, ses origines, sa nature, sa mission (1903; Eng. transl., Liberal Christianity, its Origin, Nature, and Mission, London, 1903); and Le PropUtisme Ubreu; esquisse de son hist. et de ses destines (Paris, 1906).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Sanday, Criticism of the Fourth Gospel, pp. 2, 28, 31, 200, 256, Oxford, 1905; Journal de GeQve, May 8, 1908; A. Reiyss, in Le Protestant, journal des chr€tiens lib€raum, 1908, pp. 155‑156; RHR, June‑July, 1908; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, fuse. xxxiv. 1084.
REVIUS, r@'vf‑us, JACOBUS: Dutch theologian; b. at Deventer (8 m. n. of Zutphen) Nov., 1586; d. at Leyden Nov. 15, 1658. He was educated at Leyden (1604‑07) and Franeker (1607‑10), and in 16101612 visited various foreign universities, particularly Saumur, Montauban, and Orl6ans. Returning to Holland, he held brief pastorates at Zeddam, Winterswijk, and Aalten in 1613, and by Oct., 1614, had become pastor in his native city, where he remained twenty‑seven years. In 1618 he was ap‑

RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
pointed librarian of the Fraterhuis, and in the same year the Synod of Dort a‑signed him a part in the new revision of the Dutch translation of the Old Testament. The committee of translators and revisers, which convened at Leyden in 1633‑34, made Revius secretary. He likewise took an active part in the establishment of the Athenaeum at Deventer in 1630, and was influential in calling the first professors. In 1641 he accepted a call to Leyden as regent of the state college, and held this position for the remainder of his life. His closing years were embittered by the rise of Cartesianism, to which he was intensely opposed. A rare Hebrew scholar, Revius was also a prolific writer. He showed, however, a domineering disposition and exercised a vehement polemic, as shown in his struggle with Cartesianism and the Remonstrants. Against the latter he wrote, Schriftuurlijk tegen Bericht van de Leere der Gereformeerde Kerken sengaende de goddelijke Predestinatie ende andere aen‑clevende Poineten (Deventer, 1617); against the former he wrote especially his Statera philosophise Cartesiante (Leyden, 1650); and Theke, hoc eat levitas defensionia Cartesian) (Brief, 1653). The rights of the Church he defended in his Examen . . . seu de potestate magistratuum reformatorum circa res erelesiastieas (Amsterdam, 1642), and his Uittreksels . . . over de macht der merheid in het afzetten van predikanten (Leyden, 1650). While endeavoring to avoid the contemporary controversy whether men might wear long hair, he was obliged to defend his moderate position
REVIVALS OF RELIGION.

College Revivals; Timothy Dwight (§ 1).
Lyman Beecher (§ 2).
Kentucky Revival (¢ 3).
3. Theology of these Revivals.
4. Later Revivals.
Asahel Nettleton (§ 1).
Charles Grandison Finney (¢ 2).
Criticism of Finney's Methods (§ 3).
Dwight Lyman Moody ($ 4).
5. General View of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries.
I. Theory of Revivals.
II. Early Revivals.
In Biblical Times (§ 1).
Protestant Revivals (¢ 2). III. In America.
1. Revivals under Edwards.
Revival of 1734‑35 (§ 1).
Great Awakening, 1740 (§ 2).
Revival under Criticism (¢ 3).
James Davenport (§ 4).
Edwards' Defense; Statistics (§ 5).
2. Revivals about the Year 1800.
The phrase " revivals of religion " is ordinarily applied to the spiritual condition of a Christian community, more or less limited in extent, in which a special interest is very generally felt in respect to religious concerns, accompanied with a marked manifestation of divine power and grace in the quickening of believers, the reclaiming of backsliders, and the awakening, conviction, and conversion of the unregenerate.
I. Theory of Revivals: The progress of Christianity in the world has rarely, for any length of time, been uniform. Its growth in the individual and in the community is characterized by very obvious fluctuations. Like all things temporal, it is subject to constant change, exposed to influences the most varied and antagonistic. Now it makes rapid advances in its conflict with sinful propensities and developments; again it is subjected to obstructions and reverses that effectually check its onward course, and result in spiritual declensions.
Reveaz
Revivals of Religion
in his Libertas Christiana circa usum capillitii defenaa (1647).
While he was regent, no less than 576 disputations took place at Leyden. In 1623 Revius published at Leyden his own Greek and Latin translation of the Belgic Confession, a revised and enlarged edition appearing four years later as Belgiearum eeclesiarum doetrana et ordo. Copies of this were widely circulated among the Orthodox Greeks and won the approval of Cyril Lucar (q.v.), whose own " Confession " may thus have been materially influenced by the Belgic Confession. Revius also conferred a considerable service on science by editing 300 letters of the famous Joseph Juste Scaliger (q.v.) under the title Epiatres frangoises des personnages illustres et doctea d M. Joseph Juste de la Scala (Harderwijk, 1624). His main work entitled him to prominence among historical writers, Daventrite illustratte, sive historice urbia Daventriensis libri sex (Leyden, 1651). Revius was also one of the best poets of his time, publishing Over‑Ymselsche Sangen en Dichten (Deventer, 1630; enlarged ed., Leyden, 1634), and De CL Psalmen Davids . . . in sin en de rijmen gebetert (Deventer, 1640).
(S. D. vAN VEEN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are his own sketch in his Daventria illuetrat2, ut sup., pp. 725‑728; and J. Hoombeek, Mis‑
cellanea sacra, pp. 575‑591, Utrecht, 1676. Consult: J. van Vloten, Het Leven en de uitgelezen zangen en diehten van Jacobus Reviue, Schiedam, 1863; E. J. w.. Posthumus Meyjee, Jacobus Revius, zijn Leven en Werken, Amsterdam, 1895.
In General ($ 1). Benjamin Fay Mills (¢ 2). Reuben Archer Torrey (§ 3). J. Wilbur Chapman (§ 4).
IV. The Welsh Revivai of 1904‑1906. The Welsh People (¢ 1).
The Revival Described (¢ 2). Its Origin (¢ 3).
Evan John Roberts; Early Life (¢ 4).
Work in the Revival (§ 5). Occult Phenomena (§ 6).
V. Roman Catholic Mission.
Growth in grace is attainable only by ceaseless vigilance, untiring diligence, unremitting conflict, and a faithful improvement of the opportunities and means of spiritual advancement. Any relaxation in the strife with moral evil tends to spiritual retardation: the evil gets the advantage over the good; the religious fervor abates; the soul becomes lukewarm, cold, dead. As with the individual believer, so is it with the community. A church, a sisterhood of churches covering a large section of country, by reason of the predominating influence of some worldly interests‑the greed of gain in a season of great commercial prosperity, the strife of party during a highly excited political campaign, the prevalence of a martial spirit in time of war, or the lust of pleasure in a time of general worldly gaiety and festivity, or any absorbing passion for mere temporal good‑may be so diverted from the direct pursuit of holiness, and the prosecution of the work of advancing the kingdom of Christ, as to

8evtvals of Uevsioa	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	10
lose, to a considerable extent, the power, if not the life, of godliness. The spiritual and eternal become subordinate to the worldly and temporal. The blight of spiritual declension settles down and attaches itself with increasing persistency year by year. Such has been the history of Christian churches everywhere. This being the testimony of universal experience to the proneness of human nature to decline from the spirit and the power of godliness, how, it is asked, is this tendency to be checked ? Obviously the true and only effective and appropriate remedy for a season of spiritual declension is a season of spiritual revival. Such a season, by whatever agencies or instrumentalities brought about, by whatever adjuncts of questionable propriety it may be accompanied, and of greater or less extent, may properly be termed " a revival of religion." These manifestations, moreover, are to be regarded as a result of a special and peculiar effusion of the Holy Spirit. All spiritual life, all progress in the divine life, whether in the individual or in the community, in the church or in the nation, is the Spirit of God. The whole period of grace, from the Day of Pentecost to the final judgment, is properly termed " the dispensation of the Holy Spirit." Every true convert is begotten of the Spirit, and so becomes a child of God. The Spirit is always in and with the Church, carrying forward the work of redemption.
11. Early Revivals: Mention, moreover, is made in the Scriptures of special dispensations of the Holy Spirit, of copious effusions of the Spirit of particular times of refreshing from the
x. In Bib‑ presence of the Lord: " It shall come to lical Times. pass afterward, that I will pour out my spirit upon all flesh." The fulfilment of this prediction of the prophet Joel began, as the Apostle Peter testifies, on the Day of Pentecost next following the crucifixion of our Lord. So great and so efficacious was this outpouring of the Spirit, that about 3,000 souls were that day made partakers of the divine nature by regeneration. And this was only the initial of a marvelous dispensation and display of divine grace in the renewal and sanctification of a great multitude of souls extending through a continued series of years, whereby the Christian Church was planted, took root, and filled the land of Israel with its blessed fruits. It was a great and glorious revival of religion. This was but the first great revival in the history of the Christian Church. Times without number, at particular periods, in peculiar exigencies God has interposed for the redemption of the Church and for the triumphant advancement of the Gospel of Christ. After a season of spiritual declension, when iniquity had come in, and rolled over the whole land like a desolating flood, a wave of renewing and sanctifying grace has spread itself over a whole region of country, whereby the attention of the multitude has been aroused, great numbers of the careless and thoughtless have been brought under saving conviction, and converts by thousands have been brought into the Church of such as should be saved. Marvelous changes have thus been wrought in the aspect of large communities, affecting most favorably the character and the
results of the preaching of the Word, the devotions of the closet, the family, and the sanctuary, and the interest taken by the multitude in spiritual and external concerns, resulting in an extraordinary quickening of religious affections, a general stimulus of Christian graces, and the divine renewal of souls that were dead in trespasses and sins. Not only at Jerusalem, but everywhere in all the region round about where the apostles and apostolic men preached in those days, and far away among the Gentiles, such scenes were witnessed. So many and so mighty were those special manifestations of divine power and grace in the Gospel, by reason of such effusions of the Holy Spirit, that Tertullian could say at the beginning of the third century, in his appeal to the civil authorities, " We have filled all places of your dominions,‑cities, islands, corporations, councils, armies, tribes, the senate, the palace, the court of judicature." " So mightily grew the work of God, and prevailed."
Passing over the intervening centuries, it may well be asked, What was the Protestant Reformation, that, beginning in the fourteenth century under Wyclif, and continuing under Huss in the fifteenth,
at length culminated in the sixteenth a. Protes‑ under Luther and Calvin and a host of tant kindred spirits? It was a special dis‑
Revivals. pensation of the Spirit, whereby the
minds of men everywhere in Christian lands were turned toward the utterances of the divine word, the errors of the papacy were discovered and renounced, the truth as it is in Jesus was apprehended and embraced by multitudes, and the churches were built up in the faith of the Gospel. It was a great and general revival of religion, whereby converts by tens of thousands were born of the Spirit of God. So thorough and wide‑spread were those conversions, that the fires of persecution were kindled in vain. In spite of princes and prelates, converts to the pure faith of the Gospel were made all over Germany, Switzerland, France, Holland, and Great Britain, and not a few in Spain and Italy. It was the greatest revival of religion that the world had witnessed, and the Church enjoyed, since the days of Constantine. From that day, all along the centuries, the annals of the Church abound in testimonies to the reality and efficacy of these special effusions of the Spirit. The Church of Scotland was born anew in the great revival under Knox and his brethren. " The whole nation," says Kirkton, " was converted by lump." Near the close of the sixteenth century, under the ministry of such divines as Wishart, Cooper, and Welsh, all Scotland was visited by an extraordinary effusion of the Holy Spirit. So mightily were men affected, that the whole general assembly, 400 ministers and elders, while renewing their solemn league and covenant, with sighs and groans and tears, were swayed by the Spirit, as the leaves of the forest by the " rushing of the wind " of the driving tempest. Similar scenes were further witnessed in Scotland, beginning in 1625, at Stewarton; extending through the land and into the north of Ireland, and eventuating in that remarkable display of divine grace in the Kirk of Scotland, where in June, 1630, under the preaching of Bruce and Livingston, " near 500 "

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Revivals of Religion
souls in one day were brought under deep conviction of sin, and presently into the light and liberty of the Gospel. So, too, in 1638, on the occasion of signing the covenant, the whole country was stirred as by the mighty hand of God. Such was the preparation in Scotland, and in England, also, for the great reformation that issued in the commonwealth under Cromwell and the prevalence of Puritanism in the Church of England.
	Like importance attaches to what is known as the
Evangelical revival under the Wesleys in Great
Britain, which spread also to America under Francis
Asbury (q.v.) and Philip Embury (q.v.), resulting
in the foundation and upbuilding of Methodism
(see METHODISTS). 	E. F. HATFIELDt.
III. In America.‑1. Revivals under Fdwards: The earliest period of New England history was a period of almost constant revival, for religion was the chief interest of the Pilgrim and Puritan churches, and revivals of a 1. Revival leas continuous type were not infreof 1734‑36. quent in the later years of their first century and the beginning of the next. Increase Mather was a powerful revival preacher. Both the father and the grandfather (Solomon Stoddard, q.v.) of Jonathan Edwards had revivals in their parishes. But the history of American revivals, as a distinct element of the religious life, begins properly in 1734 with the preaching of a series of sermons by Edwards, at Northampton, upon justification by faith. There had at this date been no considerable additions to the village church for a long time. The religious condition of the church had become low, and that of the community around it worse. Interest began among the young and spread to the old. Five or six persons were converted; and then, all at once, the community as a whole began to manifest an absorbing interest in personal religion. Religious meetings became thronged. In half a year about 300 persons were converted, embracing nearly all the town above sixteen years of age. The revival was not limited to Northampton, but spread, partly with the active cooperation of Edwards, to most of the towns about, then into Connecticut, and even into New Jersey. The means taken to extend the revival were the simple and ordinary services of the house of God, special meetings for a lecture by the minister, followed by meetings for prayer, group meetings of young and of old, and private interviews by the pastor with persona specially concerned. The sermons upon justification were upon the traditional lines of Calvinistic theology, and great emphasis was laid upon what " justice " would demand in God's treatment of men, and upon the utter lack of claim that any sinner had upon God for favorable treatment. And the sovereignty of God was so emphasized as to give the impression that, even after the sinner has repented, it may be entirely uncertain whether God will forgive him or notl Still, Edwards took occasion to encourage the diffident with the assurance of the goodness of God, and that it is his " manner " to give success to diligence. The great motive employed was, however, fear. It was Edwards' purpose to produce conviction of sin and a sense of the great danger in which the
soul stood of suffering the torments of an eternal hell.
In the spring of 1740 the spirit of revival was again present. The same increasing seriousness as had ushered in the former revival was observed. Some conversions occurred. And in
$• Great October George Whitefield (q.v.), who Awskeniag,had come to New England from Geor‑
1740' gia, and was preaching from place to place with great power, to immense assemblies of people, arrived in Northampton. While his coming does not seem to have had a revolutionary influence, he was largely instrumental in producing the general prevalence of a revival which was limited to no part of the country, and enlisted the active cooperation of a large number of effective preachers. Of these one of the most famous was Gilbert Tennent (q.v.). Edwards himself joined in the itinerant work in which Whitefield took the lead. In this revival, as in the former, the great appeal was to fear. It was at this time that the famous sermon of Edwards upon Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God was preached at Enfield, Conn. " Before the sermon was ended, the assembly appeared deeply impressed and bowed down with an awful conviction of their sin and danger. There were such manifestations of distress and weeping that the preacher was obliged to speak to the people and desire silence that he might be heard. This was the beginning of the same great and prevailing concern in that place with which the colony in general was visited."
Had the revival been. confined to places under the influence of Edwards ad his more immediate associates, it may be that comparatively
	reader	little criticism would have been called
		forth. It is necessary here to call at
		tention to certain phemonena which
arose in the newly compacted Presbyterian church
of New Jersey. This was composed of a Scotch
Irish element, attached to the forms and methods
of an established church, and making little inquiry
into the evidence of regeneration among professing
Christians, and a New England Congregational ele
ment, with whom the reality of the experience of
regeneration was the great prerequisite for church
membership as well as the great essential of the re
ligious life. William Tennent (q.v.), of the New
England side, had founded a college in his parish
to educate men for the ministry, upon which the
Scotch looked with some suspicion; and when his
son, Gilbert Tennent (q.v.), inveighed against an
" unconverted ministry "and went about preach
ing the Gospel to all whom he could gather, the
criticism was still stronger. Tennent and his friends
were thus brought into the parishes of many men
who had no sympathy with their doctrines or their
methods. And so at the synod of 1741 a " protes
tation " was made which objected to their " an
archical principles," their " irregular irruptions
upon the congregation to which they have no im
mediate relation," " their principles and practise of
rash judging and condemning all who do not fall in
with their measures, both ministers and people,"
their doctrine of the necessity of an inward divine
call to the ministry, " their preaching the terrors of

Revivals of Religion	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	12
the law," and their doctrine of conscious religious experience. It was natural that Tennent's preaching in New England should arouse strong criticism from men of like mind with the " Old Side " of his own church.
The first and chief difficulty in New England was, however, connected with James Davenport, of Southold, L. I. The news of Whitefield's successes had led him in 1740 to begin special exhortation of his people, and in the following year he began an itinerary at Easthampton which carried him through
	4. James	Connecticut, and finally as far as Bos
Davenport. ton. While his piety was genuine, it
		is not to be doubted that he was labor
ing under a mental aberration which increased dur
ing his itinerant ministry. He indulged in caustic
criticism of most of the ministers whom he met. In
New Haven the final outcome of his work was the
formation of a separate church. Even the legisla
ture at Hartford took notice of his excesses and
sent him home as a man of disordered mind. In
June, 1742, he appeared in Boston, and here began
in consequence that opposition to the revival which
long continued and greatly affected the entire later
history not only of that city but of all America.
The association of ministers issued a declaration il,
which they gave generous recognition to Davenport's
excellencies, but on account of his irregularities,
they judged it their " present duty not to invite
Mr. Davenport into our places of public wor
ship." The result of this declaration was that there
were preachings upon the common, a great deal of
controversy and disturbance, and finally a present
ment before the general court, upon which Daven
port was discharged as not guilty because non cont
pos mends. After a while Davenport departed for
home. On his arrival, and with the mending of his
health, he saw his errors and published " retracts
tions " in which he withdrew his statements and
explicitly recognized his errors. It is upon such a
background that the history of Whitefield's revival
movements in New England is painted. He was
charged with being an " enthusiast," i.e., one who
acted on stimuli furnished by dreams and sudden
impulses which he mistook for inspiration, with
disorderly methods, censoriousness, slander, and
with deluding the people.
Edwards' defense of the revival did not ignore " imprudences," " irregularities," " indiscreet zeal," nor " outcries, agitations, and faintings of the body "; but he defended the revival, nevertheless, 6. Edwards, because it had produced " a remark‑
Defensec	able and general alteration in the face
Statistics. of New England " in matters pertaining to religion and common morals. He defends the evangelists in respect to many things for which they had been unjustly blamed, as he thought, and maintains that there is a proper address to the emotions, and that the preaching of terror is justifiable, for the state of unrepentant man is indeed terrible. Neither did he refuse to see in physical effects of preaching " probable tokens of God's presence." Edwards left quite complete and very significant data as to the numbers affected by this revival, and their ages, from which the following table is compiled, in which no distinction is
made between males and females, who were converted, according to Edwards' explicit statement, in about equal numbers.
Age.
4.......
9....... 12....... 13....... 14....... 15....... 18....... 17........ 18........ 19.....
Number.
Agc.
22. 23. 24. 25. 45. 55. 85. 70.
Number.
	. to
It will serve the purposes of confirmation of the
i	Edwardean table as normal and valuable, if the following table of a revival in an Iowa town, about ten years since, be given. It was conducted by a
~~	Congregational minister.
Age.
I	13
18...
ls...
20...

24...
25...
27...
28...
The numerical results of the revival in the country at large can be estimated upon the basis of only partial information; a conservative estimate pats the number of additions to the New England churches in consequence of the revival at 25,000, which, as there seem to have been then about 250; 000 population in New England, makes the proportion of conversions to the population at least ten per cent. This does not, however, completely cover the number of conversions, for a large number were already within the churches by the operation of the Half Way Covenant (q.v.), who needed conversion, and actually were converted. The whole number of conversions, therefore, when these dead churchmembera are included in the enumeration,, must have beeil nearly 50,000. One hundred and fifty Congregational churches were formed in less than twenty years, most of which can be credited to the revival. A considerable number of separatist churches were formed, many of which contributed powerfully to the influence of practical religion; while Baptist and Presbyterian forces were largely increased. Thus, when a broad review of the numerical results is taken, it is evident at once that the reenforcement of the religious forces of the country was very great.
8. Revivals About the Yes.‑ 1800: From the close of the " Great Awakening," as the revival just sketched was called, there were no general revivals in America till about the year 1800. It was the period of war, with the consequent demoralization.
Age.
33.
34.
38.
37.
38.
39.
40.
44.
45.
48.
48.
50.
54.
b5.
58.
58.
84.
87.
Number.

18	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Revivals of Religion
But as the new century drew near, isolated revivals occurred in a number of places. In 1781
there was a revival in Dartmouth Col‑
t. College lege, extending into the towns twenty
Revivals , tees around; in 1783 in Yale College,
Timothy which increased the membership of the
Dwight. college church to a point to which it had never before attained. Twelve years later, however, its visible effects had departed. Princeton College was in a condition quite similar to Yale. From 1778 to 1787 there had been a revival, under the lead of a layman, Joseph Patterson, in western Pennsylvania, and more than 1,000 persons professed conversion. In the winter of 1798 there was a great revival in western New York, and in 17961798 in western Connecticut and Massachusetts. But in eastern Massachusetts there was no revival from 1745 till long after 1800. The most important center of this revival was Yale College under Timothy Dwight. When he came to the presidency in 1795 he found infidelity very prevalent among the students, while the college church was almost extinct. Dwight began by discussing the fundamentals of theology with the senior students, and soon open infidelity passed away. But the " revival " proper did not break out in Yale College till 1802. A student destined to play a large part in later revivals, Lyman Beecher, was converted in 1795‑96, but it was a case of solitary religious interest, beginning at home in consequence of a chance remark of his mother, but kept in progress largely by the sermons of Dwight in the college pulpit, and gradually developing into fixity of purpose to serve God. There were other solitary cases, but the college for some time went backward rather than forward. In 1799 only four or five undergraduates were members of the college church. But in 1801 desire for a revival began to be manifested, and in the spring of 1802 the work developed until seventy‑five out of 230 students had been converted, of whom about one‑half became ministers. There were later revivals in 1808, in 1812‑13 with twenty converts; in 1815 with eighty; in 1831, and so on, so that up to 1837 there were seventeen distinct revivals in Yale College.
What Dwight was as a revivalist may be still more clearly seen from the work of his pupil, Lyman Beecher (q.v.). Settled in Easthampton in
1799, his activity in revivals began at
3' Lyman	Interest was awakened that
Beecher.
spring, and in 1800 a marked revival, continuing six weeks, resulted in the conversion of eighty and the addition of fifty to the church. But the revival of 1807‑08 brought out the principles upon which Beecher always conducted such work and showed what manner of man he was. From the general assembly at Newark he returned with "fire in his heart," and began with the young people; but when nothing " would take hold," he planned a series of sermons on election. He preached " cut and thrust, hip and thigh," but it was a new doctrine of election that he taught, under the influence of Dwight and Taylor, by which its eminent reasonableness was emphasized. The doctrine of eternal punishment was also so preached as to present " the kingdom of darkness . ‑
. as nothing
but the prison of the universe . . . and small compared to the realms of light and glory." It was the emancipation of the congregation from the domination of the instinctive emotion of overpowering fear.
While this early revival at Yale was proceeding quietly, avoiding excesses of every kind, in Kentucky in the year 1800 there was proceeding a revival which illustrated the dangers 3. $entuckywhich attend the supreme appeal to
	Revival.	fear in a population of a low grade of
		intellectual life. The Scotch‑Irish im
migration into America had brought into the moun
tains of Kentucky and Tennessee a population
which had degenerated in the seclusion of these re
mote regions. Religion had lost its hold upon them.
The " inhibitions " of both the intellectual and the
moral natures were largely removed, and at the
same time a condition of unstable equilibrium had
been set up in the nervous system. They had to be
ever upon the alert against the savages. Thus they
lived in an environment of apprehension, the power
of " latent fear " was therefore very great, and ex
cessive emotional manifestations might be counted
upon. This mountain population sent out num
bers of emigrants as time went on, and about the
year 1800 there had gathered in Logan County, in
southwestern Kentucky, on the Tennessee border,
a large population of this people, intermixed with
numbers of violent and hardened criminals. An
irregular government had been established in the
interest of law and order, and a miniature civil war
had been waged till finally the better elements had
got the upper hand. The ministry of James Mc
Gready, who came to this region in 1796, was from
the first attended with great power. His preaching
seems to have resembled that of Edwards. " He
would so array hell before the wicked," it was said,
" that they would tremble and quake, imagining a
lake of fire and brimstone yawning to overwhelm
them and the hand of the Almighty thrusting them
down the horrible abyss.;' In 1799 he was holding
a meeting at Red River for the purpose of observ
ing the sacrament when violent physical demonstra
tions began in the audience so that people fell from
their seats to the floor. This was the beginning of
a great epoch of nervous excitement in connection
with revivals. The work spread to Pennsylvania
and Ohio, and violent physical phenomena called
" the jerks " prevailed. Great camp‑meetings were
gathered, and, like a contagion, excitement would
run through the crowds assembled. People would
continue for hours in an apparently breathless and
motionless state; about one in every six would fall
helpless to the earth, and one man jerked so vio
lently as to snap his neck and die. It was not till
the summer of 1803 that an end came to such mani
festations.
3. Theology of these Revivals: Theology had passed through a regular development since the time of Edwards. The treatise upon the freedom of the will, in which the great leader had pronounced for determinism, had led to a constant discussion of the whole psychology of revivals, and while this was conducted upon the universal plan of that day, the consultation of the individual consciousness, it had led to a gradual modification of determinism

nevivals of Religion	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	14
in favor of a true freedom, till in Nathaniel William Taylor's teaching the will has always, in every case of actual choice, a " power to the contrary " (for the history see NEw ENGLAND THEOLOGY). As the outcome of the development of this theology, the preacher in these revivals felt that he was actually and powerfully influencing his hearers to repentance, and they felt that upon them alone lay the responsibility of choosing or refusing the service of God, since they possessed a perfect ability to choose or refuse; and yet preacher and convert praised the grace of God as efficient agent and divine benefactor in every man's salvation (cf. F. H. Foster's Genetic History of the New England Theology, Chicago, 1907).
4. Later Revivals: Among Congregationalists and associated denominations revivals went forward up to the point now reached without the help of any one who was exclusively devoted to this work. The period of professional revivalists had not set in. The early educational advantages of
1. Asahel Abel Nettleton (q.v.) were small,
Nettleton. and, as his parents were not professing Christians, it was not till his eighteenth year that he became a Christian. Inclined first to the foreign missionary work, he was gradually drawn into revival labors, and was never able to extricate himself from the responsibilities thus incurred. He traversed a large part of Connecticut, with frequent labors in Massachusetts and New York, and in the South his journeys carried him as far as Charleston, S. C. For about twenty‑three years he was one of the most active and conspicuous figures in the service of the churches through the conduct of revivals. Of his special preparation for his work, gained by experience in the work itself, his observers frequently speak. Because of his familiarity with the experiences of many different men in many different places, he often seemed to be describing the experience of his auditors as if he were personally acquainted with their innermost thoughts. " When he commenced his labors in any place, he first attempted to impress the people with the fact that their help must come from above, and that they must place no dependence upon an arm of flesh." So earnest was he in this feeling, that if he thought they were depending too much upon him, he would suddenly leave them for a time. He began his work by seeking to deepen the earnestness of the church and the sense of responsibility. He would preach upon the sins of Christians, and by his searching and personal methods of application seek to carry conviction home to them first. Then he was ready to preach to sinners. His style was simple and impressive. He did not seek to awaken great emotion, but preferred a quiet revival. Preaching earnestly, following this with familiar addresses in the lecture room, and adding to these faithful private conversation and personal labor, he gathered the fruit " by hand," as some one has felicitously described the personal method of labor. His conversation with such was, however, usually brief, and partook somewhat of the nature of a physician's prescriptions. One duty and one only did he press upon anxious inquirers, that of immediate repentance. He urged this upon them
because they could do nothing short of it which would in any way improve their condition. Thus he fell in with the best line of New England teaching. In one respect these revivals were very defective. To the end, the peculiar path which Nettleton had had to tread when he came into the kingdom continued to exercise an influence upon him and upon the religious experience of his converts. There was a long period of distress through which most of them had to pass, and a great degree of dimness and mystery and uncertainty about the act of conversion itself. It was the result of bad teaching, just as was the supreme (and successfull) effort which one of Edwards' young people went through with, to repent of her sin in Adaml Nowhere is it possible to find a clear explanation of the nature of faith in his sermons. Nowhere does he tell a sinner exactly what he is to do in terms which possess clearness because resting upon a clear psychology of repentance and faith. The day for all this had not come. He produced true faith because he so powerfully presented the. motives under which it arises; but just what happened at the decisive moment in his soul, neither the sinner nor his teacher really knew.
Charles Grandison Finney (q.v.), living in Central New York, then a frontier country, was brought up with meager advantages as to education, and with religious advantages yet more deficient; so he grew to young manhood, studied law and
!a. Charles entered upon its practise, in Adams,
(fraaneson N, Y., without any real acquaintance with the Gospel. He had had some educational opportunities in his later youth, having spent a brief time in a high school in Connecticut; but the religious privileges which he then enjoyed had brought little light to his mind. He says of himself, when he began the study of law, that he was " almost as ignorant of religion as a heathen." His first Bible was purchased because of the references to it which he found in his law books. There was a new element in the revival work which Finney's conversion led him to undertake which goes back to his own mental processes and spiritual experiences. The day he was converted he gained a new idea of the nature of faith. He had held it to be an intellectual belief, but now he understood that it was a voluntary trust. This he put forth by the direct act of his will, and upon this his conversion followed, though he did not at once understand that he was converted, in this particular rehearsing the experiences of many converts from the time of Edwards down. But the application of this principle to the philosophy and the methods of revivals could not long remain hid from him, nor his own mode of procedure remain unaffected by it. The out‑working of this principle manifested itself first in the realm of theology. Finney was a born theologian. He possessed the interest in abstract truth, the power of analytical thought, and the love of cogent proof, which united make the theologian, and constitute him, at the same time, an original, investigating, and advancing theologian. He was therefore soon engaged in further discussions with his pastor, and was led step by step to substantially the same positions taken by Nathaniel William

15	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Revivals of Religion
Taylor (see NEw ENGLAND TBEoroGy, V., § 1), with whom he afterward had some brief association. He was soon licensed to preach by the local presbytery and subsequently ordained, though not without much criticism of his peculiar views. His labors had, however, been too fruitful to permit of refusing him ordination. After his work at Adams, Finney went to Evans' Mills and began that long series of revival meetings by which he wrought more powerfully and over a greater territory than any man of his generation. The story is fascinating as repeated by himself in his Memoirs, replete with striking incidents and with remarkable successes. From the first he was apparently fully prepared and entirely mature. His eloquence was astonishing, his methods were original and effective, his personal power was extraordinary, the results were unmatched. The open secret of his skill in handling men was the perfect clearness with which he apprehended the nature of conversion and the nature of man. His perfect confidence also in the main doctrines of the Evangelical scheme and the startling vividness with which he presented them led to the most profound self‑examination and personal consecration. Through it all ran the vein of rationality, for Finney was always explaining and defending doctrines, and had the art of making them appear self‑evident and their contradictories inconceivable. It is to be doubted if anywhere, at any period in the history of the Christian church, there were more profound experiences or a firmer and more intelligent grasp of the essentials of the process of making one's peace with God.
Opposition was early felt in various ways, but it was to those features of Finney's methods which would to‑day be regarded as his principal merits, to his use of homely illustrations, his avoidance of a stilted rhetorical style, and his extemporaneous address. They were the very reasons 3. Criticism of his success and had he listened to of Finney's the directions of those about him, he
Methods. wed have become as ineffective as they were. But there was no opposition from those that knew the work because of any irregularities, such as were soon to raise the antagonism of the brethren in New England and involve Asahel Nettleton. Nettleton's objections to Finney's methods were to the " irreverence " displayed in prayer, to " the spirit of denunciation " exhibited, especially against ministers, " the practise of females praying in promiscuous assemblies," the creation of discord in churches, and " praying for people by name." In his own letters nothing is said against the practise of asking inquirers to come forward to anxious seats; but this is one of the new measures against which Nettleton's biographer, Bennet Tyler, represents him as objecting. On the whole, it appears that Tyler's representation of the matter is somewhat exaggerated, and that he did not have correct sources of information; Nettleton also seems to have obtained his information largely indirectly, and it appears exaggerated and incorrect. Finney's work was not open to the charges which both of these men made so freely against it. The antagonism between Finney and Nettleton was a matter of temperament, for the one was as contained as the
other was unrestrained. It was partly a matter of civilization‑the settled and staid East against the newer West; partly a matter of party‑conservative New England against a man who reproduced in the West the Taylorism against which Tyler and Nettleton were contending in the East. But at bottom it was an antagonism of ideas, excited by the inability of Nettleton and others to think their way through the consequences and implications of a new theory of the will.
Finney's revivals covered a wide and interesting field, which included Philadelphia, New York (where he founded the Broadway Tabernacle, and made the acquaintance of the men who sustained him at Oberlin), Oberlin itself and the intense and wonderful history of its early years, London, England, and back again among American towns of greater or less celebrity. The revivals at Rochester were among his greatest, and long left their mark upon that city. That in the year 1842 was chiefly among the lawyers of the city, a large number of whom were converted. The preaching was argumentative and covered the range of Christian doctrine. That Finney should have gained men is not strange when it is remembered that men are gained preeminently by the ideal, by convictions as to duty, and rational fear. Were exact statistics present, they would probably show something like those of Edwards' revival of 1734‑35, the culmination of conversions lying about the years of a man's prime, viz., about forty‑five.
For the work of Dwight Lyman Moody see the article on him. The philosophy of revivals under which this laborer worked was, for the most part, the philosophy of common sense. He believed in large assemblies of people, and was anxious to have Christian people in great numbers. He
4. Dwight knew the dangers of a crowd, and
Lyman promptly suppressed everything like
Moody. undue excitement. To preach the Gospel as wisely as he could, to gather the interested together for special instruction and encouragement, to rely greatly upon prayer, to busy converted men in various Christian work, these constituted all the method Mr. Moody had. Perhaps a greater change from the methods of his predecessors was to be found in his preaching than anywhere else. His doctrine was of the old Evangelical type, and he taught as an essential part of it the eternal future punishment of the wicked. This position gave strenuousness to his efforts for the salvation of men; but it did not fix that salvation as consisting primarily in rescue from punishment. He preached the doctrine of atonement by the substitution of Christ for the sinner before the face of justice; but this did not make the salvation which Christ brought an external and merely forensic affair which left the innermost man untouched. Both of these doctrines were transfigured by the conception of the awfulness of sin as alienation from God, and the glory of salvation as the restoration of personal and loving relations between the sinful child and the heavenly Father. The doctrine of the divine love had at last come to its rights. Moody urged predominantly the love of God as the great reason for repentance. It was preeminently reasonable that the child should return to his Father, to be

Revivals of religion	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	18
away from him could be nothing but misery, the love of God constituted a claim upon the man which could not be ignored‑all of which considerations Moody urged with great power and pathos, guided by the instincts of a great heart, aflame with love to God. He preached particularly to despairing sinners, sinners who knew they were such and who could not believe that the grace of God was meant for them. Probably his greatest sermons were upon this general topic.
	5. General View of the Nineteenth and Twen
tieth Centuries; Besides the revivals of the
year 1800 and the years immediately follow
ing, it should be noted that the period of
		the Unitarian controversy in New
1. In England (1819 sqq.) was also one of
	GenerwL	revival. During the first thirty years
		of the century the Presbyterians in
creased fourfold in membership, chiefly by revivals,
the Congregationalists twofold, the Baptists three
fold, and the Methodists sevenfold. In the six
years from 1828 to 1832 it is estimated that 200,000
people united with the leading Evangelical churches,
of whom 60,000 were young men. The financial
panics of 1837 and 1857 were followed by revivals,
the latter of great power. The Millerite excite
ment of 1843 (see ADvamrsTs) produced a reaction
unfavorable to revivals. But after 1857, for two
years there was a general revival all over the coun
try, conducted for the most part by pastors thfough
their regular ministrations, having its chief expres
sion in prayer‑meetings, which brought in about
300,000 into the churches. The period of the Civil
War was unfavorable to revivals; and it was not
till 1874 that the current was reversed in connec
tion with the great revivals under Moody, George
Frederick Pentecost (q.v.), and others. The decade
from 1870 to 1880 saw an increase of 3,392,567 com
municants in Evangelical churches, among the best
in the history of American Christianity. Nothing
is more remarkable in the whole history than the
revivals in colleges. Among recent prominent re
vivalists are to be mentioned B. Fay Mills, Sam
Jones, and Sam Small, William A. Sunday, R. A.
Torrey, and J. Wilbur Chapman (qq.v.).
F. H. FOSTER.
In the perspective of revival history during the close of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century, three persons, Benjamin Fay Mills, Reuben Archer Torrey, and J Wilbur Chapman (qq.v.), all clergymen, appear as leaders in a movement especially noted for the prominent part taken in it by the laity. They all owe their stimulus in their special work to Dwight L. Moody (q.v., and see above), with whom they were early brought into close touch. They borrowed from him their message‑plain, Scriptural, urgent, made effect‑

ive by a fiery conviction, feathered by aneo‑, dote, incident, and experience, and unfettered by
labored argumentation or the embellishments of
rhetoric.
The first of these, Benjamin Fay Mills (q.v.), was a classmate at Lake Forest University, Ill., of Chapman, with whom also for a time later he was associated with marked success in revival campaigns. He began his evangelistic work in 1886,
and for ten years continued in it uninterruptedly, visiting many of the principal centers of population in the United States and Canada. His main and immediate dependence was a popular 2. Benjamin address to the masses assembled, in
Pay lliiUs. which he was a master; but back of that, Mills may be said to have been the first to have " organized success." His one outstanding method was his " district combination plan " by which cities were divided into sectionn over which a network of services was spread. He was systematic, taking time and pains to prepare by arousing interest, enlisting support, and forming and multiplying prayer‑circles. And then when the blow was struck in his Gospel appeal he drew the net by his card‑signing device, which he was the first to introduce, thereby securing immediate decision. For the time in which Benjamin Fay Mills gave his fine talents to the work of soulsaving, few men have been more honored of God.
Next to him, an evangelist of commanding personality is Reuben Archer Torrey (q.v.). The rise of Torrey goes back to the founding
g• Reuben in 1889 at Chicago of the Moody Bible
Aroher Institute, the purpose of it being a
Torrey* thorough and practical study of the English Bible. His close, personal connection with Moody in this Bible work made him, like Moody himself, a " Bible‑man." Torrey is distinguished above both Mills and Chapman by a thorough mastery and use in revival work of the Bible in the vernacular. That Bible Institute, under Moody, Torrey, and others, became a veritable " powerhouse " in the great World's Fair campaign in Chicago in 1893. And since then, out from its Bible atmosphere Torrey himself has gone forth on many a revival enterprise, notably in the instance of his recent English mission which was marked by such intense interest, not, however, without much antagonism on the part of some non‑conforming clergymen who took exception to his hyper‑orthodoxy.
But the foremost of the three named is J Wilbur Chapman (q.v.). He is the product of a wider environment, and therefore reaches out 4. . J Wilbur in influence to a larger periphery. He
ChaPman. was early associated with Moody both as vice‑president of the Bible Institute and in evangelistic work. His pastorates were a gymnasium where he was put in training for the noblest athletics, that of bringing sinners to God ‑in Albany, N. Y., where in one revival he harvested more than 100 souls, including some of the leading men of the city; and later in a steady revival fire, gathering in more than 500 converts in five years; in Philadelphia, adding 1,100 to the membership of the church in three years; and in New York, when he resigned the pastorate, in 1902, to become head of the Evangelistic Committee of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America.
His subsequent record is brilliant. His famous Boston campaign, for magnitude, power, and permanence of results, is without a parallel in this country. Early in 1910 he returned from evangelistic journey around the world, in which he visited

17	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Revivals of Religion
eleven countries, spoke in sixty cities‑in Australia, China, Japan, and England. Late in the winter of 1910‑11 he resumed work in Brooklyn, N. Y.
The period of Mills, Torrey, and Chapman has been the most fruitful in the history of revivals in American Christianity. Those named have had as associates and imitators men like A. C. Dixon, H. M. Wharton, Major Whittle, J. Arthur Smith, and others; and so their methods have been adopted in many places with greater or less effect.
S. B. DUNN.
IV. The Welsh Revival of :goo‑rgo6: Wales is well known as the land of revivals. Owing to the intense national spirit of the Welsh people these awakenings possess characteristics
t. The which distinguish them from the gen‑
Welah	eral religious movements of Great
	People.	Britain as a whole. Through the long
		centuries of Saxon domination the in
habitants of Wales‑who number, all told, less than
one‑half of the population of London‑have pre
served their independence in language, literature,
and national consciousness. A fiery and imagina
tive race of mountaineers, imbued with a strong
religious spirit, they have from time to time ex
perienced great spiritual upheavals which have
proved epochal in the life of the nation. Thus the
revival of the eighteenth century under Daniel
Rowlands and Howel Harris was a national renais
sance which liberated the f orees of Christian do
mocracy in the principality and introduced a new
era of progress and education.
The religious movement known as " The Great Welsh Revival " is the latest and most widely known of these national awakenings.
s. The This revival covers a period of two
Revival	years‑from the early part of 1904 to
Described. the beginning of 1906. During that time it is estimated that over 100,900 professed conversion. Of this number some 60,000 can be accounted for as being in 1910 members in good standing in the Protestant churches of Wales. The immediate ethical results of the movement were remarkable. A great wave of sobriety overswept the country so that the liquor trade suffered enormous financial losses; the decrease in criminal cases was no less remarkable; hundreds of outlawed debts were settled; goods atoien fifteen or twenty years before were returned to their owners; a phenomenal increase was recorded in the demand for good literature; feuds of long standing were healed; and sectarianism, a great curse of Welsh national life, vas softened by a larger charity and a deeper consciousness of an underlying unity. The movement must not be confused with the organized missions that were held about this time in various parts of Great Britain. The genius of the Welsh revival was quite distinct from that of any of these missions. It was spontaneous, unconventional, and without organization of any sort. None of its " leaders " was over thirty years of age, and none was a great preacher. Most of the workers were from the humble walks of life and were comparatively uneducated. Some of the most successful were young girls, under twenty, who assisted at the meetings with exhortation and song. In X.‑2
method‑or its absence‑the services have been termed a triumph for Quakerism; " obedience to the Spirit " was the only condition insisted upon. Only very rarely was a sermon attempted; the meetings were devoted to prayer, song, testimony, and exhortation, and seldom concluded before the small hours of the morning. They were characterized by far less violent demonstrations than previous revivals in the principality. The burden of the revival‑message was the love of God. As is usually the case in Wales, there were many apparently occult phenomena‑visions, voices, and signs in the heavens (see § 6, below).
So far as the origin of the movement can be traced at all, it appears to have begun in Feb., 1904, in New Quay, Carmarthensbire, South Wales. Revival manifestations were first noticed in the local Calvinistic Methodist Church, of
3. Its which Joseph Jenkins was pastor.
	Origin.	Later, a convention was held in Blaen
		a,nereh where there were many indi
cations of a spiritual awakening. This convention
was attended by a young man who was to' , a known
later as the " leader " of the revival‑Evan John
Roberts, at that time a candidate for the Welsh
Presbyterian ministry and student. in a prepara
tory school in Newcastle Emlyn, South Wales. In
the autumn of the same year the revival flame that
had been flickering obscurely in New Quay and
other places, burst forth and quickly spread over
the country, sweeping upward from the South to
the mountainous extremities of northern Wales
and subduing all before it. The remarkable scenes
witnessed were reported in the English prc,ss and
presently aroused the interest of the entire civil
ized world. By this time Evan Roberts had be
come the central figure of the awakening; still, to
designate him the "leader" of the revival is to
contradict the real genius of the movement, which,
throughout, was without organization or executive
direction. The revival was really begun before
Rbberts started upon his apostolate; but undoubt
edly he became the chief and most honored repre
sentative of the movement.
Evan John Roberts was born on July $, 1878. He is of humble parentage and is the ninth of a family of fourteen children; of these, two sisters are living in the United States. His birth‑
4. Evan place is Bwlchymynydd, Loughor,
John	South Wades, a small mining town of
Roberts; 3,000 or 4,000 inhabitants. He was Early Life. brought up in the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Church (see PRESBYTERIANS. IV.), of which his parents are members and which he himself joined at the age of thirteen. When eleven years old Roberts left school and went to work as door‑boy in a local coal mine where his father also labored. Here he narrowly escaped death in a coal‑truck accident, and, later on, in a colliery explosion A third narrow escape happened toward the end of the revival when, a few yards from a steep precipice, he was thrown from a carriage drawn by a runaway team. At twenty‑four Evan Roberts left the mines and apprenticed himself to the trade of his uncle, Evan Edwards, a blacksmith. A year later he was accepted as candidate for the Welsh

Revivals of Religion	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	18
Presbyterian ministry and in 1904 entered a preparatory school in Newcastle Emlyn, South Wales. Before this he had become subject to mystical experiences of a trance‑like nature. He devoted many hours each day to prayer. He heard ".voices " and saw "visions"and felt himself caught up above the limitations of time and sense into the immediate presence of God. This last experience came to him twice a day at regular hours and continued for some time. He found himself unable to pursue his studies to his own satisfaction in Newcastle Emlyn. His text‑books would seem, as he has expressed it, to be aflame in his hand, and he would be seized with violent physical pain until he would drop the book and take up his Bible. His friends feared for his mental condition. On Sept. 29, 1904, in Blaenanerch Calvinistic Methodist Chapel he passed through a spiritual crisis, in which, to use his own words, " Living Force " entered him with almost physical violence, imparting to him intense joy, bodily strength, and mental illumination, as well as spiritual earnestness and power.
On Oct. 31 he returned to his home in Loughor and began his work as revivalist‑first among his own family and then in the church of which he was a member. At the beginning he was
5. Work regarded with suspicion and consid‑
in the ered demented, but the power of his Revival. meetings was irresistible and he quickly became a national figure as the torchbearer of the revival. In his meetings he confined himself almost exclusively to the Welsh language. He sometimes gave addresses of an hour or an hour and a half in duration, but usually he spoke for less than ten minutes at a time. His style was pithy and epigrammatic, abounding in quaint metaphor and homely illustration. He was ready‑witted and often in the meetings indulged in dialogue and quick repartee. He is possessed of clairvoyant and clairaudient powers, and occasionally these were exercised in the meetings. Toward the close of the revival he cloistered himself in the home of a friend and observed a seven‑days' silence, shutting himself away from the outside world, and refusing to communicate with any one except by writing. This he did, as he believed, in obedience to the divine voice. He emerged from this strange experience much stronger physically and in a state of great mental and spiritual exaltation. His only mission outside Wales was in Liverpool (where he was accorded a public banquet by the lord mayor, Apr. 7, 1905). In this mission he addressed himself mainly to the Welsh people and rarely spoke in English. When in Liverpool, in order to silence adverse criticism which had raised the question of his sanity, he was examined by five English specialists who issued a certificate of his mental soundness. In 1906, at the end of the revival, Roberts suffered a severe nervous collapse. He passed into retirement in the home of friends residing in Leicestershire, England, where, until Nov., 1910, he remained in comparative seclusion. His health has improved. From his retirement he has written one or two articles for the religious press, but they lack the brilliance of his extempore revival addresses. He is a good musician and a poet of some ability. Before the revival he
acquired an elementary knowledge of Greek and Latin and took up as a diversion the study of astronomy and some of the occult sciences.
The religious awakening has brought about in Wales a quickening of national spirit which is seeking expression in progressive legislation and general reform, and in this way it is still fulfilling itself. It has undoubtedly contributed to the movement for the political independence of Wales‑the granting of a measure of autonomy by which the idealism of Welsh democracy can be given an adequate organ of expression.
Concerning the so‑called occult phenomena of the revival much could be written. In almost every village within the revival zone testimony was given to the experience of mysterious psychical experiences. In Evan Roberts himself, the
	6. Occult	occult faculties are strongly developed
Phenomena. (see § 4 above). He is (or was) subject
		to trance‑like ecstasies. He claimed to
be able to bear the prayers offered for him in far
distant places; he was quick to detect any spirit
of opposition or skepticism in his meetings and to
trace it to its source; he was continually hearing
" voices" and seeing visions. It must be added
that in these matters the self‑restraint of the re
vivalist was as remarkable as the experiences
themselves. They came to him unsought and were
consistently subordinated to his Evangelical mes
sage. The Rev. H. Elvet Lewis in his chronicles
of the awakening (With Christ among the Miners,
London, 1906) narrates many instances of signs
and visions, the most noteworthy being the case
of Mrs. Jones, a peasant woman of Egryn, Meri
onethshire, whose evangelistic work during the re
vival was largely influenced by the appearance of
phenomenal lights (a record of her experiences is
to be found in the Transactions of the British Psy
chical Research Society for Dec., 1905). Mr. Lewis
thus describes his meeting with her: " She made no
reference to the signs until my friend and I asked
her. She answered us simply as if she were speak
ing about the fire on the hearth, that she had seen,
almost from the first, each evening a fire or light
between her and the hills which rise from the marshy
shore‑a quickly vibrating light, ` as though full of
eyes,' so another described it. It had revealed to
her what to expect at the meetings? Yes, without
fail. One evening she had interpreted the sign to
mean four converts. But only three responded
when the test was made in the crowded little chapel.
` But there must be four,' she said. No, there could
not be; all the rest, except the three who had de
clared themselves that night, were already members.
` But there ought to be four to‑night,' she repeated.
No fourth could be found, until the door of the little
vestibule was opened and one stood there halting
between two opinions. The opening of the door
and a kindly word of invitation brought the in
quirer inside. And the four was completed. She
had seen the light hovering over some houses on
the hilltops; she was puzzled, for she thought there
was no one in those houses unconverted, or at least
out of church membership. But one day she was
told by the Wesleyan minister at Barmouth and
another friend who visited her, that there was one

19	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Revivals of Religion
old woman in one of the houses, not now on Christ's side. ` Ah, that must be it,' she said. The two friends went up‑found the woman in concern for her soul. Mrs. Jones herself visited her; she became one of the fifty‑one [converts] in that marvelous fortnight.
" She had visited several villages near her home during the dark nights. The light, she said, had frequently accompanied her‑not a terrifying light, but gentle and calm, just showing her way as she walked." " The problem," concludes Mr. Lewis, " still remains unsolved. But there can be no reasonable doubt of the appearance of these lights, at the time and place. Afterward they grew, no doubt, into a sort of foolish cult. Some, from mischief, made lights appear where Mrs. Jones went to conduct missions; at other times natural lights were taken to be extraordinary. But the earlier phenomena stand by themselves‑possibly natural, but in any case abnormal. There still remain to be explained their association with her movements and their alleged clairvoyant signs."
	It must be said that these phenomena have in
some quarters been exaggerated out of all pro
portion to their importance in the revival. The
part that they played was comparatively insignifi
cant. 	GwiLYM OswALD GRIFFITH.
V. The Roman Catholic Mission: " Mission " is a term applied by Roman Catholics to efforts which are the equivalent of the Protestant " revival," consisting of efforts directed to reclaiming those within the territory of the Church who have been estranged from religious observances. There was no need for this sort of work until, with the establishment of Christianity as the state religion, large numbers of pagans came in, and, with the conversion of the Teutonic races, the Church was further increased by multitudes who were only superficially affected by the Christian spirit. The earlier penitential institutions no longer sufficed. When, in 1215, the duty of confession was made universal, the idea of legal satisfaction, made prominent by the hierarchical tendency, was a hindrance to real pastoral work, and neither the monks nor even the friars found the right road to successful pastoral influence. Only small communities, like the Brothers of the Common Life (see COMMON LIFE, BRETHREN OF THE) at the end of the Middle Ages, devoted themselves with real thoroughness and love to the cultivation of an inner spirit of Christian piety. It was the Reformation which stirred the Roman Catholic Church to make strong efforts to confirm the wavering and reclaim the wanderers. The Jesuits (q.v.) were the most zealous instruments of this movement for restoration among the upper classes, and the Capuchins (q.v.) among the lower. The movement first gained strength in France, where the bishops had kept up a tradition of personal acquaintance with the spiritual state of their dioceses. It was furthered by Vincent de Paul, who, in 1616, began his work in behalf of the galley‑slaves, and at Folleville in the next year preached the desirability of general confession with such fervor that he was obliged to call in the Jesuits from Amiens to help him with the crowds who came. Ultimately he founded the Congregation of the Mission, or Lazarist order (see
LAzARIBTs), to promote not only education and missions among the heathen but also similar efforts in Christian lands. A new impulse was given by the congregation of mission‑priests founded in 1815 by the Abbd Legris‑Duval, expressly devoted to this particular work. After the upheaval of 1848 the German episcopate made frequent use of missions to reclaim the estranged masses; they were usually preached by Jesuits and Redemptorists (qq.v.), sometimes by Capuchins and Franciscans (qq.v.), and by the two latter orders from 1872 to 1894, when the two former were excluded from the Empire. [In the United States missions have become a regular part of the ecclesiastical machinery, held at intervals in most of the larger parishes, by Jesuits, Augustinians, Dominicans, Passionists, Paulists (qq.v.), and other orders.] They last two or three weeks, after careful preparation of the ground by the parochial clergy, and consist largely of frequent stirring sermons on sin, repentance, judgment, and Christian duties, leading to the reception of the sacraments of penance and communion, and closing with the solemn renewal of the baptismal vow by the whole congregation. There can be no difference of view between Protestants and Roman Catholics as to the duty of the Church to preach the Gospel not only to the heathen but also to lukewarm and nominal Christians. But there may well be a question as to whether this rapid succession of exciting sermons, accompanied by appeals to the emotions in external ways, is really calculated to produce lasting fruits rather than simply to bring the people into obedience to ecclesiastical precepts, especially confession. It is doubtful whether the constant striving after effect, the rhetorical declamation, the exaggerated pictures drawn of the evils and the punishment of sin, and the appeal to fear can well be productive of real moral renewal.
(D. STEITZt.)
BIBLIOGRAPBY: To be taken into account are (1) the articles in this work on the men named as revivalists in the text. especially those of Edwards, Lyman Beecher, Tyler, Finney, Spring, Taylor, Wesley, Whitefield, Moody, Torrey, and others; (2) the works by those men which deal with the subject (e.g., Edwards' Thoughts concerning the Present Revival of Religion, and Narrative of the Work of God in Northampton); and (3) the literature under the articles on these men, which often discusses the revival activities of the subjects.
Treatises on the general history of revivals are: W. B. Sprague. Lectures on Revivals of Religion, New York, 1833; C. G. Finney, Lectures on Revivals of Religion, Boston. 1&35, new ed.. London, 1910; J. Gillies, Historical Collections Relating to Remarkable Periods of Success of the Gospel. Preface by H. Bonar, London, 1845; B. Tyler, New England Revivals, as they Existed at the Close of the 18th and the Beginning of the 19th Centuries, Boston, 1846; E. Porter, Letters on the Religious Revivals which Prevailed about the Beginning of the Present Century. Boston, 1858; H. Humphrey, Revival Sketches and Manual, New York, 1859; W. Gibson, The Year of Grace: a Hiat. of the Revival in Ireland, 1869 A.D., Boston, 1860; J. H. Vincent, Hist. of the Camp Meeting and Grounds at Wesleyan Grove, Boston, 1889; Mrs. M. N. Van Cott, The Harvest and the Reaper: Reminiscences of Revival Work, New York, 1876; C. L. Thompson, Times of Refreshing: Hist. of American Revivals, Chicago, 1877; W. W. Bennett, Narrative of the Great Revival in the Southern Armies during the Civil War, Philadelphia, 1877; J. Porter, Revivals of Religion, New York, 1878: S. C. Swallow, Camp Meetings: their Origin, Hist., and Utility; also their Perversion, New York, 1878; H. Bushnell, Building Eras in Religion, New York, 1881; C. F. Jones, From the Forecastle to the Pulpit; fifty ;'ears

Revivals of Religion	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	20
Reynolds
among Sailors; containing an Account of a wottderftd Revival upon the Sea: with an Introduction by W. P. Strickland, New York, 1884; S. B. Halliday and D. S. Gregory, The Church in America and its Baptisms o) Fire, London and Toronto, 1898; A. Sims, Remarkable Narratives, or Records of Powerful Revivals, Kingston, Ont., 1898; H. Johnson, Stories o) Great Revivals, London, 1900; A. T. Pierson, Forward Movements of the Last Half Century, New York, 1900; G. C. Morgan, Evangelism: a Study of Need and Opportunity, London, 1904; W. A. Candler, Great Revivals and the Great Republic, Atlanta, Ga., 1904; F. G. Beardsley, Hist. of American Revivals, New York, 1904; J. Page, Great Evangelists and how God has used them, London, 1905; J. Burns, Revivals; their Laws and Leaders, London, 1909.
On the " Great Awakening " consult: J. Tracy, The Great Awakening: a Hist. of the Revival of Religion in the Time of Edwards and Whitqfadd. Boston, 1842 (a classic); E. P. Hood, Vignettes of the Great Revival of the 18th Century, London, 1880, reissued With a supplemental Description of the Revival in America, Philadelphia, 1882; J. H. Overton, Evangelical Revival in the 18th Century, New York, 1888.
On special recent revivals: D. L. Moody and I. D. Sankey, Narrative of Labors in Great Britain and Ireland; with Addresses and Lectures, New York, 1875; R. W. Clark, The Work of God in Great Britain under Messrs. Moody and Sankey in 1873‑75, New York, 1875; Christian Convention of the Northwest. Union Revival Meetings conducted by B. F. Mills and J. W. Chapnwn, Minneapolis, 1893; R. Harkness, With the Torrey‑Alerander Mission round the World, London, 1904; J. K. Maclean, Triumphant Evangelism: the three Years' Missions of Torrey and Alesander in Great Britain, London, 1905; G. T. B. Davis, Torrey and Alexander; the Story of a World‑wide Revival, London, 1905; T. R. William, The True Revival versus Torreyiam, London, 1905.
On the Welsh revival: W. T. Stead, The Coming Revival. What I have seen and hope to sex, London, 1905; idem, The Revival in the West, ib.1905; Awetin (pseud.), The Religious Revival in Wales, 18904. Cardiff, 1905; I. W. Charlton, The Revival in Wales, London, 1905; J. P. Lewis, The Awakening in Wales and Some of the Hidden Springs. London, 1905; H. Elvet Lewis, With Christ among the Miners, ib., 1907; J. V. Morgan, The Welsh Religious Revival 1804‑06; a Retrospect and a Criticism, London, 1909; The Welsh Revival, in Cambridge Modern History, vi. 81 aqq., New York, 1909.
On the psychology of revivals: E. D. Starbuek, Psychology of Religion; an empirical Study of the Growth of religious Consciousness. New York, 1899; G. A. Coe, Spiritual Life, Studies in the Science of Religion, New York, 1900; W. James, Varieties of Religious Experience, New York, 1902; F. M. Davenport, Primitive Traits in Religious Revivals. New York, 1905; Henke, in AJT, 1908, pp. 193 sqq.
On the theory and practise consult: J. W. Alexander, The Revival and its Lessons, New York. 1881; L. T. Townsend, The Supernatural Factor in Religious Revivals, Boston, 1877; W. W. Newell, Revivals: how and when, New York, 1882; W. P. Doe, editor, Revivals; how to promote them, New York, 1884; G. W. Hervey, Manual of Revivals, New York, 1884; J. O. Peck, The Revival and the Pastor, New York, 1894; J. E. W. Ditchfield, Fishers of Men, or how to win the Men, London, 1899; J. W. Chap. man, Revivals and Missions, New York, 1900; idem, Present‑Day Evangelism, ib., 1903; J. P. Brushingham, Catching Men: Studies in vital Evangelism, Cincinnati, 1908; R. A. Torrey, How to Conduct and Promote a Successful Revival, Chicago, 1908; J. V. Coombs, Christian Evangelism, Cincinnati, 1907; C. LeR. Goodell, Pastoral and Personal Evangelism, New York, 1907; W. Hamilton, Sane Evangelism, Philadelphia, 1909; J. Burns, Revivals, their Laws and Leaders, London, 1909; O. 0. Green, Normal Evangelism, New York, 1910.

REWARD: That which is given in recognition of merit or work performed, or in requital of good or evil. The Bible frequently employs the conception of reward to express the certainty that God guarantees the ultimate success and happiness of those who obey his law. Such expressions, how‑
ever, raise two serious questions: Does not the promise of a reward vitiate the motive of ethical conduct by introducing into it an egoistic element, and does it not contradict the doctrine of salvation through God's grace as taught by Paul?
On closer examination it will be seen that both questions can be answered in the negative. In private life reward is an economic conception, representing proportionate compensation for work accomplished. Here the reward is usually the sole motive for action. In public life the case may be quite different. Here altruistic motives come into play, and reward, in the sense of remuneration, may cease to form a motive for action, since the service rendered, the good done the community, may be its own reward. However, the public official who neglects his private affairs to serve the community may reasonably expect to be provided for. Similarly the Christian in the service of God. Since his work in the moral vineyard leaves mere personal interest out of account, it, too, can be regarded as a service rendered to the community, or to the divine power that presides over the moral order; and it carries with it naturally the expectation of recompense for the personal sacrifice entailed. Here there is no thought of an equivalent for service rendered, as in the case of a laborer in private life, for the reward has not been the sole motive to action. If reward be taken in the strictest sense, it is clear that no one can make demand of God for recompense. The expectation of a reward, therefore, becomes a matter of faith, and the reward itself a matter of grace. In the last analysis human service itself is a gift of grace, since it is accomplished through the spirit of God (Phil. i. 8, ii. 13). In this view the objections urged by many modern ethical writers (most strongly by Eduard van Hartmann and Nietzsche, qq.v.) against reward as a motive become irrelevant. Both Jesus and Paul taught expressly that the Christian‑ethical life does not spring from any thought of reward, but from the grace of God in us and from the love toward God and our neighbors which it awakens. In the New Testament the conception of reward is not employed as a motive for conversion, but as an encouragement to perseverance in the Christian life; and in the religious view of the world it serves to express the certainty that the moral order is not merely a human but a divine affair.
The idea that God not only gives the law but also sees to its fulfilment is inseparable from the religious view of the world. According to the prophets it is an inviolable rule that the righteous are rewarded and the wicked punished (Isa. iii. 10‑11; Amos v. 14‑27; Hos. iv. 1‑3). A decision between obedience and disobedience toward God is a choice between blessing and curse, between life and death (Dent. xxviii. 1‑68, xxx. 15‑20; Lev. xxvi. 3‑X15; Josh. xxiii. 14‑16). In numerous sayings and parables Jesus promises the goods of his kingdom, or eternal life, as the reward of his disciples (Matt. v. 2‑10, xix. 29, xxiv. 45‑51, xxv. 34‑46; Luke vi. 22‑35, xii. 33‑44, xiv. 12‑14); but it is clear that he did not make the expectation of reward the chief motive of Christian life. In fact, the man who seeks to gain the reward by his own efforts forfeits it

91	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Rsvioias of Religion
		Reynolds
(of. Matt. vi. 1‑6, 16, xviii. 1‑4; Mark viii. 35).
It is duty done without expectation of reward that
is rewarded (cf. Luke xvii. 10). In the writings of
Paul the idea of reward is subordinated to the doc
trine of salvation by grace. Eternal life is a gift
of God (Row. vi. 23), which can not be demanded
as a right (cf. Rom. iv. 4‑5); and the basis of eth
ical conduct is not the hope of reward, but a real
ization of the mercy of God (Row. xii. 1), love
toward Christ and a desire to obey him (II Cor.
viii. 8, x. 5‑7), and the desire to live in the spirit
(Gal. v. 25; Rom. viii. 13‑17). While Paul does
not always reconcile the idea of reward with the
doctrine of salvation by grace, on the whole he
teaches that any divine requital of human activity
is a manifestation of grace; and that such activity
itself can not be dissolved into a series of separate
deeds meriting reward. Rather, Christian conduct
presents itself as a uniform manifestation of faith
working itself out ethically.
	The Biblical conception of reward has been ex
plained away in mysticism, which sees in it a relic
of egoism; or it has been rejected in non‑religious
systems of ethics, which, regarding ethical conduct
as a human affair, find that the idea of an eternal
reward obscures ethical insight; or it has been
coarsened and formalized in legal conceptions of
religion, where the basis of Christian‑ethical con
duct is laid in arbitrary statutes. Here the
striving for a reward, which was only an acces
sory motive in the Biblical view, becomes the chief
motive.
	From the view of Augustine that to cling to God
is both virtue and the reward of virtue (Epist., clv.
12) was developed in the Middle Ages that mystical
love of God in which the self is forgotten. Bernard
of Clairvaux gave this mysticism its classic expres
sion in his doctrine of the four gradations of love.
It may be added that Melanchthon, in the " Apol
ogy " of the ~lugsburg Confession (CR, xxvii. 275
sqq.), opposes the obscuring of the Pauline doc
trine of grace by the conception of reward. Simi
larly, the Council of Trent (Session VI., cap. xi.)
characterized the expectation of an eternal reward
as a subsidiary motive beside the chief motive, viz.,
the glorification of God, though Canon XXXI.
seems to make expectation of reward alone a suffi
cient motive (Schaff, Creeds, ii. 117). While in
modern philosophical ethics reward as a motive has
been severely criticized and generally rejected, it
may be said that any system of ethics which re
jects the idea of an ultimate divine recompense is
incomplete, in that it neglects to emphasize the
dominant position of the good in the world.
		(O. KIRN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. W. Hamilton, The Revealed Doctrine of
	Rewards and Punishments, London, 1853; P. Mehlhorn,
	in Jahrbucher far protestantische Theolopie, 1878; R. Neu
	meieter, Die neutestamentliehe Lehre von Lahn. Haile, 18W;
	W. G. T. Shedd, Dogmatic Theology, i. 389, New York,
	1889; H. Schultz, in TSK, 1890, 1894; A. Juneker, Das
	Ich and die Motivation des Willena im Christenthum, Halle,
	1891; H. P. Liddon, Sermons on Some Words of Christ.
	London, 1892; H. H. Wendt, Die Lehre Jesu, pp. 188
	eqq., 2d ed., G8ttingen, 1901, Eng. traosl. of 1st ed., The
Teaching of Jesus, 2 vols.. London, 1892; E. Ehrhardt,
Der Grundcharakter der Ethik Jesu, Freiburg, 1895; K.
Thieme, Die sittliche Triebkraft des Glaubene, Leipsic,
1895; A. Titiue, Die neuleetamentliche Lehre von der Selipkeil, parts i.‑iv., TObingen, 1895‑1900; H. Jamby, Now testamentliehe Ethik, Kbaigeberg, 1899; H. Cremer, Die paulinische Reeh#ertipungalehre, pp. 359‑388, GQtersloh, 1900; C. A. Briggs, Ethical Teaching of Jesus, pp. 208, 240, New York, 1904; PCG, ii. 528.
REYNOLDS, ren'elz, EDWARD: Church of England bishop; b. at Southampton Nov., 1599; d. at Norwich Jan. 16, 1676. He was educated at Merton College, Oxford (B.A., 1618; fellow, 1620; M.A., 1624; D.D., 1648); became preacher at Lincoln's Inn in 1622 and served as royal chaplain; became vicar of All Saints, Northamptonshire, 1628, and rector of Bramston, 1631. At the breaking out of the civil war he was a moderate Anglican, was a member of the Westminster Assembly, 1643, but did not take the covenant till 1644. He was one of the committee of twenty‑two to examine and approve ministers, was vicar of St. Lawrence Jewry, London, 1645‑62; dean of Christ Church, 1648‑50 and again in 1659; was chosen vice‑chancellor in 1648, but ejected from Christ Church in 1659 for not taking the " engagement." At the Restoration Reynolds conformed, was made warden of Merton College and canon of Worcester in 1660, and bishop of Norwich in 1661. In the same year he took part in the Savoy Conference (q.v.).
He carried his Puritanie principles into practise even while a bishop, and lived only for his diocese. His Works were first collected and published in 1658; best edition, with Life, by A. Chalmers, 6 vols. (London, 1826).
BIBLJOGHAPBY: Besides the Life by A. Chalmers, ut sup., consult: A. il Wood, Athena Ozonienses, ed. P. Bliss, iii. 1083, and Path Oxonienses, ii. 115, 129, 355, 4 vols., London, 1813‑20; DNB, xlviii. 40‑41.
REYNOLDS, HENRY ROBERT: Congregationalist; . b. at Romsey (7 m. n.w. of Southampton), Hampshire, England, Feb. 26, 1825; d. at Broxbourne (16 m. n.n.e. of London), Hertfordshire, Sept. 10, 1896. He was educated at Coward College and University College, London (B.A., 1848); became pastor at Halsted, Essex, 1846; at Leeds, 1849; president of Countess of Huntingdon's College, Cheshunt, Herts, 1860, from which he retired in 1894. He was author of Beginnihge of the Divine Life (London, 1859); Notes of the Christian Life (1865); John the Baptist, Congregational Union lectures for 1874 (1874); Philosophy of Prayer, and other Essays (1881); commentary on Hosea and Amps (1884), in C. J. Ellicott's Old‑Testament Commentary (1882‑‑84); of exposition, commentary, and introduction to the Gospel of John (1887‑88; in the Pulpit Commentary); Athanasius: his Life and Life Work (1889); Light and Peace. Sermons arid Addresses (1892); and Lamps of the Temple, and other Addressee to Young Men (1895). He was also joint editor and compiler of Psalms, Hymns, and Passages of Scripture for Christian Worship (1853); editor of Eccleala: Church Problems, 2 series (1870‑71); Athanaeiue (1889); and was coeditor of the British Quarterly Review (1866‑74), and of The Evangelical Magazine (1877‑82).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A memoir is prefixed to one of his publications not named above, Who say ye that I am, London, 1896; X. R. Reynolds, His Life and Letters, ed. by his sisters, ib. 1898.

Re ~olda	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	22
REYNOLDS (RAINOLDS), JOHN: Puritan divine; b. at Pinhoe (4 m. n.e. of Exeter), Devonshire, 1549; d. at Oxford May 21, 1607. He probably entered Merton College, Oxford, but in 1563 received a scholarship at Corpus Christi (probationary fellow, 1566; full fellow, and B.A., 1568); he there became tutor to Richard Hooker (q.v.), Greek reader (an important office), 1572‑73‑78; resigned his fellowship in 1586; was then appointed to a temporary lectureship; became dean of Lincoln, 1593; and president of Corpus Christi, 1598. He was one of four Puritan representatives (and the chief one) at the Hampton Court Conference (q.v.), at which he is credited with suggesting to King James the desirability of a new translation of the Bible (see BIBLE VERsioNs, B, IV., 6). Of this work he was made a participant, being one of the committee which had in charge the translation of the prophets, but he did not live to see the completion of the task. He was celebrated for his great learning, remarkable memory, sound judgment, lofty character, uprightness, piety, and regard for his students. Among the works published by him are: Sex theses de sacra Scriptura et ecdesia (London, 1580); The Summe of the Conference between John Rainolds and John Hart touching the Head and the Faith of the Church (1584); De Romance ecclesim idolatries (1586); The Overthrow of Stage‑Players (1599). The following were issued after his death: Defence of the Judgment of the Reformed Churches that a Man may lawfullie not onlie put awaie his Wife for her Adulterie but also marry another (1609); Censures librorum APocryphorum Veteris Testaments (1611); The Prophecie of Obadiah opened and explained (1613); The Judgment of Doctor Reignolds concerning Episcopacy, whether it be God's Ordinance (1641); and Sermons on the Prophecies of Haggai (1648).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Crackanthorpe, Defenaio ecclesia Anglicans;, chap. lxix., London, 1625; D. Neal, Hiat. of the Puritans, i. 252, ed. J. Toulmin, Bath, 1793; W. H. Frere, The English Church (1558‑IB2B), pp. 296 sqq., ib. 1904; R. G. Usher, The Reconstruction of the English Church, New York, 1910; DNB, x1vii. 180‑182.
RHABANUS MAURUS. See RABANUS MAURU9.

RHEES, riz, RUSH: Baptist; b. at Chicago Feb. 8, 1860. He was educated at Amherst (A.B., 1883), where he was Walker instructor in mathematics in 1883‑85, and at Hartford Theological Seminary, from which he was graduated in 1888. After being pastor of the Middle Street Baptist Church, Portsmouth (1889‑92), he was associate professor of NewTestament interpretation at Newton Theological Institution (1892‑94); professor of the same subject (1894‑1900); and president of the University of Rochester since 1900. He has written The Life of Jesus of Nazareth: A Study (New York, 1900).

RHEGIUS, ri'ji‑us (RIEGER), URBANUS: German Reformer; b. at Langenargen (17 m. e. of Constance) in the latter half of May, 1489; d. at Celle (23 m. n.e. of Hanover) May 27, 1541. He received his first education at Lindau, whence he went to Freiburg, where he came under strong humanistic influence, also associating much with Eck, the subsequent opponent of Luther. When Eck
was called to a professorship at Ingolstadt in 1510, Rhegius followed him. After 1512 he devoted increased attention to theology, still under Eck's guidance, and in 1518, while visiting Constance, he wrote his first theological treatise, the De dignitate sacerdotum, from a strictly orthodox Roman Catholic point of view. In 1519 he was ordained to the priesthood at Constance, and at the beginning of the controversy between Luther and Eck took the side of his teacher. By Mar., 1520, however, his position had for some unknown reason so veered that he could be termed a friend of Luther. He can not, however, at that time have changed his attitude decidedly, for in the same year he was called to Augsburg as cathedral preacher in place of GJcolampadius, who had entered the monastery of St. Brigitta. He was forced to leave late in 1521 for openly supporting Luther, and he then lived at Argen and Tetnang, and preached for a time at Hall in the valley of the Inn. In 1524 he published his Ob das near testament yetz recht verteutacht sey, in reply to the attack of Hieronymus Emser (q.v.) against Luther's translation of the Bible in his Auss was grund vnnd ursach Luther's dolmat8chung .
dem gemeinen man. billig vorbotten sey (Leipsic, 1523), and in the same year returned to Augsburg as a private citizen. During his absence friction between the old faith and the new movement had led to riot and even to conspiracy, until the demands laid on the vacillating city council forced it to take a firm stand and finally to check the uprising. Rhegius now became pastor of St. Anne's; on Christmas Day, 1524, he administered the Lord's Supper under both kinds; and in 1526 he married. In the eucharistic controversy, except for a brief period of practical subscription to Zwinglianism, Rhegius adhered to the position of Luther, swayed, no doubt, by fear of the dangerous radicalism of the Anabaptist movement, which both he and his colleagues vainly sought to check. His feeble efforts to effect a mediation between Lutheranism and Zwinglianism were equally fruitless; religious dissension of all kinds steadily increased, and the civil authorities were timid and wavering.
The diet of 1530 ended the career of Rhegius at Augsburg. On the day after his arrival (June 17) the emperor demanded that all Protestant preaching cease at once, and Rhegius was dismissed with the other preachers. Toward the end of August he accepted the invitation of Ernest the Confessor (q.v.), duke of Liineburg, to become pastor at Celle, and, after having brought about a conference between Melanchthon and Butzer, he took with him a series of articles to be submitted to Luther, whom he met at boburg in an interview which made a deep impression upon him. In the territory of L(ineburg, though it was already won for the Lutheran cause with the exception of the capital, much remained to be done by Rhegius, who was appointed superintendent in 1531. In this same year he preached at Lilneburg and issued a church order, though it was not firmly established until Sept., 1532. As superintendent Rhegius took special pains to provide the congregations with efficient preachers and to rouse those aheady in office to the proper discharge of their duties. His activity extended even beyond

28	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Reynolds
		8iooi
the duchy of Lfineburg, especially after the monas
teries had been reformed by his untiring activity.
The city of Hanover owes to him the renovation of
its religious life after the victory of the Reformation,
for in 1536 he drew up for it the church order which
is still in force. He was also active in the reforma
tion of the cities of Minden, Soest, and Lemgo, and
he strenuously opposed the Anabaptists who found
warm sympathizers throughout northern Germany.
As the adviser of Duke Ernest, Rhegius was an im
portant factor in securing the acceptance of the
Formula of Concord. His last public appearance
was at the conference of Hagenau in 1540. Among
his writings special mention may be made of the
following: De dignitale saeerdotum (Augsburg, 1519);
Underricht, Wie sin Christenmenech Got aeinem her
ren teglich beichten aoR (1521); Wider den newen
irrsal Doctors Andres von Carlstadt des Sacraments
halb warnung (n.p., 1524); Von leybeygenacha$t oder
Knecheheyt (n.p., 1525); Warnung under den neuen
Tauforden (1527); and Formulae caute loquendi
(Wittenberg, 1535; Germ. ed., 1536, Celle, 1880).
The works of Rhegius, both Latin and German,
were almost completely edited by his son, E. Rhe
gius (2 vols., Nuremberg, 1561‑62).
	[Rhegius also wrote the following works which
were translated into English: Novo doctrinte ad
veterem collatio (Augsburg, 1526 [?]), transl. by W.
Turner, A Comparison betwene the Olde learnynge
and the Newe (Southwark, 1557); Ain Summa
christlicher leer (Augsburg, 1527), trans]. by W.
Lynne, A declaration of the twelve articles of the
christen faythe (London, 1548); and Doctrina cer
ti8sima (Frankfort, 1545), transl. by J. Fox, Art
inatrueeyon of Christen fayth (London, 1550 [?]); as
well as sermons on Matt. ix. 16‑26 (transl. by W.
Lynne, London, 1548), Luke xxiv. (transl. by W.
Hilton, London, 1578), and Matt. xviii. 10 (transl.
by R. Robinson, London, 1590), and an exposition
of Ps. lxxxvii. (transl. by R. Robinson, London,
1594).]	(PAUL T$CHAcxERT.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. C. Heimburger, Urbanua Rhepius, Gotha,
	1851; O. Uhlhorn, Urbanus Rhepius, Leben and auspe
	wahlte Schriften, Elberfeld, 1882; O. Seitz, Die theolopische
	Entwiekelung des Urbanus Rhegiua, Gotha, 1898; and
	literature under LUTHER, MARTIN; and ZWINOLJ, HULD
	REICH.
	RHEIMS NEW TESTAMENT. See BIBLE VER
SIONS, B, IV., § 5.
	RHODES. See ASIA MINOR, V.
	RHODES, KNIGHTS OF. See JOHN, SAINT,
ORDER OF HOSPITALERS OF.
	RHODON, r5'don: Greek author of the second
century. The sole source of information concerning
him is Eusebius (Hint. eccl., V., xiii.), who states that
he was born in Asia and educated at Rome by
Tatian, so that he would seem to have been con
verted between 165 and 172. Rhodon, however,
never broke with the Church. According to Euse
bius, he was the author of a work against Marcion,
and the citations preserved by Eusebius are impor
tant for a knowledge of Apelles and his doctrine, as
well as other Marcionists. Eusebius likewise states
that Rhodon wrote a commentary on the hexaem
eron, and that he designed a polemic against an
otherwise unknown work of Tatian entitled " Problems," in which all difficult passages of the Bible had been collected. Whether Rhodon ever wrote this refutation and explained the problems thus posited is unknown. At Rome Rhodon held a disputation with Apelles, and as the latter died about 180, while Rhodon wrote his anti‑Marcionistic treatise during the lifetime of Apelles, the composition of the work must have been between 170 and 180. It has been suggested, though without foundation, that Rhodon was the author of the Canon of Muratori (q.v.; Harnack, Litteratur, i. 599) and of the anti‑Montanistic treatise excerpted by Epiphanius (Hilt. ecel., xlviii. 2‑13; H. G. Voigt, Eine verachollene Urkunde des antimontanistischen Kampfea, pp. 224 sqq., Leipsic, 1891).
(ERWIN PREUSCHEN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The fragments are collected, with notes, in M. J. Routh, Reliquia sacra, i. 435‑446, Oxford, 1846; MPG, v. 1331‑38; Eng. tranel. in ANF, viii. 788. Consult: A. Oallandi, Bibliothemveterum patrum, ii., pp. xvii., 144‑145, Venice, 1765; P. Caepari, Ungedruckte . .
Quellen zur Geschichte des TauJsymbola, iii. 315, 340‑341, 384‑365, Christiania, 1871; A. Hilgenfeld, Die Kdzerge. schichte des Urchristenthume, 532‑533, Leipsie, 1884; Bardenhewer, Patrolopie, pp. 105, 110‑111, Eng. tranal., St. Louie, 1908; idem, Geschichte, i. 490‑491; Kroger, History, pp. 143‑144; Hamack, Litteratur, i. 599, ii. 1, pp. 313‑314; DCB, iv. 545.
RICCI, CATHERINE DE. See CATHERINE DE Ricci.
RICCI, rit'chi, LORENZO: General of the Jesuits; b. at Florence Aug. 2, 1703; d. at Rome Nov. 24, 1775. He entered the order of the Jesuits in 1718, and became its general in 1758. He was of an amiable yet inflexible disposition, and was unalterably attached to the tenet of obedience. To all propositions to change the constitution of the order, emanating either from the pope or from the Roman Catholic princes, he answered " Sint ut aunt, aut non sint." (" Let them [the Jesuits] be as they are or let them cease to exist "). The consequence was that the pope dissolved the order by the bull Dominus ac redemptor noster, July 21, 1773. Ricci protested emphatically against the action and was confined in the castle of St. Angelo for the rest of his life.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. J. 1. von DSllinger, Beitrage zur politiwhen, kirchlichen, and Culturpeschichte, iii. 1‑74, Vienna, 1882; A Circumstantial Account of the Death of Abbk Laurence Ricci. To which is annexed a Copy of the Protestation which he left at his Death, London, 1778; A. Carayon, Documents inkdits concernant la compapnie de J6sus, vol. xvii., Paris, 1869; L. A. de Caraccioli, Vita dell' Abati Lorenzo Ricci, n.p., n.d.; Ranks, Popes, ii. 448447; KL, x. 1170‑72.
RICCI, MATTED: Roman Catholic missionary and astronomer; b. at Macerata (120 m. e.s.e. of Florence), Italy, Oct. 6, 1553; d. at Peking, China, May 11, 1610. He first studied law, but, going to Rome in 1571, entered the Society of Jesus and gave especial attention to the study of astronomy; he was sent to India as a missionary in 1577, and there completed his theological studies and was made priest; thence he was called to Macao, where he gained the favor of the viceroy of the province of I‑wantung both by his personal characteristics and by his acquaintance with the Chinese language. Under the new viceroy he was compelled to leave

Ricci	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Richard of 9t. Victor		$4
Macao, but had permission to settle at Shaotsao in the same province, 1590. He had as his object, which he kept steadily in mind, a mission to Peking; this he brought about in 1600, where his astronomical instruments aroused the curiosity of the emperor; permission to remain was not definitely gained, however, until 1605, when he was enabled to gain a settled residence. His further religious activities were carried on there, looking to the conversion of the Chinese; and no less devoted were his services to astronomy and mathematics, which, however, he made use of as an introduction to the truths of Christianity. The esteem which he won at court paved the way for the success of Roman Catholic missions in China, and his work was carried on by his successors. He did much in the way of writing in the Chinese language, producing works not only in theology, but also in mathematics and geometry. See CHINA, II., 2, § 2.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Biographies have been written by Ppre D'Orleans, Paris, 1893; C. 8ainto‑Foi, ib., 1859; A. Werfer, Regensburg, 1870; and L. Nocentini, in the "Acts " of the fourth international congress of orientaliets, ii. 273 sqq., Florence, 1881.
RICCI, SCIPIONE DE': Bishop of Pistoja and one of the few representatives of the Enlightenment within the Roman Catholic Church in Italy; b. at Florence Jan. 9, 1741; d. at Rignano (11 m. e.s.e. of Florence) Jan. 27, 1810. At the age of fifteen he was placed in a Jesuit school at Rome, but was recalled on manifesting a tendency to enter the order, and completed his theological studies at Pisa and Florence. He was ordained to the priesthood in 1766, and in 1775 became vicar‑general to the archbishop of Florence. Five years later, on the death of the bishop of Pistoja, Ricci was nominated as his successor by Leopold, grand duke of Tuscany, who deemed him capable of carrying out proposed reforms in the training of the clergy, the improvement of moral conditions, and the introduction of the Jan3enistic " Colbert catechism." Ricci was duly consecrated, only to be confronted by almost insuperable difficulties in his diocese. Evil conditions in the monasteries could be remedied only by abrogating their exemption and placing them under episcopal jurisdiction; and other reform measures contemplated the improvement of the cure of souls and of preaching, the protection of the secular against the regular clergy, the enforcement of the rules on fasting, the introductitin and diffusion of enlightening literature; the purification of religious ideals, and the diminution of the cult of saints and relics and of the Sacred Heart. To these the synod convened by Ricci at Pistoja in 1786 added the holding of annual synods, improvement of the breviary, encouragement of Bible reading, and the strengthening of episcopal power against the Curia. Only two bishops, however, besides Ricci, took the decisions of the synod seriously, although the sessions were attended by 233 parish priests and thirteen regular clergy. Every effort was made to obviate the charges of Jansenism already made against the leaders by stressing the articles on sin and original sin transmitted by the faculty of Louvain to Innocent XI. and recognized as Orthodox. It was also affirmed that even the Church had no power to posit new rules of faith, her sole duty being to pre‑
serve in original purity what had been given her by Christ and the apostles. Indulgences, moreover, were declared to be simply the remission of the discipline of the Church; parallel forms for the liturgy in the vernacular were demanded; processions were restricted; the number of saints' days was decreased, and a decree on the life of the clergy and the conferring of ecclesiastical offices formed the conclusion. A letter was likewise addressed to the grand duke, containing additional proposed reforms, and asking that a national council be convened.
	With the express sanction of Leopold, the coun
cil was convened at Florence on Apr. 23, 1787, only
to reject most decidedly the fifty‑seven propositions
of the grand duke. The canonists and theologians
deputed to present them were silenced by the epis
copal authority of the assembled bishops, who, with
the exception of Ricci and the bishops of Chiusi
and Colle, voted unanimously against each of Leo
poId's proposed reforms. This overwhelming op
position rendered it impossible for the grand duke
to carry out the changes which he desired, although,
as long as he remained in Italy, he supported Ricci
against the efforts of his opponents to render it im
possible for him to remain in Pistoja. When, how
ever, Leopold succeeded his brother, Joseph II., as
emperor of Austria in 1790, Ricci's enemies, aided
by a feeble regency, attained their object, and the
bishop, resigning from his see, retired to private life.
The resolutions of the Synod of Pistoja were con
demned by the bull Auctorem fidei (Aug. 28, 1794),
which also rejected eighty‑five statements in it as
heretical and erroneous, a decision to which Ricci
formally submitted before Pius VIL, when the
pontiff was returning from Paris in 1805. Ricci
was the author of a number of episcopal charges as
well as of Istruziane cristiana copra il sacramento
dells confermazione (3d ed., Pistoja, 1783), a volume
of sermons (1788), and the posthumous Memorie di
Scipione de' Ricci, vescovo di Prato a Pistoja (ed.
A. Gelli, 2 vols., Florence, 1865) and Alcune letters
inedite di Scipione de' Ricci ad Antonio Marini (ed.
C. Guasti, Prato, 1857). 	K. BENRATH.
BIBLIOGRAPR:: The sources are the Memorie and Alcuna letters noted above. Based on these is L. J. A. de Potter's Vie de Scipion de Ricci, 3 vols., Brussels, 1825, which was put on the Index. Consult further: A. von Reu• mont, Geschichle Tosaanas, ii. 148 sqq., Goths, 1877; KL, x. 34 aqq.; Lichtenberger, ESR, xi. 230‑231.
RICE, EDWIN WILBUR: Congregationalist; b. at Kingsborough, N. Y., July 24, 1831. He was graduated from Union College (A.B., 1854) and Union Theological Seminary, New York (1857). He has been associated with the American Sunday School Union since 1859, in which he has been a missionary (1859‑64), superintendent of missions (1864‑70), assistant secretary of missions (18701879), and editor of the periodicals and other publications of the organization (since 1879). He has prepared the Scholar's Handbooks on the International School Lessons from 1873 to 1889 and written popular commentaries on Matthew (Philadelphia, 1886; 6th ed., 1910); Luke (1889); John (1891), and Acts (1896; 4th ed., 1909), as well as Organization arid Clasaafeation of Sunday Schools (1881); The Origin of Sunday Schools (1886); Stories of Great Painters: or, Religion in Art (1887); Our Sixty‑Six

25	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Ricci
		Richard of St. Victor
Sacred Books: How they came to us and What they
are (1892); Handy Helps for Busy Workers (1899);
The Heavenly City (1899); A Century of Sunday
School Progress (1899); and A Short History of the
International Lesson System (1902).
	RICE, LUTHER: Baptist; b. at Northborough,
Mass., Mar. 25, 1783; d. at Edgefield, S. C., Sept .
25, 1836. Converted in his youth, he united with
the Northborough Congregational church in Mar.,
1802. As a student in Williams College he mani
fested a deep interest in missions to the heathen
and in association with other students was instru
mental in bringing about the organization of the
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Mis
sions (see CONGREGATIONALISTS, I., 4, § 11; of.
JuDsoN, ADGNIRAM). He offered himself as a mis
sionary along with Judson, Nott, Mills, and Richards
(1811). The number of applicants being thought
too great, his appointment was made conditional on
his first raising the money for outfit and passage.
He accomplished this in a few days and was ready
to go with the rest (Feb. 6, 1812). He followed
Judson and his wife in adopting Baptist views and
was immersed in India by the English Baptist mis
sionary William Ward, Nov. 1, 1812. He returned
to America (Sept., 1813) to adjust relations with the
American Board and to interest and organize the
Baptists for the support of the Burman mission
which Judson proceeded to inaugurate. Through
his untiring efforts funds were raised for the imme
diate need, local missionary societies were organ
ized in many places, and in 1814 the Triennial Con
vention was formed as a national Baptist society for
the support of missions. Largely through his efforts
a theological seminary in Philadelphia was estab
lished in 1818, and Columbian University in Wash
ington in 1822. Under his leadership the Triennial
Convention undertook home mission work (from
1817), for which a separate society was later con
stituted. In 1816 he began the publication of a re
ligious quarterly (Latter Day Luminary) and in 1822
he began to issue the first Baptist weekly, The
Columbian Star. His multifarious denominational
enterprises soon outgrew the income that he was
able to secure and financial worries probably short
ened his days.	A. H. NEWMAN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Armitage, Hist. Of the Baptists, pp. 434,
	464, 502, New York, 1893; A. H. Newman, in American
	Church History Series, ii., 390, 392, 399,405, 427, ib.,1894;
	H. C. Vedder, The Baptists, pp. 183‑164, ib., 1902.
	RICE, NATHAN LEWIS:	Presbyterian; b. in
Garrard County, Ky., Dec. 29, 1807; d. at Chatham,
Bracken County, Ky., June 11, 1877. He studied
at Center College, Danville, Ky., and at Princeton
Theological Seminary, 1829; and was pastor at
Bardstown, Ky., 1833‑11, where he also established
an academy and a newspaper, the Western Protes
tant, afterward merged in the Louisville Pre8by
terian Herald. He preached at Paris, Ky., 1841
1844; was pastor at Cincinnati, 1845‑53; at St.
Louis, Mo., 1853‑58, where he edited the St. Louis
Presbyterian; was pastor at Chicago, 1857‑61; pro
fessor of theology at the Chicago Theological Semi
nary, 1859‑61; pastor of the Fifth Avenue Presby
terian Church, New York, 1861‑67; president of
Westminster College, Fulton, Mo., 1869‑74; and professor of theology at Danville, Ky., 1874‑77. An able debater and preacher, he engaged in several memorable discussions: namely, with Alexander Campbell (q.v.) at Lexington, Ky., in 1843, on baptism; with J. A. Blanchard in 1845, on slavery; with E. Pingree the same year, on universal salvation; and with J. B. Purcell (q.v.) in 1851, on Romanism. His publications, besides the debates already referred to, include God Sovereign, and Man Free (Philadelphia); Romanism not Christianity (New York, 1847); Baptism, the Design, Mode, and Subjects (St. Louis, 1855); and Immortality (Philadelphia, 1871).

RICH, EDMUND. See EDMUND, SAINT, OF CANTERBURY.

RICHARD FITZRALPH: Archbishop of Armagh and primate of Ireland; b. at Dundalh (50 m. n. of Dublin), County of Louth, Ireland, probably in the last years of the thirteenth century; d. at Avignon, France, probably Nov. 16, 1360. He was fellow of Balliol College, Oxford; became chancellor of the University of Oxford in 1333; chancellor of Lincoln cathedral, 1334; soon after archdeacon of Chester; dean of Lichfield in 1337; and in July, 1347, archbishop of Armagh, from which he was called " Armachanus." When negotiations were going on between the Armenians and Pope Boniface XII., and two of their number, Nerses, archbishop of Melaggert, and John, bishop‑elect of Khilit, appeared at Avignon, Richard, who happened to be on a mission at the papal court, upon their request, wrote a treatise in nineteen books, Summa in qutestionibus Armenorum (Paris, 1511), in which he examined their doctrines and refuted their heresies. This work won him widespread fame as defender of Roman orthodoxy. His visit to Avignon in 1349 marked the opening of a conflict with the mendicant friars which lasted all his lifetime. A memorial to the pope, presented in July, 1350, he later elaborated and published as De pauperie salvatoris in seven books. His attacks upon mendicancy occasioned great agitation in the orders which were quietly supported by the pope. Richard was summoned to appear at Avignon and there defended himself in a discourse, Nov. 8, 1357, later published as Defensio curatorum (Lyons, 1496; also in Fascwulus rerum ezpetendarum et fugiendarum, ed. E. Brown, ii. 466‑487, London, 1690). BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Ware, De prlwulsbus Hibernia, Dublin, 1885; J. Prince, Worthies of Devon, Exeter, 1701; H. Cotton, Fasti eceieaia Hsbernicd, 5 vols., Dublin, 18451880; T. Netter, Fasciculi Zizianiorum, ed. W. E. Shipley, pp. xiii., liii., 284, 348, 355, London, 1858; G. Lechler, John Wiclif and his English Precursors, i. 75‑88, 117118, London, 1878; W. W. Capes, English Church in 14th and 16th Centuries, London, 1900; G. M. Trevelyan, England in the Ape of Wycliffe, pp. 139, 143, 172, London, 1900.

RICHARD OF ST. VICTOR: French Augustinian; b. probably in Scotland; d. at St. Victor 1173 (probably Mar. 10). At an early age he went to Paris and entered the monastery of canons regular at St. Victor several years before the death of Hugo of St. Victor (q.v.), whose pupil he was. In 1159 he was subprior and in 1162 became prior, although the incapacity of the abbot caused double responsi‑

Richard of 8t, Victor
Richelieu	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	96
bility to devolve on Richard. Richard was an important figure in the struggle of Thomas a Becket with Henry II. of England. Together with a certain abbot of St. Augustine he recommended Thomas' cause to the pope, and, with Abbot Ervisius, sharply admonished Robert of Melun, bishop of Hereford, who had deserted his patron Thomas for the king.
Like his teacher Hugo, Richard was one of the theologians who sought to save traditional dogmas, imperilled by the dialectic methods of Aristotelian logic, by recourse to mysticism. Holding the objects of belief to be partly in accord with reason, partly transcending reason, and partly contradictory to reason, he taught that truth could be attained only by him who should immerse himself in them in believing mysticism, so that where reason failed, meditation and contemplation might lead to the truth. These views he advanced especially in his Benjamin minor, or De prmparatione animi ad contemplationem, and the Benjamin major, or De gratis contemplalionis, with the appendix Allegoria tabernaculi jcederis. These sources are supplemented by his De ezterminatione mali et promotions boni, De 8tatu interim is hominis, De eruditione interioris homini8, and De gradibus caritatis, as well as by his interpretations of Ezekiel and the Apocalypse, the Explicalio aliquorum passuum difcilium (Pauli) apostoli, Declarationes nonnullarum difeultatum scripturm, De Emmanuele, De superezcellenti baptismo Christi, Mysticte adnotationes in Psalmo8, Expo8itio cantici Habacuc, In cantica canticorum, Quomodo Christ= ponitur in signum populorum, and the Easter sermon De missione Spirit= Sancti.
In the Benjamin minor Richard traces the psychological development of man from his first dim longings for purer knowledge to the highest contemplation by an allegorical exegesis of the family of Jacob (Gen. xxix. 16 sqq.). The wives of Jacob represent the basal powers of the soul, Leah typifying affection and Rachel reason, the two operating through their handmaids sensuality and imagination (Zilpah and Bilhah). The births in Jacob's house symbolize the progress of the soul to contemplation, Leah bearing first because the primal impulse comes from affection. Reuben, the " son of vision," typifies the fear arising from careful consideration of faults; while the grief following fear wherein man is heard, is symbolized by Simeon, " hearing." To fear and grief are added the hope (represented by Levi, " addition ") which leads to forgiveness. The hope gained from fear and grief results in loving praises of God (Judah, " confessing "). Lest, however, one should now chink himself at his goal, Leah, or affection, now ceases to bear, and Rachel, or reason, longs for offspring, since reason is unable to think through mere intelligence, but begins with imagination. Bilhah, or imagination, accordingly bears two sons, Dan typifying the formation of a mental image on the basis of visible objects, and Naphthali symbolizing the endeavor to rise from the visible to a knowledge of the invisible. The success of reason now rekindles affection, and when Leah sees that Rachel bears children by her handmaid, she could not rest until Zilpah also bore, and. from sensuality thus controlled proceeded
temperate life (Gad) and patience in adversity (Asher). The way is thus prepared for new affection and Leah herself again bears. After departing from false joys and idle commotions, affection gives rise to true joy (Issachar), on which follows hatred of all evil (Zebulon). The series of virtues is completed by shame (Dinah), which proceeds from abhorrence of sin.
All these affections can not bring man to his goal, for virtues become vices unless controlled by meditation. God accordingly gives fertility to Rachel, since only through the interposition of divine grace can man realize his capabilities. Thus Joseph and Benjamin typify meditation and contemplation. But the birth of contemplation is accompanied by the extremest pangs, yet reason, though knowing that this birth transcends her powers, is insatiable in her longing. After the birth of contemplation, therefore, reason must die. Thus the goal is gained, but the soul must still press on until at the last all darkness shall vanish and eternal truth shall be revealed.
In the Benjamin major Richard, restricting himself to the intellectual factors, distinguished six grades of contemplation: imagination alone; imagination according to reason; reason according to imagination; reason alone; above, but not contrary to, reason; and above, and apparently contrary to, reason. The three first grades can not dispense with the imaginative faculty, though they gradually weaken it, so that in the second grade imagination receives reason, and in the third reason rises to an equality with imagination. The fourth stage is pure reason, which in the sixth is entirely transcended by true wisdom.
Richard appears in an absolutely different light in a series of writings on the Trinity: De Tranitate with its appendix, De tribus appropreatis personis in Trinitale; De Verbo inearnato; and Quomodo Spirit= Sanctus est amor Patris et Filii. The argument of the six books De Trinitate is conventionally scholastic, but there seems to be no reason to doubt its authenticity. In the philosophy and theology of the Middle Ages Richard exercised considerable influence, as on Alexander of Hales, Bonaventura, and Peter of Ailli (qq.v.), as well as on much later German mysticism. He is also interesting for culture history, as in his accounts of contemporary philosophy and monastic life. (FERDINAND COHRB.)
BIHLJOG$APHY: The beet edition of the Opera is by J.
Bertheliq, Rouen, 1650, reproduced in MPL; cxevi.
Earlier eds. were Venice, 1506, 1592, Paris, 1518, 1550,
Lyon, 1534, Cologne, 1621
A Vita is given in the ed. of Berthelin. Consult fur‑
ther: Mist. liuhsaire de la France, xiii. 472‑488; C. T. A. Liebner, Richardi a S. Victore de contemplatione doctrina, 2 parts, GBttingen, 1837‑39; J. G. V. Engelhardt, Richard von St. Victor and Johann Ruysbroek, Erlangen, 1838; M. Laforet, Coup d'wil sur 1'hiat. de la theolopie dogmatique, Louvain, 1851; W. Kaulieh, Die Lehren des Hugo and Richard von St. Victor, Prague, 1864; W. Prever, Oewhichte der deutschen Mystik im Mittelalter, i. 241 sqq., Leipsic, 1874; J. Bash, Dopmengewhichte des Mittelatters, ii. 367 sqq., Vienna, 1875; L. Stein, in Archiv far die Oeschichte der Philosophie, ii (1889), 193‑245; B. Haur6su, Mist. de to philosophie acolastique, i. 509‑514, Paris, 1872; idem, Notices et estraits iv. 258‑259, ib. 1892; Harnack, Dogma, vi. 100, 103, 179, 182• the works on the history of philosophy, e.g., by J. E. Erdmann, 3 vols., London, 1893, and W. W. Windelband, ib. 1893; Schaff, Christian Church, v. 1, pp. 647‑048; DNB, xlviii. 188‑190.

27	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Richard of St. Victor
		Richelieu
	RICHARD, FRANqOIS MARIE BENJAMIN:.
Cardinal; b. at Nantes Mar. 9, 1819; d. at Paris
Jan. 28, 1908. He was educated at the chh,teau of
Lavergne and at the Seminary of St. Sulpice, Paris,
and from 1849 to 1869 was vicar general of Nantes.
In 1871 he was consecrated bishop of Belley, and
four years later was made titular archbishop of
Larissa and coadjutor of the archbishop of Paris,
with the right of succession. In 1886 he succeeded
to this dignity, and in 1889 was created cardinal
priest of Santa Maria in Via. He wrote Vie de la
bienheureuse FraWoise d'Amboise, duchesse de Bre
tagne et religieuse mrWlite (2 vols., Nantes, 1865),
and Les Saints de l'4glise de Nantes (1873).
	RICHARD, TIMOTHY: Baptist missionary and
educator; b. at Ffaldybrenin, Carmarthenshire,
Wales, Oct. 10, 1845. He received his education at
Swansea Normal School and Haverfordwest College;
went out as missionary for the Baptist Missionary
Society to China in 1869, very early traveling in
Manchuria and in Korea; he was located for eight
years in the province of Shantung, then for the
same length of time in Shansi; was in Peking and
Tientsin, 1889‑90; in 1890 he was chosen by the
missionaries on the field to make a presentation of
Christianity to the Chinese government, and in the
same year became editor of a daily and a weekly
paper in Chinese, both of which were influential in
wide circles; became secretary in 1891 for The So
ciety for the Diffusion of Christian and General
Knowledge among the Chinese, now the Christian
Literature Society for China; in 1877‑78 he was
chief almoner of the fund raised to relieve the great
famine in China; in 1901 he was called in to aid in
the negotiations for settling the indemnity for the
massacre of missionaries in Shansi, and through him
a university, of which he was made chancellor,
was established in the capital of the province, the
example of which led to a decree for like colleges in
each of the capitals of the separate provinces; in
1901 he was appointed religious adviser to the
Chinese government; in 1904 he assumed, in addi
tion to his other duties, the position of secretary to
the International Red Cross Society in Shanghai; he
is in charge of the work for his denomination of
disseminating Christian literature among the Chi
nese, and is president of the Educational Associa
tion of China. His theological position is stated in
the words that he " desires to promote everything
which God has revealed or man discovered for the
progress of the human race in all departments."
He " believes that God has left none of the great
nations without light from Heaven, that those who
divide the religions of the world into true and false,
and go in for destructive criticism and attacks on
the native religions, do incalculable harm." Most
of his literary work has been done in Chinese (the
number of works rendered by him into Chinese num
bers over fifty), and his labors have been recognized
by the Chinese government by an appointment as
mandarin of the first rank and religious adviser. In
English he has written Historical Evidences of
Christianity; Conversion by the Million (2 vols.,
published in the East); Guide to Buddahood: being
a standard Manual of Chinese Buddhism, translated
from the Chinese (London, 1908); and The New Testament of Higher Buddhism (Edinburgh, 1910).
RICHARDS, WILLIAM ROGERS: Presbyterian; b. at Boston Dec. 20, 1853; d. in New York City Jan. 7, 1910. He studied at Yale University (B.A., 1875), Columbia Law School (1875‑76), and Andover Theological Seminary (graduated, 1879); was pastor of the Central Congregational Church, Bath, Me., 1879‑84; of the Crescent Avenue Presbyterian Church, Plainfield, N. J., 1884‑1902; and also of the Brick Presbyterian Church, New York City, after 1902. He served on the Board of Foreign Missions' of his denomination, on the Board of Directors of Union Theological Seminary, New York, and on the Council of the University of the City of New York. He wrote: Ways of Wisdom (New York, 1886); For Whom Christ died (Philadelphia, 1902; sermons); God's Choice of Men: a Study of Scripture (New York, 1905); The Apostles' Creed in Modern Worship (1906); and A Study of the Lord's Prayer (1910).
RICHARDSON, ERNEST CUSHING: Congregationalist; b. at Woburn, Mass., Feb. 9, 1860. He was graduated from Amherst College (B.A., 1880) and Hartford Theological Seminary (1883). He was librarian of Hartford Theological Seminary (1883‑90); and associate professor (1885‑90), and since 1890 has been librarian of Princeton University. He is prominent in library work, especially in the American Library Association, in which he has held many offices. He has also been chairman of the bibliographical committee of the American Historical Association since 1901 and vice‑president of the Bibliographical Society of America since 1906. In theology he describes himself as " scientific, independent, Biblical, Congregational," and as holding " the deity of Christ, the Virgin birth, the organic evolution of the Bible, regeneration by the Word, the survival of the fittest for eternal life, and the climax of the evolutionary progress of the universe in the social and material headship of Jesus Christ in a substantial resurrected universe." He has revised the translation of Eusebius' " Life of Constantine " for the NPNF (New York, 1890) and the " Lives of Illustrious Men " of Jerome and Gennadius for the same series (1892), edited the same in Latin (Leipsic, 1896) ; prepared Bibliographical Synopsis of the Ante‑Nicene Fathers (New York, 1887) and An Alphabetical Subject Index and Index Encyclopaedia to Periodical Articles on Religion (1890‑89) (1908); and has written Clas$aflaation, Theoretical and Practical (1901).

RICHELIEU, rEsh‑lyo' or rish'e‑10.
Youth; Call to Public Office (§ 1). Conflict with the Protestants (§ 2). Struggle against Conspiracy (§ 3).
Constructive Policy (§ 4).
Achievements for Marine, Industry, and Commerce (§ 5). Foreign Policy (§ 6).
Foreign Alliances (§ 7). Characterization (§ 8).
Armand‑Jean Duplessis, due de Richelieu, French cardinal and statesman, was born at Paris Sept. 5, 1585, and died there Dec. 4, 1642. He was the fourth son of a petty noble of Poitou., At first he

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
was taken; Soubise fled to England. But the car
dinal was threatened by court intrigues and did
not follow up his advantage, renewing the settle
ment of Montpellier (February, 1626). The Protes
tant refugees in England resumed the conflict with
the aid of Buckingham, the favorite of Charles I.
An English fleet disembarked a force on the Island of
Rk in July, 1627. Richelieu displayed a prodigious
activity in collecting vessels of war, munitions, and
provisions, and forced the English to withdraw.
Then began the protracted siege of La Rochelle,
the stronghold of the Huguenots. Rochelle was not
an easy place to take; on the land side it was pro
tected by marshes and formidable fortifications,
and its harbor enabled it to reach the open sea.
Among the famous Huguenot leaders within the
city were the mayor Guiton, the admiral of the
Protestant fleet, the pastor Salbert, and the intrepid
dowager duchess of Rohan, who despite her eighty
years displayed amazing resolution and activity.
Richelieu, with a force of 25,000 men, blockaded
the place and threw up a line of entrenchments.
The greatest difficulty was to close the port to
outside assistance. In spite of the winter storms a
tremendous mole over 1,400 paces long was built
across the harbor. Two English relief fleets were
unable to force this colossal barrier. When all hope
of deliverance failed and the city was reduced to
starvation, Rochelle surrendered, on Oct. 28, 1628.
The historic city was condemned to lose its munici
pal privileges and franchises and to have its walls
razed. The war continued in the C6vennes, where
Henri Rohan for a time held out with the moun
taineer Calvinists and the aid of Spain‑a most
anomalous alliance. The Edict of Nimes (q.v.) fixed
anew the situation of the Huguenots. The Edict
of Nantes (q.v.) was maintained in so far as it
guaranteed liberty of conscience and liberty of wor
ship, but the Huguenot strongholds were sur
rendered and their political assemblies forbidden.
The Protestants as a political party ceased to exist.
	Since the death of Henry IV. in 1610 the chief
obstacle to the regular exercise of the royal au
thority had been the factions and the hopes of the
noblesse. The whole ministry of Richelieu was
		filled with the conflict against them.
3. Struggle The cardinal has been accused of hav
	Against ing been a bitter enemy of the privi
Conspiracy. leged order, but this is a mistake.
		"It is necessary to consider the no
blesse as one of the chief sinews of the state," he
wrote in his "Political Testament." What he did
exact was obedience and the abandonment of
political activity by the nobles. Most of the in
trigues and plots against Richelieu were hatched
at court, and the instigators or accomplices were
often members of the royal family. Gaston of
Orl6ans, who for a long time had cherished the
hope of succeeding his brother, was the soul of all
these conspiracies; another was the queen‑mother,
Marie de Medici, who became an implacable enemy
of the cardinal after his elevation. A third was the
queen herself, Anne of Austria, whose secret cor
respondenee with Spain Richelieu stopped. Mother,
wife, and brother brought all the pressure they
could upon Louis XIII. to dismiss his minister.
was intended for the army, but his eldest brother,
who was bishop of Luton, having resigned his
dignity in order to enter a monastery, Richelieu en
tered the Church in order to preserve this bishopric
		in the family. He was educated at the
	z. Youth; Sorbonne and then returned, as he said,
	Call to	"to the poorest bishopric in France."
	Public	In 1614 he was elected a deputy of
	Office.	the clergy of Niort to the Sta,tes
		General, where he attracted the atten
tion of the queen‑mother, Marie de Medici, who
made him almoner to the young queen, Anne of
Austria, in 1616. In the mazes of intrigue that
prevailed at court Richelieu displayed from the
first a keen knowledge of men and great capacity for
dissimulation. Physically half an invalid, his energy
of mind and body was astonishing. It is said that
he required eleven hours' sleep. Nevertheless he
was capable of great physical endurance, as before
La Rochelle in 1628, and in 1630 in the war against
the duke of Savoy. The weakness of Louis XIII.
was Richelieu's opportunity, but the fondness of
Marie de Medici for him was also a factor. In
1622 he was made cardinal and soon after entered
the king's council as secretary of state, of war,
and of foreign affairs (Apr., 1624), becoming prime
minister in Nov.' 1629. In assuming office Richelieu
had a clear idea of his own purposes and the needs
of France. As he said: "When your Majesty re
solved to give me, at the same time, both entrance
into your council and a great part of your con
fidence in the government of affairs, I can truth
fully say that the Huguenots divided France with
you; that the nobles conducted themselves as if
they were not subjects, and the powerful provincial
governors as though they were sovereigns in their
offices . . . . I promised your Majesty to employ
all my industry and all authority that might be
given me to ruin the Huguenot party, to abase the
pride of the nobles, to reduce all subjects to duty,
and to raise your name among foreign nations to
the point where it ought to be." To the execution
of these purposes Richelieu brought an inflexible
and fierce energy justified, in his eyes, by the
grandeur of the purposes to be attained. At the
beginning of his ministry Richelieu summoned an
assembly of fifty‑five prelates, nobles, magistrates,
financial officials, and others, in Dec., 1626. Fifteen
propositions were laid before them dealing with the
means to suppress corruption in the army, with
the development of commerce, the navy, and the
suppression of crimes against the safety of the state.
	Richelieu was the enemy of the factional Hugue
nots because, as he said, they tended "to form a
state within a state," and set himself "to ruin the
Huguenot party." It was accomplished in two
wars. In 1625 difficulties in connection with the
		execution of the Treaty of Mont
s. Conflict pellier provoked a rising of the Hugue
	with the note in Brittany, Poitou, and Langue
Protestanta. doe. At the head of the movement
		were Henri, duke of Rohan (see
ROBAN, HExfu), and his brother Soubise. The
latter seized the Isle of Oleron. Richelieu sent
troops into Brittany and Poitou and obtained ships
and seamen from Holland and England. Oleron

29	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	83ohelieu
The first important conspiracy was that in which the count of Chalais and Marshal Ornano were the chief outward factors. It culminated in the death of both of them. Nov. 11, 1630, was the famous "Day of Dupes." The king, who never liked, but who feared the cardinal, had been persuaded to close his private cabinet to the minister. For a moment Richelieu thought himself lost. But the duke of St. Simon, father of the great writer, brought about an interview between the king and Richelieu at Versailles, where Louis XIII. had a shooting box. The great palace was not yet built. In the presence of the cardinal, Louis XIII.'s opposition oozed away. Richelieu's enemies paid dear for their short triumph. Chancellor Marillac was deprived of office; his brother, Marshal Marillac, was arrested in Italy at the head of his command, tried before a commission which sat in the cardinal's own house, and put to death. Marie de Medici, exiled from court, fled to Brussels, became a wanderer in Flanders and England, and died miserably poor and despised at Cologne. Gaston fled to Duke Charles IV. of Lorraine, whose sister he married. He attempted, with a small army, to reenter France and join the duke of Montmorency, governor of Languedoc, who had espoused his cause, but the royal army defeated the rebels under the walls of Castelnaudary, Sept. 1, 1632. In spite of his wonderful popularity in the country the duke was executed at Toulouse. Less important plots were crushed in the ensuing years. The most important of them was the conspiracy of Cinq‑Mars in 1642.
Similarly, the provincial governors who behaved like sovereigns in their governments were rigorously crushed; e.g., the duke of Vendbme in Brittany, Marshal Vitry in Provence, the duke of Epernon in Guyenne. Richelieu reduced the governors to mere military commandants and took from them the administration 'of justice and the finances. The offices of constable and grand admiral, to which was attached a power which might be dangerous, were suppressed. Two edicts abolished some inveterate abuses; the first, the practise of dueling, which was remorselessly enforced; the second required the destruction of the fortifications of towns, castles, and fortresses, unless situated upon the frontier. A final step in the destructive policy of Richelieu was the overcoming of the provincial parlements, the historic opposition of which was crushed by an edict of 1641, which required them to register all acts sent to them without deliberation and without change.
In his conflict with the Huguenots and the nobles Richelieu was not content to destroy; he also built up. In the theory of the law the royal authority was absolute; Richelieu made it so in fact. Ad‑
ministration had become loose during 4. Construct‑ the wars of religion and the troubles
ive Policy. of the regency. Richelieu resumed
the unfinished monarchical policy of Francis I. and Henry II. The council of state had acquired a great importance during the sixteenth century, but during the regency its organization fell into confusion. A series of regulations rendered during the ministry of Richelieu fixed its rank in the administrative hierarchy, its competence, its com‑
position. It became the center of all administration. The councilors of state no longer purchased their seats like the officials of justice and finance. They were chosen and held office at the pleasure of the king. The secretaries of state, who executed the decisions of the council, became the agents of the cardinal and lost much of their independence. Under Louis XIII. a permanent division began to be made in their attributes. After 1619 general affairs of war and correspondence with commanders of the army corps were entrusted to a single secretary of state. The same change was made in the administration of foreign affairs in 1626. Before that time the foreign affairs of each important country had had each its particular secretary. In order to execute the king's will in the provinces, Richelieu made great use of agents chosen from among the masters of requests (mattres des requ6tes), ordinarily known as intendants. Richelieu was not, as was once almost universally supposed, the creator of the intendants. They first appeared in the middle of the sixteenth century as special commissioners of the crown in designated provinces, but they did not then become a regular institution, and recourse to them was only occasional. Such as it was the institution went to pieces during the Huguenot wars and was revived and made universal for France by the cardinal. The intendants were employed, sometimes in the ggndraldtW (revenue districts), sometimes in the armies, where they were responsible for the commissariat, the ambulance corps, and the pay of the soldiers, and were required to suppress pillage and mutiny. Richelieu found in these functionaries, who were revocable at will, devoted agents of his policies. Those who were permanently established in the g64ralitks took the title of intendants of justice, police, and finance, and concentrated in their hands a large part of the provincial administration. Under Louis XIV. the intendants became the regular and omnipotent agents of the absolute monarchy.
Every part of the state was the object of Richelieu's activity. He is one of the creators of the French navy. In his "Political Testament" he says: "The sea is the heritage over which all
sovereigns claim sovereignty," but that g. Achieve‑ "one must be powerful to claim such a
meats for heritage." Again he says: "It seems Marine, In‑ that nature has wished to offer the dustry, and empire of the sea to France when we Commerce. regard the position of its two coasts,
equally provided with harbors on two seas, the Atlantic and the Mediterranean." Richelieu sought to profit by the natural advance of the country to establish ports and arsenals, construct vessels, recruit sailors. He improved the harbors of Havre and Toulon; he created those of Brest and Brouage, south of La Rochelle. He Made the French navy a material fact. The king, who in 1621 and in 1626 had been obliged to purchase or to hire vessels from the Dutch in order to combat the Huguenots, in 1642 possessed sixtythree vessels of war and twenty‑two galleys. The French fleets, commanded by the archbishop of Bordeaux, d'Escoubeau de Sourdis, met victoriously those of Spain. In regard to commerce and

Richelieu
Richter	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	3o
industry Richelieu was the forerunner and model of Colbert. He outlined his project in his "Political Testament." He wanted to develop the national industry to such a, point that the French might become an export nation for cloth, velvet, taffetas, and silks. His numerous occupations, his continual conflicts against enemies within and without, the importance of the foreign politics of France, prevented Richelieu from realizing all these projects. But at least he attempted much for French commerce. He was an advocate of great commercial companies, such as those of England and Holland. " In order to become master of the sea," he said, "it is necessary for us, like our neighbors, to form great companies, to compel the merchants to enter into them, to give them great privileges." In conformity with this idea Richelieu created and favored various trading companies, notably those of Morbihan, of the West Indies (1628), of the American Isles (1635), and of Africa. They were not successful during his life, and failed after his death. Nevertheless Richelieu was the founder of the French colonial empire. He created Canada by sending out Champlain.
In 1624 Richelieu came into power with a wellformed design "of raising the name of the king among foreign nations to the point at which it ought to be." It was shortly after the beginning of the Thirty‑Years' War (q.v.). He found the emperor in conflict with the king of Denmark and some of the German Protestant princes, but he could not at once profit by the op‑
6. Foreign portunity to revive the policy of Henry Policy. IV. to debase the house of Austria because of the troubles at home with the great nobles, and especially with the Huguenots. Nevertheless, he attentively followed events in Germany and sustained with French subsidies the enemies of the emperor‑Mansfeld, the king of Denmark, Gustavus Adolphus, and the Swedes after Liltzen. On two different occasions he went to war to protect the interests of France. When he came to power the Valteline, that is to say, the upper valley of the Adda, had revolted against the Grisons, and was occupied by papal troops in alliance with Spain. It was important not to let the Spaniards, who were masters of the Milanais, seize the communications between the upper Adda and the Tyrol, which belonged to Austria. Richelieu threw an army into the region, which drove out the papal troops and Spaniards from the Valteline, and put the country again under the domination of the Grisons (1626). Some years later he intervened in upper Italy in the matter of the succession to the duchy of Mantua. The duke of Savoy, the Spaniards, and Emperor Ferdinand sought to prevent the legitimate claimant, the duke of Nevers, who was a French prince, from entering into his heritage. Louis XIII., accompanied by Richelieu, forced the Alps through the Pass of Susa (1629). The territories of the duke of Savoy were occupied by a French army and the Spaniards beaten. At the same time the famous Jesuit diplomat, Pyre Joseph, was sent by Richelieu to the diet of Regensburg, and succeeded in altering the policy of the emperor. The duke of Nevers ac‑
quired the duchy of Mantua and France retained the important fortress of Pignerol on the eastern side of the Alps (Treaty of Cherasco, 1631).
At the moment of intervening in Germany after the death of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, Richelieu concluded alliances with the states of . Germany threatened by the fanaticism and ambition of the house of Austria. To the German
y. Foreign princes in alliance against the emperor
	Alliances.	he promised men and money, condi
		tional upon the acquirement of Alsace
by France and imperial confirmation of French pos
session of the "Three Bishoprics," which France
had possessed since 1552, but which the empire
had never confirmed. In 1635 he concluded a treaty
with the Dutch Republic for the partition of the
Spanish Netherlands; with the Swiss and the dukes
of Parma and Mantua, for the partition of the Mila
nais, which Spain possessed. The alliance formed
with Gustavus Adolphus was renewed with Oxen
stierna, the Swedish chancellor. Finally Richelieu
took into the pay of France the most famous general
of the Protestants after the death of Gustavus,
the brilliant Bernard of Saxe‑Weimar. In pur
suing these negotiations Richelieu revived the policy
originated by Francis I., actually begun by Henry
II., long interrupted by the wars of religion, re
vived by Henry IV., and abandoned by Marie de
Medici. The general characteristics of this policy
consist (1) in the alliance of France, though a Roman
Catholic power, with the Protestant powers, as
Holland, Sweden, England, and with the German
Protestant princes and cities. Though a cardinal
of the Roman Church, a zealous Roman Catholic,
and victor over the Huguenots in France, Richelieu
had no scruples in making common cause with
Protestant powers when the interests of the State
demanded it. He did not confuse spiritual and tem
poral interests. (2) In the protection accorded by
France to the petty states of Germany and Italy,
oppressed by Austria and Spain. It was not for
conquest that France intervened in Germany,
except in so far as she might realize her "natural
frontiers," that is to say, the Rhine, the Alps,
and the Pyrenees. The realization of these purposes,
in so far as they were realized, is a part of the his
tory of the Thirty‑Years' War, and the consumma
tion of them came after Richelieu's death.
No better characterization of Richelieu has ever been made than that of Montesquieu: "He made his master the first man in Europe and the second man in France." Richelieu kept the promise made to Louis XIII. when he became minister.
8. Charao‑ He left the king master within, power‑
	terization.	ful and feared without. The Huguenot
		party was ruined, the nobles and pro
vincial governors obedient, the parlements reduced
to silence. Abroad the two branches of the house of
Hapsburg had been reduced, and the' French armies
occupied Artois, Alsace, and Roussillon. In spite
of his immense services to the king and to the State,
Richelieu was hated by his contemporaries, and has
been judged too severely by posterity. It is true
that he was harsh and hypocritical, but though he
may be criticized for the means and methods he
used, the verdict of history is clear as to the value

81	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	ohellem
81ohtsr
of the results he achieved. It is not to be forgotten that in the seventeenth century the French nobility had long ceased to fulfil the duties corresponding to their privileges; that the conduct of officials was too often influenced by narrow self‑interest; that the position of France both at home and abroad was a perilous one. The evils of the later monarchy are not to be laid to his charge. In fine, Richelieu's great policy was to unite France at home and make it powerful and feared abroad. More than any of its kings, he was the founder of the French monarchy. JAMES WEsT1rAm THompsoN.
BIBLlOORAP87: The first plate in authority will be taken
by Mbmoires du Cardinal de Richelieu, Publids d'aprifs lea
manuacr%ta oripinaux pour la soci&E de rhistoire de France,
sous lea auspices de l'acadimis franvaies, vol. i., Paris, 1907.
Consult further: M. Topin, Louie XIII. el Richelieu,
Paris, 1876; W: Robson, Life of Richelieu, London, 1878;
H. Cinget, Le Cardinal de Richelieu et son miniddre, 8t.
Denis, 1879; E. de Monaie, Le Cardinal do Richelieu,
Tours, 1879; G. Masson, Richelieu, London, 1884; G.
d'Avenel, Richelieu d la monarchis absolue, 4 vols., Paris.
1884‑90• idem, La .Noblesse hanvaiee sous Richelieu, fb.
1901; L. Dussieua, Le Cardinal de Richelieu, ib. 1885;
J. B. Perkins, France under Masarin, with a Review of as
Administration of Richelieu, 2 vole.; New York, 1886;
item, Richelieu and the Growth of French Power, ib. 1900;
A. Pellisier, L'Apop6e de la monarchic franvaise. 1ttdes
hiatoriques cur Richelieu d Louis XIV., Paris, 1889; J.
Michelet, Richelieu d la Fronde, in vol. xi. of his (Rrarres
computes, ib. 1893‑99; G. Hanotaua, Hidoirs ‑du Car
dinal de Richelieu, vols. i.‑ii., ib, 1893‑1903; G. Fagnies,
Le Pdre Joseph d Richelieu (1677‑1858), 2 vole., ib..1894
(crowned by the Aaademy); R. Lodge, Richdis% Lon
don, 1896; L. Lacroix, Richelieu h Luvon: sa feunesae, son
hpiscopat, new eel., Paris, 1898; J. B. Perkins, Richelieu,
Growth of French Power, New York, 1900; Comte de Beau
champ, Louis $111., d'aprbs so correepondance avec le car
dinal de Richelieu (1622‑¢8), ib. 1902; L. Dedouvres, Le
Pare Joseph d la Ridge de la Rochelle, ib. 1904; G. Passot,
Fancan d Richelieu, le probltme Protestant sous Louis
XIII., ib. 1904; Cambridge Modern History, vol. iv., chap.
iv., New York, 1906; J: McCabe, The Iron Cardinal. The
Romance of Richelieu, ib. 1909. .

RICHER, EDMOND: French Roman Catholic and advocate of Gallicanism; b. at Chource, a village of Champagne, 1560; d. at Paria 1631. After completing his education in 1590, he was a parish priest for four years, and was then made president of the.,college of Cardinal Lemome. Shortly afterward, he became a censor of the university, where he was also professor in the theological faculty. In 1607 he published in three volumes at Paris, after some opposition, an edition of the writings of J. Gerson, and in the following year he was chosen syndic of the theological faculty, in this capacity opposing theses in defense of papal infallibility. In 1611 the brief summary of his De ecdeginatica et politics potestate (2 vols., Cologne, 1629), defending the superiority of councils over the pope and maintaining the independence of the secular government in things temporal, brought a storm of attack upon him. His doctrines were condemned by several provincial synods and the Curia, he was deposed from office, and was saved from imprisonment and being sent to Rome only by the appeal of the university. In 1627, after years of struggle, he made a forced recantation. Among his works, special mention may be made of the posthumous Apologia ;ono J. Gersonio (Leyden, 1674). (C. SCHMIDTt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Baillet, La Vie d'Edmond Richer, doc
	teur de Sorbonne, Amsterdam, 1715; E. Puyol, E. Rwher.
.gtuds hidorique d critique our la renovation du gallicaniams . . . du xvii. sidele, 2 vole., Paris, 1876.
RICHMOND, LEGH: Church of England; b. at Liverpool Jan. 29, 1772; d. at Turvey (50 m. n.w. of London), Bedfordshire, May 8,1827. He was graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1794 (M‑A., 1797). In the latter year he became a curate on the Isle of Wight, and in 1805 rector of Turvey. While a child he was lamed for life. He edited The Fathers of the English Church (8 vole., London, 1807‑12); and wrote Domestic Portraiture, or the Succesafud Application of Religious Principle in the Education of a Family, exemplified in the Memoirs of Three of the Deceased Children of the Rev. Legh Richmond (9th eel., 1861). But the work by which he is best known is The Annals of the Poor, 2 vols., 1814, which contains the immortal tracts: The Dairyman's Daughter, The Negro Servant, and The Young Cottager, previously published separately, of the first of which millions of copier; have been circulated in nineteen languages.
BIBLJOar;1MT: T. 8. Grimrhawe, Memoir of the Rev. Leigh
	Richmond, London, 1828 (many eels. during the first year
	of publication); G. T. Bedell, Life of Legh Richmond,
	Philadelphia, 1829; T. Pry and E. Bickereteth, Domestic
	Portraiture, London, 1833; G. F. U. Munby and T. Wright,
	Turvey and Lqph Richmond, with an Account of as Mor‑
daunts, t)lney, 1894: DNB, a1viii. 258‑259.
RICHTER, riH'ter, RMILIUS LUDWIG: Protestant cauonist; b. at Stolpen (2 m. e. of Dresden) Feb. 15, 1808; d. at Berlin May 8, 1864. He entered the University of Leipsic in 1826, studied law, became privet‑docent and associate professor in 1835; and in 1839 regular professor of canon law and civil procedure at Marburg. His first publication was Corpus juris canonici (Leipsic, 1833‑39), followed by Lehrbuch des katholischen urtd evangeli8chen Kirchenrechts mit besonderer Rtlcksicht auf deutsche Zustdnds (1842; 8th eel., 1886). Fundamental in importance was Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des 16. Jahrhunderts (2 vols., Weimar, 1846). In 1846 he went to Berlin, where he continued as teacher in the high school and author, serving in the mean time in various ecclesiastical positions, and displaying in all his tasks a deep spirituality, devotion to the Evangelical church, erudition, conscientious exercise of duty, and an irenic reserve. His knowledge and counsel were in demand in all Germany and Austria, and he served no less Roman Catholics, by whom his standpoint was often acknowledged to be liberal and unbiased. He recognized in the historical churches certain ethical quantities distinct from the State, to be conducted by organs of their own, unhindered by the sovereign State in the exercise of its function of securing to the church associations autonomy within legitimate spheres and defining its limits. He denied the doctrine of state omnipotence and vindicated for the Roman Catholic Church autonomy and self‑administration, without, however, acceding to the pretension of that church to an imperium in imperio. Of much concern to him were the conditions of laissez‑faire that arose in Prussia and continued until 1873, in relation to the Roman Catholic Church, when a delimitation of Church and State was attempted by constitutional compliance with the Concordat and the

Richter
8ldley	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	82
necessary supplementary legislation was delayed. Richter insisted upon the necessity of enforcing by repressive means the right of state supervision, whereby the State insured its own safety, so that the churches in their functions would confine themselves within their limits; and, especially, upon the neces‑
sity of defining by statute the right of state self‑preservation.
	In relation to the canonical sources are the fol
lowing works: Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der Quellen
des eauoniaehen Rechts (3 parts, Leipsie, 1834), and
De inedita decretalium (1836). In relation to the
particular sources of the Roman Catholic canon law
must be mentioned above all Richter and J. F.
Schulte's edition of Canonea et decreta concilii Triden
tini ex editione Romana ab 188¢ repetiti (1853).
The special value of this work is the treatment of
the subject in its historic development. Die evan
gelischen Kirchenordnungen des 16. Jahrhundertd (ut
sup.) has become an indispensable basis for the
study of Evangelical canon law. Its advantage con
sists in the comprehensive appropriation of source
material from the century of the Reformation.
Richter was imbued with the historical spirit, and
offered a prospective history of the canonical sources.
His labors in this connection are characterized by a
profounder basis, elaborate particularistic develop
ment, and a broad grasp of the inner connection.
He falls back upon the cardinal principles of the
Reformation in his fundamental constructions, hav
ing in mind to offset the fatal conditions due not only
to the territorial system (see TF'xx1ToRTATaRM) Of
Christian Thomasius (q.v.), but to the neglect of
church organization during the Reformation period.
He none the less objected to church government in
the hands of the educationals using the sovereigns
as their mere agents. While declaring, in 1848,
church government by the sovereign ruler, as then
constituted, to be incompatible with a constitutional
monarchy, he opposed the error that they were. ir
reconcilable. He countenanced a representative
synod as an extreme necessity on extraordinary
occasions. The recognition of the right of self
administration was to be followed by the gradual
formation of an ascending organization of congre
gations and synods to represent the development of
the church constitution, without infringing upon the
historical right of the relation of the king to the
Church. Later he foresaw that'the general synod
must occupy a larger sphere; for it became evident
to him that in the conflicts between Church and State
and between different churches, the constitutional
monarch could not occupy the same position in the
forefront as the former land sovereign. Other works
were, Beitrfige zur Geschichte des Ehescheidungsrechts
in der evangelischen Kirche (Berlin, 1858); Geschichte
der evangelischen Kirchenverfassung in Deutschland
(Leipsie, 1851); and Der Staat and die Deutachkatho
liken (1846). 	(R. W. DovEt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Hineehius, in Ze*whrift far Kirchenge‑
whichte, iv (1884), 351 sqq.; J. F. Schulte, in ZKR, v (1885), 259 sqq.; R. W. Dove, in ZKR, vii (1887), 273 sqq.
RICHTER, GREGOR: German Roman Catholic; b. at Grilsselbach (a village near Cassel) Apr. 29, 1874._ He was educated at the philosophical and
theological institute of Fulda and the University of Freiburg, and after the completion of his studies was ordained to the priesthood and was city chaplain at Fulda until 1899. Since the latter year he has been professor of church history and canon law at the philosophical and theological institute in the same city. In addition to editing the Puldaer Geschichtsblotter and Quellen and Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Abtei and der Di6zese Pulda since 1904, he has written Die ersten Anf4nge der Bau‑ and Kunstthdtigkeit des Klosters Pulda (Fulda, 1900) and Statutes majoris ecclesite Puldensis, ungedruckte Quellen zur kirchlichen Rechts‑ and Vervassuugsgeschichte der Benediktinerabtei Pulda (1904).
RICKARD, HERBERT: Church of England; b. at Derby Feb. 23,1867. He received his education at Derby School, King's College School, London, and Jesus College, Oxford (B.A., 1886; M.A., 1889); was made deacon, 1888, and priest, 1889; was curate of St. Paul Lozells, Birmingham, 1888‑90; assistant organizing secretary of the Assistant Grates Society, 1890‑92; curate of Christ Church, Epsom, 1892‑97; vice‑principal of Chichester Theological College, 1897‑99; principal in 1899; perpetual curate of Sennicotts, 1897‑1906; rector of St. Peter's the Less, Chichester, 1903; and prebendary of Chichester, 1905.

RIDDLE, JOSEPH ESMOND: Church of England; b. at Bristol Apr. 7, 1804; d. at Cheltenham Aug. 27, 1859. He was educated at Oxford (B.A., 1828; M.A., 1831); was ordained priest, 1832, and was incumbent of Leckhampton, near Cheltenham, 1840‑59. In 1852 he was Bampton lecturer. He is best known for his Latin‑English Dictionary, founded on W. Freund (London, 1849), and (with T. K. Arnold) English‑Latin Lexicon (1849); he also wrote a commentary on I Peter (1834); Luther and his Times (1837); Sermons Doctrinal and Practical (1838); the valuable Manual of Christian Antiquities (London, 1839); Ecclesiastical Chronology (1840); Churchman's Guide to the Use of the English Liturgy (1848); Natural History of Infidelity (Bampton lectures, 1852); History of the Papacy to the Period of the Reformation (1854); Manual of Scripture History (1857); and Household Prayers (1857). BIBLIOGRAPHY: DNB, xlviii. 274.

RIDDLE, MATTHEW BROWN: Presbyterian; b. at Pittsburg, Pa., Oct. 17, 1836. He was graduated from Jefferson College, Canonsburg, Pa. (A.B., 1852), and New Brunswick Theological Seminary, New Brunswick, N. J. (1859). He was adjunct professor of Greek in Jefferson College in 1857‑58 and chaplain of the Second New Jersey Volunteers in the Army of the Potomac in 1861. He then held Dutch Reformed pastorates in Hoboken, N. J. (1862‑65), and at Newark, N. J. (18651869), and spent two years (1869‑71) in travel and study in Europe. He was professor of New‑Testament exegesis in Hartford Theological Seminary (1871,87), and since 1887 has filled a similar position in the Western Theological Seminary, Alleghany, Pa. He was a member of the American Company of New‑Testament revisers, and for many years was an editor of the American standard edi‑

sg	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	RRidley
tion of the Revised Version of the Bible, besides being a member of the general assembly's committee to revise the proofs of the Westminster Standards. He translated and edited the sections on Romans (except chaps. i.‑v.), Galatians, Ephesians, and Colossians for the American edition of J. P. Lange's commentary (New York, 1869‑70); contributed (in collaboration with P. Schaff) the portions on Matthew, Mark, and Luke (1879), Romans (1882), and Ephesians and Colossians (1882; thesetwo independently) to P. Schaff's Illustrated Popular Commentary; and the volumes on Mark (1881), Luke (1883), and Romans (18&4) to the same scholar's Internotianal Revision Commentary; edited Mark and Luke in the American edition of H. A. W. Meyer's Commentary on the New Testament (New York, 1884); revised E. Robinson's Harmony of the Four Gospels in Greek (Boston, 1885), Harmony of the Four Gospels in English (1886); and revised the Didache, II Clement, Pseudo‑Clementine Literature, and the New‑Testament Apocrypha for the American edition of The Ante‑Nicene Fathers (New York, 18861888), as well as Chrysostom's " Homilies on Matthew " and Augustine's " Harmony of the Gospels " for the first series of The Nicene and Post‑Nicene Fathers (1888); and wrote Story of the Revised New Testament, American Standard Edition (Philadelphia, 1908).
RIDGEWAY, CHARLES JOHN: Church of England bishop of Chichester; b. at High Roding, near Dunmow (32 m. n.e. of London), July 14, 1841. He received his education at Trinity College, ‑Cambridge (B.A., 1863; M.A., 1884; D.D., 1905); was curate of Christ Church, Tunbridge Wells, 18661868; vicar of North Malvern, 1868‑75; rector of Buckhurst Hill, 1875‑80, being also diocesan inspector at St. Albans, 1876‑80; rector of St. Paul's, Edinburgh, 1880‑84; vicar of Christ Church, Lancaster Gate, 1884‑1905, serving also as select preacher at Cambridge in 1893, to which office he was again called in 1905; Golden lecturer at St. Margaret's, Lothbury, 1896‑1905; prebendary of St. Paul's, 1899‑1905; rural dean of Paddington, 1901‑05; commissioner to the archbishop of Capetown, 19001905, to the bishop of North China, 1901‑05, and to the bishop of Shantung, 1904‑05; dean of Carlisle, 1905‑‑08; and was consecrated bishop of Chichester, 1908. He is the author of: Foundation Truths: a Course of Instruction; (Edinburgh, 1884); Holy Communion. Instructions and Devotions (London, 1887); The Mountain of Blessedness (1888); Is not this the Christ ? A Course of Sermons (1889); Confirmation; or, the Laying on of Hands (1898); What does the Church of England Say ? (1899); In Paradise (1904); Story of the Prayer Book (1906); The King and his Kingdom, and Other Sermons (1906) ; Social Life (1907); and Short Family Prayers (1908).
RIDLEY, NICHOLAS: English Reformer and martyr; b. near Willimontswyke (30 m. w. of Newcastle), Northumberland, early in the sixteenth century (15007); d. at the stake at Oxford Oct, 16, 1555. After studying at the grammar‑school at Newcastle‑upon‑Tyne, he entered Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, 1518, where he later became fellow. X.‑3
In 1527 he took orders and went for further study to the Sorbonne, Paris, and to Louvain. Returning to England, he rose to the position of senior proctor at Cambridge, 1533. As proctor he signed the decree against the papal supremacy, 1534. He was already much sought after as a preacher. Cranmer made him his domestic chaplain and vicar of Herne, East Kent. In 1540 he was appointed king's chaplain and master of Pembroke Hall, in 1541 canon of Canterbury, in 1545 canon of Westminster, and in 1547 bishop of Rochester. During the reign of Edward VI., Ridley was active in promulgating the new views. In 1545, and partly in consequence of the perusal of Ratramnus' De corpore et sanguine Domini (Eng. transl., The Book of Bertram the Priest Concerning the Body and Blood of Christ in the Sacrament, London (1549, 1686, and often, latest, 1880) he publicly renounced the doctrine of transubstantiation. He was deputed to set forth the Reformed views in York, Durham, and other dioceses, and in 1549 to place Protestantism on a firm basis at Cambridge. He sat on the commission that deposed Bonner, bishop of London, and Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, and in 1550 was promoted to Bonner's place. Foxe instances, as a sign of his goodness, that for months he entertained Bonner's mother at his palace, assigning to her the place of prominence at the table, and contrasts Ridley's spirit with the severity of Bonner. His deep interest in the unfavored classes led him to make suggestions to King Edward which found ultimate expression in the foundation of three hospitals in London, St. Thomas, Christ, and Bethlehem. Ridley's name is indissolubly associated with the names of Cranmer and Latimer as a foremost leader and a martyr of English Protestantism. Mary, who had taken offense at a visit Ridley had made her and his offer to preach in her presence, on her accession to the throne quickly ordered his deposition, reinstating Bonner as bishop of London, July 20, 1553. Ridley was committed to the Tower from which he was removed to Oxford, where he was held a prisoner in Bocardo jail and the mayor's house. On Apr. 17, 1554, he was called upon to stand trial in the Divinity School, Oxford, and was declared a heretic. The Spanish friar, Soto, labored in vain to turn him back to the old faith. After the passage of the new statutes on heresy, the prisoner was summoned again, Sept. 30, 1555, by Archbishop Pole, and was convicted and condemned to the flames. In company with Latimer, he was burned in " the ditch " over against Balliol Hall. The night before his execution he said to some friends with whom he supped: " I mean to go to bed, and, by God's will, to sleep as quietly as ever I did in my life." Arrived at the stake, he ran to Latimer, embraced him, and kissed him. A " scant sermon, in all a quarter of an hour," as Foxe puts it, was preached by Dr. Smith, which Latimer and Ridley were both ready to answer but they were denied the opportunity. Promised life, if he would recant, Ridley replied, " So long as breath is in my body, I will never deny my Lord Christ and his known truth." He gave his clothes to the bystanders, and was bound to the stake by an iron chain. When the faggots were being lighted, Latimer spoke to Ridley the famous words, " Be of

Ridley
RiBrenbaeh
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
good comfort, Master Ridley. Play the man. We shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as I trust shall never be put out." The flames were slow in doing their work. Again and again the martyr cried, " Let the fire come unto me. I can not burn." His lower members were first consumed, and the end came when the fire reached a bag of gunpowder which Ridley's brotherin‑law had tied at his neck. Foxe has given the best account of Ridley's life and martyrdom, and describes him as " a man beautified with excellent qualities so ghostly inspired and godly learned and now written, doubtless, in the Book of Life." In his account of Ridley's administration of the episcopal office, this writer emphasizes his attention to prayer, as well as his constant industry, relieved after dinner and supper by a game of chess. His most famous saying is the one recorded during his interview with Mary before she became queen. When the Reformer expressed the hope that she would not refuse God's Word, the princess replied, " I can not tell what ye call God's Word. That is not God's Word now that was God's Word in my father's days." To this Ridley answered: " God's Word is one at all times, but hath been better understood and practised in some ages than in others." Mary in her response declared, " As for your new books, I thank God I never read any of them, I never did, nor ever will do." The few writings Ridley left behind him have been published by the Religious Tract Society, Treatise and Letters of Dr. Nicholas Ridley (London, 1830?), and by the Parker Society, Works of Nicholas Ridley, D.D. (ed. H. Christmas, London, 1841). Among the writings are a Brief Declaration against Transubstantiation, a Treatise against Image Worship, and A Piteous Lamentation of the Miserable Estate of the Church in England in the Time of the Late Revolt from the Gospel. The Parker Society volume also contains an account of his disputations at Oxford prior to his death and a reprint of Fox's account of his martyrdom. An avenue in the yard of Pembroke Hall is still known as Ridley's Walk. Quarles has a poem on Ridley in which are the lines:

" Rome thundered death, but Ridley's dauntless eye Star 'd in Death's face, and scorned Death standing bye. In spite of Rome, for England's faith he stood And m the flames, he sealed it with his blood."
DAVID S. SCHAFF.
In 1839 there was erected at Oxford a " Martyrs Memorial," with statues of Cranmer, Latimer, and
Ridley, partly by way of protest against the Trac
tarian Movement (see TRACTARIANIBM), one of the
characteristics of which was hostility to the Refor
mation. 	A. H. N.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The original source is J. Fox's Aden and Monuments (for editions see under Fox, JOHN). An excellent memoir appears in H. Moule's ed. of the Brief Declaration of the Lordes Supper, London, 1895. Consult further: G. Ridley, Life of Dr. Nicholas Ridley, Sometime Bishop of London, London, 1763; the memoir in the volume on Ridley in L. Richmond's Fathers of the English Church, 8 vols., London, 1807‑12; G. T. Ridlon, Hilt. Of the Ancient Ryedales and their Descendants, pp. 419 124, Manchester, N. H., 1884; W. Clark, The Anglican Reformation, New York, 1897; J. Gairdner, English Church in the 18th Century, passim, London, 1903; DNB, AVIli. 288‑289; and, in general, the works on the history of the period, secular and ecclesiastical.
34
RIEGER, A'ger, GEORG KONRAD: Pietistic preacher; b. at Cannstadt (4 m. n.e. of Stuttgart) Mar. 7, 1687; d. at Stuttgart Apr. 16, 1743. After studying theology he was private tutor at Tubingen, 1713‑15; city vicar at Stuttgart and deacon at Urach, 171:r31; and from that time continued in educational and ministerial work at Stuttgart. He was one of the most gifted preachers in the Evangelical Church of Germany, and was of the school of J. A. Bengel (q.v.). He excelled all other Pietists in eloquence, emotional power, and.freshness. He knew how to employ simple colloquialisms without losing in dignity and force. His preaching was marked by clearness, interest, and fluency. His imagination served him well in using illustrations. Dogmatic subjects frequently received painstaking treatment, though without pedantry. He placed himself in immediate touch with his hearers, never losing the thread of his discourse. He published collections of sermons as follows: Herzenspostille (Ziilliehau, 1742; Stuttgart, 1853‑54); Herz‑ and Hand‑Postille (1746; Berlin, 1852); De cura minimorum in regno gratin (Stuttgart, 1733); and Riehotiger and leichter Weg zum Himmel (Stuttgart, 1744, 1844, and after). He published also Die Kraft der Gottseligkeit (1732‑36). (HERMANN BEeg.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Biographic material is contained in Rieger's Richtiper and leiohter Wep (Stuttgart, 1844); C. G. Schmidt, Geschichte der Predipt in der evangelischen Kirche Deutechlands, pp 196 sqq Goths, 1872; H. C. Stuckenberg, Lutheran Quarterly Review, xix (1889), 584 sqq.
RIEGER, KARL HEINRICH: Son of the preceding; b. at Stuttgart June 16, 1726; d. there Jan. 15, 1791. After studying theology, he was domestic tutor at Augsburg, 1747‑49; vicar, 1749‑50; tutor at Tiibingen, 1750; deacon at Ludwigsburg, 1754‑57; and until his death preacher at Stuttgart. He left the impression of a strong, firm character; and represented the traditional teaching of the Lutheran Church in opposition to the new rationalism. Through his influence the revision of the hymnal was moderate, and of the old catechism (of 1681 and 1696) conservative. He was an active member of the Christenthumsgesellschaft, founded by J. A. Urlsperger (q.v.). As a preacher, he was less spirited and forceful than his father, but possessed rare penetration, emphasis, and spirituality, moral earnestness, a quiet, clear thoughtfulness, and ease, with true Christian wisddm, and a winning grace and mildness; but his form and presentation were clumsy and awkward. After his death appeared Predigten and Betraehtungen (Stuttgart, 1794) ; Betrachtungen iiber das Neue Testament (4 vols., 1828; 1875); and Betraehtungen fiber die Psalmen and die zw6lf kleinen Propheten (1835; 1859).
(HERMANN BECK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Christen‑Bote, ed. J. C. F. Burk, i (1832), 105 sqq.; C. Grosse, Die alten Tr6ster. Wegweiser in die Erbauungalitteratur der evangelisch‑lutheriachen Kirche des IB. bis 18. fahrhunderts, pp. 495 sqq., Hermannsburg, 1900.
RIEHM, rim, EDWARD KARL AUGUST: Biblical scholar; b. at Diersburg, near Offenburg (17 m. a.s.w. of Carlsruhe), Baden, Dec. 20, 1830; d. at Halle Apr. 5, 1888. He studied theology and philology at Heidelberg, 1848‑50; and at Halle,

RELIGIOUS
1850‑52; and again at Heidelberg, 1852; was admitted to the ministry in 1853; vicar at Durlach, 1853‑54; and garrison chaplain at Mannheim after 1855. In 1858 he entered the theological faculty at Heidelberg, where he was associate professor, 1861‑62; and, 1862‑66, associate professor of OldTestament exegesis at Halle, and professor, 18661888. He was the author of: Die Gesetzgebung Mosis im Lands Moab (Goths, 1854); Der Lehrbegrif des Hebrderbriefs (Ludwigsburg, 1858‑59); Die besondere Bedeutung des A. T. fur die religittse Erkenntnis and das religi6se Leben der christlichen Gemeinde (Halls, 1864); Die messianische Weissagung (Goths, 1875); Der Begrif der Siihne im Alten Testament (1877); and Handworterbueh des biblischen Altertums (Bielefeld, 1875‑84, and others). After his death appeared Einleitung in das Alte Testament (Halls, 1889); and Alttestamentliche Theologie (1889). A pupil and afterward colleague of H. Hupfeld at Halle, he revised the latter's commentary on Psalms (Goths, 1867‑71); was one of the editors of the TSK (Goths), 1866,88; and was a member of the commission for the revision of Luther's translation of the Bible, 1865,88. In his exegetical work he was scientific, thorough, and impartial, and emphasized the religion of the Old Testament as one of revelation.
(K. H. PAHNCKE.)
RIESSLER, ris'ler, PAUL: Old‑Testament scholar; b. at Stuttgart Sept. 16, 1865. He received his elementary education at Stuttgart and Rottweil, and his advanced training at the University of Tiibingen and the theological seminary at Rottenburg; was vicar at Mergentheim and Ellwangen, 18891892; taught in the higher gymnasium at Ehingen, 1892‑98; was city preacher at Blaubeuren, 18891907; became professor of Old‑Testament exegesis at Tilbingen in the Roman Catholic theological faculty, 1907. He has written a critical commentary on Daniel (Stuttgart, 1899), and another on the same book in the Kurzgefasster wissenschaftlicher Kommentar (Vienna, 1902).

RIETSCHEL, rit'ahel, CHRISTIAN GEORG: German Protestant, son of the sculptor of the famous Luther monument at Worms; b. at Dresden May 10, 1842. He was educated at the universities of Erlangen, Berlin, and Leipsic from 1860 to 1864, and after being a member of the Domkandidatenstift at Berlin in 1864‑65 and of St. Paul's seminary for preachers at Leipsic in 1866‑67, was pastor at Riidigsdorf, Saxony, in 1868‑74, head pastor at Zittau in 1874‑78, second director of the preachers' seminary at Wittenberg in 1878‑84, and first director of the same institution in 1884‑87, superintendent and district inspector of schools in 1878‑87, and pastor of $t. Matthew's, Leipsic, in 1887‑89. Since 1889 he has been professor of practical theology in the University of Leipsic, and also first university preacher and director of St. Paul's seminary for preachers in the same city, while in 1904‑05 he was rector of the university. He has written Die Gew4hrung der Aberulmahlsgemeinschaft an Reformierte and Unierte (Leipsic, 1868); Martin Luther and Ignatius van Loyola, eine vergleichende Charakteristik ihrer inneren Entwicklung (Wittenberg, 1879);
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ridley
Rip:genbaoh
Abschnitt vierzehn der Kirchenr and Synodal‑Ord, nung (1885); Luther and sein Haus (Halls, 1888); Luther and die Ordination (Wittenberg, 1889); Das Wort vom Glauben (sermons; Leipsic, 1892); Die Aufgabe der Orgel im Gottesdienst bis ins achtzehnte Jahrhundert (1893); Der tuangelische Gottesdienst unter dem Gesichtspunkt der Anbetung im Geist and in der Wahrheit (Halls, 1894); Die Frage des Zusammenschlusses der deutschen evangelischen Landeskirehen zur Wahrung and F6rderung ihrer gemeinsamen Angelegenheiten (Leipsic, 1900) ; Lehrbuch der Liturgik (2 vols., Berlin, 1900‑08); Weihnachten in Kirche, Kunst and Volksleben (Bielefeld, 1901); Die evangelische Kirche and die soziale Prage (Leipsie, 1904); and Zur Reform des Religionsunterrichts in der Volksschule (Berlin, 1909).

RIGG, JAMES HARRISON: English Wesleyan Methodist; b. at Newcastle‑on‑Tyne Jan. 16, 1821; d. at London Apr. 17, 1909. He was educated at Old Kingswood School, and, after being a teacher from 1835 to 1845, entered the Wesleyan ministry. In 1866 he was elected a member of the " Hundred " (83e METHODISTS, 1., 1, § 6) and two years later became principal of the Wesleyan Training College for Day School Teachers, Westminster, London, a position which he retained until 1903. He was president of the Wesleyan Methodist Conference, and in this capacity was instrumental in securing the admission of laymen to that body in 1878. For fifteen years he was editor of The London Quarterly Review and was also on its editorial staff for several years longer. He edited E. A. Rumbold's Vindication of the Character and Administration of Sir T. Rumbold, Bart., Governor of Madras in 1778‑80 (London, 1868), and was the author of: The Principles of Wesleyan Methodism (London, 1850); Congregational Independency and Wesleyan Connexionalism Contrasted (1851); Modern Anglican Theology (1857); Essays for the Times on Ecclesiastical and Social Subjects (1866); The Sabbath and the Sabbath Law before and after Christ (1869); The Churehmanship of John Wesley (1868); National Education, English and Foreign (1873); The Living Wesley as he was in his Youth and in his Prime (1875); Connexional Economy of Wesleyan Methodism (1879); Discourses and Addresses on Leading Truths of Religion and Philosophy (1880); The Character and Life‑Work of Dr. Pusey (1883); Was Wesley a High Churchman, and is Modern Methodism Wesleyan Methodism r or, John Wesley, the Church of England, and Wesleyan Methodism (1883); A Comparative View of Church Organisms, Primitive and Protestant (1887); Oxford High Anglicanism and its Leaders (1895); Scenes and Studies in the Ministry of Our Lord, with Thoughts on Preaching (1902); and Reminiscences Sixty years ago (1904).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Telford, The Life of James Harrison Rigg, 1881‑1908, London, 1909.

RIGGENBACH, rig'en‑btiH, CHRISTOPH JOHANNES: Swiss Protestant theologian; b. at Basel Oct. 8, 1818; d. there Sept. 5, 1890. He pursued his studies at Basel, Berlin, and Bonn under Peterman, Nitzsch, Bleek, Sack, and others. He was ordained in 1842, became pastor in Bennivyl,

Righteousness
THE NEW SCHAFF HERZOG
where his affiliations were at first with the radical school of theology. His position later on became more moderate. In 1850, he was called to the theological faculty at the University of Basel, teaching New Testament, pastoral theology, giving popular lectures on the life of Jesus, and engaging also in the study of church music and hymnology. He became an earnest opponent of theological radicalism, combated the leaders of the modern school, and helped to found the Kirchenfreund as the organ of the conservative group. Even in this polemical atmosphere, he never lost the personal friendship of his opponents. He was one of the founders of the Evangelisch‑kirchlicher Verein, which worked in conservative interests, and was interested in the Evangelical Alliance. He was also a leader in the extension of missionary work, becoming president of the Basel missions committee in 1878. He published: Vorlesungen Off das Leben Jesu (Basel, 1858); Die'mosaisehe StiftshWte (1862); Die Zeugnisse fur das Evangelium Johannis (1866); Der Kirchengesang in Basel sect der Reformation (1870); Hieronymus Annoni (1870); Der sogenannte Brief des Barnabas (1873); Eine Reiae nach PaUstina (1873); and the commentary upon I and II Thessalonians in Lange's commentary.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Deulach‑evangeliaehe Kirchemeitung, iv (1890), 494‑496; P. Wurm, in Atlpemeine Mieaionaeeitachrift, :vii (1890), 580‑585; Oeri, in Banter KirchenJreund, 1893, nor. 2‑5, cf. 1890, no. 19.
RIGGS, ALEXANDER BROWN: Presbyterian; b. at Portsmouth, O., June 21, 1842. He was educated at Jefferson College, Pa. (A.B., 1863), and after teaching mathematics at Western University, Pittsburg, Pa., for a year, was admitted to the Pennsylvania bar. He had practised only two years, however, when, giving up law, he entered Auburn Theological Seminary, where he spent two years, and completed his theological training at Union Theological Seminary (1870), after which he held pastorates at the Reformed Church, Fort Plain, N. Y. (1870‑76), the Presbyterian Church, Waterford, N. Y. (1876‑90), and the Seventh Presbyterian Church, Cincinnati (1891‑1902). From 1894 to 1897 he was instructor in Greek in Lane Theological Seminary, Cincinnati, and since 1897 has been professor of New‑Testament exegesis and introduction in the same institution.
RIGGS, EDWARD': Presbyterian; b. at Smyrna, Turkey, June 30, 1844. He was graduated from Princeton College (A.B., 1865) and Union Theological Seminary, New York City (1869). In 1869 he was appointed a missionary of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions and went at once to Sivas, Asia Minor, where he remained seven years. Since 1876 he has been stationed at Marsovan, Turkey, where he has been chiefly associated with the Theological Seminary of the Western Turkey Mission, having been professor of systematic theology for a number of years and president since 1903. He has also been a manager of Anatolia College, Marsovan, since its organization in 1886, and has given instruction in various departments as a missionary. In theology he describes himself as " a broad, progressive conservative, holding to the main tenets of the tra‑
ditional evangelical theology, adhering strictly to the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, but subjecting everything to the most rigid tests of genuine and careful scholarly examination." He likewise holds " that an honest application of the most searching criticism results in maintaining the sound orthodox beliefs in all their essential points." He prepared the chapter on The Christian Forces at Work in the Turkish Empire for W. D. Grant's Christendom Anno Domini MDCCCCI (New York, 1902).
RIGGS, ELIAS: American missionary in Turkey; b. at New Providence, N. J., Nov. 19, 1810; d. at Constantinople Jan. 17, 1901. He graduated at Amherst College, Mass., 1829, and at Andover Theological Seminary, Mass., 1832; was missionary of the American Board at Athens and Argos, Greece, 1832‑38; later at Smyrna, Asia Minor; and at Constantinople 1853‑1901. He visited his native country once, in 1856, and taught Hebrew in the Union Theological Seminary, New York, 1857‑58. He was a remarkable philologist, having early applied himself to a mastery of the Semitic languages and Greek. In 1844 he was assigned to the Armenian branch of the Turkish mission and was engaged in translating the Scriptures into Armenian, 1845‑52. He was one of a committee engaged in 1873 by the American and the British and Foreign Bible Societies to translate the Bible into Turkish; and, as a result, the entire Bible was published both in Armenian and Arabic characters in 1878. He participated also in a revision of the same issued in 1886. He is said to have had a working knowledge of twenty languages and the mastery of twelve, and to have produced either as originals or translations no less than 478 hymns in the Bulgarian language alone. He was the author of A Manual of the Chaldee Language containing a Grammar, Chrestomathy, and to Vocabulary (Andover, 1832; revised ed., New York, 1858); Grammar of the Modern Armenian. Language, with to Vocabulary (Smyrna, 1847); Grammar of the Turkish Language as written in the Armenian Character (Constantinople, 1856); and Translation of the Scriptures into the Bulgarian Language,'completed with the aid of native scholars (Constantinople, 1871); Suggested Emendations of the A. V. of the Odd Testament (Andover, 1873); Suggested Modaftcations of the R. V. of the New Testament (1883); and Notes on Difficult Passages of the New Testament (Boston, 1889).

RIGGS, JAMES FORSYTH: Presbyterian; b. at Bournabat (a village near Smyrna), Turkey, Oct. 4, 1852. He was graduated from Princeton College (A.B., 1872), where he was Boudinot fellow in history in 1872‑73, and from Union Theological Seminary, New York City (1878). He was then pastor of the Presbyterian church at Cranford, N. J., in 1878‑84, and of the Dutch Reformed church at Bergen Point, N. J., in 1884‑92; professor of NewTestament Greek in the New Brunswick Theological Seminary (1892‑98), and during that time delivered lectures on historical subjects under the auspices of the Rutgers College University Extension system. Since 1898 he has been pastor of the Brick Presbyterian Church, East Orange, N. J. In

87	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	1,teousness
theology he is a moderate Calvinist and has no sympathy with revolutionary ideas in Biblical criticism.
RIGGS, JAMES STEVERSON: Presbyterian; b. at New York July 16, 1853; graduated at the College of New Jersey, Princeton, 1874; studied at Leipsic, 1875; graduated at Auburn Theological Seminary, N. Y., 1880; was pastor at Fulton, N. Y., 1880‑84; adjunct professor of Biblical Greek in Auburn Theological Seminary, 1884‑87; and professor since 1887. He is author of a History of the Jewish People: Maccabean and Roman. Periods (New York, 1899), and Messages of Jesus according to the Gospel of John. (1907).
RIGGS, STEPHEN RETURN: Presbyterian missionary to the Indians; b. at Steubenville, 0., Mar. 23, 1812; d. at Beloit, Wis., Aug. 24, 1883. He was graduated at Jefferson College, 1834; studied for a year in the Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa.; was licensed in 1836; and was from 1837 till 1883 a missionary among the Dakotas. He mastered their language and reduced it to writing and into it translated nearly the entire New Testament , and also portions of the Old. He also prepared a dictionary of the language and other aids for its acquisition. He was the author of many translations into it. In English he wrote his autobiography, Mary and 1. Forty years with the Sioux, Chicago, 1880; also Tah‑koo Wah‑kin; or, the Gospel among the Dakotas, Boston, 1869.
RIGHTEOUSNESS, ORIGINAL.

Doctrinal Development till Augustine (§ 1). The Scholastic Doctrine (5 2). Teaching of Reformers and Roman Catholics (¢ 3). Later Protestant Views (§ 4). Conclusion (§ 5).
The older Protestant theologians designated by the term justitia originalis, the Latin equivalent of original righteousness, the condition of man as made in the image of God, and before
r. Doctrinal the fall. It is found for the first time Develop‑ in the writings of the Schoohnen, but meat till the development of the doctrine was Augustine. begun by Augustine, who uses the term prima justitia, " first righteousness " (De pecctorum meritis et remissions, II., gxxvii.). While a condition of original integrity of man, and of a subsequent breach of harmony and depravation, was generally presupposed in Christian belief, Augustine was the first to bring this condition into intimate connection with man's creation in the divine image, and he axTived at a higher valuation of both. Irenaeus, Theophylact, Justin, and Clement of Alexandria spoke of the first state as one of childlike simplicity and innocence, but Athanasius developed the doctrine (De trinitats, iii: 16) : " those who mortify the deeds of the body and have put on the new man which is created after God are after his image; for such was Adam before his disobedience." The first state was not treated in its relation to the essential nature of man; prominence was given, not to what he originally was, but to what he was by nature, and the image of God was sought chiefly in man's spiritual endowment with reason and freedom, through which he is enabled to attain perfection. Thus moral perfection was
denied for the first state, though nothing was said of the actual condition therein, of a " superadded gift," or of the " equilibrium " of Pelagianism. With Augustine the image of God is the inalienable " rational soul." This includes the will, with a positive inclination to holiness, though even the first man needed the assistance of grace in order to reach " fufl righteousness." At first man willed not to sin, and by supernatural grace he was able not to sin. It might seem as if the will not to sin was not true righteousness, but " good will " in the first man constituted righteousness in the same degree as concupiscence in man after his fall constitutes original sin. At the fall the concupiscence of the flesh took the place of the " good will " and is itself sin.
After Augustine's death, semi‑Pelagianism prevailed in the Church. Its opposition to Augustine directed itself, indeed, against his doctrine of predestination, but not on the basis of the
The conception of sin and salvation. It Scholastic was really an opposition to inexorable
	Doctrine.	severity in the valuation of natural
		corruption. In this respect, semi
Pelagianism was successful at the Synod of Orange,
in 529, which asserted that " by the sin of Adam
the free will was so inclined and attenuated that no
one was afterwards able to love God as he should,
to believe in God, or to be influenced concerning
God, unless the prevenient grace of the divine
mercy acted upon him." Scholastic theologians
went further. They dated the discord between
flesh and spirit before the fall. It is true, "original
righteousness" as well as a sinful state resulting
from the fall would be impossible in this case, ff
Augustine had not offered a way of escape in the
thought that divine grace subjected the flesh to
the spirit in the case of Adam, and thus a harmony
was effected which is not inherent in man per se.
But this harmony or subjection of concupiscence to
reason or the will of God is "original righteousness"
which consequently is a "superadded gift." The
proof was found in the alleged difference between
"likeness" and" image"(Gen. i. 26). The essential
attributes of the divine image were reason and will.
By the accidents which belong to it but do not con
stitute it, and are added as a gift of grace, man is
enabled to acquire eternal life. Thus man after his
fall is still in his first pure state with the modification
that his senses and lusts are no longer held in check
by the assistant grace, and thus a state of disorder
has taken the place of subjection to reason. Then
original sin becomes a lack of "original righteous
ness "; it is not, however, sin in the positive sense
of Augustine, but only in a negative sense.
The Reformers, with their deep sense of the grossness of sin, were utterly unable to assume a naturally pure condition; for nature was impure. Original sin is a real and true sin, and not simply
3. Teaching a deficiency or infirmity, but such a of Reformers sin as condemns and eternally separates and Roman from God all men that proceed from
	Catholics.	Adam (cf. Augsburg Confession, ii.),
		and thus the first state of man must
have included an opposite operation of the good.
But as this operation is an essential condition of life

Righteousness	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	38
Rimmon
for him, it can not be regarded as a mere accident, it
must be something that originally and necessarily
	belongs to man. The Formula of Concord, therefore,
in accordance with the view of the Reformers,
designated original righteousness not simply as
"concreate righteousness," but as the essential fact
of having been created in the image of God. Thus
the Lutheran Church, as well as the Reformed, ad
vanced a step beyond Augustine. Scholasticism had
left a number of questions unsettled, such as whether
original righteousness was a " grace making accept
able " (Thomas Aquinas) or a "grace given to those
acceptable" like the charismatn (Duns Scotus).
The Council of Trent avoided pronouncing on this
point, and affirmed that Adam, "when he had trans
gressed God's commandment in Paradise, immedi
ately lost the holiness and righteousness in which
he had been placed," with the apparent intention of
excluding not scholastic deductions but the doctrine
of the Reformers. Bellarmine developed the Roman
Catholic doctrine in this opposition clearly and
adroitly. The Lutherans, according to him, agree
with the Pelagians because they deprive the first
man of supernatural gifts, adding the further error
that after the fall man lacks "a natural attribute"
‑free will. In contrast to this doctrine, according
to him, the Roman Catholic Church distinguishes
between "image" and "likeness." The former
refers to nature, the latter to the supernatural, and
denotes some "ornaments of wisdom and righteous
ness" which man received in creation but lacks
now. As man came forth from the creator's hand,
he consisted of flesh and spirit, and stood related
both to the animals and to the angels. On the
latter side he had intelli,‑ence and will; on the
former, senses and appetites. A conflict arose, and
from the conflict "a terrible difficulty in doing well."
This was the "disease of nature" which inheres in
matter, hence God added the gift of original right
eousness. It was this perfection of the divine image,
and not the image itself, which man lost at the fall.
	Among later Protestant theologians, the rational
ists did not essentially change the doctrine concern
ing the first state. Since the time of Schleiermacher
			a certain necessity of original nature
		;. Later has been attached to sin. Schleier
	Protestant macher expressly states that an incapac
		Views.	ity for good works was in human nature
			before the fall, located in the flesh,
that is, "the totality of the lower faculties of the
soul," and that consequently the sin which was
transmitted to his descendants was originally in the
first man. Sin, according to him, is not the first
actual condition; with the awakening of the con
sciousness of God it was preceded by a state of per
fection which was not without consequences per
ceptible even after the fall. Subsequently, however,
a time was bound to come in which sensuousness in
creased in some direction. Lipsius transformed
the "state of original perfection" as taught by
Schleiermacher into the "primitive form of ethical
religion," that is, into the immediate, but uncon
scious and only relative, communion with God
which from the consciousness of its opposite ap
pears as a lost paradise. Rothe considers man the
union of two elements of opposite qualities, bound
to strive after the right proportion between his ego and his material nature, thus transposing man's likens to the image of God into the future. Biedermann sees the basis of sin in the sensual nature of man, which was created by God intentionally in order to realise and develop his redeeming grace in the history of salvation. Ritschl agrees with Biedermann so far as to hold that the doctrine of the first state should be replaced by that of the destiny of man.
All these views correctly presuppose the identity of the present substance of man with the original substance, but they err in identifying man's present condition with his original condition. It is an improbable assumption that anything lost by sin must be "superadded" unless the condition is considered something " superadded " to the substance. A substance must have its corresponding
g. Conclu‑ state or condition, it must have attri‑
	sion.	butes; but the question is whetherman's
		present condition corresponds to the
human substance. Lutheran theologians teach that
the human essence does not now possess that
condition which it requires,; that man's actual con
dition is not merely in a state of imperfect develop
ment, it is opposed to the essence. The next ques
tion is, whether man began with a state of absolute
moral perfection. Against this view, Julius Milner
properly brings the objection that it excludes the
possibility of the fall. But neither Luther, the other
Reformers, nor the Lutheran confessions teach a
state of absolute moral perfection. It should be
asked rather, whether man might have begun with
goodness, and this question must be answered in
the affirmative; for it is the conviction of every
justified person that the moral condition must be
good before any good action can be done. The moral
condition must in the first man lie at the basis of his
conduct, and can exist only as an effect wrought by
God in the same way as in the justified and regen
erate. In this respect there is no difference between
the primitive state of innocence and the restoration
of innocence in justification. The difference between
the first state and that of the redeemed lies rather in
the fact that the latter has reached the point where
the first man should have stood after his temptation;
but the moral quality imparted by God has nothing
to do with this. The assumption of an original in
difference presupposes a will without content or aim
and at the same time a preponderating capacity
for goodness; thus there would be a capacity which
in its quality would be superior to the will; such an
instinctive desire for goodness, overpowering the
will, would make sinning impossible. Moreover,
indifference annuls freedom; for indifference is not
freedom, but constraint of will; freedom is rather
the capacity for unhampered normal self‑activity.
Man's original condition was not without positive in
clination to goodness. His will had this disposition;
but while it was in harmony with God's will, it
might sin, and in the possibility of sinning consisted
its freedom.	It was man's duty to preserve his
rectitude by voluntary choice, thus confirming God's
work. 		(H. T. CxxttERt.)
BiBLIOGYAFRY: The pertinent literature is quite fully given under Ittws of GOD. The earlier discussions are well

89
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
represented by Augustine's " City of God," XII., i.‑ix., xxiii.; Anselm, De emu diaboli, xii.; Aquinas, Summa, II., xciii.‑xcvii.; Z. Ursinus, Summe of Christian Religion, Ques. 8, London, 1587; J. Edwards, Doctrine of Original Sin Defended, II., i., in his Works, New York, 1808‑09; J. Howe, Oracles of God, lectures. xvi.‑xix., in his Works, vols. vii.‑viii., London, 1822. The subject is usually discussed under Anthropology in the systems of theology (see in and under DOGMA, DoaHAaics), e.g., W. G. T. Shedd, Dogmatic Theology, ii. 95‑114, of. the citations from earlier authorities in iii. 288‑302, New York, 1889‑94, cf. also his His(. of Doctrine, ii. 54‑65, 8th ed., ib. 1884; C. Hodge, Systematic Theology, ii. 92‑115, New York, 1871‑73; H. B. Smith, Systematic Theology, pp. 252‑259, New York, 1884; A. H. Strong, Systematic Theology, pp. 282‑288, Rochester, 1886; H. E. Jacobs, The Book of Concord, consult index under " Man," Philadelphia, 1893.
RIMMG OFFICES: Liturgical offices in which not only the hymns, but also all antiphons, responsories, versicles, etc., are in rime and meter, the only prose being the Psalms and lessons. Since the antiphons and responsories originally were concerned with the history of a feast or a saint, these offices were called histaritx rhythmince. Some 900 of these offices, only a small portion of the original number, have been edited by Clemens Blume and Guido Maria Dreves in their Analecta hymnica medii cr=vi., v., x111., xlv. b, xvll., xvlll., xxlv., xxv., xxvl., xxvlll., xli. a, xlv. a (Leipsic, 1889‑1904). First appearing in the ninth and tenth centuries, the riming offices reached their zenith between the middle of the twelfth and the middle of the fourteenth centuries, though specimens are known as late as the seventeenth century. This rich development finds its explanation in the liturgical liberty allowed in the Middle Ages, while the distinctly local character of the riming offices is shown by the fact that the chief sources are the breviaries of individual dioceses and orders. On the other hand, wider circulation was enjoyed by the offices contained in the breviaries of such orders as the Franciscans and Dominicans; if a riming office was incorporated in the Roman Breviary, its wide use was assured; and the popularity of the saint honored by a particular office, as well as the literary merit of the office in question, was yet another factor in the extension of its use. The present Breviary (q.v.) contains no complete riming office.
	From a literary point of view the riming offices
run the entire gamut from perfunctory doggerel to
flights of genuine poetry. Among the best‑known
are the offices in honor of Gregory the Great (Ana
lecta hymnica, v. No. 64), Saints Anne (xxv. No. 18),
Benedict (xxv. No. 52), Elizabeth (xxv. No. 90),
James (xxvi. No. 42) Peter (xxvi. No. 48), and
Catharine (xxvi. No. 69), and the Virgin (xxiv. Nos.
25, 29, 30). The authorship of offices is known in
only a few cases, among these writers being Alfanus,
archbishop of Salerno (d. 1085); Goswin of Bossut
(d. after 1229); Origo Scaccabarozzi of Milan (d.
1293); John Peckham, archbishop of Canterbury
(d. 1292); Brinolph I., bishop of Scare (d. 1317);
Christian of Lilienfeld (d. before 1332); Birger,
archbishop of Upsala (d. 1383); and Lippold of
Steinberg (d. 1415). 	(P. DREwB.)
BIBIdoanAPHY: Consult the introductions to the ofces printed in the Analecta hymnica medii arvi, ut sup.; 8. B6umer, Geschichte des Breviera, pp. 356‑364; Freiburg, 1895; Julian's von Speir liturpiache Reimoftcien, ed. H. Felder, Freiburg in Switzerland, 1901.
H,im8.i~hteouesew
	moa
RIMMOR, rim'en.
I. The Deity. The Name; Extent of the Cult (¢ 1). Ramman in Babylonia (¢ 2). In Assyria and Syria (4 3). Place of Origin (§ 4). II. As a Place Name.

Rimmon is the name given to a deity and to several places named in the Old Testament.
L The Deity: According to II Kings v. 18, Rimmon was a Syrian deity who possessed a temple almost certainly located in Damascus; the name occurs as an element in the personal name Tabrimmon, father of Benhadad (I Kings xv.
:. The 18); cf. also HADADRIMMoN. The Name; pronunciation indicated by the MaeoretExtent of is pointing is certainly mistaken. This the cult. is suggested (1) by the variant readings of the texts of the Septuagint (Re‑man, Reeman, Remmath, with similar forms for the element in Tabrimmon); (2) by the Syriac reading Ramun; (3) by the fact that a god Ramman, who is especially identified in the cuneiform writings with the "Westland" (Syria), is known to have been worshiped in Assyria and Babylonia from an early period; (4) by the form Raman used by Philo Byblius as preserved in a fragment (C. and T. Muffler, Fragmenta hiatoricorum Grwcorum, iii. 575, Paris, 1841); (5) the Masoretic pointing is easily accounted for by the fact that rimmon is the Hebrew for "pomegranate," which (a) is common in Palestine, probably giving rise to a number of place names (see below, II.), and (b) has an important position in religious symbolism (being an emblem of fertility) and ornamentation (cf. Ex. xxviii., xxxix.; I Kings vii.; II Chron. iii. 16, iv. 13), and this pronunciation might easily be transferred to a deity by those who fixed the pointing of the text. Assuming Rammnn as the proper vocalization of the name (derived probably not from rtim or ramam, "to be high," but from rammanu, "to thunder "), it appears that the ideograph used in the cuneiform records is IM, and that this ideograph represents also a deity Hadad (Adad, Addu, Daddu, Dada; cf. Pinches in PSBA, 1883, pp. 71‑73; Bezold, in PSBA, 1887, pp. 174 sqq.) whose provenience is the "Westland," i.e., Syria. It then appears that Ramman and Hadad are the same deity, that his cult was wide‑spread, and that other designations are Ragimu (from ragam, "to cry aloud"), Mer and Bur (these names being possibly those of earlier or local deities whose personality and functions Ramman absorbed and appropriated), Martu (from the name for " Westland "), and many others; one list alone is said to apply to him forty‑one names. The worship of this deity can by many references in the cuneiform documents be traced in Babylonia and Assyria, also in Syria and Palestine through the Amarns Tablets (q.v.) and through the discoveries at Tsanach (cf. Sellin in the publications of the Vienna Academy, 1904, pp. 113, 118, 119; Macrobius, Saturnalia, I., xxiii.18, makes him chief deity of the Assyrians), also in Arabia (CIS, ii. 117 gives an inscription from North Arabia of fourth or fifth century in which appears Rmnnthn, "Rammon has given "‑‑cf. the Hebrew Jonathan, "Yahweh has

Rimmon
Einokart
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
40
given "; CIS, iv. 140 gives an inscription of c. 24 B. c. which knows a deity Rmn who is "Lord of Alman"; CIS, ii. 73 gives a reading zdkrmn, "Ramman is just" or "Ramman justifies," cf. the Hebrew names Zedekiah and Jehozadak). Attempts to find this deity in the Avesta are as yet doubtful in their results. The Rama of Vendidad i. 1; Sirozah i. 7, 16, ii. 7, etc., can be better accounted for on Indo‑Aryan grounds; moreover the extent of the indebtedness of Zoroastrianism to Babylonian religion has not been made out. Hence it can not be asserted categorically that this Rams is equivalent to the Ramman of Syria, Assyria, and Babylonia.
In Babylonia about Hammurabi's time Ramman was associated, in a hymn which may be earlier than Hammurabi, with Bel (not Marduk), Sin, Ninib,
Ishtar, and Shamash. In Babylonia.the 2. Ramman ideograph already referred to is gener‑
in Baby‑ ally used; possibly the deity was lonia. known also as Immeru (cf. the name
Mer); but Ramman is well authenticated for Babylonia, especially in the region of Shirpurla (Telloh). Ramman seems to have come into prominence in the south in the time of the king named, and after that period increased in popularity (with some vicissitudes), especially under the Kasshites and later under Nebuchadrezzar I. An inscription from the Kasshite period calls him "lord of justice," and in this function he was associated with Shamash, with whom he was also consulted as an oracle god. He was a storm‑deity, a syllabary designates him the god of thunder, and he carries the thunderbolt and ax (cf. with this the expression in no. 149 of the Amama Tablets, Winckler's numbering: "he who thunders in the heavens like Addu, so that the whole land trembles at his voice"); in the omen tablets he is called the withholder and the sender of rain. His connection with the rain is distinct from that with justice; he has a twofold aspect, he sends rain to fertilize the fields and produce crops in order to reward virtue, also to destroy crops and thus to punish the sin of the impious. In this latter relation he is brought into causative connection with the deluge, this being due to his anger. He is also described as making weeds to grow and so punishing the wicked. In the pictorial representations Ramman‑Hadad is often accompanied by a bull, and he at times wears the horns of that animal. The eleventh month (January‑February) was sacred to him. His consort was Shala ("woman," "wife"), whose part, however, is insignificant, like that of goddesses generally in the Semitic world.
That in Assyria this deity was early of importance is shown by the name of the king of c. 1825 B.c. which may be read either Shamshi‑Ramman or Shamahi‑Hadad (see AssymA, VI., 3, §1). For it is now known that in at least some cases the element
in Assyrian royal names which has 3. In Assyria been transcribed Ramman must be
and Syria. read Hadad (cf., e.g., the Sitzungsbe‑
richte of the Berlin Academy, 1899, p. 118). It is demonstrable that in Assyria Hadad and Ramman were current as names for this deity along with other designations as in Babylonia. He appears to have been more popular in Assyria than in the south. He shared with Anu in Asshur a
temple dedicated to him alone by Shamahi‑Ramman, so that the connection with Anu seems later than the dedication, Anu being received as a sort of guest. The statues of Rsmmsn and Shah were carried away from Ekallate (a city‑or temple?represented as in the south of Assyria) and restored by Sennacherib. Tiglath‑Pileser I. calls this god Martu, and the connection with storms is still held, his weapons being lightning, hunger, and death. For Syria and Palestine the worship is indicated by the personal names (probably not by the names of places; see below, IL) compounded with Hadad. Biblical passages are: (1) I Kings xv. 18, 20; II Chron. xvi. 2, 4, Benhadad a king of Syria contemporary with Ass; (2) I Kings xx.; II Kings vi. 24, viii. 7, 9, another king of the same name contemporary with Ahab; (3) II Kings xiii. 3, 24, 25, a son of Hazael; probably Amos i. 4 and Jer. xlix. 27 use the name as a title of the Syrian kings. The name Adadi‑rimani appears in an inscription of the seventh century in Haran. The forms Addu and the like occur frequently in the Amarna Tablets.
The origin of Ramman is still a matter of doubt. Incidental expressions in the cuneiform records, such as that which names him Martu, seem to indicate that the Assyrians assigned to him an Aramean origin. The resulting supposition
	4. Place	long was that contact of Assyria with
	of Origen.	Arum brought the god into the Assyrian
		pantheon, and that Aramean immi
gration earned him also into Babylonia, the result
being his adoption by the priests sad people of the
two regions. But the early evidence of his worship
in both Babylonia and Assyria, his mention under
the ideograph IM, and a multiplicity of minor items
have raised at least the possibility that he was of
Sumerian origin, emerging into prominence only
in the period named. His character as a storm‑god
is general and uniform. Dr. William Hayes Ward
presents the theory that Hadad was the prototype
out of which Yahweh developed. A Hittite deity
carried the same emblems as Hadad‑Ramman, as did
Jupiter Dolichenus; in these cases the probability
is in favor of a borrowing.
	II. As a Place Name: In this sense Rimmon oc
curs frequently in the Old Testament: (1) a city in
Judah or Simeon (Josh. xv. 32; Zech. xiv. 10), prob
ably to be read En‑rimmon (Neh. xi. 29), the present
Um al‑Ramamim; (2) a rock in Benjamin (Judges
xx. 45, 47, xxi. 13), the modern Rammun, four
miles east of Bethel; (3) a city in Simeon possibly
identical with (1) above (I Chron. iv. 32); (4) a
city in Zebulon (I Chron. vi. 77; cf. Josh. xix. 13
R.V.), the modern Rummaneh, north of Nazareth;
(5) a station on the exodus, Rimmon‑parez (Num.
xxxiii. 19‑20); (6) Gath‑rimmon, a city of Dan
(Josh. xix. 45; cf. the Gi"mmu of the Amarna
Tablets, no. 164 in Winckler's edition). In these
cases the probability is against any connection with
the deity, the name being better taken from rimmon,
"pomegranate." 	GEO. W. Gllasoxn.
BIHISOaRAPHY: Consult, besides the references given in the
	teat, the literature on the religion given under Assyria
	and Babylonia, especially. 1VI. Jsatrow, Jr., Religion of
	Babylonia and Aeapr•6a, Boston, 1889, Germ. ed., Giessen,
	1905 (beat); W. von Baudiasin, Studies zur aesaitiaches
	RelipiosaDeachichEe, i. 294 eqq., 308, eqq., Leipsic, 1878;

41
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	8immon
Rinckart
P. Seholts, Gdtzendienst and Zauberwesen bei den alien Hebrdern, pp. 244‑247, Regensburg, 1877; J. HalAvy, in Mt!langes de critique et histoire, p. 424, Paris, 1883; F. Baethgen, Beitrdge zur semitischen Religionageschichte, pp. 69, 75, 84, 255, Berlin 1889; P. D. Chantepie de la Sauesaye, Religiansgewhichte, i. 287‑288, TObingen, 1905. For epigraphic and other illustrative material consult: H. C. Rawlinson, Inscriptions, iv. 28, no. 2, London, 1861; E. Glaser, Die Abessinier in Arabien, p. 35, Munich, 1889; P. Jensen, Kosmologie der Babylonier, pp. 488‑489, Strasburg, 1890; idem, Die Hittiterund Armenier, pp. 171‑173, ib. 1898; A. H. Sayee, Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments, London, 1894; H. Winekler, Tel‑el‑Amarna Letters, New York, 1896; idem, Der Thontafelfund, Berlin, 1896; C. W. H. Johns, Doomsday Book, LeiWc, 1901; idem, Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, Contracts, and Letters, Edinburgh, 1904; and the following magazine literature: ZDMG, xxix (1875), 237 sqq.. xxxi (1877), 734‑736; Gazette arehbologique, ii (1876), 78‑82; ZA, ii (1887), 331332, ix (1894), 310‑314; JA, 1887, p. 461, 1895, p. 386; American Journal of Semitic Languages, xii (1895‑96), 159‑162.
	RINALDI, ri‑nal'di, ODORICO (ODERICUS
RAYNALDUS): Italian Oratorian and church
historian; b. at Treviso (18 m. n. by w. of Venice)
1595; d. at Rome Jan. 22, 1671. He was educated
in his native city, the Jesuit college at Parma, and
Padua; and in 1618 went to Rome, where he en
tered the Oratorian order, of which he was twice
general superior. A diligent Thomist, such was his
learning that he was chosen by his order to continue
the annals of CSesar Baronius (q.v.), beginning with
1198. Taking as his sources the notes of his prede
cessor and the documents contained in the archives
and libraries of Rome, he completed a history of the
Church from the pontificate of Innocent III. to the,
Reformation. His work is the best of all the con
tinuations of Baronius, though not free from errors
and prejudices. His history, the last volume edited
and supplemented after his‑death by other Orato
rians, appeared under the title Annales ecclesiastici
ab anno 1198 . . ad annum 1565 (9 vols., Rome,
1646‑77), and he also made an abridgment of both
Baronius' annals and his own in Latin (3 vols.,
Rome, 1667) and Italian (3 vols., 1670). In recogni
tion of his services Innocent X. Offered to place him
at the head of the Vatican library, but Rinaldi de
clined the honor. A complete edition of the annals
of Baronius and Rinaldi was edited by J. D. and
D. G. Mansi (38 vols., Lucca, 1738‑59), and, with the
continuation of Giacomo Laderchi and an extension
to modern times, by A. Theiner (23 vols., Bar‑le
DUC, 1864‑73). 	(O. Z(SC%LERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The preface to Mansi's ed. of the Annales, vol. I., Lucca, 1747; G. Timboschi, Storia della Letteratura
Italiana, vol. viii., 10 vols.; Rome,1782‑97; H. Laemmer, De Cwsaris Baronii literarum commercio, Freiburg, 1903; KL, x. 842‑843.
RINCKART (RINBART), rinkrdrt, MARTIN: German dramatist and hymnist; b. at Eilenburg (12 m. n.w. of Leipsic) Apr. 24, 1586; d. there Dec. 8, 1649. He was educated at the University of Leipsic (1608‑10), and in 1610‑11 taught at Mansfeld, besides being choirmaster at the church of St. Nicholas. He was then called to be deacon of St. Ann's at Eisleben, and there wrote in 1613 the Luther drama Der eislebische christliche Ritter, in which the fable of the three rings, later used by Lessing, is used to typify the contest of the three confessions for the inheritance of Immanuel. In the same year Rinckart was called to the pas‑
torate of Erdeborn, where he remained four years and wrote his second drama, Lutherus desideratus, in which he treated the concepts and tendencies to 'reform which prevailed from 1300 to 1500. A third drama, the Indulgentiarius tronfusus, was written to celebrate the jubilee of the Reformation, forming the third part of the author's intended heptalogy on Luther. In 1617 Rinckart was called to his native city as archdeacon, and there until his death he delivered weekly sermons on the catechism, the result being his Die Katechismuawohlthaten (Leipsic, 1645). In 1621 he wrote his fourth drama, of which the manuscript is lost, entitled Lutherus magnanimus. This was followed in 1624 by the fifth drama, Monetarius seditiosus oiler der muntxerische Batternkrieg. During this period, when the land was devastated by the hosts of Tilly, Wallenstein, and Gustavus Adolphus, and when Rinckart himself was afflicted with domestic grief, he wrote Jobs christliche, wirkliche and wunderbare Kreuzschule (1619), Christbeschreibung an die herzliebste Mutter (1619), and the brief Kreuz‑Schule. Never losing courage, however, he wrote in 1628 the comforting Der evangelischen Pilgrim galdener Wanderstab. This wan preceded in 1627 by the Novantiqua Eilenbergica, a history of Eilenburg in Latin and German verse from its foundation to 1545. To the same period of exile belongs his Zehnfacher biblischer Lokal~ and Gedenkring otter Gedenkzirkel.
In 1630 Rinckart wrote the sixth drama of his heptalogy, Lutherus Augustus, based on the prophecy of Cardinal Cusanus that in 1630 John the Baptist would rise again and show the lamb of God to all the world. To this same period belong Rinckart's four "parodies," or remodelings of older poems. The first of these is the song of the "Lutheran Deborah" of 1636; the second the "extract from Martin Rinekart's jubilee comedy" of 1630, the third the Latin‑German poem Fera arundinis l ferarum ferocissimarum ferocissima, and the fourth the hymn by which Rinckart is best known, the "Nun danket alle Gott," apparently written in its briefer form in 1630 and expanded in its author's Jesu Hembllchlein (Leipsic, 1636). This hymn has been called, not inaptly, "the German Te Deum." The melody also is by Rinckart, who derived it from an older composition by Lucas Maurentius, master of the chapel at Rome (1581‑99). During the famine of 1638 Rinckart composed the Deutscher Jeremia, and sein geist‑ and leibliches Hungerlied aus dem vierzehnten and ftanfzehnten Kapitel.
With the meeting of the envoys of the powers at Miinater and 0snabrUck in 1643 came hopes of peace, marked by Rinckart in his Des yeutschen priedensHerolden glildenes Pacem and tlbersch6nes Freudenr Kleinod (written about 1644). Rinckart himself,
the ardent lover of peace, was fortunately spared to enjoy for a brief space the Peace of Westphalia.
(A. FREYBE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The biographical work which uses in espe‑
cially full and worthful manner a wealth of sources is
W. Biiehting, Martin Rinckart sin Lebe"ild, GSttingen,
1903. Other noteworthy sketches are: L. Plato, Martin
Rinckart nach seinem dusseren Laben and Wirken, Leipsie,
1830; J. D. VSrkel, Martin Rinckart, sin mangelisches
Bild aus der Zeit des 30‑jhhrigen Krieges, Eilenburg,1857;
J. Links, M. Rinckarts Geistliche Lieder nebet sins,. Dar
stefiung des Lebens and der Werks ilea Dichters, Gotha,

8 to hl
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
1888; Graubner, Ein Beitrap zw Lebenapeschichte M.
Rinckarda. InaupurnldiweMtation, Halle, 1887. Consult
also: C. Mtlller, Der Eialebische Ritter, sin Reformationa
epiel. Halle. 1884; $. W. Dufeld, English Hymns, PP.
393‑394, New York, 1888; E. Michael, Martin Rinckart
ale Dramatiker, Leipaic, 1894; W. Nelle, Martin Ri„„4a*tHamburg, 1904; Julian‑4y; nology, pp. 982‑883.

RING, EPISCOPAL. See VEsTMENTs AND INSIGNIA, ECCLESIASTICAL.

RINGS. See DRESS AND ORNAMENT, HEBREW.
RINK, MELCHIOR: German Anabaptist; b. in Hesse in 1493 or 1494; d. after 1540. He matriculated at the University of Leipsic in 1518, and in 1523 was teaching in a school at Hersfeld, where he helped introduce the Reformation, taking an open stand in its favor in 1524. Soon afterward he came under the influence of Thomas Miinzer (q.v.) and removed to Thuringia, where he labored first ‑ at Oberhausen (near Eisenach) and later at Eckardthausen. He took part in the Peasants' War, acting as leader in the battle near Frankenhausen. Neither the defeat of the Anabaptists in this engagement nor the death of Milnzer could change his course; and he now proceeded to work for the propagation of Anabaptist tenets, and henceforth led the life of a wanderer. In 1527 he was at Worms,. where, with other Anabaptists, he challenged the Evangelical clergy to a debate.. In the following year he was again in Hesse, where he gathered some adherents in the vicinity of Hersfeld and attracted the attention of the authorities. Landgrave Philip, though enforcing no coercive measures, directed the theological faculty of Marburg to confer with Rink, but the negotiations, which were held on Aug. 17‑18, 1528, led to no result, and the landgrave merely disciplined Rink with public ecclesiastical penance.
It was not until this period of his career that Rink's ability as an agitator was fully developed. He now formed small communities in Hesse and Thuringia, and saturated them so thoroughly with Anabaptist doctrines that only in rare instances do they seem to have recanted when brought to trial for their beliefs before the civil magistracy. In 1531, Rink and twelve other Anabaptists gathered for worship were discovered in the course of a domiciliary visit at the village of Vacha on the Werra. Henceforth the Anabaptist leader seems to have been held in custody. Butzer interceded with the landgrave in his behalf (Mar. 17, 1540), but since he refused to recant, he probably did not recover his freedom. The year of his death is unknown.
Rink was an opponent of infant baptism, and of the doctrines of original sin, the real presence, and the vicarious atonlament, as well as of the literal interpretation of Scripture; and stood for a mystical and spiritualistic type of Christianity. At the outset, like Milnzer, he contested the legitimacy of civil authority; but after the Peasants' War he restricted himself to denying the Christian's right to occupy a civil position and to demanding that the churches have authority to elect civil magistrates. The propaganda for these ideas met with great success. Rink personally evinced the courage to stand loyal to his convictions amid the gravest obstacles; while his strict morality and his learning were
acknowledged.	CARL MIRBT.
BIHLIOaEAPHY: B. N. Krohn. Geachichte der janadixhen and enthschen R'iedertduler. Pp. 18 aqq.. Leipeic. 1758; J. Haet, Geachichte der Waedertaujer, pp. 264‑255, Miineter, 1838; K. W. H. Hochbuth, in ZHT, uviii (1858), '.r11‑553. xxx (1880), 272; L. Keller, Geachichte der WiederUiuJer and ihrea Reicha zu Mfinatcr, pp. 127‑128. Miinater, 1880• DI. Lens, Briejwechael LandgmJ Philippa des Groaamiitipen van Hesse mit Bucer, i. 158, 181, 184, 325, Leipeio. 1880 F. H. Reusch. Der Index der verbotenen Blither. p. 120, Bonn, 1883; F. O. our Linden, Melchior Hofmann, pp, 171‑185, Leipsie, 1885; A. H. Newman, Hint. of Anti‑Pedo6aptiam. PP 274‑278. Philadelphia, 1897• K. Rembert, Die "WiedertBUJer" im Herzoptum
•lulich. PP. 170, 198, 453, Berlin, 1899; O. Clemen, in MonataeehriJt der Comeniua‑Geaellachaft, ix. 113‑118, ib. 1900.
RIPHAT$. See TABLE OF THE NATIONS, § 4.

RIPPON, JOHN: English Baptist hymnologist; b. at Tiverton (47 m. n.e. of Plymouth), Devon, Apr. 29, 1751; d. at London Dec. 17, 1836. He was pastor at London, 1773‑1836; and he edited the Baptist Annual Register, 1790‑1802. He is best known as the compiler of Selections of Hymns from the Best Authors (London, 1787; new ed.•after the 30th, 1840; Comprehensive Edition, known as" The Comprehensive Rippon," 1844). The earliest edition was intended as an appendix to Isaac Watts' Psalms and Hymns. His final work has stood as one of the first half‑dozen of hymn‑books of historical importance, as a basis for subsequent compilation, and through its immense sale is said to have gained wealth for him. Among the few hymns of his own was, "The day has dawned, Jehovah comes."
BIHLIOa$APHT: J. Ivimey, Hiat. of English Baptists, iii. 452, 4 vola., London 18110; J. A. Jones, Bunhill Memorials,
pp. 232‑238, ib. 1849; Julian, Hymnology, pp. g83‑gg4; DNB, xlviii. 318‑319.
RISHELL, CHARLES WESLEY: Methodist Episcopalian; b. near Williamsport, Pa., Mar. 9, 1850; d. at Newburyport, Mass., Sept. 27, 1908. He was educated at Drew Theological Seminary (18741875), Wittenberg College, Springfield, Ill. (A.B., 1876), and the University of Berlin (1889‑91). In 1876 he entered the ministry of his denomination and held Ohio pastorates at Finley Church, Cincinnati (1876‑78), Winton Place (1878‑80), Delhi (1880‑83), Avondale (1883‑86), First Church, Urbane. (1886‑89), Asbury Church, Cincinnati (18911894), and Central Church, Springfield (1894‑95). After 1895 he was professor of historical theology in the School of Theology of Boston University and assistant dean after 1904. In theology he was a progreqeive conservative. He wrote A History of Christianity (Chicago, 1891; based on R. Sohm's Kirchengeschichte); The Higher Criticism (1892); The Official Recognition of Women in the Church (1894); The Foundations of the Christian Faith (New York, 1899); and The Child as God's Child (1905).

RIST, JOHANN: German hymnist and dramatist; b. at Ottensen, a suburb of Hamburg, Mar. 8, 1607; d. at Wedel (13 m. w. of Hamburg), Aug. 31, 1667. He was educated at the universities of Rinteln and Rostock, and is also said to have studied at Leyden, Utrecht and Leipsic, though during this latter period he seems actually to have lived at Hamburg and Ottenaen. In 1633‑35 he was private tutor at Heide, but in 1635 accepted the pastorate of Wedel, where be spent the remainder of his life.

43	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	RRit chi
Here he lived quietly, beloved by his people, and attending to their physical ills by his knowledge of medicine, until 1643, when Wedel was sacked by Torstenson in the Thirty Years' War. These melancholy events he described in his Holsteins Klagand Jammerlied; another poem addressed to the emperor in the following year, when the peace envoys convened at Munster, gained him the laureateship. In 1653 he received a patent of nobility, and later the title of imperial court‑ and palsgrave, thus having the right to crown poets and to create doctors, licentiates, masters, and bachelors. In 1656 he founded the Elb‑Schwanenorden, and also enjoyed the favor of princes, especially of Duke Christian of Mecklenburg, who created him ecclesiastical andconsistorial councilor. Shortly before his death he composed his Christliche Sterbekunat (Hamburg, 1667) and Alleredelste Zeitverkurzung (1667).
Rist published his hymns, which number 659, in ten collections from 1642 to 1664. Though some of the hymns are mechanical and of inordinate length, Rist still remains, next to P. Gebhardt, both the most prolific German writer of hymns and the one who has done most for Lutheran hymnology. At the same time, he designed his compositions to serve for private worship as well as for public services. The faults of tediousness and pedantry appear prominently in his " historical poems" and his eulogies. The former he collected in his Musa Teutonica (1634) and Poetischer Lustgarten. His short lyrics are in higher vein, being conceived with true depth of feeling, though not entirely free from mythological pedantry.
As a dramatist Rist is also important. He himself states that he wrote more than thirty dramas, though only five were ever printed. These are as follows: Irenaromachia, oder Friede and Krieg (published under the name of his friend Stapel, 1630); Perseus (1634); Das Friedewiinschende Teutschland (1647, and often); Das friedejauchtzende Teutsehland (1653); and Dispositio Cornuti typographici (1654, and often). Rist likewise states that he published a tragedy entitled, Herodes. The Friedejauchtzendes Teutschland is written entirely in High German, but the other four dramas are of value for a knowledge of Low German, especially in their comic interludes, as well as for contemporary records of the period: At the same time he made a plea for pure German in his Rettung der edlen teutschen Hauptsprache (Hamburg, 1642). (A. FREYBE.)
Among English translations of parts of his hymns may be named '° Lord Jesus Christ, the living bread, " by A. T. Russell; " Praise and thanks to thee be sung," by Miss Winkworth; " O Jesu 1 welcome, gracious namel " by A. T. Russell; " Now God be praised, and God alone," by Miss Winkworth; and " Rise, O Salem, rise and shine," also by Miss Winkworth.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Hansen, Johann RiRt and seine Zeit,
Halle, 1872; K. Goedeke and J. Tittmann, Deutsche
Dichter des 77. Jahrhunderts, vol. xv., Leipsic, 1885 (the
introduction valuable, corrects Hansen); K. T. Gaederts.
in Jahrbueh dea Vereina fitr nnederdeutache Sprachforachung,
vii (1881), 104 sqq. Less important are H. A. Pick, Johann Rist, der Pfarrer von Wedel, Hamburg, 1907; and
Julian, Hymnology, pp. 964‑966.
RITSCHL, ritsh'1, ALBRECHT BENJAMIN.
I. Life. II. Theology.
Attitude toward Dogmatics and PhilowphY (5 1).
Theological Position and Biblical Theory ($ 2).
Faith's Relation to Justification and Atonement (§ 3).
Theory of the Church ($ 4).
The Work of Christ (§ 5).
Doctrine of God and Sin ($ 6).
I. Life: Albrecht Benjamin Ritschl, one of the foremost German Protestant theologians of the nineteenth century, was born at Berlin Mar. 25, 1822; d. at Gottingen Mar. 20, 1889. He was educated at the universities of Bonn (1839‑41) and Halle (1841‑43), and during this period gradually passed from Biblical supranaturalism to a critical and speculative' position, to the distress of his father, Georg Karl Benjamin Ritschl (q.v.). Meanwhile he had also become interested in Hegelianism and in the study of the doctrine of the atonement, and his dissertation for the doctorate bore the title Expositio doetrlnte Augustini de creations mundi, peccato, gratis (Halls, 1843). After leaving Halle, Ritschl passed the winter in Berlin and then spent almost a year with his parents at Stettin. Desiring, however, to fit himself for the career of a teacher, he studied for six months at Heidelberg in 1845, and then went to Tubingen, where he became an enthusiastic follower of Ferdinand Christian Baur (q.v.), seeking to prove that the apocryphal gospel of Marcion, mentioned by Tertullian, was the source of Luke, this theory being advanced in his Das Evangelium Marciona and das kanonische Evangelium des Lukas (TUbingen, 1846).
In 1846 Ritschl became privat‑docent for NewTestament theology at Bonn. Here independent study led him further and further from the position of the Tubingen school, although his monograph entitled Die Entetehung der altkatholischen Kirche (Bonnf 1850) as yet marked no decisive break. Soon, however, he rejected his own theory concerning Luke, now maintaining the priority of Mark over the other Synoptic Gospels; and in 1856 came the open breach between him and Baur. In the following year Ritschl issued a complete revision of his history of the early Church, in which he denied the hypotheses of the Tubingen school, and maintained that the alleged delimitation between Paul and the original apostles (who were not to be considered Jewish Christians) was non‑existent. He likewise held that Jewish Christianity was not a factor in the development of the early Church, but that, on the contrary, it was a specifically determined phase of gentile Christianity, which must, however, be distinguished from the system of Paul. In 1852 Ritschl, whose theological development was bringing him back to close intellectual sympathy with his father, was appointed associate professor, his work now including systematic theology, even as he had already been permitted to lecture on church history and the history of dogma since 1848.
In 1859 Ritschl was promoted to a full professorship at Bonn, but in 1864 accepted a call to the University of Gottingen. Here he lectured not only on the New Testament, but also on all branches of systematic theology, and here, after years of preliminary study and writing, he produced his great

Ritechl	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	44
work, Die christliche Lehre von der Rechtfertigung and Vers6hnung (3 vols., Bonn, 1870‑04; 4th ed., 1895‑1902; Eng. tranal. of vol. i., Critical History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation, Edinburgh, 1872, of vol. iii., The Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation, New York, 1900). A brief summary of the basal concepts of this work was given by Ritsehl in Ueber die christliche Volkommenheit (G6ttingen, 1874; 3d ed., 1902); his judgment of the theological tendencies of the nineteenth century was set forth in Schleiermachers Reden fiber die Religion and ihre Nachurirkungen auf die evangelische Kirche Deutschlands (Bonn, 1874); and he prepared a compend of his theological system in Unterricht in der christlichen Religion (1875; 6th .ed., 1903). His only important later contribution to systematic. theology was the Theologie and Metaphysik (Bonn, 1881; 3d ed., 1902). After 1876 he turned again to historical problems, as in the Geschichte des Pietismus (3 vols., Bonn, 1880‑86).
Between 1870 and 1874 Ritschl declined a call to Strasburg and four calls to Berlin, as well as an invitation to become a member of the supreme ecclesiastical council of the State Church of Prussia. In 1876‑77 and in 1886,87 he was prorector of the university, and in 1878 was elected a member of the national consistory of Hanover, although he seldom attended its sessions. After his death, his briefer contributions were collected under the title of Gesammelte Aufsdtze (Freiburg, 1893).
11. Theology: Although Ritschl exercised a profound influence at Bonn, the so‑called " Ritschlian school " did not rise till nearly a decade after he had gone to G6ttingen; and the movement was led less by his students than by those who had been impressed by his writings, especially by his study
of the atonement. Ritschl himself,
:. Attitude however, was opposed to all forms of toward Dog‑ partizanship, nor did he construct a
matics and formal system of dogmatics, the nearPhilosophy. est approach to this being the Un‑
terrieht mentioned above. At the same time, in the middle portion of the third volume of his work on the atonement he found himself compelled to give an almost complete outline of dogmatics to furnish the setting for the cardinal doctrine of Protestant Christianity, though he felt himself at liberty to omit some topics and to treat others briefly. To the latter category belong the questions of general methodology and of the principles of dogmatics, which border on the sphere of philosophy. Later, however, in the Theologie and Metaphysik he devoted attention to the problems of epistemology as expounded by Kant and Lotze, in so far as they were pertinent to theology, although the science of epistemology always remained to him one of subordinate importance. This very attitude, however, led to many misinterpretations of his system. Since he appealed to epistemology, he was charged with making his dogmatics depend on the solution of problems involved in the theory of knowledge; and since in his later years he held that religious knowledge finds expression in independent or direct value‑judgments, some of his critics accused him of constructing a quasi‑Feuer‑
bachian theology. As a matter of fact, however, Ritschl's " direct or independent value‑judgment " meant nothing more than that theoretical religious knowledge is differentiated from the theoretical knowledge of science simply by the fact that the former is conditioned by the inherent practical interests of the soul rather than by the impersonal endeavor to offer an objective explanation of the problem of existence. It is, therefore, entirely incorrect to charge Ritschl with the constructive use of a philosophy which he excluded on principle. His entire system of thought was centered in, and conditioned by, Christian revelation; and it applied the interpretation of a distinctively Christian religion to all the great phenomena of the soul and of the history of Christianity. It was quite characteristic, then, that, in his work on the atonement, Ritschl should proceed from the history of the development of the dogma in question back to the Biblical teachings on the theme, thus reversing the customary procedure. Maintaining that the final revelation of God was given in the person and works of Christ, and at the same time postulating the inadequacy of the mere facts recorded concerning him in the New Testament, Ritschl held that the foundation of theological doctrines must be sought in the primal consciousness of the Christian community, the sole source here being the New Testament.
While the position just outlined implies that Ritschl was essentially a Biblicist, his attitude was materially conditioned by the ecclesiastical character which he ascribed to dogmatics. Like Luther, moreover, he held that the Bible is the word of God only in so far as it emphasizes Christ,
a. Theolog‑ so that, while all ordinances and beical Position liefs of primitive Christianity are not sad Biblical binding on Christian theology and on
	Theory.	the Christian Church, every doctrine
		of the salvation won through Christ
must be based in substance on the Bible. In addi
tion, he maintained that the Pauline doctrine of
justification by faith was binding on theology; and,
unlike most modern theologians, who stress the new
and distinctive character of New‑Testament con
cepts, he maintained that, unless there is direct
proof to the contrary, the Biblical writers must be
supposed to be capable of expressing their thoughts
in orderly and methodical fashion. This theory,
however„ presupposed an essentially modern type
of interpretation, which excluded sympathy with
the ancient modes of thought and feeling that are
evidently present in the New Testament; and
Ritschl's Biblical theology, developed early in his
career and changed but little in the course of his
life, represents the point of view of the middle of
the nineteenth century, and has been in great part
superseded by the results of the historical studies
of primitive Christianity. In addition to all this,
Ritschl came to appeal more and more to the ideal
of life of the Reformers and to the creeds of Lu
theranism, ascribing more importance to the latter
than to the symbols of the early Church, which he
valued only in so far as they maintained religious
positions, especially the divinity of Christ. The
authority of the Protestant concept of religion con‑

46
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
sisted, in his opinion, in its maintenance of the lootrine of justification by faith, lacking in the Eastern Church, but established in the West by Augustine and defended by the medieval representatives of classical Roman Catholicism. On the other hand, this very position led him to depreciate the work of the " Reformers before the Reformation " and of the mediating theology. Like the Reformers, Ritschl made justification and atonement the cardinal doctrines of Christianity, and this fact is the key to his chief theological teachings. So strongly, moreover, did he consider that the sole basis for a knowledge of God is in the divine revelation in the works and person of Christ, that he rejected all natural theology and ignored its proofs for God's existence. Since, however, such an estimate of Christ presupposes Christian belief, and since this belief can arise in the Christian community only through experience of justification and atonement, religious comprehension of God and Christ necessarily has as its sole foundation the personal faith which arises through justification. In accordance with this position, he reversed the usual method, and placed the subjective elements of Christianity first, disregarding the ontology of the object of faith as a basis of a religiously conditioned theological knowledge. It thus becomes clear that Ritschl's concept of the Bible was not one of a mere external standard, but rather implied that the revelation of God in Christ, in so far as drawn from the New Testament, possesses the character of revelation only for a faith which comprehends and recognizes it as such.
Faith, according to Ritschl, is not a mere passive service of man, but an active trust in God and divine providence, directly displayed in humility,
patience, and prayer, and influencing
3. Faith's the development of the moral life. Relation to The reconciliation of this religious and justification ethical independence of the Christian and Atone‑ with his sense of absolute dependence
	meat.	on God was the cardinal problem of
		Ritschl's theory of justification and
atonement. To solve the difficulty Ritaehl advanced
the theory that the sinner who becomes a believer
is first passively placed by God in a state of justi
fication, justification in turn being practically real
ized in the atonement which perfects it, and the
atonement constituting the basis of Christian activ
ity. Justification, which is synonymous with for
giveness of sins, frees the sinner from the guilt that
separates him from God; the mistrust of God ari
sing from consciousness of sin vanishes before the
promise of divine grace; and the old active oppo
sition to the divine will gives place to an equally
active obedience to the commandments of God.
Though good works may be imperfect even when
the will of man has been renewed, yet, on the whole,
the exercise of trust, humility, patience, and prayer,
and the fulfilment of moral requirements in the
spirit of Christian love, constitute what was under
stood and required by the New Testament and by
the Reformers as Christian perfection, though this
must be understood qualitatively, not quantita
tively. Justification and atonement lay the foun
dation for the transformed sinner's new status as a
child of God; but at the same time justification,
B.itechl
which finds its practical realization in the atonement, is a creative act of the divine will, conditioned by no human merits or circumstances, but due to the fact that the sinner who comes to believe is held by God to be righteous despite his sin, so that the Father takes the initiative by establishing religious fellowship between himself and man, the basis of this being, not the sinner, but the work of Christ and its efficacy.
Like Luther, Ritscbl made the concept of the religious community bear directly upon his theory of justification, this religious community in question connoting, not the Church as a visible
4. Theory organization, but the complex of all
of the justified believers and the permanent
	Church.	result of its lord and founder, Christ,
		whose influence it ever preserves and
perpetuates. The agency which produces belief in
justification in the individual, and thus leads to re
generation and divine sonship, is preaching; and
through this proclamation of the word of God
or of the Gospel the religious community comes
to be the mother of the individual believers.
Thus Ritschl was able to avoid the sectarian
theory of the Church as a voluntary association
of individual believers; and he could, on the con
trary, maintain that the Church traces her origin
back to her founder Christ, and that her members
receive from a preexisting organization those powers
of the Holy Ghost within her which call forth their
faith and influence their subsequent lives. To es
tablish the genetic bond between individual be.
lievers within the Church and Christ as its head,
Ritschl maintained that the Church, which is not
subject to the limitations of empiricism or time, is
an organic whole which, though visibly existing
only in its parts, logically posits the preexistence of
the whole. Accordingly, the Church was the object
of divine love before the individuals who belong to
it. At the same time, the experience of justifica
tion and atonement is individual, not collective;
especially as the consciousness of guilt and the mis
trust of God, which are removed by justification,
are considered by him to be individual defects.
These empirical personal experiences, however, do
not conflict with the logical construction of the
ideal relation of the Church to Christ (who founded
it for the salvation of its individual members) and
God (who chose it as the body of all future believers
and as the means for the realization of his kingdom
on earth). Only thus could he establish the prior
ity of justification, as a supratemporal creative act
of God, to regeneration, as a personal experience of
the believer.
In conformity with this theory of the Church Ritachl construed the work of Christ under the two aspects of royal prophet and royal priest, the royalty of both phases being derived from the
g. The spiritual kingship exercised by Christ
Work of throughout his life. The prophetic
	Christ	office of Christ is exercised from God to
		man, the priestly from man to God.
In the priestly function, which logically presup
poses the achievement of his prophetic mission, is
found the essential reason why, for Christ's sake,
God grants regeneration to sinners‑the fact that

Ritschl	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	46
Bitter
	through faith they are united with Christ as mem
	bers of his Church. Christ does not, however, rep
	resent the believer in a juristic sense which sepa
	rates his righteousness from himself to impute it to
	the believer, but in an inclusive sense, so that, with
	out being himself dispensed from the obligation of
	righteousness, the believer has imputed to him the
	relation of Christ to the love of God. From this
	estimate of the work of Christ Ritschl sought to
	deduce his view of the person of Christ. He
	taught an ideal preexistence of Christ as the ful
	filler of the divine plan of salvation in a world
	which, like mankind, had been created for this
	very end; and although the earthly Christ lacks
	the traits of divine omnipotence, omniscience, and
	omnipresence, he is recognized and honored as God
	by the faithful.
		Ritschl's Christology forms the transition to his
doctrine of God, who must be known not from meta
	physical speculations of natural religion or theology
	but solely in religious faith from the works and the
person of Christ. Accordingly, God can be con
			ceived only as the Father, whose es
	6. Doctrine sence is love, the quality which all
		of God	other divine qualities serve merely to
		and Sin.	prove. Only those who sin against the
			Holy Ghost by obstinately opposing
	the good which God desires for them are doomed to
final destruction. All others are objects of the
	fatherly training of God, so that the punishments
which he visits upon them are intended solely for
their correction and religious progress. All evil,
	however, is not to be considered divine punishment
	of sin, for the concept of evil is not theological and
is	subjectively conditioned in each specific case.
The Christian must, through his faith in divine
	providence, transform into good the evils which
beset him, regarding them as means whereby God
advances what is really best for him. The true
	punishment of sin is guilt, which is removed by
	justification, or the forgiveness of sins. From the
divine point of view sin is ignorance, but from the
human point of view it is guilt and rebellion against
	God. The doctrine of original sin is, therefore, to
	be rejected for the theory of a kingdom of sin which
	impedes the freedom of the individual toward good,
and which is strengthened by the evil‑doing of each
one. It is impossible to prove the general necessity
	of sin, but its empirical probability is self‑evident.
The kingdom of sin is, however, opposed by the
	kingdom of God, which is distinguished from the
	Church in that it promotes the moral welfare of the
	believer, while the Church furthers his capacity for
	worship. From this point of view Ritschl draws
an antithesis between the ethical duties of the
	Church (prayer, profession of faith, and teaching)
	and her religious functions (preaching and the sacra,
	ments), the visible organization of the Church be
	ing but a means to these ends. In this the concept
	of the kingdom of God has no immediate part, but
	it enters vitally into Ritschl's interpretation of the
	Christian ideal of life, which embraces, on the one
	hand, all Christian duties and virtues, and, on the
	other, the obligation to mutual love, to be mani
	fested in the conscientious discharge of the moral
calling.	(0. RITBCHL.)
BiBwoaaeray: The one biography is by O. Ritsohl, 2 vols., Freiburg. 1892‑96. On the theology consult: E Luthardt, in Zeitachrift far kirchliche Wiaaenachaft and Leben, 1881, pp. 817‑443• H. Weiss, in TSK, 1881, pp. 377‑417; G. A. Fricke, Metaphyeik used Dopmatik in ihren gepenaeitipen Verhdltniase, unter beaond. Beziehunp auf die Ritachl'acho Theolopio, Leipsic, 1882; L Haug, Daratellun® and Beurtheilung der Ritechl'echen Thmlo~, Ludwigeburg, 1885; O. Flugel, A Ritachl'a philoeophiache Anaichten, Langensalza, 1886; M. Reischle, Ein Wort zur Kontroverae fiber die Mystik in der Theoloyie, Freiburg, 1886; J. Thik6tter, Darstellunp and Beurtheilunp der Theoloyie Albrecht Ritachls, 2d ed., Bonn, 1887; F. H. R. Frank, Ueber die kirchliche Bedoutunp der Theolopie Albrecht Ritachle, Leipeic, 1888; T. Haring, Zu Ritachl's Verabhnunpalehre, Zurich, 1888; F. Lichtenberger, German Theology in the 19th Century, Edinburgh, 1889; E. Bertrand, Une Nouvelle Conception de la r&lemption. La doctrine . . done le eyaUme th6 olopique de Ritechl, Paris, 1891; O. PHeiderer, Die Ritsehl'acha Theolopie kritisch beleuchtet, Brunswick, 1891; H. Schoen, Les Origines historiquea de la thiolopie de Ritachl, Paris, 1893; R. Favre, Lea Principea philosophiquea de la tUolopie de Ritschl, ib. 1894; G. Mielke, Doe System Albrecht Ritachla, Bonn, 1894; G. Ecke, Die theolopiache Sehule A. Ritwhls and die evangelische Kirche der Gegenwart, 2 vols., Berlin, 1897‑1904; R. Wegener, Albrecht Ridschla Ides den Reichea Gotten im Licht der Geschichte, Leipsie, 1897; A. E Garvie, The Ritaehlian Theology, Edinburgh, 1899; J. Wendland, Albrecht Ritschl and seine Schider, Berlin, 1899; F. Nippold, Handbuch der neuesten Theolopie, iii. 439 sqq., ib. 1901; A. T. Swing, The Theology of Albert Ritachl, New York, 1901; F. Kattenbusch, Von Schleiermacher zu Ritachl, 3d ed., Giessen, 1903; C. von Kiigelgen, Grundriaa der Ritschl'achen Dopmatik, 2d ed., Gottingen, 1903; J. Orr, Ritschlianiam: Exposition and critical Essays, London, 1903; W Herrmann, Faith and Morals, London and New York, 1904; C. Stange, Der dopmatieche Brtrag der Ritschl'achen Theolopie each Julius Kaftan, Leipsic, 1908; C. Fabricius, Die Entwicklung in AlbraU Ritaehla Theolopie von 187.¢ bra 1888 nach Works darpeatellt and beurteilt, Tubingen, 1909; J. H. Motley, Ritschlianism: An Essay, London, 1909; and C. Fabricius, Die Enturicklunp in A Ritmhla Theolopie, 1874‑89, Tiibingen, 1909; E. A. Edghill, Faith and Fact; a Study of Ritachlianiam, London and New York, 1910. An important periodical literature is indicated in Richardson, Encyclopaedia, pp. 939‑940.

RITSCHL, GEORG KARL BENJAMIN: German Lutheran, father of the preceding; b. at Erfurt Nov. 1, 1783; d. at Berlin June 18, 1858. He was educated at the universities of Erfurt (17991801) and Jena (1801‑02), where he came under rationalistic influences, though later he returned to positive Christianity. In 1804 he settled in Berlin as a private tutor, also acting as an instructor at the Gymnasium zum grauen Kloster, where he gradually rose to be subrector. He also preached after 1807, and in 1810 was chosen third pastor of St. Mary's, Berlin, where his simple and direct style of preaching, based on the Bible only, made a deep impression on all classes. On the reestablishment of the consistories in the Prussian provinces in 1816, Ritachl was appointed assessor for Brandenburg, and in the following year was made a councilor. Here his duties were practically restricted to the examination of theological candidates, but in 1818 he collaborated in the preparation of the Berlin hymnal which appeared in 1829. In 1827 he was appointed bishop of the Evangelical Church, general superintendent of Pomerania, director of the consistory, and first preacher at the castle church of Stettin. These positions he filled for many years, his service being interrupted only in 1829‑30, when he was sent to St. Petersburg to collaborate on the agenda for the Russian Lutherans which was pub‑

4"/	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Ritechl
Bitter
lished in 1832. As general superintendent Ritschl
had to encounter much less opposition than as a
member of the consistory, although his coming had
been the signal for a general improvement in
religious and ecclesiastical conditions throughout
Pomerania. After 1847 he had new problems to con
front, for while he was in sympathy with the intro
duction of the union into his province, the measure
had resulted in the separatistic movement of Old
Lutheranism (see LUTHERANS, II.), the difficulty
being complicated by the revival sermons of indi
vidual preachers. The attempt to obviate schism
brought about the counter‑evil of Neo‑Lutheran
ism, which determinedly resisted union, especially
after 1848. These troubles embittered the closing
years of Ritschl's administration, despite his marked
success as general superintendent. Feeling himself
unable to cope, by reason of his age, with the new
questions which were now arising, he resigned his
offices in 1852 and retired to Berlin, and there he
passed the remainder of his life. In 1855 he was
made an honorary member of the supreme ecclesi
astical council, where his ripe experience proved to
be of the greatest value. 	(0. RITSCHr..)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: O. Ritsehl, Albrecht Ritachls Leben, chaps. i.‑ix. et passim, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1892‑96; idem, Die Sendung des Bischofs Ritschl nach Petersburg im Jahre 181'9, Bonn, 1890; H. Dalton, Zur Geschichte der evangelischen Kirche in Russland, pp. 1‑35, Leipsie, 1893.
RITSCHL, OTTO KARL ALBRECHT: German Protestant; b. at Bonn June 26, 1860. He was educated at the universities of Gottingen, Bonn, and Giessen from 1878 to 1884 (lie. theol., Halle, 1885), and in 1885 became privat‑docent for church history at the University of Halle. Four years later he was called to Kiel as associate professor, whence he went, in 1894, to Bonn in a similar capacity, where he became full professor of systematic theology in 1897. He has written: De epistulis Cyprianicis (Halle, 1885); Cyprian von Karthago and die Verfassung der Kirche (Gottingen, 1885) ; Schleiernzachers Stellung zum Christentum in semen Roden caber die Religion (Goths, 1888); Das christliche Lebensideal in Luthers Aufassung (Halle, 1889); Albrecht Ritschls Leben (2 vols., Freiburg, 1892‑96); Ueber Welturteile (1895); Nietzsehes Welt‑ and Lebensanschauung in ihrer Entstehung and Ent_ uricklung (1897); Die Causalbetraehtung in der Geisteswimenschaft (Bonn, 1901); Wissenschaftliche Ethik and moralische Gesetzgebung (Tiibingen, 1903); Die freie Wissenschaft and der Idealismus auf den deutschen Universitdten (Bonn, 1905); System and systematische Methode in der Geschichte des wissenschaftlichen Sprachgebrauchs and der philosophischen Methodologie (1906); and Dogmengeschichte des Protestantismus, vol. i., prolegomena, Biblicasmus and Traditionalismus in der altprotestantischen Theologie (Leipsie, 1908).
RITTER, ERASMUS: Reformer; d. at Bern Aug. 1, 1546. The place and date of his birth, like the details of his education, are unknown. He had however, acquired distinction as a preacher at Rottweil, and in 1523 was invited to Schaffhausen to counteract the influence of the Franciscan Sebastian Hofmeister (q.v.), whom Zwingh had converted to Reformed doctrines. Though received
with great honor and made preacher at the Benedictine abbey of All Saints, he met with no success, and becoming convinced that he must meet Hofmeister on his own ground, he began the studies which resulted in his own conversion to Protestantism. This remarkable change conspicuously advanced the Protestant cause, and Ritter and Hofmeister were delegated by the council to accompany the Baden deputation in 1526 and ably seconded fEcolampadius. In 1524, moreover, Michael Eggenstorfer, the last abbot of All Saints, changed the abbey into a provostship and applied its revenues to education and charity, as well as to the payment of the clergy.
In 1525, however, conditions changed. In consequence of a petty insurrection, Hofmeister was dismissed, and his place was taken by the Roman Catholic Gallus Steiger. The position of Ritter now became more difficult. Though the nascent Reformation was not forcibly suppressed, extreme caution became necessary. Nevertheless, the friends of Ritter, who was ably counseled by Zwingli, steadily increased in the great council, and they were aided by the council of Zurich. With the triumph of Protestantism in Bern (1528) and Basel (1529), all opposition vanished, and in 1529 an embassy from Zurich, Bern, Basel, and St. Gall, coming to Schaffhausen at Ritter's instigation, was cordially welcomed, so that on Sept. 29 both councils unanimously voted to accept the Reformation. With the abolition of the mass celibacy was renounced, and within the year Ritter had married an ex‑nun, the sister of Michael Eggenstorfer.
The years following were unfavorable to the furtherance of the work. Ritter was involved in futile controversies with the Anabaptists, and, as an adherent of Zwingh's views, he was in open conflict with his colleague, Benedikt Burgauer of St. Gall, who was as pronouncedly Lutheran in his eucharistic doctrines. The struggle between the two dragged on, nor could either the appeal of fEcolampadius to Burgauer or the envoys from Zurich, Bern, and Basel to the council produce any lasting peace. Equally futile was the appointment of a committee of three in Dec., 1530, to hear both sides, for though Burgauer expressed himself as in error, and though both he and Ritter signed a formula drawn up by Butzer and agreed to keep peace, Burgauer's word was quickly broken. Ritter desired to found a theological school and advised the council to secure Leo Jud as instructor, but the appointment was never made, probably because Jud was from the suspected city of Zurich. Burgauer and Ritter were accordingly obliged, despite their differences, to combine in their Biblical lectures for the instruction of the young, Ritter interpreting the Old Testament, and Burgauer the New.
In view of the complications arising from the retention of certain usages of the old faith, and in consideration of the decay of moral discipline, the clergy, in 1532, presented to the council a memorial, probably drawn up by Ritter, urging the necessity of action. Burgauer alone refused to sign the memorial, which was without result. In the following year, with the arrival of new assistance in the person of Beat Gerung, the clergy of Schaffhausen de‑

Ritualism ter	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
48
termined to introduce a uniform liturgy, and their unanimous outline for such a liturgy was approved by the council. Burgauer now objected to some unessential details and refused to yield, even when urged by Bullinger and Blaurer. The clergy, wearied by his obstinacy, finally requested the council to remove him from his position; and the council, after some hesitation, acquiesced. Burgauer's partizans, in their turn, insisted on Ritter's dismissal, and on Whitsunday, 1536, both received their congas.
On May 8, 1536, Ritter was called to Bern, where he soon became chief dean. Yet here again he was involved in controversy. The rigid Zwinglianism which had formerly prevailed in Bern had been disturbed by the call to the city of two advocates of the union urged by Butzer, Peter Kunz, and Sebastian Meyer. The unionistic faction was now headed by Kunz and, the Zwinglians by Kaspar Megander (q.v.). In the following year, however, Megander left Bern on account of certain changes made without his knowledge by Butzer ih a catechism which he had been commissioned by the council to frame, Butzer seeing in the original draft obstacles to the union between the Lutherans and the Reformed. Ritter, having taken no active part in the affair, felt able to obey the command of the council to subscribe to the catechism under pain of dismissal, but Megander, deeply offended by the successful opposition of Butzer, left Bern for Zurich, soon followed by his friend Johannes Moller (Rhellicanus). The compliance of Ritter, though sincere, especially in view of the needs of the church at Bern, was disapproved by his partisans; and clerical dissatisfaction with the nation and attitude of the council led to violent demonstrations. At this crisis Ritter labored successfully to secure peace, and at the same time regained the confidence he had forfeited.
In Mar., 1538, Ritter and Kunz were delegates to the Synod at Lausanne, where the former formed ties of friendship with Calvin, Farel, and Viret. He was the only one of the Bernese clergy to welcome the exiles from Geneva, later accompanying them to Zurich, where their case was to be considered in May; and when the council of Bern sent a delegation to Geneva to bring the exiles back, Ritter was one of the number at the special request of Calvin.
The places of Megander and Rhellicanus at Bern were filled by the unionistic Thomas Grynaeus and Simon Sulzer, but Ritter, though now the only Zwinglian among the city clergy, rapidly regained his wonted sure footing, especially as he was supported by the majority of the dissatisfied clergy of the countryside, and until his death he held his position, unwearied in his polemics.
(G. KmCHHOrEB.)
BIBLJOO$APH7: J. Strickler, Aktenaammlunp our achweiserisohen Reformotionapeachichte, Zurich, 187884; M. Kireh‑
hofer, Sebastian Hofmeieter, ib. 1809; idem, Schafhauseri‑
ache Jahrbileher 1618‑88, Frauenfeld, 1838; C. B. Hundee‑
hagen. Die Konfikte dee Zvrinplianiamw, Luthertuma and
Calviniemue in der berniechen Landeakirche 1632‑68, Bern,
1842; J. J. Meager, Geachichte der deutachen Bibeiiiberadz‑
unpen in der echweiseriach‑reformierten Kirche, pp. 169
eqq., Basel, 1876• K. Schweizer, in Theolopiache Zeit‑
schrift aua der Schmeiz, 1891; E. Mach, Gvechicdte der
achweizerixh‑reformiarten %irdhe~ vol. i., Bern, 1898.
RITTER, KARL: German geographer; b. at Quedlinburg (31 m. a.w. of Magdeburg) Aug. 7, 1779; d. at Berlin Sept. 28, 1859. He received his education at Halle; served as pi vate tutor; became professor of history in the Gymnasium at Frankfort, 1819; and was appointed professor of geography in the University of Berlin in 1820, and gave a new and powerful impulse to that branch of study. Those of his works which are of interest for the student of the Bible are Der Jordan and die Betrehifung des Todten Meeres (Berlin, 1850); Ein Buck auf Pa tlstina (Berlin, 1852); and Die Errlkunde in nineteen parts (1822‑59; in part translated by W. L. Gage and entitled The Comparative Geography of Palestine and the Sinaitic Penintrtda, 4 vols., Edinburgh, 1866).
BrauooawrHy: W. L. Gage, The Life of Carl Ritter, 1887; A. Guyot, Carl Ritter, Princeton, N. J., 1880; G. Kramer,
Carl Ritter, Bin Lebenabild, Halle, 1875; F. Marthe, Was
bedeuad Carl Ritter far die Geographie I Berlin, 1880; F.
Ratael, Beitrap au K. Rittera 100‑yahripen Geburtatape, in
Kleine Sehriften, vol. i., Munich, 1906.
RITUAL: A form of worship or other solemn service, prescribed and established by law, precept, or custom, in contrast with a more or less extemporaneous mode of worship that depends on the discretion of the leader or the impulse of the worshipers. Also the office‑book of a ritualistic body. See RrrueLism.

RITUAL‑EXAMINATION (Gebettwerh6r). From the time when the Christian Church first developed into an objective organized institution, certain proofs of a knowledge of the faith have been exacted from those accepted into its membership. The Church has endeavored to guard, confirm, and cherish the Christian life of its members, by preaching, instruction, and the other instrumentalities of the care of souls, but also by formal tests, and admission to its honors and privileges, and even participation in the sacraments have been conditioned upon the result of such examination. Thus during the Middle Ages sponsors had to show that they knew at least the creed and the Lord's Prayer. People gathered for confession before the Holy Communion were examined, and even bride and bridegroom had to undergo a test (Brautexamen; see WEDDING CffaTOMs). The Protestant church rituals of the second half of the sixteenth century prescribe a public examination for all young people and servants, which was in no way identical «ith the catechetical tests for confirmation. The Pomeranian church ritual of 1593 appointed one Sunday afternoon in each quarter for this purpose. Similar orders and regulations are contained in the Brandenburg ecclesiastical order (1572) and in that of the electorate of Saxony (1580). The Thirty Years' War abolished these catechetical institutions, and it was not easy to restore them after the return of peace. But with the advent of Pietism (q.v.) under Spener they were revived.
These catechetical institutions underwent a peculiar development in Sweden and East Prussia. The Swedish ecclesiastical order of 1686 appointed examinations on a large scale. There was (1) an examination on the sermon on Sundays when the Holy Communion was not celebrated; (2) of persons

49	RELIGIOUS. ENCYCLOPEDIA	Ritter
Ritualism
engaged to be married, covering the smaller Catechism of Luther; (3) church examinations consisting of questions on the catechism and in the season of Lent on the passion of Christ; (4) in the home, in which the entire family participated, and lasting for from five to eight hours. The subject was usually the catechism, some passages of the Bible, or the conduct of the people present. At the end a simple meal was served. These home‑examinations were highly appreciated by the peasants, while in the cities they were not always well attended, the wellto‑do especially keeping aloof. In East Prussia the development of catechetical examination underwent several phases. The first is characterized by the order of Margrave Albert (1543), according to which it was the duty of every pastor to examine and instruct all his parishioners in every place of his pariah at least once a quarter. The order of 1633 marks a second phase according to which the examination was to take place once a year in the home of the burgomaster or village mayor. In the course of time the institution was frequently dropped altogether or maintained itself only sporadically. After the middle of the nineteenth century these examinations again came into vogue. The pastor visited once a year, usually in the fall, every village and hamlet of his parish. The parishioners provided for his conveyance and paid other expenses. Each family had the conference held in the home in turn and provided for a common meal. The pastor also usually received a contribution in money and products of the field. Later the people began to refuse to p‑ovide the pastor with the facilities for travel, and the conferences sometimes degenerated into carousals. So they have in large part taken the form of church services in places where there
is no church. 	(H. JACOBY.)
BIBI.IOQRAPBY: H. F. Jakobeon, in Deutsche Zeitschrift far chriattiche Wiesenachaft and chr%Wichm Leben, vi (1855), nos. 43 15; idem, Dae evanpelische KirchmrecU des prewaiaden Staatm ii. !608, Halle, 1866.
RITUALE ROMARUM: A Roman Catholic liturgical book containing the prayers and forms for the administration of the sacraments, together with directions for pastoral care, compiled for the special assistance of parish priests. Books of this type were drawn up as early as the twelfth century, primarily for the monasteries, the secular clergy having none until the fourteenth century. There were at first no diocesan ritualia, but each parish priest might compile his own according to local usage. A book of the type in question was called Manuale in the thirteenth century, Rituals or Liber benedictionum in the fourteenth, and Agenda, Liber obsequiorum, Parochiale, Pastorale, etc., in the fifteenth. The name Rituale, however, came into general use through the introduction of the Rituals Romanum, when the attempt was made to obviate the wide divergencies of local usages and at least to secure harmony in each diocese. It was not, however, until the Council of Trent that real headway was made in securing liturgical uniformity; and even then, though the Roman breviary, missal, pontifical, and ceremonial were officially sanctioned, there was no single rituals. Paul V. (1605‑21), however, appointed a committee of cardinals who, X.‑‑4
on the basis of the rituals of Cardinal Sanctorio (1584), the Stlcerdotale Romanum of the Dominican Castellani (1537),and the S'acerdotale of the Lateran canon Samarino (1579), drew up the Rituals Romanum, which was officially confirmed by the constitution APosdolicte sedia of Paul V. (June 17, 1614). So great, however, was the tenacity of local usages that this rituals, based on the Roman use, made slow progress, though it ultimately prevailed.
The Rituals Romanum of Paul V. was revised in 1752 by Benedict XIV., who added two formularies for the papal blessing, and Leo XIII. had a definite edition prepared (Regensburg, 1884). It is divided into ten " titles," subdivided into chapters. The first title contains general directions for the administration of the sacraments; the second treats of baptism; the third of penance; the fourth of the Eucharist (the liturgy for which is given ill the missal); the fifth of extreme unction and all pastoral care of the sick sad dying; the sixth of burial;
I	the seventh of marriage and churching; the eighth
	of the various benedictions; the ninth of proces
	sions; and the tenth of exorcism, and the keeping
	of pariah records; the whole being concluded by an
	appendix containing instructions for missionaries
	with various benedictions. 	(P. Dx>;wa.)
BIBI,IOasAPSY: On ritualia in general consult A. Franz, Daa Rituals van 3t. Flmian aua dem IY'. Jahrhundert, pp.
3‑12, Freiburg, 1904 (contains useful bibliography). On
the Roman Rituals consult: G. Catalani, Rituals Romanum perpduia commentariia exornatum, Rome, 1757; H.
Baruffaldi.	Ad tsEuale Romanum commentarsi, Venice,
1731; V. Thalhofer, $andbuch der katholiachert Litulgilc,
ed. A. Ebner, i. 1, pp. b1‑52, 59‑80, Freiburg, 1894; KL,
a. 1217‑18.

RITUALISM, ANGLICAN.
Origin in Traetariapiam (§ 1). Logical Character of Transition (§ 2). Parallel Movements (¢ 3). Legal Questions and the Source (¢ 4). Decision Favorable to Ritualism U 5). Decision Adverse to Ritualism 0 6). Attempts to Relieve the Stress (§ 7). The Work of the Commission (¢ 8). The Archbishop's Decision (¢ 9). Definitive Settlement not yet Reached (§ 10). The New Commission's Report (§ 11). Results; Present Statue (§ 12).
" Ritualism " is used as a popular catchword to describe the second stage of that movement in the English Church which in its earlier condition had been named Tractarianism (q.v.). The name first appears, probably, in connection with the riots in London at St. George's‑in‑the‑East in 1859 (cf. quotation from East London Observer of May, 1859, in Bryan Ding, Sacrilege and its Encouragement . a Letter . . . to the Lord Bishop of London, London, 1860)..
The revival of interest in Roman dogma, effected by the Oxford writers of the Tracts for the Times, was naturally suceeded by a revival of interest in Roman observances. This practical
r. Origin revival carried the movement into in Tractari‑ novel circumstances and situations;
	anisnn.	for the earlier detection and exhibition
		of that sacerdotal structure of the
church which had been secured to it by struggles of
the Elizabethan divines, was carried on, of neces
sity, in the intellectual, academic region. The claim

Ritualiem	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	80
asserted had, first, to make good its doctrinal status: it had to begin by working its way into the mind and the imagination. The Tractarian writers recognized this necessary order; they anxiously held aloof from precipitating those effects, which they, nevertheless, distinctly anticipated from this teaching. " We the old Tractarians," wrote Dr. Pusey in the Daily Express, May 21, 1877, " deliberately abstained from innovating in externals." " We understood the `Ornaments Rubric' in its most obvious meaning,‑that certain ornaments were to be used which were used in the second year of King Edward VI.; we were fully conscious that we were disobeying it; but we were employed in teaching the faith to a forgetful generation, and we thought it injurious to distract men's minds by questions about externals. We left it for the church to revive " (Letter of Dr. Pusey to English Church Union). Also, Letter to the Times, Mar. 28, 1874: " There was a contemporary movement for a very moderate ritual in a London congregation. We (the Tractarians) were united with it in friendship, but the movements were unconnected."
As soon as their teaching had secured believers, it set itself to apply its principles in action; and this active application of recovered belief in a sacerdotal church inevitably took the form of recovering and reasserting that litur‑
z. Logical gical structure which still underlay the Character of Book of Common Prayer. The move‑
	Transition.	ment, in making this fresh effort,
		passed from the study to the street;
it became practical, missionary, evangelistic. It
insisted that its work upon the masses, in their
dreary poverty, demanded the bright attraction
and relief of outward ornament and the effective
teaching of the eye. This change from the univer
sity to the town was signalized by the establish
ment of, e.g., St. Saviour's, Leeds (to which the
Tractarian leaders lent all their authority), and of
the Margaret Street Chapel, under F. Oakeley, a de
voted companion of J. H. Newman.
The transition to ritual was not only a practical expediency, it was also the logical outcome of the new position; for the doctrinal revival lay in its emphatic assertion of the conception of mediation, of mediatorial offering. This mediation was, it taught, effected by the taking of flesh; i.e., of the outward to become the offering,‑ the instrument of worship. The body of the Lord was the one acceptable offering, sanctified by the Spirit; and in and through that mediatorial body all human nature won its right to sanctification, to holy use. The spirit needs, according to this teaching, an outward expression to symbolize its inward devotion. Its natural mode of approach to God is through sacramental signs; and the use of special sacraments justifies, of necessity, the general use of visible symbols. If grace comes through outward pledges, then devotion will obviously be right in using for its realization forms and signs and gestures; love will be right in showing itself through beauty; and prayer and praise will instinctively resort to ceremonial.
Nor was the pressure toward ritual merely doctrinal. The double movement in the church had
its parallel in the secular world. The spiritual revival of Wordsworth had its reflex in the emotional revival of Walter Scott. The set of
	3. Parallel	things was running counter to Puritan
Movements. bareness. The force and reality of
		imagination in the shaping of life's in
terests were recognized with the glad welcome of a
recovered joy. A touch of kindliness repeopled the
earth with fancies and suggestions, and visions and
dreams. This world was no longer a naked factory,
housing the machinery of a precise and unyielding
dogma; nor was it the bare and square hall in which
reason lectured on the perils of a morbid enthusiasm;
it was a garden once more, rich with juicy life, and
warm with color. This literary warmth mixed itself
in with the doctrinal movement toward the enrich
ment of the churches. The emotions were making
new demands upon outward things; they required
more satisfaction. They had been taught by the
novelists to turn to the past, whether of cavaliers
with plumes and chivalry, or of the Middle Ages
with wild castles and belted knights, and praying
monks and cloistered nuns. All this world of strange
mystery and artistic charm had become alive again
to them, and the revival made them discontented
with the prosy flatness of common life. The churches
were responding to a real and wide need when they
offered a refuge and a relief to the distressed imag
ination. Everywhere began the Gothic revival.
The restoration of the disgraced and destitute par
ish churches, which had become practically neces
sary, was taken up by men full of admiration for
the architecture which had first built them. They
were passionately set on bringing them back as far
as possible into their original condition. The archi
tects thus were, indirectly, ardent workers on the
side of the ecclesiastical revival. They eagerly
studied liturgical correctness in restoring the beauty
of the chancels, in placing the altar at its proper
height and distance, in arranging the screen and
the stalls, the altar‑rails and credence‑table. This
combination of ecclesiastical and architectural sen
timent was greatly furthered by the Cambridge
Ecclesiological Society, which did much to foster
antiquarian exactness, and to promote active efforts
at restoration (A. J. B. Hope, Worship in the Church
of England, London, 1874). This architectural
movement, which dated its earliest impulses from
J. H. Newman's church, built at Littlemore amid
much ferment and anxiety, culminated in the vast
achievements of Gilbert Scott and George Street,
whose handiwork has been left in restored churches
throughout the length and breadth of England.
[Worthy of mention here is the new Roman Catho
lic cathedral of London, consecrated 1910. Even
though it does not belong to the Anglicans, it ema
nates from the same source as that named in the
text and the aim was to make it primitive Byzan
tine in style.] This general restoration of order and
fairness into the public services, which ran level
with the renewal of church fabrics, roused much
popular hostility, which made itself known in riot
ous disturbances, chiefly directed against the use
of the surplice in the pulpit, following a direction
for its use given in a charge by Bishop Blomfield in
1842.

51	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Ritualism
But just as the artistic movement deepened from the external ornamentation of the Waverley novels into the impassioned mysticism of Dante Gabriel Rossetti and the pre‑Raffaelite brothers, so the architectural revival deepened into
	4. Legal	the symbolism of a more rapt sacra
	Questions,	mentalism. This it was which pro
	and the	duced the historical crisis; and this
	Source.	crisis became yet more critical by
		forcing into sharp antagonism the civil
and ecclesiastical jurisdictions which were called
upon to deal with the renovating ministers. The
story of the movements turns around the various
legal judgments given to determine the sense of the
" Ornaments Rubric," i.e., the rubric inserted, in
its first form, into the Prayer‑Book of Elizabeth,
and reinserted, in a slightly changed form, in the
Prayer‑Book of the Restoration, prescribing the
ornaments of the minister and of the chancel during
all offices (see ORNAMENTS). The aim of the Eliz
abethan divines had been to secure the main work
of the Reformation, and yet to protect the liturgy
from the " loose and licentious handling " of the
more eager of the Marian exiles. They had therefore
accepted, with some important alterations, the sec
ond of the two Prayer‑Books of Edward VI. as
the standard of the Reformed services; but, owing
to the strong pressure of the queen, they refused
to adopt it also as the standard of the ornaments;
and for this they went back to an earlier date, the
second year of King Edward VI., when much
ritual remained which the first Prayer‑Book of Ed
ward VI. had accepted, but which the second book
had rejected. There is no doubt that this in
cluded and intended chasubles and copes, albs
and tunicles (see VEsTMENTs A" INSIGNIA, EC
CLESIASTICAL), with other details of altar fur
niture. The question that arose was as to how
far this rubric, when reenacted in the Act of
Uniformity (see UNIFORMITY, ACTS OF), was in
tended by the divines of the Restoration to retain
its full original sense. In its earlier form it was
prescribed " until the queen should take further
order." Was that " further order " ever taken;
and, if so, does the later condition of the rubric, in
omitting any reference to this " further order,"
assume that order, or ignore it? If it ignored it,
why was it never acted upon? For certainly these
ornaments have never been in full use. But, if it
assumed it, how was it possible not to define what
the " order " was, or to prescribe still the second
year of Edward VI. as the standard, without a hint
of any qualification? Around this main issue a
swarm of complicated historical, legal, and litur
gical arguments arose; and who was to decide among
them? Here started up a new difficulty.
The juridical relations between Church and State were the result of a long and intricate history, which at the Reformation had finally assumed this general form. The old machinery of ecclesiastical courts remained entire‑consisting of the bi chop's courts of first instance, in which the bishop's chancellor adjudicated; and the archbishop's court of appeal, in which the dean of arches gave judgment, as the embodiment of the archbishop. But from this, again, there was to be an appeal to
the king; and for hearing such appeals a composite court had been erected by Henry VIII., the court of delegates, the exact
g. Decision jurisdiction of which had never been
	Favorable	clearly defined. This had continued,
to Ritualism. rarely used, dimly considered, until,
		without anybody's notice, a great legal
reform, carried out by Lord Brougham, was discov
ered to have transferred, without intending it, all
the power of this court of delegates to a certain
committee of privy council, composed and defined
for other general purposes. When suddenly there
was need of a final adjudication on anxious and agi
tating spiritual questions, it was this committee of
privy council which the rival parties found them
selves facing. It dealt with the question of bap
tism, in the case of George Cornelius Gorham (see
GORHAM CASE); and Bishop Blomfield of London
had in consequence, speaking in the house of lords,
protested against the nature and character of the
committee as a court of final appeal in ecclesiastical
questions. No change, however, had been effected;
and in Mar., 1857, the question of ritual was brought
before it, on appeal, in the case of " Westerton vs.
Liddell," in which case the ritualistic practises of
St. Barnabas, Pimlico, had been condemned in the
consistory court of London and in the court of
arches. Amid great excitement, the committee
pronounced that the rubric permitted generally the
use of those articles which were prescribed under
the first Prayer‑Book, and therefore sanctioned the
use of credence‑table, altar‑cross, altar‑lights, col
ored altar‑clotbs, etc. From that moment the Rit
ualists have acted steadily in the belief that this
legal decision was but affirming that which is the
plain, historical sense of the words in the rubric,
and have pressed, often with rashness, sometimes
with insolence, for the revival of all the ritual which
this interpretation justified. In accomplishing this,
they have been aided, advised, and sustained by
the elaborate organization of the English Church
Utlion, numbering now over 20,000 members,
formed for the defense and protection of those who,
in carrying out the rubric so understood, were men
aced by perils and penalties. For however favor
able single congregations might be, yet the work of
revival had to be carried on, (1) in defiance of the
long unbroken usage, which had never attempted
anything beyond that simpler ritual which had
been adopted and allowed as the practicable mini
mum under Elizabeth and Charles II.; (2) in de
fiance of the bishops, whose paternal authority was
generally exercised to suppress, by any pressure in
their power, any sharp conflict with this common
custom; (3) in defiance of fierce popular suspicion,
roused by dread of Romish uses, such as broke out,
e.g., in the hideous rioting at St. George's‑in‑the
East (1858‑60), which the weakness of the bishop
of London and the apathy of the government al
lowed to continue for months, and finally to suc
ceed in expelling the rector, Bryan King, and in
wrecking his service; (4) in defiance of the court of
final appeal, which in a series of fluctuating, doubt
ful, and conflicting judgments, had created a deep
distrust of its capacity to decide judicially questions
so rife with agitated feelings and popular prejudices.

8itnslilmi	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	62
This distrust‑strongly roused by the Mackonochie judgment (1868) and the Purchas judgment (see PURCHAS, JOHN); in which it was supposed, in spite of obvious paradox, that everything not mentioned in the PrayerBook was disallowed and illegal ‑culminated in the Ridsdale judgment (1877), in which it was declared that the " fur‑
6. Decision ther order " allowed by the queen had
	Adverse to	been taken in the issuing of the adver
	Ritualism.	tisements under Archbishop Parker
		(see ADVERTISEMENTS or ELIZABETH),
and that the divines of Charles II. therefore,
when they permitted the ritual of the second
year of Edward VI., really intended only so
much of it as was required in the Elizabethan ad
vertisements. This startling decision the main block
of High‑church clergy found it impossible to respect
or accept; and this repudiation of its verdict brought
to a head the protest that had been made ever since
the Gorham judgment against the validity of the
court itself as an ecclesiastical tribunal. This last
problem had been made critical by the famous Pub
lic‑Worship Regulation Act (1874), introduced in
the house of lords by the archbishop of Canterbury,
in disregard of the protests of the lower house of
convocation, and declared in the house of commons
to be a " bill to put down ritualism " by Disraeli,
then prime‑minister, who, in spite of Gladstone's
impetuous opposition, carried it, amid intense ex
citement, in an almost unanimous house. This bill
swept away all the process in the diocesan courts;
it allowed any three aggrieved parishioners to lodge
a complaint, which, unless stayed by the bishop's
veto, was carried before an officer nominated nor
mally by the two archbishops to succeed to the
post of dean of arches on its next vacancy. From
him the appeal would be, as before, to the privy
council. Thus the scanty fragments of ecclesiastical
jurisdiction, which, under existent conditions, might
be supposed to balance the civil character of the
court of appeal, were all but wholly abolished. The
attempt to enforce this bill by the bishops was met
by absolute resistance, ending, after being chal
lenged at every turn by technical objections, in the
imprisonment of four priests. In this collision with
the courts, the Ritualists had the steady support of
the mass of High‑church clergy, who had held aloof
from their more advanced and dubious ritual. This
support evidenced itself in the '" Declaration " of
over 4,000 clergy, headed by the deans of St.
Paul's, York, Durham, Manchester, and others
(1881).
The condition of things had become intolerable; and in 1881 a royal commission was issued to consider the whole position of ecclesiastical jurisdiction. A similar mode of relief had been attempted in 1867, when a royal commission on ritual had been appointed, which under the chairmanship of Archbishop Longley,‑after taking an im7. Attempts mense mass of evidence, and after
	to Relieve	prolonged discussions‑had issued a
	the Stress.	report on the crucial point of the " Or
		naments Rubric," which recommended
the " restraint " of the use of vestments, " by pro
viding some effectual process for complaint and
redress," but which, by the use of the word " re..
strain," declined to declare their illegality, and then had found itself unable to attain anything like unanimous agreement on the nature of the legal process which it proposed to recommend. The inner history of the commission will be found in A. R. Ashwell and R. G. Wilberforce, Life of . . . S. Walberforce, vol. iii. (London, 1882). No legislation on the main subject followed this divided report. But convocation in 1879, and the Pan‑Anglican Synod in 1880, had come to resolutions more or less in accord with the commissioners' report, in the sense of recommending a prohibitory discretion to the bishop in any case where a change of vesture was attempted. Such a recommendation seemed naturally to allow and assume the abstract legality of the change. Yet the courts of law had finally decreed vestments illegal, and the majority of bishops were prepared to accept their interpretation; and, as long as they did so, no terms of peace could be found on the basis of the proposal in convocation. For even though the bishops were willing to abstain, in favorable cases, from pressing the legal decisions, they were forced to set the law in motion by the action of a society called the " Church Association," which exerted itself to assert and support the rights of any parishioners who might be aggrieved by the ritual used in any church. Thus the exercise of discretion was made all but impossible to a bishop, who could only veto proceedings brought against a clergyman by giving a valid reason, and yet was forbidden to offer as a valid reason the possible legality of the vestments.
The commission on ritual, therefore, had left the conflict still severe and unappeased. Only the Signal to relieve its stress had been given. For the last act of Archbishop Tait, on his death& The Work bed, was to suggest a truce to the fierce of the legal prosecutions which had embitCommission. tered the long controversy, by bringing about an arrangement which would terminate the historic case of Martin vs. Mackonochie, round which the contest had turned for eighteen years. Thus the tension slackened; the possibility of peace seemed to have become conceivable. The question had widened from the consideration of ritual to the problem of the permanent adjustment of Church and State. A wiser temper had come over the public, which had, by the appointment of the commission, allowed that the problem of ecclesiastical jurisdiction was open to historical examination. Bishop Temple had come to London and was determined to avoid all legal measures. A time for consideration was then secured, pending the report of the commission. It did not report until 1883. The report included the historic papers prepared by Bishop Stubbs and Dean Church. Under the weight of their authority it decided against retaining the existing judicial committee of privy council as the court of final appeal. It proposed a reconstructed court which should obviously exhibit its primary character, . as a court of the crown and not of the church, while, on all matters affecting doctrine and discipline, it should act on the advise of the spirituality, which for this purpose is represented by the bishops. No action was taken on the recommendation of this report‑a fatal in‑

53	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Ratnalism
action, for the report had decisively confirmed the protest of churchmen against the jurisdiction of the privy council. The existing judgments, which constituted the actual law, now, therefore, lost all moral authority. No one could expect them to be obeyed, when the case against the authority which promulgated them had been formally justified. This is the heart of all the difficulties that followed. The appeal to the bishops to make the law obeyed and the appeal to the clerical conscience to repudiate breaches of law lost all force when once it was allowed that the law itself was the chief matter in question.
It was obvious that the bishops must secure obedience by other methods than prosecution in court. They must discover some basis of agreement other than that provided by privy council
g. The judgment. At the crisis, providence Archbishop's gave them the opportunity of finding
	Decision.	such a basis‑an opportunity bravely
		seized by the chief authority con
cerned. In 1888, the Church Association instituted
legal proceedings against Dr. King, Bishop of Lin
coln, in order to test the legality of certain usages.
The archbishop, after prolonged discussion as to
the legitimacy of his action, decided to hear the
case himself with the episcopal assessors. He gave
his judgment Nov. 29, 1890, sanctioning under de
fined conditions the use of the mixed chalice, of
altar lights, the adoption of the eastward position,
and the singing of the Agnus Dei; and he forbade
the signing of the cross in giving the absolution and
the benediction. An appeal was made to the privy
council, but that judicial body was far too wise to
traverse a judgment of such intrinsic weight backed
by knowledge superior to their own. They con
firmed it, even where it was against their former
decision.
Here, then, was a basis provided, on which a general conciliation could take effect. The judgment stood on its own merits as an ecclesiastical pronouncement delivered by the highest authority in the church. The clergy could afford to accept it, if the bishops would limit their claims
ro. Defini‑ within its lines. Under the broad as‑
	tive	sumption of these terms, ten years fol
Settlement lowed of steady peace. Bishop Temple
not yet had resolutely used his power of veto
	Reached.	to prohibit legal measures being taken
		against the reredos of St. Paul's cathe
dral, and had been supported in his right by the
highest court of appeal. It was understood that he
had set his face against any appeal to force. He
honored good pastoral work in whatever form he
found it; and he trusted to his own personal influ
ence to do the rest. It was a noble hope, and in
deed it ought to have been met by a spontaneous
determination not to take advantage of his confi
dence. But a great diocese like London can not,
ultimately, be expected to work on delicate under
standings of this kind. New men come in who have
had no part in the understanding. The extreme
pressure of local work compels even the beat men
to concentrate upon its immediate needs, as they
feel them, without regard to the wider political sit
uation. The situation develops of itself without
anyone exactly intending it. So it was that while Bishop Temple absorbed himself in the labors of the diocese and left his clergy to themselves over ritual, trusting to their honor to keep the terms, a very wide license was gradually taken, and the individual divergences of use became perilous and alarming. The leaders of the movement themselves became aware that things were getting out of hand; and, at a sudden crisis over some practises in a city church, they refused to defend them, drew up a statement which recognized the necessity for a stricter supervision of special services, and expressed their desire for a greater measure of submission to authority as the first principle of catholicism. The bishops were prepared to take action, and they met with signs of loyal response. Unluckily a storm broke out, and swept away the opportunity for conciliatory action. A Protestant speaker of the name of Kensit aroused the passion of the crowd against illicit practises, and Sir William Harcourt kindled the flame in parliament by letters to The Times in the summer of 1898. From this moment reasonable treatment of a delicate and complicated situation became impossible. In 1899 Archbishop Temple made one notable attempt to rescue the cause of reason and peace from the welter of passion. He requested the bishop of London to bring before him as supreme ordinary certain vexed questions about the use of the incense, of portable lights, of the practise of reservation, that he might give them a " hearing "; not as before a court, but as a matter for " an opinion." He and the archbishop of York delivered a joint " opinion " on the first two points and concurred in forbidding any form of reservation of the consecrated elements. This " opinion " failed to secure complete compliance. The archbishop, who had been driven back on the law, which he had done his utmost to avoid, took a singularly limited and unelastic view of what the law was; and in the mean time Mr. Kensit, in town and country, and Sir William Harcourt, in parliament, had made a peaceable solution impossible. A series of church discipline bills introduced by Mr. McArthur in the house of commons, even though they never got beyond second readings, and not always so far as that, nevertheless, raised the ultimate issues between Church and State; and these issues had to be met. The result was a new royal commission on ecclesiastical discipline, very strongly manned, which was authorized to " inquire into the alleged prevalence of breaches or neglect of the law, relating to the conduct of divine service, and to the ornaments and fittings of the churches; and to consider the existing power and procedure applicable to such irregularities." It was appointed in Apr., 1904, and reported in 1908. It will be noticed that it was to consider " neglect " as well as disorder, and also to report on the problem of the jurisdiction of the courts. By including the last point it confessed that the key to the ritual disorder lay in the doubtful condition of the authoritative law. Obedience to the law is possible only when moral confidence in the law had first been secured.
The commission was faithful to its conception of the task committed to it, and after taking an enormous amount of evidence dealing with neglect

Ritualism	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	54
Rivius
and omissions, as well as with the excesses and
irregularities, it accepted the verdict given by
		the earlier commission on the con
	i i. The	stitution of the present court of final
New Com‑ appeal. It declared that " the present
	mission's structure of the ecclesiastical jurisdic
	Report.	tion is, in our view, one chief cause of
		the growth of ritual irregularities." It
pronounced the present court of final appeal to be
a civil court of the crown, not exercising any au
thority from the church. It desires this character
to be made clear in a newly constituted court, which
should be obviously secular, and should be required
to refer any matter of doctrine or discipline to the
spirituality, in the persons of the bishops. Until
this new court of appeal has been secured, with its
correspondent church courts, it considers it inex
pedient to press for coercive measures, excepting
in certain specified cases of special gravity, which
are inconsistent with the teaching of the Church,
and the illegality of which can not be held to de
pend upon judgments of the privy council. These
include reservation of the sacrament, with a view
to its adoration; benediction with the sacrament;
hymns, prayers, etc., involving invocation of the
Blessed Virgin; the observance of the festival of
the Assumption of the Virgin; the veneration of
images and roods. These practises are to receive
no toleration. But for the other matters it is pro
nounced desirable " to postpone proceedings until
the reforms recommended in connection with the
final court of appeal and the diocesan and provin
cial courts can be carried into effect." The com
mission, therefore, admits the case against the
courts, on which the ritualists have insisted. But
it considers that certain specified acts can be dealt
with as illegal because their illegality is separable
from any judgment of the existing court of appeal.
	But the commission did more. It recognized
frankly the impossibility and the inexpediency of
the rigid uniformity of worship implied under the
Elizabethan settlement. Such a uniformity has
never been actually carried out in practise. It be
longs as an ideal to a time when the ideas of relig
		ious liberty and toleration in Church
ia. Results; and State were unknown. " In Church
	Present	and State alike, these ideas have now
	Status.	seen their way to undisputed preva
		lence. It is incongruous that the pre
cise and uniform requirements which were in har
mony with the Elizabethan ideas of administration
should still stand as the rule for the public worship
of the Church under altered conditions and amid
altered ways of thought." " A large comprehen
siveness in matters of doctrine has grown up, while
it is sought to maintain a severe rigidity in rites
and ceremonies." This is inconsistent and incon
ceivable. " It has proved impracticable to obtain
complete obedience to the acts of uniformity in one
direction, because it is not now, and never has been,
demanded in other directions." By these pronounce
ments the commission has opened a new era. It
has abandoned the ideal of Elizabethan uniformity,
on which an appeal to coercion had rested. It asks
for elasticity or variety within the limits of the
church order, and under the direction of the ordi‑
nary. It advises that letters of business be issued to the convocations to consider (a) a new rubric regulating the vesture of the ministers, and (b) to frame modifications in the existing law which will secure greater elasticity in the conduct of divine service. It would give the bishops power to authorize special services, etc. So the verdict stands. The letters of business have been issued, the convocations are engaged in the task of revision. No action has as yet been taken on the matter of the final court of appeal. Until this is done the ritual details under dispute (other than the specified illegalities singled out for independent condemnation) should, according to the report, be held over in suspended judgment. On these lines a conciliatory policy is made possible, and it is this which the bishops are now attempting to work. If they are hurried into immediate coercive measures by popular passion, at this juncture, they will be defying the serious and wise conclusion of this powerful commission. This consideration of the evidence leads to two conclusions: first, the law of public worship is too narrow for the religious life of the present generation. Secondly, the machinery for discipline has broken down.
HENRY SCOTT HOLLAND.
BiBLioanAPHY: W. H. Frere, The Principles of Religious Ceremonial, London, 1908; History of Ritualism, by Vox Clamantis, London, 1907; P. Martin, Anglican‑Ritualism as seen by a Catholic and a Foreigner, ib. 1881; J. G. Norton, A Plea for the Toleration of Ritualists, ib. 1881; S. D. White, Ritualism, ib. 1881; C. Wordsworth, On the Present Disquietude in the Church, ib. 1881; Oxoniensis, Romanism, Protestantism, Anglicanism, ib. 1882; Z. H. Turton, High Churchmen and their Church, ib. 1888; W. Nicholas, Ritualism, ib. 1890; J. C. Ryle, The Present Crisis, London, 1892; Romanism and the Ritualism in Great Britain and Ireland, Edinburgh, 1895; W. M. Sinelair, Words to the Laity on Contemporary Ecclesiastical Controversy, London, 1895; Pbre Ragey, La Crise religieuse en Angleterre, Paris, 1898; F. Peek, The English Church and the Altar, London, 1897 J. Brown, The Present Crisis in the Church of England, ib. 1899; H. W. Clarke, Romanism without the Pope in the Church of England, Beckenham, 1899; P. T. Forsyth, Rome, Reform and Reaction: four Lectures, London, 1899 K. Ireton, Ritualism Abandoned: or, a Priest redeemed, ib. 1899; A. W. Joliffe, What is Ritualism t and who are Ritualists f Shanklin, 1899; J. Meldrum, Lawbreaks in the Church, Singapore, 1899; H. H. Henson, Church Problems. A View of modern Anglicanism, London, 1900; F. Meyrick, Old Anglicanism and Modern Ritualism, ib. 1901; V. Staley, Studies in Ceremonial, Oxford, 1901; J. Wenn, The Priestly Letters: or, the Priest that is the Enemy, London, 1902; L. Heitland, Ritualism in Town and Country, ib. 1903; E. W. Leachman, The Church's Object Lessons. Lessons on the Seruoture, Symbolism, and outward Worship of the Church, Oxford, 1904; F. Meyriek, An Appeal from the Twentieth to the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, London, 1905; W. P. Swain, History and Meaning of the Ornaments Rubric, Bath, 1905; H. Waee, An Appeal to the First Six Centuries, London, 1905; J. Warren, Ritualism, its Leading Tenets, ib. 1908; C. Walker, The Ritual Reason why, ed. T. I. Ball, London, 1908; W. Preston, Anti‑Ritualism. A Catechism for Protestant Communicants, new ed., by C. Neil, ib. 1910.
RIVER BRETHREN: A denomination of Mennonite origin and peculiarities, dating from a revival in Pennsylvania in 1770. The name is supposed to be due to the fact that the original members were baptized in the Susquehanna River, or, because living near that stream, came to be known to others as the " Brethren by the River." Jacob Engle, the first minister among them, came with

55	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	nitualism
		Riving
thirty Mennonite families from Canton Basel, Swit
zerland, on account of long persecution. The voy
age was disastrous, one of the ships with the goods
of the emigrants being lost. One company, inclu
ding Jacob Engle and his brother John, settled near
the Susquehanna River in the southeastern part of
Lancaster County, Pa. A revival in 1770, conducted
by Lutherans, Mennonites, and Baptists, including
Philip William Otterbein (q.v.), Boehm, and the
Engles, resulted in many conversions. Differences
arose among the converts respecting the mode of
baptism and separate movements were the result.
The Engles held to trine immersion and those who
were of the same mind formed the denomination
known simply as the River Brethren, which grad
ually spread to Ohio, Indiana, Kansas, New York,
and other states, and to Canada. In 1862 the de
nomination sought a legal status as a body holding
to the principle of non‑resistance. Some of its mem
bers had been drafted for the army in the Civil War,
and a legal status was needed to protect them from
a violation of their principles. At the same time
they adopted the name " Brethren in Christ," which
is also claimed by a small Mennonite body. The
River Brethren have suffered division. Differences
on minor points led to the withdrawal of the Yorker
Brethren in 1843 and in 1852 of the " Brinsers " or
United Zion's Children.
	The River Brethren have no formulated creed.
They accept the doctrines known as Evangelical, and
hold to Trine Immersion (q.v.) as the only proper
form of baptism, to confession of sins to God and
man, and to the ceremony of foot‑washing in connec
tion with the eucharist. Non‑resistance is one of
their cardinal principles. There are bishops, minis
ters, and deacons. The deacons have charge of the
business of the churches, serve at the communion
table, and do some pastoral visiting. Ministers are
the teaching body, do parish work, and in the absence
of the bishop administer the communion. The
bishops preside at all council meetings and exercise
all the functions of the ministry. District councils
and the general conference are composed of ministers
and laymen. The latter meets annually and has
charge of the missionary work of the Church. The
denominational headquarters are at Harrisburg, Pa.
	The differences between the three bodies are
slight. In the United Zion's Children in the cere
mony of foot‑washing one person both washes and
wipes; in the other branches one person washes and
another wipes. The three bodies in 1908 reported
201 ministers, 98 churches, and 4,114 communicants.
The Brethren in Christ, the main body, has 174
ministers, 65 churches, and 3,675 communicants.
		H. K. CARROLL.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult the literature under MENNONITES.
	RIVET, rt‑v"e', ANDRE (ANDREAS RIVETUS):
Huguenot; b. at Maixent (27 m. s.w. of Poitiers),
France, Aug., 1572; d. at Breda (28 m. s.e. of
Rotterdam), Holland, Jan. 7, 1651. After com
pleting his education at Bern, he studied theology
privately at Bern and La Rochelle, and from 1595
to 1620 was at Thouars, first as chaplain of the duke
of La Tr6mouille and later as pastor; in 1617 he
was elected president of the Synod at Vitr6; and
in 1620 he was called to Leyden as professor of the‑
ology. In 1632 Frederick Henry appointed Rivet tutor of his son, later William II., while the university made him honorary professor. In 1641 he attended the prince on his visit to England, and in 1646 was appointed curator of the educational institution in Breda, where he passed the remainder of his life.
	A rigid Calvinist and an uncompromising enemy
of the Roman Catholic Church, Rivet was in his
day the most influential member of the theological
faculty of Leyden; and together with his colleagues
he drew up, in 1625, the Synopsis purioris theologize,
which discussed the entire field of Reformed dog
matics in fifty‑two disputations. At Leyden Rivet
labored also in Old‑Testament exegesis. His nu
merous writings are divided among the provinces
of polemics, exegesis, dogmatics, and edification.
They were collected in three volumes (Rotterdam,
1651‑53), the most important being the Isagoge ad
scripturam saeram Veteris et Novi Testamenti (Dort,
1616). 	(S. D. vAN VEEN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Meulsius, Athena Batavep, pp. 315 sqq.,
Leyden, 1625; Les Dernihres Heures de M. Rivet, Delft, 1651, Eng. transl., The Last Houers of . . Andrew Rivet, The Hague, 1652; B. Clasius, Godgeleerd Nederland, iii. 180‑186, 's Hertogenbosch, 1851‑56; E. and E. Haag, La France protestante, ed. H. L. Bordier, viii. 444‑449, Paris, 1877 sqq.; Lichtenberger, ESR, mi. 238‑241.
RIVIUS, riv'1‑us, JOHANNES: German humanist and theologian; b. at Attendorn (42 m. n.e. of Cologne) Aug. 1, 1500; d. at Meissen (15 m. n.w. of Dresden) Jan. 1, 1553. In 1516 he entered the University of Cologne, and later, after studying manuscripts in Rhenish monasteries, went to Leipsic, where he found friendly reception with Kaspar Borner. After teaching at Zwickau for a short time, he went to Annaberg, Marienberg, and Schneeberg, and in 1537 was called to Freiberg as director of the Latin school and tutor to Duke August. With the latter, in 1540, he visited the University of Leipsic, and he also accompanied his pupil to Dresden after the death of Duke Henry. In the latter city Rivius was employed in church and school administration, and when Duke Maurice departed for the Turkish war in 1542, he was made a member of the bureau of spiritual affairs. In 1544 he was appointed inspector of schools at Meissen, where he evinced excellent administrative gifts. In 1545 he was made assessor in the newly established consistory of Meissen, and occupied this position until his death.
The literary activity of Rivius was directed primarily to the humanistic sphere. Here belong collections of notes on Terence, Cicero, and Sallust, and an edition of the last‑named, as well as the long popular De its disc£plinis quce de sermone agunt, ut sunt grammatiea, dialectica, rhetorica libri duodeviginti (Leipsic, 1539). Far more important, however, were his theological writings, in which the elegant diction, Biblical and ecclesiastical learning, and hilosophic training make him appear a pupil of Erasmus. He was sometimes regarded with suspicion by Luther. His polemic writings in behalf of the new doctrines show an honorable and exact mode of discussion of the problems involved, and he did not hesitate to quote from his opponents in the course of his arguments. To this class of works belong his De instaurata et renovata doctrina eccle‑

Robber Cnnaoii
Robertson	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	68
siastiea (Leipsie, 1541); De abuaibus ecclesiasticis
save erroribus pontificiorum (1546); De admirabili
DeI: consilio in celando mysterio redemptianis hu
mante (Basel, 1545); De fiducia salutes propter
Christum (1552); and De religions et quo patio se in
hiaee dissidiis gerere juventus debeat. Some of his
ethical works are still worth reading, among them
De conscientia borate mends (Leipaie, 1541); De per
petuo in terris gaudio piorum (Basel, 1550); De
vita et moribus Christianorum (1552); and De 8tul
titia mortalium in procrastinanda vine correctitme
(n.d.; Eng. transl. by J. Bankes, London [1550?],
and T. Rogers, London [1582]). To the department
of practical theology, finally, belong his De con
solandis tgrotantibus (Basel, 1546) and De officio
pastorale (1549). One of his writings was translated
into English by W. G(ace) as A Guide unto Godli
nes8e, moste worthy to bee followed of all true Chris
tians (London, 1579). 	GEORG MVJLLER.
BIBLI008APHY: The Opera, vol. i., pp. a9 to bl, contain a Vita by Georg Fabricius, Basel, 1562, new ed., 1614, and this was often printed separately, e.g., Meissen, 1843. Consult further: K. Kirehner, Adam Siber, pp. 9‑19, 39, 67, 151‑164, Chemnita, 1887; ADB, axviii. 709‑713.
ROBBER COUNCIL. See EUTYCHIANISM, § 3.
ROBBINS, WILFORD LASH: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Boston Aug. 7, 1859. He was graduated from Amherst College (A.B., 1881) and the Cambridge Episcopal Theological School (1884). He was ordered deacon in the same year and priested in 1885. He was rector of the Church of Our Redeemer, Lexington, Mass. (1883‑87), and dean of All Saints' Cathedral, Albany, N. Y. (1887‑1903). Since 1903 he has been dean of the General Theological Seminary, New York City. He has written An Essay toward Faith (New York, 1900) and A Christian Apologetic (1902).
ROBERT D' ARBISSEL. See FONT1vRAULT, ORDER OF.
A
ROBERT OF CITEAUX See CISTERCIANS, § 1.
ROBERTS, WILLIAM HENRY: Presbyterian; b. at Holyhead (67 m. w. of Liverpool), Wales, Jan. 31, 1844. He was educated at the College of the City of New York (A.B., 1863); was statistician in the United States Treasury Department (18631865) and assistant librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C. (1866‑71); graduated from Princeton Theological Seminary (1873). He was then pastor of the Presbyterian church at Cranford, N. J. (18731877); librarian at Princeton Theological Seminary (1878‑$6); professor of practical theology at Lane Theological Seminary, Cincinnati, 0. (1886‑93); acting pastor of the Fourth Presbyterian Church, Trenton, N. J. (1895‑1900); and since 1884 stated clerk and treasurer of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. He has been American Secretary of the Alliance of the Reformed Churches throughout the World since 1888, chairman of the Committee on Church Cooperation and Union of the General Assembly since 1903, and secretary of the InterChurch Conference on Marriage and Divorce since the same year. In addition to editing the Minutes of the General Assembly (27 vols., Philadelphia, 1884‑1910) and Addresses at the Two Hundred and
Fiftieth Anniversary of the Westminster Assembly (1898), he has written, History of the Presbyterian Church (Philadelphia, 1888); The Presbyterian System (1895); laws relating to Religious Corporations (1896); and Manual for Ruling Elders (1897).
ROBERTSON, LE%ANDER: Presbyterian; b. at Edinburgh, Sc.Aland, Nov. 30, 1846. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh and has held pastorates at South Ronaldahay, Orkney (1875‑81), San Remo, Italy (1881‑90), and Venice, Italy (since 1890). He has lectured extensively in Great Britain on the religious condition of Italy, the ancient republic of Venice, and similar topics, and has written Count Campobello and Catholic Reform in Italy (London, 1891); Fra Paolo Sarpi, the (eatest of the Venetians (1894); Through the Dolomites from Venice to Toblach (1896); The Bible of St. Mark: St. Mark's Church, the Altar and Throne of Venice (1898); The Roman Catholic Church in Italy (1902); Venetian Sermons (1905); and The Papal Conquest: Italy's Warning‑" Wake up, John Bull " (1909).
ROBERTSON, ARCHIBALD: Church of England, bishop of Exeter; b. at Sywell (6 m. n.e. of Northampton), Northamptonshire, June 29, 1853. He was educated at Trinity College, Oxford (B.A., 1876), where he was fellow from 1876 to 1886 and dean from 1879 to 1883, and honorary fellow since 1903. He was ordered deacon in 1878 and ordained priest in 1882. He was principal of Bishop Hatfield's Hall, Durham (1883‑97); principal of King's College, London (1897‑1903); fellow of the same institution after 1899; member of the Senate of the University of London (1899‑1903); and vicechancellor of the same (1902‑03). In 1903 he was consecrated bishop of Exeter. He was examining chaplain to the bishop of Bristol in 1897, Boyle lecturer in 1900, and Bampton lecturer in the following year. Besides performing his duties as editor of Handbooks of Theology from 1896 to 1903, he has edited and translated the De Incarnations of Athanasius (2 vols., London, 1884‑93); prepared Select Works of St. Athanasius for The Nicene and PostNicene Fathers, 2d series, vii. (London, 1892); and written Regnum Dei (Bampton lectures; 1901) and The Roman Claims to Supremacy (1902).
ROBERTSON, ARCHIBALD THOMAS: Baptist; b. near Chatham, Va., Nov. 6, 1863. He was educated at Wake Forest College, Wake Forest, N. C. (A.M., 1885), and Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, Louisville, Ky. (Th.M., 1888). Since 1888 he has been connected with the latter institution, where he has been instructor in NewTestament interpretation (1888‑92), professor of Biblical introduction (1892‑95), and professor of New‑Testament interpretation (since 1895). He has written Critical Notes to Broadus's Harmony of the Gospels (New York, 1893); Life and Letters of John A. Broadus (Philadelphia, 1900); Syllabus of New Testament Greek Syntax (Louisville, 1900); Bibliography of New Testament Greek (1903); Teaching of Jesus concerning God the Father (New York, 1904); Students' Chronological New Testament (1904); Keywords in the Teaching of Jesus (Philadelphia, 1906); Syllabus for New Testament Study (Louisville, 1900);

57	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Robber Colaaail
		Robertson
Epochs in the Life of Jesus (New York, 1907); Short
Grammar of the Greek New Testament (1908; 2d
ed., 1909) ; and Epochs in the Life of Paul; A Study
of Development in St. Paul's Career (1909).
	ROBERTSON, FREDERICK WILLIAM: Eng
lish preacher; b. at London Feb. 3, 1816; d. at
Brighton Aug. 15, 1853. He was the descendant
of a family of soldiers whose traditions afterward
became of decisive influence upon his inner life.
He was brought up under the strong Evangelical
impressions of his home, then studied at Beversley
grammar‑school, the gymnasium of Tours, the New
Academy of Edinburgh, and the university of the
same place. His father had intended him for the
ministry, but he himself desired to become a sol
dier. He was finally articled to a solicitor, but the
sedentary habits of his calling broke down his health.
He was then placed upon the list of dragoons in
India and prepared himself for that service in the
usual manner, but as he had to wait more than two
years for a call, the desires of his father became
urgent so that with self‑sacrifice‑a characteristic
trait‑he entered, in 1837, Brazenose College, Ox
ford (B.A., 1841; M.A., 1844), to study theology.
He occupied himself for a time with Platonic meta
physics and Aristotle. As a theologian he clung at
that time to the Evangelical party in its strict Cal
vinistic expression. The theological ferment at
Oxford impelled him to the study of the Bible, es
pecially of the Greek New Testament, the most im
portant portions of which he memorized. In 1840
he took orders and the curacy of the parish of St.
Mary Kalendar, Winchester. Breaking down under
the pressure of hard work and nervous affection, he
was compelled in 1841 to seek relaxation, and went
to Switzerland, meeting there Helen, a daughter of
Sir William Denys, whom he married the same year.
After his return to England he accepted, in 1843, a
position as curate at Christ Church, Cheltenham.
Discouraged by ill success in his official life, he
resigned his position and in 1846 sought rest in
Heidelberg. After a short rest he accepted the
charge at St. Ebbe's in Oxford, and, in 1847, the
incumbency of Trinity Chapel, Brighton, which he
held until his death.
	Robertson's character was marked by great in
tensity of feeling, which led him into an emphasis
of expression that sometimes partook of overstate
ment. He was broad in his feelings, realizing some
thing in each of the schools of theology in the An
glican communion with which he was in sympathy.
He was especially successful in winning the con
fidence of the working classes. His usefulness was
limited and his own life shortened by the absolute
seriousness of his temperament, which did not per
mit the soothing and quieting influences of humor to
have their effect in the bearing of petty annoyances.
He was one of the foremost pulpit orators of his
people, excelling less in depth and learning than in
the power of his pathos, warm feeling, dignity, and
beauty of language. Most of his published works,
principally sermons, were issued posthumously.
The most important are: Sermons preached at Trin
ity Chapel, Brighton (5 series, London, 1855‑74,
often reprinted, e.g., 1906, in the later editions with
sketch of the life prefixed. This is one of the most remarkable and influential series of sermons ever issued, and is marked by a fresh, strenuous, and burning piety and a hunger for souls. They were written out after delivery, and are much condensed); Literary Remains (1876) among them Lectures on the Injluence of Poetry on the Working Classes. Less influential were Expository Lectures on St. Paul's Epistles to the Corinthians (1859), and Notes on Genesis (1877).
BIBLiaaRAPBT: 3. A. Brooke, Life and Letters of P. W.
Robertson. new ed., 2 vols., London, 1873 (thorough, sym
pathetic); W. Sawyer, Memoir of Rev. P. W. Robertson,
Brighton, 1853; G. Sutton, Paith and Science, and a
Critique upon Mr. Robertson of Brighton, London, 1868;
F. A. Noble, A Lecture on P. W. Robertson, ib. 1872; G.
MaeCrie, The Religion of ow Literature, ib. 1875; F. Arnold,
Robertson of Brighton, with some Notices of his Times and
Contemporaries, ib. 1886 (contains many interesting no
tices of friends of Robertson); J. P. Edgar, Robertson of
Brighton, Edinburgh, 1887; L. Dumas, Un prbdicateur
anplais, Montauban. 1894; DNB, xlviii. 404‑407; and
the list of literature in Richardson, Encyclopaedia, p. 941.
ROBERTSON, JAMES: The name of three Presbyterian divines.
1. Church of Scotland; b. at Ardlaw (36 m. n. of Aberdeen), Aberdeenshire, Jan. 2, 1803; d. in Edinburgh Dec. 2, 1860. After a brilliant career at Aberdeen University (M.A., 1820) and study in the divinity. hall there from 1821 to 1824, he was licensed by the presbytery of Deer and appointed schoolmaster of Pitsligo, 1825, tutor and librarian at Gordon Castle, the seat of the duke of Gordon, headmaster of Gordon's hospital in Aberdeen, 1829, and at last given a parochial charge, that of Ellon, 1832. In the troubles preceding the disruption of the Church of Scotland, he took a prominent part on the side of the moderates who opposed the rupture. He also sided with the ministers of Strathbogie presbytery who had been deposed by the general assembly because they, constituting the majority of presbytery, had acted contrary to the order of the assembly in taking a presentee on trial, 1842. When the disruption came the next year he stayed in the Kirk, and was made professor of divinity and church history in the University of Edinburgh, and so remained till his death. In 1844 he demitted his parochial charge.
He is remembered for two things, that in 1841 he advised the farmers, in accordance with Liebig's suggestion, to use bones dissolved in sulphuric acid as a manure; and second, that he was the remarkably efficient chairman of the committee in the Kirk on the endowment of chapels of ease. In recognition of his services he was elected moderator of the general assembly in 1856.
His publications embrace Exposition of the Prinr caples, Operation, and Prospects of the Church of Scotland's Indian Mission (Edinburgh, 1835); On the Power of the Civil Magistrate in Matters of Religion (1835); Observations on the Veto Act (1840); Statement for the Presbytery of Strathbogie (London, 1841); Answers to the Remonstrance (1841); Appeal for the Advancement of Female Education in India (Edinburgh, 1846); Remarks and Suggestions relative to the Proposed Endowment Scheme (1846); Letters to the Editor of the Northern Standard (1854); Old Truths and Modern Speculations (1860).

RRobertson	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	58
2. Canadian Presbyterian; b. at Dull (25 m. n.w. of Perth), Scotland, Apr. 24, 1839; d. in Toronto, Canada, Jan. 4, 1902. He was born in poverty, attended the school at Dull, but in 1855 removed to East Oxford, Ontario, Canada, with the family and then attended school at Woodstock, a neighboring village; passed the teacher's examination and returned to teach at Woodstock (1857), later near Innerskip (1859), but in 1863 he matriculated at the University of Toronto, from which he passed to Princeton Theological Seminary in 1866 and after two years entered Union Theological Seminary, New York City, whence he graduated in 1869. For the next six years he was pastor of Norwich, Windham, and East Oxford in the Presbyterian Church of Canada; in 1874 he became pastor of Knox Church, Winnipeg, Manitoba, and in 1877 lecturer in Manitoba college in the same place. In 1881 he became superintendent of missions of his church for Manitoba and the Northwest, rind so continued till his death. In 1895 he was moderator of the general assembly.
While a student in the university he belonged to the Queen's Rifles and saw service in connection with the Fenian raid of 1866. Thus early did he show his courage and his fidelity to duty. When his church called him to watch over and promote her missions in the wilds of Canada he addressed himself to his task with a skill, devotion, boldness, and tact which have seldom been equalled, and so he passes into history as one of the master missionaries. Those who would know what kind of a life he led have but to read the tales of Ralph Connor (Charles William Gordon, q.v.) for he was the " sky pilot " who moves through them as the great friend of God and man.
3. Church of Scotland; b. at Alyth (14 m. n.w. of Dundee), Perthshire, Mar. 2, 1840. Ile was educated at University and King's College, Aberdeen (M.A., 1859), and St. Mary's College, St. Andrews; was a missionary of the Church of Scotland at Constantinople in 1862‑64 and at Beirut in 1864‑75; minister of Mayfield Church, Edinburgh (1875‑77); and since 1877 has been professor of Hebrew and Semitic languages in the University of Glasgow. In 1904 he was Murtle lecturer at the University of Aberdeen. Theologically he is " Calvinistic by temperament, and generally described (by others) as a conservative theologian or conservative critic." He prefers, however, " to be regarded as a critic of the modern school of Old‑Testament criticism." He has edited Sabbath School Teachers' Book, Third Grade (Edinburgh, 1890), translated the syntactic portion of A. Miiller's Hebraische Schulgrammatik (Halle, 1878) under the title Outlines of Hebrew Syntax (London, 1882); and written The Early Religion of Israel (Edinburgh, 1892); The Old Testament and its Contents (1893); The Poetry and the Religion of the Psalms (1898); The First and Second Books of the Kings in the Temple Bible (London, 1902); and Five and Twenty Years in a Hebrew Chair (Edinburgh, 1903).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On 1: A. H. Charteris, Life of Rev. James Robertson, Professor of Divinity, London, 1863; idem, A
Faithful Churchman: Sketch of the Life and Work of Pro‑
fessor James Robertson, ib. 1897; DNB, xlviii. 410‑411.
On 2: C. W. Gordon (Ralph Connor), The Life of James
Robertson, Missionary Superintendent in the Northwest Territories, New York, 1908.
ROBERTSON, JAMES CRAIGIE: Church of England; b. at Aberdeen 1813; d. at Canterbury July 9, 1882. He was graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1834; M.A., 1838); was vicar of Beckesbourne, near Canterbury, 1846‑59; canon of Canterbury, 1859‑82; and professor of ecclesiastical history, Kings College, London, 1864‑74. His historical works take high rank. He wrote: How shall we Conform to the Liturgy of the Church of England? (London, 1843); History of the Christian Church to the Reformation (4 vols., 1854‑73; new ed., 8 vols., 1874‑75); Sketches of Church History (1855‑78); Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury (1859); and Plain Lectures on the Growth of the Papal Power (1876). He edited P. Heylyn's,History of the Reformation (2 vols., 1849); John Bargrave's Alexander VII. and his Cardinals (1867); and Materials for the History of Thomas Becket, in the Rolls Series (8 vols., 1875‑83).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: DNB, xlviii. 412‑413.
ROBERTSON, WILLIAM: Church of Scotland; b. at Borthwick (10 m. s.s.e. of Edinburgh) Sept. 19, 1721; d. in Edinburgh June 11, 1793. After studying at the University of Edinburgh, he was licensed and settled at Gladsmuir, 1743; was settled over Lady Yester's Chapel, Edinburgh, 1758; was translated to the Old Grayfriars Church, 1761. He was reputed the most eloquent preacher in Scotland, but he published only one sermon, the one he preached before the Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge, upon the state of the world at the coming of Christ (1755). From 1763 till 1780 he was moderator of the general assembly; from 1762 till 1792 principal of Edinburgh University. His fame with posterity does not come from his pulpit or administrative ability, but from three historical works which are now superseded because later writers have had access to much better information than he, but are noteworthy for their style and their impartiality: The History of Scotland during the Reigns of Queen Mary and of King James VI. till his Accession to the Crown of England. With a Review of the Scotch History previous to that Period, and an Appendix containing original Papers (London, 2 vols., 1758‑59); The History of the Reign of the Emperor Charles V., with a View of the Progress of Society in Europe from the Subversion of t,~:e Roman Empire to the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century (3 vols., 1769); and The History of America (4 vols., 1777‑96, going down to 1652 for Virginia and to 1688 for New England). There are numerous collected editions of his Works (most of them containing the Life by Dugald Stewart), e.g., 11 vols., London, 1800‑02, 12 vols., 1812; 6 vols., Edinburgh, 1813; best, 8 vols., Oxford, 1825, reprints often, e.g., 1865.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the life by Stewart, ut sup., there
is An Account of the Life and Writings of William Robertson, by G. Gleig, Edinburgh, 1812; and one in Lord
Brougham's Lives of Men of Letters and Science, 2 vols., London, 1845‑46. References to scattered notices are given in DNB, xlviii. 425‑430.
ROBINS, HENRY EPHRAIM: Baptist; b. at Hartford, Conn., Sept. 30, 1827. He was educated

69	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Robertson
		Robinson
at the Literary Institute, Suffield, Conn., Fairmount
Theological Seminary, and Newton Theological
Institution, from which he was graduated in 1861.
He held Baptist pastorates at the Central Baptist
Church, Newport, R. I. (1861‑67), and the First
Baptist Church, Rochester, N. Y. (1867‑73); was
president of Colby University (1873‑82); and
professor of Christian ethics in Rochester Theological
Seminary (1882‑1904). He has written Harmony
of Ethics with Theology (New York, 1891); The
Christian Idea of Education as distinguished from
Secular Education. (Philadelphia, 1895) ; and
Ethics in Christian Life (1904).
	ROBINSON, CHARLES HENRY: Church of
England; b. at Keynsham (5 m. s.e. of Bristol),
Somerset, Feb. 27, 1861. He was educated at Trinity
College, Cambridge (B.A., 1883), and was ordered
deacon in 1884 and ordained priest in 1885. He was
curate of Pateley Bridge, Yorkshire (1884‑86) and of
St. Johns, Darlinghurst, Sydney, N. S. W. (1886
1887). He became fellow and tutor of St. Augus
tine's College, Canterbury (1889), and was vice
chancellor of Truro Cathedral and vice‑principal of
the Chancellor's School at Truro (1890‑93). In 1892
he visited Armenia to report to the archbishop of
Canterbury on the condition of the Armenian
Church. He was engaged in a first expedition to
Kano, the commercial capital of central Soudan
(1893‑95), and since 1896 has been lecturer in Hausa
in the University of Cambridge, honorary canon of
Ripon since 1897, and in 1902 was made editorial
secretary to the Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel. He has written The Church and her Teach
ing (London, 1893); Hausaland: or, Fifteen Hun
dred Miles through the Central Soudan (1896);
Specimens of Hausa Literature (Cambridge, 1896) ;
Grammar of the Hausa Language (London, 1897);
Mohammedanism, has it any Future? (1897); Dic
tionary of the Hausa Language (in collaboration with
W. H. Brooks; 2 vols., London, 1899); Studies
in the Character of Christ (1900); Nigeria, our latest
Protectorate (1900) ; Human Nature a Revelation of the
Divine (1902); Studies in Christian Worship (1908);
and Studies in the Resurrection of Christ (1909).
	ROBINSON, CHARLES SEYMOUR: Presbyte
rian; b. at Bennington, Vt., Mar. 31, 1829; d. at
New York Feb. 1, 1899. He graduated at Williams
College, 1849; studied at Union (New York) and
Princeton Theological Seminaries; was pastor at
Troy, N. Y., 1855‑60; Brooklyn, N. Y., 1860‑68;
the American Chapel at Paris, France, 1868‑71;
Madison Ave. Church, New York, 1871‑88; and
of other churches at New York, 1890‑92, and after.
He has published volumes of sermons entitled,
Christian Work (New York, 1874) and Bethel and
Penuel (1874); Studies of Neglected Texts (1883);
Sermons in Songs (1885); and Simon Peter: His
Early Life and Times (2 vols., 1889). He is espe
cially famous as the compiler of books of hymns and
tunes, some of which are, Songs of the Church (New
York, 1862); Songs for the Sanctuary (180, 1889);
Psalms, Hymns, and Spiritual Songs (1874); and
Laudes Domini (1884‑90).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. W. Duffield, English Hymns, pp. 472‑
473, New York, 1886; Julian, Hymnology, p. 969.
ROBINSON, EDWARD: Biblical scholar, and pioneer in modern explorations in Palestine; b. at Southington, Conn., Apr. 10, 1794; d. in New York City Jan. 27, 1863. He was graduated from Hamilton College (1816), and after studying law at Hudson, N. Y., returned to his alma mater as tutor in mathematics and Greek (1817‑18). In 1818, he married Miss Eliza Kirkland, daughter of the Oneida missionary, who died the next year. From his Marriage until 1821, he worked his wife's farm, but also pursued his studies. In 1821 he went to Andover to superintend the printing of his edition of part of the Iliad (bks. i.‑ix., xviii., xxii.), which appeared in 1822, and while there, under Moses Stuart's influence, began his career as a Biblical scholar and teacher. From 1823 to 1826 he was instructor in the Hebrew language and literature at Andover Theological Seminary, meanwhile being busily occupied with literary labors. He assisted Professor Stuart in the 2d ed. of his Hebrew Grammar (Andover, 1823, 1st ed., 1813), and in his translation of Winer's Grammar of the New‑Testament Greek (1825), and alone translated Wahl's Clavis philologica Novi Testamenti (1825). In 1826 he went to Europe, and studied at Gottingen, Halle, and Berlin, making the acquaintance, and winning the praises, of Gesenius, Tholuck, and Rodiger in Halle, and Neander and Ritter in Berlin. In 1828 he married the youngest daughter of L. A. von Jacob, professor of philosophy and political science at the university of Halle, a highly gifted woman of thorough culture, well known before her marriage by her pseudonym of "Talvi." In 1830 he returned to America, and from 1830 to 1833 was professor‑extraordinary of Biblical literature, and librarian at Andover. In 1831 he founded the Biblical Repository, subsequently (1851) united with the Bibliotheca Sacra, to which he contributed numerous translations and original articles. In 1832 he issued an improved edition of Taylor's translation of Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible, and in 1833 a smaller Dictionary of'the Holy Bible, and a translation of Buttmann's Greek Grammar (extensively used as a text‑book). In 1833 ill‑health, induced by his severe labors, compelled him to resign his professorship, and he removed to Boston. In 1834 he brought out a revised edition of Newcome's Greek Harmony of the Gospels; in 1836, a translation of Gesenius' Hebrew Lexicon (5th edition, the last in which Robinson made any changes, 1854), and the independent Greek and English Lexicon of the New Testament (revised ed., 1850). In 1837 he was called to be professor of Biblical literature in Union Theological Seminary, New York City. Prior to entering upon his duties, he sailed in July, 1837, for the Holy Land, and in conjunction with Rev. Dr. Eli Smith, the accomplished Arabic scholar and faithful missionary of the American Board in Syria, explored all the important places in Palestine and Syria. In Oct., 1838, he returned to Berlin; and there for two years worked upon his Biblical Researches in Palestine, Mount Sinai, and Arabia Petrwa. This great work, which at once established the author's reputation as a geographer and Biblical student of the first rank, appeared simultaneously in London, Boston, and in a German translation carefully revised by Mrs. Robinson, and carried through the

Robinson	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	80
press in Halle by Professor RSdiger (3 vols., 1841). In recognition of his eminent services, he received in 1842 the Patron's Gold Medal from the Royal Geographical Society of London, and the degree of D.D. from the university of Halle, while in 1844 Yale College gave him that of LL.D. In 1852 he visited Palestine again, and published the results of this second visit in 1856, in the second edition of his Biblical Researches, and in a supplemental volume, Later Biblical Researches in Palestine and the Adjacent Regions (3d. ed. of the whole work, 3 vols., 1867). Dr. Robinson regarded the work as only a preparation for a complete physical, historical, and topographical geography of the Holy Land. But repeated attacks of illness undermined his constitution and an incurable disease of the eyes obliged him in 1862 to lay down his pen. After his death, the first part of the projected work, the Physical Geography of the Holy Land, which was all he had prepared, was published in English (London and Boston, 1865) and in German translation by his wife (Berlin). He also prepared a Greek Harmony of the Gospels (1845), which was far superior to anything of the kind which had then appeared, and in 1846 an English Harmony.
In May, 1862, he made his fifth and last visit to Europe, but failed to receive any permanent benefit to his eyesight. In Nov. he returned, and resumed his lectures, but died after a brief illness.
Dr. Robinson was a man of athletic form and imposing figure, though somewhat bent in later years; of strong, sound, good sense; reserved, though when in congenial company often entertaining and humorous. He was thorough and indefatigable in his investigations, skeptical of all monastic legends, reverent to God's revelation. Outwardly cold, his heart was warm, and his sympathies tender. He is probably the most distinguished Biblical scholar whom America has produced, indeed, one of the most distinguished of the nineteenth century. The original manuscript of Dr. Robinson's Biblical Researches and a part of his library are in the possession of the Union Theological Seminary.
P. ScaAFFt. D. S. ScHAFF.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The memorial addresses by R. D. Hitchcoek and H. B. Smith are in Life, Writings, and Character of Edward Robinwn, New York, 1883; A. P. Stanley, Addresses and Sermons in America. pp. 23‑34, ib. 1879; Ci. L. Prentiss, The Union Theological Seminary in the City o New York, pp. 243‑254 et passim, ib. 1889.

ROBINSON, GEORGE LIVINGSTONE: Presbyterian; b. at West Hebron, N. Y., Aug.19,1864. He was graduated from Princeton College (A.B., 1887), Princeton Theological Seminary (1893), and studied at the universities of Berlin (1893‑94) and Leipsic (Ph.D., 1895). He was an instructor in the Syrian Protestant College, Beirut, Syria (1887‑90); pastor of the Presbyterian church at Roxbury, Mass. (1896); professor of Old‑Testament literature and exegesis at Knox College, Toronto (1896‑98); held a similar position in McCormick Theological Seminary, Chicago (1898‑1906); and was appointed professor in the American School of Archeology at Jerusalem (1906). He has made extensive explorations in Palestine, particularly in the peninsula of Sinai and Kadesh‑Barnes. In theology he is a con‑
servative liberal. He has written The Origin anal Date of Zechariah ix.‑xiv. (Chicago, 1896); The Biblical Doctrine of Holiness (1904); and Leaders of Israel: History of the Hebrews from the Earliest Times to the Downfall of Jerusalem, A.D. 70 (New York, 1906).
ROBINSON, HENRY DOUGLAS: Protestant Episcopal missionary bishop of Nevada; b. at Lowell , Mass., Mar. 15, 1860. He was educated at Racine College (B.A., 1884), and was assistant rector of the grammar‑school of the same institution in 1884,85, and instructor in mathematics in San Mateo Military Academy, San Mateo, Cal., in 1885‑89. Having been ordered deacon in 1886 and priested in 1888, he was also curate of St. Matthew's in the same city until 1889, after which he was rector (1889‑99) and warden (1899‑1908) of the grammar‑school of Racine College. In 1908 he was consecrated missionary bishop of Nevada.
ROBINSON, JOHN: English Separatist,, the minister of the Pilgrim Fathers; b. probably at Lincoln, about 1575; d. at Leyden Mar. 1, 1625. He entered Corpus Christi (or Benet) College, Cambridge, in 1592 (B.A., 1596; fellow, 1598; M.A., 1599); was curate of St. Andrew's, Norwich, 1602; married 1604; was compelled to leave his charge because he had criticized prelacy and the ceremonies of the Church of England, 1606; then is heard of in many places anxiously endeavoring to find out his duty as to leaving the church. Finally he decided to leave and in 1606 became an officer of the Separatist congregation meeting at William Brewster's house, Scrooby, Nottinghamshire; he went with the congregation to Amsterdam in 1608; and in May, 1609, settled in Leyden, where he was publicly ordained as pastor and Brewster became ruling elder. In Jan., 1611, Robinson and three others bought a house for 8,000 guilders, but, probably owing to difficulty in raising the money, did not obtain possession till May, 1612; the building was then used as a church and dwelling, and a score of small houses were erected on the property for the poorer members. In Sept., 1615, Robinson was admitted a member of the university as a student of theology and attended the lectures of Episcopius and Polyander (Jan Kerckhoven). He is said to have entered actively into the Arminian controversies, taking the Calvinistic side. The determination to emigrate to America was formed as early as 1617, when John Carver, a deacon, and Robert Cushman, a man of business experience, were sent to London to negotiate with the London‑Virginia Company, carrying with them seven articles of belief subscribed by Robinson and Brewster as evidence of their orthodoxy and loyalty. The first company of emigrants crossed the Atlantic in the Mayflower and landed at Plymouth, Dec. 21, 1620, under Brewster's guidance. Robinson remained in Holland with the majority of the congregation, who chose to defer their departure, and he died before he was able to unite his divided flock. He was buried Mar. 4, 1625, in St. Peter's Church, Leyden. His congregation was broken up, some going to New England and others to Amsterdam. In 1865 a marble slab was placed on the building occupying the

61	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	8,obinson
site of Robinson's house in Leyden (taken down about 1650), and in 1891 a bronze tablet was dedicated on St. Peter's Church. Robinson was a man of amiable character, of sound judgment and good sense, and exercised a good influence over all the English in Holland. See CONGREGATIONALISTS, I., 1, §§ 5‑7. His Works (nearly complete), with memoir by Robert Ashton, appeared in 3 vols., London, 1851. The most important are A Justifw*tion of Separation from the Church of England (Leyden, 1610); Of Religious Comunion, Private and Public (1614), a reply to Thomas Helwys and John Smyth; Apologia justa et necessaria quorumdam Christianorum dictorum Broumistarum give Batrowistarum (1619; in Eng., 1625); Observations, Divine and Moral, essays on moral and religious topics (1625; 1628; 1638).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The first source for a life is Robinson's own writings and next to that is W. Bradford. Hist. of Plymouth Plantation, in Collections of Massachusetts Historical Society, 4 series, vol. iii., 1856, cf. A. Young, Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers, 2d ed., Boston, 1844. The principal external sources are conveniently and compactly brought together by E. Arber in The Story of the Pilgrim Fathers 1808‑83 . . as Told by themselves, their Friends, and their Enemies, London, 1897. Consult further: O. S. Davis, John Robinson, the Pilgrim Pastor, Boston, 1903; H. M. Dexter, Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years, pp. 357‑410 et passim, New York, 1880; D. Campbell, The Puritan in Holland, England, arid America, u. 240 sqq., ib. 1893; W. Walker, in American Church History Series, iii. 57‑72, ib. 1894; idem, Ten New England Leaders, pp. 17‑29 et passim, ib. 1901; A. E. Dunning, Congregationalists in America, ib. 1894; John Brown, The Pilgrim Fathers of New England and their Puritan Successors, ib. 1897; C. Burrage, New Fads concerning John Robinson, Pastor of the Pilgrim Fathers, Oxford, 1910 (used in the foregoing sketch); DNB, xiix. 18‑22 (where reference is made to scattering notices). Much of the literature cited under PORITAlqs, PORITAHI6m will be found to contain material on the subject.

ROBINSON, JOHN EDWARD: Methodist Episcopal bishop in Southern Asia; b. at Gort (28 m. n. of Limerick), County Galway, Ireland, Feb. 12, 1849. He was graduated at Drew Theological Seminary (1874), and in that year went to India as a missionary. He was presiding elder of the Burmah District (1884‑88), the Bombay District (18881896), the Asansol District (1896‑1900), and the Calcutta District (1900‑04). He was elegted bishop in 1904. In theology he is a liberal evangelical. In addition to editing the Burmah Evangelist from 1884 to 1887 and the Indian Witness from 1896 to 1904, he has written Apostolic Succession Refuted (Rangoon, 1884) and The Rise and Progress of Methodism (1899).

ROBINSON, JOSEPH ARMITAGE: Church of England; b. at Keynaham (5 m. s.e. of Bristol), Somerset, Jan. 9, 1858. He was educated at Christ's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1881), and was ordered deacon in 1881 and advanced to the priesthood in the following year. He was then domestic chaplain to the bishop of Durham (1883‑84), curate of Great St. Mary's, Cambridge (1885‑86), Cambridge Whitehall preacher (1886‑88), vicar of All Saints', Cambridge (1888‑92), Norrisian professor of divinity at Cambridge (1893‑99), and canon of Westminster (1899‑1902). Since 1902 he has been dean of Westminster. He was likewise fellow of his college in
1881‑99, of which he has been honorary fellow since 1904, and was dean of the same college in 1884‑90. He was examining chaplain to the bishop of Bath and Wells in 1888‑92, a prebendary in Wells Cathedral in 1894‑99, select preacher at Oxford in 1899, and rector of St. Margaret's, Westminster, in 18991900, while since 1902 he has been a chaplain‑inordinary to the king. He prepared the English translation, with a preface and appendices, Of S. Lampros's Collation of the Athos Codex of the Shepherd of Hermas (Cambridge, 1888); and edited the larger portion of the Greek text of the "Apology" of Aristides for J. R. Harris's edition of the Syriac version of the same document (1891); The Passion of Saint Perpetua (1891); and The Philocalia of Origen (1893); besides editing Texts and Studies: Contributions to Biblical and Patristic Literature (Cambridge, 1891 sqq.); and An. Unrecognized Westminster Chronicler, 1381‑1394 (1907). As independent works he has written The Gospel according to Peter and the Revelation of Peter (Cambridge, 1892; in collaboration with M. R. James); Euthaliana: Studies of Euthalius (1895); Unity in Christ, and other Sermons (London, 1901); Study of the Gospels (1902); Some Thoughts on the Incarnation (1903); St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians: Revised Text and Translation, with Exposition and Notes (1903); Some Thoughts on Inspiration (1905); Some Thoughts on the Athanasian Creed (1905); The Vision of Unity (1908; sermons); The Historical Character of St. John's Gospel (1908); St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians, an Exposition (1909); The Manuscripts of Westminster Abbey (1909; with M. R. James).

ROBINSON, ROBERT: Baptist; b. at Swaffham (25 m. w. of Norfolk), Norfolk, Sept. 27, 1735; d. at Birmingham June 8, 1790. From 1761 he was pastor of a society at Cambridge, acquired considerable land, and engaged at the same time in business as a corn and coal merchant; and, besides preaching on Sundays at Cambridge, did Evangelical work in as many as fifteen neighboring stations during week‑days. In his Plea for the Divinity of our Lord Jesus Christ (Cambridge 1776; new ed., 1813) he represented Sabellian views, was influenced by Joseph Priestley (q.v.), and in a letter (1788) scouted the idea of the doctrine of the Trinity and of the personality of the Spirit. Deficient in training, he taught himself four or five languages, possessed great powers of speech, and his History of Baptism (London, 1790) was strongly written, minute in learning, and abounding in rustic witticism. His Posthumous Works were issued in 1792; a volume of Sermons in 1804; his Miscellaneous Works, ed. B. Flower, in 4 vole., in 1807; and Select Works, ed. W. Robinson, 1861. He wrote the two popular hymns "Come thou Fount of every blessing" (1758) and "Mighty God, while angels bless thee" (1774).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The funeral sermons by Joseph Priestley, Abraham Rees, and Joshua Toulmin were all published in 1790. The monograph is by G. Dyer, Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Robert Robinson, London, 1796. Memoirs by the editors were prefixed to the Miscellaneous Works and Select Works, ut sup. Consult further: S. W. Duffield, English Hymns, pp. 118‑117, 35257. New York, 1888; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 989‑870.

Robinson
Bode
ROBINSON, STUART: Presbyterian; b. at Strabane (13 m. s.s.w. of Londonderry), Ireland, Nov. 26, 1816; d. at Louisville, Ky., Oct. 5, 1881. He was graduated at Amherst College, 1836; studied theology at Union Theological Seminary, Va., and at Princeton; was ordained, 1$42; pastor at Kanawha Salines, W. Va., 1841‑47; at Frankfort, Ky., 1847‑52; at Baltimore, 1852‑56; was professor of church polity and pastoral theology in the Presbyterian theological seminary at Danville, Ky., 1856‑57; and pastor at Louisville, Ky., 1858‑81. He was one of the most prominent clergymen of the South; and published The True Presbyterian; but, his loyalty being doubted, the paper was suppressed by the military in 1862, and he removed to Canada, preaching at Toronto. In 1866 he returned to his pastorate at Louisville and resumed his journal under the title Free Christian, Commonwealth. Expelled from the general assembly in 1866 for signing the " Declaration and Testimony " (a protest against political deliverances by the official bodies of the church), he induced the synod of Kentucky to unite with the general assembly of the Southern Presbyterian Church in 1869. Among his published works are, The Church of God an Essential Element of the Gospel (Philadelphia, 1858); Slavery as Recognized by the Mosaic Law (Toronto, 1865); and Discourses of Redemption (New York, 1866; Edinburgh, 1869).
ROBSON, GEORGE: United Free Church of Scotland; b. at Glasgow May 8, 1842. He was educated at the university of his native city (M.A., 1861), the universities of Erlangen, Berlin, Tiibingen, and Geneva (1862‑65), and United Presbyterian Hall, Edinburgh (1866). In 1866 he was ordained minister of Union Street Church, Inverness, where he remained until 1895, when he accepted a call to the pastorate of Bridgend Church, Perth. He retired from the active ministry in 1903, and since that time has resided in Edinburgh, although he still remains senior pastor of Bridgend. He has taken a prominent part in educational movements and was one of the founders of the Northern Counties Institute for the Blind. In 1874 he visited Norway to investigate recent religious movements in that country, and fifteen years later paid a similar visit to the Church missions in the West Indies. He has been the editor of The Missionary Record since 1891. His theological position is essentially conservative, and he has a strong desire for union among evangelical churches and for their cooperation in evangelistic work. In addition to translating and editing the first volume of the English version of I. A. Dorner's Geschichte der protestantisehen Theologie, besonders in Deutschland (Munich, 1867) under the title History of Protestant Theology, particularly in Germany (Edinburgh, 1871) and preparing the English translation of the seventh edition of G. A. Warneek's Abriss einer Geschichte der protestantischen Missionen von der Reformation, bis auf die Gegenwart under the title Outline of the History of Protestant Missions (Edinburgh, 1901), he has written The Story of the Jamaica Mission (Edinburgh, 1894).
ROCHELLE: A city on the west coast of France in the department of the Charente‑Inf6rieure,
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
82
having a population of about 28,000. It is a suffragan bishopric of Bordeaux and a fortress of the first class. Its origin dates from the tenth century when the town grew up around a feudal castle built upon a rocky escarpment (Rupella, Rochella) in the midst of the marshes of the lower Charente. In the twelfth century it became the chief place of the feudal county of Aunis. The city and territory passed to England with the marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine to Henry II. (1151), and remained under English rule until 1224 when it was captured by Louis VIII. During the Hundred Years' War, it was taken by the English and formally ceded by France in the Treaty of Brdtigny (1360). But it continued to remain French in spirit. In 1372 the Rochellois refused to help the fleet of the Earl of Pembroke which was destroyed by a Castilian fleet in the service of France in the Bay of Biscay. In recognition of this service Charles V. confirmed anew the city's ancient municipal privileges. Its harbor became an important roadstead of the French marine and it was from Rochelle that the French discoverer Bethencourt sailed in 1402 for the conquest of the Canary Isles. The chief interest in La Rochelle, however, is religious, in connection with the Huguenot wars. About 1534 Calvinism acquired an important following in the region round about, and when the wars of religion began in 1562, Rochelle became an important Protestant stronghold in the west of France, rivaling Montauban and Montpellier in the south. Its peculiar importance lay in‑the fact that it was open to the sea and had ready communication with its coreligionists in England and Holland. During the third civil war (1572‑74), which was precipitated by the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, Rochelle was ineffectually besieged by the Roman Catholic forces under command of the duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX. The peace which terminated this war had an important part in shaping the ultimate settlement of the Huguenot question by the Edict of Nantes. In 1624, when the Huguenot troubles broke out anew, but under radically changed conditions (see RICHELIEU), Rochelle again was their chief stronghold. The situation was all the more dangerous to France because the Huguenots were operating in connection with the English under the duke of Buckingham, whose fleet had captured the Island of Re. Fortunately for the king Cardinal Richelieu was at the helm. On Aug. 15, 1627, the royal army invested the city. The difficulties of the siege were great. The walls were so strong that with the means which siegecraft possessed at that time it seemed impossible to force them. The chief difficulty, however, was the ready assistance of England. Richelieu did not lay siege to the place in regular form at once. He attempted one or two surprises, but sapping and mining were not effective and no assault was made. Instead a long line of redouts, some three leagues in length and connected by forts, was thrown up from one side of the bay to the other. It was then decided to close the bay. In accordance with the plans of an Italian engineer and a Parisian architect an enormous dike was built. The work was begun at the end of November, with a spur of masonry from each side of the bay, which when completed

83	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Robinson
was over 1,400 paces long. By May, 1628, the construction of the mole was so well advanced that an English relief fleet was unable to enter the harbor. Meantime Rochelle was famishing. Everything edible was devoured, even boiled parchment. Finally, on Oct. 28, 1628, the city surrendered. Its privileges were abolished, its property was attached to the royal domain, its walls were leveled, and the Roman Catholic religion was restored within it. But Richelieu's opposition had been purely political. Freedom of worship was still left to the Protestants.
Under the active commercial policy of Colbert Rochelle shared with all the Huguenots of France in the prosperity of the times. It had important commercial connection with the French colonies in America, with Santo Domingo, and the West African coast. But the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (q.v.; also see NfmEs, EDICT OF) in 1685 was a blow from which it never recovered. It is estimated then to have lost 5,000 inhabitants. So low did it sink that even during the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars it had almost no history. To‑day it is a dull provincial town engaged in the fisheries and having some South American trade. See HUGUE‑
NOTS; RICHELIEU; and ROHAN, HENRI, DUC DE. JAMES WESTFALL THOMPSON.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. W. Thompson, Wars of Religion in France,
	1668‑78, Chicago, 1909 (with extensive bibliography; re
	lates to the siege of 1573‑74); A. Barbot, Hist. de la
	Rochelle, Paris, 1886; T. E. Kemmerer, Hilt. de I'tle de
	R€, La Rochelle, 1888; G. Musset, La Rochelle et sea ports,
	ib. 1890; P. Suzanne, La Rochelle pittoresque, ib. 1903;
	Cambridge Modern History, iii. 10‑11, 20‑25, 32, New York,
1905; and the literature under HDOUENOTs; RICHELIEU; and RoHAN, HENRI.
ROCHET. See VESTMENTS AND INSIGNIA, ECCLESIASTICAL.

ROCK, DANIEL: Roman Catholic; b. at Liverpool Aug. 31, 1799; d. at Kensington, London, Nov. 28, 1871. He was educated in the English College, Rome; was ordained priest in 1824; served at St. Mary's, Moorfields, London, 1825‑26, then at the Bavarian Chapel in Warwick St., 1826‑27; was domestic chaplain to the earl of Shrewsbury, 18271840; then pastor at Buckland, near Farringdon; and, on the reintroduction of the Roman Catholic hierarchy, canon of Southwark, 1852‑54. He was an eminent antiquarian, and wrote, Hierurgia, or the Sacrifice of the Mass Expounded (2 vols., London, 1833); Did the Early Church in Ireland acknowledge the Pope's Supremacy? (1844); and The Church of our Fathers, as seen in St. Oamond's Rite for the Cathedral of Salisbury (3 vols., 1849‑54).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Gillow, Literary and Biographical History . . of English Catholics, v. 436‑437, London and New York, n.d.; DNB, xlix. 75‑76.
ROCK, JOHANN FRIEDRICH. See INSPIRED, THE.
RODANIM. See DODANIM.
RODE, rode, HINNE (JOHANNES RHODIUS):
B. in Friesland c. 1490; d. in East Friesland c. 1535. He belonged to the Brethren of the Common Life (see COMMON LIFE, BRETHREN OF THE) as their most eminent member and the most conspicuous personal force, and was connected with the school they
had established under the patronage of St. Jerome. Nothing is known of his early life, neither the exact time nor place of his birth. He first comes into public note as rector of the school named above, and was held in high esteem for piety and learning. He was no stranger to humanistic efforts, nor to the movements that preceded the Reformation, especially as exemplified by Weasel. Whether Rode made the acquaintance of Weasel, who died in 1489, and so received some incitation from him directly, is not ascertainable. At all events he was acquainted with Wessel's widely diffused, much read and esteemed, influential writings. In this situation Luther's advent was hailed with joy. His theses were circulating in that region as early as 1518, while his books found ready sale despite of or perhaps because of much vehement zeal on the opposing side (Erasmus, Epist., cccxvii., May 18). The contest was also greatly reinforced by Luther's pupils, as by Henry of Ziitphen (see MOLLER, HEINRICH).
The Lutheran movement at Utrecht had begun in 1520, through the efforts of a Dominican, Worte (Walther), who preached in Delft against the indulgence bestowed by the pope in favor of St. Lawrence's Church at Rotterdam. He was joined by Master Friedrich Hondebeke (Canirivus); Georgius Saganus, a scholastically cultivated man, with whom Rode subsequently journeyed to Germany; and the youthful Johannes Ssrtorius, or Snijders. Their most important fellow‑combatant was Cornelis Henriks (Hinrichson) Hoen (Honius), advocate in the court of justice at The Hague; but Rode was the movement's leading spirit. Hoen objected to the Roman doctrine, deviating, however, from Weasel in construing the words of institution, which Hoen explained: "this is a pledge, the symbol of my body; it signifies my body." On all sides, however, there was a desire for Luther's view, upon which rested all decisions as to Scripture. Rode was sent to ask from Luther a decision upon this matter and to request him to edit the writings of Weasel. In spite of all researches, there is still debate as to the year when Rode was at Wittenberg. The majority favor 1520‑21; Moller and Loofa, 1522. After visiting Luther, Rode made a journey by way of Basel to Zurich, to confer with Zwingli. In 1522 he was condemned at home on the ground of his Lutheran doctrine.
Leaving the Netherlands, Rode returned to Basel some time before Sept. 1, 1522, his immediate purpose being to supervise the issue of Weasel's Farrago, which appeared in Sept., 1522. Rode could not continue at home by reason of the hostile state of mind there. So early as 1523, two Auguatinians were executed; also two young lads, Henricus Voea and Johannes Esch. The new bishop, Henry of Bavaria, continued the persecution with greater vehemence. Johannes Pistoriue, a pupil of Rode's, was executed Sept. 8, 1525.
At this period Rode was in Strasburg with Butzer, as witness the latter's letter to Martin Frecht, a document of much significance in connection with Butzer's attitude toward Rode and with the controversy over the Lord's Supper. In this the following passage occurs:

Bode	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	64
3ELoerd am
	" Meanwhile, after Carlstadt's tract had appeared, pre
senting his revised interpretation down to 1524,	. there
came to me a strange man, Job. Rodius, a heart so de
vout, so illumined in deeds and words, that I know of no
one, not even excepting Luther, . . . whom I could prefer
to this man in insight and judgment. .	. He is a native of
the Netherlands, where he follows the same calling as
Paul among the Greeks. Although recognising Luther as
his teacher, he owes more, in certain articles, to Wessel.
Moreover, I can note ease wondering that we profit so little
by this man. This Rodius was my guest (in the autumn
of 1524); and, Bible in hand, he conversed at much length
with me on the question of the Lord's Supper, wherein I
defended Luther's opinion against him with all my might.
But I then discerned that I was no peer to this man's mind,
nor equal to all his arguments; and that one can not con
sistently maintain, by the Scripture, what I desired to
affirm. I had to waive the corporeal presence of Christ in the
bread; albeit I still hesitated concerning the certain ex
planation of the words."
	The foregoing sketch by a contemporary discloses
the significance of Rode, and likewise his influence
upon the Swiss Reformed theology. The Eucharis
tic dispute emanated from Rode; Luther gaged
him correctly, and hence Luther's vigorous opposi
tion. Just as the Strasburg and Swiss theologians
proved susceptible to Rode's influence in the doc
trine as to the Lord's Supper, it was also due to him
that the Netherlands Church, and afterward the
East Frisian Church, became estranged from the
Lutheran trend. Rode later returned to Deventer,
in his home country, where Gerhard Geldenhauer
(Noviomagus) met him in 1525. From data con
cerning Rode in the letters of Butaer and Capito,
dated July 9 and Sept. 26, 1526, it appears that
he married in 1526. This was why, to escape
constant persecutions, he accepted a teacher's
position at Norden, in Ostfriesland. Owing to
Rode's aggressive intervention in the East Frisian
movement, the previously Lutheran sentiment now
took on a Reformed complexion. Rode, when de
posed on account of his opposition to Luther, went
to Wolfhusen, protected by Count Enno.
	Rode's widow died in 1557; the year of his own
death is not known. While nothing is certainly ex
tant in the way of his writings, that he produced
none is hardly probable; it is not beyond reason
to suppose Rode the possible author of a work with
the title (Economia Christians. Rode is still men
tioned along with Gnapheus and Honius in connec
tion with the translation of Luther's New Testament
into Dutch (Amsterdam, 1525).	Yet there are
serious doubts in the matter.	L. SCHULZE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The first source is the Doesburg Chronicle,
	in part published by W. Moll, in Kerkhidorixh Archief,
	iii. 108‑115, Amsterdam, 1862; then A. R. Hardenberg s
	Vita Wessdii, prefixed to the Opera of Wessel, Groningen,
	1614 (cf. the literature under WEssEL); and D. Gerdes,
	Introductio in hilt. Evanpetii seculo %V1., i. 228‑331,
	Groningen, 1744. Consult A. J. Van tier Aa, Bio
	praphiach Woordenboek van tier Nederlanden, xvi. 302,
	Haarlem, 1852 sqq.; W. Moll, Kerkpewhiedenis van Neder
	land, 2 vols., Arnhem and Utrecht, 1864‑71; J. G. de
	Hoop‑Scheffer, Gewhiedenia tier Kerkheroorminp in Neder
	land, pp. 30, 90‑91, 105‑106, 263, 316 et passim, Amster
	dam, 1873; T. Kolde, Martin Luther, ii. 557‑578, Gotha,
	1884; O. Clemen, Hinne Rode in Wittenberg, Basel, Za
	rich, . , in ZKG, xviii (1898), 346 uqq.; J. K8stlin,
	Martin Luther, ed. Kawerau, Berlin, 1903; ADB, Vol.
	xxu.
	RODGERS, JOHN: Presbyterian; b. at Boston
Aug. 5, 1727; d. at New York May 7, 1811. He
received his education under Samuel Blair and
Gilbert Tennent (qq.v.); was licensed Oct., 1747; pastor at St. George's, Del., 1749‑65; and at New York, 1765‑76, and from the the close of the Revolutionary War till his death. In 1789 he was elected moderator of the first general assembly of the Presbyterian Church, at Philadelphia. He was a stanch patriot during the Revolution, and served as chaplain in the continental army in 1776, of the provincial congress of New York, of the council of safety, and of the first legislature in 1777. He was a prominent character in church and city life. BIBLJOGRAPHY: S. Miller, Memoirs of the Rev. J. Rodgers,
Late Pastor of the Wall Street and Brick Churches in the City of New York, New York, 1813; W. B. Sprague, Annals of the American Pulpit, iii. 154‑165, ib. 1858; E. H. Gillett, Hint. of the Pre"erian Church, vol. i. passim, Philadelphia, 1864; R. E. Thompson, in American Church Historv Series, vol. vi. passim, New York, 1895.
ROEHM, rom, JOHANN BAPTIST: German Roman Catholic; b. at Lauingen (26 m. n.e. of Ulm) Jan. 6, 1841. He was educated at the University of Munich, after which he was curate in Ettringen, Thannhausen, and Oettingen in the diocese of Augsburg, and then an instructor in religion at Augsburg, and curate and professor at the royal theological seminary in Munich. Since 1899 he has been canon of the cathedral at Passau.
He has written: AuspewdhlUe Reden den heiligen Gregor von Nazianz (Kempten, 1874); Auspewrihlte Schriften ties Oripenea (1876); Prediglen auf dem Fede tier Heiligen (Augsburg, 1876); Die Glaubensprinzip tier katholischen Kirche (Vienna, 1877); Predigten auf dem Feste tier aeligsten Junpfrau (Passau, 1879) Aufpabe tier protestantischen Theologen (Augsburg, 1882); Gedanken fiber die Union (Hildesheim, 1883); Confemionelle Lehrpepena&ze (1883); Grobe Unwahrheiten von and ilber Luther (1884); Der erste Brief an die Thessaloniker (Passau, 1885); Ein Wort llber die deutsche protestantische Schule (5 parts, Hildesheim, 1887); Zur Charakteristik tier protestantischen Polemik tier Gegenwart (1889); Zur Tetzellegends (1889); Protestantische Lehre vom Antichrist (1891); Zur Charakterlsaik ties Protestantismus in Verpanpenheit and Gepenwart (1892); Send8chreiben sines katholischen an elnen orthodoxen Theolopen (Augsburg, 1895); Der Protestantismus unserer Tape (Munich, 1897); Die Wiederroereinipung tier christlichen Konfeasionen (Mains, 1900).
ROEHR, r0r, JOHANN FRIEDRICH: German Lutheran of the rationalistic school; b. at Rossbach (24 m. s.w. of Leipsic) July 30, 1777; d. at Weimar June 15, 1848. After completing his education at the University of Leipsic, he was appointed assistant preacher at the university church of the same city, and then taught for two years at Pforta (1802‑04). He was then pastor at Ostrau, near ZeitZ, until 1820, when he was called to become chief pastor at Weimar, where he passed the remainder of his life. He was likewise chief court preacher, supreme consistorial and ecclesiastical councilor, and general superintendent for the principality of Weimar.
The importance of Rohr lies in his defense of popular rationalism, a position first consciously set forth in his Briefs fiber den Rationalismus (Aachen, 1813). This system was essentially the blending of two relikious truths, revealed and non‑revealed (reason), the final end of religion being pure morality; the divinity of Christ was categorically denied. Rohr's views were received with so little favor that in the second and third editions of his Grundand Glaubenssdtze tier evangelisch‑protestantischen Kirche (Neustadt‑on‑the‑Oder, 1834, 1844) he was

65	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bode
		Roerdam
forced to modify the radicalism of his theories.
He continued his advocacy of rationalism in the
journal published by him under the successive
names of Predigerlitteratur (1810‑14), Neue and
neueste Predigerlitteratur (1815‑19), and Kritische
Prediger‑Bibliothek (1820‑48).	He was at the
same time involved in polemics with all who dif
fered from him, until the untenability of the posi
tion of popular rationalism was effectually shown
by Hase after a bitter controversy. Rohr likewise
savagely assailed the school of Scheiermacher
after the death of its founder. The character of
Rohr, both as a theologian and as a man, is mir
rored in his sermons, which appeared in several
collections, as in his Christologiwhe Predigten (2
vols., Weimar, 1831‑37), as well as in the Magazin
fiir christliche Prediger, which he edited after 1828.
He also wrote lehrbuch der Anthropologie far
Volksschulen and den Selbstunterricht (Zeitz, 1815);
Paldstina oder historischrgeographisehe Beschreibung
des jiidisehen Landes zur Zeit Jesu (1816); Luthers
Leben and Wirken (1818); Kleine theologische
Schrtften (Sehleusingen, 1841); and Die gute Sache
des Protestantismus (Leipsic, 1842).
			(G. FRANat.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: B. Hain, Neue Nekrolog der Deutschen,
	xxvi. 1 (1848), 451; G. Frank, Geschichte der protestanti
	schen Theologie, iii. 368, Leipsie, 1875; ADB, xxx. 92.
	ROELL, ref, HERMANN ALEXANDER: Dutch
Reformed; b. at Dolbergh, Westphalia, 1653;
d. at Amsterdam July 12, 1718.	He was edu
cated at Hamra (1669‑70), Utrecht (1670‑71),
and Groningen (1671‑72), but he was forced by the
siege to leave the latter city, and remained in Ger
many and Switzerland until 1674, when he resumed
his studies at Hamm (1674‑75), completing them
at Utrecht. He then lived for a time at Leyden,
after which he was chaplain of the Princess Pala
tine Elizabeth (:679‑80) and of Albertina Agnes,
widow of William Frederick, stadtholder of Fries
land (1680‑82). For four years he was pastor at
Deventer, but in 1686 was appointed professor of
theology at Franeker, where he remained until 1704,
when he accepted a similar appointment at Utrecht.
Toward the end of his life he resided in Amsterdam.
RoEll belonged to the school of Cocceius and Des
cartes, and as a rigid critic, holding that reason
could not be in conflict with revelation, he sought
to harmonize the two, maintaining that revelation
had been given to supplement the inadequacy of
reason. Working along the lines of his inaugural
address at Franeker, De religione naturali (Franeker,
1686), Roell became the object of severe criticism,
particularly from tile rigidly Calvinistic Ulrich
Huber, professor of jurisprudence. Before the con
troversy was ended by the command of the estates
of Friesland, Roell, who was supported by his
Franeker colleagues J. van der Waeyen and R. ab
Andala, had written, in reply to the critiques of
Huber, his Kort onderzoek over de twaalf stellingen
van Ulr. Huber (Franeker, 1687) and Vindicice
examinis brevis duodecim positionum Ulr. Huberi
(1687). Meanwhile his deference to the importance
of reason and his non‑Calvinistic views on the eternal
generation of the Son had aroused suspicion. He
taught that "generation" here implied merely that
		X‑5
the second person of the Trinity possessed the same nature and essence as the first, coexisting with the Father from eternity, appearing in the flesh, and revealing the glory of the Father in his works. The terms "Father" and "Son," moreover, connoted simply an extremely close association of the two, the relation between the divine sender and the divine envoy. He also taught that the earthly death of the righteous satisfies divine justice and is sufficient to obtain forgiveness; and at the same time he was suspected of entertaining heretical views on the eternity of the divine decree and the divine obligation to punish sin, as well as on satisfaction, justification, and other doctrines.
These views were assailed by Roell's colleague, C. Vitringa, in 1689, whereupon RoOl defended a series of Theses theologian de generatione Filii et morte fidelium (Franeker, 1689), following this up with the publication of his own two dissertations De generatione Filii (1689) in answer to the strictures of Vitringa. The controversy was finally ended in 1691 and Rogll, to prevent any further misunderstanding, wrote the Kort en eenvoudig berigt van het verschil over de geboorte des Soons (Amsterdam, 1691), while the senate forbade all professors, pastors, and ecclesiastical bodies to occupy themselves longer with the matter. Despite all this, the Synod of South Holland condemned the teachings of Roell in 1691, similar courses being pursued by the synods of North Holland, Utrecht, and Groningen. Even with Roell's death bitterness against him did not disappear, for until the end of the eighteenth century some synods issued an annual warning against his doctrines. At the same time, though condemned by his church, Roell enjoyed the support of the civil authorities, and, thanks to his gentle disposition, had an honorable career as a teacher. Among his works not already mentioned, special allusion may be made to his De theologice et theologies supranaturalis prce naturali prmstantia (Utrecht, 1704); Commentarius in epistolam ad Ephesios (2 parts, 1715‑31); and Explicatio cathecheseos Heidelbergensis (1728), as well as to his editions of the writings of A. Gulichius, A. Rouze, and T. Nemethi. (S. D. VAN VEEN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A Vita is in Bibliotheca Bremensis, Class IL, pp. 707‑723, Bremen, 1760‑66; the Judicium ecclesiasticum was published at Leyden, 1723; B. Glasius, Godgeleerd Nederland, iii. 189‑197, Bois‑le‑Due, 18511856; W. B. S. Boeles, Friealanda Hoogeschool en het Rijks Athesasum to Franeker, ii. 309‑318, Leeuwarden, 1889.
ROERDAM, rffr'ddm, THOMAS SKAT: Danish bishop; b. at Laastrup (15 m. n. of Viborg) Feb. 11, 1832; d. at Copenhagen Sept. 25, 1909. Having acquired the degree of B.A. in 1848, he continued study under his father and at the University of Copenhagen (candidate in theology, 1855), specializing in the Semitic languages; as a result he published Paul of Tella's Judges and Ruth in the Syriac from the Septuagint (Libri Judicum et Ruth securdum versionem Syriaco‑Hexaplarem, Copenhagen, 1859‑61), with Greek translation, notes, and dissertation. During 1858‑69 he resided in Copenhagen, studying and teaching, in 1866 publishing Historisk Oplysning om den hellige Skrift, and in 1868 Den kristelige Leers fremstillet i Sammenhamg. He was

RoeubU Rogers
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
minister in 8bnderup and Nordrup (1869‑73), in Rbnnebiek and Olstrup (1873‑80), at Helligaandskirken in Copenhagen (1880‑86); provost at Holmen (1865‑95); and in 1895 was appointed bishop of Zealand, being primes inter pares among the Danish bishops, and having after 1900 the title of Ordensbiskop. As a preacher his influence was wide, especially among the younger clergy, and his sermons are widely read. As bishop he worked indefatigably for the building of churches, did much for the hymnal, and also influenced legal provisions for Denmark. He translated the New Testament, with explanatory notes (1887‑1892).
.JOHN O. EVJEN.
ROEUBLI, WILHELM. See REUBLIN.

	ROGATION DAYS: Days appointed for public
supplication to God for a blessing on the fruits of the
earth and other benefits. Such special supplications,
known as litanite rogationes, are found in the Church
at an early period (Sozomen, Hist. ecd., viii. 8).
Processions with litanies of two kinds took place, the
regular on St. Mark's Day (April 25) and in the
week before Ascension Day, and others on special
occasions for extraordinary needs.	Sidonius de
scribes the solemnities as consisting of fasting,
preaching, singing, and weeping. In the Frankish
kingdom the rogations before Ascension Day were
made of universal obligation by the first Synod of
Orl6ans (511); in Spain there were peculiar observ
ances (second Synod of Braga, 563, can. xvi., cf.
Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, iii. 17‑18, Eng. transl.,
iv. 383‑384, Fr. transl., iii. 1, p. 178; fifth of
Toledo, can. i., cf. Hefele, ut sup., iii. 88, Eng.
tmnsl., iv. 459, Fr. transl., iii. 1, pp. 277‑278;
sixth, can. ii., Hefele, ut sup., iii. 90 [merely re
affirms the finding of the fifth synod]). Those who
took part in the St. Mark's Day procession in Rome
were divided, according to the pattern set by
Gregory the Great, into seven classes, clergy, lay
men, monks, virgins, married women, widows, the
poor, and children, and from this arose the "seven
fold litany." The seventeenth Council of Toledo,
694 (can. vi.), decreed monthly rogations for the
Visigothic kingdom, and the same were ordered by
the Lateran Council under Innocent III. for the
deliverance of the Holy Land. In the Evangelical
Lutheran Church the ancient "week of prayer"
before Pentecost has been retainbd in a number of
places, sometimes with the processions, as in Pom
erania and Brandenburg. Even to‑day solemn pro
cessions are made through the fields for a blessing
on the fruits of the earth in the month of May or at
other times, on which occasions the ancient solemn
litanies (the Litania communis) in responsive form
are usually used. [In the Anglican communion the
Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday before Ascension
Day are counted as fastdays, " on which the Church
requires such a measure of abstinence as is more
especially suited to extraordinary acts and exercises
of devotion."] 	M. HEROLD.
BIDLIOORAPHY, Bingham, Origines, XIII., i. 10, XXI., ii. 8; A. J. Binterim, Denkwfirdigkeiten. iv. 555 sqq., Mains, 1827; J. C. W. Augusti, Denkwiirdigkeiten, x. 7‑72, Leipsie, 1829; T. F. D. Kliefoth, Liturgisehe Abhandlungen, vi. 155, 8 vole., 2d ed., Schwerin, 18589; F. Procter and W. H. Frere, New Hdst. of the Book of Common Prayer,
passim, London, 1905; J. H. Blunt, Annotated Book of Common Prayer, pp. 221‑222, 298‑298, New York, 1908; %L, ii. 894‑897.
ROGERS, HENRY: Essayist and apologist; b. at St. Albans (19 m. n.n.w. of London) Oct. 18, 1806; d. at Pennal Tower, Machynlleth (53 m. n.e. of Cardigan), North Wales, Aug. 20, 1877. He was educated at Highbury College, 1826‑29; was Independent minister at Poole, Dorset, 1829‑32; lecturer on rhetoric and logic at Highbury College, 1832‑36; professor of the English language and literature, University College, London, 1836‑39; of English literature and language, mathematics, and mental philosophy, Spring Hill College, Birmingham, 18391858; and principal of the Independent College, Manchester, from 1858 until a few years before his death. An incurable throat trouble compelled him to abandon preaching so that he devoted himself to literary pursuits. From 1839 to 1859 he was connected with the Edinburgh Review, in the columns of which he published much of his best work. He particularly distinguished himself by his opposition to the Tractarian movement. His reputation mainly rests upon his Eclipse of Faith, or a Visit to a religious Sceptic (London, 1852) and Defence (1854). His other writings embrace, Essay on the Life and Genius of Jonathan Edwards (prefaced to Edwards's Works, 1834); Life of John Howe (1836); Essays from the Edinburgh Review (3 vols., 1850‑55); Essay on the Life and Genius of Thomas Fuller (1856); Selections from the Correspondence of R. E. H. Greyson, the name Greyson being an anagram for Rogers (2 vols., 1857); and The Superhuman Origin of the Bible inferred from itself, Congregational Lectures (1873).
BIBIAOORAPHY: A Memoir by R. W. Dale prefacks the 8th ed. of The Superhuman Origin of the Bible, 1893; Congregational Year Book, 1878, p. 347; DNB, xlix. 121‑123.

ROGERS, JOHN: 1. English Protestant martyr; b. at Deritend in the parish of Aston (2 m. n. of Birmingham) about 1500; burned at Smithfield, London, Feb. 4, 1555. He was graduated at Cambridge (B.A., 1526); received an invitation to Christ Church, Oxford; about 1534 became chaplain to the Merchant Adventurers at Antwerp, and there made the acquaintance of Tyndale and became a Protestant. In 1537 he issued (probably at Wittenberg), under the pseudonym of "Thomas Matthewe," a skilful combination of the Bible translation of Tyndale and Coverdale with preface and notes, which has since been known as Matthew's Bible. (See BIBLE VERBIONs, B, IV., § 4.) He removed to Wittenberg, where he was pastor until the accession of Edward VI., when he returned to England (1548). He was in 1550 provided by Bishop Ridley with settlements in London, and in 1551 made prebendary of St. Paul's. On the succession of Queen Mary (1553) he was arrested for his vigorous denunciation of Romanism, and after months of imprisonment was burnt‑the first Marian martyr. BIBIJOGRAPHY: J. L. Chester, John Rogers, the Compiler of the First Authorized English Bible, London, 1861; C. Anderson, Annals of the English Bible, ed. Hugh Anderson, pp. 288, 294, 295. 429‑438, ib. 1882; J. I. Mombert, HandBook to the English Versions of the Bible, pp. 176 aqq., New York, 188.3; H. W. Hoare, Evolution of the English Bible, pp. 180‑183, ib. 1902; I. M. Price, Ancestry of our English Bible, pp. 250‑253, 262, Philadelphia, 1907.

67	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
		Rogers
2. English Fifth‑monarchy man; b. at Messing (43 m. n.e. of London) in 1627; d. probably in London in 1665. His father Nehemiah was a devout Anglican minister, loyal to Charles I. and Archbishop Laud. Religiously awakened when ten years of age by the terrific preaching of the Puritan William Fenner and later by Stephen Marshall, one of the Presbyterian preachers to the Long Parliament, and by the reading of H. Drexelius' Considerations upon. Eternity (in Latin, Cologne, 1631), his reason was dethroned so that he had to be tied hand and foot in bed where his continuous cry was, " I am damned I I am damned ! I am sure I can not be saved! it is impossible I Oh, hell I hell I fire about me l The devils are at me 1 " As dreams of torment drove him mad, so a dream of heavenly mercy and comfort restored his reason. After he had associated himself with the Roundheads (1642), his father cast him off in the midst of winter. He made his way by begging to Cambridge, where he had studied for awhile before, hoping to support himself by labor or to secure a scholarship. Failing in this he came near starving, subsisting for some time on refuse, and even eating leather, feathers, and grass. He was sorely tempted to eat his own flesh and to commit suicide. Just in the nick of time a position as tutor in a gentleman's family was offered him (1643). Soon afterward he felt called to preach and realized that he possessed the necessary gifts and graces in multiplied abundance. He was ordained as a Presbyterian minister (1647 or 1648) and became rector of Burleigh. In less than a year he renounced Presbyterianism and became Independent lecturer at St. Thomas Apostle's in London. In 1650 he was chosen by parliament one of six ministers to preach in Dublin at a salary of £200 a year. Christ Church cathedral was assigned to him and Governor Hewson was a member of his congregation. He did not hesitate to join with Hewson in military service when there was need. His ministerial work was seriously disturbed by Thomas Patient, also a parliamentary preacher, who convinced many of Rogers' parishioners of the unseripturalness of infant baptism and the duty of believers' baptism. Rogers' defense of infant baptism alienated half of his constituents and his advocacy of toleration and the rights of women the other half. His position having thus become untenable he returned to London after six months in Dublin and resumed his lectureship. In his Bethshemish: Epistle to the Churches (London, 1653) he gives a highly colored account of the annoyances and persecutions that he suffered in Dublin and reveals much of the spirit of his ministry. He also polemizes sharply against the Presbyterian clergy, whom he compares with Romanist priests in point of bigotry and intolerance. In his Sagrir: or Domesday Drawing Nigh, with Thunder and Lightning to Lawyers (1654), he denounces the lawyers as the archenemies of true Christianity and sets forth his views respecting the approaching end of the Fourth Monarchy with its laws and lawyers and the inauguration of the Fifth Monarchy " with those godly laws, officers, and ordinances that belong to the legislative power of the Lord Jesus." The Sagrar contains a letter " to the Right Honorable the Lord
General Cromwell, the People's Victorious Champion in England, Ireland, and Scotland." He seeks to convince Cromwell that he has been chosen by the Lord to lead the hosts of the redeemed against the Roman Catholic and Protestant persecutors of the continent, " to break in pieces the oppressor and to deliver the poor and needy." In the " Epistle to the Reader " he declares himself the champion of Christ against Antichrist and polemizes fiercely against the tithing‑law and any connection of Church and State. He claims recently to have been treated contemptuously and violently by a committee of parliament while presenting his objections to tithing and State‑Churchism. He predicts that the Fifth Monarchy, " where Christ and his saints shall rule the world," will begin in 1656. "As in Noah's flood, after the doors were shut up there was no mercy, though they came wading middle‑deep, so let this be an aIarum to all men to make haste while the door of the ark is open. In a few years they will find it shut, and then though they wade through and through much danger, whether Parliament men, Army men, Merchant men, Clergy men, Lawyers, or others, they may find it too late." His demand was that Cromwell first of all lead an English army into France for the overthrow of the Bourbon dynasty and the relief of the persecuted Huguenots. Germany and Austria, were to be conquered by the English with the help of the Huguenots and the‑persecuted in those countries. Last of all Rome should be taken and the hierarchy destroyed. He assures the English army and statesmen that " if they will not take their work abroad they shall have it at home, as sure as God lives and is righteous. For when the kingdom of Christ comes there is no such thing as bounds, or limits, or rivers, or seas, that shall cap up or confine the fervent zeal and flaming affections of an Army, Representative, or People spirited for the work of Christ." His exhortations are based upon the most sanguinary passages in the Old Testament and the Apocalypse. The forcible dissolution of the Barebones Parliament by Cromwell (Dec., 1653) because of its abolition of tithes and of the court of chancery and other radical measures infuriated the Fifth‑monarchy men, one of whose leaders, Major‑general Harrison, was highly influential in this legislation. Harrison, Rich, and Carew, lay members of the party, were imprisoned or sent into involuntary retirement. Rogers, Feak, Vavasor Powell, and Simpson, Fifthmonarchy preachers, violently denounced Cromwell and his supporters and were one by one on various pretexts imprisoned, Rogers at Lambeth in July, 1654. In February preceding he had published his Fifth Epistle to Cromwell, entitled Mene, Tekel, Perez: or a Little Appearance of the Handumiting . . against the Powers and Apostles of the Times. While in prison at Lambeth Rogers published Morning Beams: or the Vision of the Prison Pathmos (1654). This writing throws much light on the spirit of the Fifth‑monarchy movement. An interview with Cromwell Feb. 6, 1655, resulted in no better understanding. Two months later he was removed to Windsor Castle. His sufferings at Windsor he recorded in Jagar Sahadutha: An Oiled Pillar. Released in Jan., 1657, he returned to Lon‑

8ogero
Bomaise	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	88
don and soon became involved in a Fifth‑monarchy
conspiracy against Cromwell's government and was
sent with Harrison and others to the Tower. Crom
well died the following September and was succeeded
by his son Richard. Rogers and other Fifth‑mon
archy men cooperated with Sir Henry Vane for the
overthrow of Richard Cromwell and enjoyed great
favor under the restored Long Parliament. At the
restoration of the Stuart dynasty (1660) Rogers
retired to Holland and studied medicine at Leyden
and Utrecht, proceeding to the degree of M.D. in
the University of Utrecht Oct. 17, 1662. Return
ing to England soon afterward he practised medicine
at Bermondsey and was admitted ad eundem gra
dum at Oxford June 13, 1664. He published med
ical theses in 1662 and 1664, in connection with the
receiving of his degree. He seems to have taken no
further interest in religious questions after he be
came interested in medicine. He is lost eight of after
1665 and probably died of the plague that prevailed
in London and its suburbs that year. See Fig‑rH
MONARCHY MEN. 	A. H. NEwMAN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Rogers, Some Account of the Life and Opinions of a Fifth‑Monarchy‑Man. Chiefly extracted from the Writings of John Ropers, Preacher, London, 1887. J. L. Cheater, The Life of John Rogers, the Compiler of the first Authorized English Bible, ib., 1881 (contains sketch of the Fifth‑monarchy man, who according to family tradition was a descendant of the martyr); DNB, xlix. 1311‑132.
ROGERS, ROBERT WILLIAM: Methodist Episcopal, Orientalist; b. at Philadelphia Feb. 14, 1864. He studied at the high school of his native city, the University of Pennsylvania (1882‑84), Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore (graduated, 1887), where he took post‑graduate courses, the University of Leipsic (Ph.D., 1895), and Haverford College, Pa. (Ph.D., 1890); was instructor in Hebrew in Haverford College, 1890; professor of English Bible and Semitic History, Dickinson College, Pa., 1890‑92; and has been professor of Hebrew and Old‑Testament exegesis in Drew Theological Seminary since 1893, also non‑resident lecturer at the Woman's College, Baltimore, 1896‑1900. In the interest of oriental studies he attended the congresses of orientalists at London in 1892, where he was honorary secretary, Geneva in 1894, Paris in 1897, Hamburg in 1902, and Copenhagen in 1908. He has prepared Two Texts of Esarhaddon (Cambridge, Eng., 1889); Catalogue of Manuscripts, chiefly Oriental (1890); Inscriptions of Sennacherib (London, 1893); Outlines of the History of Early Babylonia (Leipsic, 1895); History of Babylonia and Assyria. (2 vols., New York, 1900); and Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, especially in its Relation to Israel (1909).

ROGGE, reg'e, BERNARD FRIEDRICH WILHELM: German Protestant; b. at Groestinz (a village near Liegnitz, 40 m. w.n.w. of Breslau), Silesia, Oct. 22, 1831. He was educated at the universities of Halle and Bonn, after which he was a teacher in a high school for girls at Coblenz and a vicar in Vollenden in 1854‑56, a pastor at Stollberg near Aachen in 1856‑59, and a divisional pastor at Coblenz in 1859‑62. Since 1862 he has been court chaplain at Potsdam, serving also as army chaplain in the campaigns of 1866 and 1870‑71. In theology he belongs to the mediating school of Lutheranism.
Among his numerous writings, special mention may be made of his Die evangelischen Geistlichen im Feldzug von 1866 (Berlin, 1867; Eng. trawl., The Chaplain in the Field of War, London, 1870); Die evangelischen Feld‑ and Lazarethgeistlichen der koniglichen preussischen Armee im Feldzuge von 1870‑71 (1872); Gott war mit uns, Predigten and Reden im Feldzuge von 1870‑71 (1872) ; Lutherb4chlein (Leipsic, 1883); Feddmarschall Prinz Friedrich Carl (Berlin, 1885) ; Kaiserbiichlein zur Erinnerung an Deutschlands Heldenkaiser Wilhelm 1. (1888) ; Friedri,ch 111., deutscher Kaiser (1888); Kaiser Wilhelm der Siegreiche (Bielefeld, 1889); Allezeit im Hewn (collected hymns and poems; Leipsic, 1890; new ed., 1909); Christliche Charakterbilder aus dem Hause Hohenzollern (Hanover, 1890); Vom Kurhut zur Kaiserkrone (2 vols.,1891‑92); Generalfeldmarschall Graf Moltke (Wittenberg, 1891); Theodor Korner (1891); Pfortnerleben (Leipsic,1893);. Fiirst Bismark (Hanover, 1895); Sedanbiichlein (Dresden, 1895); Bei der Garde, Erinnerungen aus dem Feldzuge 1870‑71 (Hanover, 1895), Aus sieben Jahrzehnten (autobiography; 2 vols., Hanover, 1895‑99); Eine Osterreise nach Jerusalem (1896); Illustrierte Geschichte der Reformation in Deutschland (Leipsic, 1899); Johann Friedrich der Grossmutige (Halle, 1902); Generalfeldmarschall Roon (Hanover, 1903); and Unser Kaiserpaar (Goslar, 1906) ; Bildersaal der christlichen Welt (1907 qq.); Religiotte Charaktere aus dem 19. Jahrhundert (1908); and Das Evangelium in der Verfolgung. Bilder aus den Zeiten der Gegenreformation (Cologne, 1910).

ROHAN, ro"6n', HENRI, DUC DE: Huguenot leader; b. at the chhteau of Blain (23 m. n.w. of Nantes) Aug. 21, 1579; d. on the battlefield of Rheinfelden (10 m. e. of Basel) Feb. 28, 1638. He belonged to a famous Breton family which espoused Protestantism in the sixteenth century, of which he and his brother Benjamin, prince of Soubise, were the most celebrated members. Each owed his abilities to his mother, Catherine de Parthenay, who educated them. At the age of sixteen under Henry IV. Henri fought against the Spaniards and was present at the siege of Amiew (1597). In the years following he traveled through Italy, Germany, Holland, England, and Scotland. He married a daughter of Sully, the great minister of Henry IV. When the troubles of the Huguenots (q.v.) broke out early in the reign of Louis XIII., Rohan became their leader. He commanded their forces in Upper Languedoc and Upper Guienne, and checkmated Marshal Luynes at Montauban. As a result of the peace of Oct. 9, 1623, in which the Edict of Nantes (q.v.) was confirmed, Rohan was made a marshal of France and invested with the governments of Nimes and Uzbs, with a compensation of 800,000 livres for the loss of the government of Poitou and St. Jean d'Angbly. This peace was merely a truce, and in 1627 the Huguenots, rebelling anew, made their last stand at La Rochelle, in the defense of which Rohan and his brother took part (see ROCHELLE). With the fall of the Huguenot power in France Henri retired to Italy, where he wrote his celebrated Le parfaicx Capitaine (1636; Eng. trawl., The Complete Captain, London, 1640). But Richelieu was loath to lose his

89	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	RDgere
		Romaine
abilities, and in 1633 he took part in the war in the
Valteline (see RICHELIEU). He was also made com
mander of the Swiss mercenaries in France, but the
cardinal, growing suspicious of his influence with the
Protestants, sent him into exile, and he retired to
Baden. Again he returned to France and for a
time fought against the Spaniards in the Alpine
passes, but soon fell out with the cardinal and
offered his sword to Bernard of Saxe‑Weimar, the
greatest Protestant leader in the Thirty Years' War
(q.v.) after the death of Gustavus Adolphus. He
fell in the first engagement (at Rheinfelden) in
which he took part. Among other works he wrote
MEmoires sur les choses advenues ere France depuin
la mort de Henri IV jusqu'h la pain de Juin, 1629
(Paris 1630; 8th ed., 2 vols., Amsterdam, 1756;
Eng. transl., London, 1660); and Memoires et lettres
Sur la guerre de la Valteline, ed. Zurlauben (3 vols.,
Geneva, 1758). JAMES WESTFALL THOMPSON.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fauvelet du Tor, Hiat. de Henry Due de
	Bohan, Paris, 1667; A. Laugel, in Revue des deux mondea,
	1879; idem, Henry de Bohan, son rdle politique et militaire
	sous Louis XIII., ib. 1889; M. G. Sehybergson, Le Due de
	Bohan et la chute du parti protestant en France, ib. 1880;
	H. de La Garde, Le Due de Bohan et les protestanta soul
	Louis XIII., ib. 1884; J. Biihring, Venedip, Gustaf Adolf,
	and Bohan, Halle, 1885; F. Guillermet, Bohan et lea Gene
	vois, Paris, 1891; J. de Bouffard‑Madiane, MLmoirea our
	lea guerrea civilea du due de Bohan, 1610‑.1'9, ed. C. Pradel,
	ib. 1889; F. Pieth, Die Feldzage deg Herzopa Bohan in
	Veltlin and in Graubanden, Bern, 1905; Lichtenberger,
	ESR, xi. 255‑257.
	ROHR, r6r, IGNATZ: German Roman Catholic;
b. at Hochmossingen (a village near Oberndorf,
43 m. s.w. of Stuttgart) June 29, 1866. He was edu
cated at the University of Tobingen (Ph.D., 1894;
D.D., 1899), where he was a lecturer on philosophy
from 1894 to 1899 and on dogmatics from 1899 to
1903. In 1903 he was appointed professor of New
Testament exegesis at the University of Breslau,
where he remained until 1906, when he went in a
similar capacity to Strasburg. He assists in editing
Biblische Zeitfragen (Munster, 1908 sqq.); and has
written Paulus and die Gemeinde von Corinth auf
Grund der beiden Corintherbriefe (Freiburg, 1899);
Der Vernichtungskampf gegen das biblische Chris
tusbild (Munster, 1908); and Die Glaubwurdigkeit
des Markusevangeliums (1909).
	ROIJAARDS, rey'y8rds, HERMAN JOHAN:
Dutch Reformed; b. at Utrecht Oct. 3, 1794; d.
there Jan. 2, 1854. After completing his education
at the University of Utrecht in 1818, he became
pastor of the church at Meerkerk, and in 1823 was
appointed professor of theology at Utrecht. He was
one of the founders in 1839 of the Archief voor kerke
lajke Geschiedmis, a journal, in which he began his
history of the Church in Holland, by an account of
the Reformation in Utrecht (1845). He published
Invoering en vestiging van het Christendom in Neder
lartd (Utrecht, 1842), which was supplemented by
Geschiedenis van het gevestigde Christendom en de
christelijke kerk in Nederland gedurende de mid
deleettwen (2 parts, 1849‑53), which as a principal
work is of permanent value. He also furthered the
study of canon law in Holland, by his Hedendaagsch
Kerkregt bij de Hervormden in Nederland (2 parts,
1834‑37).	(J. J. VAN OOSTERZEEt.)
ROKYCANA, rec"is‑t'e'nd, JOHN: Bohemian priest, who was the central figure in the ecclesiastical history of Bohemia, 1430‑70; d.1471. He first became prominent in 1427, by denouncing, in a sermon, the policy of Sigismund Korybut, who was attempting to bring about a reconciliation between Bohemia and the pope, which led to the expulsion of Korybut. After a temporary success at arms, Bohemia was induced, from exhaustion, to enter the negotiations of the Council of Basel (q.v.), which ended in the acceptance of the compacts by the Bohemians, Rokycana taking a chief part. Before the compacts were signed (1435), the Bohemians secretly elected Rokycana archbishop of Prague, with two suffragans; but Sigismund did not recognize him as archbishop without the consent of the council of Basel. The Roman Catholic reaction in 1437 obliged Rokycana to flee from Prague, but he resumed his office when the influence of George of Podiebrad (q.v.) became supreme, in 1444.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Monumenta conciliorum generalium sleculi, xv., vol. i., Vienna, 1857; F. Palaeky, Beitrdge zur Geschichte des Hussitenkrieges, 2 vols., Prague, 1872‑73; Creighton, Papacy, ii. 189, 238‑246, 255 et passim, iii. 130, iv. 35‑38; Hefele, Concilienpeschichte, vol. vii. passim; and the literature under BABEL, COUNCIL OF; Huss, JOHN, HUBBITEs; and PODIEHRAD AND KUNBTAPT, GEORGE OF.
ROLLS. See CANON of SCRIPTURE, I., 6.
ROMAINE, ro‑mAn', WILLIAM: English Evangelical divine; b. at Hartlepool (17 m. s.e. of Durham), England, Sept. 25, 1714; d. at London July 26, 1795. He was educated at Hart Hall and Christ Church, Oxford (B.A., 1734; M.A., 1737); was ordained deacon, 1736, and priest, 1738; and was curate for many years at Baustead, Surrey, and Horton, Middlesex. While yet a deacon he made an attack upon William Warburton's Divine Legation, pursuing the subject in his first two sermons at the University of Oxford (1739, 1741). To critical study he made the contribution of a Hebrew Concordance, 1747‑48, being an edition of that of Marius de Calasso. Drawn into the Evangelical revival, he first adhered to John Wesley, but in 1755 passed to the side of George Whitefield; and remained the ablest exponent among the Evangelicals of the highest Calvinistic doctrine. He was appointed to a lectureship at the united parishes of St. George's, Botolph's Lane, and St. Botolph's, Billingsgate, London, 1748; and to a double lectureship at St. Dunstan's‑in‑the‑West, 1749, in addition to which he became morning preacher at St. George's, Hanover Square. His extreme Calvinism and radical manner, though popular with the masses, resulted in turbulence; and he was limited to an evening service at St. Dunstan's and deprived of St. George's. In 1756 he became curate at St. Olave's, Southwark; of St. Bartholomew the Great, in 1759; and at Westminster Chapel, 1761. After a turbulent career, he obtained the living at St. Anne's, Blackfriars, and St. Andrew of the Wardrobe in 1764, where he continued as a great popular attraction till his death. As a preacher he exercised great power, and his theology and views on the spiritual life are best contained in the long‑popular works: The Life of Faith (London, 1764); The

Roman Catholics	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	70
Walk of Faith (1771); and The Triumph of Faith
(1795).
BIBLIOGR"BY: W. B. Cadogan. Life of f7. Romaine, prefixed to Romaine's Works, 8 vols., London, 1796; C. E.
I. In General. 1. Doctrine.
2. Government. and Discipline.
3. Worship and Ceremonies.
4. History.
The Foundation (§ 1).
Grew‑Latin Catholicism (§ 2).
Medieval Latin Christendom (§ 3).
Modern Romanism (§ 4).
Tridentine and Vatican Romanism (4 5).
Pius IX.; Leo XIII.; Pius X. (f 8).
II. Uniate Churches.
1. In General.
De Coetlogon, Life of the Just Exemplified in the Charader of . . . W. Romaine, ib. 1795; T. Haweie, Life of W. Romaine, ib. 1797; J. C. Ryle, Christian Larders of the Last Cai% ib. 1888; G. T. Fox, Life and Doctrine of Romaine, ib. 1876; DNB, slix. 175‑177.
ROMAN CATHOLICS.

Basin of Union (§ 1).
Acts of Union, 1267‑1598 (¢ 2).
Acts of Union after 1598 (f 3).
2. The Individual Uniate Churches.
In Europe; Rutheniane, Rumar mans, Armenians (¢ I).
In Russia and Turkey (5 2).
In Asia and Africa (¢ 3). III. In America.
Early Work in Greenland and bland 0 1).
In Brazil (¢ 2).
In Other Parts of South America (5 3).
I. In General: The Roman Catholic Church is the largest of the three grand divisions of‑ Christendom (Greek, Latin, and Protestant), and in its own estimation the only church founded by Christ on earth. Bellarmin, one of its standard divines, defines the Church as consisting of all who (1) profess the true faith, (2) partake of the true sacraments, and (3) are subject to the rule of the pope as the head of the Church. The first mark excludes all heretics, as well as Jews, heathen, and Mohammedans; the second excludes the catechumens and the excommunicated; the third, the schismatics (i.e., the Greeks and Oriental Christians, who hold substantially " the true faith " and the seven sacraments, but refuse ouedience to the pope). The Protestants, without distinction, are excluded as being both heretical and schismatical. The members of the Anglican communion and of the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States also belong in this category of heretics by the decision of Leo XIII., in an Apostolical Letter of Sept. 13, 1896, pronouncing Anglican orders invalid (Eng. tranal. is given in The Great Encyclical Letters of Pope Leo X111., New York, 1903). But all who hold those three points belong to the church militant on earth, without regard to their moral eharaoter (etiamsi reprobi, scelesti et impii aint), though only the good members will be saved. Thus defined, the Church, says Bellarmin, is as visible and palpable as the (quondam) republic of Venice or the (quondam) kingdom of France. He denies the distinction between the visible and invisible Church altogether.* A recent Roman Catholic writer on canon law, Philipp Hergenrother (Lehrbuch des katholischen Rechts, p. 2, Freiburg, 1905), defines the Church as " the communion of those who are united under one Head, Christ, and his visible vicegerent for the confession of one faith and the participation in the same means of grace." One of the fundamental qualities of the Church is visibility (p.

R De conciliia d eccles;a, lib. iii. e. 2: " ProJeaaio veror fidei, aacramentorum commuaio, d eubjectio ad lepitimum padorem Romanum ponKfieem. . . Ealeeia ea cmtua homi num its vinWie d palpabslis, id eat cactus populi Romaai, rod Repnum Gallia nut Reapublica Vendontm" (the test is given by Mirbt, Q, pp. 274 sqq.).
Exploration (4 4).
The Colonies of North America (1 5).
Accession by Immigration (¢ 6).
Services to Indiana and Negroes (§ 7).
Attitude of the American Government and People (¢ 8).
Charities, Architecture, and Schools (¢ 9).
Achievements of Roman Catholics (§ 10).
Administration 0 11).
22). The full name of the Roman communion is the " Holy, Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman Church." It numbers over two hundred millions of souls, or about one‑half of the entire Christian population of the globe.* It is found in all continents and among all nations, but. is strongest in southern countries, and among the Latin and Celtic races in Italy, Spain, France, Austria, Ireland, and South America. 'It agrees in all essential doctrines and usages with the Greek Church (except the papacy), but has more vitality and energy; while it is behind the Protestant communions in general culture, intelligence, and freedom. The Roman Church has a rich and most remarkable history, and still exercises a greater power over the masses of the people than any other body of Christians. It stretches in unbroken succession back to the palmy days of heathen Rome, has outlived all the governments of Europe, and is likely to live when Macaulay's New‑Zealander, " in the midst of a vast solitude, shall take his stand on a broken arch of London Bridge to sketch the ruins of St. Paul's."
1. I)ootrlne t The Roman Catholic system of doctrine is contained in the ecumenical creeds (the Apostles', the Nicene with the Pilioque, and the Athanasian, qq.v., and also see SYMBOLICS), in the dogmatic decisions of the ecumenical councils (twenty in number, from 325 to 1870), and in the ex cathedra deliverances of the popes. The principal authorities are the canons and decrees of the Council of Tre4t (see TRENT, COUNCIL OF), the Profession of the Tridentine Faith, commonly called the " Creed of Pius IV." (see TRIDENTINE PROFESSION OF FAITH), the Roman Catechism (1566), the decree of the immaculate conception (1854), and the Vatican decrees on the Catholic faith and the infallibility of the pope (1870). A thesaurus of decisions on all sorts of doctrinal and disciplinary questions is af‑

* According to the statistics of 1907, the proportion stood
	thus:
	Roman Catholics . . . . . . . . . . . 	. . .230,886.533
	Protestants 	143,237,625
	Greeks 	98,016,000
The number of Roman Catholics assigned to the United States is 10,879,950, the enumeration being of the total Catholic constituency, while the Protestant denominations count only their communicants.

71	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Roman Catholios
forded in the books of the canon law beginning with the " Concordance " of Evatian (c. 1150), but this has never been pronounced a final authority. The best summary of the leading articles of the Roman faith is contained in the Creed of Pius IV., which is binding upon all priests and public teachers, and which must be confessed by all converts. It consists of the Nicene Creed and eleven articles. To these must now be added the two additional Vatican dogmas of the Immaculate Conception (q.v.), of the Virgin Mary and the Infallibility of the Pope (q.v.). The Roman Catholic system of doctrine was prepared as to matter by the Fathers (especially Irenmus, Cyprian, Augustine, Jerome, Leo I., Gregory I., qq.v.), logically analyzed, defined, and defended by the medieval schoolmen (Anselm, Alexander Hales, Peter the Lombard, Thomas Aquinas, Dana Scotus, qq.v.), and vindicated, in opposition to Protestantism, by Bellarmin, Bossuet, and MShler (qq.v.), and completed in the Vatican dogma of papal infallibility, which excludes all possibility of doctrinal reformation. A question once settled by infallible authority is settled forever, and can not be reopened. But the same authority may add new dogmas, such as the assumption of the Virgin Mary, which still remains only a " pious opinion " of a large number of Catholics, as the immaculate conception was before 1854.
8. Government and Discipline: The Roman Church has reared up the grandest governmental fabric known in history. It is an absolute spiritual monarchy, culminating in the pope, who claims to be the successor of Peter, and the vicar of Christ and God on earth, and hence the supreme and infallible head of the Church. The laity are excluded from all participation even in matters of temporal administration; they must obey the priest; the priests must obey the bishop; and the bishops, the pope, to whom they are bound by the most solemn oath. This system is the growth of ages, and reached its final statement at the Vatican Council (q.v.). The claim of the bishop of Rome to universal dominion over the Christian Church, and even over the temporal kingdoms professing the Roman Catholic faith, goes back to the days of Leo I. (440461), and was renewed by Nicholas I., Gregory VIL, Innocent III., Boniface VIII., Leo X., and by other less prominent pontiffs. But this claim has always been resisted by the Greek Church, which has claimed equal rights for the Eastern patriarchs, and by the German emperors and other princes, who were jealous of the independent rights of their sovereignty. The conflict between the pope and the emperor, between priestcraft and statecraft, runs through the whole Middle Ages, and was revived under a new aspect by the papal syllabus of 1884, which reasserted the most extravagant claims of the medieval papacy, and provoked the so‑called Kulturkampf in Germany and France (see ULTRAnIONTANIsm), and the recent movements in France (q.v.) culminating in the complete separation of Church and State.
The pope is aided in the exercise of his functions by a college of cardinals limited to seventy. Archbishop McCloskey (q.v.) of New York was the first American cardinal, appointed in 1875, and Arch‑
bishop Gibbons (q.v.) of Baltimore the second (1882). The pope was at first chosen by the Roman clergy and people; but since the time of Gregory VII. he has been elected by the cardinals (for method of election see POPE, PAPACY, PAPAL SYSTEM, II.). The pope with the cardinals together form the Consistory (q.v.). The various departments of administration are assigned to Congregations (q.v.), under the presidency of a cardinal, such as the Congregation of the Index librorum prohibitorum, the Congregation of Sacred Rites, the Congregation of Indulgences, and the Congregation de propaganda fide. The pope has regular nuncios in the principal Roman Catholic capitals of Europe except Paris, namely, in Munich, Vienna, Lisbon, Madrid, and Brussels. The greatest public display of the Roman hierarchy was made in the Lateran Council of 1214 under Innocent III., and in the Vatican Council of 1870 under Pius IX.
8. Worship and Ceremonies: These are embodied in the Roman Missal, the Roman Breviary, and other liturgical books for public and private devotion (see BREvIAIey; MISSAL). The Roman Church accompanies its members from the cradle to the grave, receiving them into life by baptism, dismissing them into the other world by extreme unction, and consecrating all their important acts by the sacramental mysteries and blessings. The worship is a most elaborate system of ritualism, which addresses itself chiefly to the eye and the ear, sad draws all the fine arts into its service. Cathedrals, altars, crucifixes, madonnas, pictures, statues, and relics of saints, rich decorations, solemn processions, operatic music, combine to lend to it great attractions for the common people and for cultured persons of prevailing esthetic tastes, especially among the Latin races. Yet it must be noted that converts from Rome often awing to the opposite extreme of utmost simplicity. In this communion every day of the calendar is devoted to the memory of one or more saints. The leading festivals are Christmas, Easter, Pentecost, the feast of the Immaculate Conception, the Annunciation (Mar. 25), Purification (Feb. 2), Assumption of the Virgin Mary, All Saints, and All Souls (Nov. 1, 2; see FEAsTB AND FEsTIvALs). The weekly Sabbath is not nearly as strictly observed in Roman Catholi~• countries as in Great Britain and the United States. Roman Catholic worship is the same all over the world, even in language, the Latin being its sacred organ, and the vernacular being used only for sermons, which are subordinate. Its throne is the altar, not the pulpit (which is usually built at one side). It centers in the Mass (q.v.), and this is regarded as a real though unbloody repetition of the atoning sacrifice of Christ on the cross. At the moment when the officiating priest pronounces the words, "This is my body," the elements of bread and wine are believed to be changed into the very substance of the body and blood of our Savior; and these are offered to God the Father for the sins of the living and the dead in purgatory. The Reformers saw in the mass a relapse into Judaism, a refined form of idolatry, and a virtual denial of the one sacrifice of Christ, who, " by one offering hath perfected forever them that are sanctified " (Heb.

Roman Catholics	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	72
x.14). But Roman Catholics deny the charge, and reverently regard the mass as a dramatic commemoration and renewed application of the great mystery of redemption, and the daily food of the devout believer (on the Roman Catholic worship, cf. the literature under BREVIARY; MASS; and MISSAL).
4. History. The earliest record of a Christian Church in Rome is given in Paul's Epistle to the Romans (58 A.D). Though not founded by Peter or Paul, it may possibly be traced to those " strangers
of Rome, Jews, and proselytes," who 1. The witnessed the Pentecostal miracle on Founds‑ the birthday of the Christian Church
tion. (Acts ii. 10). It is probably the oldest church in the West, and acquired great distinction by the martyrdom of Peter and Paul. The Vatican Hill, where the chief of the apostles was crucified, became the Calvary, and Rome the Jerusalem, of Latin Christendom. The Roman martyrdom of Paul is universally conceded. The sojourn of Peter in Rome has been doubted by eminent Protestant scholars, and it can not be proved from the New Testament (unless " Babylon " in I Pet. v. 13 be understood figuratively of Rome); but it is so generally attested by the early Fathers, Greek as well as Latin, that it must be admitted as a historical fact, though Peter probably did not reach Rome before 63 A.D., as there is no mention made of him in the Epistle to the Romans, or in Paul's Epistles of the Roman captivity, written between 61 and 63. The metropolitan position of the city, whose very name means " power," and which for so many centuries had been the mistress of the world, together with the wide‑spread belief that Christ (Matt. xvi. 18) had instituted a perpetual primacy of the Church in the person of Peter and his successors in office, supposed to be the bishops of Rome, are the chief secondary causes of the rapid growth of that congregation to the highest influence. It inherited the ambition and prestige of empire, and simply substituted the cross for the sword as the symbol of power. For fifteen centuries the fortunes of Western Christendom were bound up with the Roman Church; and even now, in its old age, it is full of activity everywhere, but especially in Protestant countries, where it is stimulated by opposition. Three stages may be distinguished in the development of Roman Catholicism.
The age of ancient Greco‑Latin Catholicism, from the second to the eighth century, before the final rupture of the Greek and Latin communions. This
is the common inheritance of all 2. Greco‑ churches. It is the age of the Fathers,
Latin
Catholicism. of the ecumenical creeds and councils,
and of Christian emperors. Many of the leading features of Roman Catholicism, as distinct from Protestantism, are already found in the second and third centuries, and have their roots in the Judaizing tendencies combated by St. Paul. the spirit of traditionalism, sacerdotalism, prelacy, ceremonialism, asceticism, monasticism, was powerfully at work in the East and the West, in the Nicene and post‑Nicene ages, and produced most of those doctrines, rites, and institutions which are to this day held in common by the Greek and Roman
churches. There are few dogmas and usages of Romanism which may not be traced in embryo to the Greek and Latin Fathers: hence the close resemblance of the Greek and Roman churches, notwithstanding their rivalry and antagonism. But, alongside of these Romanizing tendencies, there are found also, in the school of St. Augustine, the Evangelical doctrines of sin and grace, which were, next to the Bible, the chief propelling force of the Reformation.
	The age of Medieval Latin Catholicism, as dis
	tinct and separated from the Greek, extends from
	Gregory I. (or from Charlemagne) to the Reforma
	tion (590‑1517). It is the missionary age of Ca
	tholicism among the Celtic and Teutonic races in
	northern and central Europe. Here
	s. Medieval belong the conversion of the barbarians
Latin	of Europe, under the fostering care of
	dour. Christen‑ the bishoPS of Rome the growth of
	~ papal absolutism, though in constant
conflict with the secular power, especially the Ger
man empire; the scholastic theology, culminating
in the discussions of Anselm and the system of
Thomas Aquinas, "and also the various forms of
mysticism, represented by St. Bernard, Richard and
Hugo of St. Victor (qq.v.), and Eckhart, Tauler
(qq.v.), and other German mystics (see MYsTICIsM);
an imposing theocracy, binding all the nations of
Europe together, yet with strong elements of op
position in its own communion, urging forward
toward a reformation in head and members. Here
occurred the Crusades (q.v.), lasting for two hun
dred years (1096‑1292), and here was born the
Gothic type of architecture and were reared the im
posing cathedrals of the continent and Great Brit
ain. In this period belongs the revival of monas
ticism in the rise of the mendicant orders, with
Francis of Assisi and Dominic of Spain (qq.v.) as
their founders; and also the papal schism with
rival popes reigning in Rome and Avignon (1377
1417). The Middle Ages cradled the Protestant
Reformation as well as the papal Counter‑Reforma
tion. Wyclif in England, Hus in Bohemia, Wessel
in Germany, Savonarola in Italy, the Waldenses,
the Bohemian Brethren, the Councils of Pisa, Con
stance, and Basel (qq.v.), and the revival of letters
(see HUMANISM), prepared the way for the great
movement of the sixteenth century, which emanci
pated Christendom from the spiritual bondage of
Rome.
The age of modern Romanism, dating from the Reformation, or from the Council of Trent (1563). This is Roman Catholicism, in opposition not only to the Greek Church, but to Evangel‑
4.Modern ical Protestantism. In some respects Romanism. it was an advance upon the Middle Ages, and experienced great benefit from the Reformation. No Alexander VI., who was a monster of wickedness, nor Julius II., who preferred the sword to the staff, nor Leo X., who had more interest in classical literature and art than in the Church, could now be elected to the chair of St. Peter. No such scandal as the papal schism, with two or three rival popes cursing and excommunicating each other, has disgraced the Church since the sixteenth century. On the other hand, the papacy has given

"l3	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Roman Catholics
formal sanction to those scholastic theories and ecclesiastical traditions against which the Reformers protested. It has also again and again expressly condemned their doctrines, and, by claiming to be infallible, made itself doctrinally irreformable. In 1816 the first condemnation of Bible societies was issued by Pius VIL, who declared them " a most subtle invention for the destruction of the very foundations of religion " (Mirbt, Quellen, p. 347). Pius IV. in 1564 expressly condemned all versions of the Scriptures by heretical authors, i.e., Lutherans, Zwinglians, Calvinists, and the like.
In modern Romanism, again, two periods must be distinguished, which are divided by the reign of Pope Pius IX. (a) Tridentine Romanism is directed against the principles of the Protestant Reformation, and fixed the dogmas of the rule of faith (Scripture and tradition), original sin, justification by faith and works, the seven sacra‑
5. Triden‑ ments, the sacrifice of the mass, purga‑
tive and to invocation of saints the venera‑
Yaticaa
Romania=. tion of relics, and indulgences. The
		" Old Catholics " (q.v.), who seceded
in 1870 and were excommunicated, took their stand
first on the Council of Trent, in opposition to the
Council of the Vatican, and charged the latter with
apostasy and corruption; although in fact, and as
viewed from the Protestant standpoint, the one is
only a legitimate, logical development of the other.
(b) Vatican Romanism is directed against modern
infidelity (rationalism), and against liberal Catholi
cism (Gallicanism) within the Roman Church itself.
It created, or rather brought to full maturity and
exclusive authority, two new dogmas and two cor
responding heresies,‑concerning the Virgin Mary,
and the power and infallibility of the Roman pon
tiff, questions left unsettled by the Council of Trent.
Gallicanism flourished in France during the golden
age of its literature, and was formulated by Bos
suet in the famous articles of Gallican liberties; but,
since the restoration of the order of Jesuits in 1814,
the Ultramontane school, which defends papal ab
solutism, has gradually gained the ascendency, and
secured a complete triumph‑first in 1854, when
Pius IX. proclaimed the immaculate conception of
the Virgin Mary to be a dogma of faith; and in the
Vatican Council in 1870, which declared the pope
to be infallible. The same pope, in 1864, issued the
" Syllabus of Errors,"‑an infallible official docu
ment, which arrays the papacy in open war against
modern civilization and civil and religious freedom.
	The reign of Pius IX. (q.v.) was very eventful in
the history of the papacy: it marked the height of
6. Pius IX .; its pretensions and the logical comple
Leo gIII. Lion of its doctrinal system, but also
	Pius X. ' the loss of its temporal power. On the
		very day after the passage of the papal
infallibility dogma (July 18, 1870), Napoleon III.,
the chief political and military supporter of the
pope, declared war against Protestant Prussia (July
19), withdrew his troops from Rome, and brought
upon imperial France utter defeat and contributed
to the rise of the new German Empire with a Prot
estant head, and the downfall of the temporal power
of the papacy. Victor Emmanuel, supported by
the vote of the people, marched into Rome, fulfilled
the dream of centuries by making it the capital of free and united Italy, and confined the pope to the Vatican and to a purely ecclesiastical jurisdiction (Sept. 20, 1870). History has never seen a more sudden and remarkable revulsion. The rule of Pius IX., lasting thirty‑one years, broke the tradition that no pontificate would exceed that of Peter, said to have lasted twenty‑five years. His successor, Leo XIII. (q.v.), who gained the respect of all Western Christendom by his culture and character, walked in the way of his predecessors in again denouncing Protestantism as the " Lutheran rebellion, whose evil virus goes wandering about in almost all the nations " (Encyclical, Aug. 1, 1897) and in exalting the scholastic theology by formally pronouncing Thomas Aquinas the standard theologian of the Roman Catholic Church and the patron of Roman Catholic schools (,Bterni patris, Aug. 4, 1879). He also took an almost impossible position against Biblical scholarship in pronouncing the passage about the three witnesses, I John v. 7, genuine (Jan. 15, 1897). His successor, Pius X. (q.v.), in his encyclical Pascendi gregis, 1907, has taken a position against all freedom of Biblical and theological discussion by condemning Modernism (q.v.), forbidding all meetings of the clergy for theological discussion except in rarest cases and under severe restrictions, and ordering the appointment of " councils of vigilance " in every diocese to condemn, without giving reasons, all writings and teachings containing the scent of " Modernism." He has also shown his retrograde policy by forbidding women to sing in churches and limiting church music to the Gregorian chant. Both these popes have been as emphatic as was Pius IX., who made Alphonso da Liguori a doctor of the Church, in ascribing to the invocation of Mary infinite efficacy, and in calling upon the Roman Catholic world to pray to her.
The history of the Roman Church during the nineteenth century shows the remarkable fact that it has lost on its own ground, especially in Italy, France, and Spain, but gained large accessions on foreign soil, especially in England, by the secession of Cardinal Newman, Cardinal Manning, and 400 Anglican clergymen, and, by immigration, from Ireland, in the United States, and, to mention a small district, Geneva. Pius IX. reestablished the Roman Catholic hierarchy in England in 1850 and in Holland in 1853, and Leo XIII. in Scotland, 1878. On the other hand, this gain has been more than neutralized by the Old Catholic secession in Germany and Switzerland, under the lead of Drs. DSllinger, Reinkens, and von Schulte, and other eminent Catholic scholars, whose learning and conscience did not permit them to submit to the Vatican decrees of 1870 (see OLD CATHoracs), and the Loa von Rom (q.v.) movement in Austria, and by a growing spirit of enlightened Biblical discussion within the church by such men as Loisy of France and Father Tyrrell of England.
P. Scnwt. D. S. Sca.".
For the Roman Catholic Church in different lands apart from the United States and the Uniates (for which see below) see the articles on the separate countries.

Roman aatholios	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	74
17. Uniate Churches.‑1. In General: Rome has been successful in winning away from all the churches of the orient greater or (more generally) smaller fragments and subjecting them to obedience
to itself. In corporate form, though 1. Bases of in individual cases under circumstances
Union. which it is not profitable to follow out in detail, native churches in Europe, Asia, and Africa have submitted to affiliation with Rome, and so in the peculiar sense which that church attaches to the word " Catholic " have gained the right to apply the term to themselves. Officially these churches are spoken of as having their own " rite." As opposed to the " Latin " rite the rites of the Uniates are said to be four in number, the Greek, Armenian, Syrian, and Coptic. But there are within these divisions, apart from the Armenian, subdivisions which are made partly upon national grounds and partly upon the bases of customs of cultus or of speech. The term " rite " is according to Latin usage broader than in common acceptation. Commonly the word denotes the form of cultus, the usages of the church in its celebrations, while the Latin sense includes every kind of ecclesiastical custom and also descent or derivation. Everywhere it may be said that a rite is " introduced," so that a " rite " may spring up anywhere; but ecclesiastically a rite must represent a tradition. The expression is akin to that conveyed. by " discipline," and so may include the idea of organization, but must exclude that of theory. The Roman Church distinguishes between ordinances of divine right and those of human right. What is not of divine right is freer in its nature, over it the Church exercises jurisdiction. To the sphere of divine right belong dogma and the sacrament. Hence every dogmatic teaching, everything that belongs to the " essentials," must be taken into recognition where the " Catholic " church is. " Rite " includes the external usages, customs, ordinances, and institutions which are in the sphere of " human right " and are consequently not necessarily uniform throughout the Church. Even in the sacrament what is not of its essence is " rite." Hence Rome suffers as a condition of affiliation, where insistence upon the Latin rite would raise serious opposition, the waiving of externals, provided that submission is made to its dogma and " all " the sacraments are admitted. Since 1870 one of the requirements is acceptance of papal infallibility. In the orient dogma lives in the celebration; what is not liturgically expressed is dogmatically irrelevant; conversely, there is seen in the permission of individual mysterious usages a cheapening of the customary special teachings. The oriental churches are generally ready to grant that other churches may have a charism. Their demands in the matter of propaganda and union are small. Having due regard to the protection of their forms of cultus, they are easily able to make approach to other churches and therefrom receive leadership. Forms of jurisdiction vary among oriental Christians. The same councils which established " divine ecclesiastical law " are recognized as ecumenical in the East as in Rome. These churches even concede a kind of primacy to the Roman bishop, according to
their own definition of it. Hence a sort of superiority may be conceded by the Orientals to the Latin Church, which the latter may wield in a way not to displease. Again, the latter may waive the Latin rite in virtue of its own reception as ruler and of the pope as the highest " regent." Until 1870 illusions might be cherished respecting the character of the Roman primacy. Since then no union has been effected, nor is any likely to occur.
A certain measure of theological, though not of juristic, importance attaches still to the confession of faith submitted, in accordance with the proposal of Clement VI. in 1267, to Gregory X (q.v.) at the
2. Acts of Council of Lyons in 1274 by the Em‑
Union. 	Peror Michael Paleologus (cf. H. Den‑
1887.1698. zlnger, Enehiridion symbolorum et definitionum . . . , no. LIX., WiArzburg, 1900). It agreed to the filioque, the Roman doctrine of the sacraments and purgatory, and, above all, in blunt form, to the papal primacy. Over against this document is to be noted the reservation of the Detretum unionis of Florence in 1439, proclaimed in the bull Latentur ccgli of Eugenius IV. In this latter there appears as assured to the Roman Church only the recognition of the " right " of its dogmatic position, particularly so far as liturgical forms were concerned; the filioque was recognized as lawfully and rationally added to the creed, but the Greeks were not obligated to embody it; transubstantiation was practically admitted, though not in explicit terms, and the controversy over leavened or unleavened bread was regarded as dealing with non‑essentials, each church, being permitted to follow its own custom. The matter of purgatory and of the value of masses for the dead was " defined," as was the papal power of ruling and governing the whole Church universal (Denzinger, ut sup., no. LXXIII.; A. Hefele, Conciliengeschichle, vii. 724; see also FERRARA‑FLORENCE, COUNCIL OF). With the bull Latentur calf as the basis of the expected union of the whole Greek Church, or at least of certain fragments of it, Eugenius could issue two further decrees of union, the Exultate Deo of 1439 having reference to the Armenians, and the Cantate Domino concerning the Jacobites (Denzinger, ut sup., LXXIII., B and C). The result of these last was only partial success, as in the case of the Greeks. A brief of Leo X. (q.v.) issued in 1521 confirmed to the Greeks not only their cultic forms and usages, but also their hierarchy. The bull Magnus Dominus of 1595 of Clement VIII. simply renewed the formula of FerraraFlorence and laid the basis for the Ruthenian union, and the bull Decet Romanos pontifiees of 1596 followed, having relation to the hierarchy of the new church.
The relation of Benedict XIV. to union is of especial importance; through the bull Etsi pastoralis of 1742 he regulated the connection of • the so‑called Italo‑Greeks in Italy, and through the
8. Acts of bull Demandatam ccelitus he dealt with
Union the patriarchs and bishops of the after 1588. Melchites (q.v.). By the bull Inter plures of 1744 he extended the conditions of the preceding bull to the Ruthenians, a process carried

75	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Roman Catholics
still farther, to the " oriental Church," by Leo XIII. in the bull OrienWium dignitm of Nov., 1894. In 1755 Benedict XIV. confirmed formally the correctness of certain " rites." Pius IX. also has significance here because of his two briefs of 1862, Romani pontifices and Amantissimus, creating a central institution to deal with the churches of the oriental rite, viz., the Congregatio de propaganda fide pro negotiis ritus orientalis. He thought it time to go farther into the matter of introducing " reforms " and organic changes in the hierarchical relations of the oriental churches; hence there issued the bull Reversurus in 1867 referring to the Armenians and the Cum ecclesiastics of 1869 to the " Chaldeans." But of all the popes Leo XIII. was most earnest in his efforts for union. He wooed the orientals incessantly, and employed to the full measures of organization in order to strengthen the Uniate churches and to enlarge them by accessions (cf. L. K. Goetz, Leo X111., pp. 221 sqq., Goths, 1899). He followed the example of certain of his predecessors in establishing colleges for the education of the priesthood to serve among the Uniates, carrying this movement out not only in Rome but also in Constantinople and Athens. Among the subjects which appeared in the encyclical Prceclara gratulationis, issued at his episcopal jubilee in 1894, which he said lay near to his heart, appeared that of union. He promised the orientals both for himself and his successors that there should be no deduction from the rights, patriarchal privileges, or the ritual customs of each church, and this was in legal form confirmed by the bull Orientalium dignita8 already mentioned. He listened with patience to the complaints of the orientals concerning the persecutions which they had suffered, notwithstanding the consideration due them because of their long‑established freedom. He was clever enough and great enough to censure the attempts at Latinization which were made; while he did not recall the Latin patriarchates of the orient, he limited the zeal which was being exercised in making " Latins " of the orientals.
Were these intentions carried out fully in papal policy, the essential aspect of the Uniates would by no means be that of Roman Catholicism. It is well remarked by Loofs (Symbolik, vol. i., Tiibingen, 1902) that the non‑use of Latin is not the only privilege left to the Uniates. They have their own liturgies and a series of festivals peculiar to themselves; while they must recognize the saints of the Roman Church they do not celebrate the days sacred to these saints, and of the celebrations of the Western Church they have actually taken in only Corpus Christi; their monasticism has not the great diversity of that of the West, there being in most regions only the Basilian and the Antonian orders, to which may be added that of the Mekhitarists (q.v.) in Venice and Vienna; and above all they retain in slightly modified form their own ecclesiastical law and church discipline. Indeed, it may be said that the Western‑Roman type of piety could not in any case be made to grow in these churches; for eastern piety is dependent upon other factors than sheer dogma and external connection with Rome.
2. The Individual Uniate Churches: The entire number of Uniates may amount to five and a half millions. Varied groupings may be made according to the principle employed. One method has already been given above (1, § 1), depending upon the " rite." Another is based upon the method of organization, resulting in three groups: (1) those which have their own " rite " only in a subordinate sense, and have not a separate hierarchy, being under Latin bishops, of whom are the Greeks in Italy, the few Bulgarians and Abyssinians, a part of the Armenians, and the so‑called Thomas Christians (see NEBTORIANS); (2) those which have their own bishops and sometimes a metropolitan, especially in Austria‑Hungary; (3) the patriarchates of the East. It must always be borne in mind that there is a difference in the conception of ecclesiastical law in the Roman Church as applied to " provinces of the apostolic see " and " mission lands," making it necessary to have in mind the organization in force in the latter. The details regarding the Uniate churches are under the Congregation de propaganda fide. A practical method which will be followed in this article is to consider the churches in their geographical order.
In Europe the Uniate churches are oldest in their connection with the Roman Catholic Church and have attained the closest union. The Italo‑Greeks (cf. KL, vi. 1133‑41) consist of isolated
1. In groups scattered throughout the kingEurope; Ru‑dom. There are more compact groups
thenians, in Calabria and Sicily, and the total
Rumanians,
Armenians. is about 50,000. A source of Armenians. knowledge is the bull Etai pastoralis, referred to above. Though these Greeks are under Latin bishops as ordinaries, yet there are special bishops who administer consecration to the priests. The Uniate churches of Austria‑Hungary include Rutuenians, Rumanians, and Armenians. The first two belong to the Greek rite. Of the Ruthenians there are now only remnants, comparatively speaking, though they are still the most numerous of all the Uniates, three millions in Galicia and half a million in Hungary. The churches which use the Old Slavic have a complete independent organization in Galicia with archbishopric (established 1807), with Halicz as see city, and two suffragan bishoprics, PrzemysI and Stanislau. In Hungary there are two bishoprics, Munkacs and Eperies, these being under the Latin primate, the archbishop of Gran. There is also an affiliated Servian bishopric in Hungary, that of Kreutz in Croatia under the Latin archbishop of Agram, representing about 25,000. This was an independent eparchy under Maria Theresa. It may be classed under the Ruthenians, since all the Slavic churches use the same ecclesiastical language, and the Uniates use this written in the same alphabet, the Glagolitic; the " Orthodox," or, as the Roman Catholics express it, the non‑Catholic or " schismatic " churches use this language, but written with a different alphabet called the Cyriliian. The Ruthenians are among the peoples who have not yet come into their rights in history. They first bore the name " Russian," and in Kief possessed the first metropolis of the East Slavs; even yet in Russia they are known as

Roman Catholics	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	76
Ukrains or Little Russians, and altogether they number about 30,000,000. After the, Tatar invasion in the thirteenth century, their land fell partly to the Poles and partly to the Lithuanians, and after the union of the two kingdoms (1385) to the Pcles. They were an unsafe element in this kingdom so long as they remained " orthodox." Particularly after "Great Russia" had won in Moscow, by the elevation of the metropolitanate into a patriarchate, a new center and new 46clat, there existed a great danger for the Poles. So there arose from political motives a movement for a union between the Ruthenians and Rome. The metropolitan of Kief, Michael Rahosa (Ragoza), found them only externally pliant; his successors, Hypatius Pociej (1600‑13) and Velamin Rutski (1613‑37), were the more eager; though in fact the negotiations had been completed at the Synod of Brest in 1596, yet actual union did not eventuate till the middle of the seventeenth century, the dioceses of Lemberg and Luzk, however, not coming in till 1700 and 1702. This union affected essentially that part of the kingdom which eventually fell to Austria. The Ruthenians have often complained of what they have had to endure at the hands of Latin bishops, and in Galicia complaints continue on both political and ecclesiastical grounds. Even in Russia the Ruthenians suffer under disabilities as a separate nationality, and consequently the Orthodox Church has little real attraction for them.
The church of the Rumanians exists only in Hungary, especially in Transylvania, and it may be traced back into the seventeenth century. The incidents of its changing history are not without interest. It was in connection with the Rumanians that the idea of " personal dioceses " first arose, under which it is possible to have several bishops (for the separate " rites ") at the same place, and of course the occasion was the existence in the same region of churches having separate rites, etc. This church came to possess its own ecclesiastical language first in the seventeenth century. At present it possesses an independent metropolitan at Fqgaras in Transylvania, and three suffragans at Lugos, Grosswardein, and Szamos‑Uvjar, and its adherents number about a million. For the church of the Armenians there is an archbishopric at Lemberg, and a very large community at Vienna, and the Armenians of Venice belong in this communion also. The adherents number only about 5,000. The Mekhitarists (q.v.) are an important order of this branch.
The changes in fortune in the Ruthenian Church were, as already seen, closely connected with the Polish kingdom. At times it seemed as though this church would be coextensive with the 2. In Russia kingdom. The Polish Latin clergy
and was exceedingly zealous to transform Turkey, the union into annexation and to reduce the independent hierarchy to complete dependence; on the other hand, the Poles were politically too strong to permit the quashing of the independence attained. But in Kief there was established alongside of the Ruthenian or Latin an " Orthodox " (i.e., Greek) metropolitanate as early as 1620, and the political power of the Poles could not hinder the perpetuation of this " schismatic "
series of bishops, the most noted of whom was Petrus Mogilas (q.v.). After a great part of the region had been absorbed by Russia, Kief remaining in Poland but becoming ecclesiastically insignificant, this place was established firmly as a Uniate metropolitanate. Meanwhile, in 1775, 1793, 1795, and 1815 successive parts of Poland were incorporated in Russia, and in Prussia there was absorbed the Uniate diocese of Suprasl (1807). It became a settled policy of Russia to recover the Ruthenians for the Greek Church; the measures of Catharine II. were direct and restrained by no scruples, and she endeavored to have the see of Mef done away with entirely. It is reported that she recovered for the Greek Church no less than 8,000,000 Ruthenians, though she still suffered the archbishopric of Polotsk to continue. The next rulers, Paul I. and Alexander I., were in comparison tolerant, and the Uniates, especially in the northern Lithuanian districts, were reorganized. But Nicholas I. resumed the policy of Catharine, and by 1839 brought it about that the Uniates in Russia proper " voluntarily " asked to be received into the Greek Church. In 1875 the relatively small diocese of Chelm, which until then remained in the ranks of the Uniates, was also received into the national church, and this ended the existence of a Uniate Church in Russia. The " Easter decree " of 1905 issued by Nicholas II., which proclaimed freedom as to worship in the empire, apparently put it within the power of those who have secretly remained Uniates in sentiment to go over to Rome; but as yet there is no recognition of a Roman Catholic Church with the Greek rite in Russia. There are, however, scattered Uniates in Russia, belonging to the Armenian rite, and these are under a Latin vicariate.
The only Uniates to be considered in Turkey in Europe are those in the Balkan peninsula, and they are in small groups, considered as belonging to the " missions." There appeared to be hope for union so long as they were politically under an alien government and ecclesiastically dependent upon the ecumenical patriarchate. In 1860 a movement toward union was begun, but it was too energetically pushed by Pius IX., and it died out, especially after the foundation of the " Bulgarian exarchate " in 1872. Bulgarians have been ever since their conversion (see BULGARIANS, CONVERSION OF THE) an object of hope to the Roman Catholic Church, and as continually a disappointment. Leo XIII. in 1883 divided the " United Church of the Bulgs: rians " into three apostolic vicariates; but the adherents do not exceed in number 15,000. In Constantinople there are a number of Uniate Armenians and Melchites.
The Uniate churches in Asia and Africa have especial historical and legal interest owing to the fact that they are organized as patriarchates. But the measure of independence of the
3. In Asia Uniate patriarchs with reference to sad the pope lies in obscurity. The Roman Church is prepared to protect the old ecclesiastical rank and rights in definite measure so far as they are involved in the title of patriarch. The chief characteristic of this ecclesiastical order is that the patriarchs have the right to name

77	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Roman Catholics
their suffragans and may call specific synods (cf. P. Hinschius, Das Kirchenrecht, i. 538 sqq., 562 sqq., Berlin, 1869). There are six Uniate patriarchates as follows: (1) Patriarchatus Ciliciee Armenorum. This has had its home in Constantinople since 1862, and claims fourteen churches and about 16,000 adherents; the Armenian‑Catholic communities in Russian Armenia and in the non‑European dominions of the Sultan belong to this patriarchate. The title indicates the origin of the church among Cilician and Syrian Armenians (until 1867 the patriarch resided in the Lebanon). Under the patriarch are nineteen dioceses, but the total number of souls in his jurisdiction can not much exceed 100,000. (2) There are three Antiochian patriarchates: (a) Patriarchatus Antiochmus GracoMelchitarum. This includes the Uniate Greek nationals of the Turkish empire. The largest number are in Syria. The Melchites are organized in fifteen dioceses and number about 120,000 souls. (b) Patriarchatus Antiochenus Syro‑Maronitarum. This represents the most compact Uniate church of the orient, most of its adherents living in Lebanon. It is organized with eight or nine dioceses, and the number of adherents is about 250,000. (c) The Patriarchatus Antiochenus Syrorum consists of a fragment of the Jacobites (q.v.). The patriarch resides in Mardin (near Diarbekr on the upper Tigris), and governs nine dioceses with perhaps 20,000 adherents. The inclusion of the name of Antioch in the title of these three patriarchates probably indicates a historical tradition of connection with that city. (3) The Patriarchatus Chaldeeorum Babylonensis represents a Uniate church won from the Nestorians (q.v.). The patriarch, with Mosul as see city, is at the head of eleven dioceses, and the estimates of adherents range from 40,000 to 70,000. They present an attractive subject for the historian on account of their past. The erection of a sixth Uniate patriarchate is due to the measures of Leo XIII., and is known as Patriarchatus Alexandrinus Coptorum. The seat of the patriarch is Cairo, and he has two dioceses; the number of adherents is in doubt, but does not exceed 21,000. In addition to the foregoing there are to be taken into account the Abyssinians and Thomas Christians (see NEsxoiuANs). The number of the first who are in affiliation with Rome is very small and they are under a resident vicar. Leo XIII. in 1887 established for the Thomas Christians three Vicariatus apostolici Syro‑Malabarorum, the vicars using the Syrian rite, and the vicar‑general having a council from the people to act as his advisers. The number of Thomas Christians involved here is about 100,000. (F. KATTENBUSCA.)
III. In America: By the conversion of the inhabitants of Greenland early in the eleventh century (see E(iEDE, HANs, § 2), Christian‑
s. Early sty was first established in the western
Work in hemisphere. To the people of Iceland
Greenland (q.v.), which is situated in both hemiand spheres, the Gospel had been preached
	Iceland.	long before. The first incumbent of the
		bishopric of Gardar, in Greenland, was
appointed in the year 1112, and thereafter, until
1492, there was a succession of bishops of Greenland
and Vineland (cf. Gams, Series episcoporum, p. 334). As shown by the sagas, one of those ecclesiastics, Bishop Eric, sailed in quest of Vineland in the year 1121, but of his having found it there is no mention. In the sagas now extant there is no evidence that any church was ever built in Vineland. It is only known that the Norsemen who visited that country were Christians. It is almost certain that the region in which they traded for centuries was within the present limits of the Atlantic States. No memorials of Norse activity have ever been found in America, and the discovery of any is hardly to be expected, for those intrepid mariners were simply traders or at most but the sojourners of a few seasons. The skraelings or natives appear not to have been influenced by the religion or the civilization of their visitors. In the very year that Columbus discovered America, Pope Alexander VI. confirmed the last bishop appointed to the see of Gardar. After a long struggle for existence that lonely outpost of Christianity was abandoned.
When Spain discovered the New World, her population, diminished by centuries of warfare, could
not have exceeded 6,500,000. Neverz. In theless, she endeavured to achieve what
Brazil. no nation has ever attempted. Amid
the wildernesses of mighty continents and in vast archipelagos the Spaniards sought to civilize innumerable races of whom even the most advanced had scarcely attained to the upper stages of barbarism. In Brazil (q.v.), where the Jesuits and other Portuguese missionaries engaged in work similar to that undertaken by the Spanish friars, the aborigines were, if possible, still more degraded. In many parts of that vast country the practise of cannibalism was common. It was on this foundation that the first Christian missionaries were compelled to begin the civilization of two continents. For more than 2,000 miles along the Brazilian coast all the natives were brought under the superintendence of missionaries. They were taught to know God, to comprehend something of the universal laws of morality, and in many other ways prepared for civilization. Joseph Anchieta, who labored among them for forty‑four years, composed a Brazilian grammar and also a dictionary of that dialect. The canticles prepared by him replaced the indecent songs of the natives. Antonio Vieyra, an author and statesman, continued in the succeeding century the splendid work of Anchieta. In districts from which Portuguese soldiers had been expelled the zealous missionaries established themselves. In this noble work the Frranciscans and the Dominicans were also engaged. At one time the Jesuits in South America numbered 1,700. Their number is not to be ascribed, however, to the pleasures of an apostolic career. In his History of Brazil (part I., 2d ed., pp. 320, 321, London, 1810), Robert Southey states that in the year 1570 sixty‑nine missionaries set sail for South America in Portuguese vessels, and encountered the British and French (Huguenot) pirates off the coast of Brazil and were put to death. Missionaries had also been attacked by the Dutch. Even Portuguese merchants, with whose slave‑trade they interfered, misrepresented the missionaries in Lisbon and in 1573 hundreds of them were deported

Roman catholios	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	78
and for eighteen years were allowed to languish in Portuguese prisons. After the expulsion of the missionaries the industries established by them were soon in ruins. The prosperity of the country was destroyed, slavery was easily revived, and vice and drunkenness became general. Notwithstanding this succession of calamities it was estimated that in 1856 there were 800,000 domesticated Indians in Brazil.
With some modifications this outline of missionary activity in Brazil will serve for a sketch of early
Spanish America. Everywhere there 3. In Other was the same apostolic zeal, the same
Parts of enlightened missionary methods, the
	South	same miraculous success, and the same
America. fatal interference by government. In
the Cordilleras, where no Spanish army had ever penetrated, a successful college was established by the missionaries. Indeed, the educational progress of Spanish America was remarkable. The late Prof. Edward Gaylord Bourne, of Yale, says that the efficiency of Spanish colonial academies in the sixteenth century was not equaled in the United States until the nineteenth century was well advanced (Spain in America, p. 310, New York, 1906). Long before the humane Quakers, of Pennsylvania, began their agitation for the abolition of slavery a South American Jesuit had denounced it. When guilty traders brought their human cargoes from Guinea or Angola, Blessed Peter Claver consoled the wretched negroes on their arrival in Cartagena. From the experience of Brazil the Due de Choiseul had learned nothing. He, too, attempted to get along without missionaries and endeavored to develop Guiana along economic lines of his own. Perhaps no political philosopher has ever surpassed this particular act in stupidity. When he had banished the priests, the Indians fled to the forests and his colony was practically destroyed. Prosperity returned with the restoration of the missionaries. The economist Rae, quoted by John StuartMill, gives an interesting account of the celebrated Jesuit missions of Paraguay. For winning savages to the ways of civililation they appear to have been ideal, but; like those established elsewhere in South America, they, too, were destroyed by government interference. After the conqueror came the missionary. Everywhere civilization was sustained by the priests, and when they were expelled it began everywhere to decline. The political science of a later day seems to have regarded as antiquated the custom of adopting an enlightened system of taxation to obtain a revenue for government and instead to have relied chiefly upon confiscation. From the effects of this new system of economics and from the selfish opposition to religion many parts of South America have never completely recovered. In favored regions, however, it is even now in the vanguard of civilization, and almost everywhere there are evidences of improvement. So rapid is the succession of changes in that part of the globe that descriptions written a decade ago are no longer correct.
It has already been stated that the contact of Norse Roman Catholics with the natives of Vineland had no lasting consequences. Roman Catholics did not revisit that country until 1497, when
John Cabot's expedition traced the eastern outline of North America. In the knowledge of the New World brought to Europe by these Englishmen
there is something of the vagueness of 4. Explora‑ the sagas. When England resumed the
	tion.	work of exploration, her rulers had be
		come Protestant. Her claims to this
continent were based, however, upon the discovery
and exploration encouraged by Henry VIL, her last
great Roman Catholic king. After the Cabots the
Spanish navigators explored the Atlantic seaboard
from Nova Scotia to Cape Horn and from Magellan's
Strait northward to the Oregon country. They also
explored Mexico and much of what is now the south
western part of the United States. In the extension
of geographical knowledge the Portuguese had few
rivals; even in the New World they were distin
guished explorers. The French, too, were interested
in discovery, exploration, and settlement. That
nation, however, confined its activity chiefly
to the country of the St. Lawrence, the region
of the Great Lakes, and the great basin of the
Mississippi.
From the preceding it is clear that with the discovery and the larger exploration of America, the Protestant states of Europe had nothing whatever to do. With the settlement and development of the northern continent the matter is quite different. In the territory now comprised in the United States so great was the activity and success of the people of non‑Catholic nations that Roman Catholics are not popularly regarded as having been among the founders of this republic.
Of those colonies that were destined to form the United States, Maryland alone was settled by Roman Catholics. Though they were in a minority at the
outset and in every later stage of its 5. The development, they shaped its policy as
Colonies completely as if they had been the only
of North people in that part of our planet. From
America. the beginning all its inhabitants en‑
joyed religious liberty. It was not, however, until Apr., 1649, that there was passed the famous act of toleration. William Claiborne had already invaded the province and it then seemed necessary to enact into law the objective fact of freedom of worship. When religious strife had once begun, it was not easy to restore tranquillity. Indeed, until the era of independence Roman Catholics were the victims of gross discrimination. On the subject of the first establishment of religious toleration in the United States, controversy may wax and wane, but it is not probable that there will ever be found for that honor any person with a title so clear as that of George Calvert. In Pennsylvania and in other communities Roman Catholics were also to be found. However, they formed only a very small part of the population, and the chronicles of the time tell little concerning their numbers, their social status, or their contributions to the intellectual life of the colonies. It has been estimated that at the time of the Revolution they numbered about 25 000. Though the Roman Catholic population of the United States was small at the time of the War of the Revolution, members of that faith were numerous on all its borders and everywhere

79	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Roman Catholics
they were either neutral or friendly. When Colonel George Rogers Clark was engaged in the winning of the West, two Roman Catholic companies from the Illinois country joined his gallant battalion of Virginians; a priest, Pierre Gibault, acted as his recruiting officer at Kaskaskia and his treasury was strengthened by the loan of one Frangois Vigo. In case of disaster Clark knew that he could find a haven of refuge with the Spaniards beyond the Mississippi. The Spaniards of New Orleans, too, were friendly from the beginning of the war for independence. This friendship was confirmed when, in 1779, Spain declared an independent war on England. Though the policy of Spain seemed hesitant, she finally loaned a considerable sum to the young republic. In the United Provinces were elements friendly to America, but none more so than the Roman Catholics. The friendship of Spain and of the United Provinces, however, was completely overshadowed by the generous assistance of France. So much so, indeed, that their services are not popularly known. A very few Roman Catholics took sides with England, but there was probably no Christian church unrepresented in the ranks of the American loyalists. Roman Catholics were to be found in the army, in the navy, and in the halls of legislation. In all the later wars they have not been less loyal than in the struggle for independence. Those who were not qualified for military or naval service, the faithful and patient sisters, rendered services not less useful in a multitude of hospitals. In vain might one scan the pages of our history for any complete narrative of the nurses of the Civil War. The veterans of that conflict, however, cherish a vivid recollection of the fine services of those gentle heroines.
At an early date the Roman Catholic Church in the United States began to receive accessions from
immigration. These came chiefly from 6. Accession Europe and because of the operation
	by Immi‑	of a variety of causes. Multitudes have
	gration.	come from Germany, Ireland, Poland,
		Austria, Italy, Portugal, and Canada.
In some instances they were driven hither by op
pressive laws; in others they came to escape relig
ious discrimination, and in many cases to avoid
military service. The expectation of enjoying po
litical liberty and industrial prosperity was not
the least powerful of the causes that have attracted
settlers to this favored nation. In shaping these
multitudes for citizenship many forces have op
erat‑d. One of the most important agencies in
making homogeneous this variety of ethnical ele
ments has been the Roman Catholic Church. To
this end the influence of priests and prelates has
tended constantly. The services in this field of such
leaders as Archbishops Carroll and Hughes, Bishop
England and Father Hecker, Archbishop Ireland
and Cardinal Gibbons (qq.v.), is a matter of com
mon knowledge. The list of patriotic clergymen,
from the Revolution to the Civil War, could be ex
tended indefinitely. Only typical examples will be
given.
To the political institutions that they assisted !n founding, Roman Catholics have been zealously attached. Indeed, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, the
public representative of their faith whom they hold in highest esteem, was an honored signer of the Declaration of Independence. They also cherish the memory of Daniel Carroll, one of the framers of the Constitution. Of that instrument Chief Justice Taney was one of the ablest expounders. In a democracy an exponent of social authority is needed, and the Roman Catholic Church supplies that need. To regard Roman Catholicism as a sort of police power, however, is puerile. It is infinitely more than that.
It is greatly to be regretted that, as yet, no satisfactory narrative exists of the services rendered by the Roman Catholic Church to the
7. Services Indians of the United States. In its
to Indians nature that work is not spectacular and and many a noble deed has passed
	Negroes.	without observation. This is a phase
		of activity for which it will never be
necessary to apologize and a theme that is likely
some day to attract some competent historical
scholar. Few achievements of the Roman Catholic
Church or, for that matter, of any other church,
are more praiseworthy than the services to the
Indians. The Roman Catholic Church has been criti
cized for alleged indifference to the negro. Doubt
less more could have been done for him. Neverthe
less, the negro had friends among Roman Catholics,
and a scrutiny of the list of anti‑slavery men would
discover the name of an occasional priest. In the
Nashville diocese, situated in the very heart of the
slave states, Bishop Whalen and, except the poet,
Father Ryan, all his priests were anti‑slavery men.
Notwithstanding the existence of the " black code,"
Roman Catholic masters very commonly taught
their negroes to read the catechism and the prayer
book. Macaulay affirms that in Roman Catholic
countries slavery has always worn a milder aspect
than elsewhere. It should be remembered that in
the South, where slavery was established, Roman
Catholics were and still are few in numbers. The
utmost activity on their part could have accom
plished little in the way of changing public opinion
in communities where they were themselves only
tolerated.
Toward the Roman Catholic Church the Federal government has always maintained a friendly attitude. In the beginning this was demanded both by the sentiments of gratitude and the
8. Attitude teachings of political science. How‑
of the ever, after the republic became great
American and powerful, it continued and there‑
Govern‑	by proved the sincerity of its friend‑
ment and ship. It has not always been so with
	People.	the American people. In the long in
		tervals of peace there have been a few
anti‑Roman Catholic outbreaks. In the early
thirties the opposition to Roman Catholicism was
marked; again, in 1844, and thereafter till the Civil
War, the Know‑Nothing party (see KNow‑NOTH
ING MOVEMENT) developed considerable strength.
The latest of these agitations was that organized by
those who were popularly known as A. P. A.'s. Not
withstanding these symptoms of religious intoler
ance, the American people are the most tolerant
and the most fair‑minded on the globe. The con‑

Roman Catholics	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	80
stant stream of Roman Catholic immigrants is sufficient proof of this statement, if, indeed, any proof is required.
The charity work of this church is immense. Hospitals, orphan asylums, houses of the Good Shepherd, and similar eleemosynary g. Charities, institutions cover the face of the con‑
	Architec‑	tinent, and their administration is both
	ture, and	efficient and enlightened. For the
	Schools.	general absence of beauty in their
		ecclesiastical structures American Ro
man Catholics have been criticized with severity.
From this general censure, it is true, certain cathe
drals, which are triumphs of architectural skill, are
commonly excepted. In contrasting Protestant
Episcopal churches with Roman Catholic churches
it should be remembered that many entire Roman
Catholic congregations are composed of the indus
trial classes. The nature of their employments
leaves little leisure for the cultivation of esthetics.
Though American Roman Catholics are in advance
of European Roman Catholics in many things,
it may be admitted that in music, painting,
sculpture, and architecture their triumphs are yet
to come.
One of the grandest achievements of American Roman Catholics is the fine system of parochial schools (see RonsAN CAxaoLre PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS) that they have established. In good part this has been accomplished during the past thirty years and, of course, without assistance from any of the states, as the latter have public schools of their own. In these schools the instruction is even now efficient, and when their organization and unification are further perfected, it will be still more so. From the earliest times academies, ecclesiastical seminaries, and colleges have been in existence, and these have long been sending forth cultured men and women. The demand for higher education led later to the establishment of a number of universities. These are already doing scholarly work and are contributing rapidly to improve both secondary and primary education. The appearance of Roman Catholic pedagogical journals, the establishment of summer courses, and the institution of normal and other schools for the training of teachers are the present evidences of Roman Catholic activity in this important field.
What has been said of apostolic labors in South America is equally true of the northern continent. There was scarcely an achievement of :o. Achieve‑Brazil or Paraguay that was not gar‑
	ments of	alleled by the Jesuits of North America.
	Roman	The nature of the task was the same
	Catholics.	and the training of those who at
		tempted it was similar. In those vivid
narratives known as the Jesuit Relations (see bib
liography) there exists an early and an exceedingly
valuable contribution to American scholarship. As
historical documents they have great worth. There
is also contained in them a vast mass of facts of the
highest linguistic and anthropological value. In
deed, there were few phases of human activity un
touched by those trained observers. Since the
seventeenth century American Roman Catholics
have been contributors to pure as well as applied
literature. In the literature of power they are creditably represented in poetry, fiction, oratory, and criticism. It is true that there have been among them no great poets. Indeed, in this country there have been none of the first class among the members of any creed. For the entertainment of the reader, and that is a legitimate object for the poet, John Boyle O'Reilly, Father Ryan, Maurice Francis Egan, Father Tabb, Miss Eleanor Donnelly, and Miss Guiney take high rank. AS in the case of poets, there have been no American Roman Catholics in the first class among orators. A few, such as Daniel Dougherty and William Bourke Cockran, have been successful in political oratory, and many, like the late Archbishop Ryan, were pulpit orators of rare eloquence. In essay writing and in criticism Roman Catholic names are familiar. In this department are found Richard Malcom Johnston, Agnes Repplier, and Bishop John Lancaster Spalding (q.v.). Except to say that he was a prose writer of ability it is not easy to classify the convert Orestes Brownson. He was active in many fields. In the literature of knowledge Roman Catholics have been creditably represented. To say nothing of historical essays and monographs, of which many of excellence have appeared, Hughes, Shahan, and Shea rank with the first historians of America. On the subject of law, Dr. W. C. Robinson is an authority of considerable reputation, and Dr. Murphy is not unknown in the science of medicine. In economics Roman Catholics have been interested from the days of Matthew Carey to the time of Rev. John A. Ryan, the author of A Living Wage. Perhaps the best notion of the standing of Roman Catholics in applied literature will be obtained from an examination of The Catholic Encyclopedia, a publication covering, if not the entire realm of knowledge, at least many of its important provinces. In didactic literature also American Roman Catholics are well represented. In the ranks of translators and prose stylists there are authors of the type of Rev. Dr. Hugh T. Henry. There is not space even to enumerate those who have been distinguished in journalism. Many Roman Catholics may be found in the medical and in the legal professions. In a word, they are very rapidly rising into those classes that may be considered the natural leaders of society.
In the United States the affairs of the Roman Catholic Church are administered by an apostolic
delegate, by fourteen archbishops, of ii. Admin‑ whom one has the rank of cardinal,
istration. and by upwards of eighty bishops.
These ecclesiastical superiors, acting in perfect harmony with the Holy See, are assisted by more than 16,550 priests in attending to the spiritual needs of, perhaps, 15,000,000 Roman Catholics. Frequent reports furnish the Holy See with accurate information concerning American conditions and needs. If Rome were not very exactly acquainted with the institutions of America, Pope Leo XIII. could never have obtained so firm a grasp of its current problems and he never could have manifested for the entire American nation so enlightened and so profound a sympathy. His affection for this republic will be evident to even a casual

81	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Roman Catholics
reader of his great encyclicals. The attitude of his illustrious successor is the same.
In the minds of many non‑Catholic Americans there exists a distrust of Catholicism, but for this suspicion there is no foundation in American history; it was imported, and it is about as old as the Reformation in England. The privilege of living in an enlightened state under a constitution of government such as the world has never seen, is appreciated by Roman Catholics as fully as it is by men of other creeds, and that fact begets as high a degree of loyalty. If our Federal state is ever menaced by socialism, one of its greatest resources will be found in the patriotism of its millions of Roman Catholics.
CHAnLEs H. WCARTHY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The literature on the Roman Catholic Church prior to the Reformation is that on the Church at large apart from that on the oriental churches, and the works which stand out are cited in the article CHURCH HISTORY. Much relevant material is to be found in the bibliographies to the articles to which cross reference is made in the text, as well as in the articles on the popes and the various notables and ecclesiastics found throughout this work, as well as under such articles as CURIA; POPE, PAPACY, PAPAL SYSTEM; ULTRAmGNTAmam, and the like. A reference list in certain important departments is given in this work in vol. i., pp. xxii.‑xxiv. The literature, historical, apologetic, and polemic, is so vast that only a comparatively small selection can be given here. The history, dogma, and apologetics of the church in all their branches are set forth in the KL, and in The Catholic Encyclopedia, New York, 1907 sqq. A very large list of books is given in G. K. Fortescue's Subject Index . of the British Museum, under " Roman Catholics," London, 1903‑08. Other lists of literature are: J. M. Finotti, Bibliographia Catholica Americana; List of Works by Catholics Authors and Publishers in the U. S., 178/,18.80, New York, 1872; D. Gla, Systematisch geordnetes Repertorium der katholisch‑theolopischen Litteratur . .
1700‑1900, 2 vols., Paderbom, 1895‑1904; A Complete Catalogue of Catholic Literature; containing all Catholic Books published in the United States together with a Selection from the Catalogues of the Catholic Publishers of England and Ireland, Boston, 1910.
Among works to be named on Roman Catholic apologetics and dogmatics is the fullest repository of Roman Catholic theological learning, viz., Migne's Nouvelle encyclopMie thcolopique, 52 vole., Paris, 1850 sqq., to which are to be added the KL, and the Catholic Encyclopedia, ut sup. Consult further: R. F. R. Bellarmin, Disputations& de controversiis Chrsstiano fidei, 4 vols., Ingolatadt, 15811593 (standard; often republished); J. B. Bossuet, Exposition de la doctrine de fklise catholique sur lee malijrea de controverse, Paris, 1671 (standard); B. J. Hilgers, Symbolische Theologie oder die Lehrgegensatze des Katholicismus and Protestantismus, Bonn, 1841; J. L. Bahnez, El Protestantismo comparado con el Catolicismo en sue relaciones con la civilizacion Buropea, 2d ed., 4 vols., Barcelona, 1844‑45, Eng. transl., Protestantism and Catholicity Compared in their Effects on the Civilization of Europe, London, 1849, 10th ed., Baltimore, 1868; J. J. 1. yon D511inger, Kirche and Kirchen, Papatthum and KirchenstaAMunich 1861‑ J. Gibbons (cardinal), The Faith of our Fathers, New York, 1871, Baltimore, 1890, and often (the circulation has run up into the hundreds of thousands); J. Perrone, Prdlectiones eheohqicae, 36th ed., Regensburg, 1881; R. Soeder, Der Begri$ der Katholicitat der Kirche, Wiirzburg, 1881; J. P. Gary, Compendium theolopice moralie, New York, 1884; N. A. Perujo, El Apolopista catblico, 2 vole., Valencia, 1884; E. Sala, La Religione cattoliea eaposta edifesa, Milano, 1884; G. Baluffi, The Charity of the Church a Proof of her Divinity, Dublin, 1885; Faith of Catholics: confirmed by Scripture and attested by the Fathers of the First Five Centuries of the Church, 3 vols., New York, 1885, 4th ed., 1910 (J. Berington and J. Kirk, compilers); J. J. Moriarty. The Keys of the Kingdom; or, the unfailing Promise, ib. 1885; C. F. B. Allnatt, The Church and the Sects, 2 ser., London, 1887‑
$.‑‑6
1890; P. Schanz, Christian Apology, 3 vols., New York, 1891; W. Byrne, The Catholic Doctrine of Faith and Morals, Boston, 1892; D. Lyons, Christianity and Infallibility; both or neither, London and New York, 1892; J. D. G. Shea and R. H. Clarke, Our Faith and its Defenders, New York, 1892; J. A. Mohler, Symbolik oder Daratellung der dogmatiachen Gegenadtze der Katholiken and Protestanten, 9th ed., Regensburg, 1894, Eng. transl., Symbolism; or, Exposition of the doctrinal Differences between Catholics and Protestants as evidenced in their symbolical Writings, 5th ed., London, 1906 (standard); L. Rivington, The Primitive Church and the See of Peter, New York, 1894; C. Pesch, Prwlectiones Dogmaticm, 9 vols., St. Louis, 1895‑99; P. Bold, Catholic Doctrine and Discipline simply Explained, London, 1896; W. W. Pounch, The Catholic Church. An Explanation of her Faith, her Ministry and her Sacraments, New York, 1896; G. Tyrrell, External Religion; its Use and Abuse, St. Louis, 1899; A. de Silas y Gilavert, Influence of Catholicism on the Sciences and Arts, St. Louis, 1901; A. Ehrhard, Der Katholizismus and das zwonzigste Jahrhunded im Lichte der kirchlichen Entvoickelung der Neuzeit, 12th ed., Stuttgart, 1902; W. Devivier, Christian Apologetics; Defense of the Catholic Faith, 2 vols., New York, 1903; R. Merry del Val, Truth of the Papal Claims, St. Louis, 1903; 3I. J. Scheeben, Handbuch der katholiachen Dopmatik, 4 vole., Freiburg, 1903; C. M. Schneider, Die fundamentale Glaubenslehre der kathodischen Kirche. Aus den papstlichen Kundgebungen, Paderbom, 1903; J. Burg, Konlroveralexikon. Die konfessionellen Streitfragen zwischen Katholiken and Protestanten, Esslingen, 1905 (combats Kohlschmidt); J. Chapman, Bishop Gore and the Catholic Claims, London, 1905; M. HEbert, L'Evolution de la foi catholique, Paris, 1905; J. H. Newman, Addresses to Cardinal Newman with his Replies, 187'9‑8t , London, 1905; G. Reinhold, Der alte and der neue Glaube. Bin Beitrag zur Verteidigung des katholischen Chriatentums gegen seine modernen Gepner, Vienna, 1908; H. E. Sampson, Progressive Redemption. The Catholic Church, its Functions and Office in the World, London, 1909; especially the works of Cardinals Newman and Wiseman (named in the articles on them).
Some examples of anti‑Roman polemics are: If. Chemnits, Examen concilii Tridentini, 1686‑73, new ed., by E. Preuss, Berlin, 1861, there was an Eng. trans]., London, 1582 (damaging to papal claims); I. Barrow, Treatise on the Popes Supremacy, ib. 1680, new ed., 1881; P. K. Marheineke, Des System des Katholicismus, 3 vols., Heidelberg, 1810‑13; R. Whately, The Errors of Romanism Traced to their Origin in Human Nature, London. 1830; F. C. Baur, Der Gegensatz des Katholicismus and Protestantiamus, T0bingen, 1836 (against Mbhler); P. Schaff, Das Princip des Protestantismus, Chambersburg, Pa., 1845; idem, Creeds, i. 83‑191, ii. 77‑274; C. Wordsworth, Letters to Mr. Gordon on the Destructive Character of the Church of Rome, both in Religion and Policy, London, 1847; J. Bragden, Catholic Safeguards against the Errors, Corruptions, and Novelties of the Church of Rome; being Discourses and Tracts selected from the Writing of Divines . who lived during the Seventeenth Century, 3 vols., ib. 1849‑51; C. Elliott, Delineation of Romanism Drawn from the Authentic and Acknowledged Standards of the Church of Rome, 2 vols., New York, 1851; F. D. Maurice, The Religion of Rome and its Influence on Modern Civilization, London, 1855; J. C. Hare, The Contest with Rome, ib. 1856; J. Cairns, Romanism and Rationalism as Opposed to Pure Christianity, ib. 1863; E. B. Pusey, Ireniron, 3 parts, Oxford, 1856‑70; H. L. Martensen, Katholicismus and Prolestantismus, Gutersloh, 1874; Proceedings o) the Evangelical Alliance Conference of 1873, pp. 449‑466. New York, 1874; J. Delitzseh, Das Lehrsystem der ramischen Kirche, Gotha, 1875; W. E. Gladstone, Rome and the Newest Fashions in Religion, London, 1875; E. de Laveleye, Protestantism and Catholicism in their Bearings upon the Liberty and Prosperity of Nations, ib. 1875; S. W. Barnum, Romaniam as it is; an Exposition of the Roman Catholic System for the Use of the American People, new ed., Hartford, 1876; R. W Thompson, The Papacy and the Civil Power, New York, 1876; C. A. Hase, Handbuch der protestantischen Polemik gegen die ramisch‑katholische Kirche, 4th ed., Leipsie 1878, Eng. transl, Handbook to the Controversy with Rome, London, 1906, rev. ed., 1909; R. Jenkim, Romanism, a Doctrinal and Historical Exam‑

Roman Catholics	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	82
ination of the Creed of Pius IV., ib. 1882; P. Tschackert, Evangelische Polemik gegen die rbmische Kirche, Gotha, 1885, 2d ed., 1888; E. Eisele, Jesuitismus and Katholizismus, Halle, 1888; S. S. Wynell‑Mayow, The Light of Reason, London, 1889; R. F. Littledale, Plain Reasons against Joining the Church of Rome, ib. 1880; T. Moore, Anglican Brief against Roman Claims, ib. 1895; Graf P. von Hoensbroeeh, Das Papsttum in seiner sozialkulturellen Wirkaamkeit, vol. i., Leipsic, 1900; D. H. Falconer, The Errors of the Roman Catholic Faith, ib. 1901; J. MaeLaughlin, The Divine Plan of the Church, ib. 1901; A. H. Galton, The Church's Outlook, Our Attitude toward English Roman Catholics and the Papal Court, ib. 1902; J. B. Nichols, Evangelical Belief. Its Contrast with Rome, ib. 1903; J. M. Logan, Six Anti‑Papal Studies, ib. 1904; Kontrovers‑Lexikon, Die konfessionellen Streitfragen zwischen Katholiken and Pro_ teatanten, Essen, 1904‑05; O. Hermens and O. Kohlschmidt, Protestantisches Taachenbuch, Leipsic, 1904; C. Gore, Roman Catholic Claims, London, 1905; K. Sell, Katholizismus and Proteatantismus in Geschichte, Religion, Politik, Kultur, Leipsic, 1908.
On the unfolding of worship and law consult:. L. P. Gu6ranger, L'Annee liturgique, 16 vols., Paris, 1841 sqq., Eng. transl., London, 1867 sqq.; R. von Lilieneron, Ueber den Inhalt der allgemeinen Bildung in der Zeit der Scholastik, Munich, 1876; B. Thalhofer, Handbuch der katholischen Liturgik, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1883‑93; H. von Eicken, Geschichte and System der mittelalterlichen Weltonachauung, Stuttgart, 1887; J. J. I. von D511inger and F. H. Reusch, Geschichte der Moralstreitigkeiten in der rtimischkatholischen Kirche seit den 16. Jahrhurudert, 2 vols., ib, 1889; J. Dippel, Das katholische Kirchenjahr, 6 vols., Regensburg, 1889‑93; S. Baumer, Geschichte des Breviers, St. Louis, 1895; P. Batiffol, Hist. of the Roman Breviary, London, 1898; K. A. H. Kellner, Heortologie odor das Kirchenjahr and die Heiligenfeste in ihrer geachichtlichen Entwickelung, Freiburg, 1901; F. Fleiner, Entwickelung des katholiachen Kirchenrechts im 19. Jahrhundert, Tiibingen, 1902; F. von Tessen‑Wesierski, Der Autoritdtsbegriff in den Hauptphasen seiner historischen Entwicklung, Paderborn, 1907; F. Acin, La iglesia catolica, au constitucion interns y relaciones externas, Huesca, 1910.
For the general history of the church consult: The Annales of Baronius (for bibliographical details see BARONIUB); J. J. I. von D6Ilinger, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeachichte, Regensburg, 1833‑38, 2d ed., 2 vols., 1843, Eng. transl., Hist. of the Church, 4 vols., London, 1840‑1842; J. A. M6hler, Kirchengeschichte, ed. P. B. Game, 3 vols., Regensburg, 1867‑70; F. X. Kraus, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte, 4 vols., Treves, 1872‑76; J. B. Alzog, Universalgeschichte der chrastlichen Kirche, 10th ed., 2 vols., Mainz, 1882, Eng. transl. of 9th ed., 3 vols., Cincinnati, 1874‑78, new ed., 1903; E. Renan, Lectures on the Influence of Rome on Christianity (Hibbert Lectures), new ed., New York, 1898; R. F. Rohrbacher, Hilt. univeraelle de L'Mise catholique, 9th ed., 15 vols., Paris, 1899‑1900; F. Nippold, Handbuch der neuesten Kirchengeschiehte, 4 vols, Berlin, 1901; C. Boug16, L'tglise romaine. Drame historique de xx. sQcles, Paris, 1902; H. BrOek, Geschichte der katholischen Kirche im 19 Jahrhundert, 2d ed., 2 vols., Mainz, 1902; E. Pardo‑Bazan, Par la Europa catolica, Madrid, 1902; B. W. Aecher, Characteristics of the Romish Church, London, 1904; J. P. Kirsch and V. Luksch, Illustrierte Geschichte der katholiachen Kirche Munich, (1905); A. Baudrillart, The Catholic Church, the Renaissance and Protestantism, London, 1908; MaeCaffrey, Hist. o1 the Catholic Church in the 19th Century, 2 vols., Dublin, 1909.
The literature on the history of the church in different lands is to be looked for under the articles on those lands, the following works being merely supplementary except in the cases of Great Britain and the United States. On the history of the Roman Catholic Church in Great Britain and colonies consult: J. Forbes, L'Fglise catholique en Pcosse d la fin du xvi. siecle, Paris, 1885; W. F. Leith, Narratives of Scottish Catholics under Mary and James VI., Edinburgh, 1885, A. Bellesheim, Geschichte der katholischen Kirche in Schottland, 2 vols., Mainz, 1883, Eng. transl., History of the Catholic Church in Scotland, 4 vols., Edinburgh, 1887‑90, W. J. Amherst, History of Catholic Emancipation arid Progress of the Church, 177118t!O, 2 vols., London, 1886; Kenny, History of Catholicity in Australia to 18¢0, Sydney, 1886; T. D. Ingram,
England and Rome: History of the Relations between the Papacy and the English State, London, 1892; G. Grabinski (Count), La Renaissance catholique en Angle• terre et Is Cardinal Newman, Lyon, 1893; W. Ward, W. G. Ward and the Catholic Revival, London, 1893; De Madaune, Histoire de la renaissance du catholiciame en Angleterre au xix. sickle, Paris, 1896; Alexis, Histoire de la province ecclesiastique d'Ottawa, 2 vols., Ottawa, 1879; P. F. Moran, History of the Catholic Church in Australasia, Sydney, 1897; idem, The Catholics in Ireland under the Penal Laws in the Eighteenth Century, London, 1899; P. Thureau‑Dangin, La Renaissance catholique en Angleterre au xix. sie9cle, Paris, 1899; P. H. Fitzgerald, Fifty Years of Catholic Life under Cardinals Wiseman, Manning, Vaughan and Newman, 2 vols., London, 1901; J. Forbes, L'‑glise catholique en Etcosse h la. fin du xvi. siACle, Paris, 1901; S. J. Jones, England and the Holy See, London, 1902; M. J. F. McCarthy, Priests and People in Ireland, Dublin, 1902; idem, Five Years in Ireland, 1896‑1900, London, 1903; idem, Rome in Ireland, ib. 1904; M. O'Riordan, Catholicity and Progress in Ireland, ib. 1905; J. R. Willington, Dark Pages of English History. Being a short Account of the penal Laws against Catholics from Henry VIII. to George IV., ib. 1902; F. A. Gasquet, Short History of the Catholic Church in England, ib. 1903; J. B. Nichols, The Advance of Romanism in England, ib. 1904; D. Williamson, Roman Catholic Orders in Great Britain, ib. 1904; Mrs. Bryan Stapelton, History of the PostReformation Catholic Missions in Oxfordshire, ib. 1905; J. A. Bain, The New Reformation. Recent Evangelical Movements in the Roman Catholic Church, Edinburgh, 1906; idem, The Developments of Roman Catholicism, London, 1908; W. Forbes‑Leith, Historical Letters and Memoirs of Scottish Catholics, 2 vols., London and New York, 1908; B. Ward, The Dawn of the Catholic Revival in England, 1781‑1803, 2 vols., London, 1909; Report of the 19th Eucharistic Congress, held at Westminster, Sept. 9‑13, 1908, ib. 1909. For France, beside the literature under that article and GALLIOANISM, consult: J. de Magdeleine, La France catholique et la France juive, 2 vols., Paris, 1888; J. B. Jeannin, L'Eglise et la fin de ai&le, ib. 1891; P. Boyle, The Irish College in Paris, 1878‑1901, London, 1901; L. Bourgain, L'Eglim de France et l'6tat au dix‑neuvi~me si,Acle, 2 vols., Paris, 1901; M. P. Imbart, L'l5glise Catholique, La Criss d La Renaissance, ib. 1909. On Germany use: F. W. Woker, Aus norddeutschen Miasionen des 17. and 18. Jahrhunderts, Cologne, 1884; Michel, Die rdmische Kirche, ihre Binwirkung auf die germanischen Slfimme, Halle, 1889; J. May, Geschichte der Generalveraammlungen der Katholiken Deutschlands, 184,8‑190,2, Cologne, 1903; R. Seeberg, Die Kirche Deutschlands im neunzehnten Jahrhundert, Leipsie, 1903; H. A. Krose, Konfessionstatistik Deutschlands, Freiburg, 1904; G. Gayau, L'Allemagne religieuse. Le Catholicisme, 18oo18I,8, 2 vols., Paris, 1905. For Italy consult: Letino Carbonelli, La Chiesa, la proprieta, to stator Naples, 1884; S. Muenz, Aus Quirinal and Vatikan, Berlin, 1891; R. Murri, Battaglie d'oggi, 3 vols., Rome, 1901; A. Robertson, The Roman Catholic Church in Italy, London, 1903; R. de Cesare, The Last Days of Papal Rome, 186o‑1870, ib. 1909. On the church in the United States consult: J. J. O'Connell, Catholicity in the Carolinas and Georgia
. 18.1'0‑78, New York, 1879; B. J. Webb, Centenary of Catholicity in Kentucky, Louisville, 1884 J. G. Shea, History of the Catholic Church in the U. S. A., 2 vols., New York, 1886; idem, The Catholic Church in Colonial Days, 1621‑1763, ib. 1887; H. H. Heming, Catholic Church in Wisconsin, Milwaukee, 1897; T. O'Gorman, in A1nerican Church History Series, vol. .ix., New York, 1897; Hist. of the Catholic Church in the New England States, 2 vols., Boston, 1899; J. O'K. Murray, Catholic Pioneers of America, new ed., Philadelphia, 1901; G. F. Houck, Hist. of Catholicity in Northern Ohio, 2 vols., Cleveland, 1903; J. M. Flynn, Catholic Church in New Jersey, Morristown, N. J., 1904; A. Houtin, L'Americanisme, Paris, 1904; W. P. Tracy, Old Catholic Maryland and its Early Jesuit Missionaries, Baltimore, 1906; The Catholic church in the United States of America, vol. i., The religious Communities, vol. ii., Province of Baltimore, New York, 1908 sqq.; W. H. Bennett, Catholic Footsteps in Old New York; a Chronicle of Catholicity in New York, 1624,‑1808, ib. 1909; J. P. Conway, The Question of the Hour: a Survey of the Position and Influence of the Catholic Church in the

88	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Roman Catholics
U. S., ib. 1909; J. L. Kirlin, Catholicity in Philadelphia from the Earliest Missionaries down to the Present Time, Philadelphia, 1909; F. T. Morton, The Roman Catholic Church and its Relation to the Federal Government, Boston, 1909; The Catholic Church in the United States, New York, 1908 eqq. On Other Countries consult: B. Wolferstan, The Catholic Church in China 1860‑190'7, London, 1909; P. Pierling, La Russie e6 la Saint‑SQpe. Ptudea diplomatiques, Paris, 1896‑1901; L. Leseaur, L'Eglise eathaliques et Is gouvernement russe, ib. 1903; P. H. Zachers, Geschiedenis van het Herstel der Hierarchic in die Nederlanden, 2 vols., Nijmegen, 1903‑04; G. Verspeyen, Le Parti catholique belge, Ghent, 1893; F. Deschamps, Catholiques actuels. Nos littlraires, Louvain, 1893; L. Schmitt, Die Verteidigung der katholischen Kirche in Danemark gegen die Religionaneuerung im 16. Jahrhundert Paderborn, 1899; J. P. Restrepo, La Iglesia y el Estado en Colombia, London, 1885.
On the Uniate churches consult: L. Allatius, De ecdesim occidentalis alque orientalis perpetua consensione, Cologne, 1648; P. P. Rodotil, Del Origine . . . del rito Greco in Italia, Rome, 1758‑63; A. Theiner, Die neuesten Zustdnde der katholischen Kirchen beider Ritue in Polen and Russland seit Katharina 11., Augsburg, 1841; O. Meier, Die Propaganda, ihre Provinzen and ihr Recht, 2 parts, Gbttingen, 1852‑53; L. Leseceur, L'Eglise catholique en Pologne, Paris, 1860; J. Lelewel, Hist. de la Lithuanie et de la RuthMie, Paris, 1861; M. von Malinowaki, Die Kirchenr unit Staatmtzungen bezfiglich des griechischkatholischen Ritus der Ruthenen in Galizien, Lemberg, 1861; J. Hergenrather, Die Rechtsverhdltnisse der verschiedenen Riten, in Archiv fur katholisches Kirchenrecht, vols. vii.‑viii., 1862; L. Tolstoi, Le Catholicisme rmnain en Russie, Paris, 1863; A. Pichler, Geschichte der kirehlichen Trennung zwischen den Orient unit Occident, 2 vols., Munich, 1864‑65; J. B. Pitra, Juris ecclesiastici Grascorum historia et monumenta, 2 vole., Rome, 1864‑68; A. Theiner and F. Miklosich, Monuments spedantia ad unionem eeclesiarum Gracm et Romans', Vienna, 1872; J. Pelesz, Geschichte der Union der ruthenischen Kirche mit Ron, 2 vole., Vienna, 1878‑80; N. Nilles, Kalendarium manuale utriusque ecclesim, 4 vols., Innsbruck, 1879‑85, 2d ed. of vole. i.‑ii_1896‑97; E. Likowaki, Gesehichte des allgemeinen Verfalls der unierten ruthenischen Kirche im 18. and 19. Jahrhundert, 2 vole., Posen, 1885‑87; O. Werner, Orbis terrarum catholicus sive totius ecelesia catholiece . .
conspectus geographicus et statisticus, Freiburg, 1890; F. Kattenbusch, Vergleichende Konfessionskunde, Leipsic, 1892; G. M. Rae, The Syrian Church in India, London, 1892; A. Arndt, Die gegenseitigen Rechtsverhdltnisse der Riten in der katholischen Kirche, in Archiv ffar katholisches Kirchenrecht, lxxi (1894); W. K5hler, Die katholiwhen Kirchen des Morgenlands, Darmstadt, 1896 (very thorough); H. Denzinger, Ritus orientalium, 2 vols., Warzburg, 1863‑64, 9th ed., 1900; M. Fowler, Christian Egypt, London, 1901; K. Beth, Die orientalische Christenheit der Mittelmeerlander, Berlin, 1902; Cotroneo, 11 Rito Greco in Calabria, Reggio, 1902; F. Loofs, Symbolik, i. 393 sqq., Tiibingen, 1902; E. Likowski, Die ruthenischromische Kirchenvereinigung, genannt Union zu Bred, Cracow, 1904; A. Silbemagl, Verfassung and gegenwdrtiger Bestand admtlicher Kirchen des orients, 2d ed., ed. J. Schnitzer, Regensburg, 1904; Prince Max, Duke of Saxony, Vorlesungen fiber die orientalische Kirchenfrage, Freiburgin‑Switzerland, 1907; Sesostris Sidarouss, Des Patriarcats. Lee Patriarcats dan8 1'empire ottoman et splcialement en Pgypte, Paris, 1907; Charon, Le quinziame centenaire de S. Jean Chrysostome, pp. 258‑264, Rome, 1909; KL, iii. 41 15, vi. 428‑446, 1133‑41, x. 1418‑20; HObner‑Jurasehek, Geographisch‑statiatische Tabellen aller Ldnder (an annual); La Gerarchia Cattolica (an annual).

ROMAN CATHOLIC EUCHARISTIC CONGRESSES: Name given to assemblies of ecclesiastics and laymen convened for the purpose of glorifyinge the Eucharist, and of devising means to promote knowledge and love thereof among the faithful. Because of the constant traditional doctrine of the real presence (see LORD'S SUPPER; and TRANSUBSTANTIATION), the Eucharist has always been considered as the most precious treasure bestowed
by Christ upon his Church, and for long centuries it has been the center of Roman Catholic worship, the chief source of Christian piety. The latter half of the nineteenth century was marked by a general movement among Roman Catholics in the direction of an increase of devotion toward the Eucharist; confraternities of the Blessed Sacrament were organized, and works of adoration and the practise of frequent communion became more wide‑spread (see PERPETUAL ADORATION OF THE BLESSED SACRAmENT). Of this general movement Eucharistic Congresses became an important and stimulating factor. The first of these gatherings was convened at the instance of Bishop Gaston de S4gur and was held at Lille, France, in June, 1881. It was a local event with a small attendance, but the idea rapidly gained favor and from the year 1885 when the fourth congress was held in Freiburg, Switzerland, under the direction of Mgr. Mermillod, bishop of Lausanne, the assemblies began to assume an international character. The eighth congress was held in Jerusalem (May 14‑21, 1893) and was presided over by Cardinal Lang4nieux, archbishop of Reims, who acted as papal delegate sent by Leo XIII. In the mean time there had grown up, in all countries where Roman Catholics were numerous, local gatherings of the Eucharistic leagues, and these too became potent factors in the spread of the devotion. The nineteenth congress was held in London Sept. 913, 1908. It was attended by a vast number of ecclesiastics and laymen from all parts of the world, and it was considered to be in many respects the most important congress yet held. Besides great numbers of bishops and priests, there were present seven cardinals, among whom was Cardinal Vincenzo Vanutelli, who presided as special delegate of Pius X. It had been planned to carry the host in triumphal procession through the streets, but on account of violent opposition on the part of many English non‑Catholics the project was abandoned after a request to that effect had been addressed by Premier Asquith to Archbishop Bourne of Westminster. The twentieth congress was held in Montreal, Canada, Sept. 7‑11, 1910. It was the first held in America, and in point of enthusiasm and attendance on the part of the faithful it surpassed all previous gatherings of the kind. Three cardinals were present, one of them being Cardinal Vincenzo Vanutelli, who again presided as papal delegate. Among the salient features of the congress were a monster procession in the streets, and an open‑air mass celebrated on the southeastern slope of Mount Royal at which 40,000 persons assisted.
JAMES F. DRISCOLL.
BIHraoaxAPHx: Thomas F.Meehan,inCatholicEncyclopedia, v. 593‑594, New York, 1909; official Reports of the different congresses; The Narrative of the Eucharistic Congress, Montreal, 1910; A. S6gur, Biographie nouvelle de Mgr. De Sggur, Paris, 1885.
.ROMAN CATHOLIC PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS:
Name given to the private schools maintained in the United States chiefly by Roman Catholics independently of support from the State. The reason for the existence of such schools outside and independent of the otherwise excellent public school system of this country is simply a matter of religious

Roman Catholic	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	84
principle. No fault is found with the equipment or efficiency of the public schools on the score of secular instruction or ethical standing, but the contention of Roman Catholics, and of some other religious bodies as well, is that these schools are wanting in an important respect, that they lack an essential factor in the training of youth, viz., the element of religious instruction and influence, and for Roman Catholics, of course, religious influence means the specific influence of the Roman Catholic religion. Hence throughout the period of the rapid growth of Catholicism in the United States the school question has always been a matter of concern and frequently of controversy. The practical impossibility of giving religious instruction in the public schools, frequented as they are by pupils representing the various Christian denominations and the Hebrew faith, is recognized by Roman Catholics and Protestants alike, and though it has been sometimes suggested that a general knowledge of Christian truth might be imparted without giving offense to the adherents of any of the sects, the idea has been opposed especially by Roman Catholics who contend that all religious instruction, to be of any value or even safe, must be positive and doctrinal, and consequently denominational in character. But the zeal of Roman Catholics for the establishment and maintenance of parochial schools is not determined solely or even primarily by the desire to secure for their children proper religious instruction. This need can be, and often has to be, provided for in other ways. Of still greater importance in their esteem is what may be termed the religious atmosphere of the Roman Catholic school, with its multifarious subtile influences, all tending to foster reverence and love for the Church and all things pertaining thereto. The schools are organized under the immediate direction of the parish clergy, and are for the most part in charge of teaching brothers and nuns whose lives, being models of devotedness and self‑sacrifice, can not fail to make a deep and lasting impression on the minds of the children. These and other influences create in the parochial schools a feeling and attitude toward religion and things religious which is rarely, if ever, met with in the public schools. The same secular instruction is given as in these latter, but it is permeated throughout with a religious spirit, and Roman Catholic ideals and practides are commended by word and example. Doubtless Roman Catholics are not alone in advocating the importance and need of the religious element in the education of our American youth. Like views have often been proclaimed by representatives of other religious bodies, and within the last few years an important movement in this direction has been inaugurated by an association of eminent educators, but it is among Roman Catholics that the principle of religious education has been most widely and consistently carried out especially as regards the elementary schools.
The origin of the parochial schools in the United States dates from the early days of the Maryland colony, about the middle of the seventeenth century, and the growth of the system ever since has been intimately connected with the growth and
organization of Catholicism in the country. For more than a century development was very slow, but the American Revolution, by bringing about a relatively greater freedom for Roman Catholics than they had previously enjoyed, gave an impetus to the cause of Roman Catholic education which was later on powerfully aided by the great influx of Roman Catholic immigrants with whom came also many members of the various teaching orders. Passing over in this connection the early work of the Benedictines (see BENEDICT of NuRsIA), Dominicans (see DonHNIc, SAINT), Franciscans (see FRANCIS, SAINT, of Assisi), and Jesuits (q.v.), who generally combined educational activities with their missionary labors, mention should be made of the Christian Brothers (q.v.), and particularly of the orders of women, for it is chiefly through their zeal that the rapid development of the parochial system has been made possible. As early as 1727 the Ursuline Sisters (see UR$ULINEs) established the first sisters' school in the then French‑speaking colony of New Orleans. In 1799 the founders of what was destined to become the American branch of the Visitation order (see VISITATION, NuNs OF THE) opened at Georgetown the first free school in the District of Columbia, and by the year 1850 branch houses and schools under the control of this center had been established in Baltimore, Washington, St. Louis, Mobile, and Kaskaskia, Ill. Of still greater importance was the work begun by Mrs. Elizabeth Ann Seton (q.v.), who, being a convert to the Roman Catholic Church, founded in Baltimore (1812) the American branch of the Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul (see CHARITY, SISTERS OF, 1). This foundation proved remarkably successful, and in 1908 the community, together with the branches connected with it, comprised about 5,500 sisters with over 120,000 pupils‑being about one‑tenth of the total Roman Catholic school attendance in the United States. Among the other orders which have rendered important services in the cause of parochial school education are the Sisters of Mercy (see MERCY, SISTERS OF), the Sisters of St. Benedict, the Franciscan Sisters, the Sisters of St. Dominic, the Sisters of St. Joseph, and many others (see TEACHING ORDERS). Because of the great expenditure involved in the establishment and support of the parochial schools, the Roman Catholics of this country have frequently sought to obtain state recognition for their educational work and thus be relieved of the burden of taxes imposed for the maintenance of the public school system which for religious reasons they do not find satisfactory.
A notable effort in this direction was made in 1840 by the Roman Catholics of New York under the leadership of Archbishop John Hughes (q.v.). It was argued in a petition to the aldermen of the city and to the state legislature that if the same quality of secular instruction was given in the parochial as in the public schools‑a point of fact to be controlled by state inspection and examinations‑the former were in justice entitled to a pro rata share in the public funds set apart for school purposes. But the proposal was bitterly assailed by Protestants generally, and the project failed, as have also all subsequent efforts on the part of

85	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Roman Catholic
Roman Catholics to bring about a compromise in
the matter such as obtains in England and Canada.
Local concessions and arrangements have been
sometimes made, as, for instance, in Poughkeepsie,
and at Faribault, Minn., in the early nineties, but
they have been of short duration, and have gener
ally failed to satisfy either party to the controversy.
In the mean time the Roman Catholics have gone
on building and equipping their schools, and accord
ing to the official statistics of the year 1908 the
total number of such schools in the United States
was 4,443, the number of pupils 1,136,906, and the
number of professional teachers, lay and religious,
20,755. The amount of property invested was esti
mated to be over $100,000,000, with an annual ex
penditure for school purposes of about $15,000,000.
A few years previous to this date an important move
ment was inaugurated for the better organization
and unification of the system throughout the coun
try. This is a part of the work undertaken by the
Catholic Educational Association which aims at
carrying out a similar aim for all the Roman Catho
lic educational establishments in the United States,
theological seminaries, colleges, academies, and
high schools, under the general supervision of the
Catholic University of America located in Wash
ington, D. C. To aid in the accomplishment of this
general purpose the professors of the latter institu
tion have begun the publication of a Catholic Edu
cational Review. 	JAMES F. DRlscoll..
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. Burns, The Catholic School System in thefUnited States, its Principles, Origin and Establishment, New York, 1908; Annual Reports of the Catholic Educational Association, 1903 sqq., Columbus, Ohio; The Official Catholic Directory, published yearly by the M. H. wiltzius Co., Milwaukee and New York.
ROMAN CATHOLIC POSITION ON THE BIBLE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS: This topic has frequently been a matter of controversy between Protestants and Roman Catholics, particularly in the United States. The custom of reading the Bible as a part of the regular school exercises is doubtless a survival from the earlier days when educational institutions were in the main denominational, and consistently imparted religious as well as secular instruction. The attitude of Roman Catholics toward the practise is determined not by hostility to Bible‑reading as such, but by certain considerations of principle. In the first place, they are not convinced of the utility or expediency of indiscriminate Bible‑reading especially for young children, unless it be accompanied by suitable explanation, and consequently this mode of imparting Scriptural knowledge is rarely employed in Roman Catholic elementary schools. It is judged preferable to reduce the voluminous and often bewildering narrative portions of the Bible to the simpler form of Bible histories, while its dogmatic, ethical, and religious teaching finds expression in catechisms and religious instruction. If it be proposed as an alternative to have the Bible‑reading in the public schools accompanied by commentary on the part of the teachers, Roman Catholics object, not only because they question the authority of these exponents and their competency for such a task, but also because such commentary is liable to be tinged with sectarian bias.
Furthermore, Bible‑reading in the schools is sometimes connected with the recitation of prayers and the singing of hymns, thus taking on the character of a religious service. All these elements may be very good in themselves and free from any inherent denominational tendencies, but Roman Catholics consistently, with that exclusiveness which is traditional in their church, refuse to take part in a non‑Roman Catholic (or, as they claim) heterodox act of public religious worship. This prohibitive principle, logically reducible to what the theologians term communicatio in divinia, obtained originally in most of the Protestant denominations as well as among the older branches of Christianity, but of late, and for obvious reasons, it has been rapidly disappearing from the various forms of Protestantism, and though among Roman Catholics it is now less acutely emphasized than formerly, it is nevertheless maintained as an integral element of the Roman Catholic position‑a principle which can not consistently be sacrificed.
Exception has also been taken by Roman Catholics to the fact that the Bible read in the public schools was the " Protestant " or King James version, whereas a long‑standing decree of ecclesiastical authority had made it obligatory for lay Roman Catholics (unless otherwise permitted) to use currently only those vernacular translations of Holy Writ which had received the approbation of their church, and were provided with suitable notes for the proper understanding of certain passages. This objection flows logically from the general Roman Catholic principle according to which the Church is held to be the divinely appointed guardian of the Scriptures and their sole authoritative interpreter. The prohibition in question, which is as old as the Council of Trent, was based on the assumed danger (now doubtless more remote than in the sixteenth century) which, especially in those troubled times, might result for the faith of Catholics from an indiscriminate use of the various unauthorized translations then in vogue. It was assumed‑end not entirely without cause‑that doctrinal bias had influenced the rendering of certain passages supposed to have a bearing on the religious differences between Protestants and Roman Catholics. As instances of this Bishop Kenrick (Theologia Dogmatica, i. 427 sqq., Philadelphia, 1839) calls attention to such passages in the Authorized Version as Matt. ix. 11; 1 Cor. vu. 9, ix. 5, xi. 27; Heb. x. 38, etc., as being erroneous dogmatic renderings due to golemical preoccupation. In this connection Roman Catholics quote also the words of Robert Gell, the chaplain to George Abbot (q.v.), Protestant archbishop of Canterbury (one of the translators), who says: " Dogmatic interests were in some cases allowed to bias the translation, and the Calvinism of one party, the prelatic views of another, were both represented at the expense of accuracy." To this may be added a recent Protestant admission, vi,., that of Bishop Ellicott: " In spite of the very common assumption to the contrary, there are many passages (in the version of 1611) from which erro. neous doctrinal inferences have been drawn, but where the inference comes from the translation, and not the original " (Considerations on the Revision q/

Roman Catholic
Romanticism	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	86
the English Version of the New Testament, p. 89, cf. also p. 88, London, 1870). Be that as it may, it is certain, on the other hand, that this phase of the objection to the Protestant Bible has now lost much of its interest and cogency. It is not here the place to discuss the relative merits of the " Authorized " and of the Douay version, which through episcopal authority has become the accepted translation for the use of English‑speaking Roman Catholics. Each has its points of superiority and its defects. It is worthy of note, however, that some of the alleged faulty renderings mentioned above have been emendated by the revisers of 1881.
A further and more serious objection on the part of Roman Catholics to the use of the Protestant Bible is based on the difference as regards the Scriptural canon. The so‑called " apocryphal " or deutero‑canonical books, which Roman Catholics (on the authority of the Church) accept as having the same divine authority as the other portions of Holy Writ, have been excluded from the King James version since the edition of 1826, whence arises the Roman Catholic contention that the Protestant Bible is a truncated version and materially incomplete. Apart from the question of authority which finally determines the Roman Catholic position in such matters, it is pertinent to note that such an eminent and independent scholar as Charles A. Briggs (General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture, chap. v., " The Canon of Scripture," New York, 1899) is inclined to accept the larger traditional canon as defined by the Council of Trent. But whatever the scientific merits of the controversy, this and the above‑mentioned reasons may serve to render intelligible the attitude of Roman Catholics who have opposed the reading of the Bible in the public schools. JAMES F. DRISCOLL.

ROMAN CATHOLIC RESTRICTION OF BIBLEREADING BY THE LAITY: The traditional and official attitude of the Roman Catholic Church toward Sacred Scripture and its use was formulated in the fourth session of the Council of Trent (Apr. 8, 1546) the main enactments of which were reaffirmed by the Vatican Council (q.v.). After declaring the substance of divine revelation to be contained in Holy Writ and in the unwritten (i.e., non‑inspired) ecclesiastical traditions (in libris scriptis, et sine scripto traditionibus), the council formally accepted the traditionally received books of the Old and New Testaments with all their parts as contained in the Latin Vulgate (decreeing at the same time that a new, and as far as possible accurate, edition of the same be prepared; see BIBLE VERSIONS, A, II., 2, § 5), and further enacted that this version, which was declared a substantially correct translation of the original Scriptures, should henceforth be considered as the official text to be appealed to in all theological discussions, and for general use in the Church. At that time, as for centuries before, Latin was the official and liturgical language of the Church, and the Fathers of the council, in thus making the Vulgate the standard text, had no intention of declaring a preference for it over the original Hebrew or Greek, but wished simply to affirm its substantial conformity with the
latter, and to confer upon it for practical purposes
an official authority with	reference to the other
existing Latin translations. Underlying these and
similar enactments is the fundamental Roman
Catholic doctrine that the	authority of the living
Church‑not the letter of Scripture‑is the proxi
mate rule of belief, and that the Church is the di
vinely appointed custodian	of Holy Writ, the sole
authoritative interpreter of	its meaning in all mat
ters pertaining to faith or morals. In her capacity
of guardian the Church assumes the duty of pre
serving the substantial purity of the original text,
and likewise claims the right of supervision and di
rection whenever it is question of translating the
Scriptures into any of the	modern languages. As
these vernacular versions	formed an important
factor of the controversies and the disturbed relig
ious conditions of the sixteenth century, it was de
creed by the Council of Trent that no such trans
lation might be used by the	laity unless it had the
sanction of ecclesiastical authority, and were pro
vided with suitable notes for	the proper understand
ing of difficult and disputed passages. This re
strictive legislation still retains force of law, though
the reasons justifying it are obviously less cogent
now than in the days of early Protestantism when
so much stress was laid by	the Reformers on the
right of private interpretation. The Latin Vulgate
is still retained as the basis	of all authorized trans
lations, though free recourse may be had to the
Hebrew and Greek by way of comparison and eluci
dation. In this as in similar	matters, Roman Catho
lic authority, while professing due respect for the
conclusions of critical scholars, seeks above all to
maintain the consensus of Christian tradition. See
BIBLE‑READING BY THE LAITY, RESTRICTIONS ON.
	JAMES F. DRISCOLL.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Acts et Dereta Concilli Tridentini. Seeaio IV.; H. Denzinger, Enchiridion Symbolorum, Freiburg. 1908; The Catholic Church and the Bible, London, 1908.
ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE. See PAUL THE APOSTLE, II., 3, §§ 5‑7.
ROMANTICISM: The name of a movement which especially affected literature, art, religion, and theology in the last half of the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth century. It arose on
a background of three other moveThe Back‑ meats which had much in common with ground. one another, Classicism, Humanism, and the Enlightenment. (1) Classicism, which has retained its place ever since the revival of learning, has adhered to those forms of expression which prevailed in the creative periods of Greece and Rome. It was an attitude of mind, a method of literary and artistic activity formed on the severe models of ancient thought, characterized by energy, freshness, purity, proportion, restraint, objectivity, i.e., subserviency to nature, and reverence for the authority of long‑established types. (2) Humanism (q.v.)‑another name for the Renaissance in Italy, 1350‑1425‑turned away from metaphysics, from scholastic logical formulas as defined by the Church, from the despotism of the Church as claiming exclusive right to absorb human interests, from the division of knowledge into that of the " Two ways "‑supernatural and natural, re‑

87	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Roman Catholic
Romanticism
ligious and scientific (see ALBERTUS MAGNUS). It studied afresh the literature of classic Rome; through the revival of Platonism, Neoplatonism, and Aristotelianism the freshness and freedom of the Greek spirit were reawakened; and the ancient Greek cosmology, doctrines of nature, philosophical skepticism, and the eclectic mixture of incongruous elements all came to life again. Owing to the new scientific spirit discoveries and inventions of great magnitude were on the threshold. With the rediscovery of many splendid examples of Greek statuary there was quickened the illimitable sense of beauty and wonder associated especially with the human form as the most perfect embodiment of the ideal. In a word, Humanism drew attention once more to man himself as a rational being with capacities of inexhaustible richness, susceptible of infinite culture (cf. J. A. Symonds, Renaissance in Italy, 5 vols., new ed., New York, 1885). (3) The Enlightenment (q.v., 1650‑1800; also see RATIONALISM AND SUPERNATURALISM). More than two centuries after the decline of Humanism and when the Protestant Reformation was well under way, interest was again directed to man, this time centering in his rational nature and its capacities as such. The movement may be summarized as the sufficiency of the human reason for all the problems of life. Humanism had indeed implied this, but it had not proceeded far enough to become self‑conscious, to reflect upon what would be required to justify its attitude and activity, and to offer a rational defense for the entire movement. The Enlightenment was, however, the spirit of Humanism come to life again in the English, French, and German consciousness. Like Humanism it eschewed metaphysics; it continued the investigation into the inner nature of man always from the side of experience, the validity of his knowledge of the world, and the meaning of human life both individual and social; and it allied itself with the culture and literary activity of the period. Yet it was conscious of having awakened in a new world, no longer that of the church or of Greece and Rome, but of new discoveries, a new scientific method, new economic and social values, a new psychology, and new historical postulates. In tile process of working out its essential principle, however, there were disclosed its inevitable limitar tions, and also its inadequacy to answer to one large element in man's nature‑the poetic and imaginative and the more definitely personal. In its abstract superficial intellectualism, its individualistic and social utilitarianism, it‑‑ denial of personal freedom, and its elimination of mystery it paved the way for a profound reaction of consciousness in which neglected regions of personality should reassert their abiding worth. The time was therefore ripe for a movement in which intellect and theoretic culture should give place to the esthetic side of man's nature wherein this should find authentic and luxuriant expression.
In a description of Romanticism the following features require attention: (1) Subjectivity. J. G. Fichte (q.v.) held that self‑consciousness is determined by nothing outside of itself, and that everything exists only by the activity of the Ego. According to F. W. Schelling (q.v.) nature is the Ego
in process of becoming. In English thought nature
was conceived as an analogon of spirit so that
		nature and spirit answer to eac bother
	Special (cf. S. T. Coleridge, Aids to Reflection,
	Features. London, 1825, and often, e.g., ed. T.
		Fenby, 1873; H. Bushnell, God in
Christ, "Dissertation on Language," New York,
1849, and often). Besides this philosophical basis,
there was a profound feeling that the soul it
self was a mine of exhaustless treasure as yet
scarcely explored. Nor was this limited to the
normal consciousness, but in certain of the German
romanticists the weird, fantastic, capricious, and
morbid were developed to extreme proportions (cf.
Novalis, i.e., Baron F. L. von Hardenberg, d. Mar.
25, 1801; and E. T. A. Hoffmann, d. July 24, 1822).
(2) Not so much the rational as the esthetic aspect
of the world and human life absorbed interest.
Thus appeal was made to imagination and fancy.
Duty was determined by feeling, and even religion
was resolved into the feeling of absolute depend
ence (cf. Schleiermacher, q.v.). (3) Closely asso
ciated with the esthetic element was the sense of
beauty, not indeed that of standards derived from
Greece and Rome or even of the Middle Ages,
except in Scott. There was first the beauty of
the natural world which, slumbering for centuries,
awoke in the romantic spirit‑not alone the beauty
of great mountains, of quiet or tumultuous seas,
but clouds, sunsets, moonlight, flowers. The
search became a passion. It was found in out
of‑the‑way places, in outcast and neglected per
sons, in common and trivial events. On the other
hand the most extravagant situations were created,
the personality subjected itself to the most ex
traordinary experiences in order to discover and
extract a quintessence of beauty never before dis
tilled. (4) Mystery arising not only from the un
fathomed depths of the soul, from the infinite as
pects of being, but also from an inner and insatiate
longing for the unexperienced and the unknown.
For Novalis philosophy is homesickness‑the wish
to find one's home in the Absolute. Johann Ludwig
Tieck was consumed with longing for something
which transcended the finite. Schelling thought of
beauty as the infinite appearing in finite form.
Wordsworth was haunted by the strangeness of
nature, which only reflected a deeper strangeness
in his own soul. (5) The relation of the inner to the
outer world is presented from two points of view:
First, so far as the outer world is a copy of the in
ner world, this may be due to an idealizing panthe
ism. For either the harmony of the external world
is the creation of the Ego, or both are partial ex
pressions of the infinite and all‑pervading Unity
(Novalis, Lehrlinge zu Sais). Or, secondly, the inner
world of individual consciousness is first depicted
with entire disregard of outer social conventions,
wherein two types of life are allowed to coexist
side by side, one, of untrammeled development
of those who are gifted with genius, the other,
the conventional order of such as have not the
strength or courage to assert the independent free
dom of self‑realization. The first type is regarded
as the highest human ideal, and the actual world is
judged by its degree of correspondence with this

Romanticism
Romanus	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	gg
" unchartered freedom." In like manner by a process of ideal selection even the natural world is conceived as the seat of marvelous forces which rarely come to manifestation. (6) The free unfolding of each personality according to its genius involved recognition and obedience of all individual impulses, inclinations, and even idiosyncrasies. Various were the outward conditions in which the great romanticists developed their genius‑Wordsworth in solitude, Scott in historical study of medieval life, Byron in wanderings and heroic devotion to the cause of liberty, Schelling and Schlegel in speculative philosophy, most of the French and German writers in more or less indifference to social conventions. The theory constantly reiterated is, that the genius must be free to follow his star so as to give his artistic powers free play. Not only must no constraint be permitted, but only in the pathway of perfect liberty can the individual reach the goal of self‑realization. Instead of turning back to Greece and Rome or to the Middle Ages for their material, they isolate single aspects of their own experience and develop these as if they were in truth of universal validity. Whatever is vital in their writings is autobiographic. Each one felt that he must himself first live the romantic life, since only then was he able by subtle analysis and unsparing self‑revelation of his inmost consciousness to portray his ideal. Accordingly he renounced conventions in his writings as he had already done in his life, he wrote as he felt and as he thought, and dipped his metal white hot from the seething cauldron of his own heart. (7) The romantic writings are all with scarcely an exception tinged with pantheism and mysticism. Philosophy, ethics, religion, no less than conceptions of nature and human love, so far as these are self‑conscious, are frankly pantheistic. The infinite is not fully realized save as every possible form of consciousness and action and human relation finds expression. If the English pantheism was on the whole more sober and naturalistic than that of the German and French, this may be referred to the quieter temperament and severer restraint of the English mind. As related to mysticism, not all mystics are romanticists, and not all romanticists are mystics, but the two are commonly associated in the same person. The romanticists believe that reality is revealed not by rational thought, but through feeling, immediate experience, spiritual illumination. Accordingly a part of the meaning of life eludes analysis. Any portrayal of it, however concrete and vivid, is at best partial and suggestive rather than complete and final. On the other hand, in romantic experience ecstasy is never far away. The secret of gaining truth is less by searching than by brooding, by listening to the inner voices, by interpreting what is " given " in moments of rare and exalted feeling (see WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM).
Authorities are not agreed as to the exact beginnings of romanticism. One may, however, hold that, in literature, the earlier traces of the movement in Great Britain after Spenser, Shakespeare, and Milton are in the eighteenth century found in Thomas Gray, d. 1771, and William Blake, d. 1827 (cf. Arthur Symonds, The Romantic Movement in English Poetry, New York, 1909); in France
in J. J. Rousseau, d. 1778; and in Germany in Herder (q.v.). In philosophy, its ultimate vindication is to be referred to Kant's (q.v.) Beginnings. primacy of the will, reaching its metaphysical exposition in the doctrine of Schopenhauer (q.v.) that the essence of man and world is will. In theology, one goes to Fichte and Schleiermacher (qq.v.) for the subjective and esthetic elements respectively.
The spirit of Romanticism has been active in other fields than those described above: in music, F. P. Schubert (d. 1828), F. F. Chopin (d. 1849), and R. Schumann (d. 1856); in paintSpirit. ing, J. M. W. Turner (d. 1851), and F. V. E. Delacroix (d. 1863); in travel, the inspiring motive of which since the latter part of the eighteenth century has been to quicken the feeling of beauty and sublimity in the presence of impressive natural scenery; in social experiment, as the Brook Farm episode, 1841‑17, which sought to put into practise the system of association or phalanstery proposed by F. M. C. Fourier (d. 1837); and, finally, in appeal to the chivalrous and heroic in ministry to the suffering on the field of battle (Florence Nightingale, q.v., in the Crimea, 18541856) and in great cities (William Booth, q.v.).
The literature of Romanticism is of extraordi‑
nary brilliancy‑tales, poems, dramas, essays, psychology, ethics, religion, and theology.
	Literature.	Only a tithe of this output can be here
		referred to. In Great Britain: Lord
Byron (d. 1824); William Blake (d. 1826); S. T.
Coleridge (q.v.); W. Wordsworth (q.v.). In Ger
many; Novalis (d.1801), Die Lehrlinge zu Sais, and
Heinrich von Ofterdingen in Werke (Leipsie, 1898),
and, in Eng. transl., Hymns and Thoughts on Relig
ion (Edinburgh, 1888); H. von Kliest (d. 1811),
Werke (Berlin, 1826); E. T. A. Hoffmann (d. 1822),
Werke (Leipsic, 1899); J. P. F. Richter, "Jean
Paul " (d. 1825), Titan (Berlin, 1800‑03; Eng.
transl., London, 1863; cf. T. Carlyle, Essays, vols.
i. and iii., ib. 1887); F. von Schlegel (d. 1829),
Lucinde, in Athendum, 1798‑1800, cf. also Esthetic
and Miscellaneous Works (London, 1875); F. D. E.
Schleiermacher (q.v.), Reden ueber die Religion
(Berlin, 1799; Eng. transl., On Religion, London,
1893); A. W. von Schlegel (d. 1845), Vorlesungen
ueber dramatisehe Kunst and Litteratur (Heidelberg,
1805‑I1; Eng. transl., Lectures on Dramatic Art and
Literature, London, 1861); Ludwig Tieek (d. 1853),
" IA'illiam Lovell," Die Verkehrte Welt, in collected
works published in Berlin from 1828 to 1854 (for
Eng. transl. of several stories, cf. Translations from
Museeus, Tieek, and Richter, London, 1889). In
France: Madame de Stall (d. 1817), De l'Allemagne
(London, 1813, Eng. transl., Germany, 2 vols., New
York, 1871; cf. H. Heine. Romantische Schule,
Hamburg, 1836) ; Th6ophile Gautier (d. 1872), Mad
emoiselle de Maupin (Paris, 1835; Eng. transl.,
London, 1887), Fortunio (Paris, 1837); Alfred de
Musset (d. 1857), La Confession d'un enfant du sincle
(Paris, 1836); George Sand (d.1876), Indiana (Paris,
1831), Lelia (ib. 1833), Jacques (ib. 1834), Lucrezia
Floriani (ib. 1846; Eng. transl. of Consuelo, London,
1847, and Little Fadette, b. 1849); Victor Hugo (d.
1885), Hernani (Paris, 1830; Eng. transl. in idem,

89	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Romanticism
Romanua
Dramas, London, 1888), Les Mis&ables (Paris, 1862; Eng. trans]., London, 1862). C. A. BEcswrTll.
BIHwooRAPHY: T. Carlyle, Critical and Miscellaneous Bs‑
says, Boston, n.d.; J. A. Symonds, Renaissance in Italy:
The Revival of Learning, New York, 1885; W. Pater, Ap
preciations, London, 1889; H. H. Boyesen, Essays in Ger
man Literature, " The Romantic School in Germany,"
New York, 1892; George Brandes, Main Currents in
Nineteenth Century Literature; " The Romantic School in
Germany," vol. ii.; " Naturalism in England," vol. iv.;
" The Romantic School in France," vol. v., New York, 1902;
D. G. Mason, The Romantic Composers, ib., 1906; Cam
bridge Modern History, vi. 822‑837, ib., 1909; R. Eucken,
The Problem of Human Life, pp. 308‑336, 345, 418, 447
482, ib. 1910; 1. Babbitt, The New Lookoon, Boston, 1910.
ROMANUS, ro‑ma'nus: Pope, 897. Formerly cardinal priest of St. Peter ad Vincula, he was raised to the papal throne in the autumn of 897 on the murder of Stephen VII. His pontificate lasted only four months, during which he confirmed the possessions of the Spanish churches of Elna and Gerona at the request of their bishops.
(R. Z6PFFEnt.)
BIBL7ooRAPHY: Liber pontificalis, ed. L. Duchesne, ii. 230,
Paris, 1892; Jafft, Regesta, pp. 303 aqq.; Mann, Popes, iv. 86‑87; Hefele, Concilienpeschichte, iv. 566; Bower, Popes, ii. 301; Platina, Popes, i. 239.
ROMANUS: Byzantine religious poet; b. at Miseani (according to the Bollandists, at Emesa), Syria; d. at Constantinople in the sixth century. After being deacon at the church of St. Anastasia at Berytus, he came to Constantinople during the reign of Anastasius (probably in the last decade of the fifth century), where he was attached to the church of St. Mary's en tois Kyrou. Either here or in the Blachernian church he received from the Virgin in a vision the gift of poetry, and forthwith composed his famous Christmas hymn, which was followed by a thousand other hymns for various feasts. According to Nicephorus Callistus, the Greek Church later discarded the hymns of Romanus, with the exception of one for each feast; while Metrophanes Critopulus (De vocibus) states that in his time only four hundred of the thousand hymns survived. The scanty details concerning the poet are practically restricted to a brief synaxarium (ed. most conveniently in the Analecta Bodlandiana, 1894, pp. 440‑442).
The titles of all the hymns of Romanus are known. They contain no allusion that would imply a later date than the reign of Justinian (527‑65), the period assigned Romanus by the author of the Synaxarium. Thus, the passage in the first hymn to the ten virgins, with its phrase, "Lo, the Assyrians, and the Ishmaelites before them, have led us captive," needs not refer to successive inroads by the Omayads of Damascus and the Abbasids of Bagdad, thus referring to the eighth century, but may equally well allude to the Persians and Saracens who menaced Byzantium in the reign of Anastasius I. Nor do the doctrinal references in the hymns imply a later date than Justinian's reign, for though Mary is termed "ever virgin," her freedom from original sin is not taught, though great reverence is shown her and she is regarded as a mediator between God and Christ for mankind‑concepts which were held in the Justinian period. Again, the Christology of Romanus seems to allude to docetic theories, to Arius, to
Apollinarius of Laodicea, and to the theopaschitic controversy in the reign of Anastasius, but of references to the monothelite heresy, for example, there is no clear evidence. There are likewise probable allusions to the Chalcedonian Creed. The question of the date of the poet, who would thus seem to be no later than the reign of Justinian, though some have sought to place him in the period of Anastasius 11. (713‑716), is of importance in that on its solution depends the setting of the acme of Byzantine religious poetry in the sixth or the eighth century.
Until the second third of the nineteenth century the poems of Romanus were scarcely known in the West, and occidental knowledge of them was introduced by Cardinal J. B. Pitra's edition of twentyeight hymns and four atieharia in his Analecta Solesmensia, i. 1‑241 (Paris, 1876). A faulty edition was later prepared by the archimandrite Amphilochius in his Kondakarion (2 vols., Moscow, 1879), but chief knowledge concerning Romanus and his work is due to four studies of K. Krumbacher in the Sitzungsberichte der Mvnchener Akademie (phil. phil. Klasse, 1898, ii. 69‑268, 1899, ii. 1‑156, 1901, pp. 693‑766, 1903, pp. 551‑691). The material of the poems is drawn chiefly from the Bible, especially from the great events of salvation such as Christ's nativity, epiphany, passion, crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension, and the outpouring of the Holy Ghost. Romanus was likewise attracted by Biblical accounts of the Virgin and by leading events in the lives of the apostles, such as the denial of Peter and the conversion of Thomas. Beautiful parables, as that of the ten virgins, afforded welcome material to the poet. Some fifty of his poems are concerned with Biblical themes, thirty with the saints, while the remainder are penitential hymns and the like. In his exegesis he showed the influence of Chrysostom and Ephraem, and in his hymns to the saints he followed wellknown lives. The purpose of his poems Romanus expressly states to be didactic. Strangely enough, his hymns were almost totally abandoned by his church some centuries later, when, in the ninth century, the Greek liturgies were remodeled and the canons took the place of the hymns. Only a few of the poems of Romanus were then retained, such as the Christmas hymn and the so‑called requiem. Of the other hymns only single stanzas were retained in the liturgies, chiefly introductory and closing verses of general character.
The beauty of the poems of Romanus is evident even in their external form. In Byzantine poetry rhythm took the place of the classical metrical scheme, thus giving a characteristic form with peculiar rhythmic melody. After one or more proems follows the poem proper, which may have more than twenty stanzas. Each strophe closes with a refrain which repeats the chief thoughts of the poem, and the name of the author is usually given in an acrostic. This form of poetry was developed to its perfection by Romanus, the greatest hymn‑writer of the Greek church. His verse is easy and euphonious, and varied by antitheses, assonances, paronomasias, and rime plays. The refrain is used by Romanus with admirable effect. The poems are preponderatingly dramatic in form, consisting of conversa‑

Romanus Roos
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
tions between the characters introduced, as in the dialogue between Satan and Hades, when they learn that the cross of Golgotha is destined to crush their power. On the other hand, Romanus occasionally becomes unnecessarily dogmatizing, moralizing, and prolix.
Romanus was a noble poet in matter as well as in form, beautifully expressing the spirit'of the Gospel and seeking to lead man to believe that for him personally salvation exists. He frequently praises the free grace of God and Christ, declaring that the reward which the Lord shall give in the life to come is the reward of grace. Through sin mankind falls, but rises through righteousness and faith, and is saved through grace. Above asceticism and orthodoxy Romanus ranks love of man, though he praises asceticism highly. He likewise lauds celibacy, but at the same time does not unduly depreciate marriage. Finally it may be noted that his view of life was strongly eschatological, some of his most beautiful poems being devoted to the last judgment and to the life to come. In him Byzantine poetry comes to its fullest bloom.
(PHILIPP MEYER.)
BIEmoaRApHy: A complete edition of the works is promised by Krumbacher. Twenty‑nine poems, ed. J. B. Pitra, are in Analecta Sacra, i (1876), 1‑241; three others, in Sanctm Romanus veterum melodorum princeps, Rome, 1888; a prayer, ed. Papadopulos Kerameus, in Analekta lerosolumidikes, i (1891), 390‑392. Consult: Krumbacher, Geschichte, pp. 663‑671; idem, in the Sitzungaberkhte of the Bavarian Academy, philologic‑philosophical and historical class, 1898, vol. ii. 69‑268, 1899, vol. 1 1‑156, 1901, pp. 693‑766, 1903, pp. 551‑691; idem, Miscellen zu Romanos, Munich, 1907; J. B. Pitra, Hymnographie de l'tglise grecque, Rome, 1867; idem, Analecta aacra spicilegium, i. 1‑241, Paris, 1876; idem Al Sommo Pontifice Leone XIII. omaggio giubilare delta Biblioteca Vaticana, Rome, 1888; W. Christ and M. Paranikas, Anthologia Groca, Leipsic, 1871; Jacobi, in ZKG, 1882, pp. 177‑250; W. Meyer, in the Abhandlungen of the Bavarian Academy, philosophic‑historical class, 1886, pp. 268449; H. Gelzer, in the Abhandlungen of the Saxon Academy, aviii. no. 5, p. 76; Byzantinische ZeUwhrift, 1893, pp. 559‑$05 (by Papadopulos Kerameus), 1900, pp. 633640 (by De Boor), 1903, pp, 153‑166 (by Van den Ben), 1902 pp. 358‑369 (by S. P6trides), 1906, pp 1‑44, 337, 1907, pp 257, 565‑587, and 1910. 285‑306 (all by P. Mans); Vailh€, in Echos d'orient, 1902, pp. 207‑212; T. M. Wehofer, Unterauchungen zum Lied dea Romanos auf der Wiederkunft des Herm, ed. A. Erhard and P. Mass. Vienna, 1907.
90
Augustine, On Instructing the Unlearned; Concerning Faith of Things Unseen; On the Advantages of Believing; The Eneheiridion to Laurentius; and Concerning Faith, Hope and Charity, Latin and English (1885); The Five Lectures of Saint Cyril on the Mysteries (1887); An inquiry into the Belief of the Church from the Beginning until Now as to the Limitation of Our Lord's Knowledge (1891); and Saint Ambrose in the Select Library of the Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers. (1895).

ROMUALD, SAINT. See CAMALDOLITE$.

ROftGE, JOHANNES. See GERMAN CeTaollc1aM, §§ 1, 6.
ROMESTIN, AUGUST HENRY EUGENE DE:
Church of England; b. at Paris May 9, 1830; d. at London May 18, 1900. He was a scholar of Winchester College, 18438; of St. John's College, Oxford (B.A., 1852; M.A., 1854); was ordained deacon 1852, and priest 1854; was curate of Melts, Somerset, 1853‑54; of St. Thomas Martyr, Oxford, 18541855; English chaplain at Freiburg‑im‑Breisgau, 18635; and at Baden‑Baden, 1865‑68; chaplain of Woolland, Dorset, 18689; perpetual curate of Freeland, Oxford, 1874‑85; rural dean of Woodstock, 1879‑85; vicar of Stony Stratford, Buckinghamshire, 1885; warden of House of Mercy, Great Maplestead, Essex, 1885‑91; rector of Tiptree, 1891‑96; and vicar of Sledmere, 1896‑1900. His theological standpoint was that of the school of E. B. Pussy. He was the author or editor of Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, Text, with Introduction, Translation, and Notes (London, 1884); Saint
RONSDORF, rena'd8rf, SECT: A chiliastic and communistic sect founded at Elberfeld in 1726 by Elias Eller and the Reformed pastor Schleiermacher. Eller (b. at Ronsdorf, 5 m. s.e. of Elberfeld, early in the eighteenth century; d: there May 16, 1750) went, while still a lad, to the neighboring city of Elberfeld, where he became foreman of a factory for a rich widow named Bolekhaus. Pietistic, chiliastic, and communistic influences had been rampant in the district, and with these Eller came in contact. He began to read the Bible and all accessible writings of the enthusiasts and pietista, and evolved an apocalyptic, chiliastic system of his own, blending it with communistic elements. The reception accorded his teachings attracted the attention of Frau Bolckhaus, whom he soon converted to his tenets and married, thus becoming a man of wealth. Eller now came in contact with Schleiermacher, and the pair held frequent meetings of the faithful, who called themselves the awakened and the elect. Among their number was a certain Anna van Buchel, the daughter of an Elberfeld baker, a girl of remarkable beauty. She was converted by Eller, who instructed her how to undergo ecstasies and receive revelations from heaven, taught her the Apocalypse, and inspired her with chiliastic ideas. Somewhat later, accordingly, she was seized with religious ecstasy, prophesying and describing in glowing colors the coming of the chiliastic kingdom in 1730, also declaring that the Lord had frequently appeared to and spoken with her. Henceforth Anna van Buchel was regarded as a prophetess. Before long, Eller's wife died, and he soon married Anna van Buchel with whom he had maintained for some time illicit relations; as he alleged, to protect her innocence. He now resolved to advance his doctrines more openly. His wife's visions became still more frequent. She and her husband were of the tribe of Judah and the lineage of David; and were to found the New Jerusalem. Kings and princes were to descend from them; they were the two witnesses (Rev. xi.), she was the woman clothed with the sun (xii.), the tabernacle of God among men (xxi. 3), and thebri de of the lamb (Cant.). These revelations being received with trust and awe, Eller now declared that God had revealed to his wife that she was the mother of Zion who should give birth to the savior of the world a second time, who would be the king of the chiliastic reign. Unfortunately Anna gave birth to a daughter. Eller, however, explained this by the fact that sufficient

91	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Romanus
Boon
faith had not been shown him and the mother of Zion, and bade his followers wait in patience. In 1733 the mother of Zion gave birth to a son, who was baptized as Benjamin, on the basis of Ps. 1aviii. 27. The child was reverenced in his cradle as the future great prophet and savior of the world, and Eller declared that his children were divinely begotten, and consequently born without sin.
By this time the number of his adherents had so increased that Eller could think of establishing a church. He accordingly divided his adherents into three classes; those of the court, the threshold, and the temple. Only the initiate were allowed to receive the complete doctrine, and they must first swear to maintain inviolable secrecy. The distinctive tenets were as follows: (1) the fulness of the Godhead dwells in Eller alone; (2) though the Bible is the Word of God, the divine annunciation to the mother of Zion that a new epoch is to begin necessitates a new revelation, this being in the booklet called Hirtentasche which was granted in secret to the select alone; (3) not only will the saints appear again on earth, but the Savior must be born again; (4) Eller is the counterpart of Abraham, but greater than he. The person of the Father is in Abraham, of the Son in Isaac, and of the Holy Ghost in Sarah; but in Eller is the fulness of the Godhead. Hence, except through him there is no blessing or happiness from above, and those who do not follow him must face the wrath of God; (5) Eller, circumcised by God, must bear sickness and pain for the sins of the world; (6) Moses and Elijah were not only prototypes of Christ, but also of Eller, as were David and Solomon; (7) the children of Eller are begotten directly of God. Eller now sent apostles throughout Germany, Switzerland, and the northern countries; but somewhat to the detriment of his doctrine "little Benjamin" died when barely a year old. Though able to restore the confidence of his followers, the practises of his community attracted suspicion and silent investigation by the consistory from 1735, so that in 1737 he left Elberfeld, which he declared to be a second Sodom and Gomorrah; and removed to Ronsdorf, where God had bidden the mother of Zion to build the New Jerusalem.. Many of his adherents followed him, so that soon fifty houses had been erected, all facing the East toward Zion, which, as the tabernacle, was Eller's house, and his wife was the ark, the Urim and Thummim. So many funds poured in from various portions of Germany, as well as from Holland, England, and Switzerland, that not only could a new church be built at Ronsdorf, but in 1741 the Reformed preacher Schleiermacher was called from Elberfeld to be the preacher of the sect. Schleiermacher and Eller worked in harmony, and when the mother of Zion again bore a daughter, instead of the prophesied Benjamin, it was Schleiermacher who held the doubting believers together, until Eller had assembled the chief members of the sect and informed them that God had revealed to the mother of Zion that her daughter was called to do masculine deeds. Hardly had this child reached the age of two, before it received divine homage.
Meanwhile the growth of the sect in Ronsdorf rendered it possible for Eller to gain absolute con‑
trol of the government; and the most unlimited license held sway in connection with the rites of the sacraments or on birthdays, Eller justifying himself boldly by the transgressions of the patriarchs, David, and Solomon. In 1744 the mother of Zion died mysteriously, after giving birth to another daughter; and Eller now declared that all which had previously applied to his wife must henceforth be understood as referring to himself, the prophet, high priest, and king. Schleiermacher, however, becoming suspicious of Eller, and horrified at his licentiousness, finally was convinced of his leader's vileness. In bitter repentance, he acknowledged his errors openly, charged Eller with wilful deceit, and sought in his sermons to undo the mischief he had wrought. Eller, in alarm, unsuccessfully forbade attendance at Schleiermacher's addresses; and then called one of his fieriest adherents, W iilffing of Solingen, to Ronsdorf as second preacher. For a time Wiilffing and Schleiermacher remained on peaceable terms, but in 1749 the latter was forced to leave Ronsdorf. Rudenhaus of Ratingen was chosen in his stead, at the instance of Eller to whom he, like Wulffing, rendered blind submission. At Eller's death the sect began to decline. W iilffing vainly endeavored to carry on Eller's practise, aided by Johannes Bolckhaus, the son of Eller's first wife. Shortly afterward, however, Wulffing himself died, and the great majority of the villagers of Ronsdorf quickly returned to the Evangelical faith.
(G. H. KLIPPELt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: J. W. Knevel, Gruel der Vervriistung an heiligen Stme, oder die Geheimnisse der Bosheit der Ronsdorfer Sekte, Frankfort, 1750; P. Wiilffing, Ronsdorfscher Katechismus, Dasseldorf, 1756; idem, Ronsdor$s silberne Trompete oder Kirchenbuch, ib. 1761; J. Bolckhaus, Ronsdorfs gerechte Sache, ib. 1757; P. Wiilffing and J. Bolekhaus, Das jubilierende Ronsdorf, Miihlheim, 1751. Consult: J. A. Engels, Versuch einer Geschichte der religibsen Schwarmerei in . . . Herzogtum Berg, Sehwelm, 1826.

ROOS, r6s, MAGNUS FRIEDRICH: German Lutheran and devotional writer; b. at Sulz (40 m. s.w. of Stuttgart) Sept. 6, 1727; d. at Anhausen (about 20 m. s.e. of Tilbingen) Mar. 19, 1803. He was educated at Tiibingen, and in 1767 became pastor at Lustnau and dean of the diocese of Bebenhausen, also lecturing on theology at Tubingen. He was later transferred in accordance with his own wish, to Anhausen, where he could have more leisure for writing. In 1788‑97 he was also a member of the national committee of W ilrttemberg. Theologically Roos was a moderate Pietist and essentially a pupil of Johann Albrecht Bengel both in his life and his writings. Among the latter, which were very numerous, special mention may be made not only of his commentaries on Daniel, Galatians, Romans, the Johannine Epistles, etc., but also of his Einleitung in die biblischen Geschichten (Tiibingen, 1774; Stuttgart, 1876) and Christhehe Glaubenslehre (Stuttgart, 1786; Basel, 1867). He likewise wrote much on eschatology, as Beleuchtung der gegenwkrtigen grossen Begebenheiten durch das prophetische Wort Gottes (Tiibingen, 1779) and PrUfung der gegenwdrtigen Zeit nach der Ofenbarung Johannis (Stuttgart, 1786); while his strictly devotional works include his Christliches Hausbuch (2 parts, Stuttgart, 1790;

Roots
Rosary
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
1871); Kreuzschule (1799; 8th ed., 1896), and Beicht‑ and Kommunionbuch (4th ed., 1805).
(HERMANN BECK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: An autobiography with notes by his eon and his grandson is contained in the Einleitunp, ut sup., ed. of 1878. Consult: Chriatenbote, 1831, pp. 1 sqq., 1832, pp. 53 sqq.; C. Grosse, Die allen Tr6ater, pp. 484 aqq., Hermannsburg, 1900.
ROOTS, LOGAN HERBERT: Protestant Episcopal missionary bishop of Hankow, China; b. near Tamaroa, Ill., July 27, 1870. Tae was educated at Harvard (A.B., 1891), and, after a year as graduate secretary of the Harvard Christian Association and traveling secretary of the college department of the Y. M. C. A., entered the Episcopal Divinity School, Cambridge, Mass., from which he was graduated in 1896. He was ordered deacon in the same year and was advanced to the priesthood in 1898. In 1896 he went to China, and, after studying at Wuchang until 1898, was stationed as a missionary at Hankow until 1904, when he was consecrated (second) missionary bishop of Hankow.

ROPES, CHARLES JOSEPH HARDY: Congregationalist; b. in St. Petersburg, Russia, Dec. 7, 1851. He was educated at the City of London School (1862‑67), the gymnasium of Arnstadt, Germany (1868‑69), the Sorbonne, Paris (1869), Yale College (A.B., 1872), the University of Ttibingen (1872‑73), Andover Theological Seminary (1873‑75; resident licentiate, 1875‑76), and Union Theological Seminary (1876‑77). He was pastor at Ellsworth, Me. (1877‑1881); and professor of New‑Testament language and literature in Bangor Theological Seminary (1881‑1908). He was also librarian of the same institution from 1887‑1901, and resumed this office in 1906. He has written The Morality of the Greeks as shown by their Literature, Art, and Life (New York, 1872), and has translated G. Uhlhorn's Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism (in collaboration with E. C. Smyth; 1879).

ROPES, JAMES HARDY: Congregationalist; b. at Salem, Mass., Sept. 3, 1866. He was graduated from Harvard (A.B., 1889), Andover Theological Seminary (1893), and studied at the universities of Kiel, Halle, and Berlin (1893‑95). He was instructor in New‑Testament criticism and exegesis at Harvard (1895‑1903), and has been Bussey professor of the same subjects since 1903, as well as Dexter lecturer on Biblical literature since 1904. He has written Die Spruche Jeau die in den kanonischen Evangelien nicht iiberliefert rind (Leipsie 1896).

ROSARY: A string of beads, each eleventh one larger than the rest, used in the Roman Catholic Church to aid in the reciting of a fixed number of Our Father's and Hail Marys; also the devotion in which such a string of beads is employed. Quasianalogues may be traced in non‑Christian religions, as among the Tibetan Buddhists, who use strings of beads, generally 108 in number, and made of jewels, sandal‑wood, mussel‑shells, and the like, according to the status of their owners; while the Mohammedans, in like manner, have a ta8bih, or string of thirty‑three, sixty‑six, or ninety‑nine beads, to be counted as the corresponding names of Allah in the Koran are recited.
The custom of repeatedly reciting the Our Father arose in the monastic life of Egypt at an early time, being recorded by Palladius and Sozomen. The Hail Mary, or Ave Maria, on the other hand, first became a regular prayer in the second
Origin half of the eleventh century, though it and was not until about the thirteenth that
	History.	it was generally adopted. The ad
		dition of the words of Elizabeth,
"blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus" (Luke i.
42), to the Angelical Salutation, " Hail, Mary, full of
grace; the Lord is with thee; blessed art thou
among women " (Luke i. 28), is first mentioned
about 1130; but Bishop Odo of Paris (1196‑1208)
requires the recitation of the Hail Mary together
with the Our Father and the Creed as a regular
Christian custom. The closing petition, "Holy
Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners, now and at
the hour of our death," developed gradually in
the sixteenth century, and was regarded even by the
Council of Besanpon (1571) as a superfluous but
pious custom. These facts show that the traditions
which ascribe the invention of the rosary to Bene
dict of Nursia, Bede, or Peter the Hermit are un
trustworthy, and the same statement holds of the
Dominican tradition which makes Dominic receive
a vision of the Virgin commanding him to introduce
the use of the rosary. At the same time, the rosary
was originally an essentially Dominican mode of
devotion, though first arising long after the death
of the founder of the order; but while some in
fluence may have been exercised by the ac
quaintance of oriental Christians with the Moham
medan tasbih, all the characteristics of the recita
tion of the Our Father, like the meditations con
nected with it, can be explained only from the
operation of specifically Christian ideas.
The devotions of the rosary are some twenty in number, of which the most important now call for consideration. The complete, or Dominican, rosary discovered, according to tradition, by Dominic about 1208, consists of fifteen decades of small beads (Hail Marys), each separated by a large bead (Our Father). This is also called the
Chief	rosary (or psalter) of the Blessed
Types and Virgin Mary, the alternative title im‑
Derivation plying that the 150 Psalms may like‑
	of Name.	wise be regarded as so many prayers
		to the Virgin. The ordinary rosary,
tradition4lly ascribed to Peter of Amiens about
1090, contains five decades of Hail Marys and five
Our Fathers, the former shaped (toward the end
of the Middle Ages) like white lilies to symbolize
the purity of the Virgin, and the latter like red roses
to typify the five wounds of Christ. The rosary of
St. Bridget consists of sixty‑three Hail Marys,
representing the traditional number of years of the
Virgin's life (or seventy‑two among the Francis
cans), and seven Our Fathers. The Crown of our
Savior is a rosary traditionally ascribed to a
Camaldolite monk of the early sixteenth century,
and consists of thirty‑three Our Fathers (represent
ing the thirty‑three years of the life of Christ) and
five Hail Marys (typifying the five wounds of Christ).
A similar devotion is the "little rosary," with three
decades of Hail Marys and three Our Fathers; and

RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Boots
Rosary
the angelical rosary likewise has thirty‑three beads. In the latter, however, the Hail Mary is recited only at the first bead of each decade, the Sanctus, followed by the lesser doxology, being repeated at each of the nine others.
The origin of the name rosary for an object bearing no resemblance whatever to a garland of roses is problematical. Some Roman Catholic authors derive the term from the Virgin's appellation of "mystic rose" in the Church; or from St. Rosalie (twelfth century), who is represented sometimes with a string of beads and sometimes with a crown of gold and roses; or from the roses which, legend says, bloomed on the lips of those who paid true homage to the Virgin and the Angelical Salutation, and which she plucked and twined into a garland about their brows. It is more probable, however, that, in the spirit of the mystic piety of the Middle Ages, the devotion itself was conceived as a garden of roses, each of which, as a separate prayer, unfolded in honor of the Blessed Virgin, especially as this corresponds in meaning with the English "chaplet," Lat. corona ("crown"), etc., as a designation of the rosary or of separate decades of it.
On beginning the rosary the sign of the cross is made, the small cross attached to the center of the string of beads is held, and the Creed, one Our Father, three Hail Marys, and one Gloria are recited, as they also are on the completion of the devotion. The recitation of the rosary also involves meditation on the five joyful, the five sorrowful,
Mode of and the five glorious mysteries. The
Recitation. five joyful mysteries are the annunciation, the visitation, the nativity, the presentation, and the finding of Jesus in the Temple; the five sorrowful mysteries are the agony and bloody sweat of Christ in the garden, the scourging, the crown of thorns, Christ carrying his cross, and the crucifixion; the five glorious mysteries are the resurrection, the ascension, the coming of the Holy Ghost, the assumption of the Virgin, and the coronation of the Virgin. The joys, sorrows, and glories of Mary are thus linked in an ascending scale with the great facts of redemption. The rosary is generally connected with a single group of the mysteries at a time: the joyful mysteries on Mondays and Thursdays, and the Sundays of Advent and from Epiphany to Lent; the sorrowful mysteries on Tuesdays and Fridays, and the Sundays in Lent; and the glorious mysteries on Wednesdays and Saturdays, and the Sundays from Easter to Advent. A tradition of the Church, first fully developed in the nineteenth century, grants indulgences for the recitation of the rosary. The indulgence attaches, moreover, to individual beads as well as to the entire rosary, and only when more than half are lost at the same time, or when the medal with the picture of the Virgin is mutilated or become unrecognizable, does the indulgence become invalid.
The Confraternity of the Holy Rosary was founded at. Cologne by the famous Dominican Jakob Sprenger in 1475, and was privileged by Sixtus IV. on condition that the rosary be recited on the five great feasts of the Virgin (Purification [Feb. 2]; Annunciation [Mar. 25]; Visitation [July 2]; Assumption (Aug. 15]; and
Nativity (Sept‑ 8]), as well as . on other days, each time with an indulgence of 100 days. Succeeding pontiffs extended the confraConfrater‑ ternity and its privileges, and its
nity of the prestige was increased during the Holy Turkish wars of the sixteenth century.
	Rosary.	The success of the Christian arms at
		the battle of Lepanto (Oct. 7, 1571;
the first Sunday in October) was attributed to
the intercession of the Virgin for the prayers of
the confraternity, and Pius V. accordingly made
that day the feast of Our Lady of the Rosary (trans
ferred by Gregory XIII. in 1583 to its present place,
the first Sunday in October). The limitation of the
feast, by Gregory XIII., to churches containing a
chapel or altar in honor of the rosary was gradually
extended by his successors until the Austrian
victory at Temesvar on the feast of Our Lady of the
Snows (Aug. 5) and the raising of the Turkish siege
of Corfu on the feast of the Assumption of the
Blessed Virgin Mary (Aug. 15) were deemed such
conclusive proofs of her power of intercession that
Clement XI., in the following year, commanded
that the feast be observed throughout Christendom.
The members of the Confraternity of the Holy
Rosary are bound to recite the rosary at least once
daily. Recently, however, there has been a tend
ency to form "Living Rosaries," each of fifteen
members, each reciting a decade daily. These
fifteen members constitute a "rose," fifteen "roses"
a "tree of God," and fifteen "trees of God" a "di
vine garden of the Blessed Virgin." Leo XIII. was
an especially fervent promoter of the devotion of the
rosary, no less than eight of his encyclicals touching
upon it.
The monks of the Greek Church, particularly on Mount Athos, have a quasi‑analogue to the rosary in their kosnbologion or komboschoinion, a cord with a hundred knots, each of which, when told, must be accompanied with the sign of the cross. Some of the monks of Athos are required to repeat this office twelve times daily, accompanying these 1,200 prayers with 120 genuflections. (0. Z6CKLERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Alt, Das Kirchenjahr des christlichen Moryen‑ and Abendlandes, pp. 72 sqq., Berlin, 1860; V. Moraasi, IL Rosario delta B. V. Maria, Casalis, 1867; M. Ch6ry, La TUologie du saint rosaire 2 vols., Paris, 1869; K.'Martin, Die Sch6nheiten des Rosenkranzes, Mainz, 1876; H. Duffant, Une hypothise our la date et le lieu de L'institution du rosaire, Freiburg, 1878; M. Plues, Chats about the Rosary, London, 1881; T. Leikes, Rosa aurea, Dolmen, 1886; L. C. Gay, Entretiens sur le rosaire, 2 vols., Paris, 1887; W. Leseher, The Rosary, its Hist. and Indulgences, London, 1888; idem, St. Dominic and the Rosary, Leicester, 1901; T. Esser, Unserer lieben Frauen Rosenkranz, Paderbom, 1889; A. Konig, Ofcium des heiligen Rosenkranzes, Breslau, 1890; Acta sander sedis . . . pro socidate s. rosarii, 4 vols., Leyden, 1891; T. Esser, in Katholik, 1897, pp. 346 sqq., 409 sqq., 515 sqq.; O. ZSekler, Askese and MBnchtum, passim, Frankfort, 1897; S. Knoll, Maria die K6nipin des Rosenkranzes, oder vollstiindige Erkl4runp der heiligen Rosenkranz Geheimnisse, Regensburg, n.d.; Manual of Prayers for the Use of the Catholic Laity, pp. 368‑382, New York, n.d. (gives English prayers, meditations, etc.); J. J. Roche, Short Explanation of the Rosary, London (puffy and Co.), n.d.; Canon Ryan, The Holy Rosary, in vol. iv. of Collected Publications, Catholic Truth Society, London, n.d.; Graf Hoenebroech, Doe Papsttuva in seiner social‑kulturellen Wirksamkeit, i. 277283, Leipsic, 1901; J. Procter, Rosary Guide for Priests and People, London. 1901; D. Dahm. Die Brodrrschaft vom heilipen Rosenkranz, Treves, 191),1; H. Hulz~fel, hl.

Roseelinus
B,osenmueller	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	94
Dorninikus and der Rosenkranz, Munich, 1903; W. Schmitz, Das Rosenkranzgebet im 16. and im Anfange des 18. Jahrhunderts, Freiburg, 1903; K. D. Bests, Rosa mystics; the Mysteries of the Rosary, London, 1904; ABB, Aug., i. 422437; DCB, ii. 1819‑20; KL, x. 1275‑80. For ethnic rosaries consult: Monier Williams, in Atheneum, Feb. 9, 1878; I. M. Casanowiez, The Collection of Rosaries in the U. S. National Museum (Washington Gov't Pub.), 1909.
ROSCELINUS, res‑e‑ldi'nus (ROSCELLINUS, ROZELINUS, RUCELINUS), JOHANNES: Nominalist and tritheist of the eleventh century; b. in northern France, probably in the diocese of Soissons. Of his life almost nothing is known, and it is difficult to define his theological and philosophical views. He received his education at Soissons and
Reims, and then taught at Tours and
Life.	at Locmenach near Vannes in Brit‑
tany. Shortly before 1092 he was canon at Compi6gne, but since he taught views on the Trinity that seemed heretical, and since he appealed to Lanfranc and Anselm as supporting his position, the latter addressed a letter of complaint to Bishop Fulco of Beauvais immediately before the synod of Soissons (1092). The synod bade Roscelinus to recant, and as not only the members of the synod, but apparently the whole people, had been aroused against him, he obeyed from fear. The form of recantation, which seems to have been merely an abjuration of tritheism, must have enabled him to adhere to his doctrine without directly violating his word, for he was soon once more defending his old opinions. He lost his canonry and sought refuge in England where, as an opponent of Anselm, he expected a favorable reception from William Rufus. He was compelled to leave, however, after the reconciliation of the king with Anselm, especially as he had attacked Anselm's teaching concerning the incarnation. He returned to France and became canon of Tours and Besanpon. While at Locmenach he had been the first teacher of Abelard, but the pupil came to despise his master, and in his De trinitate (1119) Abelard very emphatically defended the unity of God in the trinity of persons, with unmistakable reference to the opinions of Roscelinus which had been condemned at Soissons. Roseelinus determined to charge his pupil with heresy in regard to the Trinity before Bishop Gisbert of Paris, whereupon Abglard addressed a letter to the bishop, defending himself and offering to hold a disputation with Roscelinus, at the same time making a sharp attack on his errors and his private life. The letter in which Roscelinus replied to Abelard is the sole product of his pen which is now extant (ed. J. A. Schmeller, in AMA, philosophisch‑philologische Klasse, 5 ser., iii. 189210, 1849; also in Abelard's Opera, ed. V. Cousin, ii. 792‑803, Paris, 1859). In this letter he haughtily ignored the attacks upon his character, but referred to Abelard's career, and expressed himself cautiously but clearly on the theological points in controversy. He reveals himself as ready to submit to the authority of both the Bible and the Church, and as fully recognizing the prestige of such a theological opponent as Anselm. After this episode Roscelinus disappears from history.
In considering the doctrine of Roscelinus, his deviation from the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity
may first be discussed, then his nominalism, and finally the connection between the two. He regarded the three persons of the Trinity as "three self‑existent beings," who, however, are united by unity of power and will, thus endeavoring to avoid the deductions that in the Son the Father and the Holy Ghost were also incarnate. Anselm, in his
polemic against Roscelinus, asked Trinitarian what he meant by the expression
Doctrine. "three self‑existent beings"; if he re‑
ferred simply to the relations by which the Father and the Son are distinguished in God, his doctrine would not be in disagreement with the doctrines of the Church which teaches that the Father as Father is not the Son, and the Son as Son is not the Father. This, however, in his judgment, could not be the opinion of Roseelinus, since he says that the three Persons are " three essentially separate beings," which would imply a stronger distinction, the assumption of three different Gods. This was likewise evident, according to Anselm, from Roscelinus' comparison of the Trinity with three angels or three souls, these evidently being three substances, and not merely three relations of one and the same being, whereas the Church teaches that the three persons of the Trinity are not three substances (i.e., three Gods), but one God. Furthermore, if the " three beings " bore the name of God in virtue of one and the same power and will, as three men bear the name of king, God would not be something substantial, but accidental, and the " three beings " would then be three Gods as certainly as three men could not be one king. If Roscelinus divides the whole God into three individuals, he would have to extend the incarnation, according to Anselm, to all three persons if this is to be true and perfect. The doctrine of the Church, however, is not compelled to assume this because it sees in the one being, which is God, three distinct persons, so that it sees the same God in the Father as in the Son, only in another relation, and is, accordingly, not forced to ascribe to the Father everything that belongs to God in the Son, e.g., the incarnation. Anselm derived the error of Roscelinus from his excessive stress on the concept of personality in reference to God. When he states that Rosoelinus " either wished to set up three gods or did not know what he did mean," he was half right and half wrong. Roscelinus posited three gods in so far as he clearly perceived the difficulty of simultaneously conceiving of numerical unity and triple and true personality in the Trinity; but he was no tritheist in the heretical sense of the term, and he thought that tritheism was fully avoided by his union of the persons in power and will. Herein he was wrong, and the rigid dialectics of Anselm clearly proved how inevitably his phraseology led to tritheistie conclusions.
In philosophy Roscelinus was a nominalist, maintaining that universals are not real and selfexistent, but are mere abstract names which exist in and for thought. He, therefore, taught that a whole cannot have parts in the sense that the whole really exists while the parts proceed from it; on the contrary, only the parts are real, their synthesis forming a whole that can be distinguished

95	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	1oecelinns
R.oeenmnelltir
as a unit from them only logically, not really. If, now, the whole, or " thing," comprised parts, then,
since the whole is nothing but the Nominalistic parts, the part would be part both of Foundation. itself and of the other parts; and again,
since each part is necessarily prior to the whole, this whole, if it is comprised of parts, must be prior to them, so that the part is prior to itself. This paradox is solved by the fact that Roscelinus attached to " whole " (or " thing ") the connotation of a concrete and existent individual, which is consciously delimited from other objects, and ceases to be itself when one of its elements is withdrawn. The heresy of Roscelinus condemned by the Synod of Soissons was not based ostensibly upon his nominalism; but it is probably incorrect to argue that he proceeded from a theological to a nominalistic point of view in order to reconcile philosophy and theology, for he was primarily a dialectician, and considered theological problems from his philosophical standpoint. Regarding the universal as a mere logical, nominal abstraction of particulars, he could conceive God to exist only as an individual, and could construe the " three beings " only as three individuals, not as " one being " in the realistic sense, so that the unity of the three could consist only in their common power and will. In reaching this conclusion he seems to have concealed his nominalistic basis, lest, from its use in advancing a theological innovation, he should bring both theory and basis into discredit. According to Amselm, Roscelinus declared that " we must defend the Christian faith." On the surface this implies a purely apologetic interest, but it has also been construed as a plea for dialectic elucidation of the faith, and even for relative freedom of reason in the interpretation and development of ecclesiastical doctrine, especially as nominalism was generally associated with a more rationalistic tendency than was realism. The data are, however, too scanty to pronounce a
decision. 	(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Anselm, De fide trinitatis, contra blasphemies Roscellini in MPL, elviii.; F. Picavet, Roscelin, philosophe et th6ologien, Paris, 1898; Histoire littdraire de la France: ix. 358 aqq.; J. M. Chladen, De vita et h2resi Roscellsnx, Erlangen, 1758; J. M. de Gerando, Hist. compari;e des sysUmes de philoaophie, ii. 448, Paris, 1804; V. Cousin, Fragments de philosophic scolastique, pp. 119 .qq., Paris, 1840; H. Bouehitt5, Le Rationalisme chritien d la fin du onziJme sikcle, Paris, 1842; C. de Rbmusat, AbRard, 2 vols., Paris, 1845• B: Haur6au, De la philosophic scolastique, i. 175‑179, Paris, 1850; C. Prand, Geschiehte der Lopik im Abendlande, 177 eqq., Leipsic, 1881; A. Sthckl, Geschichte der Philosophic des Mittelalters, i. 135 sqq., Mainz, 1884; C. S. Baraeb, Zur Geschichte des Nominalismus, in Kleine phidosophische Schrtften, Vienna, 1878; F. Ueberweg, Geschichte der Philosophic, ed. M. Heinze, Vol. n., Berlin, 1905 Eng. transl. of earlier ed., i. 384, 372378, 380, New York, 1874• Schaff, Christian Church, v. 1, pp. 592, 800, 613; Neander, Christian Church, Vol. iv. passim; KL, x. 1272‑73; Harnack, Dogma, vi. 34, 151182, 182; the works on the history of philosophy by J. E. Erdmann, 3 voK, London, 1892‑98, and W. Windelband, New York, 1893.
ROSE, THE GOLDEN. See GOLDEN RosE.
ROSE, HENRY JOHN: Church of England; b. at Uckfield (15 m. n.e. of Brighton) Jan. 3, 1800; d. at Bedford Jan. 31, 1873. He was graduated from St. John's College. Cambridge (B.A., 1821; M.A., 1824; B.D., 1831; fellow, 1824‑38); rector of
Houghton Conquest, Bedfordshire, 1837‑73; and archdeacon of Bedford, 1868‑73. He was joint editor of the Encyclopedia Metropolitans (London, 1817‑45) from 1839, from which he reprinted, with additions, his History of the Christian Church from 1700 to 1868 (1858). He was a member of the English Old‑Testament company of revisers, and wrote in part the notes on Daniel in The Bible Commentary (London, 1872‑82). He was author of The Law of Moses in Connection with the History and Character of the Jews, Hulsean lectures, 1833 (Cambridge, 1834); and Answer to the Case of Dissenters (1834). He was a conservative churchman, an indefatigable collector of books, and a voluminous miscellaneous editor and writer.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. W. Burgon, The Lives of Twelve Good Men, pp. 284‑295 et passim, 2 vole., London, 1888; E. M. Goulburn, John W. Burpon: a Biography, 2 vole., London, 1891; DNB, alis. 232‑233.
ROSE, HUGH JAMES: Church of England, brother of the preceding; b. at Little Horsted (14 m. n.e. of Brighton) June 9, 1795; d. at Florence, Italy, Dec. 22, 1838. He was graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1817; was vicar of Horsham, 1822‑30; prebendary of Chichester, 1827‑33; Christian Advocate in the University of Cambridge, 18291833; rector of Hadley, Suffolk, 1830‑33; incumbent of Fairsted, Essex, 1834‑37, and of St. Thomas, Southwark, 1835‑38; professor of divinity at the University of Durham, 1833; and principal of King's College, London, 1836. He was a very learned man, and a High‑churchman of the most pronounced type. He early established relations with J. H. Newman and others of the Oxford movement, and the celebrated Hadleigh conference, which bore fruit later in crystallizing that movement, was held at his rectory, although later Rose took but little part (see TRACTARIANISM). He founded the British Magazine anal Monthly Register of Religious and Ecclesiastical Information, 1832; was editor of the Encyclopedia Metropolitans (29 vole., London, 1817‑45) in 1836‑38; and projected the New General Biographical Dictionary (12 vole., London, 1848). He published Christianity always Progressive (London, 1829); and The Gospel an Abiding System (1832).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. W. Burgon, The Lives of Twelve Good Men, 2 vole., London, 1888; J. H. Newman, Apologia pro vita sue. chap, ii., ib. 1884; H. P. Liddon, Life of Edward Bouverie Puaey, passim, 3 vole.r,! ~ib. 1893‑94; DNB, alis. 240‑242; and literature under TRACTARIANIBM.

ROSENIUS, KARL OLOF. See BORNHOLMERrS.
ROSENMUELLER, ro'zen‑miil"ler, ERNST FRIEDRICH KARL: German Lutheran and orientalist; b. at Hessberg (a village near Hildburghausen, 17 m. s.e. of Meiningen) Dec. 10, 1768; d. at Leipsic Sept. 17, 1835. He was educated at the University of Leipsic, where he was privet‑docent (1792‑96), associate professor of Arabic (17961813), and full professor of oriental languages (18131835). His life was the uneventful one of a quiet, earnest student. Besides reediting S. Bochart's Hierozoicon (3 vole., Leipsic, 1793‑96), he wrote Scholia in Vetus Testamentum (16 parts 1788‑1817; excerpted in five parts, 1828‑35); Handbuch far die Litteratur der biblischeu Kritik and Exegese (4 parts,

$oseof mneller	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	96
Gottingen, 1797‑1800); Institutiones ad funda
ments lingua Arabica (Leipeie, 1818); Das alte and
neue Morgenland, oder Erlduterungen der heiligen
Schrift aus der natfirlichen Beschafenheit, den Sagen,
Sitten and Gebrauchen des Morgenlandes (6 vols.,
1818‑20); Handbuch der biblischen Altertumskunde
(4 vols., 1823‑31); and Analecta Arabica (1824).
Portions of his Handbuch were translated by N.
Morren under the titles Biblical Geography of Asia
Minor, Phenicia, and Arabia (Edinburgh, 1836),
and Biblical Geography of Central Asia (2 vols.,
1836‑37), and by N. Morren and T. G. Repp under
the title Mineralogy and Botany of the Bible (Edin
burgh, 1840). 	(G. FRANxt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Neuer Nekrolop der Deutwhen, XIII., ii. 766‑769; ADB, xxix. 215.
ROSENMUELLER, JOHANN GEORG: German Lutheran, father of the preceding; b. at Ummerstddt, near Hildburghausen (17 m. s.e. of Meiningen), Dec. 18, 1736; d. at Leipsic Mar. 14, 1815. After completing his education at the University of Altdorf, he was for several years a private tutor and teacher; then pastor at Hildburghausen (17671768), Hessberg (1768‑72), and K6nigsberg in Franconia (1772‑75); professor of theology at Erlangen (1775‑83); first professor of the same at Giessen (1783‑85); and professor of theology, pastor of St. Thomas', and superintendent at Leipsic (17851815). In theology he was an opponent of the Kantian exegesis and an adherent of the mediating school, regarding the principles of the unbiased reason to be as authoritative as the clear expressions of Scripture. The fruit of his activity as teacher and preacher appeared in writings on exegesis, hermeneutics, practical theology, and, above all, in books of edification. Special mention may be made of his Scholia in Novum Testamentum (6th ed., 6 vols., Nuremberg, 1815‑31); Historia interpretationis librorum sacrorum in ecclesia Christians (5 vols., Hildburghausen, 1795‑1814); Morgenr and Abendandachten (1799); Betrachtungen iiber die vornehmsten Wahrheiten der Religion auf alle Tage des Jahres (4 vols., Leipsie, 1801); Auserlesenes Beicht‑ and Kommunionbuch (1799); and Christliches Lehrbuch fur die Jugend (1809).
(G. FRANSt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Notizen aus Rosenmilller's Leben, Leipsie, 1815; J. C. Dolz, Rosenmialers Leben, ib. 1816; G. Frank, Geschichte der protestan6iwhen Theotogie, iii. 102, ib. 1875; ADB, xxix. 219.
ROSENZWEIG, ro'zen‑tsvaig, ADOLF: German rabbi; b. at Turdossin (52 m. s.s.w. of Cracow), Hungary, Oct. 20, 1850. He was educated at the rabbinical seminary at Pressburg, the Lehranstalt fur die Wissenschaft des Judentums, Berlin, and the University of Berlin. In 1874 he became rabbi at Pasewalk, Pomerania, whence he was called, a few years later, to Birnbaum, Posen, where he remained until 1879. From 1879 to 1887 he was rabbi at Teplitz, Bohemia, and since 1887 has been rabbi and preacher of the Jewish community at Berlin. He has written Zur Einleitung in die Bfcher Esra and Nehemia (Berlin, 1875); Zum hunderten Geburtstage des Nathan der Weise (Posen, 1878); Das Jahrhundert nach dem babylonischen Exile mit besonderer Riicksicht auf die. religiose Entwicklung
des Judentums (Berlin, 1885); Kiinstler and Jugendbilder (Neuhaus, 1886); Der politisehe and religidse Charakter des Josephus Flavius (Berlin, 1889); Jerusalem and Cmsarea (1890); Das Auge in Bibel and Talmud (1892); Geselligkeit and Geselligkeitsfreuden in Bibel and Talmud (1895); and Kleidung and Schmuck im biblischen and talmudischen Schriften (1905).
ROSETTA STORE. See EGYPT, I., 6, § 1; INSCRIPTIONS, I., § 3.
	ROSICRUCIANS: An alleged mystical order of
the early seventeenth century, whose origin is sup
posed to be given in the Allgemeine vnd General
Reformation, der gantzen weiten Welt. Beneben der
Fama Fraternitatis, dess L6blichen Ordens des Rosen
kreutzes . . . Auch einer kurtzen Responsion, von
dem Herrn Haselmeyer gestellet, welcher desswegen
		von den Jesuitern ist gefknglich einge
	The zogen, vnd auf eine Galleren geschmiedet
Apocryphal (Cassel, 1614). The Fama is the most
	Sources. important section of the work, the
		General Reformation being a satire on
crazy reforms translated from an Italian original,
and the Responsion (which had been printed sepa
rately two years previously) likewise deviating
widely from the style of the Fama. The alleged
author of the Responsion, Adam Haselmeyer, is de
scribed as a notary of the archduke or an ordinary
imperial judge in a Tyrolese village near Hall, but
how far these assertions are authentic is unknown.
The Fama professes to give information concern
ing a secret society founded some two centuries be
fore, by a German of noble birth called Fr. R. C.
(=Frater rosew crucis, or " brother of the rosy
cross "), who, placed in a monastery at the age of
five, had started on a pilgrimage to the Holy Sepul
cher. At Damascus he had become acquainted with
the lore of the Arabs, and there he had translated
into Latin " the book and the book M " (=mundi).
After three years he was sent by his hosts to Egypt
and Fez, but in the latter city he learned the superi
ority of his own faith and that man is a microcosm.
Two years later he sought to promulgate his new
wisdom in Spain, but to no purpose, and finally he
returned to Germany. Here, in a special " house
of the Holy Spirit," he formed a little band who
were to go into all lands, wearing no special habit,
freely healing the sick, reporting annually in per
son or by letter to their founder, seeking worthy
successors, having as their seal and symbol " R. C."
(=Roses Crux, " Rosy Cross "), and concealing
the existence of the fraternity for a hundred years.
A hundred and twenty years after the death of the
founder, a secret door was discovered in the " house
of the Holy Spirit," behind which was a vault with
an altar covering the uncorrupted body of the
founder, who held in his hand a little parchment
book with letters of gold. This discovery showed
that the Rosicrucians could now publicly proclaim
themselves; the Fama was published in five lan
guages; the learned were invited to test it; and the
hope was expressed that some might be led to join
the fraternity. The Rosicrucians explicitly de
clared their belief in Christ, also implying that they
were Protestants, and particularly disavowing all

97	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Rose off sknmueller
connection with heretics, sectarians, and false prophets. Their philosophy was to be " Jesus on every side." They opposed the accursed transmutation of metals as a petty thing in comparison with the real glory of the true philosopher, who is able to see the heavens open and the angels of God ascending and descending, and to know that his name is written in the book of life. The Fama was supplemented in 1615 by the Confessio fraternitatis R. C. ad eruditos Europm, printed at Cassel, both in Latin and German. While in general harmony with the Fama, it is more strongly apocalyptic and opposed to Roman Catholicism; and it suggests positive reforms and advocates a practical Biblical piety which would transcend the denominational barriers of Protestantism. Its fanciful history occupies a minor place, but at the same time it states that the name of the founder of the Rosicrucians was Christianus Rosenkreutz, and that he was born in 1378 (d., according to the Rosicrucian system, 1484).
These two works, the Fama and the Confessio, are the sole original sources for the Rosicrucians. They both had a phenomenal popularity, and evoked a flood of writings on, for, and against Sensational them. Some doubted the very exist‑
	Results.	ence of the fraternity, and Descartes
		and Leibnitz vainly sought to make
the acquaintance of a real Rosicrucian. From Ger
many the Rosicrucian excitement spread to Eng
land, France, and Italy; they were identified with
the Spanish Alombrados (q.v.); under the pseu
donyms of Irenmus Agnostus and Menapius a pre
tended adept (probably really named Friedrich
Grick) wrote again and again in pretended defense
of the Rosicrucians, though really in mockery of
them; and Johann Valentin Andrea added his seri
ous warnings against them. Finally the outbreak
of the Thirty Years' War centered attention on other
matters and more discerning minds at least per
ceived that the whole fraternity was nothing but a
gigantic hoax. Henceforth the name Rosicrucian
proved an attraction for secret societies and many
sorts of impostures, and a century after its origin
Rosicrucianism underwent a recrudescence in con
nection with freemasonry, which not only deemed
Rosicrucianism genuine, but even borrowed usages
and `customs from the writings of those who had
satirized the fraternity.
The Fama and Confessio have been ascribed to the most divergent sources, including Luther and Tauler, but it is now generally agreed that the real author was Johann Valentin Andrea (q.v.). Though, intended externally as a satire, the underlying motive of the works was, as in most saAuthorship tires serious; and though later Andrea and Motive saw himself forced to attack the unruly of the spirits he had unwittingly unloosed, he Fraud. never denied his authorship of the two writings in question. Moreover he criticized with equal severity his owls Chymische Hochzeit Christiani Rosenereutz (Strasburg, 1616), which is analogous in style, phrase, and content (even to the name of the hero) with the Pama and the Confessio. According to his own statement, the HOCK‑leit was written about 1603, and was, therefore. Andrea's first essay in that development of the X‑7
Rosicrucian hoax which was to lead to results so unwelcome to its author. The fantastic elements were drawn from romances of knighthood and travel, and from cycles of alchemistic legend, and were designed to arouse interest in the serious portions. The very name of the hero contains allusions to the author, " Christian " obviously referring to Andrea's Reipublicce christianopolitaner descriptio, and " Rosenkreutz " to his coat of arms, a St. Andrew's cross, gules, between four roses, gules, shadowed by two wings, argent. Under all this fantasy lay, as already noted, the most serious purposes: the combating of alchemy and Roman Catholicism, and the promotion of Christian truth as revealed in the Bible and the maintenance of the principles of the Reformation. The intermingling of jest and earnest finds its parallel in Andrea's own Menippus, which appeared in 1618. As early as 1617, however, Andrea was obliged to attack his creation in his Invitatio ad fraternitatem Christi ad amoris candidatos, but his attempt to found a Christian brotherhood, together with his introduction of Calvinistic elements into his own church, aroused suspicions of his orthodoxy on the part of strict Lutherans, especially when it became known that he was the author of the Hochzeit. In his own defense he pleaded that he was not a Rosicrucian in the accepted sense of the term, but his peculiar position in the Church of W Orttemberg, as well as his personal vicissitudes, forbade him either to deny or to admit the authorship of the Fama and Con‑
fessio, the first of which seems to have been in his mind as early as 1604 and was in manuscript by
1610, or about the time when the Confessio appears to have been taking shape. (H. HERMELINg.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For lists of the older literature consult: G. Kloss, Bibliographie der Freimaurer, pp. 174 sqq., Frankfort, 1844; and F. Katsch, Die Enstehung and der wahre Endzweck der Freimaurerei, pp. 116 sqq., Berlin, 1897. Consult: A. E. Warte The Real History of the Rosicrucians, London, 1887; G. Arnold, Unparteiische Kirchenund Ketzerhistorie, Part IL, chap. xviii., Frankfort, 1729; J. S. Semler, Unparteiische Sammlunpen zur Historie der Roaenkreuzer, Leipsic, 1786‑88; C. G. de Murr, Ueber den wahren Ursprung der Rosenkreuzer and Freimaurer, Suizbaeh, 1803; J. G. Buhle, Ueber den Ursprung and die vornehmsten Schicksale der Orden der Rosenkreuzer and Freimaurer, G6ttingen, 1806 G. E. Guhrauer, in ZHT, 1852, pp. 298‑315; F. C. Baur, Geschichte der christlichen Kirche, iv. 351 sqq., Leipsic, 1863; E. Sierke, Schwdrmer and Schwindler zu Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts, Leipsic, 1874; J. G. Herder, Sfmtliche Werke, xv. 57 sqq., xvi. 298 sqq., 591 sqq„ Berlin, 1877‑99; H. Kopp, Die Alchemie 2 vols., Heidelberg, 1886; F. Hartmann, The Secret Symbols of the Rosicrucians, London, 1888; idem, Among the Rosicrucians, ib. 1888; idem, In the Pronaos of the Temple of Wisdom, ib. 1890; idem With the Adepts, ib. 1909; W. Begemann in Monatshefte der Comeniuspesellschaft, viii (1899), 145 sqq.; J. Kvagala, in Acta et commentationes imperialis universetatis jurievien‑
sis, Dorpat, 1899• F. B. Dowd, The Temple of the Rosy Cross, Salem, 1906 R. S. Clymer The Fraternity of the Rosicrucians; their Teachings and Mysteries according to the Manifestoes issued at various Times, Allentown, 1906; H. Jennings, Rosicrucians, their Rites and Mysteries, 1870, 4th ed., London and New York, 1907; KL, x. 1283‑90; literature under ANDREA, JOHANN VALENI7N.

ROSIN BIBLE. See BIBLE VERSIONS, B, IV., § 9. ROSKOFF, GEORG GUSTAV: German Protestant; b. at Pressburg Aug. 31, 1814; d. at Obertressen, near Aussee (40 m. s.e. of Salzburg), Styria, Oct. 20, 1889. He was educated at the University

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99	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Rosmini‑8erbati
		Rosweyde
	der neueren Philosophic, Vienna, 1884; idem, Die italieni
	sche Philosophic des 19. Jahrhunderts, Vienna, 1884; E.
	Avogadro, La Filosofia dell' Abbate Antonio Rosmini
	esaminata. Napoli, 1885; F. H. Reuaeh, Index der ver
	botenen Bfcher, ii. 1139 eqq., Bonn, 1885; F. X. Kraus, in
	Deutsche Rundschau; 1888; P. Montagnani, Rosmini, San
	Tommaso, a la Lopica, Bologna, 1890; G. Vidari, Rosmini e
	Spencer, Milan, 1890; F. de sarlo, La Logica di A. Rosmini,
	Rome, 1893; idem, Lc Basi dells Psicologia a delia Biolopia
	secando il Rosmini, ib. 1893; H. C. Sheldon, in Papers of
	the American Society ql Church History, first series, viii.
	41‑86, New York, 1897; G. Gentile, Rosmini a Gioberti,
	Pisa, 1898; C. Calzi, Rosmini nella presents Quistione
	socials, Turin, 1899.
		On the order: Heimbucher, Orden and Konprepationen,
	iii. 522.
	ROSS, JOHN: Presbyterian missionary to China;
b. at Easter Rarichie, Nigg (138 m. n. of Glasgow),
Scotland, Aug. 6, 1842. He received his education
at the village school at Nigg, through private in
struction, at Glasgow University; and at the United
Presbyterian Theological Hall, Edinburgh; and has
been a missionary in Manchuria since 1872, during
recent years serving also as principal of the Theo
logical Hall for Manchuria. In 1873 he visited the
Korean Gate, at that time the only place where
Koreans could come into contact with foreigners,
and he became in this way a pioneer in the work of
introducing Protestant Christianity into the Korean
peninsula. He states his theological position as fol
lows: " Mankind, being alienated from the unself
ish goodness which is the character of God, has
brought loss and misery unlimited upon itself. God
being the All‑loving as he is the All‑righteous, it is
reasonable that he should by abnormal means reveal
this his character to his handiwork man, such rev
elation being beyond the normal. Jesus in his life,
by word and deed culminating in the cross, revealed
the fact that God pities man, desires his salvation
from the state of alienation, and pleads with the
alienated to become reconciled and thus eradicate
the cause of his misery. By this reconciliation and
imitation of the unselfish good‑doing of God, the
reign of peace for which Jesus came will be estab
lished on earth." By his writings he has contributed
to the success of missions, enabling later comers to
the field to acquire through his works acquaintance
with the languages of the parts adjacent to Man
churia. Of his works mention may be made of
Mandarin Primer (Shanghai, 1876) ; Corean Primer
(1877); History of Cores, Ancient and Modern
(Paisley, 1879); The Manchus, or the Reigning Dy
nasty of China (1880); Old Wang, the First Chinese
Evangelist in Manchuria (London, 1889); Mission
Methods in Manchuria (1903); and The Original
Religion of China (Edinburgh, 1909). He also trans
lated the New Testament into Korean (Mukden,
1882‑84) ; and was a member of the committee to
provide a commentary on the Bible in Chinese, in
connection with which he furnished the parts on
Isaiah i.‑xxxix., Job, the latter half of Matthew, and
James.
	ROSSI, r6s'si, GIOVANNI BATTISTA DE: Roman
Catholic archeologist; b. at Rome Feb. 23, 1822;
d. there Sept. 20, 1894. He was educated at the
Collegium Romanum. Under the impulse from the
Jesuit Marchi he devoted himself to archeology,
particularly the catacombs, laying the foundation
of his work by collecting antiquities in Italy, Switzerland, France, Germany, and England. In this department he became the chief by universal acknowledgment and the founder of Christian archeology. In 1854 he became one of the collaborators of the Inseriptioues urbis Romw Latinm for the Berlin Academy of Sciences, Corpus inscriptorum, vol. vi (Berlin, 1863 and after). In the Spicitegium Solesmense of J. B. Pitra were published De christianis monumentis ichthun exhibentibus, vol. iii (Paris, 1855), and De christianis titulis Carthaginiensibus (1858). His great work, which he began in 1843, was Inscriptiones christiance urbis Romm septimo smculo antiquiores (vols. i. and ii., Rome, 18611888). This was followed by the Roma sotteranea christiana (3 vols., 1864‑77; Eng. adaptation, London, 1869), leaving the materials for vol. iv. almost complete. He made the Bulletino di archcvlogia sacra, which he issued quarterly, 1863‑94, a treasure store of material from the excavations of catacombs and archeology in general. He succeeded, during forty years, in investigating the most important cemeteries, relocating most of the martyrs' tombs, and bringing them to light. From 18721894, he published the Musaici cristiani with its chromo‑lithographic plates (Spithoever ed., Rome, 1872‑1900). For fifty years secretary at the Vatican, he published with copious notes Index codicum latinorum Bibliothecm Vaticanw, vols. x.‑xiii (1886, and after), treating over 2,600 codices; and, with other scholars, issued the (Euvres completes de Bartolomeo Borghesi (9 vols., 1862, and after). Rossi was professor at the University at Rome and after 1851 a member of the Accademia pontificia di archieologia, and before his death its president. He promoted a common bond between Roman Catholic and other archeologists, and passed the influence of his spirit to a school of successors.
BiBLIOORAPHY: F. B. Leitner, Leben des . . . Johannes Baptista de Rossi, Regensburg, 1899. A valuable periodical literature is indicated in Richardson, Encyclopaedia, p. 958.
ROSWEYDE, ros‑vai'de, HERIBERT: Jesuit hagiographer, originator of the idea afterward carried out by Bolland and his associates in the Acta Sanctorum Bollandistarum (see BOLLAND, JAN, Boer LANDISTB); b. at Utrecht Jan. 21, 1570; d. at Antwerp Oct. 4, 1629. He entered the Society of Jesus in 1588, and was ordained priest in 1598. He was professor of rhetoric at Brussels, 1592‑95, of philosophy 1598‑1600, and of controversial theology 1605‑07, then for four years head of the colleges of Courtray and Antwerp. From about 1614 he devoted himself with increasing exclusiveness to historical studies, especially the lives of the saints, for which the Belgian abbeys offered a vast mass of manuscript material. He formed the plan of a comprehensive collection of such lives which should surpass the existing ones in extent and critical accuracy; but official duties and the controversies in which he became engaged with Scaliger, Casaubon, and others took up too much of his time for him to do more than begin the vast labor. He published the Martyrologium paroum Romanum which he had discovered, together with that of Ado (Antwerp, 1613); the first edition of the Windesheim Chronicle

Roswitha Rothe
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
of Johann Busch (1621); an edition of the " Imitar tion of Christ " (1617); and one of the Vitce patrum (1615). His faithfulness to duty was no less admirable than his scholarly activity, and his last illness was due to disease contracted at the bedside of the dying.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: ASB, Jan., i., preface, § 6, and Mar., i., preface to the life of J. Bolland, § 4; [V. de Buck], in Analectes pour eervir h l'histoire eccusiastique de la Belgique, v (1868), 261‑270; %L, x. 1314‑15; Lichtenberger, ESR, xi. 301‑302.
ROSWITHA, ros‑vi'td (ROSWITH, HROSWITHA, HROTSUIT): Nun of Gandersheim in the duchy of Saxony in the last third of the tenth century; the years of her birth and death are not known. Her abbess Gerberga (959‑1001) asked her to ‑i: rite a heroic poem in honor of the Emperor Otho I. It was finished in 968 and is entitled Hrotsuithce carmen de gestis Oddonis 1. imperatoris, but is not preserved entire. As the authoress drew her material from members of the imperial family, diplomatic considerations influenced her work; yet her representation is an important source of history. Later she wrote the history of her monastery, De primordiis canobii Gandersheimensis, and also composed many poems on saints. Her Christian comedies, modeled after those of Terence, are well known. Ebert has disputed with good reason the earlier view that these plays were written with the intention of suppressing the immoral plays of Terence.
(A. HAucs.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Roswitha's works were edited by K. A. Barack, Nuremberg, 1858; and K. Strecker, Leipsic, 1906; and are in MPL, cxxxvii. 971‑1196. The two historical poems are in MGH, Script., iv (1841), 302‑335. There are German translations of the Otto by W. Gundlach, Innsbruck, 1894, and others. Consult A. Ebert, Litteratur des Mittelalters, iii. 285 aqq., Leipsie, 1887; A. H. Hoffmann, De Roswithe vita et acriptis, Wratislaw, 1839; O. Rommel, in Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, iv (1864), 123‑158; R. Kopke, Hrotsuit von Gandersheim, Berlin, 1869; idem, Die alteste deutsche Dichterin. %ulturgeschicheliches Bild aus dem 10. Jahrhundert, ib. 1869; R. Steinhoff, in Zeitschrift des Harzvereins far Geschichte and Alterthumskunde, xv (1882), 116‑140; a notable series of contributions by 0. Grashof are to be found in Studien and Mitthealungen aus den Benediktiner‑ and CistercienserOrden, 1884‑88; Wattenbach, DGQ, i (1885), 4, 313‑316, i (1893), 334‑336; W. H. Hudson, in English Historical Review, 1888, pp. 431‑457; ADB, xxix. 283‑294; Mary Reed, in Free Review, i. 269‑282, London, 1893‑‑94; Hauck, KD, iii. 301 sqq.
ROTA ROMANA. See CURIA,, 3.
ROTH, rot, KARL JOHANN FRIEDRICH: German Lutheran; b. at Vaihingen (5 m. s.w. of Stuttgart), Wurttemberg, Jan. 23, 1780; d. at Munich Jan. 21, 1852. He studied law at the University of Tubingen (1797‑1801), and was then consul for Nuremberg at Paris, Vienna, and Berlin. When Nuremberg came under Bavarian control, Roth entered the service of the state, first as financial counselor for the circle of Pegnitz at Nuremberg, then (1810) as chief financial counselor at Munich, and finally (1817) as ministerial counselor in the royal ministry of finances. His De bello Borussico commentarius (1809) proved his unusual scholarship. Meanwhile he had passed from the point of view of Voltaire and Rousseau to orthodoxy, as was shown by his selections from Luther's writings, Die Weisheit Dr. Martin Lulhers (1817), and his editions of
100
the works of J. G. Hamann (Leipsic 1821‑25). As president of the supreme consistory of Bavaria (1828‑18) he exercised rare tact and administrative skill, in guiding the Church through the troublous reaction against rationalism, in cultivating the personal acquaintance of the clergy, and in executing the existing order, thus elevating the moral and the intellectual status of the clergy. He established a stated supervision of theological students at Erlangen, which was soon given up, and a seminary for the training of the Evangelical clergy at Munich, which was soon obliged to reduce its number of students from eight to six annually. During the period 1837‑48, the Roman Catholics were in the ascendency with the government, and Roth was blamed for being remiss in not insisting upon the Protestant claims, though, perhaps, without justice. Nevertheless, in 1848 he was retired in order to allay the agitation against him. Soon after, he was made a member of the council of state, in which he continued almost till his death.
(KARL BURGERt.)

	ROTHE, rote, RICHARD: Theologian; b. at
Posen (100 m. e. of Frankfort‑on‑the‑Oder) Jan.
28, 1799; d. at Heidelberg Aug. 20, 1867. His
father was characterized by strong fidelity to duty
		and patriotic devotion; his mother by
	Early Life fervent piety. The latter was of a
	and rationalistic type, as was also the
	Education. wretched religious instruction obtained
		from the side of the school and the
Church. However, he was led into a supernatural
vein of thought by the imaginative works of Novalis
and other leaders in the Romantic movement„ and by
his own reading of the Bible. He thus acquired a
living Christianity. Accordingly, against his par
ents' inclination, he resolved to study theology,
and, at Easter, 1817, betook himself to Heidelberg.
Here he was influenced anew by Romanticism, so
that he came to entertain warm sympathies with
Roman Catholicism. At Berlin, whither he re
moved in 1819, there prevailed, in part, a Pietistic
type of religion, together with a very conservative
spirit in matters of State and Church, and a prefer
ence for the Hegelian philosophy. Rothe listened
to Hegel's lectures on natural law and political sci
ence with enthusiasm, and was but little attracted
by Schleiermacher's lectures and sermons. He ac
quired growing reverence for August Neander (q.v.),
through whose good offices he found entrance to the
circle that gathered about Baron von Kottwitz.
Yet he felt not at all content, but tired of academic
life and yearned for home. Cheered and refreshed
by a brief visit to his parents, he went to the Theo
logical Seminary at Wittenberg in the autumn of
1819. Most influential over him here was the third
director H. L. Heubner (q.v.); nevertheless Rothe
aimed to preserve his individuality and mental free
dom. He also here, as formerly at Berlin, at first
vigorously withstood the attempts of the new semi
nary adjunct Rudolf Stier and of Baron von Kott
witz and the licentiate Tholuck on a visit from
Berlin to win him over to a Pietistic form of relig
ion; but before long his sensitive temperament
yielded. On May 9, 1821, he reports of the inward