351	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xethodists
Japan, and maintains a large number of schools and seminaries, and one college. In recent years it has made some modifications. The general conference of Aug., 1907, by a vote of seventy‑eight to forty, changed the title of their presiding officer from superintendent to bishop. It now reports 1,132 ministers and 32,166 communicants.
e. The African Methodist Episcopal Church: Early in the history of American Methodism there was dissatisfaction in the colored membership, who were aroused by Question 25 in the minutes of the conference of 1780: " Ought not the assistant to meet the colored people himself, and appoint as helpers in his absence proper white persons, and not suffer them to stay late and meet by themselves? Ans. Yes." In Philadelphia, in 1787, certain colored people belonging to the Methodist Church met to consider their condition. When their ideas were opposed, they withdrew from the church, and Bishop William White (q.v.), of the Protestant Episcopal Church, ordained a colored preacher for them. Asbury, in 1799, ordained Richard Allen (a slave who had bought his freedom, grown rich, and erected on his own land a church for the people of his race) a deacon, he being the first colored preacher ordained by the Methodist Episcopal Church. The African Methodist Episcopal Church sprang from the relations between the white and colored Methodists of Philadelphia. John Emory (q.v.), representing the Methodist Episcopal Church, sent a letter to them stating that the white preachers could no longer maintain pastoral responsibility over them. On account of this they considered themselves disowned by the Methodists, but an attempt was made to regain them. The case was taken into the courts, and was decided in favor of Bethel Church, with the result that the colored people in 1816 organized themselves into an independent body, adopting as its standards the doctrines of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and, with a few modifications, its form of government. Richard Allen was elected bishop. The church steadily prospered, but not proportionately in education. In 1843 a controversy arose on the subject of the qualifications for ministers, led by Daniel Alexander Payne (q.v.), who had been trained as a theologian in the Gettysburg Theological Seminary, and to him is due a large part of the intellectual progress of the church. In 1863 the church purchased Wilberforce University in Ohio. This institution has been successfully conducted. After the Civil War, the church increased steadily. Educational work is carried on with intelligence and enthusiasm. The African Methodist Episcopal Church and the British African Methodist Episcopal Church of the Dominion of Canada were united as a result of negotiations begun in 1880. A peculiarity of this body is that it makes the bishops members of the general conference. The African Methodist Episcopal Church has been devoted to missions. Before it was sixteen years old it established a mission in Hayti. In 1847 it founded The Parent Home and Foreign Missionary Society. . It carries on missions in Africa, South America, West Indies, and Hawaii, and in Africa its missions have about 12,000 members. This body has produced notable orators, such as Bishops Campbell and
Arnett, who have elicited admiration and respect for themselves, their race, and their denomination. The government of the body resembles that of other Methodist Episcopal Churches in most respects, but includes special differences of its own origination. The corrected returns by Dr. Carroll give the membership at 452,126.
7. The African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church: The colored people of the City of New York resented caste prejudice, which "forbade their taking the sacrament until white members were served." This, and the desire for other church privileges denied them, induced them to organize among themselves, which they did in 1796, and in the year 1800 they built a church and called it " Zion." A contract was made between that body and the Methodist Episcopal Church of the United States of America., that, as they had no ordained ministers of their own race, the Methodist Episcopal Church should provide them. Under this arrangement " Zion " received the services of preachers of that church for " about twenty years." In the end, a minister, who had been sent to " Zion Colored Church," having seceded from the Methodist Episcopal Church, the trustees of " Zion " invited him to finish out the year, and, when this was done, the members induced him to ordain as elders three of their brethren, already ordained as dear cons. These proceeded to ordain others. These elders, following the example of Wesley, ordained one of the number a bishop: During 1820 churches were organized in Philadelphia and New Hampshire. An eight years' controversy began in 1848, which finally reached the civil courts. The laity were admitted to representation in the annual and general conferences in 1851, and by 1858 the spirit of unity in the church had gained the ascendency. As late as 1865 the church had but 92 ministers and 5,000 members; but between 1864 and 1876 it doubled its membership more than five times. This body eliminated the word, ".male " from the discipline so that the sexes are equally eligible to all positions, lay. and clerical. In 1868 an unsuccessful attempt was made by Gilbert Haven (q.v.) and others to promote the union of the Zion Church with the Methodist Episcopal Church. Negotiations for union between the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church and the African Methodist Church have also proved abortive. In 1868 the episcopacy was made technically a life office; nevertheless the bishop was to be elected quadrennially; if not reelected, he was considered to be " retired," but could retain the title of bishop. This rule, in practise, created dissatisfaction, and in 1880 it was enacted that, without reelection, the bishop should be certain of tenure during good behavior. This church early espoused education, but for a long while its enterprises to promote it were unsuccessful; at last, however, Livingstone College was firmly established under the presidency of Dr. Joseph C. Price, whose abilities were extraordinary. On the platform and in conversation he was irresistible; anywhere in England or America he could secure money. for the institution, which became famous. The church publishes weekly periodicals and a Quarterly Review, and is endeavoring to se‑

Xethodists	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	352
cure the best modern equipment for extension. Foreign missions were made a separate department in 1884. The home membership (1909) is 545,681.
8. The Colored Methodist Episcopal Church: In 1866 the conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church South authorized the bishops to organize its colored members " into an independent ecclesiastical body," if it should appear that the members desired it. The bishops then formed a number of annual conferences, consisting wholly of colored preachers. These requested in 1870 the appointment of five as a commission to meet five of their own number to create an independent church. The convention chose as the name of the body " The Colored Methodist Episcopal Church." Two bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church South presided and ordained to the episcopacy two colored elders, W. H. Miles and R. H. Vanderhorst, selected by the eight colored conferences. The total value of church property then made over by the Methodist Episcopal Church South to the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church was $1,500,000. Members of the Methodist Episcopal Church South have given them plots of ground and aided them in building churches. Paine College, Augusta, Ga., (with an enrolment of 300 in 1907), and Lane College, Jackson, Tenn., are carried on by the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church in connection with the Methodist Episcopal Church South. This church took over, from the body that had nourished it, the articles of religion and the forms of government. Its rules will not allow any others than negroes the privilege of membership. At the outset there were but little more than 60,000 members; in 1909 it had 233,911, shepherded by 2,809 ministers and housed in 2,619 churches.
9. Minor Methodist Churches: The Primitive Methodist Church, as it exists in the United States, came from England. It has three annual conferences subdivided into districts and maintaining itinerant and local ministers and class‑leaders. They are slowly growing, having had 4,764 communicants in 1890 and 7,295 in 1909. The Independent Methodist Churches are composed of congregations in Maryland, Tennessee, and the District of Columbia. Their statistics are inaccessible. The Evangelist Missionary Church comprises ministers and members in Ohio, who in 1886 withdrew from the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church. They have now about 5,000 members. They have one bishop and profess to have no creed but the Bible. The New Congregational Methodists withdrew in 1881 from the Methodist Episcopal Church South in Georgia on account of alleged arbitrary action. Seven years later a number of its churches united with the Congregationalists. At the present time they report 1,782 members. The Congregational Methodists originated in Georgia in 1852. When the Congregational body began to establish congregations in the South after the war many of the churches and ministers that organized the Congregational Methodist Church went over to them. In doctrine, the Congregational Methodists agree with other Methodist bodies; and in polity they are not strictly Congregational. Appeals from the decision of the lower church may be taken
to a district conference, thence to the state conference, and ultimately to .the general conference. This church has 15,529 members, chiefly in the southern states. The African Union Methodist Protestant Church dates from 1816, and differs from the African Methodist Episcopal Church in opposing itinerancy, paid ministers, and episcopacy. It has 3,867 members in eight states. The Union American Methodist Episcopal Church agrees in doctrines and usages with other Methodist bodies. It antedates the African Methodist Episcopal Church, being organized in 1813 in Wilmington, Del., is divided into conferences, and elects its bishops for life. In 1890 it had 2,279 members, and now reports 18,500. The Zion Union Apostolic Church was organized in 1869 in Virginia. It was reported in 1890 to have 2,346 communicants, and at the end of 1909 reports 3,059.
10. In Canada and the Maritime Provinces: Methodism was introduced into Newfoundland in 1765 by Lawrence Coughland, who was admitted as a traveling preacher by John Wesley in 1755.
Coughland preached there until 1773, 1. Begin‑ his work being strengthened by local nings. preachers. In 1785 Wesley sent John
McGeary especially to that colony. Methodism came into being in Nova Scotia in 1779 by the conversion of William Black through the influence of Wesley's sermons, and the efforts of newly arrived Methodists. Black in 1784, seeking for reinforcements, visited the conference called at Baltimore, Md., to receive Dr. Coke and form the Methodist Episcopal Church. By 1791 the work had so prospered in Nova Scotia as to demand a district with Black as elder, to act as superintendent of six stations, manned by as many preachers from the United States. Other preachers had been sent to various parts of the provinces. Methodism reached New Brunswick by way of Nova Scotia and the United States. In the Province of Canada local preachers had been working before the year 1790, but to William Losee, a preacher on trial without a definite appointment, belongs the honor of being the first missionary to Canada. His experiment proving successful, the next year he was regularly appointed. By 1799 a flourishing, presiding elder's district existed. In 1810 the Genesee conference was organized, and preachers in Canada for the most part assumed relations with that body. Until 1812 they had been associated with the Methodist Episcopal Church. From,the beginning there had been steady advance till the war between the United States and Greatttritain; but during that conflict the members were dispersed, and at its close only 1,785 could found. The Methodists of Lower Canada, ng no preacher competent to administer the mances, applied to Nova Scotia for aid, an regular minister was sent from the British conference. This created confusion, which continued till 1820, when the upper province was allotted to the American preachers, and the lower to the British. In 1824 Methodism in Upper'Canada, then comprising thirty‑five ministers and preachers on trial and 6,150 members, was organized into a single annual conference, and during the next four years increase was

353	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Methodists
encouraging. At the conference of 1828 the Methodist churches located in Canada, by the consent of the general conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, were formed into an independent denomination, and William Case was appointed its general superintendent until the ensuing annual conference. That conference was visited by Bishop Hedding, under whose counsel the organization was perfected.
In 1833 the Methodist Episcopal Church of Canada had three annual conferences, 197 effective ministers, 25,000 members, and a polity practically the same as that of the Methodist 2. Division Episcopal Church in the United States. and Denom‑In that year it unified with the British inations. conference, changing its name and form of government. When the conference agreed to this union it did so without formal consultation with the laity. The majority both of ministers and laymen acquiesced, but certain dissentients declared that, as it had not been submitted to the societies, the act was unconstitutional, and that it infringed upon the agreement made between the church in Canada and the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States. These organized a new Methodist Episcopal Church of Canada, more than one‑thirteenth of the membership, declining to affiliate with the British conference, associating with them. Being without schools, parsonages, and churches, they began litigation to secure a pro rata part of the property. The lower courts decided in their favor, but on appeal the higher court recognized the Wesleyan Methodists of Canada as the rightful owners. After this question was settled the Wesleyan Methodist Church of Canada entered on a career of prosperity, and the Methodist Episcopal Church, thrown wholly on its own resources, made every sacrifice in order to succeed. Four Primitive Methodist ministers had been sent in 1829 from England because of the number of that sect emigrating to the United States. Three years later the Hull circuit in England decided to take the Canadian societies under its immediate charge. A general missionary committee was formed by the home church and under its management the increase of members was such that in 1854 the Canadian annual conference of Primitive Methodists was established. In 1831 the Bible Christians sent two missionaries to the British dominions in America, one to West Canada and the other to Prince Edward Island. In 1855 the society was strong, and held its first conference in Columbus. It then had 51 churches, 21 regular preachers and many lay helpers, and 2,200 members. Ten years afterward the union with it of the Prince Edward Island churches, together with local growth, raised its membership to 5,000. The Canadian Wesleyan Methodist Church was formed in 1829. It was founded principally by Henry Ryan and introduced lay representation in all its courts. Ryan died in 1833, but the little church struggled on, and in 1841 united with the Methodist New Connection. The Methodist New Connection of England, with the consent of the parent society, established a mission in Canada in 1837. The mission, enlarged by admitting a small denomination, VII,‑23
" Of the Marriage of muumera, v. to~ .w
Ceremonies of Churches," " Of Christian Men's Goods " and " Of a Christian Man's Oath." The following were retained with important omissions: " The Sufficiency of the Holy Scriptures for Salvation," " Of Original or Birth Sin," " Of the Church," and" Of Baptism." The following were rejected: " Of the Going down of Christ into Hell," " Of the Three Creeds," " Of Works before Justification," '° Of Christ alone without Sin,", 1 of Predestinar tion and Election," " Of Obtaining Eternal Salvation only by the Name of Christ," " Of the Authority of the Church," " Of the Authority of General Councils," " Of Ministering in the Congregar
	_ _	_	_e	t‑	ll .		"e‑
assumed the title " Canadian Methodist New Connection." In 1840 the British conference " withdrew from its cooperation " with the Canada conference, which acted independently for seven years, but during that period the form and name of the Wesleyan Methodist Church remained unchanged. In 1847 the union was restored, and in 1854, by special arrangement, the Lower Canada and the Hudson Bay missionary districts, both of which had stood in immediate connection with the British Wesleyan conference, became incorporated with the Wesleyan church in Canada. In 1857 the Methodist Episcopal Church founded an educational institution at Bellville, which was incorporated as Bellville Seminary; three years later it was affiliated with the Toronto University as Bellville College, the ladies' department taking the designation of Alexandria College, and later the remaining part of the institution being known as Albert University.
For years a yearning existed in many hearts for organic union of Methodist bodies. This first bore fruit in the union of the Wesleyan
S. Vni. Methodist Church in Canada, the East‑
	ication.	ern British American conferences, and
		the Methodist New Connection Church,
proposed in 1872, and consummated in Toronto in
1874, the uniting bodies adopting the all‑inclusive
name of the Methodist Church of Canada. Its first
census reported 1,031 ministers, and 101,946 mem
bers, two universities, three theological schools, and
several colleges and secondary schools. Yet some
thing still greater awaited Canadian Methodism.
The first Ecumenical Conference of Methodism,
which convened in Wesley Chapel, London, in 1881,
gave such impulse to fraternity as to extend the
horizon till glimpses of complete Methodist unity
could be perceived in the not distant future. Can
ada was the first to know its visitation. In Bell
ville, in 1883, was accomplished the formal and ac
tual union of the Methodist Church of Canada, the
Methodist Episcopal Church in Canada, the Primi
tive Methodist Church in Canada, and the Bible
Christian Church of Canada. The body thus formed
was in the possession of seven colleges, having 100
professors and 5,068 students. The Methodist
Church of Canada contributed to the union 128;
337 members; the Methodist Episcopal Church in
Canada, 25,678 members; the Primitive Method
ists, 8,000; and the Bible Christians, 6,800‑a. sum
total of 168,815 members. The itinerant general
superintendents hold office for the term of eight
years, and are eligible to reelection. The annual
conferences are composed of ministers and an equal
number of laymen, a president being selected from
among the ministerial members. The president of
the annual conference is the superintendent of the
district in which he may be stationed. The annual
conference elects superintendents for each district.
There are now six departments of mission work,
home, Indian, French, Chinese and Japanese in
British Columbia, and foreign. The home work
embraces needy fields in the dominion, Newfound
land, and Bermuda. These include more than
35,000 communicants. The French missions are
in Quebec, The foreign missions are in China and
laneous works; his &splanotory "ores upon W.e n.„. ...tamant, issued by the game house as a standard (the recently deciphered diaries from which the Journals were written, containing s considerable amount of new material, are in course of publication in London, and will be available at the principal repositories for Methodist literature in the United States); the Limes and other literature given under the articles on the Weeleys in the last volume of this work; the Books of Discipline of the various Methodist bodies; the Journals of the Methodist Episcopal Church and of the Methodist Episcopal Church South; the Minntea of the annual confgl'enaes; the Proceedings of the Ecumenical Methodist confermaes, held in London, 1881, Washington, 1891, and London, 1901; the Records of the Centennial Convention in Baltimore, 1884; the Year Boo" of the various bodies; and the early periodicals to which reference is made in the text. Consult also the numerous sketches of Methodist worthies in this work, and the literature g<veuk

leethodiete	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	854
Japan. That in Japan has been affiliated with the missions of the two Episcopal Methodist Churches which have formed the Methodist Church of Japan (ut sup., I). The connectional educational institutions are: Victoria University, Toronto, the germ of which was planted in 1837, and it was incorporated in 1841; Mount Allison College, founded in 1840 at Sackville, N. B.; Wesleyan Theological College, Montreal; Wesley College, Winnipeg; Albert College, Bellville, Ont.; Alma College, St. Thomas; Methodist College, St.. Johns, Newfoundland; Columbian College, New "tminister, British Columbia; Ontario Ladies' College, Whitby, incorporated in 1874; and the Stanstead Wesleyan College, Stanatead, Quebec, established in 1873. Long is the list of able and devoted men who have built up this noble structure. Among those who have finished their course can be mentioned, without exciting jealousy, Egerton Ryerson (q‑), the renowned educator, George Douglas, whose memory is ever green, Samuel S. Nelles (q.v.), so long president of Victoria University, and William Morley Punshon (q.v.), whose preaching, administration, and guidance promoted every interest of the advancing church and country. To‑day the vastness of the territory of the Methodist Church of Canada is suggested by the names of its conferences on the continent of North America: Toronto, London, Hamilton, Bay of Quints, Montreal, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland, Manitoba, Alberta, and British Columbia. Distributed over this immense area are its 2,476 ministers and 334,637 members.
V. The Doctrinal Standards of Methodism: John Wesley was a clergyman of the Church of England. The societies which he formed were organizations for the conversion of men and their religious de‑
velopment. He aimed to retain his 1<. Doctrinal converts within the pale of that great
	Bases.	national church, .and from its clergy
		men the majority of Methodists re
ceived the sacraments. He and they believed the
fundamental doctrines of universal Christendom,
as contained in the articles, homilies, and ritual to
which they had been accustomed from childhood.
Nevertheless, in the judgment of Wesley, certain
doctrines of the New Testament were neglected by
the clergy or robbed of their true proportion and
emphasis. These doctrines were by him consid
ered vital to the spread of pure Christianity. Ac
cordingly he expounded them in his conferences,
published them with comments in the minutes and
preached upon them. Also he found it necessary
to write and publish sermons upon the doctrines
which Methodism emphasized; for his preaching
excited vehement opposition from unsympathetic
Anglican clergymen, and from Presbyterian, Inde
pendent, and Baptist ministers. The Baptists dif
fered from him on the method and subjects of bap
tism and its relation to the reception of the Lord's
Supper. To preserve unity of belief among the
preachers and members of his societies, he prepared
Notes on the New Testament, wherein are clear ex
planations of the pivotal passages upon which he
based the views he so firmly believed and fervently
preached. To render impossible the preaching of
heretical doctrines in the chapels, the deeds by which they were held contained a limitation of the powers of trustees in the following words: " Provided always, that the persons preach no other doctrine than is contained in Mr. Wesley's `Notes on the New Testament,' and four volumes of ` Sermons.' " The same provision subsists in the model deed of the Wesleyan Methodist Church (in England, Ireland, etc.) in the following words: " No person shall be allowed to preach, who shall maintain, promulgate, or teach any Doctrine or Practise contrary to what is contained in certain Notes on the New Testament, commonly reputed to be the Notes of the said John Wesley, and in the first four volumes of Sermons, commonly reputed to be written and published by him."
When introducing these Sermons to the public, Wesley said,

" The following sermons contain the substance of what I have been preaching for eight or nine years past. During that time, I have frequently spoken in public on every subject in the ensuing collection, and I am not conscious that there is any one point of doctrine, on which I am accustomed to speak in public, which is not incidentally, if not professedly, laid before every Christian reader. Every serious man, who peruses these, will, therefore, see in the clearest manner what these doctrines are, which I embrace and teach as the essentials of true religion."

It was for this purpose that Wesley made these Sermons so large and vital a part of his doctrinal standards. Certain discrepancies have been alleged with respect to the number of these Sermons. The Wesleyan Methodist Church of Great Britain and Ireland and the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States recognize fifty‑three; the Methodist Church of Canada and the Methodist Episcopal Church South but fifty‑two, and certain critics but fortyAhree. The discrepancies are of no significance, as all agree on the smallest number, stated in the model deed, and all essential truths of the system of doctrine on which Methodism depends are discussed in the forty‑three, and nothing additional of doctrinal value is contained in the nine or ten added by Wesley after he had made the others a standard.
The distinctive doctrinal features of Methodism are suggested by the titles of these Sermons: " Scriptural Christianity," " The Almost Christian," " Awake thou that sleepest," " The Way to the Kingdom," " Salvation by Faith," " Justification by Faith," " The Righteousness of Faith," " The First Fruits of the Spirit," " The Spirit of Bondage and Adoption," " The Master of the
s. Dis‑ New Birth," " The Witness of our own
tinctive Spirit," two sermons on the" Witness
Doctrinal	of the Spirit," "Sin in Believers," thir‑
	Features.	teen sermons on the Sermon on the
		Mount, "The Nature of Enthusiasm,"
" A Caution against Bigotry," " Christian Perfeo
tion," " The Judgment." Incidental to the direct
exposition of these topics the distinction between
Wesley's Arminian theology and that of Calvin is
pointed out; and the dangerous license of Anti
nomianism condemned. Wesley emphasized fore
knowledge, but opposed the doctrines of election
and reprobation as taught by Calvin. Magnifying
free will and resultant responsibility, he acknowl.

366	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	1slethodistr
edged natural depravity, yet held that .the Spirit of God so counteracts its effects that every man is capable of surrendering himself to him through Christ by faith. He taught Christian perfection as the oonsimmlation of the work of salvation; and that it is subsequent to regeneration, so that, while believers may grow in grace daily, perfection is reached by faith. By subtle distinctions he met successfully the current attacks upon his view. Upon this subject his writings were voluminous, and have occasioned controversy within as well as without Methodist circles.
Until 1784 Methodimn in America was under the control of Wesley; it was in fact the extension of his societies. In that year it devolved 3. American upon him to superintend its tranafor
	Position.	mation into a church. Before his plan
		had fully matured or any American
had anticipated it, the American conferences asked,
and by vote answered, a peculiar question.
Q. " How shall we conduct ourselves toward European preachers? " Answer: " If they are recommended by Mr. Wesley, will be subject to the American conference, preach the doctrine taught in the four volumes of Sermons, and Notes on the New Testament .... we will receive them; but if they walk contrary to the above directions, no ancient right or appointment shall prevent their being excluded from our connection."
Wesley sent to America a series of articles of religion, selected from the Thirty‑nine of the Church of England. The following were adopted, with slight verbal changes and minor omissions: " Of Faith in the Holy Trinity," " Of the Word, or the Son of God, who was made very Man," " Of the Resurrection of Christ," " Of the Holy Ghost," " Of the Old Testament," " Of Free Will," " Of the Justification of Man," " Of Good Works," " Of Works of Supererogation," " Of Sin after Justification," " Of the Church," " Of Purgatory," " Of Speaking in the Congregation in such tongue as the People understand," " Of the Sacraments," " Of the Lord's Supper," " Of both Kinds," " Of the one Oblation of Christ, finished upon the Cross," " Of the Marriage of Ministers," " Of the Rites and Ceremonies of Churches," " Of Christian Men's Goods " and " Of a Christian Man's Oath." The following were retained with important omissions: " The Sufficiency of the Holy Scriptures for Salvation," " Of Original or Birth Sin," " Of the Church," and " Of Baptism." The following were rejected: " Of the Going down of Christ into Hell," " Of the Three Creeds," " Of Works before Justification," " Of Christ alone without Sin," " Of Predeotinar tion and Election," " Of Obtaining Eternal Salvation only by the Name of Christ," " Of the Authority of the Church," " Of the Authority of General Councils," " Of Ministering in the Congregation," " Of the Unworthiness of the Ministers which Hinders not the effect of the Sacrament," " Of the Wicked which eat not the Body of Christ in the Use of the Lord's Supper," " Of Excommunicate Persons, how they are to be avoided," " Of the Homilies," " Of Consecration of Bishops and Ministers," " Of the Civil Magistrates."
A comparison between the English Articles as they were originally and as they were transmitted
to the American conference reveals that the guiding purpose of Wesley, in altering and omitting,
was to expurgate the leaven of ritual4. Purpose ism, Calvinism, and Romanism. These and Results. articles, however, do not contain spe‑
cial reference to some of the most precious doctrines held by the founder of Methodism and by the churches that derived preaching, teaching, and example from those whom he instructed. But Wesley knew that the American Methodists had incorporated in their standards all that he had imposed upon English Methodism. Episcopal Methodist Churches, including the Canadian Methodist Church, accepted the articles sent by Wesley. The Methodist Episcopal Church of America is in harmony with these facts. The rule on the subject is as follows:
•' The General Conference shall not revoke, alter or change our Articles of Religion, nor establish any new standard or rules of doctrine contrary to our present, existing, and established standards of doctrine."
The unparalleled unity in belief among the various Methodist bodies is the fruit of Wesley's method of conserving doctrines. Had he expressed them in confessions or even creeds, they would have been centers of controversy. His followers in every land concur with the Canadian Methodist theologian, Burwash:
" It is to the spirit and type of this preaching that our obligations bind us. There may be in the Notes and Sermons things incidental, accidental and personal, to which no Methodist minister or layman would feel bound to profees assent; but Methodism demands that in all its pulpits we should preach this Gospel and expound the word of God according to this analogy of Faith."
	The Calvinistic Methodists signify their doctrines
by their name. In Evangelical spirit they are sim
ilar, but in the doctrines on which Wesley took the
Arminian position they adhere to the Calvinist
standards. 	J. M. BOCKLEY.
Bramooaersry: The fundamental sources are the Works of John Wesley, the beat ed. for this purpose being that issued as standard by the Methodist Book Concern, New York, in 7 vole., including in ;vole. i‑ii. his Sermons, in vols. iii.‑iv. his Journals, and in vols. v.‑vii. his misoelianeous works; his Rxplanatory Notes upon the New Tes. lament, issued by the same house as a standard (the recently deciphered diaries from which the Journals were written, containing a considerable amount of new material,

are in course of publication in London, and will be available at the principal repositories for Methodist literature in the United States); the Limes and other literature given under the articles on the Wesleys in the lest volume of this work; the Books of Discipline of the various Methodist bddies; the Journals of the Methodist Episcopal Church and of the Methodist Episcopal Church South; the Minutes of the annual oouferenow; the Proceedings of the Ecumeni.

cal Methodist Conferences, bold in London, 1881 Washington,1891, and London, 1901; the Records of theCentennial Convention in Baltimore, 1884; the Year Books of the vari. ous bodies; and the early periodicals to which reference in made in the text. Consult also the numerous sketches of Methodist worthies in this work, and the literature given there.
Treatises of a general character are: A. Stevens, HisG of Ore Religious Movement . . . Called Methodism, 3 vole., New York, 1888‑81; H. S. Skeats, Hiss. of Me Free Churches q/ BBpland, 1888‑1861, London, 1859; G. Smith, Hi4 q/ Wesleyan Methodism, 3 vole., ib. 1885; L. S. Jacoby. GesehWte des Methodiemus, seiner Entstehunp and hue. breitunp, a vols., Bremen, 1870; W. H. Daniels, ruus. troted Hist. of Methodism in Grew Britain and America from the Weeleys to the Present Time, New York, 1880; J. Atkinson, Centennial Hint. of American Methodism, ib. 1884; idem, Beginnings q/ are Wesleyan Movement in

Methodists
Metrophanes
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
America ib. 1896; J. W. Lee, N. Lucxock, and J. M. Dixon Illustrated Mist. of Methodism, St. Louis. 1900; J. F. Hurst, British Methodism, 3 vols., London, 1901; W. J. Townsend, A New Mist. of Methodism, 2 vols., ib., 1901.
Works on various Methodist bodies are: G. Smith, Mist, of Wesleyan Methodists, 3 vols., London, 1857‑61; H. Smith, Sketches of Methodist New Connexion Ministers, ib. 1893; G. Packer, The Centenary of the Methodist New Connexion 1797‑1897 ib. 1897; T. Colhouer, Sketches of the Founders of the Methodist Protestant Church and its Bibliography, Pittsburg, 1880; A. H. Bassett, Concise Mist. of the Methodist Protestant Church, Baltimore, 1882; E. J. Drinkhouse Mist. of Methodist Reform and the Methodist Protestant Church, 2 vols., Baltimore, 1899; E. Bowen Mist. of the Origin of the Free Methodist Church, North Chili, New York, n.d.; F. W. Bourne, The Bible Christians: Origin and History, London, 1905; J. Petty, Mist, of the Primitive Methodist Connexion, ib. 1861; W. Williams, Welsh Calvinistic Methodism. A Historical Sketch, its. 1884; D. Young, The Origin and Mist. of MetAodism in Wales and the Borders, ib. 1893• J. B. MeeGeary, The Free Methodist Church. Chicago, 1909.
For the Methodist Episcopal Church North and South consult: Mist. of the Organization of the Methodist Episcopal Church South. Comprehending all the Official Proceedinge of the General Conferences, ate., Nashville, 1845; A. Stevens, Memorials of the Introduction of Methodism into the Eastern States, 2 vols., Boston, 1848‑52; idem, Mist. of the M. E. Chuch in U. S. A., 4 vols., New York, 1864• idem Centenary of American Methodism, ib. 1866; C. Elliott, History of the Great Secession from the Methodist Episcopal Church in the year 18/,6, Eventuating in the Organization of the New Church Entitled " The Methodist Episcopal Church South," Cincinnati, 1855; J. Lednum, A History of the Rise of Methodism in America. Containing Sketches of Methodist itinerant Preachers, 1738‑86, Philadelphia, 1859; N. Bangs, Hilt. of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 4 vols., New York, 1860; L. C. Matlack, Antislavery Struggle and Triumph in the M. E. Church, ib. 1881; H. N. MeTyeire, Mist. of Methodism, Nashville, 1886; J. G. Jones, A Complete Mist. of Methodism as Connected with the Mississippi Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church South, Vol. i., 178P‑1817, Nashville, 1887; G. Alexander, in American History Series, vol. u., New York, 1894; J. M. Buckley, in American Church History Series, vol. v., New York 1897.
For Methodism among the African races consult: J. B. Wakeley, Lost Chapters Recovered from the Early History of African Methodism, New York, 1889; L. M. Hagood, The Colored Man in the Methodist Episcopal Church, Cincinnati, 1890; D. A. Payne, Mist. of as A. M. E. Church, Nashville 1891; J. W. Hood, One Hundred Years of the African M. E. Zion Church, New York, 1895; 1. L. Butt Mist, of African Methodism in Virginia; or, four Decades in the Old Dominion, Eastville, Va., 1908.
Books dealing with special topics are: J. Emory, Defense of Our Fathers, New York, 1827; D. W. Clark, Life and Times of Elijah Madding, ib. 1855; R. Paine, Life of W. MaKendree 2 vols., Nashville, 1869; E. H. Myers, Description of the M. E. Church, 1844‑lB: comprising a 3o Years' History of the Relations of the two Methodism, Nashville, Tenn., 1875; T. L. Flood and J. W. Hamilton, Lives of Methodist Bishops, New York, 1882; F. A. Arehibald, Methodism and Literature, Cincinnati, 1883; A. W. Cummings, Early Schools of Methodism, New York, 1886; W. J. Townsend, The Story of Methodist Union, London, 1906; D. B. Brummitt, Epworth League Methods, Cincinnati, 1906; H. K. Carroll, Missionary Growth of the M. E. Church, Cincinnati, 1907; J. Telfond, Wesley's Veterans. Lives of Early Methodist Preachers told by Themselves. With Additions and Annotations, London, 1909.
On Methodism in various, countries consult: G. H. Cornish, Cyclopedia of Methodism in Canada, Toronto, 1881; E. Ryerson, Canadian Methodism; its Epochs and Characteristics, ib. 1882; A. Sutherland, Methodism in Canada, London, 1903 J. E. Sanderson, First Century of Metodism in Canada, vol i., Toronto, 1908; C, H. Crookshank History of Methodism in Ireland, vol. i., Wesley and his Time, vol. ii., The Middle Age, Belfast, 18851886; E. Thomas, Irish Methodist Reminiscences, ondon, 1889; R‑ C. Phillips, Irish Methodism, ib. 1897; H. B. Foster, Wesleyan Methodism in Jamaica. ib. 1881; J. Colwell, Illustrated Mist. of Methodism in Australia, New South Wales. and Polynesia, Sydney, 1904; H. Adams,
Methodism in the West Indies, London, 1908; J. M. Erikson, Metodismen i Sverige, Stockholm, 1895; J. Jiingst, Der Methodismus in Deutschland, Giessen, 1906.
On the polity, constitution, doctrines, and discipline of Methodism consult: R. Emory, Mist. of the Discipline of the M. E. Church, New York, 1843; T. E. Bond, The Economy of Methoism Illustrated and Defended, ib. 1852; T. E. Bond Economy of Methodism, ib. 1852; E. Grindrod A Compendium of the Laws and Regulations of Weskyan Methodism, London, 1858; B. Hawley, Manual of Methodism, or he Doctrines, General Rules and Usages of the Methodist Episcopal Church, New York, 1868; J. H. Rigg, Connexional Economy of Wesleyan Methodism, London, 1879• idem, Church Organizations, its. 1896; . W. Willisms, Constitution and Polity of Wesleyan Methodism, London, 1881 S. M. Merrill A Digest of Methodist Law; or, Helps in the Administration of the Discipline of the M. E. Church, Cincinnati, 1885; D. Sherman, Mist. of the Revisions of te Discipline of the M. E. Church, New York, 1890 T. B. Neely, Evolution of Episcopacy and Organic Methodism, ib. 1888; idem, Mist. of the Origin and Dovelopment of the Governing Conference in Methodism, Cincinnati, 1892; B. Gregory, Side Lights on the Conflicts of Methodism, 18.27‑6.E, London, 1898; D. J. Waller, Constitution ad Polity of the Wesleyan Methodist Church, ib. 1898; W. F. Barclay, Constitution of Methodist Episcopal Churches inAmerica, Nashville, Tenn., 1902; G. F. Oliver, Our Lay O47ce Bearers, Cincinnati, 1902; J. J. Tigert, Doctrines of h1. E. Church in America, ib. 1902; idem, Constitutional Mist. of American Episcopal Methodism, Nashville, 1903; Doctrines and Discipline of the M. E. Church South, ed. Alexander, ib. 1906; D. A. Goodsell, J. B. Hingeley and J. M. Buckley, The Doctrines and Discipline of the Methodist Episcopal Church, Cincinnati, 1908; H. Wheeler, Mist. and Exposition of the Twenty‑five Articles of Religion of the M. E. Church, New York, 1908; H. T. Hudson, Methodist Armor; or, A Popular Exposition of the Doctrines, Peculiar Usages and Ecclesiastical Machinery of the M. E. Church South, Nashville, n.d.

METHODIUS: Greek Church Father and bishop
of Olympus, in Lycia; probably martyred by Maxi
minus, 311. The only one of his works preserved
entire in Greek is the " Symposium," which, as its
name implies, forms a counterpart to Plato's " Sym
posium." Ten maidens, invited to the " garden of
virtue," are the speakers, their themes being the
following: (1) the praise of virginity as the essence
		of the likeness to God brought by
	Works. Christ; (2) the divine ordinance of
		marriage; (3) virginity preferable to
the married state; (4) virginity the best medica
ment to immortality; (5) virginity the great vow;
(6) virgins keep themselves undefiled for the mar
riage with the Logos; (7) they are equal to the
martyrs and are meant by Cant. ii. 2, iv. 9 sqq., vi.
7 aqq.; (8) the woman of Rev. xii. 1 sqq. is the
Church, and the human will is free; (9) with her
we must adorn ourselves for the Feast of Taber
nacles, which is the Resurrection; (10) perfect
righteousness (cf. Judges ix. 8 sqq.) first came into
the world through Christ. The maidens close with
a hymn to the heavenly bridegroom. The De Au
texusio is preserved independently in Greek only
in the portion i.‑vii. 5, but considerable fragments
are given by Eusebius, but under the name of Max
imus (Prwparatio evangelica, vii. 22; Eng. transl.,
ii. 366 aqq., 2 vols., Oxford, 1903), Photius (Babho
theca, 236), the Sacra Parallels; while it is fully re
produced in an Old Church Slavic translation of the
eleventh century. Its theme is the origin of evil,
which arose from Satan's disobedience to God. In
his Peri geneton, of which only a few fragments
have been preserved by Photius (Bibliotheca, 235),
Methodius assails Origen's doctrine of an eternal cre‑

357	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xethodists
		Metrophanes
ation of the world. The same opposition is main
tained in his most important work next to the
" Symposium," the De resurrections, in which, at
Patara, with one Theophilus presiding, the physician
Aglaophon and Proclus plead for Origen against
Eubulius (Methodius) and Memian. As the angels
prove, things created are not necessarily mortal;
and since the soul is immortal, while only the dead
can rise, the body becomes mortal that the sin which
dwells in it may be removed by death, the resur
rection of the body being everywhere taught by the
Scriptures. The work is extant only in an Old
Church Slavic translation, though the Greek text
of i. 20‑ii. 8 is given by Epiphanius (Hcer., Ixiv. 12
Sqq.), and fragments are found in Photius (Biblio
theca, 234), the Sacra Parallela, the Syriac florilegia,
the, Catena of Proeopius, Justinian (Ad Menam),
O;cumenius, Eustratius, and others. The three frag
ments of his polemic against Porphyry are valuable
for a knowledge of Methodius' theory of salvation;
while those of his exegesis of Job ix., xxv., xxvii.
xxix., xxxviii:, xl., are important for his doctrine of
grace. Of his De martyribus scant fragments have
been preserved by Theodoret and the Sacra Paral
lels. His other works are preserved almost exclu
sively in abbreviated Old Church Slavic translations,
such as that " On Life and Reason " and " On Foods
and the Red Heifer," the latter treating also of the
blessings of suffering, true purity, and the spiritual
understanding of the Scriptures. In the " To Sistel
ius, On Leprosy " (a few fragments also in manu
script in Greek), he connects the legal rules for
leprosy with Christian penance; and in his " On
the Horseleach of Proverbs, and' The Heavens De
clare the Glory of God "' he interprets the horse
leach as the serpent of lust. His treatises " On the
Body," and De Pythonyssa, as well as his exegeses
of Genesis and Canticles, and, possibly, a dialogue
Xenon, are lost; while the orations De Symeone et
Anna and In ramps palmarum, like the Armenian
fragments in the In ascensionem Domini nostril Jesu
Christi, are spurious. Nor were the Revelaliones,
ascribed to him under various names and forming
in various languages one of the favorite books of
the Middle Ages, written by him. Their origin
doubtless dates from the seventh century, although
they appeared in Latin translation as early as the
century following.
	Deeply influenced by Platonism and Stoicism,
and strongly allegorical in interpretation, Metho
dius is at once an advocate of early Christian realism
		and of the ascetic and contemplative
	Doctrine. life. The main points of his constant
		opposition to Origen have already been
noted. His concept of God was characterized by
the attributes of non‑becoming, power, and exemp
tion from all need. If the Father is the essential
principle of all being, the Son is the external effect
ive force; yet Methodius stresses the divine nature
of the Son, who was the means of all revelation of
salvation, even in the Old Testament. The world
was created for the microcosm man, whose will is
absolutely free, and who is progressively taught by
God to conquer the devil. The Logos necessarily
became incarnate to bring man into harmony with
the Divine, and, bringing " knowledge of the Father
of all," he stripped off the old man, which he re
placed " with his own flesh."	This is done through
the Church, for whom the Logos left the Father in
heaven; and the souls betrothed to him are " helps
meet for him," thus realizing the " deep sleep " of
Adam (Gen. ii. 21). Nevertheless, outward mem
bership is no guaranty of salvation, which is the
work of grace that rewards longing with fulfilment.
Yet even the Christian does not entirely extirpate
sin in this life, and the forgiveness of sins and deeper
recognition of the divine will	only strengthen the
natural good in him; while the birth of Christ in
the faithful, transforming them into Christs, is
essentially a spiritual growth, though coming to
pass on principle in baptism.	The cure for all evils
and the root of true morality	is the spiritual un
derstanding of the Scriptures,	wisdom blooming in
the desert, where dwells the	bride of the Logos.
The progress in the Christian life here outlined,
however, finds its culmination, as implied above,
in perfect virginity of both body and soul. The
ideal of Methodius is that of the ascetic sage. In
accordance with the tradition of the Church, more
over, Methodius was inclined	toward a moderate
chiliasm, holding that in the	seventh millennium
the faithful would celebrate the true Sabbaths and
the real Feast of Tabernacles with Christ, this mil
lennium being the rest preliminary to endless eternity.
	(N. BoNwETscH.)
For Methodias the apostle to the Slavs SW CYRIL AND METHODIUS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The first complete ed. of the "Banquet" was by Allatius, Rome, 1656. An incomplete collection of the works was made by F. Combefs, Paris, 1644, enlarged, 1672. The works are also in A. Gallandi, BiblioIkeca roeterum patrum, iii. 670 eqq., Venice, 1767; in MPG, xviii. 27‑408; and an edition is by A. Jahn, Halle, 1865. There is an Eng. trans]. with introduction in ANF, vi. 307‑402. The earlier literature on the subject is given very completely in ANF, Bibliography, pp. 75‑76. Consult: Jerome, De wir. ill., Ixxxiii.; Socrates, Hint. eccl., vi. 13; A. Pankau, Methodius, BiechofwonOlymput, Mainz, 1888; N. Bonwetsch, Methodiue won Olympus, Leipsio, 1891; idem, Die Theolopis des Methodiua won Olympus, Berlin, 1903; O. Bardenhewer, Patrologie, pp. 154 eqq., Freiburg, 1894; Ehrhard, Die altchristliche Litteratur and ihre Erforschung, 1884‑1900, pp. 363 sqq., ib. 1900; Harnack, Litteratur, i. 468‑478, 786, 929‑930, ii. 2, pp. 147 eqq., 150‑151; idem, Dogma, vols. i.‑v. passim; Krilger, History, pp. 235‑242; Schaff, Christian Church, ii. 309‑312; Ceillier, Auteure eacr6a, iii. 62‑73; DCB, iii: 909‑911.

METHURGEMAft ("Interpreter"): The title given to the Palestinian official who in the synagogue service translated into the vernacular (Ara, maic) the lesson read in Hebrew from the law verse by verse, and the lesson read from the prophets three verses at a time. See SYNAGoouH, I.; and TALMUD.

METROPHAPES, mb"tref'a‑n1z, CRITOPULUS, crai'tep‑u‑lus: Patriarch of Alexandria; b. at Berrhcea, Macedonia, probably in 1589; d. at Alexandria, probably in 1639. After entering a monastery at an early age and becoming the protosyncellus of the patriarch of Constantinople, he was sent to England by Cyril Lucar (q.v.) and studied at Oxford until 1623. He then went to Helmstedt, and, after visiting other German cities, was an associate of the Reformed at Geneva in
1627. In 1631 he signed himself at Alexandria as

Xetrophanes	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	388
X.Y.
Metropolitan of Memphis and Egypt; and in 1637
he was enthroned as patriarch, signing the synod's
condemnation of Lucar's teachings in 1638.
	His most important work is his " Confession of
the Catholic and Apostolic Eastern Church," writ
ten at Helmstedt (given in full by J. Michaelcescu,
Die Bekenntnisse der.gnechisch‑oriental%achen %irche,
Leipsic,1904). This is a clear presentation of Greek
doctrine and worship with sharp criticism of Roman
Catholic tenets. Dividing theology into " simple "
and " economic," he treats under the former head
the doctrine of God and the Trinity, showing that
each of the Persons sustains a definite relation to
the other two, and defending the single procession
of the Holy Ghost. In the " economic " section
he seeks to show that man, deprived of the light of
the Spirit by his fall (but not bereft of free will),
and long condemned by the law, could best be rec
onciled with God only through the Incarnation in
sinful flesh, mankind both being reconciled through
the sacrifice of Christ, and being renewed and par
doned by immediate participation in the Divine.
He cautiously defines the Church as possessing the
marks of catholic and apostolic holiness and doc
trine, though making little mention of hierarchic
organization. The sacraments are reduced to three:
baptism, representing reconciliation with the Father;
the Eucharist, incorporation with the Son; and
penance, the perseverance of the Holy Ghost. The
remainder of the work is devoted chiefly to the rites
of the Greek Church.
	In his " Panegyric on the Incarnation " (ed. G.
Queocias, Altdorf, 1626) he polemizes against those
who deny the divinity of Christ, besides treating
of redemption and emphasizing the true humanity
of Christ. In his " Answer to the Inquiry . . on
Gal. v. 16 " (Nuremberg, 1626), moreover, he ex
plains the opposition between flesh and spirit, in
genuine Greek fashion, as that between body and
soul. He also wrote an Epistula . . . de voc>bm
in musica liturgica Grcecorum usitatis in 1626 (ed.
J. J. Crudelius, probably in 1737), as well as letters,
sermons, the polemic Antipanoplia against the Uni
ate Rhodinus, and a large work still preserved in
manuscript in Cod. Harl. 5059.
	Considered by some a Greek Lutheran, by others
a Calvinist, and by others still a friend of the Ro
man Catholics, Metrophanes seems to have been will
ing to enjoy the favor of the powerful without re
gard to creed. Herein may lie the reason why he
was not polemic against other communions, and
was relatively indifferent to his own.
		(PHILIPP METER.)
BmwoosePSy: Lives have been written by J. A. Dietel
	mair, Altdorf, 1769; A. C. Demetracopulos, Leipeic, 1870;
	and G. G. Mazarakie, Cairo, 1884. Consult further:
	FabriciurHarles, Bibliothem Graca, a. 597 sqq., Ham
	burg, 1'808; A. H. Hors, Eighteen Centuries of the Orao
	dox Greek Church, pp. 560561, New York, 1899; HL,
	viii. 1444‑48.
	METROPOLITAN: The title of the bishop of
the provincial capital, who possesses provincial as
opposed to merely diocesan rights, including juris
diction over (neighboring) suffragan bishops. See
ARCHBISHOP; E%ARCH; PATRIARCH, and of. Bing
ham, Origtnm, II., xvi., where synodal and other
references are given.
METROPOLITAN CHURCH ASSOCIATION. See MISCELLANEOUS RELIGIOUS BODIES, 18.
	METZ, BISHOPRIC OF: An ancient episcopal
see in Lorraine, founded according to unhistorical
tradition by disciples of the apostles, probably in
fact during the Roman domination. The town,
known as Divodurum when it was the old capital
of the Celtic tribe of the Mediomatrici, survived the
fall of the empire and appears under the name of
Mettis in the Frankish era as the seat of a bishop.
The first certain occupant of the see is Hesperius,
whose name is attached to the proceedings of the
Synod of Clermont in 535. The diocese was of con
siderable extent in the Middle Ages, and contained
a mixed population, though more German than
French. 	(A. HAucg.)
Angilram or Engelram (bishop 768‑791), a Benedictine, was archicapellanus to Charlemagne and apocristarius under Adrian I. From 823 to 855 the see was occupied by Drogo, a brother of Louis I. Bishop Theodoric I. of Hama]and (964‑984), one of the most influential counselors of Otto I. and Otto II., secured from the latter (977) the insignia and title of a prince of the empire for himself and his suocxssors. With the next bishop, Adalbero II. of Bar (984‑1005), a son. of Duke Frederick I. of Upper Lorraine, begins a new period of nearly six centuries, during which the see is no longer involved in the affairs of the court and develops a strong soclesiastical life, though troubled frequently by conflicts between the citizens of Metz and the bishops as secular lords. With the election of Henry II. of Lorraine‑Vaudemont (1484‑1505) the see became for over a century an appanage of the house of Lor rains‑‑a relation which helped materially to retard the progress of the Reformation. The peace of Catesu‑Cambh6sis (1559) gave the king of France a protectorate over his " allies " of the districts of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, without altering their fundamental relations to the empire. Charles IX. attempted to suppress the Protestant religion, but Henry IV. permitted it to be practised in 1592 and 1597, and this liberty continued until the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, after Metz bad become part of France by the Peace of Westphalia (1648). The last prince‑bishop, Louis‑Joseph de Montmorency‑Laval (1761‑1802), was driven out by the Revolution, and even the " constitutional bishop of the department of the Moselle," Nicolas Francin, was imprisoned in 1793, while the cathedral was turned into a Temple of Reason and all church property confiscated. By the Concordat of 1801 the bishopric was restored and made subject to the archbishop of Besangon, although with somewhat altered limits, which were reduced to about one‑third of the former extent by the agreement of Louis XVIII. with Rome (1817‑21). When Lorraine was annexed to Germany in 1871, the diocese was removed by Pius IX. from the metropolitan jurisdiction of Besanson and made immediately subject to the Holy See, with a further readjustment of boundaries.
BIBLIOOnwPar: Sources for the early history are found in AfGH, Script., ii (1829), 260270, iv (1841), 426 eqq., 461
eqq., 658 sqq., 696‑700, a (1852), 531‑572, xii (1856),
4$0479, :iii (1881), 303 aqq. Consult: Game, Series

359	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Metroebanes
		Meyer
	episcoporam, pp. 292‑293, supplement, pp. 75, 77; J. F.
	and N. Tabouillet, Hint. de Mob, 6 vole., Metz, 1789‑90;
	Gallia Christiana, riii. 677‑‑805, 987, Paris, 178; , Clouet,
	HiA ecclhiaetique de la province de Trhsee, 2 vols., Ver
	dun, 1844‑51; Hauck KD, vole. i.‑iv., passim; Rettberg,
	KD, 1. 90 sqq, 484 sqq.
	MEURER, mei'rer, MORITZ: German Lutheran;
b. at Pretzsch (13 m. S.W. of Wittenberg) Aug. 3,
1806; d. at Callenberg, near Chemnitz, May 10,
1877. He studied theology at the University of
Leipsic (1825‑28), and then spent four years as
private tutor in the house of H. L. Heubner, su
perintendent at Wittenberg. After temporary serv
ice in a Prussian normal school, he obtained his first
pastoral appointment at Waldenburg in Saxony.
In 1841 he removed to the neighboring Callenberg,
where he spent the rest of his life. His industrious
spirit manifested itself in frequent participation in
the proceedings of the provincial synod, and in the
issue of church periodicals. He was the author of
numerous larger and smaller works, mainly on the
Reformation era. Among these are: Lathers Leben,
aus den Qvellen errahU (3 vole., Leipsic, 1845‑46;
Eng. tranal., New York, 1848); Katharind Luther
(Dresden, 1854); and Philipp Melanchthon (1860).
In connection with the collective work entitled Alt
rotiter der lutherischen Kirche, Meurer contributed
volumes ii.‑iv., including the biographies of Bugen
hagen, Myconius, and Hausmann. He was a dis
tinguished writer also in the field of ecclesiastical
art, and gladly promoted the study of it. Meurer
set forth his. general views on the subject in two
valuable writings: Der Altarschmuck, sin Beitrag
zur ParameWik in der evangelischen Kirche (Leipsie,
1867) and Der Kirehenbau vom Standpunkt and nach
dent Brauche der lutherischen Kirche (1877).
		THEODOR FICKER.
	MEXICO: A republic in the southern part of
North America, having an area of 767,005 square
miles. Out of a population (1900) of 13,600,000,
about 2,500,000 were of pure, or nearly pure, white
race; 5,800,000 of mixed race; and 5,200,000 of
Indian race. Of these latter about 1,300,000 are
of the most ignorant savage type, knowing practi
cally no Spanish and having not the merest rudi
ments of civilizatica. Even of the mixed or better
class of Indian races, few can be considered civil
ized, so that the Mexico known to. the world includes
probably not more than one‑third of the entire
population. Of that third only a little over a third
(1,800,000) could, in 1895, both read and write,
while about 325,000 more could read but not write.
Since then the proportion has undoubtedly increased
under the free and compulsory system of state ed
ucation, assisted by beneficent societies. In 1904
there were 9,194 elementary, 36 secondary, 20 nor
mal, and 45 professional schools, with 18,310 teach
ers and 634,136 enrolled pupils. There were also
private clerical and association schools to the num
ber of 2,281, with 135,838 pupils.
	From the time of the conquest by the Spaniards
to 1810 the country was absolutely under the power
of the Roman Catholic Church and the Spanish
government. Then came a revolt, headed by a
priest, and in 1821 independence of Spain was
achieved; the Church, however, still reigned su‑
preme. In 1857 the Liberal party drew up a program of religious liberty, which was not carried into effect till 1867, when the French rule of Maximilian was overthrown and Juarez established the present republic. Roman Catholic religious houses were closed, church property confiscated, ecclesiastical buildings assigned for the use of schools, libraries, hospitals, etc., and a law passed forbidding any ecclesiastical body to acquire landed property. The era of Protestant influence dates from the entrance of a large number of Bibles carried by General Scott's army in the war of 1846. Gradually little companies were formed which met in private houses; these received help from Miss Melinda Rankin's school, first at Brownsville, Tea., and then at Monterey, and from an agent of the Bible Society. A number of similar individual enterprises were started, and a Baptist Church was organized in Monterey in 1864. With the establishment of the new republic Protestant missionaries went into the country until at least seventeen societies are represented there. At first they were bitterly opposed not merely by the,Roman Catholic Church authorities but by the strongest elements among the Mexican people. Gradually this opposition has weakened until the best people of the nation and even of the Roman Catholic Church to a certain degree manifest their interest in and approval of the work done by the Protestant evangelists and in the Protestant schools. The latest missionary statistics show 227 missionaries, 491 native workers, 133 schools with 10,447 pupils, 39,838 professing Christians connected with the mission churches. As the number of Protestants reported in 1895 was about 40,000, the total number must on this basis be much larger. The Protestant influence is augmented by four printingpresses issuing annually a great amount of literature; Young Men's Christian Associations and Christian Endeavor Societies are exerting a mighty influence, and the whole tone of Mexican life is changing, even within the bounds of the Roman Catholic Church, with its more than 12,000,000 communicants and its full hierarchy.
EDWIN MUNBELL BLISS.
BmLIOmAPHY: F. H. Vera, Colleecion de documenlos ecclesifdeticos de Mexico, 3 vole., Ameeameea, 1887; Concilio provincial Mexicano IV., 1771, Querdtaro, 1898; Asia et decreta concalii provincialia Mexicani quinti, 1898, Mexico, 1899; W. Butler, Mexico in Transition, New York, 1892; C. F. Lummis, Awakening of a Nation; Mexico of Today, ib. 1898; P. P. Martin, Mexico of the ,80th Century, 2 vols., ib. 1907; C. R. Enoek, Mexico; its ancient and modem Civilization, Hist., and political Conditions, ib., 1909.

MEYER, FREDERICK BROTHERTOft: English Baptist; b. at London Apr. 8, 1847. He was educated at Brighton College and Regent's Park Baptist College (B.A., London University, 1869), and held successive pastorates at Pembroke Baptist Chapel, Liverpool, in 1870‑72, York, in 18721874, Victoria Road Church, Leicester, in 1874‑78, Melbourne Hall, Leicester, in 1878,88, Regent's Park Chapel, London, in 1888‑92, and Christ Church, Westminster Bridge Road, Lambeth, in 1892‑95. He was president of the National Federation of Free Churches 1904‑05. Since that time, as general evangelist of the Federation of Free Churches, he has conducted missions in South Africa and the far

Meyer	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	380
Mezuzah
East, returning to England in the spring of 1909.
In theology he is a liberal Evangelical. Among his
numerous works, special mention may be made of
his Elijah and the Secret of his Power (London, 1887);
Israel a Prime with God (1887); Abraham; or, the
Obedience of Faith (1888); Christian Living (1888);
Present Tenses of the Blessed Life (1888); Shepherd
Psalm (1889); Joseph, Beloved, Hated, Exalted
(1890); Tried by Fire (1890); Life and Light of
Men (1891); Moses, the Servant of God (1892);
Joshua and the Land of Promise (1893); Way into
the Holiest (1893); Jeremiah, Priest and Prophet
(1894); Prayers for Heart and Home (1894); Christ
in Isaiah (1895); David, Shepherd, Psalmist, King
(1895); Reveries and Realities (1896); Through Fire
and Flood (1896); Paul, a Servant of Jesus Christ
(1897); Saved and Kept (1897); Statutes and Songs
(1897); Work‑arday Sermons (1897); Blessed are
Ye (1898); Our Daily Homily (5 vols., 1898‑99);
Love to the Uttermost (1898); Love, Courtship, Mar
riage (1899); John the Baptist (1900); The Prophet
of Hope (1900); The Soul's Ascent (1901); Art of
Life (1903); Jottings and Hints for Lay Preachers
(1903); Religion in Homespun (1903); Some Deeper
Things (1903); Directory of a Devout Life (1904);
In the Beginning God! (1904); Epistle to the Philip
pians (1905); The Soul's Wrestle with Doubt (1905);
In Defence of the Faith (1907); The Soul's Pure
Intention (1907); and A Winter in South Africa
(1908).
	MEYER, mailer, HEINRICH AUGUST WIL
HELM: German Lutheran; b. at Gotha Jan. 10,
1800; d. at Hanover June 21, 1873. He received
his theological training at Jena (1818‑20). After
teaching for a time in a private school at Grone,
near G6ttingen, he was pastor successively at Ost
hausen (1822‑26), Meiningen (1826‑31), and Harate
(1831‑37). In 1837 he was called to Hoya as su
perintendent and pastor; and in 1841, declining a
professorial appointment at Giessen, he was made
consistorial councilor, superintendent, and pastor
at Neustadt, Hanover. Here he was the sole pas
tor of a community of some 5,000, and to his three
fold task was added the ever‑increasing burden of
his labor on the New Testament. After 1848 he
restricted himself to his consistonal and exeget
ical duties, residing at Hanover. In 1861 he was
created a councilor of the supreme consistory, but
in 1865 he requested and obtained honorable re
tirement. He regarded his Latin edition of the
Lutheran symbolic books (G6ttingen, 1830) as an
episode in his life‑work. His great work was Das
Neue Testament grieehisch nach den besten Hu1fs
mitteln kritisch revidiert mit Liner neuen deutachen
Uebersetzung and tinem kritischen and exegetaschen
Kommentdr, of which the first eleven volumes were
prepared by himself (Giittingen, 1829‑47; text
and translation of the New Testament, and com
mentary on Matthew‑Philemon), the remaining
volumes being necessarily entrusted to younger ool
laborators, all Meyer's strength being needed in the
preparation of new editions of the parts already
issued by him. His original plan had been to
divide the work into three parts: text and trans
lation; commentary on the Gospels and Acts;
commentary on the other books and a handbook
containing isagogic investigations, the history of
exegesis (especially from the Church Fathers), and
his own methods. He likewise planned to write a
system of Biblical rationalism, which was to give a
summary of exegetical results. His work was trans
lated into English (20 vols., Edinburgh, 1873,85;
American ed., New York, 1884 sqq). In his life
time he employed as collaborators J. E. Huther
(the Pastoral, Petrine, and Johannine Epistles,
Jude and James; Gottingen, 1850‑52), G. LiIne
mann (I and II Thessalonians and Hebrews, 1850),
and F. Ddsterdieck (Apocalypse, 1865). Since his
death later editions have been prepared by B.
Weiss (Matthew, John, Romans, the Pastoral and
Johannine Epistles, and Hebrews; 7th ed., G6t
tingen, 1901‑02), B. and J. Weiss (Mark and Luke;
9th ed., 1901), H. H. Wendt (Acts; 8th ed., 1899),
C. F. G. Heinrici (I and II Corinthians; 8th ed.,
1896‑1900), F. Sieffert (Galatians; 9th ed., 1899),
E. Haupt (Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and
Philemon; 8th ed., 1902), W. Bornemann (I and
II Thessalonians; 6th ed., 1894), E. Kiihl (Petrine
Epistles and Jude; 6th ed., 1897), W. Beyschlag
(James; 6th ed.,1897), and W. Bouss.ie~t (Apocalypse;
6th ed., 1906). 	(F. DUSTERDIECx.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. H. Newman, in Bap&t Quarterly, viii (1874), 438 sqq.; H. 6. Burrage, in Bibliotheca Sacra, asaii (1875), 438 sqq.
MEYER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH VON: German theologian, jurist and statesman; b. at Frankfort Sept. 12, 1772; d. there Jan. 28, 1849. In his earlier youth he studied classics, drawing, painting, and music; from 1789 he studied law and philology at Gbttingen, and from 1793 philosophy and natural science at Leipsic. After a term of practise at the imperial chamber at Wetzlar, he settled down in 1802 in his native city where he served as president of the court of appeals, member of the senate, and mayor. In 1816 he became president of the Bible Society in Frankfort. The first period of his literary activity was influenced by the rationalism of the age, seen in his essays in Wieland's Merkur, his romance Kallias, and his epic Tobias. He then began serious study of the Bible, recognized the necessity of revelation and saw in redemption the center and essence of Christianity; all this without contemning science, but employing it in the service of God. In his thirty‑fifth year (1807) he learned Hebrew, making use of old and new translations and commentaries. His comprehensive knowledge, especially in the field of archeology and jurisprudence, enabled him to form his own exegesis. In 1812 he published his Bibeldeutungen, a sharp attack upon the theological conceptions of the time. In 1819 appeared his annotated revision of Luther's translation of the Bible, which had a wide circulation (3d ed., 1855). Meyer was not only a theologian, but also a mystic and theosophist, and emphasized theosophy in the third period of his literary activity. The mechanical conception of transcendental supernaturalism and orthodoxy satisfied him as little as rationalism. Nature and the Bible he regarded as supplementary documents, the key to which was in symbols‑numbers and figures. He was intent upon fathoming the fundamental sense of the divine Word which he held to lie be‑

381	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
yond the grammatical sense. Eschatological and apocalyptical studies had great attraction for him. From this period originated such works as Schliisad zur Ofenbarung Johannis von einem Kreuzritter (1833) and Blicke in den Spiegel des prophetischen Wortes (1847). Meyer's predilection for symbolism led him to study not only old‑world mysteries, but also the higher degrees of freemasonry. Results of this are his works, Das Bueh Jezira, die dlteste, kabbalistische Urkunde der Hebr&er (1831); Zur Aegyptologie (1840) and his eleven collections of Blaitter fur h6here Wahrheit (1819 to 1832) to which he added Inbegrif der Glaubenslehre (1832). He wrote also some poems and a number of criticisms for the HeideZerger Jahrbfcher, 1811‑18.
(G. E. STEITZt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: There is a biographical introduction to
	Awwahl aus den Blattern fair h6here Wahrheit, pp. v: xl.,
	Stuttgart, 1853. Consult also ADB, xxi. 597.
MEYFART (MAYFART), JOHANN MATTHAEUS: German Lutheran theologian; b. at Jena Nov. 9, 1590; d. at Erfurt Jan. 26, 1642. He was the son of a clergyman of Walwinkel in the Thuringian forest; studied at Gotha, Jena, and Wittenberg. In 1616 he was called to Coburg as professor at the newly founded Gymnasium Casimirianum which distinguished itself by its strict discipline in morals, and in 1623 became its head. In 1631 or 1633 he was appointed professor of theology at the university of Erfurt. Of his Latin works, some are dogmatic: Prodromus elucidarii theologici sive distinctionum theologicarum eenturim dace, ex omnium grope theologarum, qui post exhibitam A. C. flmuerunt, scriptis collector, etc. (1620, unfinished); others are polemic: Grawerus continuatus (Coburg, 1623); Anti‑Beeanus sine manualis eontroversiarum theol., a. Beeano colleen, Cork futatio (2 vols., Leipsic, 1627) and Nodus Gordiua aophistarum solutus (Coburg, 1627), an original attempt to reconcile Aristotle and Petrus Remus. But his independent activity, awakened by the philosophy as well as the history and poetry of antiquity, united itself with a deep longing for the highest ideals, with an experience of the love of Christ, and with an enthusiastic absorption in subjective experiences of supernatural perfection. At the same time, however, Meyfart had a keen eye for corruption in the Church, for the dead mechanicalism of traditional theology, and for the moral defects of his age. This is shown, furthermore, by his German works, which fall into two groups, speculative‑eschatological and practical‑reformatory. To the first group belong Tuba novigsima (Coburg, 1626), four sermons on Death, the Last Judgment, Eternal Life, and Damnation. There followed Von dem himmlischen Jerusalem (2 vols., Coburg, 1627), which contained his celebrated hymn, " Jerusalem, du hochgebaute Stadt " (several English translations, e.g., Miss Winkworth's "Jerusalem, thou city fair and high "); Daa holliache Sodoma (2 vols., ib. 1630), and Das jangste Gericht (Nuremberg, 1632). To the second group belong his Christliche Erinnerung, concerning witchcraft (1636), and Chriatliche Erinnerung, concerning the German universities (1636), a striking description of life among theological students.
Meyfart also attempted in several of his works to
reform the clergy, the church service, church disci
pline and service of prayer, and to counteract the
ecclesiastical dissensions and the hatred of the the
ologians. He was one of the best of the precursors
of Spener, a learned but enthusiastic mystic, and
yet had his eyes fully open to the deficiencies of his
tunes. 	(E. HEN$Et.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Witten, Memoria deologorum noaM satculi, Frankfort, 1685; G. Ludewig, Ehre des Caeimiriani academici, ii. 26‑262, Coburg, 1729; A. F. W. Fischer, Kirdientieder‑Lexicon, vol. ii., Gotha, 1879; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 732‑733; ADB, xxi. 646.
MEYRICS, FREDERICK: Church of England; b.. at Ramsbury (27 m. w. of Reading), Wiltshire, Jan. 28, 1827; d. at Blickling (13 m. n.n.w. of Norwich), Norfolkshire, Jan. 3, 1906. He was educated at Trinity College, Oxford (B.A., 1847), where he was fellow, 1847‑60, and tutor, 18511859. He was tutor to the Marquis of Lothian, 1847‑53; was ordered deacon in 1850 and ordained priest in 1852; was an inspector of schools 18591868; examining chaplain to the bishop of Lincoln 1868‑85; principal of Codrington College, Barbados, 1886‑87; rector of Blickling, Norfolk, from 1868 till his death, and also non‑resident canon of Lincoln after 1869. He was Whitehall preacher in 1856‑57 and select preacher at Oxford in 1856, 1866, and 1876. He took an active part in the Old Catholic movement and attended the Bonn conference of 1875. Among his numerous writings mention may be made of his Practical Working of the Church of Spain (London, 1851); Clerical Tenure of Fellowships (Oxford, 1854); Moral and Devotional Theology of the Church of Rome (London, 1856); The Outcast and the Poor of London. (1858); The Wisdom of Piety (1859); Correspondence with Old Catholics and Orientals (4 series, 1877‑78); Is Dogma a Necegsityf (1883); The Doctrine of the Church of England on the Holy Communion Restated (1885); The Church of England, A.D. 697‑1887 (1887); The History of the Church in Spain (1892); Scriptural and Catholic Truth and Worship (1901); Old Anglicanism and Modem Ritualism (1901); SundayObservance(1902); Appeal to the Primitive Centuries (1904); Appeal to the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (1905); Memories of Life al Oxford and Elsewhere (1905). He contributed to the Speaker's Commentary the parts on Obadiah (London, 1876) and Ephesians (1880), and to the Pulpit Commentary the sections on Leviticus (1882) and Joshua and Judges (1895).
MEZUZAH: A rectangular piece of inscribed parchment enclosed in a wooden or metal case and attached by Jews to the upper part of the righthand door post of a dwelling. The inscription consists of Deut. vi. 4‑9, xi. 13‑21, and is written in twenty‑two lines according to the rules made for copying the Torah. The parchment is rolled with the writing inside, on the outside at the upper end the divine name Shaddai is written, and a glass‑covered aperture in the case leaves this visible. The Mezuzah is by the pious touched with the hand as they enter or leave the house, and a short prayer is recited at the same

Xemoftnti
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	382
time. The practise is founded on the injunction in Deut. vi. 9.
BrBwoaRAP8r: Daesorive De ritibw Mesusss, m B. Ugolinue, Thesaurus antiquitahsm sacrorurem~ vol. m., 34 vole., Venice, 1744‑89; JE, viii. 531‑832.
MEZZOFAIYTI, met"so‑fan'tf, GIUSEPPE GASPARD: Italian cardinal; b. at Bologna Sept. 17, 1774; d. in Rome Mar. 15, 1849. He was educated in the archiepiscopal seminary of his native city and was ordained priest in 1797. He held various professorial positions in the University of Bologna until 1831, when he removed to Rome, where he succeeded Mai as librarian of the Vatican. In 1838 Gregory XVI. created him cardinal‑priest. He was said to have been the greatest linguist of ancient or modern times. According to his biographer Russell he spoke with uncommon fluency thirty‑eight languages; less perfectly, eleven; imperfectly, seven; and could read, but not speak, twelve others. He was acquainted besides with at least fifty dialects of those languages.
BIaIAO6RAPH7: C. W. Russell, Life of Cardinal Messofarit~
	London, 1868, cf. T. Watts, On Dr. Russell's Life of Car‑
dinal Maasofardi, ib. 1880; A. Manavit, Bsquiese historwque
sur Is Cardinal Mezsofanti, Paris, 1854; A. Belleeheim,
Giuseppe, Cardinal Mazsofaut4 WOrsbure, 1880.
MIAMI, GIROLAMO. See SOMABCmANB.
MICAH (Hebr. Miykayah, " Who is like Yahweh? ") : The prophet whose book is sixth among the Minor Prophets. From his home in Moreshethgath (i. 14) he is called the Morasthite (i. 1) and is so distinguished (e.g., Jer. xxvi. 18) from other men of the name, notably from Micah, son of Imlah (I Kings xxii. 8). He belonged to the southern kingdom, where he exercised his office (Jar. xxvi. 18), though the range of his prophecies covered Samaria. The superscription (i. 1) places his sotivity in the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, all kings of Judah. This fact bas been questioned, and the attempt made to date his work wholly under Hezekiah. But chaps. i.‑iii. echo the period of Ahaz, and if iv. 1‑5 (cf. Iaa. ii. 2‑5) is original with Micah, he may be placed also under Jotham. But his greatest activity is to be placed under Hezekiah.
Chap. f. deals with the imminent judgment of God first on Israel (Samaria) and then on Judah; chaps. ii.‑iii. lay the blame upon the sins of the upper classes, including the false prophets; in chapsiv.‑v., in which the high point of Micah's oracles is reached, the author has alternately in view an immediate and a remoter future of Judah, in which it is to be wasted by Babylon and Assyria and then restored (these alternations have led to much discussion concerning the date and genuineness of the prophecies here collected); chaps. vi.‑vii. start from a new point of view, since in them the guilt of the whole people is discussed. In these last chapters the literary form of dialogue appears, in which Yahweh, the people, and the prophet are the speakers; Yahweh states his ground of action against his people (vi. 1‑5) and is answered with contrition by the people (vi. 6‑7), to whom the prophet replies (vi. 8); Yahweh denounces the sins of the capital (vi. 9‑16); vii. 1‑13 is a dialogue botween prophet and people; vii. 15 is Yahweh's en‑
couragement continued by the prophet in verses 16‑20.
The genuineness of parts of the book of Micah has been violently assailed. Thus the presence of ii. 12‑13 has been justified by some only as the (quoted) words of a lying prophet like the one implied in verse 11, in which ease a connection between verses 11‑12 is made by supposing a suppressed "saying" at the end of verse 11. But it is best understood as a genuine promise of restoration following the denunciation which had just been pronounced. Stade makes iv. 1‑4, 11‑14, v. 1‑3, 6‑14 exilic and iv. 5‑10, v. 4‑5 still later interpolations, and sees in them inconsistencies and differences of standpoint. Ryasel combats this view, assigns the whole to Micah or at least to the time of Hezekiah, and regards it as in vital connection with chaps. i.‑iii. The difficulty arose in the mention of Babylon as the place of exile (iv. 10) in a time when Assyria was the world power and Nineveh the world capital. The solution is to be found in the great significance and importance of Babylon, even in the Assyrian period, as the historic seat of world empire (Gen. x. 10‑11) and so essentially and typically antagonistic to the city of God. Similarly, from the time of Ewald, the genuineness of chaps. vi.‑vii. has been assailed. Ewald dated them in Manasseh's time; Welihausen and Stade followed him in so.dating vi. 1‑vii. 6, putting vii. 7‑20 in the exile; Cornill sees in vii. 7 aqq. references to the second temple; and other scholars take positions essentially in agreement with these. But when it is noted that in vii. 7‑20 the exile lies still in the future and that between this pait and chaps. L‑v: there are numerous coincidences and points of contact, the conclusion will follow that this part has the same author as the rest of the book. The impression the book makes is that of a unit, with fuller reports of the deliverances in chaps. i.‑ii., more condensed and fragmentary reports in the other chapters.
Chap. vi. has a special interest in that the scheme of history which it assumes as that known by those to whom it is addressed is that found in Numbers and Joshua, showing that at least the writing of J lay before the prophet. Another point of interest in this chapter has to do with Micah's position as to sacrifice (vi. 6‑8). Some have inferred that Micah did not regard sacrifice as demanded by the divine law. But the words of the prophet necea. sarily imply sacrifice as a legal requirement, which is met by the people, however, in a formal manner which deprives it of its quality as a God‑pleasing service.
The language is purely classical. In point of rhetorical peculiarity, Micah stands between his contemporaries, Hoses and Isaiah, but nearer to the latter than the former; for although, like the former, he is abrupt, abounding in sudden and quick changes, in depth of spirituality he is the worthy companion of Isaiah, sharing with him a mingling of mildness and strength, of gentleness and elevation, together with great vigor and an artistic turn of expression. (W. Vo1.CSt.)
Of the prophecies placed under the name of Micah in the Hebrew test it is not certain that any‑

383	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
~4ahaeH.
thing except chaps. i.‑iii. proceed from Micah the Morasthite. These, with the possible exception of ii. 12, 13, which have no obvious relation to the context, and contain an indefinite and unmotived promise of a return from exile, are an important supplement to the genuine discourses of Isa. i.‑v., and are especially interesting as showing the bitter feeling of a small landholder in a country village arising from the treatment of the poorer classes by the rapacious nobles and office‑holders of the capital. The natural climax of the prophecy, iii. 12, is quoted as a memorable saying a century later (Jer. xxvi. 18).
The remainder of the book as we now have it is apparently composed of several unclassified discourses or fragments of discourses of dates later than Micah. Chap. iv. describes a great deliverance and restoration of Israel after it has been punished for its sins with exile and disintegration, and chap. v. announces the deliverer as a descendant of the princely house of David and a native of Bethlehem, and pictures the results of the reclamation as a triumph over the national enemies followed by the abolition of all forms of idolatry. These two chapters, which form a unit, were presumably written under the influence of Isa. vii. 14 sqq., and are perhaps exilic (see the reference to Babylon in iv. 10). Chap. vi. 1‑vii. 6 was composed by a great prophet living in Jerusalem, presumably in the earlier days of Manasseh. Of chap. vii. 7‑20 it can only be said that it is a cento of unconnected fragments which give no clue to the time or circumstances of their author or authors. They are, if possible, still less relevant to the conditions of Micah's time than are the three preceding chapters.
	For the reason that the several divisions of the
book differ greatly in subject‑matter, style, and out
look, it is not possible to describe it in any terms
that will apply to the collection as a whole. Of
most significance and permanent value are chaps.
iii. and vi., the latter being especially memorable
as containing the classical definition of the religion
of Yahweh (verse 8). 	J. F. MCCURDY.
BiBwooRAPRY: The most thorough investigation is B.
Ryssel, Untersuchunpen fiber die Textpesta# and die Echh
heit des Buches Micha, Leipeie, 1887. Still valuable axe
the older commentaries by E. Pocock, Oxford, 1677;
C. W. Justi, Leipeic, 1799, and A. T. Hartmann, Lemgo,
1800. More recent works are by C. P. Caspari, 2 parts,
Christiania, 1851‑52 (elaborate); E. B. Pussy, Oxford,
1862; C. . Keil, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1868; T.
Roorda, Leyden, 1869; L. Reinke, Giessen, 1874; P.
Kleinert, in Lange, Eng. transl, New York, 1875; S.
Clark, in Bible Commentary, London 1876; T. . Cheyne,
m Cambridge Bible, Cambridge, 1887; H. J. Elhorst, Am‑' 1891; C. won Orelli, Eng. tranel., The Twelve Minor

Prophets, New York, 1893; J. Wellhausen, Kleinen Propheten, Berlin, 1893; G. A_ Smith, The Book of the Twelve, in Expositor's Commentary, London, 1896; J. T. Beek, G6tersloh 1898; W. Nowack, in Handkommentar, G5t• tingen, 1903; M. L. Margolis, Philadelphia, 1908‑09.
	On questions of introduction consult: B. Stade in
ZATW, i (1881), 161 sqq.; W. Nowack, in ZATW, iv
(1884), 288‑290; J. Taylor, The Maasoretic Text arid the
Ancient Versions of . . Micah, London, 1891; W. H.
Kosters, in ThT, 1893, pp. 249 sqq.; V. Ermoni, in F.
Vigourous, Dictionnaire de la Bible, part xxv., pp. 1064
1067, Paris, 1905; Smith Prophets pp. 287 sqq ; DB,
iii. 358‑360; EB, iii. 3067‑74; JR, viii. 533‑535; the
pertinent sections in the works on introduction to the
Old Testament, particularly those by Driver, Cornill,
W. Baudissin (Einkitunp in die Bacher des Allen Testament", Leipsic, 1901), and Wellhaueen in Bleek (Eirr leatunp in has Alts Testament, Berlin, 1886).
MICHAEL: One of the four (or seven) archangels of Jewish post‑exilic angelology. His name occurs in the Bible only in Dan. x. 13, 21, xii. 1; Jude 9; Rev. xii. 7. The conception in Daniel is that of the guardian angel of Israel (see ANGEL, II., §§ 1‑2), with which the New‑Testament passages accord. The passage in Jude is a quotation from the Ascension of Moses (see PsEuDEPxGxwPHA, OLD TESTAMENT, III., 6). In the pseudepigraphic Uterature Michael's figure looms large, and he often appears as the first of the archangels. In rabbinical writings his part is still further expanded. From Judaism he passed over into the Christian Church as the guardian angel of all Christians, and is celebrated in the Roman calendar on Sept. 29 (see MicHAELMAs), and in the Greek on Nov. 9. Two military orders took his name‑the French order founded in 1469 by Louis XI., and the Bavarian order founded in 1721 by Elector Joseph Clemens of Cologne‑as did a number of congregations. A song said to have been sung by Michael and the good angels in triumph over Lucifer and the fallen angels and revealed to St. Amadeus is given in J. A. Fabrieius, Codex pseudepigraphus Veteris Testamenti, i. 26‑27 (Hamburg, 1723), and a partial translation is in S. Baring‑Gould, Legends of the Patriarchs anal Prophets, p. 16 (New York, 1872).
BIBLIOGRAP": A. Kohut, Judischs Anpalolopie, Leipsio, 1866; W. Lueken, Michal, Gbttiagen, 1898; F. J. Peters, St. Michael and seine Verahrung, Cologne, 1902; A. Butler, Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and . . . Saints, Sept. 29, vol. ii., London, 1860.
MICHAEL, EMIL THEODOR RICHARD: Aus. trian Roman Catholic; b. at Reichenbach (32 m. s.w. of Breslau), Prussian Silesia, Sept. 20, 1852. He was admitted to the Society of Jesus in 1874 and was educated at the universities of Innsbruck and Breslau (Ph.D., 1884; D.D., 1888). In 1888 he became privat‑docent for church history at the former institution, and three years later he was appointed associate professor of the same subject, being promoted to the rank of full professor in 1895. Since 1906 he has been professor of Christian art at Innsbruck. In addition to numerous contributions to theological periodicals, he has written Salimbene and seine Chronik (Innsbruck, 1889); Ranker Weltgeachichte, sine kritische Studie (Paderborn, 1890); Ignaz van Doldinger (Innsbruck, 1892); Gegchichte des deutschen Volkes (4 vols., Freiburg, 1897‑1906); and Kritik ‑und Antikritik in Sachen meiner Geschichte des deutachen Volkes (2 parts, 1899‑1902).

MICHAELIS: A family of German Lutheran exegetes of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 1. Johann Heinrich: b. at Klettenberg (20 m. s.w. of Blankenburg), Brunswick, July 26, 1688; d. at Halle Mar. 10,1738. Educated in thec logy, philosophy, and orientalia at Frankfort‑on‑she‑Oder, he began to lecture in Halle in 1698, becoming suooessively associate professor of oriental languages (1699), full professor in the theological faculty (1709), and senior and inspector of the theological seminary (1732). He was important primarily

Xichaelis	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	364
Middleton
as representing the critical school in the midst
of Pietism, then centering in Halle. He was
in great part the author of the plan for the Colle
gium Orientale Theologicum established there by
A. H. Francke. He was likewise distinguished for
his partial edition of the Old Testament (Halle,
1720), based on five Erfurt manuscripts and nine
teen printed editions, the variants also being given.
The edition was, however, too hastily done, and
proved unreliable, though it is still not without
value. He also prepared for it his Uberiores an
notationes (3 vols., Halle, 1720), in which he dili
gently consulted the earlier versions. Some of the
exegetical material here contained, like several of
his dissertations and his Sonderbarer Lebenslauf
P. Heylings Gus Lubeck and dessen Reise torch Ethi
opien (Halle, 1724), is still noteworthy.
	2. Christian Benedikt (nephew of the preceding):
b. at Elrich (8 m. n.w. of Nordhausen) Jan. 26,
1680; d. at Halle Feb. 22, 1764. He was educated
at Halle, where he was successively associate (1713
1714) and full (1714‑31) professor of philosophy,
professor of theology (1731‑38) and of Greek and
Oriental languages (1738‑64). Besides contrib
uting to his uncle's edition of the Hebrew Old Tes
tament and Uberiores annotationes, he wrote Dis
sertatio de antiquitatibus teconomite patriarchalis
(Halle, 1728) and Tractatus criticus de variis lec
tionibus Novi. Testamenti caute colligendis et diiudi
candis (1749), in addition to an edition of the Ho
brew Bible (with the Apocrypha and New Testament
in Greek; Halle, 1741), based on H. Opitz's edition
of 1709.
	3. Johann David (son of the preceding): b. at
Halle Feb. 27, 1717; d. at Gottingen Aug. 22, 1791.
After completing his studies at Halle and travel
ing in England and Holland he went in 1745 to
Gdttingen, where he was professor of philosophy
(1746‑50) and of Oriental languages (1750‑91).
He was a prolific author, as is evidenced by his
writing the entire periodical Orientalische and exe
getische Bibliothek (later the Neue orientalische and
exegetische Bibliothek; 35 parts, Frankfort and Ciit
tingen, 1771‑91). Moreover, he was the first to
give to the cultured public the results of scientific
views of the Bible as divorced from dogmatic as
sumptions in his annotated translation of the Old
(13 vols., Gottingen, 1769‑86) and New (2 vols.,
1790) Testaments, these following his exegeses of
some of the Messianic psalms (Frankfort, 1759),
Ecclesiastes (Bremen, 1762), and I Maccabees
(Frankfort, 1778). He gained equal favor, though
more slowly, with his Einleitung in das Neue Tes
tament (Gtittingen, 2d ed., 1788; Eng. transl., Intro
duction to the New Testament, 4 vols., Cambridge;
1793‑1801), which was followed by the less popular
and uncompleted Einleitung in das Alte Testament
(Hamburg, 1787).
	The chief services of Michaelis were rendered in
the domain of Biblical ancillary sciences, especially
with regard to the Old Testament. Here belongs
his Supplements ad lexica Hebraica (6 vols., G6t
tingen, 1784‑92), in which he sought primarily to
free Hebrew lexicography from rabbinical tradition
and to operate with the kindred languages, espe
cially Arabic. At the same time he carefully studied
the early versions, and such was his attention to the Peshito that he may be considered one of the founders of Syriac philology. Note should be made here of his Grammatica Chaldaica (Leipsic, 1771) and Grammatica Syriaca. He also made valuable contributions to Biblical antiquities, especially in his Mosaisches Recht (6 vols., 2d ed., Frankfort, 1771‑75; Eng. transl. by A. Smith, Commentaries on the Laws of Moses, 4 vols., London, 1814), in which he advanced the view, then new, that the Pentateuchal laws were a product of the statesmanship of Moses, who aimed at the separation of Israel from the heathen [involving denial of the directly divine character and universal validity of the laws], thus judging antiquity by the standards of its own time, instead of by the criterion of the Christian Church; as well as in his Abhandlung von den Ehegesetzen Mosis (G6ttingen, 1755). His geographical and archeological interests, already evinced by his securing from Frederick V. of Denmark the sending of an expedition to Arabia in 1761 (for which he wrote his Fragen an eine Gesedlschaft reisender Gelehrten, Frankfort, 1762), found expression in his Spicilegium geographite exterorum (2 vols., G6ttingen, 1769‑80) and in many places in his Syntagma commentationum (2 parts, 1759‑67) and Vermischte Schriften (2 parts, Frankfort, 1766‑69).
	Although never a member of the theological fac
ulty, Michaelis lectured on systematic, dogmatic,
and moral theology, writing in these departments
his Gedanken iiber die Lehre. der heiligen Schrift van
Sitnde and Genugthuung (Bremen, 1748); Compen
dium theologise dogmaticw (Giittingen, 1760; Ger
man ed., 1787); and Entwurf einer typischen
Gottesgelehrtheit (G6ttingen, 1753).	These works,
inferior to the rest, were weakened by his attempt
not to break with external orthodoxy, though
secretly he had renounced‑ it, thus leading him to
an attitude of untenable compromises. At the
same time, this position gained him great popu
larity with both pupils and the Government, be
sides winning him the title of " regent of Gtit
tingen " and the posts of secretary, director, and
editor of the GSttingen Academy of Sciences. In
the last two decades of his life, however, his pres
tige declined. 	(R. KITTEL.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 1. L. Diestel, GewAirhte des A. T. in der christlichen Kirche, pp. 415 sqq., Jena, 1868. 3. His Briefwechael, ed. Buhle, is in 3 volg., Leipsic, 1784‑96, and big autobiography, ed. E. R. Hessenkamp, appeared at Rinteln, 1793. Consult further: L. Diestel, ut sup., pp. 583 aqq., 683 sqq., 745 sqq.; R. 8mend, Johann David Michaelis, Gbttingen,1898; and especially Roethe, Johann David Michaelia, in the Festschrift der GBthnger Gelehrten Gesellschaft, Berlin, 1901.
MICHAELMAS: A festival celebrated Sept. 29, not only in the Roman Catholic Church, but also in the Greek and various Protestant churches in honor of the archangel Michael (q.v.), not with reference to any particular apparition of his, but generally commemorating the benefits which mankind have received from the angels. The festival seems to have been Roman in origin, and it is very old. In the eighth century the celebration was quite common in the Church. The Roman Catholic Church celebrates three special apparitions of the archangel, viz., May 8, Sept. 6, and Oct. 16. Michael‑

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Middleton	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	S88
Midrash
Use and Intent of Prophecy (London, 1750). His
Miscellaneous Tracts (London, 1752) collect a num
ber of Middleton's shorter writings. His Miscel
laneous Works, not including Cicero's Life, appeared
4 vols., London, 1752, 5 vols., 1755.
BipRLzooRAFHY: The literature under BENTLEY, McawRD;
	SHERLoCB, THOMAB; and WATERLAND, DATTIEL. Con
	sult also: John Nichols, Literary Anecdotes of as 18th
	Century, v. 405‑423, 9 vole., London, 1812‑15; DNB,
	xxxvii. 343‑348.
	MIDDLETON, THOMAS FANSHAW : Church
of England bishop of Calcutta; b. in Kedleston (4
m. n.w. of Derby) Jan. 26, 1769; d. in Calcutta July
8, 1822. He was graduated with honors from the
University of Cambridge (B.A., 1792; M.A., 1795;
D.D.,1808); was appointed curate of Gainsborough,
Lincolnshire, 1792; rector of Tansor, Northamp
tonshire, 1795; of Little and Castle Bytham, Lin
colnshire, 1802; a prebend at Lincoln, 1809; vicar
of St. Pancras, London, 1811; archdeacon of Hunt
ingdon, 1812; and was consecrated first bishop of
Calcutta, 1814. At Calcutta he founded in 1820
the Bishops' College, for the training of mission
aries and clergymen for Asia. Dr. Middleton is
justly famed for his Doctrine of the Greek Article
applied to the Criticism and Illustration of the New
Testament (London, 1808; 2d ed. by Rev. James
Scholefield, 1828, 5th ed., 1855). A posthumous
volume of Sermons, Charges, etc., with Memoir, was
issued by H. K. Bonney (London, 1824).
BIRLIOOnAPR'7: Besides the Memoir in his Sermons, ut sup.,
	consult: C. W. Le Bat, Life of T. F. Middleton, 2 vole.,
	London, 1831; C. M. Yonge, Pioneers and Founders; or,
	recent Workers in the Mission Field, ib. 1871; DNB,
	xxxvii. 383‑385.
	MIDIAN: The name of a people or stock (not
of a country) which comes into especial prominence
in the story of Gideon (Judges vi.‑viii.). In the
Old Testament the relations between them and
Israel are in part friendly, though more often they
are hostile. In the time of Gideon Midianitea
appear as ravaging nomads who cross the Jordan
from the east and seize the produce and cattle of
the Hebrews. They seem to be a belated part of
the same migration as that to which the Israelites
belonged, and Judges viii. 11 indicates that their
home was the desert. The narrative in chap. viii.
belongs in the main to a different narrator (J) from
that in vi.‑vii., and gives a slightly different view.
When Ex. ii. 15 speaks of a " land of Midian," the
reference is not to a region generally so named, but
to a district named after a definite tribe which lived
there. From Ex. ii.‑iv. (and perhaps Num. x. 29
32) all that can be gathered of the region is that it
was east of Egypt and south of the Jordan. Ptolemy
(Geographike, vi. 7), and Eusebius and Jerome (Oso
mastica, 136; 276) knew of ti Madiama or Madiam,
east of the Red Sea and south of the Roman prov
ince of Arabia, mentioned by Arab geographers as
Madyan, identified by R. F. Burton in 1878 with
the region about the ruins of Magha'ir ahu'sib, or
" caves of Jethro "‑a region called by its present
inhabitants and madyan, " land of Midian," hav
ing its northern boundary not far from the site of
Elath and its southern near the coast fortress al
Muwelih. This modern district is about 45 miles
from north to south and from twenty‑three to
thirty‑four miles in width. There are still trams of mining operations for copper, silver, and gold.
The relation of friendship between the two peoples is illustrated by the case of Moses, who fled to the country and entered the family of " Hobab son of Raguel " (Num. x. 29, of. Judges iv. 11, and " Reuel " Ex. ii. 18) or Jethro (Ex. iii.l, xviii. 1, cf. " Jether " Ex. iv. 18, margin). Hobab is called a Kenite in Judges iv. 11, and Stade suspects that the Kenites were in early times associated with the Midianitre (see CAIN, KENITES). Num. x. 29‑32 suggests not a settled people but a nomadic tribe. Other Old‑Testament passages raise the question whether settled, semi‑nomadic, or nomadic peoples were in mind. Gen. (xxxvii. 28, 36) implies not Bedouin but a settled people carrying wares to the north and in the contrary direction; Isa. Ix. 6 must refer to nomads; Num. xxii., xxv. and xxxi. are not clear on the point, though Winckler, relying on Gen. xxxvi. 35 (cf. I Kings xi. 14‑22), looks on these chapters as implying a pre‑Moabitic and abiding possession of the region, a conclusion not wholly warranted by the text. The narrative in Num. xxxi. is not so reliable as to permit from the mention of " kings of Midian " (verse 8) the deduction that the Midianites were a settled people.
Genealogical details concerning the Midianites are not easy to interpret, partly because only a few names are given, partly because the nomadic tribes were so mobile that the same names appear from the Euphrates to the Red Sea. Gen. xxv. 1‑6 derives them from Keturah and gives five branches of the stock. Of these Ephah is by Delitzsch placed in North Arabia as known to Tiglath Pileser III. Knobel equates Epher with the Ghifar of Mohammed's age, who tented near Medina. For the time when they came into contact with Israel they are to be regarded as. Aramaic nomads. With Israel's regal period they vanish from history; the Ishmaelites of Judges viii. 24 may be the same people (see I8HMAEL). From the occurrence of Jether, Jethro, and Raguel among Hebrew names, a coalescence with the Hebrews has been suspected.
(H. GuTHE.)
BIRLIOGRAPRY: T. NBldeke, Die Amalakiter and . . . cin‑
ders NadAbarotilker der Israeliten, GSttingen, 1884; R. F.
Burton, The Land of Midian, 2 vols., London, 1878‑79
(contains collections of ancient materials); F. Delitssch,
Wo lap das Paradiest Leipsic, 1881; E. Glaser, Skisw der
Geschichte and Geographic Arabiena, ii. 445 sqg., Berlin,
1890; H. Winckler, Geschichte Israel#, i. 47 aqq. et pas
sim, Leipsic, 1895; Schrader, KAT, i. 143, 145; DB, iii.
385‑366; EB, iii. 3079‑82; JE, viii. 547‑548.

MIDRASH.
Meaning and Essence of Midraeh (1 1). Date and Structure (¢ 2).
Three Tannaitic Midrashim (1 3).
Genesis Rabba, Midrashim on Lamentations, PesON End Ta4tuma (1 4).
Homiletic Midrashim (§ 5).
Other Exegetical Midrashim (§ 6). Compilations (§ 7).
Narrative, Ethical, and Esoteric Midrashim (¢ 8).
The word midraeh occurs in II Chron. xiii. 22, xxiv. 27 (A. V. " story," margin " commentary," R. V. " commentary "), but the meaning in both passages is doubtful. In post‑Biblical usage, the verb from which the noun is derived means " to examine, to elucidate," while the noun expr

8e7	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	AMdleton
		drash
"interpretation," especially the interpretation of
Scripture, and then comes to mean the haggadie
		(i.e., illustrative and practical) or,
_. Mean‑ sometimes, the balachic (i.e., exeget
	ing and	ical) commentaries on the Old Testa
	Essence of ment, especially such works as the
Midrash. Mishna,T osephta, and Talmud (q.v.;
		cf. W. Bacher, Die dUede Termi
xiologie der jfdischen Schraftausdegung, pp. 25 sqq.,
103 sqq., Leipsic, 1899). The period of the king
dom in Israel was followed not by a hierocracy but
by a rule under the Law (nomocracy), which more
and more controlled the common external life and
also the spiritual life of Israel. This is indicated by
Haggai (ii. 10 sqq.), who makes the priests the reo
ognized teachers of the law, while Ezra's whole
striving was to bring the law of Moses into relation
with common life. It is no wonder, in view of
the changed conditions, that when other institu
tions were lost the Jews clung fondly to the written
law, their only possession from the past. Yet this
law was not a complete code; it hardly sufficed for
the period immediately following the exile, still less
could it supply the need when a fuller develop
ment of national life had bloomed. It had to be
fitted to these later times and to be expanded, and
this was done by the proem of midrash. The name
given to this activity was halachic, a collection of
the results being called halakoth. The first au
thoritative collection of this material is that of
Judah ha‑Nasi, another is the Tosephta, while very
early halachic material is found in the Baraithoth,
in the midrashim Mekhilta, Siphra, Siphre, etc.
Since the Old Testament was for the Jews the sum
total of all that is good, beautiful, and worthful,
it followed that it was regarded as the sufficient
norm for all purposes of life. The application of
this norm to practical purposes was brought about
through midrash. but in this relation it was usually
called haggada. Haggada sometimes adheres closely
to the Scriptural text, sometimes takes it as a start
ing‑point for varied expositions, which latter might
be given in the synagogue or at private homes, in
	public observances as the Sabbath or festival occa
sions, or at important events of public or private
life. (For the rules of halachic and haggadic inter
	pretation, consult H. L. Straek, Einleitung in den
Thatmud, VIL, § 2, Leipsic, 1900).
	In spite of regulations once existent against
	reducing haggada and halacha to writing, it is
	abundantly evident that this material did exist in
	written form as early as the first part of the third
	century, though the purely haggadic midrashim now
	extant date from a later time. The time when this
		reduction to writing took place is dif
	z. Date and ficult to ascertain because of the fre
Structure. quent redactions to which the mate
		rial at hand has been subjected and
	because the text has not been carefully transmitted,
	(cf. L. Zunz,DiegotteadienstlichenVortrdgederJudm,
	Berlin, 1832). Much arduous work upon the man
	liscripts is necessary before a history of midrashic
	literature can be written. The most productive
	midrashic activity dates immediately after the close
of the Babylonian Talmud and ends about 1040 A.D.,
	being supplanted by philosophical studies. Many
midrashim contain consecutive exposition of some book of the Old Testament, e.g., Genesis rabba; others consist of homilies based either on the cycle of synagogue readings or on the cycle of feasts. The homilies are usually the development of a theme on the basis of a text or verse of Scripture, and in the homiletic midrashim the compilers have been at pains to collect proems of various kinds to the themes (cf. S. Maybaum, Die dltesten Phasen in der Entwrickdung der jfdiwhen Predigt, i. 14‑27, Berlin, 1901). Thus it is reported of Rabbi Meir that his lectures were composed of halachic, haggadic, and illustrative materials, and of Rabbi Thanchum that he prefixed to a halachic lecture a haggadic introduction. The later midrashim often introduce a haggadic lecture by discussion of a halachic problem. The discussion which follows the proem is usually concerned with only a few verses, is often concentrated into a single verse or part of one, for the rest of the section chosen the exposition being rather cursory in character.
In the midrashim Mekhilda (on Exodus), Siphre (on Numbers and Deuteronomy), and Siphra (on Leviticus) two tendencies are discerned, that of the school of Rabbi Akiba and that of the school of his contemporary and opponent Rabbi Ishmael.
The second is easily recognized by the
3. Three learned by the names of the teachers
Taanaitic which are given and also by certain Midrashim. technical expressions which appear.
Mekhilta was in earlier times included under the term Siphre; it treats of Ex. xii. 1‑sxiii. 19, xxxi. 12‑17, xxcv. 1‑3. Originally this was only halachic in character, the more strictly exegetical material being of later date. Many traces indicate that it covered a larger part of the book than the material which has survived. Editions are: Constantinople, 1515; Venice, 1545; Vienna, 1865; ib. 1870. " Siphre " (a Talmudic plural meaning " books ") was originally a collective designation of the Tannaitic midrashim on Exodus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy; when " Mekhilta " was applied to the midrash on Exodus, " Siphre " was applied only to the midrash on Numbers and Deuteronomy. The extant Siphre . on Numbers arose in the school of Ishmael, though it is of diverse authorship; the haggadic parts on Deuteronomy also are of that school, but in the legal portions (on chaps. xii.‑xxvi.) it suggests the school of Akiba. Editions are: Venice, 1545; Vienna, 1864 (part 1 only). Siphra (" the book ") is halachic and of the school of Alflba, except in viii. 1‑x. 8, xviii. 1‑5, xavi. 3‑46. It takes its name from the fact that instruction began not with the first book of the Pentateuch, but with the third. The basis is the teaching of Rabbi Judah, a pupil of Akiba; the final redactor was Chiyya the elder, pupil and friend of Judah ha‑Nasi. The midrash of Ishmael's school is used only indirectly fcf. Z. Frankel, Hodogeticd in Mischnam, pp. 307311, Leipsic, 1859; D. Hoffmann, Zur Einleitung in die halachischen Midraschim, Berlin, 1887). Editions of Siphra are: Venice, 1545, 1609‑11; Bucharest, 1860; Vienna, 1862; Warsaw, 1866.
Genesis rabbet, or Bereshith rabba, the larger midrash on Genesis, is probably so called in distinction

	Xiar		b THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	sea
from a smaller and shorter midrash based upon
Rabbi Oshaya's work. The term rabba, " large,"
was in late times applied to the most common hag
		gadic midrash on the Pentateuch and
	;. Genesis even to that on the Rolls. This mid
	Rabba, rash on Genesis is an explanation both
	Midrashim of words and of things, taking fully the
	on Lamen‑ character of public lectures. Halachic
	tations, exposition is rare in it. The range of
Pesikta, and interpretation is large; the basis is
	Tanhuma. traceable to Rabbi Oshaya; though
		the artistic working‑out of the plan is
later, it is still not subsequent to the time of the
redaction of the Palestinian Talmud, and intrusions
of later matter occur. From xxxii. 4 on, the ma
terials have the stamp of the later haggada, and the
later manuscripts add many details. Apparently
this midrash was never fully completed, for after
xliv. 18 the progress is no longer verse by verse;
chap. xlviii. is lacking in the manuscripts, and chap.
xlix. in the codices has the earmarks of a late re
cension. The view that it was first edited as a
whole between 650 and 750 A.D. does not seem well
supported. In most editions this midrash is in 100
chapters; the manuscripts vary between 97 and
101 chapters, though all agree in their limits as far
as chap. xcvi., beginning with Gen. xlvii. 28. The
basis of the chapter division is not consistent or
uniform. Editions are: the midrash on the Pen
tateuch, Constantinople, 1512; on the Rolls, Pe
saro (P), 1519, Constantinople, 1520; of the whole,
Venice, 1545; with commentary of Issachar Baer
Kohen, Cracow, 1587‑88; of Samuel Japheh Ash
kenazi on Genesis, Venice, 1597 sqq., on Exodus,
ib. 1657, on Leviticus, Constantinople, 1648; of
David Luria and Samuel Straschun, Vilna, 1843
1845. Other editions are: Berlin, 1866; Vilna,
1878. The midrash on Lamentations (Midraah
Eykah) is one of the oldest of Palestinian origin.
It is exceedingly rich in proems owing to the fact
that the celebration of the destruction of Jerusalem
was accompanied by lectures on that book. These
lectures are the source of a great part of the expo
sitions of which the midrash is composed. The re
daction is later than that of the Palestinian Talmud,
though very early materials are used. The expo
sition is of the same character as that of Genesis
rabba‑‑smooth comment with interspersed hag
gadic pieces that are only. loosely attached to their
context. The redaction is prior to 650 A.D. An
old midrash of the name Pesilda was long known
through citations. Its recovery shows that it con
sists of thirty‑two homilies delivered on specified
festivals or Sabbaths, and that it was composed of
two collections, one beginning ,with New Year's
day, the other with Tammuz 17. The manuscripts
show, considerable variations in contents, especially
at the beginning. The question of the date depends
upon. literary relations‑it is a question whether
Pesitta is .dependent upon Genesis rabba and the
midrash on Lamentations, or whether it is older
than these. . In the first case its date would be
about 700 A.D,; in the second case it would be ear
lier than this. It is no longer in its original form,
but has undergone many alterations and has re
ceived many additions. The name means " seo‑
tion," and is derived from the fact that each chapter was entitled "Section of . . .". It was edited by S. Buber (Lyck, 1868), but unfortunately not on the basis of the Oxford manuscript. The Midrash Yelamdenu or Tanhuma covers the entire Pentateuch. Originally it contained only one homily for each Sabbath reading; in its present shape each homily has a halachic exordium, several introductions, exposition of the first verse of the lesson, Messianic conclusion. This formed the model of many collections. Editions are: Constantinople, 1520‑22; Venice, 1545; Mantua, 1563; Verona, 1595; with commentaries, Vilna‑Grodno, 1831; Stettin , 1864.
The Exodus rabba or Shemoth rabbais in fifty‑two sections, of which the first fourteen are continuous expositions of the verses in each Sabbath lesson, while the rest have introductions and treatment of the first verse only. This indicates 5. Homiletic that two parts are to be distinguished,
Midrashim. the first of which is derived from an early exegetical midrash, while the second is dependent upon Tanlauma. Its date is probably the eleventh or the twelfth century. LevUicue rabba or Vayyikrarabba is made up of thirtyseven homilies on the sections appointed for festival readings. It appears to belong to the seventh century. Numeri rabba or Bemidhbar rabba or Bemidhbar Sinai rabba, in twenty‑three sections, is in two very different parts. The first (sections 114, about one‑third of the whole) is a late haggadic exposition of Num. i‑vii., of which Num. i. iv. are expansions of Tanbuma, while in Num. v.‑vii. there is an effort to discuss the entire text by compilations from halachic and haggadic works. This part is not earlier than the twelfth century. The second part is essentially Tanbuma to the eight sections beginning with Num. viii., but with a different introductory formula. The nine.chief sections correspond to as many Sabbath readings in the single‑year cycle; but thirty homilies are distinguishable. ,Deuteronomium rabba or Debarim rabba follows generally in the printed editions the single‑year cycle in eleven sections.. But in fact there are twenty‑seven separate homilies which are related .to the three‑year cycle of reading. These homilies begin with a halachic exordium, then one or more introductions of quite independent homiletical character, exposition of the beginning of the Scripture lesson, and a hortatory or comforting conclusion. The time of compilation of this mishna is about 900 A.D. The authors of the thirteenth and later centuries often refer sections of this collection to Tanhuma, though there is little in common between them in the printed text. There are in this mishna only three homilies completed according to the rules for such discourse. It was published by S. Buber (Vienna, 1885) from a Munich manuscript. Aggadath Bereshilh, consisting of homilies, is later than the close of Genesis rabba. A late edition is by B. Epstein (Shitomir, 1899). Pesikta rabbathi is a collection of homilies for festivals, and is not earlier than 850 A.D., though it is claimed that the details on which this dating depends are glosses. It is believed to have been the work of at least four authors. A critical edi‑

$89	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	1lidrwh
tion is by M. Friedmann, Vienna, 1880. Peafkta hadatha, " New Pesi$ta," is a briefer midrash for festivals.
LekaJ,a tob, by a Bulgarian author, Tobia ben Eliezer, was probably written in 1097 and reedited by the author in 1107. It deals with the Pentateuch and with the Rolls, and is " half commentary,
half haggada, largely from early 6. Other sources." An edition appeared at
Exegetical Vilna, 1880, edited by A. M. Padua. Hidrsahim. Sekel tob was composed by Menahem
ben Solomon in 1139, and deals with Genesis and Exodus. Strictly, this work does not belong to the Midrashim. Bereshith rabba major is often assigned to Moses of Narbonne (first half of the eleventh century), who is asserted to have compiled commentaries on the Biblical books (cf. A. Epstein, Moses had‑Darwhon aua Narbonne, Vienna, 1891). Midrash Shamuel is a haggadie explanation of verses from the books of Samuel, collected from the Palestinian Talmud, Genesis rabba, Leviticus rabba, and other early sources. It is edited by S. Buber, Cracow, 1893; ef. on it W. Becher in Revue des Etudes juivea, xxvi (1893), 304‑309. Midrash Yonah is a poetical amplification of the book of Jonah, based on the Pirke Elimer (printed at Prague, 1595; Altona, e. 1770). MidraghTehilim (or Shohar tob), on the Psalms, is composed of two very different parts, divided at the end of Pa. axviii.; it is not the work of a single redactor, and the manuscripts show different recensions. It is probably the result of a long‑continued collection of remarks, homilies, and expositions from the most varied sources. The date and even the region in which it was made are not decided. In printed form it is often found with the midrash to Samuel and to Proverbs‑so the editions of Venice, 1546; Prague, 1613; Amsterdam, 1730. It was issued separately at Lemberg, 1851; Warsaw, 1873; and by S. Buber, Vilna, 1891. Midrash Meshalle, on Proverbs, was first cited by Rabbi Hananel (c. 960 A.D.), and uses the Babylonian Talmud (ed. S. Buber, Vilna, 1893). Midraah whir haahirim, on Canticles, has used the Palestinian Talmud, Genesis rabba, Pesi$ta, Leviticus rabba, and lost sources. The Midrash Ruth, in eight parts, was cited by Rabbi Rashi, and is from about the same sources as that on Canticles. Midrash Xohelech, on Ecclesiastes, is in three parts, and is discussed by L. Grilnhut, Krih'sche Untersuchung, Frankfort, 1892. Midrash Esther (or Haggadath Megi7la) is in six parts, each marked with an introduction; but the work was evidently not completed according to the intention of the author. The material is nearly all of high antiquity, taken from the Palestinian Talmud, Genesis rabba, Leviticus rabba, and Pirke Eliezer. The midrash is of Palestinian origin. Other midrashim to the Rolls are three on Canticles, ed., respectively, by S. Buber (Berlin, 1894), S. Schechter (Cambridge, 1896), and L. Griinhut (Jerusalem, 1897). S. Buber published a collection of haggadie commentaries on Esther (Vilna, 1886), also Agadische Abhandluugen cum Buche Esther (Craw, 1897).
Yalkut Shim'oni, generally cited simply as Yalkut, is a compilation from more than fifty sours, VIL‑24
part of them no longer extant, which cover the contents of the Hebrew Bible; it is divided into para‑
graphs. Its date is the first half of
	y. Com‑	the thirteenth century, and the title
'pnations.		indicates the author (Simeon), to whom
		the epithet Darshan, " Interpreter,"
was given after his death. If the usual identifica
tion is received, Simeon was a Frankforter. The
value of the book lies not merely in its use as a
common source book, but in its retention of works
otherwise lost. It was published at Monies, 1521
1527; Venice, 1566, etc., and at Warsaw, 1876.
The Yslkut ha‑Makiri, by Machir ben‑Abba Mari
(probably of southern France), was certainly com
piled as early as the latter half of the fourteenth
century. It embraces the prophetical writings and
Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. It is valuable for its
excerpts from Tanbuma and for its variants to other
known texts. Parts have been .published by J.
Spira (Berlin, 1894), S. Buber (Berdyczew, 1899),
and L. Griinhut (Frankfort, 1902). Midrash ha
Gadhol, on the Pentateuch, was compiled in Yemen,
and is also valuable for its excerpts from lost tan
naitic midrashim (cf. S. Schechter's ed., Cambridge,
1902). Mention may be made of the Yallcut Ru
beni (Wilmeradorf, 1681), and Yalkut hadaeh,"New
Yal$ut " (Lublin, 1648).
Among narrative midrashim may be noted Seder '0lam rabba (ed. B. Retnar, Vilna, 1894; another ed., 1897), ascribed to Jose ben ljalaaphta (c. 160 A.D.); Seder'Olam zuja (ed. S. Schechter, in Monata‑
schrift fur Geschichte and Wissmschaft
	8. liana‑	des Judenthums, 1895); Megillath ta
	tive, Eth‑	'anith (published often, e.g., Warsaw,
	ical, and	1839), belonging in part to the second
	Esoteric	century; Pi* Rabbi Elister (Warsaw,
	Kidrarhim.	1852), dated between 809 and 811 in
		Palestine, treats baggadically the con
tents of the Pentateuch, but is uncompleted; Yo
sippon (often printed, e.g., Goths, 1707), dealing
with Jewish history from the fall of Babylon to the
destruction of the temple at Jerusalem, written after
850 in Italy; Sepher ha‑Yaahar (Venice, 1625, etc.),
covering the history from Adam to the beginning
of the time of the Judges, of the twelfth century;
Midmhh roayyis'u, dealing with the wars of Joshua's
sons on the Cansanites; Pesah Haggada and Mid
rash pefirath Aharon; Kathib Eldad ha‑Dam, of the
close of the ninth century, full of old traditions, in
several recensions (cf. Epstein on it in his Eldad ha
Dani, Pressburg, 1891); a midrash on Zerubbabel;
Megillath Antiochi, of the eighth or ninth century,
in a dialect closely akin to the Biblical Aramaic,
published in The Choice of Pearls (London, 1851),
and in Trams of the Oriental Congress (vol. ii.,
London, 1891); Midrash Elleh Exkerah, published
as Midraah der zehn Martyrer, by P. Mbbius (Leip
eic, 1854), and several which are purely legendary.
Among the ethical midrashim may be mentioned
Derek Erez (ed. J. Harburger, Baireuth, 1839; ed.
M. Goldberg, Breslau, 1888), a collection of pure
ethical precepts; Tanna Debhe Eliyahu (ed. M.
Friedmann, Warsaw, 1900‑02), in which the
speeches are put into the mouth of Elijah; Midraah
Temura, in a part of which Rabbis Ishmael and
Eliezer are the speakers. Of esoteric character are

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	870
Sepher Yezirrs, on which comments exist from the
tenth century, of which there is an edition with
Eng. transl. by 1. Kalisch (New York; 1877); Mid
mah Konen, deals with heaven and earth, hell and
paradise. Collections of midrashim have been
published by A. Jellinek (vole. i.‑iv., Leipsio, 1853
1857, v.‑vi., Vienna, 1873‑77); C. M. Horowitz,
Sammlung Heiner Midraachim (Berlin, 1881), and
BtMiotheea haggadica (2 parts, Frankfort, 1881);
S. A. Wertheimer, KWnere hfidrawhim (4 parts,
Jerusalem, 1897); and L. Graahut, Sefer ha‑Lilh
kutim (5 parts, Jerusalem, 1898‑1901). Otber
translations, besides those specially mentioned
above, are those found in Ugolini, Theeaurua (vole.
xiv.‑xvi.), and the German translations issued by
A. W(Jnache in his Btbliadwca mWnioa (Leipsic,
1881‑85), and his MidmwA	Tehifiim (Treves,
1892‑93). 	(H. L. STleecK.)
Branzooaaraz: For general treatment of the subject the
	works of Straok (Einleaunp in den Thalmud, Leipsio,
	1900) and Ginsburg (Ind‑odudion to fhe ~oseoretieo‑critical
	Edition of the Rebrou Bible, London, 1897) are essential.
	Other works of general application: are J. C. Wolf, Biblio
	theca Htbraa, 4 vols., Hamburg, 1716‑33; L. Zoos, Die
	poaesdiensdidhm Vorbrige der Juden, Berlin, 1832, new
	ed., 1892; J. H. Weiss, Zur Gesehichte der ifadiaahe Tradi
	tion, vols. L ‑iv., Vienna, 1871‑87; W. Becher, Die Apada
	der Tannaiten, 2 vols., Strasburg, 1884‑90; ides, Die
	Aaada der babylonischen Amoraw, ib. 1878; idem. Die
	Ayada der paldstsniwhe» Amorder, 1892‑1902; W. O. E.
	Oeeterley and G. H. Boa, Religion and Worship of the
	Synagogue, pp. 74sqq., New York, 1907; A. Wtineche,
	Aus lerada LeArhallen, 3 vols.. Leipsic, 1907‑09. Besides
	these works. JQR, REJ, Mapasin fur die Wiaaenschaft
	des Judenthume (in this article abbreviated MWJ),
	and Monahsrhrift for aesehicAte and Wiassnechaft des
	Judmtbums (abbreviated MGWJ) are packed with dis
	cussions relative to the subject and illustrative of it.
	Special discussions pertinent to 4 are: M. Lerner, in
	MWJ, 1885, 383‑388, 408‑421, 464‑487; and 1893‑85;
	N. Netter, Die Gewhichte Noahs and der Stlndjluk Stras
	burg, 1891; S. Auscher, Die Gachichte Josefa, Berlin,
	1897; M. Margel, Der Segen Jakobe, Frankfort, 1901; J.
	Abraham^ The Sources of the Midrnah Echah rabba, Dessau,
	1881; J. Theodor, in MGWJ, 188587; A. Neubauer, in
	REJ, aii (1886), 224‑238, rdv (1887), 92‑107,111‑114. On
	Numeri rabba: J. Theodor, in MGWJ, 1886, 443‑459, 558.
NMCZYSLAW, ml‑chfs'lav (1111SEC0, MIESg0)
First Christian ruler of Poland, died 992. When defeated in 963 by the Wends, he sought protection from the German Emperor Otto I. by submission to him. He married in 966 Dambrowka, sister of Boleslaw II., duke of Bohemia, and the next year accepted Christianity of the Greek‑oriental type, ordering all his subjects to receive baptism. Owing to the increasing closeness of his relations with Germany, and particularly to his second marriage to Oda, daughter of Dietrich, margrave of Saxony, he abandoned the Greek form of Christianity for the Latin, and the latter became largely influential among his subjects. (See POLAND, CHRISTIANITY IN.)
MIGETIUB (XMGENTTIOS): Spanish heretic of the eighth century; d. Probably soon after 785. He is known only from the account given by his bitter opponent Elipandus of Toledo, who states that he assumed three bodily persons in the Trinity: the Father (David), the Son (Jesus, of the seed of David), and the Holy Ghost (Paul), thus positing a threefold historical manifestation of the one God. He also taught that the priest must be ab.
solutely free from sin, and that the faithful must not defile themselves by eating with the unfaithful, while he defended the ecclesiastical prohibition against tasting the blood of beasts. He was evidently an opponent of the doctrine of predestination, and zealously defended the Roman Church, which had been almost completely cut off from the Spanish by the Saracen dominion. About this same period, to reunite the two churches, Wilchar, archbishop of Sens, with the approval of Pope Adrian, had consecrated a certain Egila bishop and sent him to Spain. Here Egila, who was offended by the mixed marriages, concubinage of the priests, divergent calculation of Easter, and neglect of the canons of the Church, found ties of sympathy with Migetius. The Spaniards, seeking to rid themselves of both, found it easy to declare Migetfus a heretic. He then vanishes from history before the rising importance of the adoptionist controversy, although his followers, the Migetians, are mentioned with the Donatists and Luciferians in the following century. (A. HAUC%.)
BIHuI06RAPHT: The sources are printed in MPL, aovi. 859, 918, ci. 1330. Consult: W. W. von Baudissin, Eulopius and Alear, Leipsic. 1873; Hefelt, Concilienpeschichte, iii 028 sqq.; Hauck, ii. 283; Neander, Chriwian Church, iii. 157. 180; Hasnaak, Dogma, v. 281.

111<1GAE, min, JACQUES PAUL: Roman Catholic theologian; b. at St. Flour (161 m. n.w. of Marseilles), France, Oct. 25, 1800; d. in Paris Oct. 24, 1875. He was educated at the theological seminary in Orleans; became a professor at ChfAteau dun; was ordained priest 1824; and was curate at Puiseaux, in the diocese of Orl&ns. In consequence of a lively controversy with his bishop, caused by a book by Migne on the liberty of the priests, he betook himself to Paris in 1833, and started L'Univers religieux, which later wee named L'Uniroera, but sold it in 1836, and went to petit montrouge, near Paris, where he soon built up an enormous printing‑establishment, to which he gave the name Imprimerie catholique. From this proceeded, at low prices and with great rapidity, reprints of the works of the Greek and Latin Fathers, medieval writers, and modern ecclesiastical authors, besides a theological encyclopedia of the most comprehensive description, comprising three different religious dictionaries. The most important of these publications are: Seripturm aacrm curam campktus and Theologise curaus (each 28 vols., published simultaneously 1840‑45); Colfedion deb orateura'sner" (99 vole., 184476); Patrologiw cunnta completua (Latin series, 221 vole., 1844‑85, with Register by D. Scholarioe, Athens, 1879; Greek series, 161 vole., 1857‑8, with Index by A. Kreisberg, Petropolis, 1881); and Encydopedie th&logique (in three series of 52, 53, and 66 vols., 1844‑66). The chief place in these series is taken by the collection of the Fathers, which is valuable mainly as being the one uniform collection which even approaches eom. pletenees. Its worth is diminished by the fact that the best text was not always accessible or was not chosen, so that great differences in textual value are to be reckoned with in using the different volumes. Moreover, the work was done very rap. idly, so that additional defects due to haste mar

871	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Iffilmm
the result. In the establishment of Migne, printing was only one of the operations carried on: organs, statuary, pictures, and other things used in churches were manufactured there. In Feb., 1868, his immense establishment, which employed 300 operatives and many editors, was burned to the ground. In this fire the entire remainders of some volumes of his series were destroyed. The Franco‑German war delayed reconstruction, and the business was sold in 1876. The archbishop of Paris some time previously had deemed that the commercial element had become dominant, and had forbidden the continuation of the work, and in 1874 Migne was the object of a Roman decree which carried still further the prohibitions of the archbishop.
BIHLIodBAPH7: (3. Vapelesu, Didimnnassre des contemporain, p. 1290, Paris, 1880; KL, via. 1510‑13.
MILAN: Chief city of north Italy; seat of an archbishopric; population 300,000. It is said to have been founded by the Celtic Prince Bellovesus as the capital of the Insubri of Cisalpine Gaul. Taken by the Roman General Cneius Scipio, it became the Latin citadel of Mediolanum and grew rapidly until it later attained eminence in science and art, so that it was termed New Athens. Destroyed by the Huns, it was rebuilt by the Longobards and Franks and flourished as the first city of northern Italy under Charlemagne. With the peace of Constance (1183) it became a free city, and fell a prey to internal strife between the partizans of the Ghibellines under the Visconti and the Guelfs, until the former triumphed. There are seventy‑nine church, at the head of which is the white marble cathedral, the third largest church in the world, unique with its pinnacles and statuary, belonging to the later florescent culmination of medieval church architecture. It was begun in 1386, and is dedicated to Saint Mary and St. Thekla. St. Ambrose and St. Barromaus are the patron saints of the city, the relics of the latter being preserved in the crypt of the cathedral. San Lorenzo is the oldest church of Milan. San Ambrogio, formerly the cathedral, is the church to which Bishop Ambrose denied Emperor Theodosius entrance until he had done penance for blood‑guiltiness, and at the site of the present altar Ambrose is said to have baptized Augustine. In the refectory of a former cloister next to the Church of St. Mary is the famous painting of the Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci. The famous Bibliotheca Ambrosiana was founded in 1609.
Tradition has it that Barnabas was the apostle of Milan. Local historians recognize Anatolo as the first bishop. He was a Greek by birth, a pupil of Barnabas, and served eight years after 53 or 55, when he was succeeded by another follower of Barnabas, Caius. Under Merocles (304‑315) the Emperor Constantine issued his famous edict of Milan (313) granting religious freedom to Christians. Dionysius (352‑265) opposed the Arianism of Emperor Conatantius, supported Athanasius at the Council of Milan (355), and was exiled to Cappar docia. Ambrose (374,397), the most famous bishop of Milan, convened synods in 380, 381, and a provincial synod in 390, at which the pope was commended for his concern for the Church, the
Jovinian errors were explained, and the Ithacians (followers of Ithacius, bishop of Sossuba, the arch persecutor of the Priscillianists; see PmsciLLIAN) were condemned.
Milan began to be an archbishopric before the middle of the fourth century. Under Constantine, Milan with seven provinces and Rome with ten formed the two divisions of Italy, so that, besides Rome, it was the only large archbishopric. According to A. Binterim the archbishopric embraced twenty‑six bishoprics as late as the seventh century. According to two letters of Gregory VIL, there were then twelve, on account of the erection of other districts. The archbishopric has now these eight suffrages: Brescia, Bergamo, Como, Pavia, Creme, Lodi, Cremona, and Mantua. In 535 appeared the Ostrogoths, Archbishop Datius (530552) was banished (536), and the city was sacked and destroyed (539). When the Longobards tbok the city, Archbishop Honoratus (568670) fled to Genoa (569), and not till 649 did the archbishops reside again in Milan. The end of the Carolingian dynasty marked the decline of the secular princes and the ascendency of the bishops in power and influence. Lambertus (921‑932) had to pay a heavy price to King Berengar for his seat. The zenith of secular power was reached by Heribert (1018‑45), the mightiest prince of his time in northern Italy, an ambitious and warlike potentate to whom Conrad II. owed his crown. The evils from which all the churches of northern Italy suffered were Simony and Concubinage (qq.v.), of which Archbishop Guido de Velate (1046‑70) was himself guilty; but a strenuous reform arose in Milan which received official sanction at a synod near Rome, upon which Guido sold his archdiocesal honors. These evils caused a violent struggle be. tween two opposite parties, until, after a great earthquake in 1117, a vast synod of clericals and laity was assembled by Archbishop Jordan II. (11121120) which determined upon the extermination of the evils. Emperor Frederick I. reduced the city in 1162, and Gaklinus (1166‑76) received the returning fugitives and witnessed its rebuilding. The Ghibelline Giovamii Visconti (1342‑54) was a friend of Petrarch and a patron of Dante to whose " Divine Comedy " he ordered a commentary to be prepared by two theologians, two philosophers, and two masters of the liberal arts. Under Antonio de Saluzzo (1380‑1402) the erection of the present cathedral was begun: Chares Barrommus (1565‑84) distinguished himself by convening no less than six provincial and eleven diocesan synods for the thorough reformation of his archdiocese. His nephew Frederigo Barromeo (1595‑1631) rendered immortal service for the promotion of the Bibliotheca Ambrosiana, and carried forward the reforms of his uncle to such an extent that Philip II. of Spain ruled Milan with the least despotism and instructed his governor that he was commissioned not only as governor but as servant of the archbishop, who, by the promotion of religion, made many troops dispensable. Philip Visconti (1784‑1801) was contemporaneous with the horrors of the French invasion in 1796, and died away from his diocese at Lyons. After 1846 came the great revolution in Milan and before

	ll °n'
Xi		THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	879
the end of the war with Austria the emperor proposed Paul Ballerini, who was, however, not accepted, and in 1867 Luodovico Nazari di Calabiana was elevated to the dignity. The present archbishop is Andreas Ferrari (q.v.), who was enthroned in 1894.
The chapter consists of seven dignitaries, eight ordinary canons, eight deacons, three subdeacons, one master of ceremonies, one master of the choir, four notaries, eight readers, six middle canons, and two chaplains. The entire archdiocese ~ includes 1,323,000 souls, 743 parishes, and 2,167 priests.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Ughelli, Italia Sacra, iv. 2‑281 10 vole
	Venioe, 1717‑22; A. Sasst Arehiepiscopi Mediolani, 3
	vole., Milan, 1755; J. CappellettL Le Chiese d'ltalia, xi.
	35‑30b, Venios, 1858; E. Anemueller, aeschichts der ver
	Jassunp Mailande in den Jahren 1076‑1117, Have, 1881;
	V. Forcella, Milano net smolo xvii., Milan, 1898; J. Cart
	wright, Beatrice d'Este. Duchess of Milan, 1476‑87, Lon
	don, 1899; A. Goldechmidt, Die Kirchanfh4r de$ Heilipen
	Ambrosius in Mailand, Strasburg, 1902; F. Lemnlk La
	li~slaurasione ausbiaca a Milano not 1814, Bologna, 1902;
	lr. Curio. Milano durante it prima rbpno d'Italia, 1806‑14.
Milan, 1904; KL, viii. 48&‑b08.
MILCOM: The national god of the Ammonites according to I Kings xi. 5, 33; II Kings xxiii. 13. Additional passages where reference to Milcom is to be found are Jer. xlix. 1, 3, where Hebr. malcam, A. V. " their king," is to be pointed Milkom, " Milcom "; and I Kings xi. 7, where the Hebr. Molek is clearly to be read Milkom, it being the only case in the Old Testament where Molek is read without the article, the word being there qualified by the phrase " the abomination of the Ammonites." There is a possibility that in Amos v. 26, Milkom is to be read for malkekem, " your king " (for the various renderings see MOLzCH, MOLOCH), though the probabilities are against it; the passage is very difficult, and no generally accepted explanation has yet been given. For Zeph. i. 5 also see Mor.Bcn, MOLOCH. The name is evidently derived by mimmation from the general West Semitic word melek, " king " (probable Phenician vocalization milk, elsewhere malik, malk), and has therefore approximately the same meaning. Another derivation proposed for the word is melek `am, " king of the people."
Nothing at all is known of the cult, and no mention of the deity has yet been found in inscriptions. There is no reason to assume that the practise of human sacrifice obtained among the Ammonites, the identity of " Moloch " and " Milcom " being a totally baseless supposition. It is noteworthy that the place of worship was on the Mount of Olives, while that of Molech was in the valley. From early times, until the present, dating back to the days of the making of the Septuagint and other Greek versions of the Old Testament, there has been confusion of this deity with Molech (Moloch), as is shown by the way in which the two names were rendered in those versions and in the Syriac (cf. Zeph. i. 5, where some texts of the Septuagint read Mekhom, i.e., Milcom). The confusion was due in part to the common root at the basis of the two forms, in part to the fact that the Ammonites as a people and consequently their worship disappeared in the migrations which overran the districts east of the Jordan just before the Christian era.
GEO. W. GILMORE. BIBLIOGRAPHY: For literature 900 MOLBCB, MOLOCH.
	MILE: A measure of distance. The Roman
measurement by the mile was introduced into
Palestine with the Roman rule. The Roman mile
equals 1,000 Roman paces, 5,000 Roman feet, 8
Greek stadia, 1,478.7 meters, 1,614 English yards.
In the Bible it is mentioned only in Matt. v. 41.
In the Talmud (mii), as with the less accurate Ro
man authors, it is reckoned at seven stadia and a
half. In the Roman period all the‑main roads in
Palestine were`provided with milestones (midliaria,
lapidea, sismeia). Many of these may still be seen
in Palestine, for example, on the roads leading north
and west from Jerusalem. The distances from the
principal places were marked on them, and there
fore in Eusebius and Jerome, in the Onomaaticon
and in the oldest itineraries, the distances are given
in miles. See WEIGHTS AND MpAsuxaa, HEBBzW.
		I. BENzmGE8.
MILETUS: An ancient city on the western coast of Asia, Minor, about thirty miles south of Ephesus. About 500 B.C. it was the principal Greek city in Asia, and was the birthplace or home of Thales, Anasimander, Anaximenes, and Hecatmus. Its importance waned before the growing fame and population of its rival Ephesus. At present, only a few ruins remain to attest the site, which has been covered up by the silt of the Mmander River. In the New Testament, Miletua has importance as the point where Paul took leave of the elders of Ephesus (Acts xx. 17); and as the point where he left Trophimus sick (II Tim. iv. 20).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. M. R8rn8By, Historical Geography o' Asia Minor, London, 1890; idem, Church in the Roman Empire, pp. 155, 18, New York, 1893; idem, St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citiwn, pp. 293 sqq., ib. 1896; works on the life of Paul, e.g., W. J. Conybeare and J. S. Howson, Life and Times of Bt. Paul, ii. 214 sqq., New York, ib. 1869; and commentaries on Acts.
MILICZ, mf'lich, OF KREMSIER: Precursor of the Bohemian Reformation; b. at Kremsier (90 m. n.e. of Vienna), Moravia; d. at Avignon June 29 (or Aug. 1), 1374. The circumstances of his early life and education are unknown, but he seems to have been ordained to the priesthood about 1350, and then to have entered the service of the Margrave John of Moravia. In 1358‑60 he was registrar in the chancery of the German Emperor Charles IV., and " corrector " in 1361‑62, making a tour of the empire in the latter capacity with the emperor. In 1361 Innocent VI. provided a benefice for him, and in the following year he became canon and treasurer at Prague. Appointed archdeacon, he discharged his duties rigorously, but in 1363 he suddenly resigned, weary of the world and longing for the poverty taught by the Gospel. Determining to devote himself henceforth to preaching, he spent half a year in practise at Bischof‑Teinitz, and then returned to Prague, where he preached first at St. Nicholas and later at St. tEgidius. His audienoea were small at first; his use of the Czech Language was derided; his bearing was awkward. Nevertheless, the number of his hearers increased, and in his zeal he preached two, four, and even five times a day, turning the proud from their haughtiness and the money‑lenders from their usury. He also preached outside of Prague, especially in Moravia. Yet his success did not content him, and

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Biiloom Mill
for a time he seriously thought of entering some strict monastic order, and even ceased to preach.
Before long, however, new trials assailed him, arising from his anticipation of the coming of Antichrist and the speedy end of the world. In his perplexity he betook himself to Rome in the spring of 1367, where he became convinced that, on the basis of the 1335 years (" days ") of Dan. xii.12, plus the forty‑two years from the crucifixion to the destruction of the Temple, the end of the world was to take place in that year. At first keeping his conviction to himself, he finally announced his intention of preaching on the coming of Antichrist and urging the clergy and people to pray that the pope and emperor set the spiritual and temporal affairs of the Church in order. Learning of this purpose, however, the Inquisition confined him in the Minorite monastery of Ara Cceli on the Capitoline Hill, where he wrote his Lt7xllus de Antichristo (or better, Prophdia et rewlatio de Antichristo). On the arrival of Urban V. from Avignon (Oct.16,1367) Mikes was not only released, but gained the favor of the pope's brother, Ange Grimaud, cardinal of Albano. Milicz, on his departure, gave the pope a document filled with complaints on the faults of the Church, advocating the calling of a general council, and urging that good preachers be sent to instruct the Christian folk.
Returning to Prague, Milics was greeted with joy, and resumed with still greater zeal his teaching and preaching among the people. Early in the winter of 1369 he paid another brief visit to Rome, and on his return he succeeded his friend Konrad of Waldhausen at the Teynkirche in Prague. He preached there daily in German, in Bohemian at St. Agidius, and, after 1372, in the " Jerusalem," which he founded. He boldly attacked unworthy clergy, especially among the mendicant orders, and his sermons, officially acquitted of the suspicion of heresy with which some had charged them, were diligently copied and circulated through Bohemia and even beyond. So strong was their moral effect that it was his glory to have turned over 300 courtezans to lives of purity; and for this class of penitents he erected, with the aid of the emperor and other distinguished personages, a " Jerusalem," dedicated to St. Mary Magdelene, in the heart of the former bagnios, that they might live in retirement without being in actual nunneries. In 1373 the clergy lodged complaint against him before the provincial synod, only to have it brought to naught by the opposition of both emperor and archbishop. The clergy then turned to Avignon, complaining of his doctrine of Antichrist, his advocacy of frequent communion, and his alleged opposition to the study of the liberal arts. The Curia seemed to be averse to Milicz, who appealed and went to Avignon in person, whereupon he was triumphantly acquitted and requested to preach before the cardinals, only to sicken and die before he could return to Prague. (J. LosERTH.)
BraLr56RAPnrT: Remains of the sermons of Milics and re‑
lated documents are collected in Vlfstnfk (the " Reports
of the Royal Bohemian Academy of Sciences "), 1890,
pp. 317‑336. The twelve articles are in F. Palacky, Die
Voridufer des Huaitentums, pp. 39‑43, Prague, 1869. The
lives by one of his students and Matthias of Janow are in
Fonts arum Bohmniatruns, 1. 401‑436, Prague, 1873. Consult: E. H. Gillett, Life and Letters of John Huss, i. 19‑26, Philadelphia, 1881; F. Palacky, aeschichts Von BAmen, iii., part 1, 5 vols., Prague, 1836‑87; G. V. Lechler, Johann van Wiclif, ii. 118‑122, Leipsic, 1873; Lftsow, John Hus, pp. 27‑38, London, 1909.
MILITARY RELIGIOUS ORDERS: Organizations formed before and during the crusades to protect pilgrims who reached the sacred city in a suffering or destitute condition. Pilgrimage to places in Palestine hallowed by the presence or by the events of the life of the Savior was long regarded as a high religious duty in western Europe; and it was often, indeed, a form of penance prescribed by the Church. To the mass of the pilgrims, ill provided with the means of securing their safety or comfort, the long journey amid populations bitterly hostile was a most formidable undertaking; and many of them when they reached Jerusalem were better fitted to become inmates of a hospital than worshipers at the holy shrines. Thus there grew up in the Holy Land nearly twenty organized bodies or orders for the protection and succor of pilgrims; and, as a means to that end, they all sought to maintain the possession of the country in the hands of the Christians (see CRUSADES). Of these orders the most famous not only for what they did in Palestine during the Crusades but for their armed advocacy of the Church afterward against the Mohammedans and the heathen were the Knights‑Hospitalers of St. John, the KnightsTemplars, and the Teutonic Knights. See JOHN, SAINT, ORDER or HosPITALERa OF; TEMPLAR; and TEUTONIC ORDER.
MILL, JOHN: English New Testament scholar; b. at Hardendale (8 m. s.w. of Appleby), Westmoreland, 1645; d. at Bletchington, Oxfordshire, June 23, 1707. He was the son of a weaver, Mill, Milln, or Milne; entered Queen's College, Oxford, in 1661, and took his B.A. 1666, M.A. 1669, B.D. 1680, D.D. 1681. He was fellow 1670‑82, was ordained 1670 and made tutor, and became Sir William Palmer's chaplain at Warden in Bedfordshire. He was afterward (1676) chaplain to the bishop of Exeter, Thomas Lamplugh, 1677‑1705 prebendary of Exeter, 1681 to his death rector of Bletchington, 1685 principal of St. Edmund's Hall, Oxford, 1694 proofor of the clergy of Canterbury in the lower house of Convocation, and 1704 prebendary of Canterbury. Professor Bernard of Oxford turned Mill's attention to the Greek New Testament, and John Fell, bishop of Oxford, gave his own notes to Mill and assumed the first expenses of Starting Mill's edition. Fell's death in 1686, when the edition had only reached Matt. xxiv., seems to have dismayed Mill, and the edition did not appear until 1707, two weeks before Mill's death. He printed the text of Stephens, 1550, except in thirty‑one places. The critical apparatus gave Mill's views as to the passages that he had not dared to change in the text. The preface discussed with stupendous learning all the critical questions. Mill's was the first really great edition of the Greek New Testament. ~
CASPAR REND' GREGORY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. H. A. Scrivener, Plain Introduction to the Criticism q/ the N. T., ii. 200 sqq..4th ed., London, 1894: J. Le Long, Bibliodeea sacra. i. 235‑239, Paris, 1723;

Sillenniy Petition
Xilleanium	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	874
A. a Wood, Adence Ozonienses, ed. P. Bliss, iv. 828, 757‑
758, London, 1820; C. R. Gregory, Textkritik des Neusn
Testamanta, ii., 945‑947. Leipeic, 1902; idem. Canon and
Test of the N. T., pp. 448‑448. New York, 1907; DNB,
xuv". 358‑390.
MILLENARY PETITION: A moderate memorial presented by Puritan ministers to James I. in April, 1803. Its name is due to the fact that about 1,000 ministers signed it. It asked redress in matters of ritual, of subscription, and of abuses in connection with appointments to parishes, and in relation to discipline. The unexpected result was the Hampton Court Conference (q.v.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. H. Frere, The English Church . . .
(1668‑IB86), pp. 292‑293, London, 1904.
MILLENNIAL CHURCH. See CoMMuN18M, 11., 10.

MILLENNIAL DAWN: The title of a series of religious books written by Charles Taze Russell of Allegheny, Penn., where he was born Feb. 18, 1852. He was privately educated and in early life was a Congregationalist. Study of the Bible, of the various religions of the world, and independent thinking led him to publish two works in 1881, Food for Thinking Christians‑Why Eva was Permilted, and Tabernacle Shadows of Better Sacrifices; five years later appeared the first volume of Millennial Dawn, which is described as follows:
Vol. i., no Divine Plan of the Apes (1885), gives an outline of the divine plan as revealed in the Bible relating to man's redemption and restitution. Vol. ii., The Time is at Hand (1889), considers the Bible testimony concerning the manner and time of the Lord's second coming. Vol. iii.. Thy Kingdom Corns (1891), considers prophecies which mark events connected with the " time of the end," the glorification of the Church, and the establishment of the millennial kingdom; it contains a chapter on the Great Pyramid, showing its corroboration of the dates and other teachings of the Bible. The year 1914 is indicated as the end of the rule of the last world‑empire pictured in Daniel's prophecies, to be followed by the taking of world‑power by Christ and his Church and the millennial reign. Vol. iv., The Day q/ Vengeance (1897), shown that the dissolution of the present order of things is in progress, and that all the panaceas offered are valueless to avert the predicted end. It marks in these events the fulfilment of prophecy, noting especially the Lords prophecy of Matt. zxiv. and Zech. xiv. 1‑9. Vol. v„ The At‑one‑meet between God and Man (1899), treats the " hub " of the plan of recovery from sonditions of sin and death, dealing with the supremacy of God, the person of Christ, his offices and attributes, the work of the Holy Spirit, and the benefits from the scrifice of the Redeemer. Vol. vi., The New Creation (1904), deals with the creative week, Gen. i.‑ii., and with the Church, God's " New Creation. It examines the personnel, orgsmsation, rites, ceremonies, obligations, and hopes appertaining to those called and accepted as members under the Head of the body.
It is estimated that about 60,000 persons (twothirds of whom are in the United States and Canada) take an active interest in the study of Millennial Dawn. They are organized as bands of Bible students and disclaim any distinctive name. Each band elects an elder or elders, making selection " by the stretching out of the hand," a Scriptural method misunderstood, it is claimed, to have been " laying on of hands." Pastor Russell, as he prefers to be called, superintends the promulgation of their literature, which includes a semi‑monthly journal, Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, and numerous tracts, of which about 190; 000,000 pages have been distributed. Interested friends of the movement constitute 11 volunteer 11
workers and distribute the pamphlets from house to house, and colporteurs give their time entirely to the circulation of Millennial Dawn. The sale has reached the number of 2,884,500 copies, and the volumes have been translated into German, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, French, Italian, Spanish, and modern Greek. The literature is all published by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Allegheny, Penn. Distributing centers have been established in London for Great Britain, Elberfeld for Germany, Stockholm for Sweden, Christiania for Norway, Copenhagen for Denmark, Yverdon for Switzerland, and Melbourne for Australia.
A. E. wI1d.IAMBom

MILLENNIUM, MILLENARIANISM.
Fundamental Characteristic of the Doctrine (1 1). Rise of the Doctrine (1 2).
Christie and Pauline Doctrine (1 3). Periods of Development (4 4).
Patriotic and Medieval Doctrine (1 8).
Development During and After the Reformation (¢ e). Doctrine in the Eighteenth Century (1 7).
The Time and Place (1 8).
The Number of the Participants (§ 9).
Premillenarianiem and Postmillensrianiem (110).
Premillenarianism in Great Britain and America (1 11). The term millennium denotes in theology the thousand years of the kingdom of Christ on earth referred to in Rev. xc. 1‑8. Millenarianism (or the corresponding word of Greek derivation, ch& asm) is the belief in the millennium; more specifically, the belief that Christ will reign personally on the earth with his saints for one thousand years or an indefinitely long period before the end of the world.
The beliefs widely held at different epochs concerning the second coming of Christ and his reign upon earth constitute a historical phenomenon the significance of which can be thoroughly understood only from history itself. The definite period of a thousand years implied by the
i. Funds‑ words which are commonly used as mental names for such beliefs is really a sub‑
Character‑ ordinate and not always strictly
istic of the understood detail; the main thing is
	Doctrine.	the conception of a glorious period of
		peace and joy in which the elect shall
dwell under the immediate personal rulership of
Christ, on earth, after his return and the close of
the present dispensation. Whatever modifications
the doctrine may have undergone with its later
representatives, it never includes the conception of
an earthly perfection of the Church in the way of
historical development; the millennial reign is not
an ideal condition of the world brought about pre
vious to and independently of the second coming of
Christ by the operation of the divine leaven now
working here. It is a supernatural, extra‑historical
irruption of the other world into this world which
is not prepared for it and strives to resist it. The
millenarian belief has in common with the Church's
doctrine a hope for the visible reappearance of
Christ, but goes further when it intercalates between
this and the end of the world a reign of a thousand
years.
The belief is much older, as a matter of fact, than the Christian Church. The conception of a thou.

396	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	~illWZ‑'sninmpetition
en
sand‑year period which is to follow the downfall of hostile powers, connected, too, with the resurrection of the dead, is found in Zoroastrianism (q.v.). It does not appear in Old‑Testament
Rise prophecy. This promises simply a
of the reign of the Messiah, in which, after Doctrine. the restoration of the Jewish kingdom and the union of all nations in the worship of Yahweh, the happiness of the people shall express itself in external circumstances of peace and well‑being (see MEasus, Messuxtsm); hence came the externalism of later Judaism, which did not distinguish between literal and symbolical in the words of the prophets, and was impelled by its position to emphasise the political aide of its hopes But the transcendental side of these hopes was not forgotten; the conceptions of a general judgment and an end of this world, of the resurrection of the dead and a future life, gradually took shape and acquired strength. As the opposition became obvious between the old Jewish hope of a happy life of the just in Palestine, and the new idea of a heavenly kingdom before which this world should pass away, it may have been an attempt to reconcile the two which gave rise to millenarianism. It was not, however, even in the time of Christ, the universal feeling of the Jews. The detailed conception of the last things is most fully worked out in II Esdrae (vii. 28 sqq.), where appears the following order of events: a time of final trial, the coming of the Messiah, a war of the nations against him, ending in their defeat, the descent of the heavenly Jerusalem, the gathering of the dispersed Israelites, a four‑hundred‑year reign of the Messiah, seven days of absolute silence, the renewal of the world, the general resurrection, the last judgment. With such apocalyptic teaching as this is connected the reckoning of definite periods in the history of the world; the calculation of six or seven thousand years which was later so usual in the Christian Church appears with the translators of the Pentateuch (c. 280 s.c. according to Lagarde, Mimeilurrge», iv. 315, Gottingen, 1891), and in Enoch (xxxiii.).
The teaching of Christ is not millenarian. In Mark i. 15, indeed, he announces that the kingdom of God is at hand; but he knows nothing of any provisory kingdom to be founded by him, or of any difference between his own and his Father's. His coming is identical with the last judg.
3. Christic ment, until which the wheat and the
and tares are to grow together. The Pauline "resurrection of the just" in Luke Doctrine. xiv. 14 does not follow a preliminary period. The renewal of the world in Matt. xix. 28 is connected with the last judgment. In depicting the glories of the kingdom of heaven, he employs conceptions existing already, and leaves his disciples in no doubt that there is an analogy between the highest earthly joys and the blessings of the Messianic period (Mark x. 4o, xiii. 27; Matt. v. 4, viii. 11, xxii. 1‑14, xxv. 1‑13; Luke xiii. 29, xiv. 15‑24, xxii. 18, 30). But he made it clear to the Badducees (Mark xii. 24‑27) that they knew neither the Scriptures nor the power of God if they believed that he could do nothing but repeat in the other world the order of this; and at the Last Supper he
made the supernatural character of the future joys plain to his disciples (Mark xiv. 25). That, none the lees, something of the Jewishapocalyptio notions of the Messiah passed over into primitive Christianity is easily explained by the fact that the first Christians were of Jewish birth. Of Paul, it may at least be said that by his doctrine of a limited reign of Christ (I Cor. xv. 25 eqq.) he gave a foothold in the Church for ohiliastic expectations. But their main support was in the apocalyptic teaching of John (Rev. xx. 4 eqq.), completely misunderstood as the usage has been by many commentators from Augustine down, and little as it yields of positive information, even to modern critical investigation.
The later development departed in many partio. Ulan from the Jewish‑Christian type, as the Geutile Christians translated the belief into the terms of their old myths of a golden age, or as new inspirations and revelations gave it an individual form.
The history of the doctrine may be
4. Periods conveniently divided into three main
of Devel‑ periods. In the first centuries it
opment. formed a constant, though not an
unquestioned, part of the Church's doctrine, until a radical change in external circumstances and attitude forced it into the position of a heresy. After the Reformation, it became a favorite doctrine of mystical enthusiasts and sects, who looked upon it as a comfort in the disappointment of their wishes and hopes. From the middle of the eighteenth century, it began again to pens. trate more deeply into the life of the Church, building its evidence for the future on the history of the past.
In the first of these periods, next to the old Jewish conceptions, it received its most powerful impulse from the persecutions which forced men to look forward to an approaching compensation. It is
found not only in Cerinthus, in the
S. Patristic Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, and and among the Ebionites, but in the Medieval orthodox writers of the post‑apostolic
Doctrine. age, in the Epistle of Barnabas (xv.),
and in the fragments of Papias (in Irenesus, Hier., V., xxxiii. 3 aqq., and Eusebius, Hint. ecd., III., xxxix.). Echoes of it are to be found also in the first Epistle of Clement (l. 3), in the Shepherd of Hernias (i. 3), in the Didache (x., xvi.), in the second Epistle of Clement, the Apocalypse of Peter, and the old Roman creed, which closes with the belief in the resurrection of the flesh. About the middle of the second century Justin Martyr (Trypho, 1xxx.) knows orthodox believers who do not share the hope of an earthly perfection of the Church, but for himself regards it as the expression of complete orthodoxy. The doctrine appears in Melito of Sardis (Eusebius, Hint. eccl., V., xxiv. 5) and in the letters of the Christians of Lyons (ib‑ V., i. eqq.); and Irenseus (Hdr., V., xxxii. eqq.), like Papim, founded his belief in ‑it on the words of those who had been taught by the apostles themselves. The first objection against it was aroused by its fanatical exaggeration among the Montanists; its first literary opponent in the Western Church was the Roman presbyter Wua,

Xiliemainm	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	878
though Hippolytus still followed Irenasus. The opposition of the Ale:andrians was more important. Origen's Platonic idealism, teaching him to see the seat of all evil in matter, ranked him among its opponents (De principiia, ii. 11); but this reasoning influenced none but the educated class. In Egypt a bishop, Nepos, professing to defend the literal sense of Scripture, stirred up a violent agitation among both clergy and people; the conciliatory Bishop Dionysius of Alexandria succeeded in quieting it by his writings on the spiritual meaning of the prophecies. Methodius, bishop of Tyre, supported millenarianism. Its final echo in the East was the polemical treatise of Apollinaris of Laodicea against Dionysius in the last half of the fourth century. It maintained itself longer as a popular belief in the West, and the millennial reign was depicted in material colors by Commodian, Lactantius, and Victorinus, bishop of Pettau. It was with Augustine first (cf. De civitate Dei, XX., vii. 9) that this doctrine was finally settled. It was henceforth an established principle that the Church was the kingdom of God upon earth. With the cessation of persecution, and still more with the conversion to Christianity of the secular powers, there was no more point in ldoking forward to a period of earthly triumph over the foes of the faith. The Middle Ages repeated the traditional formulae without special interest. The expectation of the end of the world at the conclusion of the first thousand years of the Christian era was only the result of the view, usual since Augustine, which reckoned the duration of the millennial reign, identified with the Church, from the beginning of Christianity. The apocalyptic sects and factions, which proclaimed the near approach of the age of the Spirit, saw it not in the return of Christ in external majesty but in a reversion to apostolic poverty, connected in Joachim of Floris with contemplation and enthusiastic love; in the " Spirituals " with imitation of the smallest details of the life of Christ; among the " Apostolic Brethren " with brotherly union under the rule of a holy pope sent from God. Later, the teachings of Joachim were used for political purpoem in the communistic revolution attempted by the Taborites of Bohemia (see Hess, JOHN, HvssITrss, II., 1§ 3‑7).
With the Reformation began the Second period of the history of millenarianism. The new interest in Scripture and the belief that the Apocalypse contained in type the whole history of God's kingdom on earth, caused men to seek in it the explanation of the signs of the troubled times;
6. Develop‑ and the apparently approaching down‑
ment Dur‑ fall of the " anti‑Christian " papacy
ing and seemed a certain prelude to the coming
After the of the Lord. As in the primitive
Reforma‑ centuries, the martyrdoms of per‑
	tion.	secuted Protestants red the prom
		ises of coming redemption. Some Ana
baptists prepared for the approaching revelation of
Christ by the abolition of government and of the
Church's teaching function, and at Munster in 1534
established the new Zion with community of prop
erty (see Mf?NsTriH, ANABAI'TIsTs IN). Both the
Lutheran Church in the Augsburg Confession (xvii.)
and the Reformed in the Helvetic Confession (mi.) rejected this caricature of true millenarianism as mere visionary Judaism; and the Roman Catholic body had even less room for such speculations. The theosophy, indeed, of Jacob B6hme and of the mystics who followed ParaAelsus awakened apocalyptic hopes by painting the restoration of Paradise in the most glowing colors; but it was in the seventeenth century that millenarianism had the freest play. The political convulsions which shook Europe, the revolutions in England, the religious wars in Germany, the maltreatment of the Protestants in France, spread its teaching far beyond the walls of the conventicle. Sober and learned men became prophets under the pressure of the times. Toward the end of the century the Lutheran Church was influenced in this direction by the Pietistic movement. Spener himself (in his Hofjnung ktlnfUger besaerer Zeiten, 1893) gave utterance to a refined millenarianism, to which Joachim Lange added a still stronger apocalyptic note in 1730. The Berleburg Bible (see BIBLES, ANNOTATED) and the writings of the English ecstatic Jane Lead (q.v.; d. 1704) influenced thoughtful men in Germany very widely from the beginning of the eighteenth century.
But the chiliastie doctrines received their most powerful support from Johann Albrecht Bengel
‑q.v.), whose writings may be said to y. Doctrine open the third period. England, Amerin the ica, and Germany were the countries in
Eighteenth which the doctrine spread most widely. Century. In the first‑named, the millenarian sect
of the Plymouth Brethren arose between 1820 and 1830, and in 1832 the Irvingites established their " Catholic Apostolic Church " (q.v.), proclaiming that the Lord was at hand. The Mormons in America laid the foundations of the new Zion; and the sect of Adventists founded by William Miller (q.v., and see ADVENTISTS) awaited the coming of Christ in 1847. Meantime, among the most recent theologians, according to their attitude toward the text of Scripture and the Revelation in particular, some reject the doctrine altogether, while others are not willing to give up a refined form of it.
As old as the doctrine itself are the attempts to define the time of the millennial period. The failure to arrive at the time fixed proved no discouragement to fresh attempts. From Hippolytus to the
present day there has been a ooatinu8. The ons succession of these calculations,
Time and arbitrary enough in both their point
Place.	of departure and their method of
reckoning. The early Fathers most commonly looked for the second advent at the end of 8,000 years of the world's history; and many definite dates have been confidently announced. As to the duration of the millennial reign, more unanimity has prevailed, resting on Rev. xx. 4, 8 sqq.; Pa. xc. 4; II Pet. iii. 8. The thousand‑year period has been almost universally adopted, though the Gospel of Nicodemus shortens it to 500 years, and Bengel, through an exegetical misunderstanding of Rev. xx., makes two successive periods of 1,000. Modern millenarians, however, such as Rothe, Ebrard, and Lange, discreetly take the

377	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	1ri11saninm
thousand years of the Apocalypse as a prophetic symbol, and renounce the attempt to fix a definite period. As to the place, the great majority of millenarians have looked for the reign of Christ on earth; and its central point (except where sectarian beliefs have chosen another spot, as with the Montanists, Irvingites, and Mormons) the restored and beautified Jerusalem; or the heavenly Jerusalem, glittering with gold and jewels, was to descend to earth.
The number of the elect who are to share these blessings has also been much discussed. A too literal interpretation of Rev. xx. 4 limited them to the martyrs and those who remained faithful in the final persecution; and sectarian narrowness allowed small factions to exclude all who did not belong to their communion. The millenarian‑
g. The ism of the Church was much wider. Number of The Fathers (e.g., Justin, Irenseus) the Partici‑ take in all faithful Christians and the
	pants.	just of the old covenant. PoirAt in
		cluded pagans, such as Socrates, who
had been enlightened by the Logos, though these
were not to reign but to be happy subjects. Many,
on the basis of the yet unfulfilled prophecies as to
the future of Israel, have laid it down that the Jew
ish people, converted and restored to Palestine,
shall form the nucleus of the kingdom of Christ.
Ebrard founds this prediction not only upon Old
Testament prophecies but also on Acts i. 6 sqq.,
iii. 20 sqq.; Rom. xi. 29. The condition of the
participants has also been variously conceived.
The later writers dwell, some on the theological
side of the change which they expect‑‑on a relig
ious‑ethical assimilation to God; others on the the
osophical side‑the spiritualizing of our nature.
In all cases they look for the effect to follow upon
the immediate personal presence of the Lord
though this is conceived in various modes, accord
ing to the different ideas of the nature of the king
dom. The representations range through all im
aginable pleasures, from the intoxication of the
senses to pure contemplation of the divine Majesty.
To be sure, the coarser ideas, such as those of
Cerinthus, of the Ebionites, and of the Sibylline
Books could find an echo only in fanatics like Fel
genhauer. But even higher natures deceived them
selves with dreams of a wonderful fertility of nature
(Ireneeus) and a numerous progeny (Commodian,
Lactantius). The most ideal conceptions embraced
the abolition of idolatry, the unity and spirituality
of the worship of God, full knowledge of the truth,
and contemplation of the Godhead in all its essen
tial glory, to which freedom from the evils of this
life was added. Sin was not always understood to
be totally abolished; the transitional period of the
millennium was distinguished from eternity prin
cipally by the fact that the scarlet thread of evil
still ran through it. But the power of evil was re
strained and harmless (Kurtz, Lange), the number
of the elect far surpassed that of sinners (Jurieu),
and the baser forms of temptation were no more.
Nature still had the attributes of corruptibility, since
according to Scripture (II Pet. iii. 7; Rev. xxi.1) the
new heavens and the new earth belong to the com
plete and final perfection of eternity. (BnAT8z.)
Chiliasm as such has held to certain features which are quite as distinct and permanent as the 1,000 years. At first, the millennium was limited to the Jews alone; later on it was taken over by the Christians and they,‑as the Jews had before them, conceived it as consisting of sensuous conditions (cf.: F. W. Weber, System der altsynagogalischen paldetinischen Theologie, pp. 333‑386, Leipsic; 1880). There was a crass materialism or a violent supernaturalism, fancy ran riot, and ethical and spiritual elements were largely absent (cf. Iretueus, Hwr., v. 33; Eng. tranal., ANF, i. 562‑563). This element persisted and reappears in various forms, especially in the earlier and the more recent centuries of the Church. So far as chiliasm is distinguished from the millennium, it signifies the personal corporeal reign of Christ on earth a thousand years, whereas the millennium does not necessarily involve the personal presence of Christ during that period.
The two views of the millennium are distinguished as pre‑ and post‑millennium. With many minor but unimportant differences, the pre‑millennialists
hold: (1) the millennium is a period of io. Pre‑ world‑wide righteousness, ushered in millenarian‑ by the sudden, unannounced, visible
ism and advent of Jesus Christ. (2) The Gos‑
Postmille‑ pel, purely as witness, is first to be narianiam. proclaimed throughout the whole earth.
(3) Events of the 1,000 years are: (a) the righteous will rise (some limit this to the martyrs) and reign with Christ on earth, organizing his everlasting kingdom; (b) the Lord and his saints will bring about a " great tribulation " (Rev. ii. 27; Ps. ii. 9); (o) Israel, probably rebellious still, will confess the Crucified One as the Messiah (tech. xii. 10; Rev. i. 7); (d) by the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, a vast number of sinners yet on the earth will be converted; (e) Satan is bound and locked in the abyss. (4) After the thousand years, (a) Satan, unbound, makes a short, final, and vain effort to regain his lost foothold; (b) himself, his angels, and all lost souls, raised from the dead, will be judged and hurled into the lake of fire, doomed to everlasting torment; (c) the earth renewed by fire becomes the eternal home of the redeemed. The post‑millennial doctrine is as follows: (1) Through Christian agencies the Gospel gradually permeates the entire world and becomes immeasurably more effective than at present. (2) This condition thus reached will continue for a thousand years. (3) The Jews will be converted either at the beginning or some time during this period. (4) Following this will be a brief apostasy and terrible conflict of Christian and evil forces. (5) Finally and simultaneously there will occur the advent of Christ, general resurrection, judgment, and, the old world destroyed by fire, the new heavens and the new earth will be revealed (Westminster Confession, xxxii., xxxiii.).
In Great Britain and America pre‑millennianism has had many advocates. Among those in Great Britain were many divines of the Westminster Assembly (cf. Robert Baillie, q.v., Letters and Journals, Edinburgh, 1841‑42; Schaff, Creeds, i. 727746), Sir Isaac Newton, Charles Wesley, Augustus

	lanninm
XLUAI
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Toplady, Archbishop Trench (qq.v.), Edward Bickersteth (q.v., A Practical Guide to the Prophecies,
London, 1835), Horatius Bonar (Proii. Pre. phetical Landmarks, ib. 1839), T. R. millenarian‑ Binks (Outline of nfulfilled Prophecy,
ism in ib. 1854), H. G. Guinness (Light for the
Great Brit Last Days, pp. 338‑339, New York,
	sin and 1885), C. J. Ellicott (Commentary On
	America. I and II These. and II Tim., London,
1866, 1869), H. Alford (Greek Testament, vol. iv., pp. iii., 732, ib. 1871), John Cumming (q.v., Apocalyptic Sketches, ib. 1852). Some premillenarians hold to universal restoration (cf. A. Jukes, Second Death and Restitution of All Things, ib. 1878). In Scotland, Edward Irving (q.v.) gave a profound impulse to this belief (cf. Works, ib. 1879). In America premillenarianism has appeared in three different camps: (1) Christian scholars, as R. J. Breckenridge (The Knowledge of God Subjectively Considered, pp. 667‑882, New York, 1860); J. A. Seiss (The Last Times, Philadelphia, 1878), E. R. Craven (Lange's Commentary on Revelation, pp. 93, 339, 352, New York, 1874). (2) The Adventists (q.v.; see also MILLER, WILY rAM), and the Seventh‑day Adventists, the latter with a large publishing‑house at Battle Creek, Mich. Their doctrine differs from the common belief of Evangelical Christians in two respects‑the sleep of the soul after death till the judgment, and the annihilation of the wicked. (3) Evangelists. The most significant meeting with this interest, following a similar convention in London in February of the same year, was held in Holy Trinity Church, New York, Oct., 1878, which was Called by the request of 122 persons, representing ten denominations, the results of which are preserved in Premillenrcial Essays of the Prophetic Conference, Chicago, 1879. And this note is still firmly in the sermons of many leading evangelists. C. A. B.

BIBLIoaaAPnY: The sources are indicated in the text in the names given there of those who have dealt with the doctrine. In many of the commentaries on Daniel and the Apocalypse, the two Biblical books which have been used as foundation for the treatment, the doctrine is either advocated or expounded. The works on N. T. theology and on the history of the Church and of doctrine usually deal with the topic from the historical standpoint. Much will be found also in the literature under FAcaA'roLOGY, while the systems of doctrine treat the subject more or less fully, from the doctrinal point of view, under " Eschatology." Special works on the history of the idea are: H. Corrodi, Kritische Gewhichte do# Chiliasmus, 4 vole., Zurich, 1794; S. Hopkins, A Treaties on the Millennium, added to his System of Dodrines, Boston, 1811; S. Waldegrave, N. T. Millenarianism, London, 1855; A. Chiapelli, Le Ides millanarie dei Criatiani, Naples, 1888; L. Atsberger, Oeschichte der christliehen Esrdatologie. Freiburg, 1898; E. Wadetein, Die eschatolopische Idppe Antichrist, Weltsabbat, Weltende and Weltpericht. Leipeie, 1896 (deals with the Middle Ages); P. Vols, Jadische Esdatologie room Daniel bis Akiba, Tubingen, 1903. Works which discuss the doctrine are: G. Duffield, Mitlenarianism Defended, New York, 1843; D. Brown, Christ's Secand Coming; will it be Premillennialf Edinburgh, 1849; J. F. Berg, The Second Advent of Jesus Christ not Premillenniat, Philadelphia, 1859; W. Kelly, Lectures on the Second Coming and Kingdom of . . . Jesus Christ, London, 1868; 8. M. Merrill, The Second Coming of Christ Considered in its Relation to the Millennium, Cincinnati, 1879; 7. P. Warren, The Parousia, Portland, Me., 1885; E. Storrow, The Millennium, London, 1886; H. Varley, Christ's Coming Kingdom, ib. 1886; J. S. Russell, The Parousia, ib. 1887; D. Bosworth, The Millennium and
878
Related Events, New York, 1889; N. West, Studies in Eschatology: the Thousand Years in both Testaments, ib. 1889; L. J. Fisher, That Day of Days, Middletown, O., 1903; H. M. Riggle, The Kingdom of God and the One Thousand Years' Reign, Moundsville, W. Va., 1904; D. Heagle, That Blessed Hope, the Second Coming of Christ, Philadelphia, 1907 (aims to reconcile pre‑ and poet‑millenarianiem).
MILLER, HUGH: Geologist and member of the Free Church of Scotland; b. at Cromarty (82 m. w.n.w. of Aberdeen) Oct. 10, 1802; d. by his own hand at Portobello (3 m. e. of Edinburgh) Dec. 24, 1856. He was carefully educated by his two uncles, was apprenticed in 1819 to a stone‑mason, and followed that trade for several years. His spare hours he spent in the cultivation of his mind, especially in the study of geology, the first fruits of which appeared in 1840 in Old Red Sandstone (Edinburgh, 1841). In 1834 he received an appointment in the Commercial Bank at Cromarty. In 1840 he accepted the editorship of the Witmesa, a Free Church paper, which he speedily made very influential against the practise of patronage in settling ministers over churches. Miller's works on geology, in which he was a pioneer, roused violent criticism at the time but were much praised by other geologists. Among his works are: Poems Written ire the Leisure Hours of a Journeyman Mason (Inverness, 1829); Scents crud Legends of the North of Scotland (London, 1835); Memoir of William Forsyth (1839); First Impressions of England and its People (London, 1847); Foot‑Prints of the Creator (1847); My Schools and Schoolmasters (autobiographic; Edinburgh, 1852; latest ed., 1906); Fossiliferoua Deposits of Scotland (1854); Geology versus Astronomy (Glasgow [1855]); Testimony of the Rocks (Edinburgh, 1857); Cruise of the Betsy (1858); Sketch‑Book of Popular Geology (1859); Essays (ed. P. Bayne, 1862); Tales and Sketches (ed. Mrs. Miller, 1863); and Edinburgh and its Neighbourhood, Geological and Historical (1864). His works were collected in 13 volumes (Edinburgh, 1869).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult, besides the autobiographic my Schoole and Schoolmasters, ut sup., the biographies by P. Bayne, 2 vole., London, 1871; T. N. Brown, Glasgow, 1858; J. L. Watson, London, 1880; W. K. Leash, Edinburgh, 1898; also W. M. Mackenzie, Hugh Miller; a critical Study, London, 1905; DNB, IQavii. 408‑410.
MILLER, JAMES RUSSELL: Presbyterian; b. at Harehaville, Pa., Mar. 20, 1840. He was educated at Westminster College, New Wilmington, Pa. (A.B., 1862), and, after serving for two and a half years with the U. S. Christian Commission connected with the Army of the Potomac, entered the United Presbyterian Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa., from which he was graduated in 1867. He then held successive pastorates at New Wilmington, Pa. (1867‑89), Bethany Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia, Pa. (1869‑78), Broadway Presbyterian Church, Rock Island, Ill. (1878‑80), and Holland Memorial Church, Philadelphia,(18801898). Since 1900 he has been pastor of St. Paul's Presbyterian Church in the same city, and has also been editorial superintendent of the Presbyterian Board of Publication and Sabbath‑School Work since 1880. He has written Week Day Religion (Philadelphia, 1880); Home Making (1882); In His

879	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	~u‑ium
Steps (1885); Wedded Life (1886); Silent Times (New York, 1886); Come ye Apart (1887); The Marriage Altar (1888); Practical Religion (Philadelphia, 1888); Bits of Pasture (1890); Making the Most of Life (New York, 1891); The Everyday of Life (1892); Girls: Faults arid Ideals (1892); Young Men: Faults and Ideals (1893).; Glimpses through Life's Windows (1893); Building of Character (1894); Secrets of Happy Home L(fe (1894); Life's Byways and Waysides (Philadelphia, 1895); For a Busy Day (1895); Year Book (New York, 1895); Family Prayers (1895); The Hidden Life (1895); The Blessing of Cheerfulness (1895); Things to Live for (1896); Story of a Busy Life (1896); A Gentle Heart (1896); Personal Friendships of Jesus (1897); By the Still Waters (1897); The Secret of Gla$ness (1898) ; The Joy of Service (1898); The Master's Blesseds (Chicago, 1898); Young People's Problems (1898); Unto the Hills (New York, 1899); Strength and Beauty (1899); The Golden Gate of Prayer (1900); Loving my Neighbor (1900); The Ministry of Comfort (1901); Summer Gathering (1901); How? When? Where? (1901); The Upper Currents (1902); Today and Tomorrow (1902); In Perfect Peace (1902); The Lesson of Love (1903); The Face of the Master (1903); Our New Edens (Philadelphia, 1904); Finding the Way (New York, 1904); The Inner Life (1904); Manual for Communicants' Classes (Philadelphia, 1905); The Beauty of Kindness (New York, 1905); When the Song Begins (1905); Christmas Making (1906); A Heart Garden (1906); Morning Thoughts for Every Day in the Year (1907); Evening Thoughts for Every Day in the Year (1908); The Wider Life (1908); A Cure for Care (1908); The Gate Beautiful (1909); Bethlehem to Olivet; the Life of Jesus illustrated by Modern Painters (1909); Go Forward (1909); and Devotional Hours with the Bible, vole. i.‑iii. (1909).

MILLER, SAMUEL: Presbyterian; b. near Dover, Del., Oct. 31, 1769; d. at Princeton, N. J., Jan. 7, 1850. He was graduated at the University of Pennsylvania, 1789, and was associate pastor of the First Presbyterian Church, New York City, 179$‑1813, and professor of ecclesiastical history and church government in the Princeton Theological Seminary, 1813‑49. He was a stanch Calvinist and entered heartily into the defense of his positions. He was particularly prominent in the discussions which led to the disruption of the Presbyterian Church in 1837. He wrote, besides minor publications: A Brief Retrospect of the Eighteenth Century (2 vola., New York, 1803; 2d ed., 3 vols., 1805); Constitution arid Order of the Christian Ministry (1807), with Continuation (1809); Memoirs of Rev. John Rodgers (1809); Clerical Manners and Habits (Philadelphia, 1827); Ofce of Ruling Elder (New York, 1831); Infant Baptism (1834); Presbyterianism the Truly Primitive and Apostolieal Constitution of the Church of Christ (Philadelphia, 1835); Life of Jonathan Edwards, in J. Sparks' Library of American Biography (vol. viii., 10 vols., 1834‑38); and The Primitive and Apostolic Order of Christ Vindicated (1840).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 8. Miller Life of Rev. Samuel Miller, 2 vole., Philadelphia, 1869; 1. W. Riley. American Philosophy, 00 RAY Sdaois, pp. 5M‑519, New York, 1907.
MILLER, WILLIAM: Founder of the Adventist denomination; b. at Pittafield, Mass., Feb. 15, 1782; d, at Low Hampton, N. Y., Dec. 20, 1849. He had no educational facilities except his own reading, and was a farmer by occupation. In the war of 1812 he served as a captain of volunteers. At first a skeptic through reading the works of Hume, Voltaire, and Paine, in 1816 he was converted, joining the Baptist Church at Low Hampton, and became a diligent student of the Bible. In 1831 he believed that he had discovered the key to Daniel's prophecies and, predicting that the end of the world was at hand, founded the met of the Adventists (q.v.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 8. Bliss, Memoirs of William Miller, Boston, 1853; J. White, Life of William Miller, Battle Creek, Mich., 1875.
MILLIGAN, WILLIAM: Church of Scotland; b. in Edinburgh Mar. 15, 1821; d. there Dec. 11, 1893. He was educated at St. Andrew's University (M.A., 1839), where he studied divinity as he also did at Edinburgh. He was settled at Cameron, Fifeshire, in 1844 and at Kiloonquhar, Fifeshire, in 1850. He became professor of divinity and Biblical criticism is the University of Aberdeen in 1860, and was chosen one of the revisors of the New Testament in 1870. Among his numerous works may be named: The Resurrection of our Lord (London, 1881); Revelation of St. John (1886); Elijah, his Life and Times (1887); Ascension and Heavenly Priesthood of our Lord (1892); Discussions on the Apocalypse (1893); and Resurrection of the Dead (Edinburgh, 1894). He also wrote commentaries on the Gospel of St. John (in connection with W. F. Moulton in Schaff's commentary, New York, 1880) and the Apocalypse (Schaff's commentary, 1883, and Expositor's Bible, London, 1889).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: In Memoriam, by his wife, Aberdeen, 1894; DNB, xxxvi. 174‑175.

MILLS, BENJAMIN FAY: Unitarian minister and lecturer; b. at Rahway, N. J., June 4, 1857. HA received his education at Phillips Andover Academy, Hamilton College, and Lake Forest University (B.A., 1879; M.A., 1881); was ordained in the Congregational Church (1878); served Congregational churches at Cannon Falls, Minn., and Rutland, Vt., and the Fourth Presbyterian Church, Albany, N. Y. (1878,85); was engaged in evangelistic work (1885‑J5); withdrew from orthodox fellowship (1897) and conducted independent work in Boston (1897‑99); was in charge of the First Unitarian Church, Oakland, Cal. (1899‑1903); founded the Los Angeles Fellowship (1905) and the Greater Fellowship (1908), editing the Fellowship Magazine since 1905. In 1907‑08 he visited China, Japan, and the Philippine Islands. He has written: Victory through Surrender (New York, 1892); God's World and Other Sermons (1894); The Divine Adventure (Loa Angeles, 1904) ; The New Revelation (1908); and contributed the part on China, Japan, and the Philippine Islands to Our Foreign Missionary Enterprise (Dayton, 0., 1909).
MILLS, JOB SMITH: Bishop of the United Brethren in Christ; b. at Plymouth, 0., Feb. 28,
1848; d. at Annville, Pa., Sept. 16, 1908.He

MUM	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	880
aciltiade.
was educated at Illinois Wesleyan University and
pursued his theological training privately. He
was pastor at Otterbein University, Westerville,
O. (187480, 1885‑87), professor of English liter
ature and rhetoric there (1887‑90), professor of
philosophy (1890‑93), and president (1891‑1893)
of Western College, Toledo, Is. He was elected
bishop (1897), and in this capacity traveled ex
tensively in Europe, Asia, and Africa. He wrote
Mission Work in West Africa (Dayton, O., 1898);
Manual of Family Worship (1900); and Holiness
(1902).
	MILLS, SAMUEL JOHN: Promoter of foreign
missions; b. at Torringford, Conn., Apr. 21, 1783;
d. at sear June 15, 1818. He was graduated from
Williams College (1809), and Andover Theological
Seminary (1812); was exploring agent of the Mas
sachusetts and Connecticut Missionary Society in
the West and Southwest (1812‑13); served as mis
sionary and Bible agent in the Southwest (1814
1815); was ordained (1815); acted as agent for
the School for Educating Colored Men (1816); went
as agent of the Colonization Society to western
Africa (1817), and died on the return journey. Dur
ing his college days he had been deeply interested
in the work of sending the Gospel to heathen lands;
and, while a student at college, he met with several
of his fellow students to consult and pray over this
question. The meeting was held under a haystack,
and the site has been marked by an appropriate
monument (of. T. C. Richards, Samuel J. Mills, pp.
247 sqq., Boston, 1906). During his seminary
course he joined with Samuel Mott, Jr., Adoniram
Judson, and Samuel Newell in an address to the
General Association of Massachusetts Proper at
Bradford, calling its attention to the claims of the
heathen world. To this memorial was largely due
the awakened interest in foreign missions which
soon followed.
BIaLIonaAmY: The best biography is that by Richards (ut
	sup.), which gives an ample bibliography covering all
	phases of the subject. Others are: G. Spring, New York,
	1820, 2d ed., Boston, 1829; and E. C. Bridgman, New
	York, 1864.
	MILLSPAUGH, FRANK ROSEBR00g: Prot
estant Episcopal bishop of Kansas; b. at Nichols,
N. Y., Apr. 12, 1848. He was educated at the
Shattuck School, Faribault, Minn. (graduated in
1870), and at Seabury Divinity School in the same
city (graduated in 1873). He was ordered deacon
in the same year and advanced to the priesthood
in 1874; was a missionary in Minnesota (1873‑76);
dean of Trinity Cathedral, Omaha, Neb. (1876‑56);
rector of St. Paul's, Minneapolis (1886‑94); and
dean of Grace Cathedral, Topeka, Kan. (1894‑95).
Since 1895 he has been bishop of the diocese of
Kansas.
Brawooasra:: W. S. Perry, The Episcopate is America,
	p. 389, New York, 1895.
	MILMAN, HENRY HART: English ecclesias
tical historian and poet; b. in London Feb. 10,
1791; d. at Sunninghill (14 m. ex.e. of Reading)
Sept. 24, 1868. He was the son of Sir Francis Mil
man, physician to George III.; was educated at
Oxford (B.A., 1814; M.A., 1816; B.D., D.D., 1849),
took the Newdigate prize for poetry by The Bel‑
videre Apollo (1812), and became fellow of Brase
nose College (1815). He was priested (1816); was
vicar of St. Mary's, Reading (1818 35); rector of
St. Margaret's, Westminster, and canon of West
minster (1835‑49); and became dean of St. Paul's,
London (1849). He was also professor of poetry at
Oxford (182131), and Bampton lecturer in 1827.
In theology he was a liberal, advocating abolition of
subscription to the Thirty‑nine Articles, and in his
historical writings somewhat in advance of his
times. His literary labors fall into four class:
(1) Poetry: The Beltriderv Apollo (ut sup.); Fazio,
a Tragedy (Oxford, 1815; 6th ed., London, 1818);
Samor, Lord of the Bright City (London, 1818); The
Fall of Jerusalem (1820); The Martyr of Antioch
(1822); Belshazzar (1822); and Anne Boleyn (1826).
(2) Translations: Nala and Damayanti, and Other
Poems, Translated from the Sanacnt into English
Verse (Oxford, 1835); The Agamemnon of Xachylus
and the Bacchanals of Euripides, with Passages from
the Lyric and Later Pods of Greece (London, 1865).
(3) Editions of other works: Gibbon's History of
the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1838
and often, new ed., ed. J. B. Bury, 7 vols., 1896
1900); and an excellent edition of Horace (1849).
(4) Original works: The Character and Conduct of
the Apostles Considered as an Evidence of Christian
ity (Bampton lectures; Oxford, 1827); The History
of the Jews (London, 1830 and often, abridged ed.,
1876); The Life of E. Gibbon, Esq., with Selections
from his Correspondence (1839); The History of
Christianity from the Birth of Christ to the Abolition
of Paganism in the Roman Empire (3 vols., 1840);
History of Latin Christianity; Including that of the
Popes, to the Pontificate of Nicholas V. (a continua
tion of the preceding; 6 vols., 1854‑55, 4th ed., 9
vols., 1867); A Memoir of Lord Macaulay (contrib
uted to the Transactions of the Royal Society, 1859,
and prefixed to later editions of Macaulay's Works);
Annals of St. Paul's Cathedral (completed and pub
lished by his son Arthur after his death, 1878);
Savonarola, Erasmus, and Other Essays (collected and
published by his son, 1870); and many sermons on
occasional topics. Milman contributed also to
hymnology; of the thirteen hymns written by him,
the two most popular are " When our heads are
bowed with woe," and " Ride on, ride on in maj
esty." His Poetical Works were collected in three
vols. (1839), and a complete edition of his Historical
Works is in 15 vols. (186637).
BraLma8APHT: A. Milman, Henry Hart Milman . . . a Biographical 8keteA, London, 1900; DNB, savili. 1‑4; S. W. Duffield, English Hymns, pp. 484, 801, New York, 1888; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 738‑737.
MIL1fE~ WILLIAM: Missionary to China; b. in the parish of Kinnethmont (28 m. n.w. of Aberdeen), Scotland; baptized Apr. 27, 1785; d. at Malacca (120 m. n.w. of Singapore), Malay Peninsula, May 27, 1822. Deciding to devote himself to missionary work, he took the course of the London Missionary Society's College at Gosport, where he was ordained in 1812; went to Macao, China, in 1813; then to Canton, where he was joined by his colleague Robert Morrison; after a year's tour through the Malay Archipelago he settled down at Malacca, where he opened a school for Chine

881	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lu1"
converts, and set up a printing‑press, which issued the Chinese (leaner. He translated into Chinese parts of the Old Testament, and was principal of the Anglo‑Chinese College of Malacca, of which he had been the chief founder. Because of ill‑health he visited Singapore and the Island of Penang in 1822, but died immediately on his return to Malacca. With Robert Morrison he tmuslated the New Testament into Chinese (Canton, 1813); and independently The Sacred Edict; Containing Sixteen Maxima of the Emperor Rang‑He . . . Illuatroted with Notes (London, 1817); he also wrote A Rdrv&ped of the Firat Ten Years of the Protestant Afimon to China: accompanied with Miscellaneous Remarks o» as Literature (Malacca, 1820); and he was the editor of the Indo‑Chinese Gleaner (vols. i.‑iii., 1818‑22).
BzBwoaawra:: R. Morrison, Meinoire of Bee. William Milne, Malsooe, 1824; R. Philip, Life and Opinions of . W. Milne, London, 1840; lest, Tupper, and Bliss,
Eneyclopsatia of Missions, pp. 478‑477, New York, 1904;
DNB. xxxviti. 9.

MILNER, JOSEPH and ISAAC: Two brothers, members of the Church of England, distinguished for their work on church history.
1. Joseph Milner: Church historian; b. at Leeds Jan. 2, 1744; d. at Hull Nov. lb, 1797. He began his education as a chapel clerk at Catherine's Hall, Cambridge, but was obliged by his poverty to leave in 1768 before gaining his degree. He soon became, however, headmaster of the Latin school and evening preacher at Hull, where, after thirty years of service, he was almost unanimously chosen rector, although he died a few weeks later. As a teacher he won the affection and respect of his pupils, and was equally popular as a preacher until about 1770, when he became almost a recluse, and substituted for his moral sermons exhortations to repentance and revival. Nevertheless, he retained his prestige with the poor of Hull and North Ferriby, among whom he labored gratuitously for seventeen years, being even accused of violating the Conventicle Act for his private devotional meetings. But he was a Methodist only in the religious, not in the sectarian, sense. He may thus be regarded as one of the founders of the Evangelical school in the Church of England. After some ten years of ridicule and misinterpretation, he regained his former favor, thanks to the change in the popular taste.
Milner published several brief works, including: Some Remarkable Passages is the Life of WtWiam Howard (York, 1785); Gabon'a Account of Chris. tianity Considered (1781); and Essays on the Influence of the Holy Spirit (1789). His chief fame, however, was won by his History o, f the Church of Christ (b vole., York, 1794‑1819; Dew eds., by I. Milner, London, 1816, and T. Grantham, 1847), written in collaboration with his brother Isaac. Joseph planned the work and prepared the first three volumes, while Isaac completed the fourth on the basis of his brother's material and wrote the fifth. He also purposed to continue the history, although this plan was never executed. Regarding church history as a " succession of pious men," the work is mainly biographical, rites, organization, external history, and religious controversies
being entirely subordinate. The material is divided into centuries, rather than into periods. The first three centuries (vol. i.) are not characterised, only Ignatius and Cyprian receiving special mention. The fourth and fifth centuries (vol. ii.) are treated merely in a series of collocations of events, though Milner discusses Arianism in detail, while his disquisitions on the relation of Church and State form some of his best writing. The fifth century was for him summed up in Augustine, but he also devotes much space to Pelagianism, though he sly touches the great councils. Between the sixth and thirteenth centuries (vol. iii.) the true Church consisted only of missions to the heathen and such lives as those of Anseim, Bernard of Clairvaua, and the Waldensea. The fourth volume is devoted to the forerunners of the ReformationGrosseteste (bishop of Lincoln), Thomas Bradwardine (archbishop of Canterbury), Weasel, 8avonarole, and Thomas it Kempis. Wyclif and Hum, with the Loliards and Hussites, are treated with great care, and the volume is completed with the history of Luther and the German Reformation up to the Diet of Worms. The fifth volume continues to the Diet of Augsburg. Both brothers are entitled to the merit of having made the importance of Luther and the Reformation in Germany known to their countrymen, and of having derived the Reformation outside of Germany from Luther's mfluence. As a scientific work the history is of little consequence, nor is there any rigid investigation of sources; but, granting the desire of the authors to present Christian biographies in historical settings, the plan, otherwise open to grave criticism in its neglect of historical development, is beyond reproach.
	9. Isaac Milner: Brother of the preceding; b.
at Leeds Jan. 11, 1750; d. at London Apr. 1, 1820.
After a youth of poverty, he entered Queen's Col
lege, Cambridge, in 1770, as a sisar. He became
successively fellow and tutor, and eventually (1788)
president of his college. Devoting himself eepe.
cially to mathematics and science, he was appointed
professor of natural sciences in 1784, and in 1796
succeeded Newton in the chair of mathematics.
He was twice vice‑chancellor of the university, and
in 1791 was also appointed dean of Carlisle. Al
though lees Methodistic than his brother, he in to
be considered, like him, a founder of the Evang&
ical school of the Anglican Church. Theologically
he is best known for his cooperation on the church
history of his brother (see above). He also pub
lished a Life of his brother Joseph (Cambridge,
1801) and edited Sermons of as Late Joseph Manor
(2 vole., London, 1820). 	(C. &HOlttj
Brsraoossrar: 1. Besides the Life of Jorepll Milan; by
	Isaac Milner. ut sup., consult: Mrs. Mary llilnw, l#* s/
	Isaac Milner. London, 1844; DNB, :axviii. 17‑18. $
	Mrs. Mary Milnw, ut sup.; J. Stephen, &emp, is zeds.
	siassiml Bworaphy, 11. 858‑387, London, 1860; DNB,
7KWViH 9‑12.

1QLLTIADB3: Pope. See Mnramenz&

MMTIADES, mil‑tai's‑ft: A philosopher who, having become a Christian, made a name for him. self about 160 or 170 throughout the whole Church by his writings not only against pagans and hers.

mitres
7~iaor ProDhets
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
tics but also as an anti‑Montanist at the outset of that controversy. The unknown anti‑Montanist writer of Asia Minor from whose work, written in 192 or 193, Eusebius gives extracts (Hiat. eccl., V., xvi. sqq.) cites a Montanist work written in answer to one by " brother Miltiades." The thesis of the latter was apparently that a prophet should not speak in an ecstasy. In the so‑called " Little Labyrinth " the Roman author (Hippolytus?) names Miltiadm among the early witnesses for the divinity of Christ; and at the beginning of the third cent ert Against the Valentinians," chap.
vL
1 F	him under the title of
,7m4aTtd	the *c'b;;;1;;‑,11 between
	Justin and Ireneeus as one of his own predecessors
	in the opposition to the Valentinians. The thesis
	quoted above as to prophecy is the first instance
	of this view in the Gentile Church. Miltiades must
	have been one of the new theologians who deter
	mined the great change in theological views marked
	by the outbreak of the Montanist controversy (see
	MONTANIsm). His Christological position was also
	considered noteworthy by the later generation in
	opposition to the dynamistic view of the indwelling
	of God in Jesus. The name of " sophist," not nec
	essarily a term of reproach, has nevertheless in Ter
	tullian's mouth an unflattering ring. His book De
	ecataai apparently continued the polemic against
	Miltiades begun in Asia Minor. Eusebius, who had
	himself handled books of Miltiades, is the last to
	mention him, attributing to him exhaustive trea
	tises against both Jews and pagans, and an apology
	for his faith addressed " to the rulers of the world,"
	by which phrase is to be understood the emperors
	‑either Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, or
	the latter and Lucius Verus, or less probably Marcus
	Aurelius and Commodus. There are reasons for
	thinking that he wrote a special treatise against the
	Valentimans which was unknown to Eusebius;
	there is an illegible name in the Muratorian Frag
	ment which might easily be Miltiades, and Richard
	son has advanced the theory that four works of his
	are drawn upon in the pseudo‑Clementine litera
ture. 	(ADOLB HARNACH.)
BzHLIoaBAPBT: A. Harmaclc, in TU, i (1882), 278‑282; We.., uaeracwr, x.143, 239‑240, 255‑256, ii. 1, pp. 381382, 2, pp. 228, 283; idem, Dopnw, ii. 190, 237, 243; O. Otto, in Corpus apotopetarum CArist~norum, ix. 384373, Jens, 1872; T. Zahn, Forerhunpen sur Geeahiehte des . . Kamm, v. 237‑240, Leipeio, 1892; lis'fer, Hiaforv,
pp.121‑122.
MILTON, JOHN: Famous English poet and leader of Puritanism during the Great Rebellion; b. in London Dec. 9, 1608; d. there Nov. 8, 1674. He was the son of a scrivener of strong Puritan tendencies, and was educated at St. Paul's School, London, and at Christ's College, Cambridge (1625‑32). While still at Cambridge he wrote some fine poems, among them the Ode on the Morning of Christ's Nativity. He was originally destined to a ministerial career, but his independent spirit led him to " prefer a blameless silence before the sacred office of speaking bought and begun with servitude and forswearing." He spent five quiet years at Horton in Buckinghamshire, reading and writing. To this period belong L'Allegro and 11 Penseroao, Arcades, Combs, and Lycidas, all breathing the lofty spirit
882
of his religious convictions. In 1638 and 1639 he traveled on the continent, coming into contact with such men as Grotius, Galileo, and Lucas Holete (q.v.), but was recalled by a rumor of the outbreak of the armed struggle for liberty at home. The neat twenty years of his life were devoted almost entirely to prose work in the service of the Puritan cause. In 1641 and 1642 appeared his tractates Of Reformation touching Church Discipline in England, Of Prelatioal Episcopacy, the two defenses of Smeetymnuus, and The Reason of Church Government Urged against Prelaty. With frequent passages of real eloquence lighting up the rough controversial style of the period, and with a wide knowledge of ecclesiastical antiquity, he struck weighty blows at the intolerant High‑church party which seemed to dominate the Church of England. The ill‑success of his first marriage, with the daughter of a Royalist squire in Oxfordshire, who left him in a month, led him to write four tracts dealing with divorce, the first entitled The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce, attacking the English marriage law as it had been taken over almost unchanged from medieval Catholicism, and sanctioning divorce on the ground of incompatibility or childlessness. His intercourse with Hartlib and Comenius led him to write (1644) a short tract on Education, urging a reform of the national universities; and in the same year appeared the most popular of his prose writings, Areopagitica, a Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing. The Tenure of Kings aced Magistrates (1649) announced his adhesion to the cause of the Commonwealth, to which he was made Latin secretary in March. As part of his duties in this post, he wrote his Eikonoklaeles (1649) in reply to the Eikon basilikt! popularly attributed to Charles I., the first Pro populo Anglicano defensio (1651) against Salmasius, and in 1654 his Defensio aeeuxda and Pro Be defensio; and his fine Latin style was of great avail for the drafting of the state papers which passed between Cromwell's government and the continent. His incessant labors cost him his eyesight, but he retained his office until the Restoration. He then lived in retirement, devoting himself once more to poetical work, and publishing Paradise Lost in 1667, the epic by which he attained universal fame, to be followed by the much inferior paradise Regained, together with Sameon Agonistes, a drama on the Greek model, in 1671.
Milton's religious position, partially expressed in the treatises named above and in his Civil power in Eocleaiastical Causes and Considerations touching the Likeliest Means to Remove Hirelings out of the Church (1659), is most clearly seen in his posthumous De doctrine Christiana, the manuscript of which, long lost, was discovered only in 1823. His point of view is entirely subjective and individualistic; his faith is deduced from Scripture by the inner illumination of the Spirit, not tied to human traditions. It is not therefore surprising to find him taking his own view on the Trinity, the divinity of Christ and the Holy Ghost, predestination, the creation of the world, etc., as also in regard to practical questions such as marriage, infant baptism, and the observance of Sunday. What be attempts to give is not a complete

888	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Niitiades
Minor Prophets
scientific treatment in the modern sense but an ex
position of the clear and universally acceptable
teaching of Scripture. In many points he is the
prophet and herald of a new era, a Protestant in
dividualist and idealist, as well as a typical figure
for the revolutionary cause to which he devoted the
best powers of his life. 	(R. EIBACH.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The principal editions of Milton's works are: by John Toland, 3 vole., Amsterdam (London), 1897‑98; and Masson's Cambridge Milton, 3 vole., Cambridge, 1877 and 1890; the Prose Works were edited, with Life by T. Birch, 2 vols., London, 1738, better ed., 1753, and, with Life by C. Symmone, 7 vole., 1808; the Poetical Works, with Life by W. Hayley, 3 vole., ib. 1794‑97; with Life by H J. Todd, 8 vols, ib. 1901; with Life by T. Neuton, ed. E. Hawkins, Oxford, 1824; with Life by J. W. M. Turner and notes by $. E. Br 8 vole., London, 1835. Worth reading is the sketch in 8. A. Allibone, Critical Dictionary of English Literature, ii. 1298‑1323, Philadelphia, 1891 (contains a lengthy bibliography). The standard biography is by D. Manson, tl vols., London, 1859‑‑80 (exhaustive). Many editions of the Works or the Poems not given in the preceding list contain memoirs of more or less value. The life has been written also by: 8. Johnson, ed. C. H. Firth, Oxford, 1888; 8topford Brooke, London, 1879; M. Pattison, in English Men q/ Letters, ib. 1887; R. Garnett, ib. 1889. The reader should consult also the standard works on the history of English literature; and 9. T. Coleridge, Lectures on Milton. London, 1858; E. Scherer. Essays on English Literature, ib. 1891; Cambridge Modern History, v. 118 sqq., New York, 1908. In 1902 there was published, in translation from the Latin, by Walter Begley, a curious romance entitled Nova Solyma, the Ideal City; or, Jerusalem Regained, which Mr. Begley attributed to John Milton.
MIND CURE. See PsYCHonmRAPY.
	MINDEN, BISHOPRIC OF: A Saxon bishopric,
organized in the eighth century. Its first bishop,
Hercumbert or Ercambert, is probably the same as
the " Ercanperachtes episcopus " whose signature
is appended to a document at Fulda, assigned to
the year 796. He was very likely a monk of Fulda
who became the leader of the mission sent out from
there for work in Saxony. The original boundary
of the Minden diocese was the same on the east and
west as that of the district of Engern or Angria on
both banks of the Weser; on the south it ran from
a little to the north of Herford to cross the Weser
north of Korvey; and on the north it ran along
the watershed to the left of the Weser, while to the
northeast it reached the LVneburg moors. After
the erection of the metropolitan see of Cologne it
was subject to the jurisdiction of the archbishop
of that see. 	(A. HAUCm)
The internal history of the diocese has little general interest. Under the fifty‑third bishop, Francis II. of Waldeck (1530‑53), the Reformation made great progress, owing partly to his unworthy life and that of his predecessor Francis I., son of Duke Henry of Brunswick‑Wolfenbiittel. The Lutherans gained possession of all the churches in the city except the cathedral, and Minden joined the Schmalkald League. After the rule of three more bishops of the ducal house, Julius (1553‑54), who became duke himself and resigned, George, his uncle (15531566), and Duke Henry Julius, also bishop of Halberstadt (1582‑85), the diocese had become almost wholly Protestant. By the Peace of Westphalia the secular jurisdiction was assigned to Brandenburg. At the reorganization of the German dio‑
ceses in 1821, the territory of Minden, which had been hitherto administered by the northern vicariate, was divided between the dioceses of Paderbom and Hildesheim.
BIBLIoGBAray: The sources are: H. A. Erhard, Reeeta historim Weetfalia, vols. i.‑ii., Mffnster, 1847‑51; West‑
falischee Urkundenbuch, vol. vi., ed. H. Hoogeweg, ib.
1898 (these two bring the history down to 1300 A.D.).
Consult: L. A. T. Holscher. Beschreibunp des roornwlipen
Bistums Minden, ib. 1877; C. Eubel, Hierorchia catholica
medii aroi, 2 vols., ib. 1$98‑1901; Rettberg, KD, ii. 448;
Hauck, KD, ii. 390‑391, 405‑408.
MINER, ALONZO AMES: American Universalist; b. at Lempster, N. H., Aug. 17, 1814; d. in Boston June 14, 1895. He received an academical education and after teaching at various academies was ordained in 1839. He was pastor at Methuen, Mass. (1839‑42); Lowell (1842‑48); and Boston (1848‑91). He was president of Tufts College, Mass., from 1882 to 1875, and at one time was editor of the Star of Bethlehem. He was well known as a lecturer on slavery and on temperance. Besides numerous pamphlets he wrote Old Forts Taken (Boston, 1878).
MINGENTIUS. See MIGETIUS.
MINIMS: A name frequently applied (Ordo frntrum minimomm) to a branch of the Franciscan order, founded by St. Francis of Paola informally in 1435, confirmed by the pope in 1474, though without any written rule until 1493. See FRANCis, SAINT, OP' PAOLA.
MINOR PROPHETS: The name given to the twelve books (and their authors) which in the English Version follow Daniel and close the Old Testament. In the Hebrew Bible as one book, the " Book of the Twelve," they close the second part of the canon (see CANON Oh SCRIPTURE, I.), follow Ezekiel (Daniel, q.v., in the Hebrew Bible, is not in the canon of the Prophets but among the KethuInm or Hagiographa), and are followed by the Hagiographa. The designation " Minor Prophets " is not known to the Hebrew, the term Prophette minore8 coming in from the Latin Church (cf. Augustine, De ciritate Dei, xviii. 29; Jerome, Preface to Isaiah, in MPL, xxiv. 17‑22). It does not imply inferiority in importance, but refers simply to relative length; altogether the Minor Prophets are shorter than the Book. of Isaiah. The probable purpose of the aggregation of these books into a single volume or collection was to secure their preservation, since the small single rolls were doubtless in danger of being lost. The principle on which they were arranged is not altogether clear. Possibly the result is a compromise between the principles of date and of size. In general the order is (1) the prophets of the early Assyrian period (Hosea‑Micah), (2) those of the later Assyrian and the Babylonian period (Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah), and (3) of the Persian period (Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi). The Septuagint rearranges the first six thus: Hosea, Amos, Micah, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah. The date of the collection must be not later than about 350200 B.C. on the basis of the employment of the collection in Ecclesiasticus. For discussion of each book in detail see the articles on the several books. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Commentaries dealing especially with the
Minor Prophets as a whole are‑ G‑. A. Smith, in Rs‑

Ninoritee	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	384
Wracler	‑
poaitor's Bible, 2 vole., London 1898‑98• John Calvin, Eng. transl. in his Works, 5 vols., Edinburgh, 1848‑49; P. Schegg, 2 vols., Regensburg, 1854; E. B. Pueey, 5 parts, Oxford, 1860; H. Cowles, New York, 1868; E. Henderson, Andover, 1868; C. von Orelli, 3d ed., Munich, 1908, Eng. tranel. of earlier ed„ New York, 1893; J. Wellhausen, 3d ed., Berlin, 1898; T. %. Cheyne, London, 1903.
MINORITES. See Fa.ANcis, SAINT, or Assisi, AND THmm FRANciscAN ORDER.
MENTON, HENRY COLLIN: Presbyterian; b. at Prosperity, Pa., May 8, 1855. He was educated at Washington and Jefferson College (A.B., 1879) and Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa., from which he was graduated in 1882. He then held successive pastorates at the First Presbyterian Church, Duluth, Minn. (1882‑83), Second Presbyterian Church, Baltimore, Md. (1883‑‑84; but was not installed on account of ill‑health); First Presbyterian Church, San Josh, Cal. (1884‑91), and St. John's Presbyterian Church, San Francisco (18911892). From 1892 to 1902 he was Stuart professor of systematic theology in San Francisco Theological Seminary, and since the latter year has been pastor of the First Presbyterian Church, Trenton, N. J: He was moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States in 1901, chairman of the Committee on the Revision of the Confession of Faith in 1901‑02, Stone lecturer in Princeton Theological Seminary in 1902, and special lecturer in theology in Auburn Theological Seminary in the same year. He has written Christianity Supernatural (Philadelphia, 1900) and The Cosmos and the Logos (1902).

MINUCIUS FELIX, MARCUS.
Introduction (§ 1).
Argument against Christianity (1 2). Argument for Christianity (§ 3).
Purpose and Structure of Dialogue (1 4).
Sources and Manuscripts of Minucius (§ 5).
	Marcus Minucius Felix was the first Latin apolo
gist of Christianity, and the author of the dialogue
		" Octavius." From a few references
	z. Intro‑	in Lactantius, Jerome, and Eucherius,
	duction.	it is learned that Marcus Minucius Felix
		lived at Rome as a successful lawyer,
and was also active in a literary way. From the
dialogue it appears that he had formed a friend
ship with his fellow student Octavius Januarius,
and soon followed his friend in embracing Chris
tianity. Both friends were attorneys; Octavius
in the provinces, Minucius at Rome. It was while
Octavius was visiting his friend that the conversar
tion occurred which is described in the dialogue.
His friend was dead, however, when Minucius wrote.
Inasmuch as the holidays had begun, they resolved
on an excursion to Ostia, and were joined by a
younger friend of Minucius, the pagan Cmeilius
Natalia. As they were strolling along the Tiber
they passed a statue of Serapis, and Octavius ob
served that Ceecilius reverently saluted it. So he
reproached his friend for not having yet convinced
Ceecilius of his error. Cmcilius, displeased at this,
became silent and paid no attention to the others.
Being questioned, he acknowledged the true reason,
and wished to defend his religion, and explain his
grounds for not accepting Christianity. Octavius
could then confute him. The latter agreed; they sat down and Minucius took his place between them.
Cmeilius began by saying that all human knowledge is uncertain; and blamed the Christians for venturing to say anything about the
2. Argu‑ government of the world, which might
ment owe its being to accident, for many against things directly contradict the presence Christianity. of a divine agent. The truth either eludes knowledge, or, what is most probable, an arbitrary destiny rules; therefore the best course is to keep to the religion of the fathers, who made Rome great and established and extended her supremacy. Often enough had the gods of the Romans shown their power. To think of overthrowing so ancient a religion spoke of insufferable presumption. Besides, what sort of peopie were they who planned such an act, and what was the new religion that was to succeed the old P Ignorant men from the dregs of the populace, and credulous women, who flattered themselves with the ridiculous comfort of a life after death. Their religious customs were altogether repulsive, their ceremonies were the murder of innocent children and adultery. Their secrecy was the best proof as to the depravity of their religion. No less peculiar than absurd was their conception of the one God, a being invisible, omniscient, omnipresent. Then, too, their doctrine of the destruction of the world, the resurrection of the dead, and the last judgment, could not be sound, since divine predestination no less denied the freedom of the will than did fate. To crown all, the Christians must endure not only the ordinary miseries of poverty, cold and hunger, but also torture, death by fire and crucifixion. Why, they even voluntarily increased their wretchedness by abstaining from honest pleasures. C4eoilius closed with an exhortation to abstain from examining into things divine.
Thoroughly persuaded as to the convincing force of his deductions, Cmeilius ironically challenged Octavius to an answer. Octavius be‑
3. Argu‑ gan by showing contradictions of
	ment for	Ceecilius. All men were endowed with
Christianity. reason which, together with observa
		tion of nature, led to the conviction of
the existence of a superior being, creator and ruler
of the world. Nature spoke plainly, though leav
ing the question open whether the government of
the world was exercised by one or several. But
even among men, the monarchical form of rule was
the sole advantageous form; nor was it different
among animals. Then Ootavius explained Chris
tian monotheism, speaking of the eternity, omnipo
tence, and perfection of God, of whom poets and
philosophers had often surmised correctly. Antiq
uity was very credulous; its fables and tales de
served no credence; its gods, after all, were only
deified men. Idols were mere wood and stone;
their nothingness was proved by their origin. It
was false that the heathen gods had made Rome
great, because they were, to a prevailing extent,
foreign gods. The auguries and auspices had occa
sionally furnished correct indications, but had still
often deceived the believers. Idol worship had
found so wide an acceptance because of the demons,

885	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xinorites
Miracles
authors of everything evil. They, too, had caused hatred and persecutions against Christianity, circulating all those rumors and reproaches more justly applying to the heathen service of idols. With moral indignation Octavius paid ample tribute to the purity of the Christians' manner of life, divine worship and faith; and spoke of the righteousness and goodness of God. Their doctrine of the end of all things contradicted neither the laws of nature nor the teachings of the philosophers. Christians welcomed adversity as a school for virtue; the prosperity in which the heathen rejoiced was transitory and fallacious and heathens' pleasures were censurable and indecent. This discourse made a powerful impression upon Caecilius, who admitted his defeat, and the three returned to the city.
So it is plain that the colloquy did not turn upon the fundamental doctrines of Christianity, neither is
it an apology in the proper sense. At‑
4. Purpose tempts at explanation are widely diverand Struc‑ gent, although the difficulties are not to ture of be waived. Some have sought to prove
Dialogue. the dialogue a polemic against Crescen‑
tius the Cynic or the Epicurean Celsus, or, finally, against Cornelius Fronto, the rhetorician. The most natural explanation, however, lies in the author's purpose of disarming the prejudices then current against Christianity in cultured circles by proving that the views of the philosophers coincided essentially with the faith of the Christians; that the heathen mythology was shameless, whereas the new faith was pure and lofty. Hence, in the work of Minucius Felix, Christianity appears wholly as a moral and philosophic religion. Minucius, frequently finding himself obliged to meet attacks against his religion, had to examine them carefully and confute them. The structure of the dialogue is so excellent that even to‑day certain critics regard it as having actually taken place. The introduotion especially has a poetic charm, and likewise worthy of praise is the drawing of the leading characters: Minucius was well read in the poetic works of the Greeks and Romans, and had a good knowledge of the works of Cicero, whom he adopted as his model. Traces of decadent Latinity appear nevertheless; still the language of Minucius is comparatively pure for that age.
The repeated attempts to discover whether the dialogue of Octavius was influenced by any other
apologetic have led to no generally
g. Sources recognized result, for he does not men‑
and Manu‑ tion his sources. There undoubtedly scripts of exists a dependent relation between
Minucius. Minucius, Tertullian, and Cyprian.
The latter, in his treatise " On the Vanity of Idols " (c. 245), copied Minucius and Ter tullian. The priority of Tertullian's " Apology " (c. 200), which has various points of contact with " Octavius," was long held to be incontestable, but now, especially since Ebert's investigations, Minucius is rated the earlier. He wrote between 150 and 245, probably before 200. The " Octavius " is appended to the seven books of Arnobius " Against the Heathen " in a manuscript dating from the ninth century preserved in Paris. There is a transcript in Brussels. From the former there was VII. 25
printed the first edition of Arnobfus (Rome, 1543), wherein the " Octavius " appeared as the eighth book. It was first edited separately by Francis Baldwin (Heidelberg, 1560). Since then, the dialogue has been frequently published (e.g., ed. C. Halm, in CSEL, Vienna, 1867; in MPL, iii. 239276; ed. J. J. Cornelissen, Leyden, 1882; ed. A. Bahrens, Leipsic, 1886). Eng. transls. are by D. Dalrymple (Edinburgh, 1781; new ed., Cambridge, 1854); in ANF, iv. 173‑198; and in A. A. Brodribb, Pagan and Puritan; The Octavaus of Min2h cius, freely translated, London, 1903. H. BOENIG.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lists of literature are to be found in Le Muahe Beige, xvi (1892), nos. 2‑3, and in ANF, Bibliography, pp. 47‑50. Consult: C. RSren, Minuciana, part i., Bedburg, 1859, part ii., Brilon, 1877; A. Soulet, Eaaai cur l'Oetavius de Minuciua Felix, Strasburg, 1867; T. Keim~ Coitus, pp. 151‑168, Zurich, 1873; idem, Ron and das Chriatenthum, pp. 383‑384, 468‑486, Berlin, 1881; P. de Fdlice, ‑Otude our l'Octaviua do Minucius Felix, Blois, 1880; V. Schultze, in JPT, vii (1881), 485‑506; R. Kahn, Der Octaviue des Minucius Felix, Leipsie, 1882; R. Schwenke, in JPT, ix (1883), 263‑294; M. L. Massebieau, in Revue de Mist. des religions, xv (1887), 316‑346; F. Wilhelm, De Minucii Pelicie Octavio, Breslau, 1887; E. Kurt, Ueber den OMaviua des Minucius Fells, Burgdorf, 1888; B. Seiller, De sermons Minuciano, Augsburg, 1893; M. Schanz, in Rheiniachea Museum, 1 (1895), 114‑137; H. Boenig, Marcus Minucius Felix; sin Beihap cur (doachichte der aUohristlichen Litteratur, K&nigeberg, 1897; E. Norden, De Minucii Felicia otate et penere dicauti, Greifswald 1897; Ceillier, Auteura saerie, i. 550‑557; Krfiger, History, pp. 138‑142; Schaff, Christian Church, ii. 833 sqq.; Harnack, Litteratur, i. 647, 743, ii. 2, pp. 324‑330, 408; idem, Dogma, ii. 196sqq.; DCB, iii. 920‑924; A. Elter, Prolegomena zu Minucius Felix, Bonn, 1909.
MIRACLE PLAYS. See RELIGIOUS DRAMAS.

MIRACLES.
Biblieal Data (§ 1).	Theory and Proof of Mira.
Patriatie and Scholastio		cles (§ 4).
	Views (§ 2).	Arguments against Miracles
Post‑Reformation Theories		(§ 5).
	(§ 3).	Classification of Miracles (§6).
		Present Tendencies (§ 7).
The concept of miracles, found in nearly all religions, is due to the belief in the power of the supernatural over the world, either in whole or in part. The types of miracles are as manifold as the religions themselves, ranging from cosmic phenomena (especially of creation and eschatology) and divine manifestations to the founders of religions, to omens and warnings, rewards and punishments, and responses to prayer and priestly power.
The Bible bears witness to the general belief in miracles, although here, in contradistinction to other oriental religions, miracles are, in general, fewer in number and more religious in character. This is in keeping with the spirituality of the Biblical concept of God, who, though om‑
:. Biblical nipotent (Gen. xviii. 14; Job xlii. 2; Data. Ps. lxxvii. 14), is regarded as acting only in accordance with,his nature. Creation and rain, comfort to the sorrowing and thwarting of the wicked are all miracles (Job. v. 9 sqq.). The concept of the orderly progress of all natural phenomena is extremely firm in the Old Testament (cf. Gen. viii. 22; Ps. cxlviii. 5‑6; Jer. xxxi. 35‑36), and this same concept prevails in the New Testament, where the religious character of miracles is even more marked since phenomenal miracles are here combined with spiritual miracles,

Miracles	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	388
Accordingly, the miracles of Christ are intended to prove that the time of redemption or of the kingdom of God is come (Matt. xi. 5, xii. 28; Mark ii. 10‑11). Not only did Christ work no miracles for his own benefit (Matt. iv. 4, 7, xxvi. 53), but he refused miracles to those who asked unworthily (Matt. xvi. 1 aqq.). His miracles were wrought through his word or in virtue of the spirit of God that dwelt within him (Matt. viii. 16, xii. 28, xv. 28; Mark i. 25, ii. 11; John iv. 50; Acts x. 38), and although later in his career external miracles became less numerous, yet he promised his disciples that they would do greater miracles than he (John xiv. 12 sqq.). This implies, however, simply the greater miracles of the operations of the Spirit upon the heart; and when Paul concentrates the operation of the Spirit on the Gospel and prefers love to all external marvels (I Cor. xiii.), he followed the thoughts of Christ himself, the concept of the New Testament which through the Spirit writes the will of God upon the heart of man (Jer. xxxi. 33; Ezek. xxxvi. 26‑27; Joel ii. 28). While, moreover, individual miracles are less important and striking than in other religions, it must be borne in mind that in Christianity religion itself bears an essentially miraculous character, seen not only in every event in the life of Christ and in the experiences of the apostles, but in the religious life of the Christian.
In the centuries following primitive Christianity the miracles of the Spirit came gradually to be depreciated, while the inner transformation of the Christian received an interpretation of mere psychology. The desire for miracles was gratified by legends of the apostles, martyrs, and confessors, or, still later, of hermits and monks; Jew‑
s. PatdB‑ ish eschatology was adopted with all
tic and its marvels; and even a series of de‑
Scholastic moniac miracles was taken from early
	Views.	folklore. Side by side with this prac
		tical belief in miracles was evolved the
theory regarding them. The basis for this was laid
by Augustine. Holding that the world is full of
miracles and is itself the greatest of all miracles,
yet realizing that the marvels of creation become
commonplace, he taught that God, who alone can
create, caused new miracles to appear, though he
had possessed them from all eternity. While these
miracles apparently contradict the laws of nature,
they do not really do so, since God, being the crea
tor of nature, can create nothing opposed to it.
The elements of the world contain, in addition to
their " visible seeds," certain " hidden seeds," which
are the source of miracles. There is, therefore, a
hidden and inner operation of God in addition to the
operation of natural causes. In themselves both
these operations are equally marvelous and are
simply different components of one and the same
creation. The difference between miraculous and
natural events is, therefore, not objective but sub
jective‑" the miracle does not violate nature, but
only nature as now known " (De civitate Dei, XXI.,
viii. 2). The Neo‑Platonic theory of Augustine
never vanished, though the Aristotelian causal the
ory of the universe maintained by Thomas Aquinas
contested its supremacy in the Church. Nothing
can happen outside the sum total of the system of divine governance, and in the great systematized order called the world God works as the first cause which simply determines a long chain of causes. In this sum total God can make no change, but he both can and does substitute some individual secondary causes for others. The result is a miracle, and God accordingly created cosmic order with the condition that he himself might be directly operative in it otherwise than through the usual and regularly operative causes. Miracles are accordingly defined as " those things which are done by God contrary to causes known to us " (Summa I., quaest. cv. art. 6). Miracles are thus placed within the sphere of divine governance, the sole difference between them and ordinary natural phenomena being that in the latter God is the first in a causal series, while in the case of miracles he directly intervenes. Not all direct intervention of God, however, is to be considered a miracle, this category including only deviations from the course of nature, whereas .justification and creation are not miracles.
Luther held that God had caused visible miracles in the early stages of Christianity to foster belief in it and that these, subsequently proving unnecessary, were replaced by the far greater
3. Post‑ invisible spiritual miracles wrought by
Reforms‑ the Word and the sacraments. Other tion early Protestants considered miracles
	Theories.	as divine suspensions of the ordinary
		course of nature, while Leibnitz main
tained that miracles, like the hearing of prayer,
were components of the original plan of the cosmos
which must necessarily be realized. Spinoza, on
the other hand, denied the possibility of miracles,
except on the impossible hypothesis that the will
of God and the law of nature, although identical,
are different. The term miracle can, therefore, be
applied only relatively to a phenomenon the cause
of which is unknown. Hume made a still more
vital attack on miracles by declaring the testimony
for them too feeble to make them credible. Dur
ing the period of the Enlightenment belief in mira
cles was gradually surrendered, and they were ex
plained either as natural phenomena or as adapted
to the views of their time, very much as Spinoza
had explained them as projections of the mental
processes of those who recorded them or as making
God the first cause to the exclusion of mediate
causes. Like Strauss, many modern theologians
discredit miracles in the strict sense of the term,
though positing the operation of marvelous powers
of a higher order. Even though the great religious
revival early in the nineteenth century rehabilitated
belief in miracles, opposition to this belief hag
never disappeared, and still constitutes to many
the great barrier to faith in Christianity. Once the
foundation of all apologetics,. miracles have now
become the great apologetic crux.
A study in the concept of miracles can not begin with a general discussion of their possibility or impossibility, but with the problem whether the assertion of their existence is essential to the religious life of the Christian. The authority of the Bible, which affirms miracles, can not be appealed to, for this depends solely on religious experience, which

387	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	3girseles
is not concerned with historic events, natural phe
nomena, or	Biblical cosmology. The investigator
	must pass thus from the Bible to im‑
	4. Theory	mediate religious experience where,
	and Proof	through the preaching of the Word,
	of Miracles.	the Christian experiences a non‑natural
		istic power of an almighty will which,
continuing and ever increasing, in itself constitutes
a miracle in that it is by no means identical with
the earthly agency through which it works, and re
veals a power exalted above its surroundings. This
coexistence of divine operation and natural phe
nomenon must be considered the chief character
istic of every sort of miracle. Revelation thus be
comes a miracle, and miracle becomes revelation.
Accordingly, in all the phases of life the Christian
is convinced that God orders the world for the good
of them that believe on him, and this in the small
est as in the greatest details. Even events which
may be explained on purely natural grounds‑as
when Augustine heard the words Tolle, lege (see
AuausTTNE,1., 1, § 9)‑may be considered miracles
in so far as God is regarded as operating through
them. From this point of view any event may be
regarded as either miraculous or natural, according
to the sensations which it evokes. If the experi
ence of the revelation of God is thus experience of
the miraculous, the divine revelation in question,
operative through previous ages in a complex of
concepts, naturally entered at a definite point in
history. If, moreover, these concepts were per
manent vehicles of the marvelous operation of God,
those who first advanced them could form them
only on the basis of their experience of the miracu
lous works of God. In confirmation of this, history
shows that the Gospel bears witness to great historic
facts judged from a specific point of view. In other
words, the Gospel arose from witnessing miraculous
facts, and is simply a record and explanation of these
facts. Therefore the Christian takes a very different
attitude toward them than toward other ancient
religious records. The miracles here considered
are almost invariably phenomena diverging from
the regular course of nature. While it may be denied
that some of the recorded miracles actually occurred,
while it may be supposed that circumstances at
tending some of them were not quite those which
were described, and while it may be alleged that
they have been more or less modified involuntarily
in transmission, it must be remembered that they
were all wrought to proclaim knowledge of God or
of Christ. Herein they were successful. The critic,
on the other hand, has merely a report of an ex
ternal event and of the impression upon the wit
ness that this event was divine. The actual proc
esses which led these witnesses to adjudge the
events in question to be miraculous the critic can
never know with certainty, and this lack of knowl
edge must be reckoned as a factor in the criticism
of miracles. If, however, the uniform impression
received by Christ's disciples from his many mira
cles be considered, it may be regarded as certain
that this impression represents the true understand
ing of the miraculous works of Christ.
Two general objections may be alleged against the historicity of the miracles recorded in the Bible:
their violation of natural law; and the fact that they occurred in a credulous age. Considering the latter objection first, it is true that the ancients, including the Jews, not only did not
5. Argu‑ consider divine intervention of the ments deity to be suspicious or impossible,
against	but they absolutely required such vis‑
	Miracles.	ible divine manifestations. Especially
		was this the case if they were to be
lieve that Christ was really divine. Again, the his
tory of divine revelation shows that God has always
given it the forms best adapted to the require
ments of the age. The fact, therefore, that exter
nal miracles no longer occur implies simply that
they are no longer needed for faith; but this does
not militate in the least against the occurrence of
miracles in periods of an entirely different charac
ter. Neither does the theory that miracles were
merely types of attitude molded by the needs of
ancient gods disprove the actuality of miracles. All
these hypotheses are based on the unhistorical ra
tionalistic notion that things must always have
been as it is now thought they should be. It is
also alleged that miracles are contrary to the law
of nature. The laws of nature, however, are noth
ing but formulas describing the regular operations
of natural phenomena; but if the concept of God
be introduced, they may then be regarded as ex
pressing the divine will, so that the course of the
world in conformity with the laws of nature is in
no way opposed to the will of God. Yet even as
man, by attentively studying the laws of nature,
is enabled to rise above nature and to produce re
sults which nature itself can not produce, since he
unites regular processes of nature in new combina
tions for the attainment of the end which he de
sires without annulling or impairing the original
potencies or laws of nature, so miracles should not
be construed as abrogations or violations of the
laws of nature, but as special adaptation of the
forces of nature for a specific and divine purpose.
In the present article three classes of miracles have been postulated: the constant miracle of the revelation of God; the operation of
6. Classifi‑ God in purely natural and orderly
cation of events of human life; and the revela‑
	Miracles.	tion of God by irregular natural phe
		nomena at a specific period. The
question now arises as to the relation between these
three classes, the first of which is usually ignored,
while the second and the third are distinguished as
subjectively and objectively miraculous respec
tively. At the same time, the great characteristic
of a miracle, the arousing of consciousness of an
external process, is common to all three classes, so
that they all share in miraculousness. In the first
and second class the miraculous process is in accord
ance with natural law, while in the third class it is
irregular. Since, however, it can not be shown
that the abnormal events in question are either op
posed to nature or subversive of cosmic order, it
follows that a miracle is not the producing of a more
or less regular phenomenon, but the divine adapta
tion of an earthly event to make the presence of
God immediately operative or to convince man of
the divine presence in the event in question. The

Miracles	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	888
Xiscellameoue BeligiousBodies
essential difference between the third class of mira
cles and the other two classes can not, therefore, be
maintained. A distinction may, however, be drawn
between the miracles of the period of divine revela
tion and the later miracles manifested in the outwork
	ing of this revelation in the history of the human
race. From this point of view there are four classes
of miracles, the first two comprising immediate rev
elation and the last two mediate revelation; the
spiritual miracle of the revelation which produced
the Word of God (inspiration); the miracles mani
fested in history and nature to bring forth the Word
of God; the miracles of the spiritual operation of
the Word of God; and the miracles of faith worked
	by the divine guidance of the life of man.
			(R. SEEBERG.)
	Aside from the Ritschlian conception of miracles
as striking occurrences with which the experience
of God's special help is connected, are two other
	positions, not wholly to be distinguished from each
other, by which miracles are explained. (1) They
are regarded as extraordinary events coincident
with a religious message, the events being of such a
		character as to justify the conviction
	7. Present that God wrought them in attestation
	Tendencies. of the message. This view, suggested
		by J. B. Mozley (Miracles, pp. 5‑6,
	168, London, 1886), finds many adherents (cf. W.
	N. Clarke, Outline of Christian. Theology, p: 133,
	New York, 1898; G. P. Fisher, Grounds of Theistic
and Christian Belief, pp. 163 aqq., New York, 1902;
	E. Y. Mullins, Why Is Christianity Trust pp. 170
	179, Chicago, 1905; G. F. Wright, Scripture Con
firmations of Old Testament History, pp. 87 sqq.,
	"mediate miracles," Oberlin, 1906; A. H. Strong,
	Systematic Theology, i. 118‑119, Philadelphia, 1907).
	According to this view, miracles are extraordinary
events in nature wrought by the same God who is
	everywhere present and active. They may be
traced to natural causes and thus be naturally ex
	plained: miracles and natural causes are only dif
ferent names for the one will of God. All sorts of
	physical antecedents of miracles are possible; and
	these antecedents, as well as the' miracles, are them
selves signs of the authorization of the commission
of the leader or teacher. The essential element
	here is the coincidence. In this way it is supposed
	that the claims of science and religion are fully ac
	knowledged. (2) The other explanation, akin to
the Ritschlian, distinguishes between two aspects
of events, according as they occur in a system of
law conditioned by antecedent causes‑the how;
and as they reveal purpose‑the wherefore; the
causal and the teleological aspect of reality. (a)
From the causal point of view, two affirmations are
made: first, that of a uniform and comcomitant
variation among phenomena; secondly, that of the
	origination of all phenomena in the immanent ac
	tivity of God. All events are both natural and su
	pernatural‑natural in the mode of their appear
ance, supernatural in their ultimate ground. Thus
a metaphysical basis is laid for the manifestation
	of free intelligence in the order of the world, and
	for uniformity in nature which includes even the
	alleged miracle. If law is the expression of the di
	vine purpose, then no interference from beyond the
law is possible. If all the antecedents of an event were known, even the miracle would be explained; for the "all" contains not only the phenomenal antecedents but also the divine will and purpose (cf. B. P. Bowne, Theism, pp. 199‑247, New York, 1902). (b) Thus the teleological point of view is reached, which admits a different interpretation of events from that offered by the causal relation. Here the question is that of meaning or end. The interest centers in the significance of the event for the religious life. The degree of the significance will determine whether it shall be regarded as a miraculous or as a common event.
The present‑day emphasis on the ethical and religious content of Christianity is withdrawing attention from the aspect of miraculousness long associated with it. Irrespective of the difficulties concerning miracles which have arisen from the side of history, science, philosophy, and comparative religion, the tendency is to find what is essential to Christianity in the type and power of the life which Christ both initiates and completes. Hence, it is affirmed that forgiveness of sins, comfort in sorrow, hope in eternal life, impulse to social service, and communion with God are in no way dependent on the common doctrine of miracles as interruptions of the order of nature, or interventions or suspensions of the laws of nature (cf. G. A. Cordon, Religion and Miracle, Boston, 1909). c. A. B.
BIHLIoasAPHY: Besides the literature on the life of Christ, in which generally the subject of miracles is fully discussed, and the works on dogmatic theology and Biblical theology, consult: G. Campbell, A Dissertation on the Miracles, London, 1846; R. Wardlaw, On Miracles, New York, 1853; F. De Quineey, Hume's Argument against Miracles in Theological Essays, vol. i., Boston, 1854 B. Powell, The Order of Nature Considered in Reference to the Claims of Revelation, London, 1859; B. F. Westcott, Characteristics of the Gospel Miracles. Sermons preached before the University of Cambridge, Cambridge, 1859; W. Beyschlag, Die Bedeutung des Wunders in Christentum, Berlin, 1863; A. Harvey, The Miracles of Christ as Attests by the Evangelists, Boston, 1864; W. M. Taylor, The Miracles, Helps to Faith, not Hinderances, Edinburgh, 1865; F. L. Steinmeyer, Die Wunderthaten des Hewn, Berlin, 1866, Eng. transl., The Miracles of Our Lord in Relation to Modern Criticism, Edinburgh, 1875; J. B Motley, Eight Lectures on Miracles, London, 1867; E. A. Litton, Miracles, London, 1868; O. Flilgel, Das Wunder and die Erkennbarkeit Gottes, Leipsic, 1869; W. Mountford, Miracles, Past and Present, Boston, 1870; John H. Newman, Tmo Essays on Scripture Miracles, and on Rccleriaatical, London, 1870; W. Bender, Der Wunderbegrif des N. T., Frankort, 1871; J. H. Newman, Two Essays on Miracles, London, 1873; J. S. Mill, Nature, the Utility of Religion, Theism; Being Three Essays on Religion, London, 1874 (against miracles); R. C. Trench, Notes on the Miracles of Our Lord, London and New York, 1874; W. R. Cassels, Supernatural Religion, 3 vols., London, 1879 (against miracles); W. M. Taylor, The Gospel Miracles in their Relation to Christ and Christianity, New York, 1880; J. W. Reynolds, The Mystery of Miracles, London, 1881; D. Hume, An Essay on Miracles, republished, London, 1882; R. Kubel, Ueber den christlichert Wunderglauben, Stuttgart, 1883; J. J. Lias, Are Miracles Credible! London, 1883; E. C. Brewer, A Dictionary of Miracles: Imitative, Realistic and Dogmatic, Philadelphia, 1884; S. Cox, Miracles: an Argument, London, 1884; A. B. Bruce, The Miraculous Element in the Gospels, New York, 1886; B. Maitland, Miracles, London, 1886; T. W. Belcher, Our Lord's Miracles of Healing Considered in Relation to Some Modern Objections and to Medical Science, with Preface by Archbishop Trench, London, 1890; E. A. Abbott, Philomythus, London, 1891 (a reply to Newman); G. Stokes, Natural Theology, Edinburgh, 1891; J. Hutchinson, Our Lord's Signs in St. John's Gospel. Discussions

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Xiracles
Xiseellaneous Religious BodieA
chiefly exegetical and doctrinal on the eight Miracle# in the Fourth Gospel, New York 1892; E. Miindgoz, La Notion biblique du miracle, Paris, 1894; A. M. Ldpieier, Del Miraeoio; sea natures, sue leggi, Rome, 1897; F. Barth, Die Hauptprobleme des Lebene Jesu, pp. 103 eqq., Gatersloh, 1899; A. T. Lyttelton, The Place of Miracles in Religion, London, 1899; J. M. Whiton, Miracles and Supernatural Religion, New York, 1903; K. Beth, Die Wunder Jesu, Lichterfeld, 1905; J. O. F. Murray, Spiritual and Historical Evidence for Miracles, in Essays on Some Theological Questions, ed. H. B. Swete, London, 1905; G. Traub, Die Wunder in N. T., Ttibingen, 1905; P. Saintyves, La Miracle et da critique historique, Paris, 1907; idem, Le Discernment du miracle, ib., 1909; A. A. Broekington, Old Testament Miracles in the Light of the Gospel, New York, 1967; L. von Gerdtell, De urchriatlichen Wunder roor dem Forum der modernen Weltanschauung, Stuttgart, 1907; The Miracles of Jesus, A Series of Expositions, Manchester, 1907; G. Wobbermin, Der christlicheGottesglaube, Berlin, 1907; F. J. Lamb, Miracle and Science: Bible Mirades examined by the Methods, Rules and Tests of as Science of Jurisprudence as administered in Courts of Justice, Oberlin, 1909; DB, iii. 379‑396; DCO, 186191; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, part xxvi. cols. 1110‑22.
MIRAMIONES. See GENEVIEVE, SAINT, ORDERS or, 2.
MIRANDOLA, GIOVANNI PICO DELLA. See
PICO DELLA MIRANDOLA, GIOVANNI.

MIRBT, CARL THEODOR: German Lutheran; b. at Gnadenfrei (32 m. s. of Breslau) July 21, 1860: He was educated at the universities of Halle, Erlangen, and Gtittingen (Lie. Theol., 1888), and, after a year as privat‑docent at the latter institution, was called to Marburg in 1889 as associate professor of church history, being promoted to his present position of full professor of the same subject in the following year. In 1903 he was made a consistorial councilor and a member of the Cassel eonsistory. He has written Die Stellung Augustins in der Publizistik des gregorianischen Kirchenatreits (Leipsie, 1888); Die Absetzung Heinrichs IV. durch Gregor VII. (1890); Die Wahl Gregors VII. (Marburg, 1892); Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregors VII. (Leipsie, 1894); Quellen zurGeschichtedes Papsttums and des r6mischen Katholizismus (Freiburg, 1895; 2d.ed.,1901); Die preussiseheGesandtachaftam Hofe des Papstes (1899); and Die katholisch‑theologisehe FakulW zu Marburg (Marburg, 1905). He is likewise an associate editor of the Deutsch‑Evangelische Zeitschrift fur die Kenntnis and Forderung der deutsehen evangelischen Diaspora im Ausland.

MIRRORS, HEBREW: The use of mirrors among the Hebrews is proved by some late and somewhat enigmatic passages. It can not be held that the context of Isa. iii. 23 forbids the translation of gilyonim by " mirrors," since articles of clothing and of mere adornment are mentioned without separation into classes. The singular gillayon (Isa. viii. 1) signifies the uncovered, that is, the smoothed, tablet (A. V. " roll "), cf. galah, " shear," " shave." Ex. xxxviD. 8, a passage of late date, states that the laver of the tabernacle was made from the looking‑glasses of the women who served (A. V. " assembled ") in the sanctuary (cf. I Sam. ii. 22). The Targum renders the re'i of Job xxxvii. 18 by ispaklarya, the Latin speeularia; the translation " molten mirror " is correctly given by three late commentators on Job (K. Budde, Giessen, 1900; B. Duhm, Tabingen, 1897; and F.
Delitzach, Leipsic, 1902). Mirrors are alluded to
in Ecclus. xii. 11, dated about 200 B.c. In the
Hebrew text of Ecclesiasticus (ed. H. L. Strack,
Leipsic, 1903), mirror is rendered by raz, probably
a corrupted re'i; the Greek version gives eisoptron.
It may be deduced from the passages cited that
mirrors were exclusively or at least usually hand
mirrors for women. They are designated as pol
ished plates in Isa. iii. 23. According to Ex. xxxviii.
8, they were of metal (the Jerusalem Targum trans
lates expressly " ispaklarya of brass " and Job
xxxvii. 18 asserts that they were " molten." These
Old‑Testament data are confirmed by other ancient
sources, for even in the luxurious homes of the later
Romans and Greeks, there were rarely pier‑glasses
but usually only hand‑glasses; and that, even
toward the end of antiquity, polished metal plates
were still used can be inferred from their liability
to become dull (Eccles. xii. 11; Wisdom, vii. 26,
" an unspotted mirror ") and also from their im
perfect reflection (I Cor. xiii. 12). In Egypt the
mirrors were of tin; with the Greeks of brass, silver,
gold, etc.; among the Romans commonly of cop
per, mixed with tin, zinc, and other materials. The
Talmud knew only of metal mirrors. Pliny asserts
that glass mirrors (unsilvered) were invented in
Sidon, but the first certain testimony comes from
Alexander Aphrodisiensis at the beginning of the
third century. It may be assumed that some of the
Hebrew mirrors were fabricated by Hebrew metal
workers while others were imported; for both the
Assyrians and the Egyptians used them and Corinth
was especially renowned for the manufacture of
these articles. 	(E. KtiNIG.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Vigouroux, Dictionnaire de la Bible, fasc. xxvi., cols. 1123‑26, Paris, 1905; E. Gerhard, Etrua‑
kische Spiegel, 5 vols., Berlin, 1843‑67; J. de Witte, Lee
Miroirs ches les anciens Brussels, 1872; H. J. Van Len‑
nep, Bible Lands, ii. 536‑537, Lndon, 1875; M. Collig‑
non, Manuel d'arch6ologie grecque, pp. 346 eqq., Paris,
1881; Guhl and Koner, Leben der Griechen and Romer, ed.
R. Engelmann, pp. 317, 746, 747, Berlin, 1893; DB, iii.
396397; EB, iii. 3153; JE, viii. 609.

MISCELLANEOUS RELIGIOUS BODIES.
1. Apostolic Christian Church: An organization started about 1850 by a Swiss preacher, S. H. Froelich, who came to the United States and gathered a small company of churches, chiefly among German Swiss immigrants, emphasizing especially the doctrine of entire sanctification. Under the general name of the Apostolic Christian Church, though with no definite ecclesiastical organization, they have grown in numbers until in 1906 there were reported 42 organizations in 11 states, 19 ministers and 69 licentiates, 4,558 members, 44 church edifices with a seating capacity of 11,475, and church property valued at $141,550.
2. Apostolic Faith Movement: A movement originated in the year 1900 by Charles F. Parham and other evangelists, who, after conducting revival services in Topeka, Kan., felt the need of some organization for the securing of the best results and organized the Apostolic Faith Movement. The headquarters are at Los Angeles, Cal., but there are a number of centers from which revival enterprises are started, among them being Houston, Tex., where there is a camp‑meeting ground, and at Spo.

BZiscellaneousReliciousBodies	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
390
kane, Wash. The object of the movement is " the restoration of the faith once delivered to the saints, the old‑time religion, camp‑meetings, revivals, missions, street and prison work, and Christian unity everywhere." Special attention is paid to " salvation and healing." There is no definite organization, but individuals, preachers, evangelists, and special workers devote their time to the work without salaries or collections of any kind. Foreign missionary work is carried on in Japan, Korea, China, the Philippines, India, Africa, and South America, and in some European countries, by individuals under the supervision of committees which have charge of distributing and forwarding such funds as are committed to them. Their figures are very incomplete. In only a few instances is there any regular membership reported, while no account of funds contributed or expended is given. The statistics of 1906 show 350 members in Washington, 48 in Texas, and 140 in Kansas; 1 church edifice, and property valued at $450.
3. The Armenian Church in the United States: Armenian immigration to the United States can scarcely be said to have commenced before the Russo‑Turkish war of 1877. With the failure of the European powers to enforce the conditions of the treaty of Berlin, so far at least as the Armenians were concerned, they began to come in larger numbers, and by 1889 there were several small colonies, mostly in Massachusetts (see ARMENIA, III., § 9). These belonged for the most part to the National or Gregorian Church, as it is often called from the name of Gregory the Illuminator (see ARMENIA, III., § 2), although some identified themselves with the Congregational or Presbyterian churches. For the benefit of the Gregorian communities the patriarch in Constantinople in 1889 sent Rev. Hovsep Sarajian to Worcester, Mass., and a church was built which became the ecclesiastical headquarters for America. Other priests followed as the communities increased in number and size, and in 1906 the catholicos of Echmiadzin, the ecclesiastical head of the Armenian Church, made the United States a missionary diocese, and Father Sarajian was consecrated bishop. In 1902 a special constitution was granted, the bishop was invested with archiepiscopal authority, and seven pastorates were formed, the nuclei of future dioceses. For some time the question of provision for church services was a most difficult one. The Armenian communities were both small and poor, and unable to build church edifices. In 1906 there were three edifices, in Worcester, Mass., New York City, and Fresno, Cal., and plans were being made for other buildings. In other places services have been held in rented halls or private houses, except when churches of other bodies, particularly of the Protestant Episcopal Church, have been placed at the disposal of the priests.
In doctrine and polity the Armenian Church in the United States is in entire accord with the National Church. It accepts the Nicene Creed, without the " filioque," and the canons of the three .councils of Nice, Constantinople, and Ephesus, and has a longer creed of its own, in which it makes it clear that while not accepting the formulas of the
Council of Chalcedon, as to the two natures of Christ, it believes that he was " perfect God " as well as " perfect man." Seven sacraments are accepted, as in the Greek and Roman Catholic churches. Baptism is by immersion, generally soon after birth, and is followed immediately by confirmation and the administering of the communion in both kinds. All baptized persons, including infants, are then registered as communicants. The Virgin and the saints are venerated.
The government of the Armenian Church centers in the catholicos of Echmiadzin, who is elected by the ecclesiastical and lay representatives of all the Armenian dioceses in the world. In America, besides the archbishop and the resident pastors, subordinate to the catholicos, there are missionary priests and deacons, who have no fixed appointments but care for numerous missionary stations. The principal service is the mass, performed on Sundays al;d holy days in the classical Armenian Language, which differs somewhat in construction from the colloquial language, though so similar in its vocabulary as to be readily understood by educated persons. The church year follows the Julian rather than the Gregorian calendar.
According to the figures furnished at the close of 1906 there were 73 organizations, 19,889 communicants, 3 church edifices, and' 60 halls or other buildings. The church edifices seat 1,300 persons, and are valued at $38,000, one of them reporting a debt of $4,000. One church has a parsonage valued at $2,500. Four organizations have Sunday‑schools, with 9 officers and teachers and 340 scholars.
4. Christian Congregation: An organization formed in 1899, at Kokomo, Ind., by a company of Christian workers representing different bodies, but predominantly Methodists, for the purpose of securing a broader Christian fellowship and a better system of Christian charity. In general type of dootrine and church organization it is in accord with the Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1906 there were 9 organizations, 395 members, 5 church edifices with a seating capacity of 1,550, church property valued at $7,200, and 7 Sunday‑schools with 73 officers and teachers and 332 scholars.
6. Christian Israelite Church: An organization whose principal object is the ingathering of the twelve‑ tribes of Israel, started by John Wroe, of Bowling, Yorkshire, England, in 1822. He taught that the Hebrews of to‑day constitute two tribes, that the other ten are scattered among all races, creeds, and nations, being found among the Methodists, Baptists, Lutherans, etc., and that they should all be gathered into one body. A branch was started in New York in 1844. The members believe that the law of Moses should be reestablished, and that by obeying this law men will be made immortal so that their mortal bodies will never see death. All mankind will be saved, but will attain to different degrees of blessedness. They subscribe to the " four books of Moses and the four books of the Gospel," observe the Jewish Sabbath as well as the Christian Sunday, and other Jewish festivals, do not cut either hair or beard, and are opposed to pictures and images. They have preach‑

391	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	XiscellaneousBalisiousBodies
ers but no ordained ministry. In 1906 there were
5 organizations, with 78 members, of whom 45 were
males; 1 church edifice in New York City valued
at $30,000, 1 Sunday school with 2 teachers and 12
scholars.
8. Church of Daniel's Band: An organization which includes 4 churches in Michigan and a few in Canada that lay special emphasis on evangelistic work, fellowship, abstinence from excesses, and liberty in the exercise of faith. Organized at Marine City, St. Clair county, Mich., in 1893, they reported, in 1906, 92 church members, 2 church edifices valued at $2,400, 15 ministers, and i Sunday‑school with 3 teachers and 50 scholars.
7. Colored Primitive Baptists in America: With the reorganization manifest in all departments in the South after the Civil War, the colored Primitive Baptist churches were gathered in separate associations, retaining, however, the same general type of doctrine and church life. Toward the close of the last century a revival movement developed, which resulted in gathering these associations into the body named above, and in infusing into the churches a new life. The older opposition to an educated ministry, to Sunday‑schools, missionary societies, state conventions, ministerial support, and the like was broken down, and the motto has been " union, peace, and progress." The doctrinal basis is the Philadelphia Confession of the northern Baptists. In polity also they are in accord with the northern Baptista rather than with the Primitive Baptists. The national convention is an administrative body, having special reference to the varied departments of church, educational, benevolent, and other activity. The young people are organized in the Primitive Baptist Young People's Volunteer Band, which conducts a Young People's and Sunday‑school Congress. They have two weekly religious journals published at Huntsville, Ala., and Mexia, Tex., and a Sunday‑school paper published at Jacksonville, Fla.
They report for 1906, 797 organizations with 35,076 members, of whom about 12,500 were males. Reports on church buildings, etc., were not complete, only 501 church edifices and 44 halls being given, with a value of $296,539, and indebtedness on 34 edifices to the amount of $6,968. There were 166 Sunday‑schools with 911 officers and teachers and 6,224 scholars.
8. Duck River Association of Baptists: An organization arising from a division of the Elk River Association, founded in 1808 in Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, and Alabama, and strongly Calvinistic in character. As Methodism and the revival influences which resulted in the organization of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church and the Disciples of Christ spread through the same section, there developed a counter‑movement for a stricter discipline and more rigid theology. In this controversy the Elk River Association divided and a minority more in sympathy with milder doctrine organized the Duck River Association. Subsequently other similar associations were formed, each with its own creed, yet so far recognizing their mutual fellowship as to send messengers to the annual meetings. The single churches call themselves Bap‑
tist Churches of Christ, and in the report for 1890 a number of these associations were grouped under the head Baptist Church of Christ. As some of them expressed unwillingness to be classed under a definite denominational name, the heading Duck River and Kindred Associations of Baptists was adopted. The other associations are East Union, Ebenezer, Liberty, Mount Pleasant, Mount Zion, and Union. Attempts have been made to bring about union between these associations and the associations of Separate Baptists.
The total number of organizations reported in 1906 by the 7 associations was 93; of these, 92 reported 6,416 members; there were 86 church edifices besides 2 halls, and the seating capacity was 27,508; the total value of church property reported was $44,321, and 3 organizations showed a total debt of $107; there were 9 Sunday‑schools with 37 officers and teachers and 402 scholars.
9. Evangelical Union of Bohemian and Moravian Brethren: A small body of churches, most of them in Texas, representing in the United States the Evangelical Union of Bohemian and Moravian Brethren in Austria, the lineal successor of the church of John Huss and Jerome of Prague (see BoHEMIAN BRETHREN; UNITY Or THE BRETHREN; ZINZENDORF, NIKOLAUs LUDWIG). Only scattered communities held the faith and the name; one of these founded the Unity of the Brethren. After the revolution of 1848 they began to look to America. Some from Bohemia, and western Moravia settled in the northern and western states and identified themselves with other bodies. Those from eastern Moravia settled in Texas and preferred to retain the old name for its historic interest as well as because it helped them to preserve their identity. In 1906 there were 15 organizations, 771 members, under the general care of 3 ordained ministers, worshiping in 6 church edifices and 7 halls, church property valued at $13,750, 2 Sunday‑schools with 6 officers and teachers and 97 scholars, and 2 parsonages valued at $700. The churches maintain friendly relations with the German Evangelical Synod (q.v.), especially in the use of the educational privileges of that body.
10. Free Christian Zion Church of Christ: A body organized at Redemption, Ark., in 1905, by a small number of colored ministers, chiefly Methodists, in protest against the attempt to tax church members for the support of an ecclesiastical system. Coordinate with this was the feeling that the church itself should care for its poor and needy. The doctrine and polity accord with those of the Methodist churches, the laity having a large share in the general ecclesiastical system. As reported in 1906, there were 15 organizations, 1,835 members, 20 ministers and 10 licentiates, 14 church edifices and 1 hall, church property valued at 865,975, and 7 Sunday‑schools with 63 officers and teachers and 3‑10 scholars.
11. Gospel Mission: An association of eight churches in Pennsylvania, organized especially for evangelistic work and the development of Christian fellowship. They have no special system of lootrine or form of church polity. The communities vary in size and are principally evangelistic in their

lfisoellaneonsRelig3ousBodies	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
services. The number of members as reported in 1906 was 196; there were 4 church edifices valued at $3,100, 10 ministers, and 9 Sunday‑schools with 34 officers and teachers and 245 scholars.
12. Heavenly Recruit Church: A body derived from the Heavenly Recruit Association, organized in 1885 as the result of revival work commenced in 1882 and carried on chiefly by members of Methodist churches. The association grew and a number of churches were formed in other states. Subsequently, dissatisfaction arose and there was division, a part of the churches taking the name Holiness Christian Association, while those in Indiana organized as the Heavenly Recruit Church. In doctrine and polity they are in general accord with the Methodist Episcopal Church, emphasizing especially the doctrine of complete sanctification. In 1906 the church reported 27 organizations, 938 members, 8 church edifices and 15 halls for worship, value of church property $8,950, with a debt of $700 on 3 of the churches, 14 Sunday‑schools with 116 teachers and 527 scholars.
13. Hephzibah Faith Missionary Association: An organization formed in 1892, at Glenwood, Ia., by a number of independent churches primarily for the purpose of preaching the doctrine of holiness, but also to carry on general missionary and philanthropic work more efficiently than was possible for them acting separately. They are not an ecclesiastical body, and have no creed. Each local church, usually called an assembly, keeps its own records, but acts in matters affecting all the churches through a central committee located at Tabor, Ia. In 1906 they reported 10 organizations with 293 members; 9 church edifices valued at $11,300; 36 ministers and 39 licentiates; and 9 Sunday‑schools with 75 teachers and 402 scholars. Their missionary work was carried on in this country by about 60 persons, including ordained and licensed ministers, evangelists, and deaconesses. They have a missionary training‑home with 70 students, and an orphanage with 23 inmates. The association is represented in India, China, Japan, and Africa, where 7 stations are occupied by 24 missionaries. The total amount contributed through the association for the home work is not given; that for the foreign work amounts to about $5,200. There are churches or local organizations using the name but not identified with this association.
14. Holiness Churches: In addition to the Pentecostal Church of the Nazarene (q.v.) there are various small bodies and individual churches which make prominent the doctrine of entire sanctification. Methodist bodies give this point of belief a place in their doctrinal system, holding not to an absolute and sinless perfection, but " a freedom from sin, from evil desires and evil tempers, and from pride." Some, feeling that this doctrine was not sufficiently emphasized, sought those of their own way of thinking and held separate meetings for the promotion of holiness. Some added other peculiarities and stood for the " Fourfold Gospel " or the " Full Gospel," which has been stated as " regeneration for the sinner; sanctification as a second work of grace for the believer; the healing of the bodies of believers in answer to prayer; and
the premillennial coming of Jesus Christ as King of this earth." Among those proclaiming the fourfold Gospel is the Christian and Missionary Alliance (q.v.). Single churches also adopted the four principles and then either joined forces in such bodies as the International Apostolic Holiness Union (see below), and various evangelistic associations, or remained ecclesiastically independent. The Pentecostal Church of the Nazarene takes a very moderate position on the last two points. Besides these, however, there is a large number of local organizations popularly designated as Holiness Churches, and known by a great variety of names, such as Holiness Church of God, Apostolic Holiness, Sanctified Church, Fire Baptized Holiness, etc. In general doctrine they are Methodistic, and are active in evangelistic, missionary, and charitable work. On account of the varied forms of organization even an estimate as to their number is scarcely possible, though some place it among the thousands, including not merely the Independent Holiness Churches, but several of the smaller denominations, and a large number of churches which, while not severing their ecclesiastical relations with regular denominations, emphasize the " Fourfold Gospel." It is to be noted that the Independent Holiness Churches are chiefly in the southern states.
15. Independent Congregations: Independent or unattached congregations were first reported in the United States by the census of 1890. There were then 156 independent congregations, besides 231 independent Lutheran organizations. When plans were being formed for getting statistics for the census of 1906 there were many indications that the practise, if not the principle, of independency had gained a still stronger foothold. Special efforts were made to secure returns for all such organizations, with the result that 1,079 such churches were registered, besides a considerable number that were loosely organized in evangelistic associations, and such organizations as the Nonsectarian Churches of Bible Faith, which is practically merely the gathering under one head of organizations which have little more in common than similarity of worship and opposition to ecclesiastical rule. Taking these together there were in 1906 not far from 1,500 local churches which refused to recognize ecclesiastical connection with any regular denomination.
While, in general, this is their chief characteristic, it is possible to arrange them in four classes: (1) churches originally established in newly settled or outlying districts as mission or union Sunday‑schools, and which have developed a church life, but on account of the heterogenous component elements have declined to enter any one denomination; (2) churches which use a denominational name, Congregational, Lutheran, etc., but refuse to be included in denominational lists; (3) union churches in which representatives of two or more denominations unite, independently of their denominational relations;. (4) churches which are absolutely opposed to any denominational bonds lest the development of their distinctive ideas of church life be hindered. This last is by far the

393	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Miscellaneous Religious Bodies
largest class and includes most of the so‑called Holiness Churches (see above). While the list of independent congregations includes some of very broad doctrinal views, the great majority appear to be distinctly conservative. Their local organization is very simple, as is also generally their form of worship. In a number of cases their members are largely interested in various missionary and philanthropic movements, but as individuals rather than as organizations. The 1,079 churches reported 73,673 members. Of these, 10,029 were in New York state; 9,431 in Illinois, and 7,586 in Pennsylvania. The number of their church edifices was 812, besides 229 halls, and the value of their church property was $3,934,267.
18. International Apostolic Holiness Union: A body founded by Martin W. Knapp, at Cincinnati, 0., in 1897, for the purpose of emphasizing the doetrine of holiness, which, in his view, had gradually dropped out of the Methodist Church. The form of organization includes both regular churches and local bands or unions, and corresponds in general to that of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Very few of the ministers have regular salaries, the greater number being supported by free‑will offerings. The body emphasizes missionary work at home (in the mountain regions of West Virginia, North Carolina, and Kentucky, and in Oklahoma), and abroad (India, Japan, Korea, South Africa, and China, where there were in 1906 twenty‑five missionaries). There are two Bible schools, in North Carolina and Kansas, and a school in Ohio. Three rescue homes and an orphanage are also conducted at an annual cost of about $3,600. As reported in 1906, there were 74 organizations, 2,774 church members, 178 ministers, 44 church edifices and 31 halls, church property valued at $80,150, against which a debt is reported by 23 of the organizations of $13,246, and 68 Sunday‑schools with 503 officers and teachers and 3,276 scholars.
17. Lumber River Mission: An organization of five churches in North Carolina, which call themselves Holiness Methodist churches, but do not affiliate with other Methodist bodies. The special purpose is to carry on evangelistic work in the lumber section of the state. In 1906 they reported 265 members, 5 ministers and 3 licentiates, 5 church edifices valued at $3,000, and 5 Sunday‑schools with 28 teachers and 256 scholars.
18. Metropolitan Church Association: An organization developed from the Metropolitan Methodist church, which was itself the result of revival meetings held in 1894 on a vacant lot in the densely populated district of Chicago. Emphasizing the doctrine of holiness, the workers did not find the most cordial welcome in the churches, and rented halls, theaters, and other buildings; at last a somewhat famous resort at Waukesha, Wis., was purchased and made the headquarters for the movement, which came to be known as the " Burning Bush." The special feature of the association is its revival work, which extends all over the United States and into foreign lands; it also has a number of departments of educational and philanthropic character in the establishment at Waukesha. No salaries are paid to workers in any department,
whether at home or abroad, the entire enterprise being conducted on the " faith " basis. Foreign work is carried on in India, Africa., and Wales; the number of missionaries being reported as 15. During 1906 some $30,000 was expended for the dovelopment of the work. The statistics for 1906 were: 6 organizations, 466 members, 19 ministers, 4 church edifices with a seating capacity of 2,025, church property valued at $118,300; 4 Sunday‑schools with 29 officers and teachers and 360 scholars.
19. Missionary Church Association: An organization formed in 1898 by a number of persons resident in Berne, Ind., who desired to emphasize their belief in the "Fourfold Gospel" (i.e., "regeneration for the sinner, sanctification as a second work of grace for the believer, the healing of the bodies of the believers as an answer to prayer, and the premillennial coming of Jesus Christ as king of this earth"), to reach neglected parts of the home field with this gospel, and to carry it to foreign fields. Its general doctrinal status is essentially that of the Christian and Missionary Alliance (q.v.), and it carries on some of its work through that society. It differs from it, however, in having a regular church organization, which the Alliance has not. The headquarters are at Berne, Ind., and the 32 churches reported in 1906 were chiefly in Indiana and adjoining states. The total number of members given was 1,256; there were 19 church edifices and 12 halls, a seating capacity in churches of 4,735, church property $33,135; 34 Sunday‑schools with 271 officers and teachers and 1,916 scholars.
20. New Apostolic Church: An organization of essentially the same type, with the same doctrine and in all respects but one the same polity, as the Catholic Apostolic Church (q.v.). The difference between the two lies in the interpretation of the apostleship, the New Apostolic Church holding that there may be any number of apostles (i.e., more than twelve), that there should always be an apostleship among men, and to this end the living apostles may and should select bearers to the title according to their needs. As the apostles of the Catholic Apostolic Church diminished in numbers, a bishop in Germany named Schwarz consulted in regard to their successors, claiming that the spirit of the apostles had often incited new selections. He was excommunicated, but subsequently a priest named Preuss was selected " through the spirit of prophecy " in 1862, and with him the New Apostolic Church commenced. Schwarz was afterward selected as apostle. The first church in the United States was organized in 1897, and in 1906 there were 13 organizations in 8 states, 19 ministers, 2 church edifices valued at $8,500, and 3 Sunday‑schools with 10 officers and teachers and 150 scholars.
21. The Servian Orthodox Church. See SERVIAN ORTHODOX CHURCHES IN AMERICA.
22. United American Free‑will Baptists, Colored: A denomination organized in 1900. Previous to that date the churches were included in the general reports for the Free Baptists or Free‑will Baptists, but within recent years there has been a desire for a separate organization. In general they accord with the Free‑will Baptists, but in polity are more closely organized, somewhat after the Meth‑

MiseellaneouRReligious33odies	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Xiesione to the Heathen
odist type, having a system of quarterly, annual, and general conferences, with a graded authority. The conferences have no jurisdiction over individual church members, but if upon investigation it appears that a church has failed to accord with the standards, it may be dropped from the conference. It is undertaking educational work, and has a college at Kinston, N. C., and' another at Dawson, Ga. There were, in 1906, 251 organizations with a membership of 14,489, 560 ministers, a considerable number of whom were engaged in general evangelistic work, 149 church edifices, and 8 halls, church property valued at $79,278, with a small amount of indebtedness, 100 Sunday‑schools with 382 officers and teachers and 2,207 scholars.
23. Vedanta Society: An organization which is the outcome of a series of lectures on Vedanta philosophy in New York in 1894 by Swami Vivekananda (q.v.). It was first organized in 1898, and gradually became strong enough to have centers in other cities, Pittsburg, San Francisco, and Los Angeles, besides various retreats. Without attempting to form a new sect or creed, the society aims to set forth the end of wisdom, how it is attained, and give to religion a scientific and philosophic basis. It publishes works on religious philosophy and furnishes lectures by various Vedantists.
24. Voluntary Missionary Society in America: A body organized in 1900 by a few colored churches in Alabama, representing different denominations, as a protest against the principle of financial assessments for the support of the ministry, which had been so generally adopted. In doctrine and local church government they differ in no respect from the Methodist or Baptist churches about them, but insist on absolutely free‑will offerings for their church work. In 1906 the society reported 3 organizations with 425 members; 3 church edifices, 2 of which were valued at $2,400, while 1 showed a debt of $1,000; 11 ministers .and 18 licentiates; 3 Sunday, schools with 21 teachers and 390 scholars.
E. M. BLISS.
MISERERE: Designation of Psalm 1. as a liturgically chanted prayer, the name being taken from the first word in the Latin translation. The Greek Church employs this psalm in the midnight office, following vespers, in the third of the canonical hours; at confession, unction, and burial of the dead. The Roman Church uses it at matins and lauds, during Sundays of the Septuagesimal season, and on all week‑days except at Eastertide and in the office of the dead. But some churches also use it in the latter office and at vespers, and in the hours from Maundy Thursday to Easter Saturday. Furthermore, at the laying of the corner‑stone of a church, consecration of an altar, cemetery, or house, it is used as choral chant. It likewise ushers in the consecration of a bell; and in the rite of blessing the fields it follows immediately the introductory public conftteor. In connection with the reconciliation of penitents it was recited over them by the bishop, along with two other psalms (lvi., lvii.).
In the Evangelical Church, the miserere has survived as a liturgical prayer where the old liturgic tradition is fostered; and its more general restoratign is desired. Its normal rendering is that of psal‑
mody; although from of old it has been likewise an object of artistic elaboration. Masters of all times and schools have written beautiful musical settings for the miserere. On the one hand, these compositions more or less closely adhere to the psalmodic standard of presentation; on the other hand, their sole aim is to give musical expression to the fundamental tone and thoughts of the text. Especially famous is its use in the pope's chapel at Rome in connection with the offices of Holy Week. Of twelve compositions preserved for this purpose, the three nowadays usually rendered are those of Gregorio Allegri, Tommaso Bay, and Giuseppi Baini.
H. A. KOSTLINt.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. G. Mettenleiter, Enchiridion chorale,l pp.
	clxxvii. eqq., 74 eqq., Regensburg, 1853; L. Spohr, Be st
	biographie, ii. 37 aqq., Camel, 1861; P. Mendelssohn
	Bartholdy, Reisebriefe von Felix Mendelesohn‑Bartholdy,
	pp. 122 sqq., 163 sqq., Leipsie, 1862; C. Proske, Mueica
	divina, iv. 209 sqq., Berlin 1863; G. Grove, Dictionary
	of Music and Musicians, vol. ii., e.v., London, 880; F. X.
	Haberl, Of tcium hebdomadie eanctm, Regensburg, 1887;
	V. Thalhofer, Handbuch der katholiachen Lituryik, ii 370,
	373, 424, 453, Freiburg, 1890; KL, viii. 1555‑59; and the
	literature under BREVIARY; and PENITENTIAL PSALMS.
MISHNA. See TALMUD.

MISSA. See MASS.
MISSAL (Lat. Missalis [Li'6er], Missals) : The office‑book of the Roman Catholic Church, containing the liturgy of the Mass (q.v.). The name came into use in the eighth century, superseding the earlier term " sacramentary," which was applied to a book giving the rites and prayers for all the Saocraments. At first other books also had to be used for a proper celebration of the Eucharist, such as the antiphonary, lectionary, evangelistary, etc. A missal containing all the forms of the mass was called complete or plenary (missals pleruarium). Of course the missal for many centuries was only in manuscript and, as was inevitable, these manuscripts differed more or less. But when printing was discovered there was opportunity to produce a standard and uniform text. So the Council of Trent decreed such an edition, and the pope appointed a commission to prepare it and when it appeared socompanied it by a bull dated July 14, 1570. This edition has undergone revision in 1604, 1634 (see MASS, II., 4, § 2) and 1884. (Cf. W. H. J. Weals, Bibliographia liturgica. Catalogue misaalium ritus Latini ab anno M. CCCC. LXXV. impresaorum, London, 1886; A. Ebner, Quellenund Forsehungenzur Geschichte and Kunstgeschichte des Missals Romanum im Mittelalter, Freiburg, 1896). Latin editions of the missal are numerous (e.g., F. Pustet, 9th ed., Regensburg, 1904), as well as translations into the modern languages‑e. g., The Roman Missal for the Use of the Laity (London, 1806, 1852), and The Missal for the Use of the Laity by F. C. Husenbeth (London, 1853, 1903).

MISSION: The term used by Roman Catholics to express what Protestants style revival services, in which the principal appeal is to the emotions.
MISSIONARY CHURCH ASSOCIATION. See MISCELLANEOUS RELIIIIOUfQ BODIES, 19.

396
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xiscellaneous Religious Bodies
	Missions to the Heathen
A. Roman Catholic Missions.
1. Introduction.
II. Separate Fields of Labor.
1. Africa
West Africa (¢ 1).
Western Central Africa (¢ 2).
South and East Africa ($ 3).
North Africa, African Islands (5 4)•
2. Asia.
Eastern and Southern India (5 1).
Western and Northern India (§ 2).
Ceylon ($ 3).
Eastern Asia ($ 4).
Dutch East Indies; Philippines ($b).
China (5 8).
Korea and Japan ($ 7).
3. America.
United States and British North America (5 1).
Latin America and the West Indies ($ 2).
4. Australia and Oceania.
B. Protestant Missions.
I. Introduction.
The Basis of Christian Missions ($ 1).
General Results (¢ 2).
IL Colonial Missions.
MISSIONS TO THE HEATHEN.
1. The Period of the Reformation and of the Old Protestant Orthodoxy.
Attitude of the Reformers (§ 1).
Adrian Seravis ($ 2).	II
Two Early Attempts (§ 3).		1.
Reformed and Lutheran Opposition
	Q 4).
Dutch Work in East Indies ($ b).
Work of English Colonists (¢ 8).
Early Danish Missions (5 7).
2. Era of Pietism and Rationalism.	2.
	Franeke'e Services (5'1).	3.
	Zinaendorf and the United Brethren	4.
	Apathy under Rationalistic Influ‑	8.
		eases (§ 3).	7,
3. The Present Mission Era.	8.
	Events Leading to Renewed Effort	9,
		(i 1).	10
Carer and the English Missionary 11.
Societies (12).	IV
Results on the Continent (§ 3).
4. Missionary Organisations.
Ecclesiastical Attitude toward Missions (5 1).
The Training of Missionaries ($ 2).
Rise of Missionary Organisations
present article deals with missions, Catholic and Protestant, to non‑Christian peoples, considering especially the basis, history, results, and methods of this work. Various aspects of missions, especially of home missions, sae treated in the articles CITY MISSIONS; EMIGRANTS AND IMMIGRANTS, MISSION WORK AMONG; HARMS, GEORG LUDWIG DETLEV THEODOR; HOME MISSIONS; INDIANS OF NORTH AMERICA, MISSIONS TO; 11VNEHE MISSION; JEWS, MISSIONS TO THE; and SLAVIC MISSIONS IN THE UNITED STATES; and in the biographical articles on the missionaries who gave their efforts to the Church.]
A, Roman Catholic Missions.
[The figures enclosed in parentheses in the following summaries give for purposes of comparison the corresponding data of the Protestant Missions, or, as the author prefers to designate them. "Evangelical," as objectionable term in its implications, though frequently used sad appropriate if properly defined.)
I. Introduction: According to the Roman Catholic conception, the missionary task consists in the Catholicizing of non‑Catholic peoples, while Protestants understand by it the Christianizing of nonChriatians. In conformity with this view, this treatment will deal with the work of Roman Catholics among the heathen. It is, however, difficult to carry out this distinction, since efforts are made in the missionary fields not only occasionally to convert Europeans, but also to draw over native Evangelical converts to the Roman Catholic Church [the counterpart to the Protestant propagandaj. Those who are expelled or are dissatisfied furnish a welcome excuse for this work, and an excessive lenity toward unchristian customs serves as a temptation. It therefore happens that among the Roman Catholic converts from heathenism, many are counted who are gathered from Evangelical missions. Besides the Congregation de propaganda fide in Rome, where all the threads of the widely diffused Roman missions are brought together, there are in the different Roman Catholic countries
Survey of Missionary Organisations
Summary ($ 6). The Evangelical Missionary Fields. America. The Arctic Regions (¢ 1). British North America (¢ 2). United States (¢ 3). West Indies (§ 4). Central and South America (4 b). Africa. Central Asia. British India. Non‑British UpperTndis. Malay Archipelago. Chins. Korea. Japan. Oceania. Conclusions. Methodology of Missions. The Purpose of Missions (§ i). Ends to be Attained (§ 2). Auxiliaries Employed (f 3). The Movement for Immediate Evangelization (14). The True Method ($ 5).
missionary societies. Thus there is the Xavier Society or Society for the Propagation of Faith, founded in 1822 in Lyons; branch societies exist in most Roman Catholic countries. The journal of the society, the " Year Book," appears in various languages. The contributions reach the sum of from one and a quarter to one and a half million dollars annually. Others are the Society of Foreign Missions (Paris, 1820); the Leopoldinische Stiftung (Vienna, 1829); the Society of Holy Childhood (Paris, 1843) for the rescue of heathen children, who are baptized when in danger of death. In fifty years, twelve million children were baptized (mostly in China) and sixteen and one‑half million dollars were expended by the society. Missionary seminaries exist in Paris, Lyons, Milan, Verona and Rome. England also has one: St. Joseph of Mill Hill. The seminary at Steyl, Holland, is principally for the education of German missionaries. Recently several mission homes have been founded in Germany to provide for the German colonies. The greater number of missionaries come, however, from the congregations, many of which serve the heathen mission exclusively; for instance, the Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Mary (1841; later combined with that of the Holy Spirit); the Mariate in Lyons and Paris; the Congregation of Picpus (Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and Mary); the order of the Oblates of the Immaculate Conception of Mary; in Algiers, the Fathers of the Holy Spirit (called the White Fathers); in Paris, the Lazarists. The old orders also‑Dominicans, Franciscans (Minorites), Capuchins, Carmelites, and othersshare in the work. Many of these orders have special missionary fields assigned to them, and have their procurators with the Propaganda. Others assume an auxiliary position, in thatathey supply the missions with lay brothers in great numbers for teaching, the care of the sick, work of civilization, and similar tasks. Many female orders work in this manner and send out hosts of sisters as missionaries.

Missions to the Heathen	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	396
lI. Separate Fields of Labor. 1. Africa: The Christianity which was planted in the fifteenth century in the coast region by the Portuguese through
	1. West	the Dominicans and Franciscans rapidly
		declined with the downfall of the Por
		tuguese power, and only slight traces
remain of it, obscurely intermixed with the older
heathenism. In the eighteenth century, in con
nection with the French possessions in Senegambia,
the Roman Catholic mission was resumed. It first
became active when the Congregation of the
Immaculate Heart of Mary (founded by Father
Liebermann, who was stimulated by the success of
the Evangelical mission) took up the work in the
apostolic vicariate constituted in 1842.
In the apostolic vicariate of Senegambia, with the apostolic prefecture of Senegal, the preparatory work of teaching and the care of orphans occupied the leading place In one seminary, natives are educated as priests; besides this, some translations are made into the languages of the country and the institution does its own printing. The results seem slight, since in 1886 the number of Roman Catholics was given at a higher figure (12,000) than at present. The apostolic prefecture of Guinea, in the south, was established in 1897. For a long time previous the Evangelical mission on the Rio Pongas had worked in this field. In the vicariate of Sierra Leone the converts are mostly from the already evangelized population of the English colony. The vicariate of the Ivory Coast, founded in 1895 by separation from the foregoing, is still in its beginnings. The prefecture of the Gold Coast has been for a long time a successful Evangelical mission field. In 1879 the Fathers of the Holy Spirit entered it and later it was ceded to the Lyons Seminary. The prefecture of Togo, in the German Protectorate,'
e an old Evangelical missionary field, but since 1892 the Steyl 5i ission House has sent missionaries there. The prefecture of Dahomey embraces the French protectorate, and was founded in 1882. The vicariate of Benin includes, since 1889, Lagos and the hinterland, where from the middle of the nineteenth century the Church Missionary Society has been very successful. The prefecture on the Lower Niger and that on the Upper Niger (Lokoja) are both in older English fields of labor. The prefecture of Iramerun was founded in 1890 in the German protectorate, where was an old field of the English Baptista, which was transferred to the Basel Mission. The totals for this region are: 73 stations (237), 185 priests (216), 7 native priests (252), 112 lay brothers, 226 sisters, 169 schools (729), 11,687 scholars (42,869), among these about 3,000 girls (15,440), 51,725 Roman Catholics (170,705 Christians). In 37 orphan asylums and 24 other institutions, there are over 1,300 children, many of whom have been freed by purchase.
Through the favor of the king of Portugal and the ardent zeal of the Inquisition, the old mission had great apparent success in the kingdom of
2. Western the Bongo; this, however, was followed Central in the eighteenth century by a com‑
	Africa.	plete reversion to heathenism, with
		the retention of Christian forms, as
soon as the Portuguese withdrew. In 1865, the
Roman mission was taken up again by the Con
gregation of the Holy Spirit. On the Gabun, a
countermission to that of the American Protestants
was started in 1842.
The vicariate of Gabon, on the boundary of Kamerun, has its most successful station in the model colony of Libreville. Of the other nine stations, some are far in the interior, where they compete with the Protestant mission which has beentaken over by the Paris society. It has 34 priests, 20 lay brothers, 27 sisters, 12,000 Roman Catholics. The vicariates of the Lower French Kongo and of the Upper French Bongo are both entrusted to the Congregation of the Holy Spirit. From Brazzaville, the seat of the vicar of the Upper Kongo, the work is carried on among the cannibal tribes living on the Ubanghi. They report 14 scholars, 50priests,3,500Catholics. The vicariate of the BeIglan
Kongo (northern part) has 15 stations of the Congregation Scheutveld on the great river up to Stanley Falls, with 62 priests and 3,516 Catholics. The vicariate of the Upper Bongo (eastern part of Kongo Free State) is assigned to the White Fathers who work with 16 priests in 5 stations and have, in addition to 2,371 converts over 5 000 candidates for baptism (1901). The Prefecture Uelle, on the river of the same name, founded in 1898, has 2 stations of the Belgian Premonstrants with 12 priests and 600 converts. The prefecture on the Lower Kongo embraces the region of the old Kongo Mission, with 9 stations, 21 priests, and 5,689 Catholics. The prefecture of Upper Cimbebasia in Benguella is under the Fathers of the Holy Spirit, and has 6 stations with 16 priests and 5,000 converts. The totals are 67 stations (67), 204 priests (167), 4,070 scholars (6,737), among these 948 girls (2,845), 39,015 Roman Catholics (11,354).
The prefecture of Lower . Cimbebasia in the northern part of German Southwest Africa has been since 1892 a field of the Oblates of the Immaculate
Conception, as is also the vicariate of S. South the Orange River. In Cape Colony and East there are the vicariates of the western Africa. and eastern districts between which
lies the prefecture of the central district. The results, since 1837, appear to be slight. After completing the imperfect returns, the number of colored Roman Catholics may be estimated at 2,400. The propaganda here seems to be carried on principally among the whites, besides which there is great activity in education. The vicariate of Natal has been since 1850 in the hands of the Oblates of the Immaculate Conception, and the German Trappists have extensive agricultural and industrial enterprises. The vicariate of the Orange Free State (now East Colony) has been assigned, since 1884, to the above‑named, as bas the prefecture of Basutoland, where a successful French Protestant mission has operated since 1883; the greater part of the 6,000 Catholics now counted were probably derived from its adherents. The prefecture of the Transvaal has been under the same congregation since 1886. How many Europeans are among the 6,200 Roman Catholics is not apparent.
Totals for South Africa are: 82 stations (580), 174 priests (574), 161 schools (1,400), 7,493 scholars (87,421)*, among these 3,565 girls (36,333), 12,200 colored Roman Catholics (333,984). In East Africa, with eastern Central Africa, is the Zambesi mission of the Jesuits (since 1879), bounded by the Transvaal and by the Kongo Free State, with 3 stations and 1,200 converts. The number of native converts is unknown. The prefecture of Nyassa,west of the lake, has been a field of the White Fathers since 1897. The prefecture of Southern Zanzibar, in the southeastern part of German East Africa, is under the German Benedictines. In the vicariate of Tanganyika, on the eastern shore of the lake, the White Fathers have their seminary. It reports 2,436 catechumens. The vicariate of Northern Zanzibar embraces the northeastern part of German East Africa and the eastern portion of the British sphere of influence, and is worked by the Congregation of the Holy Spirit and the Trappists. There is great activity in education, and the number of Roman Catholics increased rapidly from their 5,000 scholars. On the west this vicariate is bounded by Uganda, where there are the following missionary districts: The vicariate of the Upper Nile under the English Brotherhood of Mill Hill; the vicariate of the Northern Victoria Nyanza, under the White Fathers; and the vicariate of the Southern Victoria Nyanza. The Roman mission had reaped a rich harvest from the remarkable movement of Christianization initiated by the older Protestant mission among the Baganda, and they have also made a clever use of the political conditions. The statistics give, for North‑

*Statistics are lacking in reference to the former Boer Republics.

397	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Missions to the Heathen
ern Victoria Nyanza alone, 39,586 Roman Catholics and 166,150 catechumens. • The vicariate of Unianyembe in German East Africa is under the White Fathers, with 1,133 converts, 6,755 catechumens. For East Africa the totals are: 63 stations (128), 162 priests (239), 89 lay brothel, 64 sisters, 107 schools (227), 7,771 scholars (33,060), among these 3,578 girls (11,852), 69,288 adherents (46,639 Christians).
	The vicariate of the Galla regions is bounded by
that of North Zanzibar. The Capuchins have been
		at work there since 1846. The vicar
	4. North	has his seat in Harrar, and reports one
	Africa,	seminary, 7,000 converts. The pre
	Airioan	fecture of Rrythrma, in the Italian
	Islands.	protectorate, was transferred in 1894
		to the Capuchins as a branch of the
vicariate of Abyssinia. There the Lazarists have
worked since 1838 under serious difficulties. Dur
ing the conflicts with the Italians, the mission was
interrupted. The Ethiopic ritual is permitted here.
After the separation from Erythreea (with 7,900 adherents) there remain 4,000 converts; formerly 30,000 were counted. The vicariate of Egypt has a Roman Catholic population of 78,580, of whom 56,000 follow the Coptic rite and 20,500 the Latin. There are numerous stations of various congregations. The vicariate of the Nile Delta is especially in the charge of the Lyons mission. The vicariate of Tripoli has been since 1654 a missionary field of the Franciscans, and reports 7,450 adherents. In the vicariate of Morocco the Franciscans were active in the Middle Ages. The mission was renewed in 1859, and reports 6,260 converts.
In the prefecture of the Sudan Austrian priests began the work about the middle of the last century on the White Nile; the task was transferred to the missionary seminary of Verona in 1872. Because of the war with the Mahdi the work was abandoned for a long period, and it was resumed only in 1898 with the occupation of Omdurman. The vicariate of the Sahara has been occupied since 1868 by the white Fathers, whose work is largely preparatory. Of all the Roman Catholic missions in North Africa only the last‑named and those to the Galls can be looked upon as real missions (among non‑Christians). On this basis there are reckoned 15 stations, 45 priests, 14 lay brothers, 24 sisters, ,18 schools, 574 scholars, 175 girls ("), and 7,000 converts. The Miniones Catholicm report 108,930 of whom the greater part by far did not come from heathenism but represent those drawn from other Christian confessions and their descendants. In the African Islands the prefecture of Annobom, Corisko and Fernando po is worked by Spanish missionaries who report 3,400 converts. The vicariate of North Madagascar is occupied by priests of the Holy Spirit. The vicariate of South Madagascar affords work for the Lazarists. In the vicariate of Central Madagascar the Jesuits have worked for a long time as competitors of the Evangelical mission. As early as 1886, 84,000 Roman Catholics were reported there, later only 41,135. Since the French conquest the communities have grown considerably, as the Evangelical Christians, threatened with severe pressure from without, were led in great numbers to Catholicism. The last statement of the Miasiones Catholicce gives 61,500 coma municants and 258,956 catechumens. Recently the civil authorities have given less aid to the mil. sion. In the Prefecture of Mayotta No9816 and the Comores there are many color Christiaiig from
Rdunion, who can not be regarded as fruits of the mission of to‑day and are therefore not counted here.
The totals for the islands are: 28 stations (85), 90 priests (88), 82 lay brothers, 61 sisters, 863 schools (2,247), 148,503 scholars (136,980), among these 68,509 girls (34,201), 64,900 Roman Catholics (138,216); and for all Africa 328 stations (1,070), 833 priests (1,275 ordained Evangelical missionaries), 13 native priests * (890), 796 lay brothers, 927 sisters, 1,382 schools (4,718); 187,105 scholars (307,357), among these 80,981 girls (98,766), 242,136 Roman Catholics (699,899).
8. Asia: The Roman Catholic mission in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Arabia, and Persia (with 145,580 adherents) is here omitted on the ground that the work in these countries is directed only to the winning of Christians from other confessions (Syrians, Chaldeans, Armenians), as is done in part by the Protestants who work there.
With the Portuguese colonization in the sixteenth century, a mission of the Franciscans and Dominicans was immediately combined, but proved unsuccessful. When, in 1534, the bishopric of Goa
was erected but few communities
1. Eastern existed in spite of the efforts of the
and South‑ Inquisition. Francis Xavier (q.v.),
ern India. who arrived here in 1542 with two
Jesuits, worked chiefly among the degenerate and coarsely immoral white population. It was only in the southeastern region of India, Tinnevelli, whither the Portuguese had gone to give aid against the Mohammedan conquerors, that Xavier succeeded in baptizing great numbers of heathen from among the lower castes‑10,000 in one month. He had similar success in Madura and Travancore. It is, however, characteristic that Xavier left this field at the end of a few years in order to labor elsewhere, and begged the king of Portugal to transfer the work of spreading Christianity to the secular officials. Other Jesuits came, however, but their work led to the planting of only the outward forms of the Roman Catholic Church. When Goa was raised to an archbishopric in 1557, 300,000 Catholics were counted in the Portuguese colony, and this number was notably increased in 1599 by the incorporation of a number of Christians of St. Thomas of Melapur (see NEeTORIANS). Up to this time the converts had come from the lowest castes; but after 1606, Roberto de' Nobili was able to bring the Brahmins into the Roman Catholic Church, As was the case with Hindu founders of sects, he gained followers (30,000).
It is true that his policy of compromise was condemned by the pope, but it was abandoned only after a long resistance on the part of the Jesuits.
In northern India they gained influence with the Grand Mogul Akbar, but bad no permanent suooees. With the founding of the Propaganda (q. v.), the work was taken up in many other parts of India and to a certain extent by other congregations (Carmelites and Capuchins). In the eighteenth century, the political conditions were unfavorable to the mission. With the suppression of the order of Jesus it nearly died out and there were few conversions. The masses of the Roman Catholics were neglected and constituted only a caste among the others. In the nineteenth century the mission was

a The ststiatim appear to be fnomplete.

Missions to the Heathen
indeed revived, but the conflicts of the papacy with the Portuguese crown were for a long time a great hindrance to its success, until these disputes were settled by the concordat of 1886. The archdiocese of Goa, as well as the dioceses of Daman, Kotchin, and St. Thomas of Melapur, with 534,000 souls under the primate of Goa (patriarch of India), have remained under Portuguese jurisdiction. The other regions of British India are now subject to the Curia. The earlier apostolic vicariates have been changed into bishoprics, a few into archbishoprics. The largest number of Roman Catholics is found in the diocese of Madura, which stretches from Cape Comorin nearly to the river Cavery. More than four per cent of the Tamil population are Roman Catholics; the episcopal seat is Trichinopoli. In fifteen years, the number of converts had in‑
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
dominate. The entire coast region up to the territory of Goa is included in the diocese of Mangalur, in which the Jesuits are zealous rivals 8. Western of the Evangelical Basel Mission. Beand North‑ yond the Ghats lies the bishopric of era India. Mysore, which, extending beyond the state of the same name, embraces peoples of various languages. Hyderabad is the last diocese in the region of the Dravidic peoples. Among the Arian population, the archdiocese of Calcutta stands out as the most successful. Above all, great numbers of the hill people of Chota Nagpur, among whom the Evangelical Gosaner Mission has worked for many years, have been won for Rome, principally by means of promises touching their social standing. The greater laxity permitted has also drawn many from the Evangelical Chris‑
	Popula‑	Missionary Field.	Cath. 	St. 	Ch. 	Sch. 	Sem. 	P. 	N.P. 	O.A.	Congregation.
	tion in
	thousands.
	5,000	1. D. Madura . .... . 	206,000	37	980	239		51	24	10 	Jesuits
	5,000	2. Ad. Pondicherry . . . . . 	133,770 	51 	275	80	1	77 	27	19 	Paris Seminary
	3,000	3. D. Kumbakonam . 	85,000	27	502	45		19	17	4 	Paris Seminary
	7,076	4. Ad. Madras . . . . . . . . .	44,870 	29 	142	76	1	23 	22	6 	Secular priests and Brothers of
	2,028	5. D. Coimbatore ..	35,870	22	114	59	1	36	8	8 	Paris Seminary JMill Hill
	1,210	6. D. (~uilon. .. ......	87,000	29	167	7	1	16	28	3 	Bare‑footed Carmelites
		7. Ad. 
	1,200	Verapoli .....	59,700	41	53	149	1	13	32	5 	Bare‑footed Carmelites
	3,709	8. D. Mangalore . ... .	83,690	34	73	64	1	34	47	15 	Jesuits
	5,500	9. D. Mysore . ........	41,170	27	97	71	1	47	10	15 	Paris Seminary
	11,054	10. D. Hyderabad . .. ..	12,590	11	45	30	19	5 	Milan Seminary
		11. Ad. 				127
	21,000	Calcutta 	45,290	32	290	15	77	27	7 	Jesuits
	17,000	12. D. Dacca . ...	11,000	6	22		8		8 	Brothers of the Holy Cross
	15,000	13. D. Krishnagar . .. .	4,050	6	43	18	8	6 	Milan Seminary
		14. D. 				9
	7,000	Assam . . . . . .. ..	1,340	7	9	27	9	5	6 	Soc. of the Divine Redeemer
	38,147	15. D. Allahabad 	6,420	15	32		19			Capuchins.
	13,000	. 	4,025	11	11	13	15	11 	Capuchins
		16. Pf. Bettiah 
	25,000	17. Ad. Agra. 	8,095	24	36	19	1	35	2	12 	Capuchins
	14,200 	18. Pf. Ralputana	3,650	9	14	5	1	12		5 	Capuchins
	, 	19. D. Lahore ..	3,590	13	20	22	23	4 	Capuchins
	13,600 
	2,000 	20. Pf. Kafiristan.and.
Kashmir.	3,000 	10	11	4	14	6 	St. Joseph's of Mill Hill
	12,380	21. Ad. Bombay 	16,160	27	46	23		51	22	2 	Jesuits
	7,000	22. D. Puna . 	13,000	22	38	98		21	10	2 	Jesuits
	15,500	23. D. Nagpur .......	8,000	10	28	15		20	5	11	Salesians
	9,000	24. D. Vizagapatam 	12,915	14	59	25		18			Salesians
	254,604		930,195 	514 	3,107 	1,233	9 	665 	286 	174
		Under Portuguese iurisdio‑	534,000
		Catholics in Western India	1,464,195
Evangelical ...........	776,562	719	6,866	1,057	884	,
Cath.‑Roman Catholics, St.‑stations, Ch.=churches, Sch.=schools, Sem.‑seminaries, P.‑priests, priests, O.A.‑orphan asylums, D.=diocese, Ad.‑archdiocese, Pf.‑prefecture.
creased by twenty‑five per cent. On the northern boundary is the archdiocese of Pondicherry, where adherents come principally from the French colonies. The southern portion was detached in 1899 as the diocese of Kumbakonam. The archdiocese of Madras embraces the northern part of the land of the Tamils and the southern part of that of the Telugus, while the diocese of Koimbatur includes the western portion of the land of the Tamils and is bounded by Madras. Nearly half of the Hindu Roman Catholics (forty‑one per cent) belong to the above‑mentioned dioceses, although the number of stations and priests is only a quarter of the aggregate.
On the west coast of India the Roman Catholics of Goa predominate. There are, however, in this region the following dioceses directly depending from Rome: Quilon in Travancore; on its northern boundary the archdiocese of Verapoli, which extends into Malabar. In both the United Syrians pre‑
N.P. ‑native
tians to the Roman Catholics. As auffragan bishoprics Dacca and Krishnagar are detached from the archbishopric. The latter includes Lower Bengal as well as the eastern coast region of the Bay of Bengal as far as Akyab, with a Burmese population, and also extends up into the mountains, where dwell various aboriginal tribes. The greater number of stations are in places where Baptists had already been active at an earlier time. Kriahnagar, on the other hand, is a district north of Calcutta where, in 1839, thousands joined the Evangelical Church as a result of a remarkable movement. Later, many fell away, and this brought considerable socessions to the Roman Catholic mission. Assam is, since 1889, an apostolic vicariate; here the Roman mission has been less successful in its appeals to converts of the Evangelical missions here. The bishopric of Allahabad embraces the southeastern half of the United Provinces and Oudh. The Hindus and Mohammedans are unreceptive.

RELIGIOUS
A detached prefecture is that of Bettiah, named after a successful station with extensive benevolent institutions. To it three districts and even Nepal are assigned. The northwestern half of the United Provinces includes the bishopric of Agra, where the Roman mission was active two and a half centuries ago, but had small success. The prefecture of Rajputana, with its seat in Ajmir, was separated in 1892. The diocese of Lahore also, formerly the vicariate of the Punjab, has been detached from Agra, from which the prefectures Hafiristan and Kashmir were separated later. The archdiocese of Bombay embraces Sindh, the northern Mahratta country and the intervening region. The rest of the Mahratta country has been detached as the diocese of Puna. To the east of this are the dioceses of Nagpur and Vizagapatam. In Nagpur, where 8,000 Roman Catholics were counted, there were, in 1900, no less than 30,827 baptisms. It is true that 28,930 baptisms, administered to children in peril of death, are included.
The statistical summary, on p. 398, of the missions in India is taken from the Miasiones Catholiue. It should be remarked that among Roman Catholics, Europeans and Eurasians are included; their number is placed at 79,661, according to the census of 1901. In this way the number of native‑born Roman Catholics is reduced to 805,534. The Roman Catholics under Portuguese jurisdiction are given in the same source at 534,000. This statement can not be checked, nor can any figures be obtained in regard to other missionary work in the various fields. In all, the separate reports account for 398 lay brothers and 1873 sisters; among the latter are many native nuns.
Ceylon, as a British Crown Colony, is not connected with the Empire of India. Roman Catholicism gained much ground here under the Portu‑
guese rule (1517‑1658); during the
8. Ceylon. Dutch sovereignty (until 1796), the
Reformed religion was introduced by pressure from without. When the English brought religious freedom, it was not difficult to lead back great numbers of these migratory Christians to the Roman Catholic Church. Therefore, the Roman Catholics who are to‑day in Ceylon are only to a small extent the result of modern Roman missions. There are the following dioceses:
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Missions to the Heath
The two former are assigned to the‑ Paris Seminary and the last to the Milanese. But of a population of 9,930,000 there are 56,600 Roman Catholics, 46 stations, 154 schools, 3 seminaries, 70 priests, 13 native priests, 42 lay brothers, and 62 sisters. Siam had, in the eighteenth century, a flourishing Roman Catholic mission, which died out under the Burmese rule, but was revived in 1840. Now it is a vicariate under the care of the Paris Seminary, with 22,000 Roman Catholics (out of five million inhabitants), 27 stations, 41 schools, 1 seminary, 36 priests, 14 native priests. The diocese of Laos, detached in 1888, has 9,430 Roman Catholics, 12 stations, 30 schools, 21 priests, and 4 native priests.
In the French possessions of to‑day in Eastern India, the Jesuits (especially Alexander of Rhodes) had already won a great number of adherents at an earlier time by skilful use of the political conditions. Bitter persecution of the Christians induced France to intervene and to found its colonial domain, in which the Roman Catholic mission exerts a widereaching influence. In the eighteenth century Spanish Dominicans worked alongside of the Jesuits. This resulted in troublesome conflicts between them. Instead of the former, missionaries of the Paris Seminary have recently entered this field in Cambodia and Cochin China.
There are 10 apostolic vicariates, one in Cambodia, three in Cochin China, and six in Tonkin. Altogether, there are 840,760 Roman Catholics, out of twenty‑three million inhabitants, with 370 stations, 353 priests, 494 native priests, 2,068 schools. The diocese of Xalaooa (under the Paris Seminary) has, out of 1,200,000 inhabitants, 19,830 Roman Catholics (among these some Chinese), 26 stations, 32 priests, 2 native priests, and 25 schools. All Eastern Asia ham, out of a population of forty‑one millions, 948,650 Roman Catholics, and 481 stations, 512 priests, 527 native priests, 2,318 schools, about 134 lay b there and 541 sisters, among these some natives. (Evangelical: 127,707 Christians, 46 stations, 94 missionaries, 299 ordained natives, 599 schools.)
In the Dutch East Indies the Roman mission has only the prefecture of North Borneo, with Labuan (St. Joseph's Brotherhood of Mill Hill) and the vicariate of Batavia (Jesuits). The
	5. Dutch	former compete with the Anglicans
Eastindies;in Sarawak (1,200 Roman Catholics),
PhilipPines.the latter have 10 stations in Java, 4
		in Sumatra, 3 in Celebes (where they
work among the Evangelical population of the
Minahassa‑5,974 Roman Catholics), and 7 in Flores
Diocese.	Population in	St	Sch. 	Sem. 	P. 	N.P. 	O.A.	Congregation
	thousands.
Ad. Colombo ...	1,083	198,120	46	271	661	2	80	14	10	Of the Immaculate Conception
D. Jaffna . .. . . . . .	892	42,500	23	202	108	1	34	10	2	Of the Immaculate Conception
D. Kandy . . . 	633	21,150	11	60	24	1	10	.19	5	Benedietines
D. Galls . . . . . , . . . . .	748	6,300	5	37	34		12			Jesuits
D. Trinkomallie 	159	7,150	3	22	20	8	Jesuits
	2.Olb	275,220	88	592	847	4	144	43	17
Evangel. mission 		31,953	45		861		49	95
In addition there are 70 lay brothers and 308 sisters, the latter principally natives. The number of Roman Catholics has especially increased m the archdiocese of Colombo, where in 1889 there were 139,978, and in 1868, 102,222.
In Burma, where formerly different congregations had worked, without noteworthy success, Ro‑
manism was first able to record im4. Eastern portant results under English rule.

Asia'	There are here three vicariates: North
	Burma (6,000 converts), South Burma
(41,000 converts, among these not a few formerly Evangelical Karens), and East Burma (9,600 converts).
and Timor. The mtssfonw CatWicce reports 49,831 converts. According to Die katholiscAe Kirche there are among them only 22,382 Asiatic 40 stations, 63 priests, 48 schools, 28 lay brothers, and 259 sisters. The Philippines are not in the charge of the Propaganda. Die katholiache Kirche states that many different‑ orders work here with a smaller number of secular priests. In 736 parishes and 105 missionary parishes, there were in round num‑

bers 6,560,000 converts and 957 priests. According to this there would be only 590,000 heathen,

Sissions to the Heathen	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	400
with whom it is likely that the Roman Catholic Church has little to do. Since the American conquest, several Evangelical missionary societies have taken up the work here (see PHILIPPINE IsLANDS).
It is well known that in the seventeenth century the Jesuits, through a clever use of political conditions, and through a complacent attitude regarding heathen customs, enjoyed considerable success.
It is said that there were at that time
fi. Chi‑&. 300,000 Roman Catholics in the em‑
pire. Against the Jesuits, because of their methods of compromise, accusations were made by the Dominicans and Franciscans, who entered the field in 1630; the Jesuits, however, persisted and abused their influence as favorites of the emperor so far as to cause the imprisonment of a papal legate. To the young heir apparent, Yung Ching, the intervention of the pope seemed to portend danger to the State, and he interdicted Christianity. This resulted in persecution and the number of Christians rapidly dwindled away. In spite of all, the Jesuits maintained themselves for a long time; even the repeated condemnation of their practises by the pope did not shake them. However, with the suppression of the order, the Roman Catholic mission in China became reduced to a small remnant. Only by the Peace of Nanking (1842) did the Roman Catholics secure an edict of toleration, and by the Peace of Peking the restoration of all the former church property was accorded. Under the protection of France, the Roman Catholic mission has much increased since that time; in cases of local persecution, heavy ptuniary indemnities were enforced. Externally also the cause is favored in that the dignitaries of the church are accorded the rank of mandarins, so that the native converts are withdrawn from Chinese jurisdiction. For this very reason, however, many doubtful characters are drawn to the Roman Catholic Church.
There are in China, according to Die katholixhe %irde, p. 258, 39 vicariates and 2 prefectures, in the five following groups: (1) Pechili (1. North, 2. East, 3. Southwest, 4. Southeast); Manchuria (5. South, 8. North, 7. East); Mongolia (S. East, 9. Central, 10. Southwest) and 11. North Honan. (2) 12. Kuljs; 13. Ksnsu; Shensi (14. North and 15. South); 16. Shansi (according to Missions# Catholics there are two vicariatee, North and South, both under Franciscans); and Shantung (17. North, I8. East, 19. South). (3) 20. Che‑Kiang; 21 South Honan; Hunan (22. North, 23. South); HUpe (24. Northwest, 25: East, 28. Southwest); 27. Kiangnan; Kiangsi (28. North, 29. South, 30. EsA). (4) ‑31. Kweichow; 8sechuen (32. Northwest, 33. East, 34. South); '35. Yunnan; 38. Tibet. (5) 37. Fukhisn; 38. Amoy; S9. Hongkong; and the prefectures 40. Kwangsi and 41. Kwangtung. The missions are carried on by the following organisations, whose fields are indicated by the affixed numbers.
Priests. Converts.

	2. Ln:aris arieta (I‑3, Seminary 20, 213‑30)8.,40 41)	1151	28.583
	3. Jesuits (4, 27) . 	..	.	188	188,921
	4. Frio (14,18‑18,23‑28) . 	..	..	.	128	109,428
	5. Dominicans (37, 38) 	43	42,684
	8. Augustinians (22) 	8	215
	7. Milanese Seminary (11, 21, 39) 	..	..	.	39	22,200
	8. Roman Seminary (lb) .	13	9,180
9. ficheutveld Con	ation (8‑10, 12, 13). 84	30,3,12
	10. Steyl Seminary (19 	33	15,252
	Total 	942	782,758
The Missions# Catholicar gives the following figures: 720..540 converts, 734 Stations, 904 priests, 471 native priests, 3.584 schools, 85,990 scholars, 239 sisters. (Evangelical: 205,747 converts 478 stations, 973 missionaries, 297 native plttOrl, 1,823 schools; 37,057 scholars.)
Korea (q.v.) received, in 1784, the first missionaries, who soon obtained numerous adherents. Bitter persecution, in which three bishops and eleven
priests were martyred, hindered all 7. Korea further development. In 1831 the
and Japan. vicariate was founded and assigned to the Paris Seminary. Since Japanese influence has supplanted that of China and there is greater security in the land, the Roman Catholic mission is rapidly spreading. The Miasionea Catholicae gives the following figures: 35 stations, 39 priests, 9 native priests, 59 schools, 481 scholars.
Francis Xavier began the mission in Japan in 1549, but had little success. His followers were able to connect their interests with those of a political party, whose victory they shared. Numerous missionaries came to the land and gained as many as 600,000 converts. A change in the political situation resulted in severe persecutions, and in 1641 the last missionaries were removed from the country. Only after America had brought about the opening of the empire was the mission renewed. The missionaries of the Paris Seminary work in four dioceses: the archdiocese of Tokyo and the dioceses of Osaka, Nagasaki, and Hakodate.
Out of a population of 47,812,138 there are 56,453 Roman Catholics, 88 stations, ilb priests, 32 native priests, 38 schools 2,828 scholars (among these 2,041 girls), 35 lay brothers, and 109 sisters are reported. (Evangelical: 145 stations, 237 missionaries, 297 native pastors, 85,715 Christisne, 104 schools, 7,141 scholars‑among these 851 girls.)
For all Asia: 2,988,142 Roman Catholics * (1,583,798 Evangelionl Christians), 1,980 stations (1,832), 2,348 priests (2,832), 1,868 native priests (5,809), 8,358 schools (1.0,788), ‑scholars t (413,428).
8. America: In this treatment account is taken only of missions to Negroes and Indians; no consideration is given to the growth of the Church among the white population, of which Miasionea Catholicm reports a membership of 10,309,970.
The Roman mission to the/Indiana, according to the reports of the Miwionm Catholicta, must be a very limited one. From many regions once be‑
longing to Spain, a number of Roman 1, United Catholics from an earlier period are
states and noted, with the remark that they have British entirely relapsed into barbarism. ConNorth cerning other regions see the appended
	°a'	tables; Die katholiache %irche counts
		98,638; the Year Book treating of the
Indian regions, 74,468. These later figures can be
reached only by including the older adherents who
have relapsed into barbarism (the Evangelical
Indiana number 74,468). Little can be learned
regarding the success of the mission among the Ne.
groes; the Misaionea Catholiete .contains only, iso
lated statements. According to Die katholieche
%irche, in 25 dioceses, out of 4,914,000 Negroes
there are 145;000 Roman Catholics, with 46 churches,
48 priests, 111 schools, and 8,533 scholars. At an
early period Jesuits from the French colony did
zealous mission work among the Indians of British
North America (see INDIANS OF NORTH AMRRIcA,

* The 534 000 Roman Catholics who are not subject to the Propaganda. but under Portuguese jurisdiction, and the 8,560,000 said to be in the Philippines are omitted.
t The statistics regarding scholars are so imperfect that they can not be reckoned

401
RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA	Missions to the 8eathln
Mlssiorrs w); under English rule the work was paralysed, but it was taken up again in the nineteenth century by oblates of the Immaculate Conception, who followed the Canadian fur‑hunters on their extensive journeys, and were spurred on by the growing Evangelical mission. While in the archdioceses of Quebec and Toronto most of the Indiana were already Roman Catholics, to the wild tribes in the icy West the Gospel was carried. On the Red River, the Roman Catholic and Evangelical missions worked side by side. There is now the flourishing province of Manitoba, with 400,000 inhabitants. Statistics do not show how many of the 35,000 Indians are Roman Catholics. Besides the archdiocese of St. Bonifacius, the diocese of St. Albert and the vicariate of Saskatchewan and At.habasca‑Mackenzie have been formed in the West ‑the last‑named reaches up to the Polar Sea, Beyond the Rocky Mountains the diocese of New Westminster has been founded. Among its 30,000 Roman Catholics there are, according to the Afiwionea Catholicce,15,000 Indians. Oblates of the Immaculate Conception work everywhere, but accurate statistics in regard to their activity are not to be had.
The following table is taken from the Ofcdal Catholic Directory for 1908:
	Archdoooesee,	~.~°	o	$ 	g	deli cue
	Diooeses	M	a	p,		.
	and		,;
	Vioanates. 
Alaska . . . .	29,000	5,0001310	184 	Jesuits, Lay
				Jam
Baker City 	3,200	1,00•	1	1	2 95 	JeB , Lay
Boiss . .	4,500	1,400	4	4	a 188 	JeB=l Lay
Brownsville
Fargo 
Grand Rapids	2,950 	2,150 	7 	8 	2 125
Green Bay 	3,1	1,400	5	4	1 190 	Franciscans
Oklahoma .	98,011	3,400 	13	8 	14 819 	BeBnedictine,
	ros. Sao
	red Heart
Omaha	18,000 	6,0001811 	3 630 	JerBene•
Lead ty . . . . 
Marquette . . . . 	1,	1,040	5 	1 	1 48 	Jesuits
NesqualLv . . .	10,000 	3,590	1 	8 	4 864 	Jesuits
		2
Ox ~Wty . . 	1 300		1		795
$ancieoo 	628	828	4 	5 	a
Santa FA . . . .		18,000			2 .220
Superior 	'	2,878 	18	4	8 401 	Francans
Tu= . . . . . . 	3$	3,000 	8 	5 	3 871 	Franciscans
Totals . . . . . 	202,17 	49,194 	98 	8b 	50 4,430
The regions colonised by the Spaniards and Portuguese were won at. that time for Roman Catholic Christianity through the labors of the Franciscans and Dominicans. Later came the 2. I.stfa Jesuits, who had in many cases great America apparent success. With the suppresand the sion of the order, their institutions deWest Indies.ca,yed and the converts were scattered and lapsed into heathenism. However, in course of time, a portion of the Indiana in this region gained a certain civilization and at the same time adopted the Roman Catholic forms. On the whole, the region appears to be Christianized, but the conditions are entirely unsound. The educational level of the clergy is incredibly low and the VIL‑28
general morality is degraded. In many of then lands nothing is done for those who are still heathen. In Mexico, there are now more than‑ 12,000,000 Roman Catholics, namely, 2,000,000 Spanish Creoles, 4,000,000 Indians, and 70,000 Negroes, the remainder being half‑breeds; only 200,000 Indians are still heathen, and apparently no mission work is done among them. On the other hand, it may be remarked that several Protestant denominations in the United States carry on a successful work of propagandism among the Roman Catholic population. In Central America there are said to be still 1,200,000 Indiana out of a population of 3,000,000. They are for the most part Roman Catholics; but here also there are uncivilized Indiatls, among whom mission work is apparently not carried on. Although the whole region is under the Propaganda, only Honduras is noted in the Missiones Catholicte. Here Jesuits report 19,000 Roman Catholics; whether work is done among the heathen is not stated. In the church provinces of the Antilles, missions to the heathen can hardly be expected: The Misaiones Catholicas gives the following statistics:
	Roman
Inhabitants. Catholics.
	Vicariate of Jamaica 	727,830	18,000
	Ad. Port of Spain (Trinidad, Tobago
	Grenada, St. Vincent and Sta. Lucia) 39!,000	180,8!0
D. Roseau Dominim, Antigua, Barbuda,
	St. Thomas, St. Croix, etc.) . 	..	..	. 148,000	50,000
	Vicariate of Curacao 			48,190	$8,200
Besides the Jesuits, Dominicans and Redemptionists
labor there. The principal activity is in the direo
tion of making conversions among the Evangelical
Negro population. The other islands of the Greater
Antilles are not noted in the Miasionea Catholics?.
In South America, the same source reports for
Guiana and'Patagonia the following statistics:
	Roman
Inbabitante. Catholics.
1. V'wariate of Desueran (with the Bar‑
	bados) 	:	200.000'	500
	On the mainland 	;	280,000	23,500
2. Vicariate Surinam (R.edemptionuts). 84,000	17 000
	3. Prefecture of Cayenne . . . . . . 	. 	..	31,000	29;000
Patagonia has the two apostolic vicariates, North and South Patagonia, in which the Salesians work. Beside 103,000 Roman Catholics and 5,700 Protestants there are here 1,500 Indians; nothing is said regarding a mission to them. Franciscans and Capuchins do mission work among the Indians of South America. In Chili there are stations in Chillan and in the island of Chiloe, whence work is done among the Araucanisns of the mainland. The Capuchins have in Amuco, Valdivia, and I.Isaquihue 28,700 converts. In Bolivia an Indian mission is mentioned (Tarija, La Paz, Tarata, Sucre and Potosi, the last with 4,000 adherents). In Brash,. the mission undertaken in 1870 was almost den‑. troyed by the downfall of the empire, but recently it has been actively pushed. Here the Capuchins work and they have 20,350 converts among 500,000 heathen. The number of heathen Indians in South America is estimated at two millions. The statistics regarding Roman missions in America are so incomplete and inexact that a statistical summary, similar to that given for other parts of the world, is impossible. All that can be said is that in America, according to attainable information, there are 544,402 Roman Catholic converts from heathenish

Missions to the Heathen	THE NLV SCHAFF‑HERZOG
402
(Evangelicals, 813,700, excluding the Negroes of the United States).
4. Australia and Oceania:. (1) The Roman mission is Australia among aborigines is of slight moment. In New Nursia, in West Australia, four priests (Spanish Benedictines) and 43 lay brothers, with 2 sisters, care for the 100 (according to Die Katholische Kirche,140) surviving aborigines. In the north, on Beagle Bay, the Tmppists labor with 8 priests and 10 lay brothers, since 1890, among 350 natives. They had 60 converts, but abandoned their task, which was then taken up by the Pallottiniane (see PALLomTI, VnlcaNzo, PALL4DTTINIANB). In the diocese of Victoria. and Palmeraton several thousand natives are known, but nothing is said of a mission among them. In Queensland a vicariate was erected in 1887 for the aborigines; but there is no report of missionary work there (the Evangelical mission has 23 stations with 1,100 native Christians, 11 stations for Chinese with 700 Christians, and 8 stations for natives who have been brought in from the islands, with 2,000 converts. (2) In New Zealand the Roman Catholic missionaries established themselves in 1838, when the Evangelical mission was already flourishing. They succeeded in gathering 5,000 Maoris. During the insurrections which followed, these were scattered and in, 1870 the complaint was made that there was no longer a Maori mission. In the archdiocese of Wellington are 4 stations with 1,500 Roman Catholies; for the diocm of Auckland 5,000 are given (according to Die Katholische Kirche, 5,700), in charge of eight priests of Mill Hill. (3) In New Caledonia, where the first efforts of the London Mission were rendered vain by the Marists, the Roman mission was soon very successful; It was, however, destroyed by a revolt of the natives, but was resumed under the protection of the French. Since the founding of the colony, the aborigines have rapidly died out; of 100,000 but 25,000 remain. The neighboring Loyalty Islands, whose inhabitants at the time of the seizure of these islands were for the most part evangelized, are incorporated in the vicariate of New Caledonia. The London Mission which was working there was forced out and the remaining heathen islanders were easily won for the Roman Catholic mission; the remainder continued true to their faith in spite of oppression. The vicariate, which includes also the northern New Hebrides, has 36 stations and 11,500 Roman Catholics. Of this number, 18 stations are on the mainland, but the number of converts there is not given; in any case, the majority of the aborigines have not yet been won for the Roman Catholic Church. Native Evangelical teachers from the Loyalty Islands have undertaken independent missionary work in New Caledonia; recently the Paris Evangelical Mission has entered this field as well as the Loyalty Islands.
The Missroones Catholieas gives the following figures: 83 Priests. 23 schools (19 boarding‑schools with 1,500 scholars), 52 lay brothers and 84 sisters (Evangelical mission in the Loyalty Islands: 3 stations, 2 missionaries, 34 native pastors, 10,195 Christians), (4) Prefecture of the New Heb. rides. This was separated from the above‑mentioned vicariate m 1901. Here too the Mariate entered the field of the Evangelical mission, worthily founded here by the blood of the martyrs which was freely shed in Erromanga. There
are 18 Priests. 7 schools, and, according to Die kaUwiiache Rirchs, 1,200 converts. (Evangelical mission: 9 stations, 37 missionaries, 1 ordained native, 8,995 Christians, and 234 schools with 4,000,5,000 scholars.) (b) Vicariate of Central Oceania: Futuna and Wallis Islands form the chief seat of the Marists who, starting from here, placed missions in the Evangelical missionary fields on the neighboring islandgroups. They were brought into Tonga, by the military occupation of the French, but have won only 1,890 of the 22,000 islanders. The entire vicariate counts lb stations, 18 priests, 2 lay brothers, 59 sisters, 9,450 converts, 44 schools and 2,000 scholars. (8) Vicariate of the Samoan Islands. Here too the Meriate have established work in a field already evangelised. As a result of the confessional divisions old tribal feuds broke out anew in bloody conflicts. The Roman ‑Catholic mission makes every effort to profit by the new political situation. There are lb stations (25), 18 priests (10 missionaries), 1 native priest (181), 3 lay brothers, 10 sisters, 8,000 converts (33,310), 87 schools (281), 758 schoars (8,783). (7) The vicariate of the Qiti Islands was detached from the prefecture of Central Oceania in 1844. At first the efforts of the Marists had but little euotees in comparison with the earlier work of the English Methodists. Only when the colonisation from Australia increased did larger Roman Catholic communities arise among the natives. There are 17 stations (10), 32 priests (11), 11 lay brothers, 28 sisters, 9,848 converts (97,254), 31 schools, 2,471 scholrs (34,988). The statistics relating to Rotuma are here included. (8) The vicariate of New Guinea embraces the English part of the island besides the Louisiade and Tomes Islands, and was in 1887 assigned to the Congregation of the Sacred Heart at Tseoudun. The London Mission had already opened up this field after overcoming great difficulties: 8 stations (10), 18 priests (10 missionaries and 104 native pastors), 22 lay brothers, 37 eiaters, 4,000 converts (8,492), 29 schools (45), 1,084 scholars (2,011). (9) The vicariate of New Pomerania was assigned in 1889 to tha same congregation. It embraces the whole Bismarck Archipelago. The Roman mission came here also into a successful Evangelical missionary field, that of the Australian Methodists, from whose communities the greater number of Roman Catholics were won. There are 11 stations (3), 20 priests (3, besides 4 ordained natives and 98 assistants), 29 lay brothers, 17 sisters 13 schools (101), 800 scholars (3,000), 8,800 converts (7,982). In the Prefecture of Kaiser Wilhelmelaad are 3 Roman Catholic stations of the $teyl Society of the Div9ie word, situated in the western part of the German protectorate (7 Evangelical in the East), 7 priests (13), 9 lay brothers, 4 schools. (4) Die katholiacha Kirche reports 400 converts. (11) and (12) The prefectures of the Solomon Islands were founded in 1897 and 1898, and entrusted to the Mariste. In the two 7 priests are active. (13) In the vicariate of the Caroline Islands, after the group was awarded to Spain, the Carmelites in Ponape sought with the aid of the military power to suppress the Evangelical mission. In spite of their bloody dofeats they finally succeeded in drawing over to their church the Christians, who were at last intimidated. The same congregation had already worked at an earlier period in the bleat Carolines. They report 4 stations (3, with the Marshall Islands), 12 priests (7 missionaries, besides 22 native pastors), 14 lay brothers 18 schools (120), 900 scholars (5,587), 1,400 converts (18,115). (14) The vicariate of the Gilbert Islands includes the Ellice Islands. Here the missionaries from Iseoudun compete with the English and American Missions. There are 11 stations 11 priests (27 native pastors, including the Tokelon Islands), 12 lay brothers, 9 sisters, 87 schools (27), 1 220 scholars (3,357), 11 000 converts (10,734, including the Tokelon Islands). (15) The vicariate of Tahiti has existed since 1844, when the Evangelical mission was forced out by French arms. On the principal island, the Roman mission carried on by the congregation of Picpus, has had but little success. The natives have remained true to their confession. The same holds good of the western islands of the group The Roman Catholics had greater success with the still heathen population of the Pammotu Islands and recently they have won converts in great numbers in the Harvey Islands also, which belong to the same apostolic vicariate. Of the 32,00 inhabitants of the regions here noticed 7,230 are Roman Catholics (18,470); there are 28 stations (7), 18 priests (8), 12 lay brothers, 24 sisters, 52 'schools (48P) and 1,800 scholars (3,389). (18) Tn the vicariate of the 1$arqnesae Islands, among the savage and rapidly diminishing population, the Congregation of Picpus has after long‑continued efforts at last succeeded in winning

403	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	3t[iedous to the Heathen
the greater number. Of 4,000 natives 3,150 are Roman Catholics; there are 8 stations, 7 priests, 10lay brothers, 10 sisters, 880 scholars. (17) The vicariate of Hawaii is also in the hands of the Picpus Society. Nearly half of the islanders, who were long before evangelized, have been converted, resulting in 14,000 Roman Catholics (14,922). Almost ae many have been won among the Chinese and Japanese immigrants, with whom the Roman Catholic Portuguese are counted. There are reported 15 stations (1), 24 priests (3), 33 lay brothers, 48 sisters, 17 schools (50t), 1,943 scholars (5,599).
Die katholische %irche gives the following statistics in regard to the whole Catholic mission in the Pacific: 205 stations (207), 288 priests (122), 219 lay brothers, 452 sisters, 128,032 converts (278,000), 428 schools (2,917), 19 927 scholars (71,437). The corresponding figures in regard to the aborigines on the mainlands could not be obtained. The whole Roman Catholic mission to the heathen can be summarized as follows: 2,870 stations (3,790), 4,009 priests (4,485), 1,954 lay brothers, 4,937 sisters (3,119 unmarried female missionaries, according to J. 8. Dennis, Centennial Survey o,/ Foreign Missions, New York, 1902), 10,494 schools (18,921), 700,000 scholars (887,370), 3,878,712 converts (3,371,588 excluding the Negroes in the United States).
R. GHUNDEMANN.
B. Protestant Missions.
	L Introduction: Christianity being the one
world religion, it alone has the vocation for a world
mission. It is the world religion, because it is both
		universal and absolute. It is the uni
	t. The versal religion; for it offers to all hu
	Basis of manity, without difference of sex, age,
	Christian education, rank, civilization, nation
	Missions. ality, color, or race, that assured salva
		tion which is needed by all, and im
poses a condition of salvation which can be realized
by all. It is the absolute religion; for it differs
from all other religions through the assurance of
the objective truth of its faith, warranted by the
sacred person of Jesus Christ. It therefore differs
not only in degree but in kind in that it substitutes
(1) an objective true knowledge of God for purely
subjective human conceptions of him, and (2) the
divine act of deliverance for human attempts at
self‑deliverance. As God has prepared in Christ
the salvation of the world, so he wills that this sal
vation should be offered to all men, at all times, and
in all places; and since this can be accomplished
only by the orderly sending forth of messengers of
salvation, so God wills the world mission. The
whole history and doctrine of Christian salvation
is so penetrated by thought of universal salvation
that the world mission is a simple and natural con
sequence. But, outside this logical obligation,
there is a direct mission command which, like a
categorical imperative, compels obedience from
every one who wishes to be a disciple of Jesus.
Tradition declares that the risen Christ gave the
command to his apostles to go forth and, by pro
claiming his Gospel to the whole world, to bring
all nations to him. The mission command is as
much the logical result of the human personality
of Jesus and of the universalistic quality of his
teachings as the fruit of his death. Altogether
the instrument of God, Jesus made salvation a
reality at first in the most modest sphere; from the
holy seed in Israel he raised his instruments, and
only when everything was accomplished he gave
them the royal command to conquer the world.
He first familiarized them with the great idea of
the universality of his kingdom, and then drew the
practical consequences; he sowed one missionary seed after the other, until, with the growing understanding of his life‑work, the understanding of the missionary task was ripened. And only after he had fulfilled everything, and as the Crucified and Risen One went unto his Father, he promised to his disciples strength from above enabling them to do greater works than he had done. To these great works especially belongs the preaching of the kingdom beyond the bounds of Israel over the whole world.
A great world movement was produced by the marching order of Jesus, so majestic in its simplicity: " Go forth." Innumerable armies of messen‑_ gers have " gone forth"‑first to the s. General Greco‑Roman world, then to the Ger
	Results.	man‑Slavonic world, and lastly over
		all parts of the earth since the age of
great discoveries, the fifteenth and nineteenth cen
turies. The whole history of the Christian Church
has become mission history, and if now and then
there have been periods of quiescence, that march
ing order has nevertheless‑always produced a re
newal of missionary work. Nineteen hundred
years after its issuance, it has become again so
vital that Christian nations and churches have
started a missionary movement which has no paral
lel in either of the two former periods. The words
of Jesus demonstrate their truth by their effect.
The mission command of Jesus has revolutionized
the history of the world. Of the about 1,540 mil
lions of human beings who inhabit the earth to
day, 550 millions are Christians at least in name.
This status of Christendom is the fruit of missions,
for to each of the Christian peoples of the present
era the Gospel has been brought by missionaries.
This great Christianity gathered in by missions is
composed both of peoples who already possessed
a civilization before they were Christianized, and
of those who lacked this possession; and it is stri
king that the barbarian nations since their conver
sion to Christianity have become the standard
bearers of civilization and the leaders in history.
So the mission history of the past has proved that
neither race nor civilization constitutes a difference;
salvation in Christ is for all men, all are in need of
it, all may gain it, and in all it has proved its
strength. This fact of missionary history is a
proof of so much greater force for the vocation
of Christianity as a world religion and a world
mission in that it is not confined to the closed
missionary periods of the past. There is a
modern missionary period in which this fact is
being repeated, and this phase is the subject of
this article. Unfortunately‑ it is not a united
Christianity which carries on the mission of the
present day‑a circumstance which constitutes one
of its dark sides and causes many impediments
and disagreements.
This section will treat of Protestant missions in two principal divisions: (1) a general view of the history of colonial missions, by which is meant Christian work carried on by different nations within the limits of Christendom or of the territories acquired by them; and (2) of the separate fields of foreign missions.

lfissioas to the Heathen	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	404
II. Colonial Missions. 1. The Period of the Reformation and of the Old Protestant Orthodozy; It was long before a mission era dawned in Evangelical Christendom, although a great era of discovery and conquest preceded and mcompanied the Reformation which inspired the 1. Attitude Roman Catholic Church to extended
	of the	mission work in Africa, America, and
8eformel%. Asia. But the great fact of the open
		ing of the New World had scarcely
any marked effect upon the Reformed churches;
principally because the new discoveries were made
by the Roman Catholic powers which took possession
of the transatlantic countries. Therefore the young
Protestantism lacked any dirt connection with
the heathen lands which then became attainable,
and even had it wished to enter those fields, Spain
and Portugal would certainly have been hostile.
Besides this, the conflict with the degenerate Chris
tianity of the older Christian nations, the struggle
for self‑preservation against papal and imperial
aggression, the necessity of consolidating its own
life and government, and the general confusion and
wars which followed the era of the Reformation
laid claim to all the strength of Protestantism.
Moreover, the missionary idea was lacking because
the comprehension of a continuous missionary duty
of the Church was limited among the Reformers
and their successors by a narrow‑minded dogma
tism combined with a lack of historical sense. They
knew of the great missions of the past, but accord
ing to their ideas the apostles had already gone
forth to the whole world and they and their die.
ciples had essentially accomplished the missionary
task. Christianity, therefore, had already proved
its universal vocation as a world religion and the
missionary prises had been met. The Christian
ity of that time was considered by them to be the
Church which had been gathered together from the
heathen. When Luther spoke of the heathen, he
meant those who were not Israelites, but were for
merly heathen and had come to constitute Christen
dom, Very rarely did his outlook go beyond these;
but even when this happened, he never thought of
sending a mission to the heathen of his time. The
thought of missions was in a sense precluded both
by the doctrine of predestination, according to
which it is left to the sovereign grace of God to
lead the heathen unto Christ, and by the eschatol
ogy of the time, which looked upon the end of the
world as fast approaching. Calvin regarded the
apostolate as a munua extraordinanum, while a
special effort of man, that is to say, the establish
ment of a mission for the heathen, was not neces
sary. Even Zwingli and Butzer do not recog
nize continuous mission work as a duty of the
Church.
Only one theologian of the Reformation, and he was of the second rank, raised himself above this narrow view. This was Adrian &mvia, whose importance has been discovered quite re‑
$. Adrian cently. He was pastor in Antwerp
	8aravis.	and Brussels and also professor in Ley
		den; later he went to England, where
he died in 1613. Saravia published in 1590 an
~, De. diversie miniatrorum grades gic ut a, d..
ino fvemnt imQuti, to defend the episcopal form of church government, in which he emphasized the necessity of an episcopate clothed with apostolic authority by referring among other things to the planting of new churches. In this connection Sara, via devotes a special chapter (avid.) to missions, under the title: The command to preach the Gospel to all peoples has become an obligation of the Church since the apostles entered into heaven. He proves in this chapter that the command to preach the Gospel to the whole world and the duty of spreading it among all peoples refer to all times until the end of the world. Even to‑day, Saravia continues, the Gospel is not yet proclaimed to all peoples, and it is the duty of the Church to obey that command, which was first given to the apostles alone. The Church has therefore not only the duty but also the authority for this great work. It is true that those who undertake this work must be well equipped mentally, and since individuals may easily deceive themselves as to their vocation for the task, the authorization of the Church is necessary. But in this sane understanding of the mission command Saravia stood alone. Beta and Johann Gerhard of Jena opposed Saravia, the former as early as 1592, the latter twenty‑five years later. Beza did this in a special polemical work: Ad tratationem de ministrorum gradit~w ab Adriano Saravia Belga editam, Theo. Bezce responsio, and Gerhard, in locus XXiii. of his Loci theolo~.
Nevertheless in the years 1555 and 1559 two enterprises were initiated which were designated mis‑
sions, one of the Reformed and the 8. Two other of the Lutheran Church. One
Early of these was established in Brazil in
Attempts. older to found there a French colony
by a French adventurer, Durand de Villegaignon, who, however, turned out later to be a traitor to Protestantism. The colonists were accompamed by four pastors from Geneva, who were also to preach the Gospel to the native heathen; but the whole enterprise was a failure, and a mission was never established. A similar fate befell the attempt of the Swedish King Gustavus Van, when, in the sixteenth century, he tried to bring into the Evangelical church the nominal Roman Catholics among the Laplanders. This was an attempt at reformation by the exercise of the territorial authority of the Church, and it consisted only in the sending of priests (little qualified for the task) and the building of par. sonages. The undertaking failed and a real mission to the Laplanders was first realized by Thomas von Westen and Nils Joachim Christian Stockfieth (qq.v.).
Still more decidedly than the Reformers, the rep‑
resentatives of the old Protestant orthodoxy, Lu
		theran as well as Reformed, denied the
4. Reformed continuous missionary duty of the
	and Lu. Church in spite of the charge repeatedly
theran Op. brought in the Roman Catholic polem‑
	vosition.	ice of the time that the Church of the
		Reformation could not be the true
Church because it did no mission work among the
heathen. The chief leaders of the opposition to
missions were the great dogmataem Johann Ger

405	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xissions to the Heathen
hard (q.v.) and the Wittenberg theological faculty. Their argument is essentially twofold: (1) The apostles have already proclaimed the Gospel throughout the whole world; (2) the missionary vocation of the Church became extinct with the death of the apostles. Accompanying this polemic against missions, a few voices began to be raised in their favor, especially in Germany, Holland, and Denmark. One can divide these advocates into three groups: (1) those who, though not recognizing the duty of the Church to send out missions, still admitted the duty of the Christian powers to Christianize their heathen subjects; (2) those who in principle believed in a mission duty of the Church, but for reasons of expediency did not think it should be fulfilled at this time; and (3) those who without any reservations required obedience to the missionary command. However, they all lacked practical energy and they attained no positive results whatever. Only one enterprise can be noted and this bears a thoroughly individualistic stamp. It was the journey to Abyssinia of Peter Heiling, a lawyer of Liibeck who, probably influenced by Hugo Grotius, went thither to restore to life the moribund Abyssinian Church (see ABYSSINIA AND THE ABY6sINiAN CBuRcH; and AFRICA, II., Abyssinia). Outside of the translation of the New Testament into the Amharic language, the twenty years' stay of Heiling in Abyssinia had no results and no one continued his work. German Lutheran Christianity was for the first time earnestly reminded of its missionary duty by Baron Justinian Non Weltz, who was born in 1621 in Chemnitz, educated in Ulm, and descended from an old and noble Austrian house. He was an ardent Pietist, and demanded the founding of a missionary society in connection with the efforts for spiritual regeneration. He urged this in three tractates issued in 1664‑66, of which the first was the most important. It contains questions and appeals to all those addressed, and then is divided into three principal divisions: (1) the reasons which prove the necessity for the founding of a mission; (2) a refutation of the objections made by orthodox theologians to the continuous missionary obligation, as stated above, and (3) definite propositions as to the way in which a mission should be instituted. This tractate, as well as the second similar one, Weltz presented at the corpus evangelicorum at Regensburg, where, however, no action was taken. Disappointed, he wrote a third essay, went to Holland and, after being ordained there, departed as a missionary to Surinam, where this prophet of missions, who had been denounced as a fanatic and dreamer, soon found a lonely grave. For a time this appeal for an awakening remained the voice of one crying in the wilderness. Johannes Heinrich Ursinus, the superintendent of Regensburg, issued a tract opposing Weltz, but the tone adopted in this writing is rather violent than cordial, and the argumentation is exceedingly weak ; naturally the author does not defend the assumption of Gerhard, but he declares a mission to be inexpedient because of the obstacles on the part of the Christians, the heathen, and God himself which hinder its realization.
It was in Holland after the deliverance from the
Spanish yoke and when it became a colonial power that the first missionary activity was developed
among the Protestants. However, 6. Dutch considerations of colonial politics rather
Work in than of religion were the cause of this East Indies.movement in 1602. The Dutch East
India Company, which at that time had authority over the colonies, sent out missionaries and supported missions; the clerical convow tions and synods participated only by providing colonial pastors who were at the same time missionaries. A seminary for the education of these missionaries opened by Professor Wal#us in Leyden existed only during 1622‑34. The theory of the missionary duty of the colonial government was here first put into practise on a large scale. It is true that there was no lack of excellent, spiritualminded colonial pastors in the mission, which gradually extended over the whole Malay Archipelago, but most of them performed their duties in a formal manner and soon returned to their homes. Although hundreds of thousands were baptized, Christianity was little more than a veneer. The rather degenerate remnants of this old Dutch mission became, however, once more the object of special pastoral care in connection with the missionary revival in the nineteenth century.
In England, which, after the destruction of the Spanish Armada (1588), also became a searpower,
the long‑continued political and ree. Work of ligious struggle was the principal
English hindrance to the awakening of an
Oolonists. interest in missions. This struggle,
however, led to the first attempt at mis.. sionary work among the Indians of North America, and it was then that the first interest in missions was aroused in England. After the so‑called Cavaliers had founded the first English colony in North America (Virginia), in 1584, there occurred, in 1620, under the religious oppression of the Stuarte, the second and larger Puritan emigration, that of the so‑called Pilgrims who settled in Massachusetts, and in 1682 there followed a third headed by William Penn (q.v.), who settled in Pennsylvania. The Puritans immediately included the conversion of the Indians in their colonial program. But it was not till 1646 that the missionary task was pursued in a really Evangelical spirit by John Eliot (q.v.). He succeeded in establishing thirteen communities of " praying Indians"; unfortunately, at the end of his self‑sacrificing life he experienced the sorrow of seeing most of these communities destroyed by the dreadful Indian wars which had meanwhile broken out. The heroic and successful missionary activity of Eliot aroused attention in England and a general collection was resolved by the Long Parliament, and in 1649 a Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England was founded which was, however, essentially confined to the collection of donations. Only in 1695 and 1701 were two societies founded which gradually attained importance for missions: The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, which was especially helpful to the Danish and Halle mission in India, and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, which, however, confined

E:issions to the Heathen	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	406
its activity for the first century of its existence principally to the religious care of the colonists. The powerful East‑India Company, which received its charter in 1600 from Queen Elizabeth, gave no thought to missions.
Denmark also possessed colonies after 1620 in the East Indies and after 1672 in the West Indies. The first Lutheran mission started from Denmark
in 1705, on the initiative of King Fred7. Early crick IV. But as no missionaries could be
Danish found in Denmark, the court preacher
Missions. Luetkens of Copenhagen, who had
been called from Berlin, turned to his pietistic friends in Germany. In this way the Danish mission came into relationship with the German Pietists and soon also with August Hermann Francke (q.v.). Two of his pupils, Bartholomaus Ziegenbalg (q.v.) and Heinrich Phitschau, went as " royal missionaries" to East India (Tranquebar), where they opened the way for an Evangelical mission. In Copenhagen there was founded a royal "College for Advancing the Cause of the Gospel," but Francke was the effective leader. Through him Pietism was combined with the mission and this combination kept the latter alive. Still another mission was established by Denmark, namely in Greenland, not however by the king but by a pastor of the Lofoden, Hans Egede (q.v.), who succeeded in reaching the land for which he longed only in 1721, after unspeakable efforts and only by connecting himself with a commercial company enjoying a royal privilege.
2. The Era of Pietism and Rationalism: Pietism (q.v.), the first great reform movement inside the churches of the Reformation, insisted upon personal Christianity instead of mere submission to external
authority, upon a Christianity of deeds 1.Franeke's instead of a Christianity of words;
Services. upon Bible Christianity instead of dog‑
matism; and upon the general priesthood instead of adherence to a rigid rule of office. Its insistence upon an active faith qualified Pietism for the mission task as soon as its attention was directed to the non‑Christian world. Pietism was the father of the heathen mission as of all the institutions for rescue work, a combination which was illustrated by Francke, who became the standardbearer of the missionary movement emanating from Pietism. By his far‑reaching pedagogical plans, by his correspondence with Leibnitz, and by the call of two of his pupils to aid in the Danish mission, he was led to mission work to the heathen. His chief services in the field are: (1) that he provided it with workers. A pedagogue of great talent, he was able to make his orphan asylum a means of education of workers of all descriptions in the service of the kingdom of God; (2) that he awoke in Evangelical Christendom the consciousness that it should itself carry on the mission task by sus. taining the missionaries with its prayers and gifts; (3) that by a periodical publication he diffused knowledge and understanding of mission work. Francke was the first to collect a praying, giving, and striving missionary society, and so began to lift from missions the ban of being merely the official duty of the Christian colonial government.
Naturally, for the time being, it was only the Pietists of North and South Germany who took part in the work; orthodoxy still fought it bitterly. The institutions of Francke graduated in the course of the eighteenth century about sixty missionaries, among them, besides Ziegenbalg, Fabricius, and Christian Friedrich Schwartz (q.v.), so that the Tranquebar mission is rightly called the DanishHalle Mission. Amid much trouble caused by petty annoyances from colonial officials, by war and disputes of various kinds, this mission endured until the last quarter of the eighteenth century, when it was undermined by rationalism at home. English aid saved it from entire destruction; later, the Leipsic Lutheran Mission entered into the old inheritance, so far as it had not already been absorbed by Anglican societies.
A thoroughly new life came into the missionary movement by the entrance of the United Brethren into the field. Count Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf (q.v.) was the instrument whom God used to raise the missions to a higher plane. Zinzendorf can well be called a missionary genius.
2. Zinzen. His lest impulses to mission work were
dorf and received in the house of Francke, and the United the last impulse to the practical real‑
	Brethren.	ization of his missionary plans was
		given by the sojourn in Copenhagen,
1731, where he became acquainted with a negro
from St. Thomas, West Indies, and with Greenland
ers. But the inclination toward the mission was
implied in the whole quality of his religious nature.
He was full of Christian zeal which animated him
to collect around him and to organize coworkers,
for whose sphere of activity he recognized no local
limits. In the winning of these coworkers, the Provi
dence of God is unmistakable. Zinzendorf found
them among those heroic Moravians who were
driven from their fatherland because of their faith
and were ripened by suffering and persecution. From
them and certain pilgrims who came to Herrnhut, the
organizing genius of the count formed a commu
nity which became in the highest degree a mission
church. That a community was then established
which put all its energy into the heathen mission,
so that its very existence became identified with
this work and has remained so to this day, is the
great achievement of Zinzendorf in the history of
missions. At the death of the count (1760), the
missionary success of the Moravian Church sur
passed everything that had been done by the Prot
estant world for the conversion of the heathen.
They bad sent out 226 missionaries to all parts of
the earth, except Australia, and not alone to Prot
estant colonial possessions. In this business‑like
haste, the restless genius of the count shows itself,
but, nevertheless, there is something heroic in the
fact that such a small community could operate
enterprises which extended over nearly the whole
world.
Nevertheless the missionary activity, till then unheard of, developed by this community, failed to inspire the Protestantism of the eighteenth century to missionary effort. The missionary era of Zinzendorf fell in the transition period between the decline of orthodoxy and the rise of rationalism, and

407	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Missions to the Heathen
neither of these had any comprehension of the missionary task. The dislike nourished by orthodoxy for the Pietist mission was also felt 8. Apathy toward that of Hermhut; the rationunder Ra‑ alistic spirit, however, which soon tionalistic spread over the whole Christian world, Influences. had for all missions the same contemptuous dislike, since toleration was its chief glory. But since the Moravian brotherhood cherished Zinzendorf's inheritance faithfully and bravely, even in such an unfortunate time it came to form a living bond with the great missionary movement of Germany and England in the nineteenth century; a movement that owed more of its inspiration to Hermhut than isolated facts prove. As in Germany Rationalism dug the grave of the Danish and Halle mission, so in Holland, also, it proved destructive. Under its baleful influence, the Dutch Colonial Mission, which had grown more and more mechanical and feeble, became nearly extinct. Besides this, the colonial government changed its policy, considering it wiser to favor Mohammedanism, and this attitude was maintained until the latter half of the nineteenth century. In England from 1698 and 1701 existed the two societies already mentioned. In Scotland, also, a Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge was founded, which from 1740 sent some missionaries to the North American Indians, among them David Brainerd (q.v.). Otherwise there was but little interest and no activity in missions up to the last decade of the eighteenth century, although Great Britain had in the mean while become the foremost sea‑power. The cause lay in the low level of .moral and religious life which obtained after the Restoration (1660). In the fifth decade of the eighteenth century an awakening took place which did not immediately develop a missionary activity, but in which lay hidden the motive power that, in the following generation, caused the great mission movement with which the present missionary era began. John Wesley and George Whitefield (qq.v.) were the instruments of the impressive awakening which extended to the following generation and from it to the European countries and North America. It was the great importance of the English revival that, accompanied as it was by a series of great events in the world's history, it opened the ears of the awakened part of Evangelical Christianity to the voice of the Holy Ghost, reminding it of the nearly forgotten missionary command and rendering it both capable and willing to obey this command.
8. The Present Mission Era: The modern missionary movement was not due solely to the religious revival just mentioned; a series of secular facts of historical importance contributed. Among these, four play the principal part: (1) the great geographical discoveries which began with Captain Cook and the extension of the world's commerce which ensued; (2) the struggles against the slavetrade and slavery; (3) the awakening of the national conscience of England against the arbitrary rule of the East India Company; and (4) the growth of colonial conquest.
To what a degree earnest Christians, especially in England, were aroused by the discoveries of Cook, appears clearly in a number of tracts, issued
in the last decades of the eighteenth
1. Events century, which sought to arouse enLeading to thusiasm for the‑ missionary cause by
Renewed reference to these discoveries; in the Effort. great influence which they exerted on William Carey (q.v.), the great pioneer of the missionary movement and. the founder of the first modern missionary society, and in the choice of a group of South Sea Islands (Tahiti) as the first field of labor of the second modern missionary society, that of London. The discoveries of Cook were followed by others which continually attained greater proportions, especially in Africa, and the fact always repeated itself that, as Livingstone said: " The end of the geographical act is the beginning of missionary enterprise." The agitation for the abolition of the slave‑trade and of slavery, carried on in connection with the ideas of political liberty and philanthropy, also drew the attention of Christians to the heathen world. The leader in this agitation was William Wilberforce (q.v.). After a struggle of nineteen years, the slave‑trade was at last, in 1807, declared illegal, and in 1834 slavery itself was abolished in the English colonies. Already in 1791, a philanthropic society was formed, which transported liberated English and American slaves to Sierra Leone and made their civilization its exclusive task. The experiment was unsuccessful, but it helped the foundation of the Missionary Society of the English Church (1799), in which Wilberforce took an active part. England had in the mean time become a great colonial power, but the old colonial history of England was full of bloodshed, treachery, injustice and harshness against the subject peoples, especaally those of India. Since 1600 a company of merchant princes, who had little by little become a conquering power, had possessed a monopoly of the commerce with India. It had but one aim: to enrich itself. Besides this, its officials led godless lives, kept large harems, and looked upon it as an amusing spectacle when their concubines paid worship to their idols. The rule of this company lasted for more than eighty years in India without the erection of a single church for their officials, and of the few chaplains who from 1698 were sent out as a result of the renewal of the charter, a governorgeneral said: " Their black garb offers no protection against the general moral corruption." In the beginning the company was religiously indifferent, and afterward it was bitterly hostile to all missionary endeavor. Therefore, when the unjust wars which it waged, the violation of treaties which was a part of its policy, and the oppressive taxation which impoverished the people became known at home, there began a struggle in 1783 against this misgovernment, which lasted for thirty years and ended in the legally enforced opening of India to the missionaries. In these struggles, the recognition of the sins of omission of the government toward its heathen subjects grew in England, so that the missionary duty came to be regarded as a national obligation.

Sissions to the Heathen	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	408
It is true that the missionary idea bad at this time found entrance into a restricted circle. The primal impulse came from William
2. Qa"y Camy, a self‑taught but gifted man of
and the remarkable linguistic capacity. By
Enclish three different means he set in motion NUSSLo31"s the missionary movement in 1792: (1)
	tiooieties.	by a tract: An Enquiry into the Obli
		gations of Christians to use Means for
the Conversion of the Heathen; (2) by a powerful
sermon on Isa. liv. 2, 3; and (3) by the foundation
of the Baptist Missionary Society, as whose first
messenger he went himself to India, where he devel
oped a powerful activity, especially of a literary sort,
which opened up the way for the modern missions.
This had a stimulating effect far beyond the Baptist
denomination. Already in 1794 an appeal for mis
sions was made to all Evangelical pedobaptist dis
senters, and it was heartily approved, even by the
bishops, of whom Dr. Haweis was the leader. As
a result of this beginning, the London Missionary
Society, in which great numbers participated, was
founded, which in the course of time became essen
tially an organ of the Independents. Partly shamed
by these enterprises of the dissenters, and partly
hindered by their Anglican conceptions from join
ing with them, such members of the Evangelical
party in the Established Church as came together
under the leadership of John Venn, Charles Simeon,
William Wilberforce, and others, united for the found
ing of an Anglican missionary society, the Church
Missionary Society for Africa and the East, in
1799. In the beginning, it had a thorny path to
travel; the bishops held back and the first mission
aries had to be drawn from Germany; but after,
its great secretary Henry Venn succeeded, in 1841,
in establishing a modus vivendi with the episcopate,
and it was found that the society became more and
more the backbone of the Evangelical tendency in
the Established Church in its struggle against rit
ualism, it developed little by little into the great
est of all Evangelical missionary societies.
So, in the‑ course of scarcely seven years, three epoch‑making missionary organizations were called into existence, and with them the missionary activity of Protestantism entered not only into an entirely new phase, but also obtained
8. Results the firm foundation which was an as‑
on the surance of healthy progress. This was continent. at first apparent in the fact that the new missionary movement spread also on the continent of Europe and in North America. This had already been the case with the English revival movement, which had exercised a vivifying influence on Germany, Holland, France, and the United States, rejuvenating the older Pietism which had found a new guardian in the German Christian Society founded m 1780 and having its home in Basel. Between these circles and the English mis. sionary organizations an earnest accord was
tablished, which resulted not only in awakening a lively interest in missions, but also led to the founding of independent missionary organizations, first in Holland, through the instrumentality of John van der Kemp (1747‑1811), who at the age of fifty went to South Africa as the pioneer of the London Mis.
sionary Society. Then occurred the founding of the Dutch Missionary Society (1797); and later, in Germany, the establishment of the first missionary school by the Berlin Pastor Johann J3inicke (1800); this, however, confined itself to 'sending educated missionaries to the missions already established. In 1815 occurred the founding in Basel of what was also at first only a missionary school, but in 1822 became an independent missionary institution. Only in 1824 did France enter the modern missionary movement by the founding of missionary societies, while such organizations had been formed in North America as early as 1810.
4. alissionary Organizations: Not only in England but on the continent the State churches held aloof from the missionary movement
1. Enoleei‑ and even assumed an attitude of hos‑
astioaa tility. This trying situation left two
Attitude	alternatives open to the friends of mis‑
toward sions: either to refrain from mission‑
	Xissions.	cry activity or to call into being or
		ganizations independent of the State
churches, and they naturally decided upon the lat
ter course; and since the new missions received no
support from the colonial governments, but rather
encountered open hostility, they were dependent
upon the voluntary service of Christians. The in
dependent societies were recognized as new corpo
rate bodies which, through the organization of
Christian endeavor, had brought about an intensi
fied activity in the churches; so that, at the pres
ent time, the most friendly relations of mutual as
sistance exist between the State churches and the
independent missionary organizations. Apart from
the small Moravian church, it is only in the Scotch
churches and in certain of the American denomina
tions that missions were from the beginning the
care of the churches as such. But even when they
formed a part of the church activity, the expenses
of maintenance were covered by voluntary con
tributions. These have grown from very small
sums to very considerable ones, and they now reach
the amount of nearly =20,000,000 yearly in all Evan
gelical Christendom.
When the State churches refused this task, a second difficulty arose; no theological graduates could be found for mission work. The old
2. The Dutch and the Danish‑Halls missions Trainins of had employed only theological grad‑
On‑ uates in the missionary service; when
	arias.	these were lacking,. it became neces
		sary to follow the example of the
United Brethren and to send out lay missionaries.
At first but little stress was laid upon education;
soon, however, missionary schools were established
whose course of four to six years became gradually
more thorough and systematic. Excepting in Amer
ica and Scotland, where it was from the beginning
the rule to draw the missionaries from the theolog
ical seminaries or from the universities, the mis.
sionary societies in Protestant countries have
founded .schools for their missionaries. Only from
the last third of the nineteenth century has the
percentage of theological graduates who have en
tered the missionary field become considerable,
especially in England; on the continent it is still

409	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	lcissions to the 11asthen
quite small, although it is increasing. From about the middle of the last century and to an ever‑increasing extent, qualified physicians and unman ried women have been sent out, the latter principally to be active as teachers, physicians, and deaconesses among the heathen and convert women.
In the course of the nineteenth century the missionary organizations have increased so greatly that now it is scarcely possible to give a complete
list of them. This increase has its 8. nine of root, in the first place, in the great Btissionary variety of church forms among Prot‑
Orsaniza‑ eatanta. To an ever‑increasing extent
	tions.	each denomination took up the mis
		sion work independently,, and, in this
way, because of the multitude of sects, in England
and North America especially, there arose a great
number of missionary organizations; but the vari
ous theological tendencies and schools within the
State churches also led to the founding of separate
missions. In addition to this, new missionary so
cieties have been called into being. by different the
ories as to missions, and, usually in connection
with such views, by the individual characteristics
of potent personalities, and finally by motives
touching political divisions at home or colonial
policy. On the one hand, the great number of
missionary organizations that arose in this way un
questionably augmented missionary zeal, but, on
the other hand, it resulted in a division of strength,
caused much friction, and increased the cast of mis
sion work, so that at present a concentration of the
existing missionary societies is rather to be desired
than the founding of new ones. Unfortunately, the
efforts tending toward‑ a combination of the mis
sionary organizations is accompanied by an indi
vidualistic tendency, the extreme expression of
which are so‑called free missionaries, who pursue
the work of evangelization on their own account,
without belonging to any society. Their numbers
as well as their very doubtful success can not well
be estimated.
Protestantism in all its various denominations is strongly represented in the field of missionary labor.
In view of the fact that it is impoasi4. 8nrvey ble in this article to sketch the foundsof Xission‑ tion and development of the nearly
any Organ‑ 185 missionary organizations, the fol‑
izations. lowing statistical summary is offered,
arranged according to countries.
(1) Great Britain has the greatest number of missionaries: in round numbers 3,550 ordained and lay missionaries, in addition to 1,970 unmarried women workers; and she contributes, annually, about eight and one‑half millibn dollars for mission work among the heathen. this amount bang almost evenly distributed between the church of England and the Dissenters. Of the forty ox more missionary societies nine belong to the English Church, the others either belong to various free churches or are interdenominational. Prominent among the former are the Church Missionary Society, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and the Universities', Mission; and among the letter, the London Missionary Society, the Baptist and the Wesleyan societies, and. that of the United Free Church of Scotland; among the interdenominational should be named the China Inland Mission. (2) North America (United States and Canada) counts over 50 missionary societies, nearly all denominational with about 2,290 ordained and lay missionaries, besides 1,580 unmarried women workers, and it raises for foreign missions from six and one‑half to seven
million dollars annually.* The must important societies are the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, the American Baptist Missionary Union, the Missionary Boards of the Methodist Episcopal Church North and South, and of both General Assemblies of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, each of which supports from 100 to over 200 male missionaries in foreign lands. Of great importance for the increase of American missionary activity are the Student Volunteer Movement, and the Young Men's Christian Association (q.v.). (3) Holland has 8 quite small missionary societies, no one of which supports more than 15 missionaries; in all they have 65. The revenue is $150,000; but several old fields of mission work, especially in Celebes, have been ceded to the Colonial Dutch Church, which cares for them by means of 26 " auxiliary preachers." (4) Germany with German Switzerland counts 25 missionary societies, the 8 oldest of which, those of the United Brethren, Basel, Berlin, Rhenish, North German, Gosener, Leipsio, and Hermanneburg, are the largest. All told, Germany'provides 1,120 missionaries, nearly all ordained, and about 150womenworkers. The receipts in Germany amount to over $1,750,000 and in the missionary fields to over $500; 000. (5) France and French Switzerland support two missionary societies, that of Paris, with 120, and the Mission Renaude with 22 male and 20 female missionaries. The total annual income is about =250,000. (6) Scandinavia has in Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Finland twelve missionary societies, the most important of which are the Norwegian Society, the Swedish Vaterlandeetiftung and the Swedish Missionary Union. All together they support 230 male and 100 female missionaries and have a total income of 8750,000. (7) Finally there are independent missionary societies in the colonies of these nations, in all probably 26, and four whish belong to the native Christian churches. The 5 largest are in South Africa with about 180 missionaries; in Oceania are 10 with 75; in Dutch India, 2 with 12; in British India, 5 with 35; and in the West Indies, 4 with 45 missionaries, not counting native assistants. The total income is perhaps =950,000.
	Altogether, therefore, Protestantism has (inclu
ding those not ordained) 7,940 male and 4,010 un
married female missionaries to the heathen, and
raises at home about $20,000,000 annually for their
support. To what extent the 614 male and 308
		female missionary physicians are in
	s. Sum. eluded in these figures can not be oer
	msry. tainly determined on account of the
		inexactness of the statistics of many
societies. A very essential aid is given to the dif
ferent Evangelical missions of all denominations by
a number of Bible and Tract Societies which, at
their own expense, care for the printing and also to
a certain extent for the distribution of translations
of the Bible and other books (see BIBLE SOCIETIES).
Of the Tract Societies (q.v.), the principal are the
London (1799) and the American Tract Society
(1825) and the Society for the Promotion of Christian
Knowledge (1698). Worthy of mention beside
these, among the thirty in the missionary fields,
are the Christian Literature Society for India (1859)
and the Society for the Promotion of Christian and
General Knowledge among the Chinese (1887).
The ever‑increasing need for mutual understand
ing has led to the institution of general missionary
conferences, as well as those which were assembled
by the united missionary organizations of a special
territory (India, China, Japan, South Africa), as
those called together by the missionary organiza
tions of all Protestantism for general consultation.

* Since the majority of these societies carry on an extensive work among Roman Catholics in the West Indies and in Central and South America, and frequently do not clearly separate this work from the work among the heathen, it is possible to give only approximate data.

Missions to the Heathen	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	410
The ecumenical conferences have now become a permanent institution; they are held every ten years and constitute not only a bond of fraternal unity among the often widely differing missionary bodies, but they also offer in their voluminous repoits very valuable material for the study of the theory and history of missions.
III. The Evangelical Missionary Fields. 1. America: The objects of missionary activity in America are (1) the aborigines; (2) the Africans who have been brought there as slaves and their descendants; (3) Asiatic immigrants. The aborigines fall into two main groups: the Eskimos in the northern arctic regions, and the Indians, who, from Alaska and Canada, are spread in numerous tribes over this quarter of the globe. The imported population consists partly of Negroes, who have settled principally in the United States and the West Indies, but are also found in Central America and in Guiana; and partly of Hindu and Chinese coolies who have been introduced as laborers into the West Indies and the colonial possessions in the northern part of South America. The other Asiatics, Chinese and Japanese, are found almost exclusively in the United States and in the western part of Canada. See HOME MIssioNs.
The population of Greenland, consisting of about 10,500 Eskimos, is entirely Christianized; this occurred as well through the Danish mission begun
in 1721 by Hans Egede (q.v.) as through 1. The that of the United Brethren, begun by
Arctic Mattbseus Stach in 1733. Since the spe‑
Regions. cific mission work bas been completed
the United Brethren ceded in 1900 its six stations to the Danish Church and withdrew from this, its second oldest missionary field. In the neighboring Labrador, also inhabited by about 1,500 Eskimos, the United Brethren have worked exclusively since 1771. In six stations they have, with unspeakable patience, collected 1,300 Christians. The third compact Eskimo population, numbering about 1,500‑already much intermixed with the Indians, who number about 19,000‑is found in Alaska. The mission here was begun only in 1877 by the Presbyterian Church in the United States under the leadership of Sheldon Jackson (q.v.). There are now ten American missions in operation, including that of the United Brethren, reporting in thirty‑one stations about 8,500 Eskimos and Indians under their care. One of the most noteworthy is that of the independent lay missionary, William Duncan; b. at Beverley, Yorkshire, England, April, 1832; determined to by a foreign missionary in Dec., 1853; went to Highbury College for two years, and in 1856 to British Columbia for his life‑work among the Tsimsbian Indians, living at Metlakahtla (17 m. s.e. of Fort Simpson, of the Hudson's Bay Company, on the border of Alaska). He reduced their language to writing, preached religion in it, and so was the means of Christianizing and civilizing the tribe. The zeal of Bishop William Ridley, who made Metlakahtla the seat of his diocese in 1879, was unfortunately in the direction of vestments and ritual to the amazement and misunderstanding of the simple‑minded Indians, and as the bishop and
Duncan could not agree, he sought from Congress " the Annette Islands, in Alexander Archipelago, Southeastern Alaska, as a reservation for the use of the Metlakahtla Indians and such other of the Alaska nations as may join them," and on Aug. 7, 1887, he transferred his converts to New Metlar kahtla. The official name of the church is " The Christian Church of Metlakahtla." It belongs to no denomination. No part of the Bible has been translated into their language, though the preaching is done in it. There is, however, a translation of the Book of Common Prayer by Bishop Ridley.
British North America has a population of about 120,000 Eskimos and Indians, almost a third of whom are Evangelical Christians, a twelfth part being incorporated in the colonial churches. Although the English, through the Hudson Bay Com‑
pany, controlled the northeastern part !d. British of the land from 1669, and in 1763
North conquered the southern part or French America. Canada, it was only in 1820 that John
West, a pious chaplain of the Hudson Bay Company, succeeded in starting a mission among the Indians. This mission, taken up by the Church Missionary Society, spread in the course of eighty years from Lake Superior, on the southwest, to the Herschel Islands at the boundary of Alaska, on the northwest, and has now, in forty‑one principal stations, divided into ten episcopal dioceses, 15,000 Christian Indians and Eskimos, many of them living in well‑ordered and flourishing communities. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel and the Canadian Methodists and Presbyterians, with their forty stations, are also engaged in this work. In the near future the Christianization of the Indians will have been accomplished in the entire Dominion of Canada. Mission work is also carried on, but with little success, among the Chinese in British Columbia.
The remnant of the aboriginal Indian population, now reduced to about 237,224 (census of 1900) and scattered over a great part of the Union, are a living reproach to the Christian white settlers,
who by their shameful conduct have 8. United been the essential cause of the ever
States. recurring failure of Indian missions so
hopefully begun by John Eliot (q.v.) in 1646, and continued with great fidelity by the Mayhew family for five generations (see MAYHEW, JONATHAN; MAYHEW, EXPERIENCE), by David Brainerd (q.v.), Eleazer Wheelock (q.v.) and his Indian preachers, Sampson Occum pnd Samuel Kirkland (qq.v.), principally, however, by the United Brethren, under the heroic and devoted David Zeisberger (q.v.). Even in the nineteenth century, when a number of North American denominations again took up the abandoned work among the Indians, the land hunger of the settlers greatly impeded success by the dishonesty and harshness and the unjust wars which it involved. It is not surprising, therefore, that the Christianizing of the Indians has not been crowned with complete sue. ceas. Only about 95,000 are Evangelical Christians. Much more numerous than the Indian is the Negro population of the United States, which

411	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Missions to the Heathen
has to‑day increased to over nine millions. Exact data of the work among Negroes are singularly lacking. The work was in progress long before the emancipation. In 1866 Baptists and Methodists alone counted 525,000 communicants among the Negro population, which was then 5,000,000. The work entered upon a phase of great activity after the Civil War, especially through the great development of the school system, in which almost all denominations took part. The Negroes themselves have been, however, the most zealous workers for the uplifting of their race, and have since emancipation raised for school purposes about $28,000,000 and for the building of churches $40,000,000. As a result of these energetic efforts, almost the whole of the Negro population is now under Christian influences, thirteen‑fifteenths being Protestant. The great majority have formed independent churches, of the members of which 1,865,000 are Baptists, 1,412,000 Methodists, and about 100,000 are Presbyterians or Congregationalists. Although the Christianity of the majority may still be at a low level, especially in the matter of morality, it is nevertheless an important fact that here the Christianization of a whole people has taken place on a grand scale. The Chinese, numbering about 100; 000, and the Japanese, with about 40,000, form a fluctuating element of the population, since they remain only temporarily in the United States, principally in the West. Of the 4,000‑6,000 Chinese who are charges of the missions, many return as Christians to China, and of the Japanese more than 1,500 were baptized in the United States during the seven years 1893‑1900. See Honor MIssioNs,
1‑3, 11; NEGRO EDUCATION AND EVANGELIZATION.
Of the Greater Antilles, Cuba, Hayti, and Porto Rico are nominally Catholic, and in the other West Indian islandg there is also a considerable Catholic population. More especially since the
4. West cession of the Spanish possessions, to
	Indies.	the United States, an increasingly so
		tive Evangelical propaganda is carried
on in Cuba and Porto Rico, as already at an earlier
period in Hayti. The principal missionary fields
are Jamaica, the English and Danish Lesser An
tilles, and the Bahama Islands. In the Danish
islands of the Lesser Antilles (St. Thomas, etc.), the
United Brethren began work in 1732, and soon em
braced Jamaica and the British Lesser Antilles
within their sphere. Their entire West Indian field
shows 39,000 baptized Christians and is in proem
of development into a condition of independence.
In 1786 the Methodists entered the field, at first
through the individual effort of the fervent but
restless Thomas Coke (q.v.), and in 1813 as an
organized work. Gradually the four principal
districts, Antigua, St. Vincent, Jamaica, and the
Bahamas, were included, where there are to‑day
160,000 Christians. The first three districts have for
a long time formed an independent West Indian
district. In 1813 the Baptists also sent their work
ers; and as early as 1872 they formed, with about
100,000 Christians, a Baptist Union of Jamaica, and
to‑day their adherents in all the West Indies num
ber more than 165,000. The largest number of ad
herents belong to the English Church, which has
developed great activity, especially since the emancipation. It has placed the mission in the hands of the church organizations and has educated a capable body of native teachers. There are 380,000 Christian Negroes belonging to this church. Not very wide‑spread but distinguished by its stability is the Scotch Presbyterian Church mission in Jamaica, with its Christian community of 21,000. Altogether in the West Indies there are about 840,000 Evangelical Christians.
Central America (q.v.) with its five small states has an entirely Catholic population of about 5,000; 000, composed of Indian aborigines, half‑breeds, and Negroes, among whom an Evangelical propaganda is carried on from the United States; besides this
the Society for the Propagation of the
5. central Gospel, the English Wesleyan Meth‑
aad South odists, and the United Brethren work
Amerioa. among the heathen on the Mosquito
Coast belonging to Nicaragua. There are about 1,300 Evangelical converts. The great South American continent is a field of Evangelical missionary effort both in its extreme northern edge, that is, in Dutch and British Guiana (see GUIANA), and at its southern extremity. Since a certain degree of religious liberty was accorded, a great number of North American denominations have undertaken mission work among the nominally Roman Catholic population. Also the Presbyterians of the United States have lately started a mission to the Indians, along the Amazon in Brazil, and in Paraguay, Argentina, and Chili (qq.v.) ; this work is also pursued by the English South American Missionary Society. In Dutch Guiana (Surinam), it is again the United Brethren, who have from 1738, although with interruptions, carried on a mission which shows to‑day, grouped about twenty principal stations, a body of Christians numbering 30; 000, composed in the main of former slaves; more than half of these are inhabitants of the capital Paramaribo. More extensive and richer in results is the Evangelical mission in the neighboring British Guiana. Here the way was opened in 1807 by the London Missionary Society. The society's zeal for independence induced it, in 1838, to render selfgoverning the 18,000 converts it had made up to that date; about 6,000 formed a Congregational Union, the others joined the English Church which, entering this work in 1839, has gained a following of 130,000. The English Wesleyan Methodists as well as the Plymouth Brethren and the United Brethren have gathered together here 20,000 Christians from among the heathen. The southern missionary field consists of Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands, sparsely inhabited by a population in the lowest grade of civilization. From 1844‑1560, unavailing attempts were made to establish a mission here, three by Allen Gardiner, formerly an officer in the English navy; another attempt by the South American Missionary Society ended in the murder of all the participants. In 1862 a courageous missionary, Bishop Waite Hocking Stirling, at last succeeded in founding two settlements, where up to the present day 200 Christians have been gathered by heroic efforts.

Missions to the Heathen	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	412
SUMMARY Or Tea RE8uLTa or' Tas ArrasrcAx MI88rONs. Christians.
	........	20,500
	'15,500
Indians of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . 95,000
Negroes of the United States . . . . . . . .. . . . 7,500,000
Chinese and Japanese of the United States. 4,000
	West India . 	.............	s45,o00
	Central and ~outh~merias .		..	195,000
	Total 		8.708,000
!d. Atdoa*s The African fields of labor occupied by the Evangelical missions include five principal regions: (1) The west coast of Senegal, which embraces Senegambia, Sierra Leone, Liberia, the Gold and Slave Coasts, Yoruba, Nigeria, Kamerun; Kongo, Angola. (2) South Africa, embracing German Southwest Africa, Cape Colony, Natal and Zululand, the former Boer Republics, Basutoland, Matabeleland, Mashonaland, and Gasaland. (3) The East African Islands, Madagascar, Mauritius, and the Seychelles. (4) East and Central Africa, embracing the kingdom of Basuto, the Lake Region, and German and British East Africa. (5) North Africa, with the Italian Erythmea, Egypt and, to a very moderate degree, Tripoli, Algeria, and Morocco. For the details of missionary operations and for statement of results, see AH'BICA, I., 4.

SUMMARY or Tan RRsuurb or Am6ICAN MresroNa,
		Cbrietians.
	Went Africa	208,000
	Cape Colon . 	900,000
Remainin	nth` Africa . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . 301,500
	African Ie~anae 	......	........	..	..	.	295,000
East and Central Africa . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . 107,000
	Total 	1 511 500
8. Central Asia: In contrast with the American and African mission fields, in Asia missions have to do principally with compact masses of peoples, united by political, ethnographic, linguistic, and religious bonds, and possessing a historical past as well as an old civilization and literature. They form, therefore, much more important subjects for the world mission than do primitive peoples, without political unity, civilization, or literature, and with a low grade of religion. For this reason much greater obstacles are encountered in the attempt to Christianize the former than the latter. The extensive efforts for evangelization and education made in western Asia, with its old Christian and Mohammedan population, by American Congregationalists and Presbyterians and Episcopalians, reporting. about 101,000 Christians and about 62,000 pupils, need not here be noted, because this is no heathen mission; and the Mohammedan Mission of the Church Missionary Society in Persia and the missions of the Free Church of Scotland and the Reformed Church of America in Arabia have had but small success. The present outlook is, however, very bright.
4. British India: The Evangelical Danish‑Halls Mission began in Tranquebar in 1708, but it was strictly localised through the entire eighteenth century and its results were small, about 20,000 converts. Only in .the second period, beginning with the entrance of William Carey (q.v.) into this field in 1793, and the opening of India to missionaries in 1813, enforced by an Act of Parliament, a slow ea‑

* Supplementary or confirmatory data will be found for these fields in Aratcs, IL
Greenland, Labrador, Alaska . .. .
pension took place. The Anglican Mission, the London, the Baptist, the Wesleyan Methodist, and the American Independent Missions, and the Basel, Leipeic, and Gosener Missions, were most active. Especially the entrance of the Scotch missions of the Established Church as well as of the Free Church was of prime importance because this gave quite an impulse to the establishment of schools through the prominent missionaries John Wilson, Alexander Duff (q.v.), and John Anderson, and extended this activity to the upper classes. Even this second period bears essentially the character of foundation work and experiment; the numerical result is in round numbers about 130,000 Evangelical Christians. The third period, from the great rebellion in 1857 to the present day, is marked by the unhindered expansion of the mission over all the provinces of this vast. empire, reaching far up into Afghanistan and to the doors of Tibet; by the organization of churches; by the increase of the number of societies to about seventy, and of the Occidental and native ordained workers to 1,000 of the former, and 900 of the latter; by the improvement of missionary methods; by an augmented activity in education and literature as well as by an increase in the number of women and physicians. In this period belongs also the great native movements both of reform and reaction (Brahmo Somaj, q.v., and the like), which partly prepared the way for Christianity and partly opposed it; in any case they give proof that the preaching of the Gospel has produced a fermentation showing that Christianity has begun to influence the religious atmosphere of the land. The growing female and medical mission, which has already numerous native women la its service, has gained great importance; among these the work of the Brahmin widow, Pandita Ramabai (q.v.), a deaconess of a superior kind, with her influential institutions in and near Poona, merits special mention. While in the second missionary period the prevailing form was individual mission work, in the third compact masses of Christians gathered from which sprang church organizations. This concentration is moat marked in the south in the country of the Tamils, especially in Tinnevelli, the Anglican field of labor in the north in the region of the Telugus, the field of the American Baptists; and in the southwest, in Cochin and Travan core, the field of the London Missionary Society; in the presidency of Bengal, the field of the GosenerKols Mission, and in the northwest provinces in Oudh, the sphere of the American Methodist Episcopalians; and, lastly, in Lower Burma, in the Karen mission of the American Baptists. The great majority of Hindu Christians belong to the lower castes or to the eseteless tribes, and their religious and moral quality is still elementary. But it is an important fact in the defense of missions, that precisely through the religious, moral, social, and even economic elevation of these down‑trodden peoples, Christianity has shown a saving power which has been acknowledged even by the Brahmins. It is true that, while no general Christian movement has reached the higher castes, there are also converts from them; among the native government officials, lawyers, physicians, and others, a considerable per‑

413	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	atisrions to the Heathen
centage are Christians, and of the native pastors, the most eminent are from the higher castes. There are, moreover, among them not a few secret Christians who lack the courage for open adherence. It must be admitted, nevertheless, that the number of the religiously indifferent is growing among them, and even of the entirely unbelieving, and these are more difficult to reach than orthodox Hindus. In British Ceylon, whose population follow either a corrupt Hinduism or Buddhism or a barbarous demon worship, the old Dutch Mission has scarcely left a trace, and it is only since the second decade of the nineteenth century that a genuine Evangelical mission has been established under the auspices of the Anglicans, Wesleyan Methodists, Baptists, and of the American Board, and these are active in educational work. The labor is concentrated about the district of Jaffna in the north, Candy in the center, and Colombo and Galls in the southwest and south, and there are about 38,000 Christians.
6. Non‑British Upper India: This is but little occupied by the Evangelical mission. That part of Indo‑China which is under French control is exclusively a field of the French missions. In Siam and Laos the Americans and Presbyterians have succeeded in gathering in this very difficult field a few small communities with altogether perhaps 15,000 Christians. In Malacxa, where Singapore is the principal station, the Anglicans, the English Presbyterians and Methodists, as well as different independent missionaries, have assembled about 2,500 Christians. For a review of India, statistics, and other important matter, see INDIA.
e. Btalay Archipelago: The Malay Archipelago in the possession ef Holland is for the greater part Mohammedan and is the field of labor of the Dutch and of the Rhenish and Neukirchen missionary societies. While these prosecute mission work proper among the heathen and Mohammedan population, the Protestant Church in Dutch India has undertaken the charge of the already established communities, partly derived from the old colonial mission and partly ceded to the Church by the missionary societies; they number together 274,000 Christians. On the Talaut and Sanjir Islands 55,000 have been gathered by missionaries of the Gossner Society, while the Dutch missionary societies show about 24,000, and the Neukirchen mission in central Java has gathered 1,000 Christians. The results of the Rhenish Mission among the Batak in Sumatra are very important‑about 90,000 baptized. Here an excellently organized Christian Church is in process of growth; it has numerous native teachers and ordained pastors in its service and is nearly selfsupporting. The arch enemy is Islam, but from its followers also a few thousands have been won. On Nias, where the Rhenish Mission has been settled since 1865, there is now a great Christian movement, nearly 11,000 are baptized and 4,000 are among the catechumens. In Borneo, on the contrary, which was taken possession of in 1835 by the Rhenish Mission, and where seven missionaries were murdered in s bloody insurrection in 1859, the results up to date have been very alight; the number of the baptized has just passed 2,000 in
British North Borneo; the Society for the Props gation of the Gospel has worked since 1848 not without success among the Jaks, reporting 3,000 baptized. The total number of Evangelical Christians in the Malay Archipelago is 472,000.
7. China: See CHINA, II., 3, if 1‑7.
8. Korea: See the article K08BA.
9. Japan: See the article JAPAN.
8veolsa: or Tax Eaamzs or Taz AwATTO Mres:oxa.
		Christians.
	British India and Ceylon 	1,195,000
	Non‑British UpperIndia 	....	9,500
	Malay =pelago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472,000
China, with Korea . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. .. . . . . 398,500
	Japan 	:	71,800
	Total			2,148,800
lo. ooesnis: The South Sea Missions, inspired by Cook's discoveries, have extended gradually over all the South Sea Islands, starting from Tahiti, where the London Missionary Society established itself in 1797. The American Board, the Church Missionary Society, the Melanesian, the Wesleyan Methodists, the. Scotch and Canadian Presbyterians, the Paris and some German missionary societies also occupy the field. Polynesia is for the moat part already Christianised. In the Hawaiian Islands (q.v.), the American Board began in 1820 its work of Christianization and in 1870 the work was declared completed. Hurried away by its zeal for doctrinal independence, the American Board left the young mission church to itself, although it was not yet ripe for self‑government, and the consequence was a reaction, both within and without. Of 38,000 Christians, full‑blooded and half‑breed natives, scarcely 15,000 remained in that Church; others went over to the Anglican Mission, which later entered this field, or became Catholics; a part may also have relapsed to heathenism. Among the numerous Japanese and Chinese immigrants some conversions have been made. The Evangelical mission had an eventful history in the three groups of the Society Islands, especially in Tahiti. In 1815 the complete victory of King Pomare helped the Christian party to power; in 1828 the conversion en masse began; in 1836, the Catholic propaganda forced its way into the field; in 1842, a French protectorate was proclaimed, and lastly, in 1863, the Paris Missionary Society in Tahiti had to relieve the London Missionary Society, and in 1887 also in Rajatea. The former has now in its care all the 11,000 converted natives. The whole English Hervey Archipelago, of which Raratonga was made widely known by John William (q.v.), has been Christianized by the London Missionary Society, with its 9,000 church members. The same is the case with the Samoan group, now mostly German; but here, besides the London Missionary Society, the Wesleyan Methodists were also active, reporting 32,000 converts. Principally by native teachers from Raratonga and Samoa, the Takelan, the Ellice and southern Gilbert Islands are all, at least for the greater part, Christianized. The London Missionary Society counts here about 11,000 Christians. By the Wesleyan Methodists, the neighboring Tonga Islands have also been thoroughly Christianized, with their 17,000 converts. In the Will Archipelago Wesleyan Methodists gathered 98,000

3[issions to the Heathen	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	414
converts. Much more recent than in Polynesia is the mission in Melanesia, which lies to the west and is inhabited by a half‑savage population. Here the most successful and best occupied field is in the Pew Hebrides, which are divided into three groups. With the Melanesian Missionary Society, the Scotch, Canadian, and Australian Presbyterians do nearly all the work which has resulted in gathering about 20,000 Christians among 85,000 inhabitants. Here John G. Paton (q.v.) did his heroic work. The Melanesian mission extends to the Santa Cruz and Solomon Islands. On the Nickapu Island, belonging to the former group, Bishop John Coleridge Patteson (q.v.) died a martyr to his cause. Altogether the Melanesian mission carried on by the colonial church of New Zealand counts, on twenty‑six islands of the three above‑named groups, 12,000 converts. In the Bisnutrk Archipelago, under the German protectorate since 1884, the Australian Wesleyans have established in New Pomerania, New Lauenburg, and New Mecklenburg a mission chiefly under the care of native Polynesian evangelists; it counts about 8,000 converts. In British New Guinea, the London Missionary Society and the Wesleyan Methodist and Anglican missions have gathered together about 18,000 Christian adherents; in Dutch New Guinea, where the Utrecht Mission has worked since 1885, and in the German Kaiser Wilhelmsland, where the New Dettlesau' and Rhenish Missionary Societies have labored since 1886‑87, they count 2,000 converts. In Micronesia, the English Gilbert Archipelago, and the German Marshall and Caroline Islands have been cared for since 1852 by the London Missionary Society and the American Board, mostly by means of native teachers. Altogether. Micronesia counts 13,700 Evangelical Christians. In Australia among the Papuans, a dying race, consisting at most of 55,000 souls, widely scattered and of the lowest civilization, the United Brethren, the German Lutherans, and the Anglicans work with patient endurance but with little success; 4,000 to 5,000 are in the care of the missions. In New Zealand, the Church Missionary Society in 1814 took up the task, the Wesleyan Methodists in 1822; they soon had a surprising success, which unfortunately was much interfered with by the growing white immigration and the agitating land question resulting from the English occupation, which led to a bloody war with the Maoris. The number of Maori Christians is to‑day 27,000.
GENzaAL Svanteny or Rssvurs oa EVANGaLICAL Missiows.
		Christians.
	America 	8,708,000
	Africa . 	..	. 1,511,500
	Asia 		2,146,300
	Gceania .			292,500
	Total 		12,658,300'
11. Conclusions: Against one thousand millions
of non‑Christians and considering the immense missionary apparatus of the present, the 12,658,300 heathen converts do not seem a great success. But (1) this is the fruit of a foundation work, very
slowly extended, opposed by innumerable difficulties and forced to pay dearly for lack of knowledge and experience; and (2) it is the beginning of a

*Without the Negroes of the United States, 5,158,300.
harvest which will produce new seed. Missionary success increases in growing proportion with the duration of the work and the number of the workers; in the last twenty‑five years, it has been greater than in the preceding three‑quarters of a century. Besides this, missionary success in religion, morals, and civilization far surpasses the results registered by statistics. The past must be compared with the present in order to estimate rightly in the separate missionary fields the progress due to missions. The comparison between what they have been and what they have become gives also the just measure for determining the quality of heathen converts. The Christianity of the majority of these converts may be very elementary, but in comparison with the darkness of the heathenism whencz they came, it is a dawn which promises the beginning of a new day. In spite of all its faults, the heathen mission of the present day is a work wherein God's greatness is manifested.
IV. Methodology of Missions: The methodology of missions also has its history. It is true that it has not yet been unified, and the diverse characteristics of the various missionary organizations, national, ecclesiastical, and pedagogical, scarcely permit unification; nevertheless, essential agreement regarding the fundamental principles has been gradually attained, even though in the practical application of these principles there are always variations, conditioned by the quality of the missionary organizations. Little by little a clearer view has been gained of the great problems, which became more and more apparent in the course of the work; and if these problems are not all solved as yet, they are at least apprehended.
According to the idea held by almost the whole of the older generation of missionaries, the task of the mission was considered to be: (1) to convert individual heathen and give them the
i. The blessing of faith, and (2) to gather Purpose of these heathen converts into ecclesaolm,
	Missions.	which were formed entirely after the
		pattern of those in the home lands.
Against this individualistic tendency of the missions,
by which they hoped to form select " communities,"
there gradually arose a sober second thought, and
the fact could no longer be ignored that the assem
bled communities did not consist exclusively of real
converts, but were rather fragments of a species of
native church with embryo Christians, the level of
whose religious and moral life never rose above that
of the average Christians at home, and often stood
lower. The better this fact was understood the
more the conviction grew that developed Christians
could be the result only of a longer Christian edu
cation, not confined to individuals but directed
toward the moral, spiritual, andsocial elevation of
the whole life of the people, and toward a leaven
ing of all the natural conditions of the people with
the leaven of the Gospel. In this way the broader
view of the missionary task prevailed against the
merely individual one, and it was realized that in
combination with the work of salvation dealing ex
clusively with the individual, there must be a mis
sionary education of the people directed to the for
mation of a genuinely native Christianity. In the

416	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Missions to the Heathen
closest connection ‑with this broader conception of the missionary task, stands the clearer recognition of the missionary aim, namely, the founding of self‑supporting churches, independent of the organization in the home land. This aim calls up one of the most difficult missionary problems, the solution of which is not yet reached. But the fact that this problem is recognized, while the earlier missionaries did not know its existence, is an important advance. All the larger missionary enterprises are now working to educate the convert churches to become independent, only some do this more hastily and others more thoroughly.
A number of important consequences for the methodology of missions result from the greater
missionary task imposed by this edu‑
z. Ends cation leading to ecclesiastical inde‑
to be pendence: (1) A rational cultivation Attained. of the native character. Only when
Christianity is implanted in the soil of the heathen nation in such a way that it becomes naturalized as a native growth ,can a really independent Christian church among the heathen be realized. This naturalization requires an adaptation of the proem of Christianization to all the phases of native life, extending to the language, the morals, and the social relations of the people. This is a task which offers an abundance of the most complicated problems. Two principal dangers are especially to be avoided: the treatment of foreign customs with religious rigorism and a confusion of Christianizing with Europeanizing or Americanizing. The first of these dangers was a fruit of sectarian narrowness, the second lies in the superior civilization and the national pride of the missionaries; both are fostered by a lack of pedagogic tact toward the objects of the mission. (2) The development of a body of native teachers. While much was done in this direction in earlier missionary effort, especially by the free church missions, the effective manner in which this is accomplished to‑day is a result of the later historical development of missions, though improvement in this respect is still a desideratum. Evangelical missions, as a whole, have in their service to‑day 4,170 ordained pastors and 75,000 teachers and evangelists from among the natives, and it maintains for their education 375 schools attended by 12,000 scholars. In connection with this increase of native workers there is not only an extension of the field of labor and a general .systematization, there is also an increase in the financial contributions of the communities, and a continuous development of church organization, so that by this means progress is made in various directions in preparation for ecclesiastical independence. (3) There is an enrichment of missionary resources. Naturally the preaching of the Gospel was from the beginning the principal instrument of the missions, but alongside of this an even greater and more independent place was taken first by educational and literary work and then by the labors of physicians and women. It is true that the educational and literary activities were not entirely lacking from the beginning; but a systematically ordered school organization suited to insure not only a religious but also a general culture
for all classes of the people, from the primary school up to the high schools and sometimes even up to the universities, and a literary activity in connection with this general intellectual elevation of the people, have been interwoven with the mission work only since the middle of the past century.
In this matter statistics are eloquent. In addition to 28,000 primary schools with over 1,150,000 scholars,
‑and, what is of importance, over 300;
3. Auxil‑ 000 girls‑there are 1,500 high schools, iaries Em‑ with 130,000 scholars. In literary enployed. terprise, the Bible translations occupy
the foremost place. There are to‑day 105 translations of the whole Bible prepared by missionaries, 100 of the New Testament and 224 of separate parts of the Bible, not reckoning those in the dead languages. The rest of missionary literature, which from small tracts up to scientific works covers nearly all the fields of knowledge besides that of religion, is so extensive that it can no longer be recapitulated. In the various missionary fields there are 159 book stores and publishing‑houses in operation. In connection with the work of the female missionaries and the physicians, statistics regarding which have been given, there are a great number of benevolent institutions: 379 hospitals, 783 polyclinics, 247 orphan asylums, 100 leper asylums, 30 institutions for the blind and the deaf and dumb, and 158 other refuges, with tens of thousands of inmates. All this is putting word into action, and does an effective pioneer service for the missions. Lastly, when it is noted that, besides the indirect civilizing education which is pursued by the missionaries, there are not only 180 industrial schools, but by a great number of missions, industrial and agricultural instruction. is systematically combined with religious teaching, it is apparent to what an extent the work of Christianization influences the whole life of the people. The longer the mission has been at work, the more manifold and powerful a factor does it become in the general education of non‑Christian peoples (cf. J. S. Dennis, Christian Mission anal Social Progress, 3 vols., New York, 1897‑1906).
Nevertheless a oountermovement against this conception of the missionary task has been started
during the last few decades, emanating
4. The from the founder of the China Inland
Movement Mission; John Hudson Taylor, and such for Imme‑ supporters as Arthur Tappan Pierson, diate Evan‑ Albert B. Simpson, founder of the gelization. Christian Missionary Alliance, and John Robert Mott of the Student Volunteer Movement (qq.v.). It characterizes the missionary task as being "the evangelize. tion of the world " and the section of this opposition represented by the Student Volunteer Movement has accepted as its watchword the addition " in this generation." It is difficult in view of the varying definitions which have been and still are given of the watchword "evangelization," to say precisely what it really means. John R: Mott, in The Evangelization of the World in this Generation (London, 1900), declares it to signify " to give to all men. an adequate opportunity to know Jesus Christ as their Savior and to become his real disci

Mission* to the Heathen	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	418
plea," but not " Christianization of the world, if by that is meant the permeating of the world with Christian ideas," although educational, literary, and medical activity are not excluded. Pierson understands it only as " preaching and witness; these two words include everything that is meant by evangelization." Whatever these definitions hick in clearness is supplied by the methodical principles which the movement aims to put in practise. They are as follows: (1) The sending of great hosts of evangelists in order to give all men, in the shortest possible time, the opportunity to hear the Gospel. (2) The greatest haste as well in the sending of missionaries as in the preaching of the Gospel; for this reason preaching becomes the essential missionary duty. Schools, literary activity, and church organization are regarded as of secondary importance., (3) World‑wide spread of the preaching; therefore, a scattering of the resources, according to the motto " diffusion, not concentration." These principles are said to be founded on the command of Christ (Matt. sale. 14), which ordered Preaching to all the world; on the example of the apostles, who as itinerant preachers went rapidly from place to place; and on the connection of the mission with the second coming of Christ which is to be hastened by the speedy proclamation of the Gospel among all peoples. As this view is one‑aided and exegetically untenable, ignores the difference between the conditions in the age of the apostles and in the present, and rests upon fond expectations and impatience, so its methodical principles contradict the experience of a century of missions, lack the assurance for the maintenance of the results attained, and leave entirely out of socount the grave difficulties which rational mission work must overcome in order to realize even a comprehensible preaching of the Gospel, to say nothing of establishing a firmly founded Christian Church.'
This last is the missionary task; the limitation of the task to mere evangelization confuses the means with the end. Established settlements, patient en‑
durance in thorough instruction, fapthg. The True ful care of souls, earnest church
	Method. discipline and wise organization are
	indispensable, and solid work can not.
	be accomplished hastily over the whole world, cer
	tainly not in one generation. The mighty mission
ary movement, carried forward by sincerely pious
men under the motto " evangelization of the world
in this generation," has often been a powerful stim
ulus and contains in many respects much that is
	encouraging for all missionary workers, but as a
	reform movement in missionary methods it will
	have no permanent value. If all signs are not de.
	captive, a sober second thought has already begun
to prevail; after much dearly bought experience,
	which could have been avoided, the leaders of this
	movement will accept the principles of missionary
	methodology which rest upon the experience of a
century of mission work.	But see MOVEUENT,
LAYMEN'S MISHIONAvRY. 	G. WAENECa.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The literature of missions is enormous; titles can be green here only of books which saver more or less suggestively the different fields. Liete of literature are found in great richness in the subject indexes to the general catalogues named on pp. nir:iii. of vol. i.
of this work, especially in the Subject Index of Forteeoue and is the Schlapwort Catalog of Karl Georg. A feature of the Encylopedia of Missions by Dwight et al. (cat inf.) is the bibliography appended to each article, usually short, but good and recent. Further literature is to be found under the various geographical articles in this work, e.g., Aaetce, and under the biographical articles on various missionaries. For statistics the reader is referred to the reports issued by the various missionary socialise, the year‑books of the denominations, to the journals devoted to missionary interests, to the articles in this work on the separate denominations, and to such works se: R%rdiliehee Jahrbuds, GOtereloh (an annual); Ecumenical Missionary Conference, Report on Foreign Missions, 2 vole
New York 1900: H. P. Beach, Geography and Atlas of Protestant Missions, 2 vole., New York, 1902; J. f3. Dennie, Centennial Survey of Foreign Missions, New York, 1901• H. P. Beach, Missionary Literature of the 18th Century; Character and Uses of recent Books on Foreign Missions, in Missionary Review of the World, Feb., 1902; H. O. Dwight, H. A. Tupper, and E. M. Biss, The Err cyclopedia of issions, New York, 1904; $. O. Dwight, The Blue Book of Missions jar 1907, New York, 1907; H• A. Kruse, RaUwliachs MiarionraWtialik. Mil e%ner Daratdlunp des DepenwHrtiyen 3tandea der katholisehen Haidanm%saloft, Freiburg, 1908.
For Roman Catholic missions in general, consult CoLiectanea conaMtutionum, ac inelrudionum aanctca aedia ad ueum opsrariorum apoetolkorum sociatatie miasionum ad esteroa Hongkong, 1905• A. Huonder Deutsche Jeauifenmissroondre des 17. and 18. Jahrhunderte, in Srimman aus Maria‑Leach, heft Intiv., 1871; R, de Marline, La Propaganda; Cattoliea ad ascolo mix., Napoli, 1884: A. Pieper, Die Propaganda‑Congregation and die nordiechan Misaionen im xu%i. Jahrhundert, Bonn, 1888; A. Launay, Hiatoire do la eociktE des missions EtranD&ea, Paris, 1894; idem, Sociklk des missions €trangbrae; hiatoire de la mission du Thibet, Paris, 1903; idem, Socilfk des missions &ranpPrea: documents hietoriquea reZatifa h la aoc%gtJ, Vannes, 1905; L. E. Louvet Lea Minions cauwdiquee au xix. eilcle, Lyons, 1894; Catholic Missions: Record in Connection with the Society of the Propagation of the Faith, London, 1900; J. B. Piolet. Lea Missions catholiquee fransaiaee auz xiz. Welt, 8 vole.. Paris, 1900; P. Pesters, Lee Missions catholiqves. et lee lanpuea indiglnea, Brussels, 1905; A. Huonder, Dar einheimiache Rlerua in den Heidanldndern. Freiburg, 1909.
Literature on the separate continents is as follows: For America of first importance is the‑ massive collection, Jesuit Relations and Allied Document, ed. R. G. Thwaites, 73 vole. and index, Cleveland, 1898 eqq.; J. G. She&, His. Cory of Catholic Missions among the Indian Tribes of the United States from 1618 A.D. to 1864 A.D., New York, 1857; W. I• Kip, The Early Jesuit Missions in North America, Albany, 1873; C. Hawley, Early Chapters in Cayuga History, Jesuit Minions in Goi‑o‑Oovsn, IB6B‑8.(; also Sulpdtaan Mission among Cayugas about Quints Bay 1668, Auburn, N.Y., 1879; J. Cardus, Las Minions$ jranciacanaa ante lee inlidelea de Bolivia, 18838.4, Barcelona, 1888; 8. R. Manner, Mieionea puamnitima 1607‑1800, Buenos Agree. 1892: A. Call, SeDunda memories de 7as Misionee de Fernando.Poo, Madrid 1899; G. W. James, In and out of the Old Missions of California; an Account of the Franciscan Missions, Boston, 1905. For Atrio6 consult: L. Bethune, Les Missions oethoZiques d'Ajriqus, Line, 1889; F. Mein, Le Cardinal Laroiperie d au aruvrse d'A/riqus, Paris, 1890; M. J.. L'Oupanda; la mission catholique et lea agenda de la coetpapnis anplaise, Paris, 1893; E. Colin and P. f3ceau, Madagascar at la mirsion ca0wliqua, Paris, 1895; SociEt6 des miesionairea d'Ajrique, Pbres Blanca memento cAronolopique, Paris, 1900; A. de Crsouge, Une Mission en Ethiopia d'apre?a lea mErnoir,er du Cardinal Maasaja. Paris, 1902• M. M. Mulhall, Explorers in she New World before and alter Columbus, and the Story of the Jesuit Missions of ParaDuay, London. 1909. For Ssia consult: C. M.. Caddell, History of Roman Catholic Miarions in Japan and Paraguay, London and New York, 1956; w. Strickland, Catholic Missions %n Southern India to 1866, London, 1885; Berthold‑lenses, Hisdoim de la mission da Parse par lea pirea Carnrea‑DJchausaEa, 160.¢‑18, Brussels, 1887; L. de Gunman, Hietoraa de la mieionu do 7a Companies do Jesus en Z'Ind%a y China. Bilbao, 1891; L. Guiot, La Mission du Su‑Tchuan au aviii, sidlParis, 1892; A, F. Ceadim. Batauw da Companhia do Y"‑ na sue proaineia do Japao, Lisbon, 1894; M. Jull'ron, La Nocsvelle Mission

417	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Missions to the Heathen
de la Compagnis de Jesus en Syrie, 1831‑86, Tours, 1898; A. Launay, Lea Misaionaires frangnia au Tonkin, Paris, 1900; idem, Histaire den missions de l'Indie, 4 vols., ib. 1898; B. A. H. Wilberforce, Dominican Missions and Martyrs in Japan, London, 1897; C. M. Caddell, The Cross in Japan; a History of the Missions of St. Francis Xavier and the early Jesuits, ib. 1904; A. Ligneul, L'Itvangile au Japon au xx. siicle, Paris, 1904; M. Steichen, Les Daimyo chritaeu; un ailcle de l'histoire du Japon 16281860, Hongkong, 1904. For New Zealand: A. Monfat, Lea Originea de la Joi eatholique dana la Nouvelle‑Zelande; lea Maoris; nude historique, Lyons, 1896.
On the philosophy, methods, and economics of Protestant missions consult: W. P. Walsh, Christian Missions, London, 1862; D. Dorchester, Tike Problem of Religious Progress, New York, 1881; T. E.Slater, The Philosophy of Missions, London, 1882; G. Warneek, Modern Misaion8 and Culture, Edinburgh, 1883; C. H. Carpenter, Studies in Mission Economics, Philadelphia, 1886; J. Liggins, The Great Valve and Success of Foreign Missions; with an Introduction by Arthur T. Pierson, New York, 1889; B. Broomhall, Evangelization of the World, London, 1894; R. N. Cust, Essay on the Prevailing Methods of the Evangelization of the non‑Christian World, ib. 1894; idem, The Gospel Message, or Essays on the different Aspects of Christian Missions, ib. 1896; S. L. Baldwin, Foreign Missions of the Protestant Churches, New York, 1900; J. R. Mott, The Evangelization of the World in this Generation, ib. 1900; C. M. Yonge, The Making of a Missionary, London, 1900; E. T. Churton, Foreign Missions, New York, 1901; J. C. Gibson, Mission Problems and Methods in S. China, Edinburgh, 1901; V. F. Penrose, Opportunities in the Path of the Great Physician, Philadelphia, 1902; H. H. Montgomery, Foreign Missions, London, 1902; idem, Principles and Problems of Foreign Missions, Westminster, 1904; A. Murray, The Key to the Missionary Problem, New York, 1902; R. E. Speer, Missionary Principles and Practices, ib. 1902; idem, Missions and Modern History, 2 vols., ib. 1904; Bryan F. Clinch, California and its Missions, 2 vols., San Francisco, 1904; J. R. Mott, The Home Ministry and Modern Missions London, 1905; R. A. Hume, Missions from as Modem View, New York, 1905; J. L. Barton, The Missionary and his Critics, ib. 1906; J. S. Dennis, Christian Missions and Social Progress, 3 vols., ib. 1897, 1902, 1906; idem, The New Horoscope of Missions, ib. 1908; A. J. Brown, The Foreign Missionary: An Incarnation of a World Movement, ib. 1907; J. H. J. Ellison and G. H. S. Walpole, Church arid Empire: Essays on the Responsibilities of Empire, London, 1907 (not on Church and State, but on coordinating Chris_ tian efforts); L. G. Mylne, Mission to Hindus; A Contribution to the Study of Missionary Methods, London, 1908; E. M. Bliss, The Missionary Enterprise, New York, 1908; W. Owen Carver, Missions in the Plan of the Ages, ib. 1909.
For early missions consult the various church histories, and the following special works: C. Merivale (editor), Conversion of the West, 5 vole. (I. The Continental Teutons, by C. Merivale; II. The Celts, by G. F. Maelear; III. The English, by G. F. Maclear; IV. The Northmen, by G. F. Maelear; V. The Slavs, by G. F. Maclear), London, 1878, New York, 1879; J. Wyse, A Thousand Years, or, The Missionary Centers of as Middle Ages, London, 1872; L. C. Barnes, Two Thousand Years of Missions before Carey, Chicago, 1901; A. Harnaek, Die Mission and Auabreitung den Chriatentum in der eraten drei Jahrhunderten, Leipsie, 1902, 2d ed., 1906, Eng. tranal., Expansion of Christianity, 2 vols., New York, 1904‑05, 2d ed., 1909; G. Smith, Short History of Christian Missions; from Abraham and Paul to Carey, Edinburgh, 1904; Sobaff, Christian Church, V., 1, chap. is.
For the missionary societies consult: J. M. Reid, Miesione and Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 2 vole., New York, 1879; Society for as Propagation of the Gospel; Digest of she Records of the Society, London, 1893• idem, Results of 180 Years of Work, London. 1887; N. Landmark, Det Norake Misaionsselakab, Christiania, 1889; C. S. Horne, Story of the London Mieaionary Society, London, 1894; E. F. Kruijf, Geschiedenis van het Nederlandache Zendelingegenootsehap, Groningen, 1894; C. Hole, Early History of the Church Missionary Society to the End of 1814 A.D., London, 1896; W. O. B. Allen and E. McClure, Two Hundred Years; the History of as Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1888‑1888, VIL‑27
London, 1898; R. Lovett, History of the London Miaaionary Society, 1786‑1896, 2 vole., ib. 1899; E. Stock, The History of the Church Missionary Society, ib. 1899; P. Eppler, Geschichde der Bailer Mission, 1816‑89, Basel, 1900; J. T. Hamilton, History of as Missions of as Moravian Church during as 18th and 19th Centuries, Bethlehem, 1901; C. F. Pascoe, .200 Years of the Society for as Propagation of as Gospel 1701‑1800, London, 1901; W.Bornemann, Einfuhr ung in die evangeliade Miasionakunde in Anachlusa an die Bailer Mission, Tiibingen, 1902; E. F. Merriam, History of the American Baptist Missions, Philadelphia, 1902; Centenary Volume of the Church Missionary Society 1789‑1888, London, 1902; W. H. Eaton, Historical Sketch of as Maeaachusetta Baptist Missionary Society, 180,2‑1802, Boston, 1903; R. Clark, Missions of the Church Missionary Society and the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society in as Punjab and Sindh, London, 1904; J. T. N. Logstrup, Det danake MimionsaelakaW Historic, Copenhagen, 1905; I. H. Barnes, In Salisbury Square, An Account of the Church Missionary House, London, 1905; A. F. Beard, A Crusade of Brotherhood: a Hist. of the American Missionary Association, Boston, 1909.
More or less general surveys of mission work are furnished by: F. E. A. Forster, Heralds of the Cross, London, 1882; A. C. Thompson Moravian Missions London, 1883; A. H. de Wandelbourg, ‑0tudes sur (Orient et see missions, Paris, 1883; James Croil, The Missionary Problem; a History of Protestant Missions in some of as principal Fields of Missionary Enterprise: with a historical and statistical Account of the Rise and Progress of Missionary Societies in the 19th Century, Toronto, 1884; G. W. Hervey, Story q( Baptist Missions in Foreign Lands, ib. 1884; E. Hodder, Conquests of as Cross, 3 vols., London, 1890; R. Young, Success of Christian Missions, ib. 1890; Centenary Celebration of the Baptist Missionary Society, ib. 1893, and Centenary Volume of as Society, ib. 1892; J. 8. Dennis, Foreign Missions after a Century, Edinburgh, 1894; A. T. Pierson, The New Acts of as Apostles, London, 1894; idem, Modern Missions Century, New York, 1901; E. A. Lawrence, Modern Missions in as East, ib. 1895; D. L. Leonard, A Hundred Years of Missions, ib. 1895; idem, Missionary Annals of the Nineteenth Century, Cleveland, 1899; P. Barclay, A Survey of Foreign Missions, Edinburgh, 1897; E. M. Bliss, History of Missions, New York, 1897; A. H. Japp, Master Missionaries, Chapters in Pioneer Effort throughout the World, London, 1905; G. Warneck, Outlines of a History of Protestant Mission&, London, 1906; E. Stock, The Story of Church Missions, London, 1907; Methods of Mission Work among Modems. By various Authors, New York, 1908; H. C. Vedder, Christian Epoch‑makers: The Story of the great missionary Eras in the Hid. of Christianity, Philadelphia, 1908; W. T. Whitley. Missionary Achievement, London and New York, 1908; J. L. Warneek, The Living Christ and Dying Heathenism, ib. 1909.
On Africa, besides the literature under AFRICA, consult: G. E. Beekow, Den Svenska Missionen i 08t‑Afrika, Stockholm, 1884; A. E. 11 I. A. Morahead, History of the Universities' Mission to Central Africa, 1869‑88, London, 1897; 8. G. Stock, The Story of Uganda, ib. 1894; W. L. Elmalie Among the Wild Ngoni; Chapters in as History of Me Livingatonia Mission in British Central Africa, Edinburgh, 1899; F. E. Guinness, The New World of Central Africa,. With History of as first Mission in the Congo, London, 1890; J Spillman, Vom Cap sum Sambeai. Die Anfange der Sambesi Mission, Freiburg, 1882; H. Goldie Calabar and its Mission, Edinburgh, 1901; M. Genisehen, Bilder von unaerem Missionsfelde in Satd. Afrika, Berlin, 1902• M. C. Gollock, River, Sand and Sun; Sketches of the C. M. S. Mission, Lndon, 190.5; J. Rutherford, The Gospel in North Africa, ib. 1900; J. J. K. Fletcher, he Sign of thas Cross in Madagascar, Edinburgh, 1901; A. Karlgren, Svenska Kyrkana M$sion i Sydafrika, Upaala,19M.
For America, besides the literature under INDIANS Os NORTR AIIRRICA, MISSIONS To THE consult: W. H. Brett, Mission Work among the Indian tribes in Guiana, London, 1881; M. Eels, Ten Years' Missionary Work among as Indians, Boston, 1886; E. F. Wilson, Missionary Work among as 0iibway Indians, London, 1886; E. C. Millard and L. E. Guinness, South Amarim, the Neglected Continent, ib. 1894; H. Dykstra, Hat Evangadie in ones cost Ds Proteatansehe sending in hat tegenwoordige Nederlandeche Indio, Leydea, 1900; H. P. Beach et al., Protestant Mia‑

2n salons to the Heathen	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	418
sions in South America, .New York 1900; H. Lawaets, Br6dremeniphedens Mission i Dansk Vestindien, 17681848, Copenhagen, 1902.
For Asia consult: James Hough, The History of ChrisNanity in India from the Commencement of the Christian Era, London, 1839; C. H. Carpenter, Self‑Support; History of the Bassein Karen Mission, Boston, 1883; L. Her tel, Den Nordiake Santhalmission, Copenhagen, 1884; M. A. Sherring, History of Protestant Missions in India, 1706‑1881 London, 1884; Missionary Conference, Statistical tables of Protestant Missions in India, Burma and Ceylon, Calcutta, 1892; L B. Wolfe, After Fifty Years, Historical Sketch of the Gunthur Mission of the Lutheran Church of the United States, of America Philadelphia, 1898; J. Johnston, China and Formosa: Story of the Mission of the Presbyterian Church of England New York, 1897; H. Ritter, A History of Protestant Missions in Japan, Tokyo, 1898; M. G. Guinness, The Story of the China Inland Mission, 2 vole., London 1900; E. Chatterton, Story of Fifty Years' Mission Work in Chhota‑Nagpuur, ib. 1901• S. Coolsma, De Zendinpseeuw voor Nederlandeche Ooah India, Utrecht, 1901; E. A. Lawrence, Modern Missions in the East, Chicago, 1901; F Penny, The Church in Madras: the History of the ecclesiastical and missionary Action of the East India Company in Madras, London, 1904• H. K. Miller, History of:fhe Japan Mission of the Reformed Church, 1879‑1804,'Philadelphia, 1905; J. Jackson, Lepers, 31 Years' Work among them: Hist of the Missions to Lepers in India and the East 1874‑1906, London, 1908; D. MacGillivray, A Century of Protestant Missions in China, 1807‑1807, London 1908; Centenary Missionary Conference Records; Report of the great Shanghai Confer. ones held April 25 to May E, 1907, New York, 1908; A. Lloyd, The Wheat among the Tares . . . Exposition of . missionary Problems of the Far East, ib. 1908; L. G. Mylne, Missions to Hindus, London, 1908; J. Gindraus, Hint. du christianisme dans to monde pafen. Lea Missions en Asie, Geneva, 1909.
Special works on parts of Oceania are: J. Williams, Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands, Philadelphia, 1889; London Missionary Society; Ten Decades, Australian Centenary Story, London, 1895; F. Awdry, In the Isles of the Sea: The Story of i1fty Years in Melanesia, London, 1902; J. Chalmers, Work and Adventure in New Guinea, London, 1902; H. A. Robertson, Erromanga, the Martyr Isle, London, 1902; H. H. Montgomery, The Light of Melanesia, London, 1904; R. L Lamb, Saints and Savages: Five years in the New Hebrides, Edinburgh, 190'5.
Hints on medical missions may be gained from: V. F. Penrose, Opportunities in the Path of the Great Physician, Philadephia, 1902; G. Saunders, The Healer Preacher, London, 1884; J. Lowe, Medical Missions, their Place and Poser, New York, 1891; W. B. Thompson, Reminiscences of Medical Missionary Work, London, 1895; J. R. Williamson, The Heating of the Nations, New York, 1899. MITCHELL, ALEXANDER FERRIER: Church of Scotland; b. at Brechin Sept. 10, 1822; d. at St. Andrews Mar. 22, 1899. He studied literature, philosophy, and theology at the University of St. Andrews (M.A., 1841), became minister of the parish of Dunnichen, in the presbytery and county of Forfar, in 1847, professor of Hebrew and Oriental languages in the College of St. Mary in the University of St. Andrews in 1848, and was transferred to the chair of ecclesiastical history and divinity in the same college in 1868. He retired in 1894. From 1856 to 1874 he was convener (chairman) of the Church of Scotland's Jewish Mission, visited the stations of the mission in Turkey,, and recommended the occupation of Alexandria, Beirut, and Constantinople. He was first convener of the Assembly's committee on the minutes of the Westminster Assembly,, one of the Church of Scotland's representatives at all the general councils of the Reformed Churches, convener of its committee on the desiderata of Presbyterian history, and moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
in 1885. He was an authority on all matters connected with Scottish ecclesiastical history, and the author of The Westminster Confession of Faith, a Contribution to the Study of its History and the Defence of its Teaching (Edinburgh, 1868; 3d ed., 1867); The Wedderburns and their Work, or the Sacred Poetry of the Scottish Reformation ire its Relation to that of Germany (1867); Minutes of the Westminster Assembly from November, 1644, to March, 161,9 (ed. John Struthers), with Historical Introduotion (1874); Historical Notice of Archbishop Hamilton's Catechism (prgr to black‑letter reprint of the same, 1882); '!'he Westminster Assembly, its History and Standards (Baud Lecture for 1882, London, 1883); The Catechisms of the Second Refm7rtation (1886); and The Scottish Reformation: Its Epochs, Episodes, Leaders arid Distinctive Chtfrawteristic8 (Baud lecture for 1899; ed. D. Hay Flaming, 1900). He edited in 1860 the Sum of Saving Knowledge, Translated into Modern Greek by the late Prof. Edward Masson; in 1876 the late Prof. Thomas Jackson Crawford's The Preaching of the Cross arid other Sermons; in 1888 John Gan's The Rich! Vey to Heuine; and in 1897 The Gude and Godlie Bal. latis from the edition of 1567, both for the Scottish Teat Society; in 1892 for the Scottish History Society (with James Christie), The Records of the Commissions of the General Assemblies of the Church of Scotland, holden in Edinburgh in the years 16.46 and 1647; and for the same and with the same in 1896 the Records of the same in 1648 and 1649. He was a frequent contributor to the periodic press and to encyclopedias.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A biographical sketch by James Christie is prefixed to his Scottish Reformation, ut sup., London, 1900.
MITCHELL, EDWARD CUSHING: Baptist; b. at East Bridgewater, Mass., Sept. 20, 1829; d. at New Orleans Mar. 2, 1900. He was graduated from Waterville College (now Colby University), Me., 1849, and Newton, Mass., Theological Institution, 1853; was resident graduate for a year; pastor at Calais, Me., 1854‑56; Brockport, N. Y., 1857‑58; Rockford, Ill., 1858‑63; professor of Biblical interpretation, Alton, Ill., 1863‑70; of Hebrew and OldTestament literature, Baptist Union Seminary, Chicago, 1870‑77; of Hebrew, Regent's Park College, London, Eng., 1877; president Baptist Theological School, Paris, France, 1878‑82; president Roger William University, Nashville, Tenn., 18841885. He wrote: A Critical Handbook: a Guide to the Authenticity, Canon, and Text of the New Testament (Andover, 1880); Les sources du Nouveau Testament, recherches sur l'authentiew, le canon, et Is texte du Nouveau Testament, Paris, 1882; Hebrew Introduction, An Elementary Hebrew Grammar and Reading Book, Andover, 1883. He also edited and enlarged Benjamin Davies' Hebrew Lexicon (Andover, 1880); revised and reedited Davies' Geseniua' Hebrew Grammar (1881); and edited The Present Age (Chicago, 188384). He also delivered the Lowell Institute lectures for 1884 upon Biblical Science and Modern Diecrovery.
MITCHELL, HINCKLEY GILBERT: Methodist Episcopalian; b. at Lee, N. Y., Feb. 22, 1846. He was educated at Wesley= University, Middle.

419	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xi~.Xine to the Heathen
town, Conn. (A.B., 1873), the school of theology attached to Boston University (B.D., 1876), and the University of Leipsic (Ph.D., 1879). He was then pastor of the church of his denomination at Fayette, N. Y., for a year (1879‑80), after which he was tutor in Latin and Hebrew at Wesleyan University for three years (188083). Since 1883 he has been connected with Boston University, first as instructor in Hebrew and Old‑Testament exegesis (1883‑84) and later as professor of the same subjects (since 1884). In 1901‑02 he was director of the American School for Oriental Study and Research in Palestine. In addition to translating C. H. Piepenbring's " Theology of the Old Testament " (New York, 1893), he has written Final Constructions of Biblical Hebrew (Leipsie,1879); Hebrew Lessons (Boston, 1885); Amos, an Essay in Exegesis (1893); Isaiah, a Study of Chapters i.‑xii. (New York, 1897); The World before Abraham (Boston, 1901); Tales told in Palestine (in collaboration with J. E. Hanauer, Cincinnati, 1904); and the volume for Genesis in The Bible for Home aced School (New York, 1909).
1iffTHRA, MITHRAISM.
Mithraiem and Christianity (5 1). Mithra as an Indo‑Iranian Deity (5 2). Development and Diffusion of Mitbesism (4 8). Mythology and Theology (1 4). Anthropology, Eschatology (¢ 5). The Mysteries (4 6). Art and Architecture (¢ 7). The Deasy (4 8).
	Interest in Mithraism is not attributable merely
to the fact that it is a rediscovery of comparatively
recent date. Two other reasons give the subject
importance: (1) This religion contested with Chris
		tianity for the religious hegemony of
	:. Mithm‑	the Roman world more closely than
	Ism and	any other of the pagan cults in the
Christianity. syncretism which marked the religious
		practise of the later Roman empire.
Renan says of it, and without exaggeration: " We
may say that if Christianity had been arrested in
its growth by some mortal malady, the world would
have been Mithraiatic . . . . It needed to destroy
it the terrible blows struck at it by the Christian
empire " (Marcus Aurelius, p. 332, London, n.d.).
(2) The causes for this able rivalry furnish the sec
and reason. The diffusion of Mithraism and of
Christianity in the Roman world was from the same
direction, at about the same time, and its propa
ganda, popular rather than philosophic, was car
ried to the same class of people. In theory, ritual,
and practise Mithraism parodied or duplicated,
after a fashion, the central ideas of Christianity.
The birth of Mithra and of Christ were celebrated
on the same day; tradition placed the birth of both
in a cave; both regarded Sunday as sacred; in both
the central figure was a mediator (mesim) who was
one of a triad or trinity; in both there was a sacri
fice for the benefit of the race, and the purifying
power of blood from the sacrifice was, though in
different ways, a prime motive; regeneration or
the second birth was a fundamental tenet in both;
the conception of the relationship of the worshipers
to each other was the same‑they were all brothers;
both had sacraments, in which baptism and a com‑
munion meal of bread and the cup were included; both had mysteries from which the lower orders of initiates were excluded; ascetic ideals were common to both;. the ideas of man, the soul and its immortality, heaven and hell, the resurrection from the dead, judgment after death, the final conflagration by which the world is to be consumed, the final conquest of evil, were quite similar. Of course the rationale behind these conceptions and the ways in which they were carried out were very different, but the general effect is almost startling. The Church Fathers were themselves astounded at the resemblances, and could explain them only by the theory which has so often been applied in the history of the contact of Christianity in its missions to the pagan world‑the observances of Mithraism were the cunning parodies devised by Satan to discredit the holy things of God and to seduce the souls of men from the true faith by a false and insidious imitation of it (Tertullian, De corona, xv.; De prtaseriptione, xl.; Justin Martyr, 1 Apol. lxvi.; Trypho, bgviii.). There were, however, two very important differences between the two faiths: Christianity had as its nucleating point a historic personage; Mithra came out of a distant past with all its accretion of myth and fancy. In the second place, Mithmism, like Buddhism and Brahmanism, was syncretistic, was tolerant of the practises of other cults. Where it could not supplant, it assimilated or adopted. As Renan says, once more (ut sup.): "Mithra lent himself to all the confusions, with Attis, with Adonis, with Salazius, with Men, who had already been in possession for a long time back, to make the tears of women flow." Christianity, on the other hand, was intolerant; its teachers were confident that they alone had the whole and only truth, that all else was error with which there could be no compromise. It would brook no rival; Mithraism, like all else pagan, was ruthlessly and completely crushed when the empire became Christian.
Mithra was originally an Indo‑Iranian deity. In the Vedas he appears as one of the Adityas, a lightdeity commonly invoked with Varuna, but later giving way to Savitar. He was a guardian of truth, fidelity, and justice. In Zoroastrianism Mithra was very important. He was one of the
s. Mithra Yazatas or lofty genii of the religion,
as an Indo‑ second in age and honor only to Ahura Iranian Mazda the Supreme, and is often put
	Deity.	on an equality with him. How prom
		inent his part was in Mazdaism may
be seen from the fact that in the Avesta the sec.
and longest of the Yasts, the mihir vast, is in his
praise, and to him the Mihir Nyayis is dedicated
(SBE, xxiii. 119‑158, 353‑355). Here, too, he is a
light‑god, while his attributes appear in the Avesta
as follows (a single passage only for each attribute
is cited). He is lord of the country side (Fargard,
i. 1) and of wide pastures (Sirozah, i. 7), having
100 ears and 10,000 eyes (Sirozah, i. 16); his club
strikes the demons (Khorshad Yast, 5); he makes
the world grow (Farvardin yaat, 18); has piercing
rays (Afrin Paighambar Zartuat, 6), possesses full
knowledge, is strong, sleepless, was made by Ahura
the most glorious of all gods, " Mithra and Ahura,

ltithra	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	490
the two great gods" (Khorshed Nyayis, 6‑7). In his own (Mihir) Yast Mithra appears as god of the heavenly light, who sees all and therefore knows the truth, of which he is therefore a witness and the preserver of oaths and of good faith, chastising liars and those who break promises, destroying their homes and smiting them in battle, but protecting those who keep faith. Ahura Mazda created Mithra as worthy of sacrifice and prayer as himself (~ 1); to him the chiefs sacrifice as they go to battle (§ 8); he precedes the sun over the hills (§ 13); is the invincible director of the fortunes of battle (f§ 35‑43). He is the warrior .and chief helper of Ahura in his contest with Ahriman, the giver ‑to men of gifts both material and spiritual. Yet it is curious to note that in spite of the exalted position thus conceded in the documents of the religion as thus cited and in the worship accorded him by the princes and nobles of Persia (see below), there appears an effort to reduce him in rank in that he was not given a place with the six Amshaspands who are closely associated with Ahura. as the seven great spirits, but is relegated to the position of Yazata or genius. Significant for the future is his association with Sraosha (" Obedience ") and Rashnu (" Justice ") in the protection of the soul from demons, from which develops the doctrine of redemption in the later mysteries. It may be noted in passing that the rites of these mysteries find their beginning in the Zoroastrian literature; baptism goes back to the purificatory aspersion of the Avesta; while the trials of the mysteries are implicit in the fiagellations; and both of these were preliminary to the sacrifice (Mihir Yast, § 122). While the theoretical and documentary position of Mithra, in Persia was as here described, he was if anything more prominent in the cult. He was a favorite with the Persian monarchs, consequently also with the nobility, and was regarded as the especial proteo. for of this order. This continued after the spread of the cult into the West, the royal favor being shown later by the frequency with which his mule enters as an element into royal names in Asia Minor, while Roman emperors see reason to regard him as their protector. The Acha;menidae worshiped him as making the great triad with Ahura and Anahita. His great festival on the sixteenth day of the seventh month (possibly the entire seventh month was sacred to him) was of especial moment in the royal calendar. Sacrifices were offered in his worship, consisting of cattle, great and small, and birds, and the preliminary to sacrifice consisted of ablutions and fiagellations. As a consequence of the royal favor, the worship of Mithra spread throughout the empire. Moreover, Mitbra was notably a deity with masculine characteristics; he appealed to the soldierly and the virile. It is hardly a wonder then that in its diffusion the Mithraic cult took on the character of an independent religion, and was promulgated no more as an element of Zoroastrianism, the intolerance of which unfitted it for a propaganda in contest with other religions as haughty as itself.
The first step in the development of Mithraism as an independent religion was the carrying of the cult to Babylon, the winter capital of the empire.
It there encountered the philosophical theologizing of the Babylonian priests, who identified Mithra with Shamash (see BABYLONIA, VIL, 3. Develop‑ 2, § 4), and welded to Mithra's story ment and the mythology in which Babylonia Diffusion of was so rich. In addition to this there Mithmism. was ingmfted the mythology of the zodiac and shreds of Babylonian astrolatry, and this all came to have a large part in the symbolism of Mithraism. Into Armenia the faith was carried, and thence into Asia Minor, where, after the division of the empire of Alexander, Mithm became the favorite deity. It was probably at this period, 250‑100 B.c., that the Mithraic system of ritual and doctrine took the form which it afterward retained. Here it came into contact with the mysteries, of which there were many varieties, among which the most notable were those of Cybele. Cumont attributes the development of the mysteries to the habit in Persia of transmitting from father to son the essentials and secrets of ritual. But if this be the origin, there is left unao. counted for the markedly sodalistic or fraternity character of the Mithmic communities. The worshipers in each mithreeum were a small body, limited in membership, and the ensemble was much like that of a modern lodge. When it is remembered that the period 300 B.c.‑100 A.D. was the one marked by a renascence of that curious feature of savage life, the mysteries, and that Asia Minor was the source from which the movement in the Roman and Greek world emanated, it seems more probable that the new cult took this form under the influences then and there so active, and that in this way the then fluent mass of Mithraic belief and practise took permanent form. The spirit of identification which had helped so in Babylon was employed in the new home. Mithra and Helios were identified, while Anahita, the Persian companion of Mithra, to whom the bull was sacred, was regarded as Artemis Tauropolos. These facile accommodations conciliated the populace, the element of secrecy and the grades or orders of the initiates added to the charm, while the belief that in the mysteries access was granted to the fabled wisdom of the East was one more element in favor of the religion. But the great triumphs of Mithraism were not won east of the Rgean, even Greece was wholly inhospitable; it was in the Roman world where success was to be gained. The story of the transition thither is almost that of romance. Among the people of Asia Minor the Cilicians were possibly the most devoted Mithraists. In their ambition they presumed to dispute with the Romans the control of the seas, and this brought upon them the force of Roman arms and the consequent conquest by the Romans of the " Cilician pirates." Among the immediate results of this was the initiation of Roman soldiers into the mysteries‑it must not be forgotten that the cult of Mithra appealed especially to the sol. dier, and one of the ranks in the mysteries was that of miles or " soldier." To this was due the introduction of the mysteries into the army, and the army was the principal of three methods by which Mithmism passed into the Roman world. The successive wars of the Romans in the East brought the

421	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Dlithra
Roman soldiers into ever renewed touch with this cult, and the first Christian century was the period of the energetic propaganda, though as early as 70 B.C. Mithraism was known to the Roman world. It must not be forgotten also, in accounting for the spread of the religion, that orientals formed very largely the personnel of the Roman army; and as thes6 forces were drafted td distant posts in Africa and Europe, even as far west as Scotland. the ardent faith of the initiates in the ranks and among the officers made each post the center of a new propaganda. The Roman roads and waterways were dotted with Mithraic sanctuaries, a fact attested by inscriptions and votive offerings Soli invido Mithrca, " to the sun, invincible Mithra," bearing the names of officers and soldiers. These are, as a rule, where they would be eapeqted‑on the outskirts of the empire, along the frontier. But the existence of mithreeeums in the great cities and centers of trade, Alexandria, Syracuse, Carthage, and Rome, point to a different agency for the propaganda; to these places the Syrian merchants brought their wares and their religion. Also in the rural districts the cult of Mithra flourished, and this points to a third agency. Rome in its wars captured slaves by the thousands, who were distributed to the hamlets and the mines. So thus post and city and village and mountain valley hymned their praises to Mithra. Moreover, the votaries entered the civil service of Rome, and. in their transfers carried their faith with them and as devoted missionaries established new centers. In the first Christian century there were at Rome associations of the followers of Mithra, probably organized as burial associations, in accordance with a common device of that period employed to acquire a legal status. The growth and importance of the cult in the second century are marked by the literary notics; Celaus opposed it to Christianity, Lucian made it the object of his wit. Nero desired to be initiated; Commodus (180‑192) was received into the brotherhood; in the third century the emperors had a Mithraic chaplain; Aurelian (270‑275) made the cult official; Diocletian, with Galerius and Licinius, in 307 dedicated a temple to Mithra; and Julian was a devotee. Indeed, the un‑Roman cult of the worship of the emperors is a direct reflection of the oriental cults in which the sun was the attendant and patron of the ruler.
The four elements, fire, water, earth, and airthe first and third typified by the lion and the serpent‑were deified and worshiped. So, too, the sun, moon and planets were objects of regard. Babylonian influence wove into Mithraism its theories of the control by each of the planets of one day in the week, and with each a metal ¢ Mythol‑ was associated, while the signs of the
ogy and zodiac, which take creation under their
	Theology.	influence, marked the devotions of the
		months in their turn. In the back
ground as the primal cause which created and gov
erned all things was Kronos, Unending Time, figured
as a lion‑headed human figure with four wings, sex
less and passionless, his legs and body in the em
brace (sometimes sixfold) of a serpent (representing
the motion of the sun in the ecliptic), the head of
which rested on his head. The figure carried a key, a scepter, and a torch, while the insignia of other deities (the thunderbolt of Zeus, the hammer and tongs of Hephasstus, the cock and cone of lEsculapius) were arranged about it to indicate that Kronos embodied the qualities of all the gods. He was fate, destiny, supreme cause, the ultimate creator. The dualism inherent in the parent religion continued its theoretic influence, leading to constant need for interposition by the savior, the part assumed by Mithra, who was called meaitfs, " mediator," first because he inhabited the air, midway between heaven and earth, on account of which the sixteenth of each month was sacred to him; and, second, because he was middleman between the ineffable, unknowable, and unapproachable god and the race of men. In many of the monuments of Mithraism appear two torch‑bearers, interpreted as the double incarnation of Mithra, with himself forming a triad or triple Mithra. One of these, with torch erect, symbolized the growing sun and life; Mithra himself, in the center, was the sun at noon and the vigor of life; the other torch‑bearer, with torch inverted, was the declining sun and death. Mithra himself is pictured in the mythology as born of the rock, and the sculptured representation of this event, common in the mithrseums, showed him issuing from the living rock with knife and torch in his hands. It was then his task to demonstrate his invincible strength, and his first trial was against the sun, whom he vanquished, then crowned with the rayed crown and made his faithful ally. His nest labor was with the bull, and this became the central point in the Mithraic myth, the portrayal of which furnished the set piece in Mithraic art which corresponds to the cross or the crucifix in Christian art. The bull was the first creature made by Ormuzd. It was caught and mastered after a severe struggle, and dragged by Mithra to his cave, whence it escaped. But Mithra was commanded to pursue and sacrifice it, which the pitying god reluctantly did; then from its body sprang all useful herbs, from its spinal marrow wheat, from its blood the grape which furnished the wine used in the mysteries, and from the seminal fluid all useful animals, while its soul became Silvanus, guardian of herds, also a great figure in the mysteries. Thus the death of the bull was the birth of life, and for this reason took its high place in the ceremonial and art of the Mithraic cultus. Meanwhile the first pair had been created and were put under the protection of Mithra. This was neoessary because Ahriman was assailing humanity; drought, flood, conflagration, pestilence, and other dangers were met and conquered by Mithra, and then his labors were ended, the conclusion of which was celebrated by a last supper, after which he retired to heaven, whence he still protects his worshipers.
But the battle between Ormuzd and Ahriman continues, so far as humanity is concerned. Life is a warfare, and to win, the faithful must ever obey the commands of Ormuzd. What the explicit commands were is not known, but that the Persian ethics persisted is clear. Purity was the end set before man, sensuality was to be avoided; lustrations

MUtbra
Moab	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	422
and ablutions were therefore frequent. Philosophic speculation was at a minimum, practical effort at a
premium. In this contest Mithm ever s. Anthro‑ helps the devout, ever conquers the pology, Es‑ powers of darkness, and on this acchatology. count he bears the Persian epithet na‑
barze, Gk. dnikfs, Lat. invidue, " viotorious." The psychology bf man is as follows: An infinite multitude of souls preexisted in the ethereal heavens, and these descend to inhabit the bodies of men. As they descend, they pass through the realms governed by the planets and receive from them certain qualities, the proportion of which determines the character of the man. Thus from Saturn was received the determining dispositions, from Jupiter ambition, from Venue sensual appetite, from Mercury other desires, from Mars combativeness, from the moon vital energy, and from the sun intellectual powers. At death judgment by Mithra decided the soul's fate. If it was to return to heaven, it was enabled by the savior Mithra to satisfy the guardian of the gate to each‑sphere, where it gave up the qualities received on its descent, and so passed to the eighth sphere to enjoy life with Mithra. It is almost certain that the dogma of the resurrection of the flesh was a later addition to the eschatology. The final consummation will be the destruction of the world, a wonderful bull like the pristine bull will appear, Mithra will descend, waken all men to life, separate the good and the bad, will sacrifice the bull and give the fat mixed with wine to the good and thus immortalize them, while a fire will consume the wicked, including Ahriman and his demons.
That the doctrine always remained pure is of course unlikely. The syncretism has been sufficiently indicated, and it is not unlikely that each district had its own coloring‑in Rome Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva were spoken of in the religion, while in Celtic regions Celtic deities appear in the Mithraic crypts. But while syncretism existed, Persian conceptions were the guiding principles.
The Mithraic liturgy is probably wholly lost, the Mithraic Ritual (London, 1907) ,issued by G. R. S. Mead being almost certainly Gnostic and not Mithraic. Indications are clear that at least part of the ritual was in Persian. There were seven degrees of
initiation, in which the mystic assumed 6. The the‑names successively of raven, grifMysteries. fin, soldier, lion, Persian, courier of the
sun, and father; on certain occasions a garb suggesting the name was put on and the actions of the bird or animal were simulated, in this way recalling the mimetic action common in the other mysteries of the period. The original number of degrees was probably only two‑raven and lion, the subsequent increase being due to development in doctrine, perhaps to a desire to increase the awe and mystery, and also to the sacredness of the number seven. The first three degrees were preparatory only, and did not admit to the mysteries proper. The real initiation was called sacra.. mentum, possibly from the oath not to divulge the doctrine and rites of which the initiate gained knowledge. The various steps were accompanied by ablutions and aspersions, signifying the purging away
of sins. It would seem that on attaining the rank of soldier, the candidate was branded with a hot iron. In the grade of lion, typical of fire, water, the enemy of fire, was not used, and purification was with honey. Those who had passed the grade of lion were called participants, because to them was administered a sacrament of bread and water or wine commemorative of Mithra's banquet after he had finished his labors. Participation in this was supposed to impart immortality. Before partaking, the initiate underwent severe trials, physical and mental, endured prolonged fasting, and had part in dramatic representations which ap. proached the terrible. Above these seven grad was a priesthood (sacerdos, artistes) which had charge of the ritual, conducted the threefold daily worship at morning, noon, and evening (toward the east, south, and west respectively), also the wooship of the planet which governed each day, and replenished the ever‑burning sacred fire. The sixteenth day of each month was a Mithraic festival, and Dec. 25 was probably a great feast. Initiations were probably at the vernal equinox. The sodalities were twofold, spiritual brotherhoods and legal associations. In the latter capacity they elected officials not spiritual in function, who conducted the secular and property affairs. The expenses were met by voluntary contributions, and the conduct of modern church life was anticipated in practically every respect in these directions. The progress of a mithra;um and its community from indigence to affluence is sometimes clearly marked in the change from a rude chapel to a costly temple. The communities of each temple must have been small, possibly not largely exceeding one hundred. Thus the conception of brotherhood was fostered, as also an intensity of loyalty which well accounts for the tenacity of the cult. Conditions inside, where all met on the ground of equality, furnished a strong contrast with the social conditions in the empire, where extremes so great were furnished between the masses and the class. Yet women were not admitted; Cunaont affirms that not a single inscription occurs out of the hundreds known which implies a female initiate or even one who made a gift. This deficiency may have been supplied by the quasi alliance with the cult of the Mater Magna, who in the West took the place of Anahita is the East; and under still other influences there was introduced the blood bath in which a bull was slain over a lattice and the blood was allowed to flow upon a person beneath. This was connected with the Mazdian belief, and was thought to effect the renewal of life to the soul.
The Mithraism of the barbaric world no doubt celebrated its mysteries in caves, and this memory was preserved in the fact that the mithrmum continued to be an underground structure, in a crypt so fitted up as to be susceptible of an illumination throwing into strong relief the cultic
7. Art and objects. The central representation Architeo‑ was the tauroctonous Mithra. The tune. torch‑bearers might guard the approach, the lion of Mithra was there, two altars, the lion‑headed Kronos, the zodiacal signe, the symbols of the different grades‑all these

423	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
were the adornments of the mithrteum, while the illumination was probably so arranged as to impress the neophyte during the initiation. Along the sides, at least in some came, were the benches at which the assistants knelt and played. In general, there is reason to suppose that as great differences existed between the Mithmic temples as between Christian churches, due to the resources, taste, and ambition of the communities which they served. The art of Mithraism is original neither in motif nor execution. The central figure of the tauroctonous Mithra goes back to a group by a sculptor df the school of Pergamon made in imitation of the saorificing Victory of the temple of Athena Nike, while the dying Alexander furnished the type of the Mithra of this group. In general, the figures used in the West were derived from the current types of GrecoRoman art; Kronos, however, in the main kept his Asiatic form, the ugly leontooephalous figure entwined with the serpent, though at least one example exists where the head and face are rendered human with a cold calm countenance, while, the lion's head is placed as a sort of medallion on the breast. In most cases the objects have little artistic value; by far the greater number of Mithraic objects known are either votive offerings‑crude and formless‑or such as were made to serve in the humble homes of the devotees in the same way as crucifixes now serve to fix at home the attention of devout Roman Catholics. But the Phrygian cap and robes bear witness still to the eastern origin and Asiatic content of the teaching. Cumont claims that Mithraic art influenced strongly Christian art, that Mithra shooting at the rock became Moses smiting the rock; the sun raising Mithra from the ocean became the ascension of Elijah in the chariot of fire; the tauroctonoua Mithra became Samson rending the lion; while the figures of heaven, earth, ocean, sun, moon, planets, the zodiacal signs, the winds, the seasons, and the like, found on Christian sarcophagi and in mosaics and miniatures are claimed by Cumont as adaptations of Mithraic models.
The decay of Mithraism was begun by the attack of the barbarians on the Roman empire, and naturally fell first where Mithraism was strongest, on the outposts. Diocletian favored the religion because it opposed Christianity. Under Constantine imperial favor was withdrawn, and
8. The Christianity demanded the repression
	Decay.	of the cult. A Roman panegyric of
		the year 362 says that under Conatan
tius no one dared to look at the rising or setting
sun, and that farmers and sailors were afraid to
observe the stars, and this very vividly suggests
not only active persecution of the Mithrajo rerg
ion, but also implies that those objects were re
garded with worship in the way which the cultic
objects suggests. Julian's short reign was a time
of favor to this cult, for that prince regarded. him
self as under the favor of Mithra and introduced
the practise of the worship at Constantinople.
When George, patriarch of Alexandria, was slain
by a mob roused to fury by his attempt to build
a church on the site of a ruined mithraum, the em
peror addressed a comparatively mild remonstrance
to the city. After Julian's death, the attack of
Christianity was definite and. furious. But the con
test was no local nor easy matter. Mithraism had
its temples from India to Scotland, its devotees in
families of senatorial rank, among the merchants,
in the ranks of laborers and slaves, and especially
in the military camps, and these devotees were in
spired with sincerity in worship, and were gov
erned to no small degree by a real nobility of teach
ing, and uplifted by the hope of immortality which
was a fundamental tenet of the cult. At times the
persecution was bloody, and the remains prove that
the priests were sometimes slain and their corpses
were buried in the mithrmums in order to desecrate
the site. A feeble period of revival took place under
Eugenius, but Theodosius ended the prospects of
the cult. 	GEO. W. GILMORH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The one book on the subject, gathering up what little is known both from patriotic and clafeieal authors and from art objects and excavations, is F. Cumont, Teatst 6t monuments fipurh relWs aux mysttres de Mithro, Brussels, 2 vols., 1898‑99. The conclusions and part of the discussion are available for readers of English in the Open Court, xvi (1902), pseeino4 cf. zvii (1903), and in F. Cumont, The Mysteries of Mithra, Chicago, 1903. Consult further: E. Ronan, Maro‑Aurde, pp. 579‑580, Paris, 188$ Eng. tranel., p. 332, London, n.d.; W. H. Rosoher, Lexikon der prischiechen uad r6misrhen Mytholopie, ii. 3028 eqq., Leipsic, 1898; S. Dill, Roman Society is Ore Last Century of the Western Respire, London, 1898; idem, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius, its. 1904; M. Bossuet, in Archie far Relipionnnisseasehaft, iv (1901). 100 eqq.; J. von Grill, Die persische Mysterienrelipion im r6mischea Reiche and das Christentum, Tabingen, 1903; J. G. Fraser, Adonis, Attie, Osiris, pp. 195 sqq., London, 1908; G. R. S. Mead, The Mysteries of Mithra, London, 1907; F. Paseauer, Die Saalburp and der Mithraskult, Frankfort, 1907. Magazine literature of some importance is indicated in Richardson, RucveMpediw P. 738.
MITER. See VE&TMHNTs AwD INszoNIA, EaCLEaIA8TICAI"
MISED MARRIAGES. See MARRIAGIL MOAB.
Geography and Topography (5 1). Cities (¢ 2).
History Prior to 586 s.c. (f 3). History after 586 B.C. (1 4).
Products, Culture, and Religion (f 5).
Relations between Moab and Israel (1 6).
Moab is the name of a people dwelling east of the Dead Sea and of the land which they inhabited, in Greek times called Moabitis. The modern Arabic name of the land north of Wadi Mojib is el‑Bel$a, of the part south of that wadi, Kerak. The western boundary is the Dead Sea, the :. Geogra‑ eastern is the desert; on the south ply and Wadi el‑Vaaa separates it from Edom. Topography. The northern boundary changed with the history of the people, but the Wadi Ijesban is probably the extreme northern limit. Moab is a high plateau, which continues eastward into the desert with little change of altitude. The western boundary is an abrupt line of cliffs, with a somewhat broad shore at their foot in the south which grows narrower toward the north until the cliffs rise directly from the water. At the mouths of the Wadi bani Hammed and Wadi Kerak a tongue‑shaped sandy peninsula stretches out into the Dead Sea and bears the name al=Liaas, "the Tongue." The geological formation of the region is at the base Nubian sandstone, covered with

Moab	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	424
hard limestone on which rests a softer limestone. In various places there are outcroppings of basalt which has broken through the limestone, often accompanied with hot springs. The altitude of the plain is 2,500‑3,800 feet. The region presents evidences of having been the seat of great convulsions which have made deep rents in its surface. Especially important are the three great wadis, generally beginning in slight depressions in the eastern part of the land, but rapidly sinking into deep but narrow chasms debouching into the Dead Sea. These are: (1) the Wadi Kerak on the south (the Zared of Num. xxi. 12, the Zered of Deut. ii. 13), called the Wadi Ain Franji in its upper course. (2) The Wadi al‑Mojib (the Arnon of the Old Testament), formed by the union of several tributaries (cf. " the brooks of the Amon," Num. xxi. 14), the chief of which, Rash Mojib, rises not far from Kerak and in its northerly course becomes the Wadi Lejjun, later uniting with the WAdi al‑Sultan, Wadi Bahia, Wadi Saida, and finally with the Wadi Heidan. The third great valley is Wadi Zer$a Main, known in the time of Josephus as the Kallirrhoe. An hour from its mouth is the celebrated hot sulphur spring visited by Herod the Great. Besides the three great wadis, a number of smaller ones issue from the western portion of the plain. The northeastern part of the region forms a rolling plain called in the Hebrew mishor (Deut. iii. 10, iv. 43). Southwest from Hesban rises a range of hills, the western sides of which form the abrupt drop to the coast beneath, the extreme projection being Rash Siyaja. To the east is a hill still called Neba, and the Nebo of Deut. kxxiv. 1 should be sought either in this or in Rash Siyaja, both of which afford an extensive view to the west and north. Pisgah (Num. xxi. 20), a name in use as late as the time of Eusebius, seems to mean a definite region in the northwestern part of Moab. Peor (Num. xxiii. 28) was not far distant, possibly the present al‑Mushat)far. The fortress Machaerus is recalled by the hill Mkaur, the " mount of the valley " of Josh. xiii. 19. Kerak is a fortress on a mountain lying entirely within Wadi Kerak. The plateau is almost treeless, yet the soil is rich and suitable for pasturage or agriculture, especially the region south of Kerak, and many springs are found. A semi‑tropical vegetation clothes the wadis as they approach the sea. The sheep is the animal most kept by the present as by the early inhabitants. Wild animals are the bear, wolf, and rock badger, on the steppe the gazelle and ostrich, while of rodents the rat is especially abundant. The streams abound in fish. The range of temperature is great, the summer heat being excessive and the winter being cold.
The Old Testament and the Moabite Stone (q.v.) mention a great number of Moabitic cities. Many ruins are to be seen, but the most of them point to Roman occupation. Beth‑jeshimoth (Ezek, xxv. 9) is located at Suweme; neither Beth‑peor nor
Sibma (Isa. xvi. 8) have been identi. z. Cities. fled; Elealeh is located at El‑`al, east
of upper Wadi Hesban; to the south of this is Heshbon (Isa. xv. 4), which still retains its name Hesban; if Neba is the Biblical Nebo, the
city of that name must be sought in one of the numerous masses of ruins discovered there; southeast from Neba are the ruins of Madeba, the Medeba (q.v.) of Isa. xv. 2, where ruins of several churches exist and an inscription of the year 362 was found; southwest of this the name Main recalls the Baalmeon of Ezek. xxv. 9, and of the Moabite Stone. Between Wadi Zerka Main and Wadi Wale are ruins on Mt. Attarus which mark the site of the old `Ataroth of the Moabite Stone; Kureyat, to the south, locates the Kiriathaim of Gen. xiv. 5 (R. V. margin); to the west is a tower with a cistern which marks the celebrated fortress of Machairus, near which must be sought Zereth‑shahar (Josh. xiii. 19). Between Wadi Wale and Wadi al‑Mojib is Dhiban, where the Moabite Stone was found; the excavation of this site is very desirable, since it indicates the Biblical Dibon (Jer. xlviii. 18); to the north al‑Jumeil is provisionally identified with Beth gamul of Jer. xlviii. 23); Ara'ir, on the north side of Wadi el‑Mojib, suggests the Aroer of Jer. xlvig. 19. Along the main road from the Arnon are the important ruins of Rabbath Moab, named by Eusebius. Kir‑hareseth (Isa. xvi. 7) is probably to be sought in Kerak (compare, however, the " Kir of Moab " of Isa. xv. 1). Eastward from Rabba there are many ruins dating from the Roman period. Southeast from the Dead Sea is to be sought Zoar (Isa. xv. 5). Many other places are named in the Old Testament and on the Moabite Stone the locations of which are not yet found.
The many dolmens and cromlechs point back to a very early period in the history of the land, but no certain knowledge exists of the early population. The Old Testament speaks of the Emim as early inhabitants (Gem. xiv. 5) whom the Moab‑
ites superseded. Gen. xix. 30 sqq. 3, History preserves a tradition which represents
Prior to a historical fact, namely, the close 586 B.C. relationship of both Moabitea and Am‑
monites to the Hebrews, though the history of the wandering in the desert implies that the Moabites were already settled when the Hebrews came upon them, but had lost the territory north of the Amon to the Amorites, who had established there a rich kingdom. The Hebrews were at first regarded as friends by the Moabites, but after the former had retained the district conquered from the Ammonites, this sentiment changed. Of the settlement of Gadites and Reubenites in the region two accounts exist, not entirely concordant (Num. xxxii. 34‑36; Josh. xiii. 15). Various aocounts in the history of Israel, such as the episode of Ehud (Judges iii.), of Jephtha (Judges xi.), and of Saul (I Sam. xiv. 47), imply vigorous contests between the two peoples, though the details are obscure. David's war against Moab (II Sam. viii. 2) is historical, though Moab had been a refuge for his family in his time of distress (I Sam. xxii. 3‑4). The Book of Ruth can hardly be regarded as a basis for historical conclusions, especially since the passage in Samuel says nothing of relationship with the Moabites. Moab was not made a province of David's kingdom, but tribute was required. Moab's subjection to Israel ceased either under Solomon or under his successor until the time of

426	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	8oab
Omri, when the northern kingdom began to reconquer the territory north of the Arnon, and the Moabite Stone tells of the progressive success of Israel until the time of Mesha, who recovered his territory with considerable losses to the Hebrews (cf. II Kings i. 1, iii. 5). The story is told in II Kings iii. of a new attempt to subject Moab made by Jehoram of Israel and Jehoshaphat of Judah, which was brought to an end by the sacrifice of the Moabitic king's eldest son upon the walls of the stronghold into which the Moabites had retreated, this bringing about the retirement of the allied forces, though the exact way in which this operated is not told (cf. MOLOCH, MNr.NCa, 1 7). It is debated whether II Chron. xx. details an independent event or is a restatement of II Kings iii. II Kings xiv. 25 (cf. Amos vi. 14) does not necessitate the renewal of Israel's hegemony over Moab, and Amos ii. 1 implies the independence of Moab. During the Assyrian period Moab figures in the cuneiform inscriptions, sometimes as bringing tribute to the Assyrians (so in the time of Tiglath‑Pileser III.), as contributing to the materials being gathered for the erection of Assyrian palaces (so under Esarhaddon), as joining in combinations against the Assyrian power (as under Sargon), at another time as relying upon Assyrian help to repulse the attacks of nomadic Arabs. The hostility of Moab to Judah is stated in II Kings xxiv. 2; Jer. xxvii. 2 involves projected common action by Moab, Ammon, Phenicia, and Judah against the Babylonians; Ezek. xxv. 8 suggests national hostility against Judah on the part of Moab, though Jer. xl. 11 involves that in Moab fugitives from Judah found refuge.
In postexilic times little is heard of the Moabites. Among the foreign wives of ‑the people whose children did not speak pure Hebrew Moabites are mentioned (Neh. xiii. 23; of. Ezra ix. 1‑2), though whether Nehemiah's foe Sanballat was a Moabite
is not satisfactorily made out. Quiet 4. History possession by the Moabites of their after land was disturbed by the Nabatman
586 B.C. migration in the period between Ne‑
hemiah and the Maccabean rising. By the time of Josephus the occupation by the Nabar taeans of the territory of Moab and the whole district across the Jordan was so complete that he regarded Moabites and Gileadites as Arabs, and cities once deemed Moabitic were said to be in Arabia. A Nabatman kingdom was founded with capital at Petra, and to this the greater part of the territory east of the Jordan was subject. No important conclusions can be drawn from Dan. xi. 41 or Ps. lxxxiii. 6, since these passages employ the old prophetic terminology. John Hyroanus appears as the friend of the Nabataeans and as the foe of " children of Bwan " and " children of Jambri " (I Mace. v. 4‑5, ix. 35 sqq.), and this shows a disintegration of the old national forces in the region. Alexander Jannsaus fought against the Nabateeans and took the old Moabitic fortresses of Medeba, Horonaim, Eglaim and Soar, also Heshbon, which by this time was a Hellenistic city. Nabataean kings contemporary with Alexander were Obodas I. and Rabilos I., both of whom fought Antiochus Dionysius of Antioch. Hyrcanus, son of Alexander,
promised to restore to the Nabatioan Aretas I., the cities captured by Alexander, but Heshbon must have remained Judaic, since it belonged to Herod the Great. The district of Moabitis, with the Arnon as the northern boundary, remained in the possession of the Nabatseans till their rule was overthrown in 106 A.D., when it became a part of the province of Arabia. Later it belonged to Palmatina tertia. Under Roman rule the land must have become quite populous, as is attested by the large number of Roman ruins and the remains of Roman roads. Christianity entered later, and among the ruins are those of a considerable number of churches. The first assault of the Mohammedans upon the region was repulsed, but soon after Mohammed's death the old land of Moab became Mohammedan territory. See NABATAANB.
	The beginnings of Moabitic nationai life were
doubtless not unlike those of their neighbors across
the Jordan. The people came in from the desert
and settled and developed in general along lines
like the Hebrews. One important difference, how
		ever, was that the latter were shielded
	g. Prod‑	from the inroads of Arabs, to which
	ucts, Cul‑	the Moabites were constantly exposed.
	ture, and	The history of the land reflects this
	Religion.	condition, since there were recurrent
		periods when it sank into the position
of the resort of Bedouins. On the other hand, the
native productivity of the soil made it natural to
develop a settled population and the culture which
goes with it. The Moabite Stone and II Kings iii.
4 imply rich results from pasturage, and this is
corroborated by the reports of Doughty in modern
times; II Kings iii. 25 and Ezek. xxvii. 17 involve
also abundant returns from agricultural pursuits;
similarly Isa. xvi. 8 implies a celebrated wine as
one of the products. Though small in extent, the
land must have had a considerable population.
This fact is corroborated by the large number of
cities mentioned as Moabitic in the Old Testament.
The existence of the Moabitic Stone is rich in im
plications respecting the cultural development of
the people. The art of writing must have been ad
vanced before they could use a material so refractory
as basalt, and culture sufficient to permit the read
ing of it by at least a part of the people is also a
postulate. Moabites knew well how to build for
tresses; commerce was cared for, and provision
made for water supply. Light is thrown upon the
religion both by the Old Testament and the Moab
ite Stone. The chief deity of the land was Chem
osh (q.v.), and the Moabites ascribed to his anger
with his people their subjection to the Israelites.
He was a war deity, before whose altar the foes
were slain. He had high places in at least two
cities, and Mesha's language in the Moabite Stone
involves also an oracle which was consulted. The
inscription speaks also of a deity who must have
been feminine (the form corresponds to Ashtar or
Ishtar) whose character must have been similar to
that of Chemosh. A Baal‑peor, " Lord of Peor,"
is mentioned (Num. xxv. 1‑5), who may have been
identical with Chemosh or with some other deity.
The name of Nebo attached to a mountain in Moab
itic territory involves also the cult of that deity

Xo&b	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	426
in this region. All that is known of the Moabitio religion implies that it did not rise above the usual nature religion of the Semites, but the inscription mentions an braelitic sanctuary in the land in the shape of an 'Argil (cf. Ezek. x1iii. 15, margin).
The Old Testament concerns itself not only with the relations between Israel and Moab, but it deals also with the attitude of Moat in universal ethics. Amos condemned Moab for its breaches of the common laws of morality. On the‑other hand, lea. xv.‑
xvi., xxv. 9‑12; Jer. xlviii.; Zeph. 6. Relations ii. 8‑9 speak from a national point of between view, though the date of .these pieces Moab and is not entirely settled. That the attiIsraeL tude toward the Mo,bites in the Old
	Testament is not uniformly hostile is
shown by the fact that David had a Moabite in his
train (I Chron. xi. 46). The background of Deut.
xxiii. 4 is intense hostility toward the Moabites,
since admission of a Moabite to the congregation is
forbidden to the tenth generation (cf. Neh. xiii. 1),
while the Edomites and Egyptians of the third gen
eration are admitted. On the other hand, the
whole atmosphere of the book of Ruth is one of
kindly complaisance toward Moabites‑a book
which may have been written late. The general
attitude of the Chronicler is unfriendly (II Chron.
xx., xxiv. 26). Rabbi Joshua is reported as pro
nouncing favorably upon the admission of an Am
monitic proselyte on the ground that the Ammon
ites had long ceased to exist, a fact which applies
equally to the Moabites. 	(F. BUHL.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Honord T. P. J. d'Albert, Duke de Luynes, voyage d'eaploration a la mer ,none, a Petra, i. 23‑182, ii. 81‑140, iii. passim, 3 vols., Paris, 1871‑78; C. Ritter, Comparative Geography of Palestine, ii. 148‑188, Edinburgh, 1888; H. B. Tristram, Land of Moab, New York, 1873; $. Merrill, East of the Jordan, ib. 1881; C. R. Conder, Heth and Moab, London, 1883; C. M. Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserts, i. 18‑127, ib. 1888; PEF, Surrey of Eastern Palestine, Memoirs, vol. i., ib. 1889; F. Buhl, Oeopraphie des aiten Paldstina, Tiibingen, 1898; G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, ahap. xavi., London, 1897; C. Clermont.Ganneau, Recneil d1archMopie orientale, ii. 185‑234, Paris. 1898; L. Gautier, Autour de la ma morte, pp. 48‑122, Geneva, 1901; R. E. Brannow and A. Domassewski, Die Prosincia Arabia, i. 1‑110, Strasburg, 1904; Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, parts xxvi.
xxvii., Paris, 1905‑08; A. Musil, Arabia petrasaa, i., Moab,
Vienna, 1907; G. Delman, Petra And seine Fdsheilipto
tner, Leipsie, 1908; PEF, Quarterly Statement 1871, pp.
40‑73 (by E. Palmer), 1895, pp. 203‑235, 332‑373 (by
E. Bliss), 1898, pp. 24‑47 (by G. Hill); ZDPY, ii. 2
(1879), 1‑12 (by Schick), pp. 124 sqq. (by Mein), pp.
201 sqq. (by Kereten), xvi (1893), 162 sqq. (by Schu
mwhw); DB, iii. 402 113; EB, iii. 3188‑3179.

MOABITE STORE, THE: A slab of black basalt containing an inscription in the Mosbitic language by Mesha, king of Moab, who is probably the Mesha of II Kings iii. 4. It was discovered at Dhiban, the ancient Dibon (Nam. xxi. 30), by F. A. Klein, a German missionary, in 1868. Attempts were made by the discoverer to secure it for the Berlin Museum, and at the same time by C. Clermont‑Gannesu, then of the French consulate in Jerusalem, for the Louvre. This rivalry of interests made the Arabs suppose the stone to be of very great value, while the interposition of the Turkish authorities led them to fear its entire loss. They therefore broke it into fragments. Fortunately a squeeze
had been obtained by Clermont‑Ganneau through a friendly Arab, so that when piecemeal large fragments were recovered, the reconstruction was made possible and nearly all of the inscription was in the possession of scholars, two‑thirds of it on the reconstructed stone. The slab is forty‑four and a half inches high, twenty‑seven and a half inches wide, and thirteen and three‑quarter inches thick, and contains thirty‑four lines of writing. The indistinetness and strangeness of form of some of the characters, and the lacuna, especially in the last lines, at first caused differences of rendering of the inscription. But the researches of Smend, Socin, Clermont‑Ganneau, Nordlander, Holzinger, and Lidebarski (see below, the bibliography) have resulted in practical agreement in the reading and meaning of the entire teat.
The stele records the thanks of the king to the Moabite deity Chemosh, who had helped him against his enemies, so that he had extended and strengthened his kingdom. In return, Mesha had built " this sanctuary," i.e., where the stone was erected. He seized the occasion to tell what he had done in peace and war for his people. Among the foes of Moab he named Omri of Israel, and referred to Omri's son and sueceseor, his own contemporary, Omri having oppressed Moab because Chemosh was angry, and his son having vainly desired to do so. Mesha recovered Medeba, for forty years in Israel's possession, took Ataroth where the Gadites had dwelt and destroyed the population as a " speotacle " for Chemosh and Moab, and settled other people there, while the altar‑hearth (?) he placed in the sanctuary in Kerioth. He also took Nebo from Israel, destroying all its population and removing the Yahweh altar to Chemosh's sanctuary. He captured Jahaz and Horonayin and added them to his realm. He restored and fortified a number of cities, especially the chief city Dibon, and took thought for the water supply.
The stone affords a glance at the political and religious conditions in Moab and shows the national expansion under this vigorous king. The chief interest is in the relations between Moab and Israel, though it is not easy to bring the inscription and the Old Testament into harmony. Of Omri's conquest of Moat the Bible says nothing (cf. I Kings xvi. 27), though II Kings i. 1, iii. 4‑5 records a rebellion of Mesha after Ahab's death, in consequence of which Jehoram of Israel and Jehoshaphat of Judah undertook a campaign which succeeded until the besieged Moabite king offered up his eldest son, in consequence of which the allies abandoned the war (II Kings iii.). The silence of the inscription as to this episode and the reference to Omri's son make it probable that Mesha's rebellion and the events he narrates took place in Ahab's reign and not after his death, and so far appear to correct the Biblical narrative. The stone also introduces chronological difficulties, since it implies that Omri's reign and half of Ahab's made up forty years, while the Biblical account would make this only twentythree. Possibly Mesh& ignored the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah, which would make the Biblical and Mesha's accounts approximately the same; but the inscription itself seems against this solution. On

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Mosb
Xoberly
the other hand, the stone implies a long activity. Not only are important wars but considerable building activities referred to. It is possible, therefore, that the period of the inscription is that of Jehu's reign, after he had overthrown the dynasty of Omri, when Israel (the house of Omri) might seem to have " perished for ever " (line 7 of the inscription).
The inscription has great value for the history of Semitic writing, orthography, and linguistics. The characters are like the Phenician and early Hebrew, but more archaic in form. In the written form the Moabitic language was essentially the same as the Hebrew, though the vocalization might have been different. Numerous verbal and syntactical agreements between the two languages appear. On the other hand there are variations which appear dialectal in character, covering vocabulary, accidence, and syntax. The orthography is nearer to the Hebrew than to the Phenician, but is more archaic. (F. BUHL.)
A translation of the inscription follows; the figures on the left refer to the lines of the inscription:
1. I am Mesha, son of Kemoeh . . . , king of Moab, the D
2. sibonite. My father was king over Moab thirty years, and I reign
3. ad after my father and made this high place for Kemosh in $4h for . . .
4. . . . , for he saved me from all the (k)ings (?) and because he made me to see (my desire) on all who hated me. Omr
5. i was king of Israel and &Meted Moab many days, for Kemosh was (a)ngry with his la
6. nd. And his son succeeded him, and he too said: I will afict Moab, in my days he said (it) . . .
7. But I saw (my desire) on him and his house, and Israel surely perished for ever. And Omri seized . . .
8. . . . . Mehedeba and inhabited it (his?) day . . . and half his son's days, forty years) .
9. it Kemo®h in my days. And I built Ba'al,‑Me'on, and made in it the (reservoir?) and . .
10. Virysthen. And the men of Gad had inhabited the land of . . . th from of old, and for himself had built the king of
11. ersel 'Ataroth. And I fought against the city and took it, and I slew all the . . .
12. city, a spectacle for Kemosh and for Moab. And I brought back thence the altar‑hearth of Dudh and [it] I (dr)
13. agged (?) before Kemosh in *eryoth, and I caused to dwell there the men of Shrn and the m . . .
14. (of) Mbrt. And Hennosh said to me: Go, take Nebo against Israel, and .
15. Went by night and fought against it from break of dawn till noon, and I . . . (to)
16. ok it and slew all . . . , seven thousand . . . . and women, and .
17. and maid servants, for to Ashtor‑Kemosh had I devoted it. And I took thence . . .
18. of Yahweh and dragged them before Ramesh. And the king of Israel had built . . .
19. Yahaa and inhabited it while he warred with me. But Xemosh drove him out before . . .
20. I took from Moab 200 men, all chiefs, and led them up against ~rhsa and took it
21. to add to ~aibon. I built $rA the wall of Yearim [i.e., Jearim] and the wall of
22. the Mound. And I built its gates and I built its towers, and I
23. built the house of the king, and I made the two reeer(voirs [?] tow)ers (?) in the mid(et)
24. of the city. And there was no cistern in the midst of the city in $rbbh, .so I said to all the people: Make . . .
25. for you each man a cistern in his house. And I out the cutting of $rhh, with the help of prisoners)
26 . . . . Israel. And I built 'Aro'er and I made the highway by the Arn(on),
27. and I built Beth‑Bamoth, for it was pulled down. And I built Briar, for . . .
28 . . . . of Daibon were fifty. for all Daibon was obedient. And I reig(ned)
29 . . . . a hundred in the cities which I added to the land. And I built)
30 . . . . b. . . a and Beth‑Diblathen and Beth‑Ba'alMe'on and took there the . .
31. . . . sheep of the land. And Voronen‑there dwelt therein .
32. . . Kemoah said to me: Go down, fight with Voro‑

nen; so I we(at down) . • 33. . . . Kemosh . . . it in my days. And I we(at up?)
thence . . .
34....andI...
BraLIoGnAP8y: C. Clermont‑Ganneau, La Stile du Dhiban,
	Paris, 1870; idem. Revue archdolopiqus, 1870, pp. 184
	eqq., 357 eqq.; idem, Revue critique, 1875, pp• 166 eqq.;
	idem, La $Ole de Mlea, Paris, 1887. of. JA, 8 ser., ix
	(1887), 72 aqq.; T. N51deke, Die Iaschrift des %6nipe
	Mesa, Kiel, 1870; F. Hitsig, Die Awhrift des Media, Hei
	delberg, 1870; Petermann, in ZDMG, 1870, pp. 840 aqq.;
R. Smend and A. Soein, Die Inschrift des K6nips Mesa, Freiburg, 1836; E. Rdnan, in Journal des savant, 1887; S. R. Driver, Hebrew Text of . . Samuel, pp. lxxxv. sqq., London, 1890; A. Nordlander, Die Inschrift des %onios Mesa, Leipsic, 1896; A. Socin and H. Holzinger, in Berichte der aadsiachsn Gesellerhaft der WiasenacWR 1897; M. Lidsbaraki, in Handbuch der nordsemitiachea Epipraphik, i (1898), 103‑104, 415‑416; idem, in Ephemeris ffir semitischw Epigraphik, i (1900), 1 aqq. (Lidsbarski's researches are practically conclusive); Ha14vy, in Revue s6mitique, viii (1900), 236 aqq., 289 eqq•, ix (1901), 297 eqq.; J. Lagrange, in Revue biblique, x (1901), 522 eqq.; A. Loewy, Critical Examination of as . . . Moabite Inscription, London, 1903 (attacks the genuineness); F. Vigouroux, Dictionnaire de la Bible, part xxvi (1905), 1014‑21, xxvii (1906), 1168‑69; DD, iii. 403‑408; BB, iii. 3040‑48; JR, viii. 634‑636; and the pertinent sections in the later works on the history of Israel.

MOBERLY9 GEORGE: Church of England bishop; b. in St. Petersburg Oct 10, 1803; d. at Salisbury July 6, 1885. Studied at Winchester and Balliol colleges, Oxford (B.A., 1825; fellow, 1826; M.A., 1828; D.C.L., 1836). He was select preacher before the university in 1833, 1858, and 1863, and Bampton lecturer in 1868; was public examiner in 1830, 1833,.1834, and 1835; as a tutor he had Manning and Tait as pupils; he vacated his fellowship 1834; was appointed head‑master of Winchester 1835; became rector of Brightstone, Isle of Wight, in 1868, and a canon of Chester Cathedral in the same year; and was appointed bishop of Salisbury by Gladstone 1869. His sympathies were with the High‑church party. In 1872 he appealed to churchmen to consent to an omission of the damnatory clauses from the Athanasian Creed, and in 1877 spoke strongly against the use of the confessional, especially in schools. Hewasthesuthorof: Practical Sermons (London, 1838); Sermons Preached at Winchester College (two series, 1844, 1848); The Sayings of the Great Forty Days between the Resurrection and Ascension, Regarded as the Outlines of the Kingdom of God (five sermons; 1844); All Saints, Kings and Priests (two sermons; Winchester, 1850); The Law of the Love of God, an Essay on the Commandments of the First Table of the Decalogue (Winchester, 1854); Sermons on the Beatitudes, with Others mostly Preached before the university of Oxford, with Preface Relating to a Recent Volume of " Essays and Reviews " (London, 1860); Five Short Letters to Sir W. Heathcote can Studies arid Discipline of Public Schools (1861); The Administration of the Holy Spirit in the Body of Christ (Bampton lectures; Oxford, 1868); The Bright‑

Xoshler	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	428
atone Sermons (London, 1889). He was one of the "five clergymen " (Henry Alford, G. Moberly, John Barrow, Charles J. Ellicott, and William G. Humphry),who published a revised version of John, Romans, Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians and Colossians (London, 1857, 1858, and 1881).
Bisixocsssrat: DNB, mviii. 8788.
MODALISM: The doctrine, first set forth by Sabellius, that the Father, the Bon, and the Holy Spirit were not three distinct personalities, but only three different modes of manifestation. See ANTITRINITARIANH3M; CHRISTOLOOY; MONARCBIANIBM; SAHELLIANIBM; Bad TRINITY.

MODERATES: The name given to a party in the Established Church of Scotland during the eighteenth century, because of its alleged laxity in dootrine. Their principal members were Hugh Blair and William Robertson (qq.v.). In general they preached morals rather than doctrines. Opposition to them resulted in the formation of the Secession and Relief Synods, and finally in the Free Church. See PRESBYTERIANS, I.
MODERATOR: The title given to the presiding officer of Presbyterian courts (session, presbytery, synod, general assembly). Perpetual moderators for presbyteries were proposed at the introduction of episcopacy into Scotland.

MODERNISM: The name applied to a movement loosely defined but widely extended in the Roman communion, intended, as the name indicates, to bring that communion into contact with methods of thought as developed chiefly by modern philosophic and critical scholarship. The word "modernist " first appears in English in Dean Swift's writings. In its Latin form it was used in late scholastic writers. Contrasted with the other nineteenth‑century anti‑official movements in Roman communion, it has two characteristic marks: (1) It is international. This can not be said of either Guntherism or Herrmanism, both of which are markedly German. Its international character is much more striking than was the case in the Old‑Catholic movement (see OLD CATHOLICS). Modernism has representatives in America, England, France, Italy, Germany, and even in Spain. (2) It is especially difficult to summarize in a series of principles abstractly stated the standpoint of the modernistic school. When Pope Pius X. did this in his encyclical and syllabus of 1907, the modernists united in protesting that not only were they misrepresented by these particular propositions supposed to have been extracted from their writings, but they were equally unanimous in objecting that no such series of formulas could adequately represent what they stood for. The modernist movement may therefore be said to represent a temperaments) or intellectual attitude rather than a series of propositions. It is plain that the opposition between the modernists and the official position of theRomanChurch was made acute by the attempt of Pins X. to carry out concretely and in detail the principle theoretically set forth by Leo XIII. when he laid down the philosophic and theo‑
logical system of St. Thomas. Aquinas as the norm of church teaching. This direction had been disregarded in practise by many Roman Catholic professors in Italy, France, and Germany. Reviews, dissertations, and books were published, all showing that the scholastic system was being quietly passed over and relegated to the background. Roman Catholic scholars were using in their investigations the methods of research followed by. modern scholarship in general. In addition to the introduction of modern systems of philosophy and theology, many Roman Catholics, were devoting themselves to Biblical criticism along non‑traditional lines. In both these respects, the antagonism between the new methods and new teaching and the traditions of the Roman system on its intellectual aide became acute. Loisy (q.v.), the most eminent of French Biblical critics, who is his methods practically agreed with Wellbausen, Schmiedel, and Vas Manen, was excommunicated. The papal encyclical is largely directed against his position. For in addition to being a critic, Loisy also in several works attempted a synthesis dealing with the history of dogma and the principles of religious psychology. The case of Father Tyrrell (q.v.), a member of the Jesuit order, who was unquestionably the leader of the modernistic movement in England, is somewhat different, for his variation from the official teaching can not be so definitely determined as is the case of Loisy. Father Tyrrell's books, published with the official sanction, were of a popular religious character, and although they were obviously incompatible with the strict scholastic system, they were published with the official sanction of the church authorities, and the immediate cause of the excommunication of Father Tyrrell was a personal letter, afterward printed under the title of The much Abused Letter, written to an Italian professor to urge him to remain in the Roman communion even if many items in the teaching and practise of the Church seemed contrary to his convictions and distasteful to his feelings. It was plain here that Father Tyrrell's point of view was not that of his correspondent; apparently, therefore, Tyrrell's condemnation was brought upon him because he spoke in s slighting way of the administration of the Church, and failed to hold that scholasticism was absolutely involved in the Roman Catholic system of belief. It has been noted that Father Minocchi, the Italian Biblical scholar, was admonished because he ventured in the field of Biblical criticism to speak of the mythical character of the narrative in the first chapters of Genesis. Indeed, in the recant campaign against modernism it has often been hard to decide exactly upon what principle the official condemnations were made. Individual priests were disciplined in France and Italy, after the papal encyclical had been published, who were not known to have written or spoken anything resembling the tenets condemned in the papal documents. The leaders of the Christian Democratic movement in France and Italy have been especially singled out for this treatment. There is apparently a kind of unofficial political and social modernism as distasteful to the authorities at Rome as the critical and philosophical type. Papal pronounce‑

429	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
meats have taken no account specifically of this development, but the social modernist appears to be in an even more precarious position than the philosophical modernists. Laberthonniere who, as the editor of the Annuals do la ph4oaophie chr&enne, has been especially active in substituting a newly modeled Christian system of philosophy in place of scholasticism, and his review, though it has been a clearing‑house for many French modernistic writers, has escaped excommunication. But several of the French clergy who edited Christian Democratic newspapers favorable to the republic and loyally accepting disestablishment have been disciplined.
Modernism has had few victims in Germany and Austria, not because the movement has not many sympathizers there, but largely because the critics of the traditional system of the Roman Catholic Church are professors in Roman Catholic universities where they have the protection of the State. There have been some cases of attempted interference on the part of the authorities at Rome, but it appears as if the Roman Catholic bishops in Germany are buffers between the scholars of the Church and those Roman Catholics who have professorial chairs. The Roman Catholics in Germany have been more stirred by the case of Hermann Schell (q.v.), a Roman Catholic professor at Wamburg, who was disciplined from Rome because of his non‑acholastie system of theology; but his case occurred several years before the encyclical was published and before the modernistic agitation commenced. Indeed, the genesis of the present policy of the Roman Church may be studied in these separate cases of official condemnation, some going back almost ten years, where what is now called modernism is foreshadowed vaguely both as regards the teaching held and the condemnations issued from Rome. In this connection there deserve to be mentioned the condemnation of Father Zahm, an American Roman Catholic professor, who was excommunicated because of his reinterpretation of several theoretical dogmas in the light of modern evolutionary science; the condemnation of Father Duggan, the English Roman Catholic parish priest who published a widely circulated work on the reunion of Christendom ten years ago; and the long discussion over the condemnation of the so‑called Americanism in the Roman Church, which grew out of the biography of Father Hecker, which was translated into French and has had a wide influence on the French school of modernism. See Uvraw‑
soNTnvlss. 	W. L. B>aveN.

Bxsxaooasrar: The encyclical of Pius %„ Latin and English, is in Am. Cath.,Quarferly Review, Oct, 1907; std English in Programme Modernism, below; s defense of the socyclical by Canon J. Moyes is in The Nineteenth Century, Des., 1907. An excellent and informins brochure, by L. H. Jordan, Modernism in Italy; its Origin, its Incentive, its Leaders and its Aims, Oxford and New York, 1909, is broader than its title indicates end besides is invaluable for its bibliography. Consult: What we Want. An open Letter to Plus Y. from a Group of Priests. Tronal. from the Italian . . by d . L. LiUay, London, 1907: E. Barbier, Lee Danwerates ehrf<tiess et le modernisme. Mi.",* docamantaire, Patio, 1908; R. H. Benson, Lord of the World, New York, 1908 (pictures the downfall of modernism and the return of Christendom to the pope," the lord of the world "); Berliner internationals WochaxucArijt, Nov, 1907‑Fab., 19M (a
symposium): J. Oodryes, The Doctrine of Modernism and its Refutation, Philadelphia, 1908: P. Kneib, Wesen and Bcdeutunp der Bnsyklika paoen den Modemismua, Mains, 1908; J. Lebreton, L'Eneyeiique et la thEoIopie modeneiste, Paris, 1908; E. T. O'Dwyer, Cardinal Newman and the Encyclical Paacesdi Domini pngie, New York 1908; The Programme of Modernism: a Reply to do Encyclical 0,1 Plus %. with the Teal of do Encyclical in an Enpliall Version, tmns& from do Italian by Father 0. Tyrrell, with Introduction by A. L. Lillcy, New York, 1908; H. B. 8wete, in The Guardia". Jan. 28, 1908; C. Besuredon, Ls Maderniams, ou lea bases do la foi, Paris. 1908; J. Houodeau, Prapmatiame et modernieme, ib. 1908; P. Kneib, Weaen and Bedeutunp der Ensyklika ge7en don Efoderniamue. Mains, 1908: K. Babel, (3exAiehte den kothdiscAew Efodernismna in Amerika, Deutschland, England, Fmnkraich, and Italian, Tiibingen, 1908; A. L. Lilly, Modernism; a Record and a Review, New York, 1908; P. 8abatier, Modernism. London. 1908: idem. Lea bfoderniates. Notes d'hiat. religieuse contemporaine, Paris. 1909: Delmont„ modernism e6 modernsMes en Italic, en Allarnapns, on Anpdderre, et an France, xb. 1909; Msumue. Lee Modsr• nixes. ib. 1909: O. Weill, Hidoire du catholieiame lib" an Franca, ib. 1909.
	MODESTUS: Anti‑Gnostic writer. According
to Eueebius (Hilt. seer., IV., w., of. xxi.), an
otherwise unknown Modestus, contemporary of
Philip of Gortyna end Irenesus, wrote an impress
ive, but no longer extant, tract against Mareion.
Jerome (De roer. ill., iii.) refers to other syntsg
mats by Modestus, which " are regarded as spuri
ous by the learned." The source of this intelligence
is no longer ascertainable. 	G. Badana.
	MOEHLER, mv'ler, JOHANN ADAM: Roman
Catholic historian; b. at Igersheim (37 m, s.s.w.
of Wiirzburg), Wiirttemberg, May 8, 1798; d. at
Wilrzburg Apr. 12, 1838. In 1814 he entered the
lyceum of Ellwangen, devoting himself to the study
of philosophy and theology, and, in 1817, removed
with the Roman Catholic faculty to Ttlbingen.
He was ordained priest in 1819, and became vicar
at Weilerstadt and Riedlingen, but soon returned
to Tubingen to prepare himself for academic ac.
tivity; in 1820 he became repetent, and was in
vited by the theological faculty to become privat
docent in church history and its related branches
(1822). After visiting various universities he be
gan in 1823 to lecture on church history, petrol
ogy, and church polity: A series of essays written
at that time for tile Tubtrlger Quartalachrijt (after
his death collected and published by DSllinger, in
CJesam»ielte Schrijten and Au ja6tie, 2 vols., Regena.
burg, 1839‑40) reveals an almost Protestant stand
point. Among other abuses of the Roman Catholic
Church he attacked the withholding of the cup
from the laity and the use of the Latin language in
worship. His first larger work, Die Einheit der
%irche oiler tlaa Pr(.nzip den Knthdiciafnua, dafgerrtellt
im (ieiate der Ifirchent4tel' der drei eratert Jahrhan
tierEe (Tiibiugen, 1825, 2d ed., 1843), attracted con
siderable attention among scholars. MBhler dis
tinguishes between the mystical unity of the Holy
Spirit, which unites all believers in a spiritual com
munity, sad the rational unity, which unites them
in the doctrine of the Church as the intellectual ex
pression of the Christian spirit, in opposition to the
heresies as the plurality without a unity; and
finally between the unity in the plurality, that is,
the preservation of the individuality in the unity
of believers. In the second part of the work the

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	430
bishop is considered as forming the center of the unity of the congregation. A higher ecclesiastical unity is concentrated in the metropolitan and the synod, a still higher in the entire episcopate and the highest in the Roman primacy, the development of which by gradual steps is proved from the historical conditions of antiquity and Medievalism. The work did not escape giving offense in Roman Catholic circles, but it established the fame of the young man. It was followed in the next year by another large work, Athanasius der Grosse and die Kirche saner Zest, besonders im Kampf mit dent Arianismus (Mainz, 1827; 2d ed., 1844), which proved to be in perfect harmony with the views of the Roman Catholic Church, offering a picture of the labors and struggles of the Church in the fourth century. In 1827 the author was appointed professor of church history at Tubingen. His lectures drew large audiences, and exercised great influence. Nevertheless, his KirchengeachiMte (published by P. B. Gams, 3 vols., Regensburg, 1867‑70) is not his chief work. He felt that Roman Catholic theology was sorely in need of a deeper and more comprehensive understanding of the principles of the Reformation, and of the divergencies between Romanism and Protestantism, and after an exhaustive study of the symbolical books of the two confessions, he published his Symbolik oder Darstellung der dogmatiachen Gegensatze der Katholiken and Protestanten (Mainz, 1832; 5th ed., enlarged and improved by Reithmayer, 1838; 7th ed., 1864, Eng. tranal. by J. R. Robertson, Symbolism, or Exposition of the Doctrinal Differences between Catholics and Protestants as evidenced by their Symbolical Writings, 2 vols., London, 1843; 5th ed., 1 vol., 1906). There is considerable idealization in his representation of Romanism; and his representation of Protestantism is not altogether free from caricature. The sensation which the work produced was great, even among Protestants. F. C. Baur wrote against it (Der Gegensatz des Katholieismus and Protestantismus, Tiibingen, 1834), as well as C. I. Nitzaeh (Eire protestantiwhe Beandwortung der Symbolik Mbhlers, Hamburg, 1835), and others. MBhler answered in Neue Untersuchungen der Lehrgegensatze zwischen Katholiken and Protestanten (Mainz, 1834); and a protracted controversy began. This controversy, especially with his colleague, F. C. Baur, made his stay in TUbiagen unpleasant, and in 1835 he ac6epted a call to Munich. The climate of that place did not agree with his constitution, and his health failed. Shortly before his death he retired to Wiirzburg as dean of the chapter.
(A. HAUCK.)
Btanroaasrst: A life by Reithmayer was prefixed to the 5th ad. of the'Sym6olik, Mainz, 1838, and a sketch by the ‑Ante author is in KL, viii. 1677‑1689. Other lives we by B. Warmer, Regensburg, 1866; J. Friedrich, Munich, 1894; A. Knapfer, ib.1896; L. Monastier, Lumnne, 1897.

MOELLER, msl'er, CHRISTEN VILHELH VICTOR: Danish bishop; b. in Copenhagen May 29, 1845. He was educated at the Aalborg Skole (B.A., 1863) and the University of Copenhagen (candidate in theology, 1868); became chaplain in Ringsted and Benl6se, 1869, and in Copenhagen, 1874, in the latter place instituting services for children
at Bethesda, 1877; was made censor, 1883, and
later became examiner in religious branches at
teachers' examinations; edited the weekly Saede
manden, 1879,83; became provost at Copenhagen,
1883, in Gamborg on FUnen, 1891, at Slagelse,
1896; was appointed bishop of Aalborg, 1905. His
most important works (text‑books) are: Bibelhistorie
for Seminarier og hbjere Skoler (1891); B4elhistorie
for Folkeskolen (1892); Larebog i Bibelhistorien for
Elementarakoler (5th ed.,1896); Den f6rste Vejledning
i Luthem line Katekiamus (1897). Along exegetical
lines mention may be made of Salomos Hbjsany i
bibelsk Sammenh4ng forklard (1896); Guda Oprinde
lige Aabenbarbng. En Fortolkning for ldge Kriatne
til fdrate Mosebogs tre forste Kapaler, sarlig afpasset
efter Ldreres og Larerdnders Tar» i Fdkeekolen
(1892). 	Joan O. EVJEN.

MOELLER, ERNST WILHELM: German church historian, son of Johann Friedrich Moller (q.v.); b. at Erfurt Oct. 1, 1827; d. at Kiel Jan. 8, 1892. He studied at the cathedral gymnasium in Magdeburg, at the University of Berlin, at Halle, and at Bonn. Returning home, he preached, held Bible classes in the Young Men's Association, and occupied himself with a thorough study of Origen and Gregory of Nyssa. For the continuation of these studies he returned to Halle, where he published Gregorii Nysseni dodrina de hominia natura et illustravit et cum Origeniann comparavit (Halls, 1854), on the basis of which he established himself in 1854 as privat‑docent in Halle, just at the time when Baur and Zeller had started their revolutionary methods in theological science, and he was led to oppose their methods and conclusions. He lectured on the New Testament, on the early history of the Church, on the history of dogma, and later also on the church history of the Middle Ages. In 1862 he was called to the congregation of Grumbach, a little village in the ecclesiastical district of Langensalza, and about 1869 he received a similar position in Oppin near Halle. In 1873 he was appointed professor of church history in Kiel, where he lectured on church history and the history of dogmas for almost twenty years. He distinguished himself not so much by special researches in church history as by a comprehensive grasp of its whole sphere, which enabled him to become one of the most efficient and many‑sided collaborators on the second edition of the Herzog RealeneyklopAdie (for which he wrote sixty‑three articles, mainly on the history of dogma in the early Church), and one of the moat respected contributors to theological periodicals. Theologically and ecclesiastically he was a representative of the German " mediating theology." His first comprehensive work was Gesehiehte der Kosnwlogis ix der griechischen Kirche bis ayf Origenes (Halls, 1860). But his principal work is his thorough and scholarly life of Osiander which appeared as the fifth part in Lebea and ausgecaahl6e Schnftea der Vater and Begrinder der lmtherischen Kirche (Elberfeld, 1870). In the later years of his life he published his LehrWch der Kirchengeschichte (vol. i., Die alts Kirche, 1889, 2d ed., by H. von Schubert, 1902; vol. ii., DaB Miuelalter, 1891, 2d ed., 1893; vol. iii., Reformation snd Ge‑

481	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xoehkr
		Soerlkofes
genrefornaation, ed., G. Kawerau, 1894, 3d ed.,
1907. These new editions of vols. i. and ii. render
partly obsolete the Eng. traasl., London, 1892
1893, but not so much as that of v ol. iii., 1900) which
unites a lucid representation with a continual ref
erence to sources. He also revised De Wette's
commentaries on Galatians and Thessalonians (1864)
and on the Pastoral Epistles and the Epistle to the
Hebrews (1867).	(G. Kewxxsu).
BIBIdoGEAPHY: ZKG, sii (1892), 484 eqq.
	MOELLER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH: German
Lutheran theologian; b. at Erfurt Nov. 13, 1789;
d. at Magdeburg Apr. 20, 1861. He was educated
at the gymnasium in Erfurt and the University of
G&ttingen. In 1814 he became teacher of catechet
ics and methods at the teachers' seminary of Eo
furt, in the following year also deacon of the Bar
fiisser‑Kirche, in 1829 regular pastor, in 1831 senior
of the Evangelical ministry, and in 1832 councilor
of the consistory. By the publication of religious
poems, Christengldck and Chridenwandel in re
ligiosen Gesdngen (Erfurt, 1817), he attracted the
attention of Claus Harms (q.v.) with whom he
came into personal relation. His activity at Er
furt, though successful, was hampered by the hos
tile attitude of the so‑called Old Lutherans, who
resisted all attempts at conformity with the Prus
sian Union. In 1843 he was appointed general su
perintendent of Magdeburg, and here, too, had to
face struggles with rationalistic elements such as
the Friends of Light (q.v.), and with the ecclesias
tical administration of the province. His failing
health compelled him in 1857 to lay down his office
as general superintendent, but he still remained for
some time first preacher of the cathedral church
in Magdeburg. During his activity at Erfurt, in
the interest of religious instruction in the public
schools, he published Ueber die erste Behandlung des
Relvimxsunterrichts in den unteren Klasaen der
Volkmthule, i., Die eigentliche Gotteslehre (Erfurt,
1824); and Unterlagen der Gotteserkenntnis in der
christlichen Volksschule (2 ed., 1836). Other pub
lications, prompted by the same tendency, are: Leit
faden and Spruehbuch zum Konfiawnandenunter
richt nach dem Katechisrma Luthers (Magdeburg,
1850); Hdndreiehung der Kiruhe an die SChule zum
Eingang in die heiligen zehn Gebote Gates (1850);
Kateehetisch‑evangelische Unterweisung in den hei
ligen zehn Geboten Goths nach dem Katechismus
Lutheri (1854). His first collection of spiritual
poems was followed by Der christliche Glaube and
das christliche Leben; geistliche Lieder and Geadnge
fur Kirche, Schule, and Haul (Erfurt, 1822) from
which Harms made a number of selections for his
hymn‑book; toward the close of his life Moller
published another collection, Geistliche Dichtungen
and Gesdnge anf Unterlage der heidigen Schrift (Mag‑
deburg, 1852).	(W. MiSLLERt.)
	MOELLER, LABS OTTO: Danish pastor and
author; b. in Taarup parish, Denmark, Feb. 20,
1831. He received his education at Horsens' Skole
(B.A., 1852), and at the University of Copenhagen
(candidate in theology, 1858); became chaplain at
Gylling in 1860, and provost in 1870. He is justly
renowned for his original contributions to Danish
theology, grounded in the school of Nicolai Grundt
vig (q.v.), but original and independent and opposed
to the " new Grundtvig school." His chief work is
Genldan%ngen eller Jesu Christi Liv, Dod og Opatan..
delse til Verdens Frelae (1884). In defense of Grundt
vig's ideas he has written S»aaabidrog tit at oplyse den
kirkelige Anskuelses Berettigelae (1866); Det faldns
Menneakea Gen ft;delse og Fornyedse ved Daab og Nad
ver (2d ed., 1872); Det gienopreiste Menneskes
Tjeneste i Ordets Forkyndelae og Bekendelae (1877).
Other works are: Til Forstaaelse og Bedommelae of
Nutidena FritBnkeri (1881; a vigorous attack on
infidelity); Den kristelige Vished eller Troert8 fadde
Forvisning (1892); Noget om Determiniarne og
Frihed (1893). His attitude to the New Testament
is shown in: Den Eaxangeliske Historic eller Herrens
Liv pas Jorden (2d ed., 1892); Forsog til en kort
Forklaring over St. Joh. Aabenbaring (1888); and
to the Old Testament in: En Opdrager til Christua
for dem " som ikke have Lover "; En Betragtning of
de 10 Buds Forhold tit Hedningernea Sandhedalov
	. (1899); Nogle Sto#epunkter under Bed6m.
naelsen egf det gl. Test. (1893). His ability as a
preacher was made known to wide circles by Fra
Gylling Kirke. En Adrgang Prddikener (1899).
JOHN 0. EVJEN.
	MOERISOFER, mm"i‑kef'er, JOHANN 1LAS
PAR: Swiss Protestant; b. at Frauenfeld (22 m.
n.e. of Zurich) Oct. 11, 1799; d. at Riesbach (a
village near Zurich) Oct. 17, 1877. After the com
pletion of his theological education in Zurich in
1822 he was a teacher and gymnasial director in
his native city for many years, but in 1851 was
called to the pastorate of the church at Gottlieben,
in the vicinity of Constance. In 1869 he retired
from active life, living first at Winterthur and later
at Zurich, receiving honorary citizenship from the
latter. He actively promoted an institution founded
in 1845 at Bernrain for the education of the poor,
acted as a member of the cantonal synod, dean of
the Steckborn chapter, president of the cantonal
Geaellachaft zur BefSrderung des Guten and Ge
meinniitzigen, and was one of the founders of the
historical society of his canton of Torgau and con
tributed much to its journal. With equal versa
tility he sought to preserve the scientific and artis
tic treasures of the Torgau monasteries suppressed
in 1848, and wrote: Die schweizeriache Mundart im
Verhdltnisa our hochdeutschen Schriftspraehe (1838).
The significance of these interests, however, was
overshadowed by his Die schweizerische Litteratur
des achtzehnten Jdhrhunderls (Leipsie, 1861) and by
the theme which had attracted him even as a stu
dent in 1819‑the history of the Reformation in
Switzerland. After a preliminary Bader aus dem
kirchlichen Leben der Schweiz (Leipsie, 1861), be
published the first comprehensive biography of the
Swiss Reformer in his Ulricft Zwingli each den
urkundlichxn Quelteys (2 vo1s., 1867‑69); and also
wrote J. J. Breitinger and Zurich (1873); and Ge
schichte, der evangeliaehen Fluchtlinge in der Schweiz
(1876). 	(G. MEYER vox KNONArT.)
BiHn:ocsaArai: Autobiographic material, ed. H. G. 8u1sberger, appeared in Thmgauirchen Beibdge zur roaterfgndi>dka. heft xxv., pp. 2‑ltib; ADA mi. 280.

THE NEW F30HAFF‑HERZOO
NOERLIIf, mvr'lin (HOEHRLE, NOEHRLEIII, Lat. XORLnms), JOACHDL
Early Life (1 1). Controversy with Oeiander (4 2). Driven from Koniaberg (¢ 3). Efforts for Theological Reconciliation (f 4). Recalled to Konigsberg (15). Becomes Bishop of $amland (f 6).
Joachim Marlin, who waii an important figure in the controversies following Luther's death, was born at Wittenberg Apr. 5, 1514, and d. at KBnigsbergMay 29, 1571. He studied at Wittenberg under Luther, Melanchthon, Jonas, and Cru‑
	x. Early ciger from 1532 to 1536. After a brief
Life.	residence at Coburg, he returned to
	Wittenberg and in 1539 became Lu
	ther's chaplain, declining a call to succeed Polian
	der at Konigsberg. While a true pupil of Luther,
	Marlin was more influenced by the dogmatics of
	Melanchthon, though devoid of sympathy with the
	Philippistic efforts for union with the Reformed.
	On Sept. 22, 1540, he left Wittenberg to become
	superintendent at Arnstadt, where, until deposed
	in Mar., 1543, for his rigid discipline and opposition
	to union, he displayed great activity, moral ear
	nestneas, and courage. But neither the appeal of his
	congregation nor the sympathy of Luther could
	overcome the hostility of the count of Schwartz
	burg, and on May 10, 1544, Marlin became superin
	tendent at Gottingen. Here he was equally firm
	in insistence on purity of life and doctrine, and
wrote his Enchiridion	icum (1544), taught
	rhetoric in the Latin school, and lectured on Eras
	mus and the Loci of Melanchthon. Marlin's activ
	ity in Gottingen came to an end with his uncom
	promising resistance to the union advocated by
	the Interim (q.v.), and on Jan. 17, 1550, after vain
	protests by both council and congregation to Duke
	Erich, he was dismissed from office. Marlin went
	to Erfurt, thence to Arnstadt, and finally to Schleus
	ingen, where he lived and preached in the castle
	of the count of Henneberg. Yet even here he was
	not altogether safe, and on Aug. 25, 1550, he left
	Sohleusingen, arriving at Konigsberg on Sept. 13.
	There, since Prussia did not belong constitution
	ally to the empire, he could not be molested, and
	was appointed, on Sept. 27, 1550, pastor at the
Kneiph6fer Dom and inspector.
There Marlin became involved in the Osiandrian controversy (see Os1ANDint, ANDR19A6), for it was not in his nature to remain neutral. The break, however, between Marlin and Osiander was gradual. When the hatter defended his view of justification (act. 24, 1550), Marlin remained
s. Contro‑ a silent witness; but Osiander's work versy with on the incarnation and the image of Osiander. God, and still more his Bericht and Trostsehrift, with its savage attack on Melanchthon, led Marlin to complain on Feb. 7, 1551, to Albert of Prussia (q.v.), though he did this so delicately that the duke commissioned him and Aurifaber, Osiander's son‑in‑law, to assemble the theologians for the conference which was held Feb. 13‑17. Here Marlin's sincere desire for peace was evident, but his suspicion of Osiander increased, even though the latter claimed to be in harmony With Luther, denying the truth of Marlin's Anti‑
logic seu canb aria doctrina inter L4dherum et Osiartdru»t. On Apr. 19 Marlin preached against those who depreciated the merits of Christ, and Osiander rightly took this as directed against himself. The breach was now complete, and after an interchange of recriminations, Marlin was replaced by Stanoarus, professor of Hebrew. Before a new colloquy could be held, however, the duke directed (May 8) first Osiander and then his opponents to present their views in writing. Osiander hesitated, and Marlin attacked him ply from the pulpit (May 27). The duke now forced Marlin to defend his tenets in writing, and further roused him and his followers to passionate resistance by appointing Osiander to administer the bishopric of Samlsnd, and by requiring Marlin and others to submit to the decision of the church. The characteristic reply (July 21) was that Marlin and his adherents refused to reoogniae Osiander's jurisdiction, since he was a heretic, and they appealed to a free synod. Osiander's opponents now continued their attacks and virtually met up a separate church. This was forbidden by the duke (Aug. 12), who sent them Osiander's confession of faith, which was returned unread. The polemics still continued, and Albert in despair sent Osiander's confession to the princes and cities of Germany, urging a synod. Marlin's position was gaining strength in Prussia, and the majority of the opinions of the churches outside Prussia were also favorable to him. The very refusal of the duke to publish these condemnations of Osiander aided Marlin, who, on May 23, 1552, published a polemic defending the doctrine of justification against his opponent, in which he clearly set forth the orthodox Wittenberg position, and emphasized the difference between it and Osiander's teaching. Besides continuing to urge the publication of the opinions just mentioned, Marlin preached a sermon (June, 1552) directed against Osiander, deprecating speculations on the inscrutable eeeenoe of God; and Osiander replied with his impassioned Sch»se.kbier, in which he arraigned Marlin and his friends. The ,controversy increased in pettiness and coarseness, until Albert threatened (July 15, 1552) to depose Marlin, only to receive the respectful but firm reply that Marlin held it his divinely commissioned duty to polemize against Osiander. Meanwhile a second opinion came from W(irttemberg, and from it both Osiander and Marlin claimed the support of Johann Brenz (q.v.), but on Oct. 17, 1552, the weary struggle found its end in the death of Osiander, a defeated man.
The peace‑loving policy of Albert was still to demonstrate its futility. The ambiguity of the Warty
temberg declaration seemed to him to
3. Driven constitute a good formula of union, from and on Jan. 24, 1553, he required that
gtfnigs‑ sermons on justification should be berg. preached according to the six Wart‑
temberg articles, and that all coarse. nee should be avoided. This was tantamount to a defense of Oeiandrianism, but the great majority of the duke's subjects were opposed, while Marlin declared himself unable to obey the ducal mandate when contrary to the obligations of religion. This was the only course open to aim, but the duke's

488	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Dgosrlia
displeasure was now finally incurred, and on Feb. 16, 1553, he presented his resignation. Three days later he sought refuge in Danzig, where he awaited an expected recall, supported as he was by the council and the citizens. But all appeals to the duke were in vain; and the exile at last resigned himself to his punishment and sought for a new field of activity. Marlin had not long to wait. Brunswick and Liibeck were rivals for his services; the former won by right of priority, and he entered Brunswick on July 25, 1553. In the following year he received an assistant in the Melanchthonian Martin Chemnitz (q.v.), and developed a powerful activity, strengthening the Lutheran cause with the aid of the religious peace of Augsburg (see AUGSBURG, RELIGIOUS PEACE OF), and preparing, in 1577, his Leges pro miniaterio Brunavim~, which all the clergy of his superintendency were required to subscribe when entering upon office. He assailed the Reformed as bitterly as the Roman Catholics. Again, in 1564, the council of Brunswick enacted that the Corpus doctrints should be subscribed by all theologians, a rule which remained in force until 1672. And this was no dead letter, for in 1566 Johannes Becker, a pastor in Brunswick who had subscribed to the Corpus but become a Calvinist, was forced to resign and ultimately was banished from the city. Meanwhile Marlin and Chemnitz were active in other inter‑Lutheran controversies and in warding off Calvinistic attacks; and the former was the prime mover in the rejection, by the Brunswick clergy, of the doctrines of $chwenckfeld, besides being one of those asked by the council of Bremen to settle the dispute between Johann Timann and Albert Hardenberg (qq.v.). He furthermore defended Hesshusen in his pamphlet Wider die Landduge» der heidelbergiachen Theologen (1565).
In the struggle with Calvinism Marlin supported Westphal, and to this end wrote his Coafemw,fidei
de eueharistios aacramento miniatrorum
4. Efforts ecclesiarum Samnimrum (Magdeburg,
for Theo‑ 1557). At Coswik he sought to medi‑
logical ate between Melanchthon and Flacius Reconcilia‑ (qq.v.), and in his eagerness for peace,
Lion. when the delegates of the Hanseatie League assembled at Brunswick, he held a conference with Chemnitz, Westphal, and others (Jan. 14, 1557), and reached an agreement on articles tending to reconcile the adiaphorists (see ADIAPHOBA) and those holding to the true Gospel. Marlin then took these articles to Flacius at Magdeburg, after which he conferred with Melanchthon at Wittenberg, but returned to Bruns. wick unsuccessful (Jan. 28, 1557). Eight months later he went to the colloquy of Worms (see Womm), but by his opposition to the Phifippists (q.v.) and by his withdrawal helped render the conference resultless. In Dec., 1558, he visited Weimar and Jena to reconcile Flacms and $trigel, and in 1560 he signed the petition of the Jena theo. logians to the princes to call a Lutheran synod to combat Calvinism. Marlin was also a prominent figure at the conference of theologians from Lower Saxony held at Lflneburg in July, 1561, and wrote the confession of faith there drawn up, ErkOrung VII. 28
aus G&es Wort and kraser Benda der AnUel, etc (Magdeburg, Jena, and Regensburg, 1561), which became binding on all pastors in Brunswick; and he again showed his Wittenberg orthodoxy in his Veranturorlung der Pr4fation so filr die h2fu'burp. ischen ArtQe1 (1562). In 1563 the Council of Weed asked the opinion of the Brunswick theologians for a ruling on the admission of Reformed refugees from England, and the decision was that the immigrants should be received and instructed; but, should they propagate their erroneous views, they should be expelled. In 1566 and 1567 Marlin found himself compelled to break with his old friend Flacius because of the latter's teaching on original sin; and at the same time he wrote against the Antinomians his Tree disputationea de tertio um lepis.
Meanwhile, inspired partly by him, the struggle had continued in Prussia between the Melanchtho.
mans and the Osiandrian peace‑policy 5. Recalled of the court. Well informed of all that to Ktfnigs‑ went on in Konigsberg, MSrlinstrength. berg. ened his sympathisers with his His..
toraa wGestaU aich die oeiandriache Schudrmerei in Lands zu Prcusaen erhoban (Brunswick, 1554). In 1555 he published two other pamphlets on the course of events in Prussia; and finally Albert found himself obliged to yield. On Nov. 30, 1566, Marlin was invited to return to Prussia, but he declined to leave Brunswick. The invitation was repeated, however (Jan. 31, 1567), and after much persuasion Marlin accepted and obtained leave of absence from the reluctant Council of Brunswick. On Apr. 9, 1567, he and Chemnitz were joyfully welcomed in ]Konigsberg, and at once began the restoration of Melanchthonian orthodoxy. After much consideration it was decided that the confessional bases should remain the Augsburg Confession, the Apology, and the Schmalkald Articles, the only change being the correction of certain false doctrines which had crept in since the formulation of the Augsburg Confession. The duke, assenting to the rejection of Osiandrianism, readily agreed, and on May 6 Marlin and Chemnita gave him their Repetitio eorpons dodrinos Chriatiana, refuting Osiandrianism, Synergism, Antinomianiem, Majorism, and similar teachings. Accepted by the synod and the estates, the Repet4io was proclaimed by Albert on July 8, 1567, and Prussia was at last free from theological rancor.
Though offered the bishopric of $amland, and though urged by clergy and laity alike to remain in Prussia, Marlin still felt bound to Brunswick. Ao.
coyly, pay the estates 6. Becomes (June 8, 1567) that no Calvinists
Bishop of should be allowed at court, he returned
8amlaad. to Brunswick. But his stay there was
brief, and he was unexpectedly released. Learning that a patriAde had been let go free, both he and Chemmtz sharply upbraided the magistracy in a sermon on July 13, and were cited to appear before the court. Under these circum. stances the envoys of Albert succeeded in inducing the council, unwilling though it was even then, to let Marlin go (Sept. 24, 1567). He was now declared bishop of Samland, while Chemnitz was made superintendent. Henceforth until his death, in

Moerlin	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	434
Mogilas
his new office, he was active in preaching and cate
chizing, never ceasing to polemize against Philip
pists, Synergists, and, above all, Calvinists.
		(F. LEMUS.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Important from a biographical point of
	view and for a review of his opinions are two posthumous
	works, Postilla, Erfurt, 1587, and Psalterpredigten, 3 vole.,
	K6nigeberg, 1578‑‑80; also Koch, Brtefwechael MSrlins mit
	Herzog Albrecht, in Altpreussische Monatsachrift,
	parts 7‑8; and two lives by J. Wigand and 8. GSbel, in
	Acta Borussica, i. 149 sqq., ii. 477 eqq., 3 vole:, Kbnigs
	berg, 1730‑32. Consult also the Lebenabild by Walther
	Arnstadt, 1856; and G. J. Planck, Geschichts des . . .
	protestantischen Lehrbegrifs, vole. iv.‑vi., 6 vols., Leipsie,
	1781‑1800.
	MOERLIN, MAXIMILIAN: German Lutheran,
brother of Joachim MSrlin; b. at Wittenberg Oct .
14, 1516; d. at Coburg Apr. 20, 1584. He studied
theology at Wittenberg under Luther and Melanch
thon, and, after being active for a time in churches
at Pegau and Zeitz, was called in 1543 to the pas
torate of Schalkau. In 1544 he accepted a call to
Coburg as court preacher, and in 1546 he became
superintendent. Like his brother, he remained
throughout his life a Melanchthonian Lutheran,
and like him he was for a time under the influence
of Flacius. During his brother's controversy with
Osiander, moreover, he wrote a polemic against
Osiander, though its title is no longer known. He
subscribed to the strictures of the Weimar and
Coburg theologians on Osiander, and made a zeal
ous, though fruitless, effort at the Synod of Eisen
ach to secure the condemnation of Menius; while
he also took part in the futile colloquy at Worms.
With Musaius and St6ssel, though inspired rather
by Flacius, he compiled the %onfutationsbuch
(1557‑58), which was made the norm for the,
churches of Coburg. In 1560, when the Elector
Palatine Frederick contemplated introducing Re
formed doctrines into his territories, his son‑in‑law,
John Frederick of Coburg, sought to dissuade him,
and went for that purpose to Heidelberg with Mar
lin and St6ssel. The ensuing disputation between
M6rhn and Stdssel for the Lutherans and Bouquin
for the Calvinists, which lasted five days, was with
out result, but in any case the triumph of Reformed
doctrines in the Palatinate was almost inevitable.
But though, like his brother, breaking with Flacius,
Marlin was ever inclined to moderation and peace,
and these qualities gained his appointment to the
consistory of Weimar. Here, in the interests of
peace and of Melanchthonian dogmatics, he advo
cated the deposition of Flacius and the expulsion of
his adherents, and with a like irenic spirit he sought
to have all pastors subscribe the somewhat Philip
pistic Declaration of Strigel (Mar. 3, 1562).
	With the regency of Flacius' sympathizer, John
William, in Coburg, M6rlin was deposed, but was
appointed court preacher by Count John of Nas
sau‑Dillenburg. This position, however, was brief,
for the count was Calvinistically inclined, while
Morlin was as decidedly opposed to Reformed ten
ets. Meanwhile John Frederick, from his prison in
Thuringia, had induced his brother, John William,
to recall Morlin, who accordingly returned to Co
burg in the winter of 1572, only to find it held by
the partizans of Flacius. In 1573, under the new
regent, Elector August, he was reinstated in all his
former positions and his chief antagonist, Museeus,
was expelled. M6rlin now removed all clergy whom
he suspected of the slightest taint of Flacianism.
His mediating tendency carried the day in the
Formula of Concord, and he also took part in the
conferences of Lichtenberg, and Torgau. Besides
the lost work mentioned above, M6rlin wrote:
Apophtegmata colllecta ex Eusebii Historia Ecclesias
tics et Tripartita (Nuremberg, 1552); Lazarus resus
citatus (Frankfort, 1572); and Trostschrift von dent.
Kindlein die nicht konnen zur Tauf gebracht werden
(Nuremberg, 1575). 	(F. LEzlus.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Beck, Johann Friedrich der Mittlere, 2 vols., Gotha, 1858; W. Preger, Matthias Placcius, 2 vols., Erlangen, 1859‑61; G. C. B. Berbig, Aus der Gefangenschaft Johann Friedrich des Mitileren, Goths. 1898.
MOFFAT, JAMES: United Free Church of Scotland; b. at Glasgow July 4, 1870. He was educated at the University of Glasgow (M.A., 1890) and the Free Church College in the same city (B.D., 1894). After the completion of his post‑graduate studies, he was chosen minister of Dundonald Church, Ayrshire, a position which he left in 1907 to go to Broughty Ferry. He was also Bruce lecturer in the United Free Church College, Glasgow, in 1906, and Jowett lecturer in London in 1907, and has been a member of the Oxford Historical Society and a member of the editorial board of the Hibbert Journal since 1903. In addition to translating A. Harnaek's Die Mission and Auabreitung des Urchristentums (Leipsic, 1902; 2d ed., 1906) under the title Expansion of Christianity in the ,first three Centuries (2 vols., London, 1904‑05, 2d ed., 1908), he has written The Historical New Tes• tament (Edinburgh, 1901); The Golden Book of John Owen (London, 1904); Literary Illustrations of the Bible, Epistle of St. James (1906); and George Meredith; a Primer to the Novels (1909); and has in preparation An Introduction to the Literature of the New Testament and the Epistles to the Thessalonians and Revelation for The Expositor's Greek Testament.
MOFFAT, JAMES DAVID: Presbyterian; b. at New Lisbon, O., Mar. 15, 1846. He was educated at Washington and Jefferson College (A.B., 1869) and at Princeton Theological Seminary (1869‑71). He was then stated supply of the Second Presbyterian Church, Wheeling, W. Va., in 1871‑73, and pastor of the same church from 1873 to 1882. Since the latter year he has been president of Washington and Jefferson College. He was also associate editor of The Presbyterian Banner from 1894 to 1906, and was moderator of the Presbyterian General Assembly at Winona Lake, Ind., in 1905. In theology he describes himself as " a Presbyterian who advocated revision of the Westminster Confession of Faith, and now advocates the union of all Presbyterian churches in the United States."
MOFFAT, ROBERT: African missionary; b. at Ormiston (9 m. s.e. of Edinburgh), Scotland, Dec. 21; 1795; d. at Leigh (25 m. s.e. of London) Aug. 9, 1883. From a boy he was religiously inclined, and after offering himself for mission work to the London Missionary Society he was accepted and sent to South Africa, 1816. He went first to Namaqua Land, where he was assisted by Afrikaner, a

485	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xoerlin
		xosilae
native chief converted by him. From there he
went to Lattakoo in 1820, then on to Kuruman in
1825. From 1839 to 1843 he was in London lectur
ing for the Missionary Society, and translating the
Psalms. He met Livingstone at this time, and se
cured his services for the Bechuana mission. In
1843 he resumed his work in Kuruman, and in 1857
finished his translation of the Bible. In 1870 he
returned to England permanently. In 1872 he was
honored with a doctorate in divinity from Edin
burgh, and a testimonial of £5,000 from his
friends. He and Mrs. Moffat, who shared his
labors and dangers, were pioneers in South African
mission work, and stanch friends of the natives,
while he proved himself a ,skilful organizer,
teacher, and translator. During his work in South
Africa, he labored at intervals on a translation of
the Bible into Chuana (Bechuana, Sechuana),
which was published. London, 1872, revised 1890.
He was the author of " A Book of Hymns in
Chuana " (Mission Press, Kuruman, 1838); Mis
sionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa
(London, 1842); Rivers of Water in d Dry Place,
Being an Account of the Introduction of Christianity
into South Africa, and of Mr. Moffat's Missionary
Labours (1863).
BIBwoV$APHY: Lives were written by his eon, J. S. Moffat
	latest ed., London, 1904 (includes life of Mary Moffat);
	W. Walters, New York, 1882; J. D. Marrat, London,
	1884; D. J. Deane, ib. 1887; M. E. Wilder, Chicago, 1887;
	and in DNB, xxxviii. 97‑101. Consult also: Robert
	Moat, an Example of Missionary Heroism, London, 1878;
	Miss A. Manning, Heroes of the Desert, ib. 1885.
	MOGILAS, mo‑hf'las, PETRUS: Metropolitan of
Kief and author of the Greek " Orthodox Confes
sion "; b. of a Wallachian family c. 1597; d. 1647.
He was elevated to the metropolitanate in 1632 by
Theophanea, patriarch of Jerusalem, and had al
ready published several liturgical works when, in
1638, he prepared the first draft of his " Confes
sion " with the aid of three of his bishops. The
work, originally written in Latin, with a Romaic
Greek version by Meletius Syrigus, was amended
and approved by the Synod of Rief in 1640, and
by that of Jassy in Moldavia in 1642. With an in
troduction by Nectarius of Jerusalem (1642) and
the approbation of Parthenius (1643) this " Ortho
dox Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic Church
of the East " was first printed at Amsterdam in
1667. Several editions followed, the best that of
E. J. Kimmel, in his Lori aymbolici (Jena, 1843).
The " Confession " was translated into Rumanian
in 1691 and into Russian in 1696.
	The situation of the period was one of struggle
for the Greek Church to preserve her individuality
between Roman Catholicism, working vigorously
in Russia and Poland, on the one hand, and Prot
estantism, to which individual Greeks (notably
Cyril Lucar, q.v.) felt themselves drawn, on the
other. As the patriarchate at Constantinople was
far too weak to take any step decisive for the Church
at large, the overthrow of Cyril's creed by another
based upon Greek tradition naturally proceeded
from the younger, but more independent, Russian
Church. The immediate cause of the " Confes
sion " was a Roman Catholic catechism printed at
Kief, in 1632. The "Confession" is a comprehen‑
sive summary of the doctrines of the Greek Church, and its substance is given in its declaration that the requisites of the Catholic Christian for eternal life are " orthodox faith and good works." This twofold division is obscured by Mogilas' basal arrangement according to faith, hope, and love, comprised in exegesis of the Creed, the Lord's Prayer and the Sermon on the Mount, and the Decalogue. A further twofold division is into the Bible and tradition, the latter leading to numerous patristic citations, especially from Gregory, Athanasius, Basil, Dionysius, and John of Damascus. In the duotrine of the Trinity a distinction is drawn, though not too subtilely, between the essential and hypostatic idiomafa. The controversy on the procession of the Holy Ghost is decided chiefly because of the lack of the Filioyue in the oldest text of the Creed. The creation is traced in Greek fashions through nine classes of angels to man, who is termed a microcosm. The omnipresence of God is reconciled with his exaltation by the statement that, " himself being his own place," he at once controls and excludes all limitations of apace. The definitions of original sin lack Roman Catholic and Protestant definiteness. Through disobedience Adam lost his perfect reason, righteousness, and ignorance of sin, and his nature became exceedingly inclined to evil. But he was only weakened, not destroyed, so that the spirit and grace of God might freely operate upon him‑a synergism which is indispensable to Greek theology. In his discussion of foreknowledge, foreordination, and providence, Mogilas makes the second conditioned by the first, while the third combines the other two, controls them, and thus guides all earthly things in the best possible way. The sole head of the Church is Christ, and the mother Church is Jerusalem. The traditional seven sacraments are defended, though the influence of non‑Greek developments may here be discerned.
The second section of the " Confession " is on hope, or the grate partly given and partly promised by Christ. The exegesis is conditioned by ecclesiastical and ascetic points of view, while parallels and lists of analogies take the place of inner development. Rev. iv. 5 and Isa. xi. 2 afford bases for the theory of the seven graces, and Gal. v. 22 for the doctrine of the nine fruits of the Spirit. There are likewise nine rules o£ the Church (including confession, fasting, and avoidance of heretical books) and seven works of mercy each for the body and the soul, the number nine corresponding to the angels and seven to the sacraments and their effects. In the third part of the " Confession," with its theme of love and its exegesis of the Decalogue, the same themes are further developed under the captions of the seven virtues of prayer, fasting, benevolence, understanding, righteousness, bravery, and moderation. The first two commandments give rise to a justification of the invocation of the saints and the use of icons. The saints are invoked, but not prayed to, as the friends of God; while icons are considered representations of actual persons and things, and hence fitted to raise the thought from the material to the celestial, and so to God. The worship, therefore, is not received by the icons, but by the divinity or the saint repre.

Kohammad	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	488
eented. The "Confession" of Mogilas, accordingly, reproduces the point of view of ancient Catholicism, as maintained by the Eastern Church (q.v.) in opposition to Rome; nor can it be said, as is sometimes thought, that it is either Roman Catholic or Lutheran in tendency.
(PHILIPP METER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Learmd~ Bibliopraphie hellenique, par‑
ticularly ii. 202 eqq., iv. 104‑189, 4 vole., Paris, 18941896. For the " Confession," its history and contents, consult the works of Kimmel, Gam, Kattenbuech, and Michaloeeou named under EAaTzBN Cavam and the EnQ. tranal. by P. Lodvill, London, 1898; and Schaff, Cede, i. 58‑81 (history and summary of contents), ii. 275‑400 (Gk. text and Lat. tranel. of part i. only).
MOHAMMED, MOHAMMEDANISM.
	I. Introduction.	The Theology and Its Im
lI. Mohammed.		plicatee (¢ 2).
	Early Life, Physique,	System of Practise U 3).
		Temperament (§ 1).	V. Developments after Mo
	Second Period (f 2). hammed.
	The Medina Period (f 3).	The Four Bases of Doo
	Final Period (4 4).	trine and Practise (¢ 1).
	Character (¢ 8).	The Early Caliphate (42).
III. The Koran.	Shiites and Sunnitee ( ¢ 3).
IV. The Religion.	Causes of Sectarianism
	The Background (1 1).(1 4).
I. Introduction: Mohammedanism has unique claims upon the interest of the student of religions. (1) It is one of the three great monotheistic faiths (its followers would say one of the two, since to them Christianity is tritheistic), and its fundamental tenet is essentially the same as that given in the Shema` of Israel: " Hear, O Israel; Yahweh thy God is one " (Deut. vi. 4). (2) It is not, like Judaism or Shinto, a national but a world religion. Sprung, like Judaism and Christianity, from Semitic origins, it claims its followers also among Arian, and Turanian peoples and bas proved its adaptability to the needs of them all. (3) It is, therefore, one of the missionary religions, and with Buddhism and Christianity, it is contesting, not unsuccessfully, for the religious leadership of mankind. It confronts the Christian missionary in the great fields of missionary effort in Asia and Africa and presents knotty problems for him and for the Christian apologist. (4) It is the one world religion outside of Christianity the origins of which lie open in the light of history., It arose in one man's lifetime, was shaped by one hand and directed by a single mentality. It is a religion in which the miraculous is minimized, yet within eighty years it won an empire as great as Christianity's in the time of Constantine, and it is still extending its influence. The initial success of Islam was due not simply to its own power, but in large part to the conditions of the times and to the effects of surprise. A unified Arabia was the world's astonishment. The peninsula was outside the track of world movements, its forces were unknown. Moreover, Rome and Persia had exhausted each the other's strength by centuries of warfare. Besides this, the Christian Church was divided, and neither branch was loath to see the other crippled by a third power. The onset of the Arabs, inspired by the certainty of conquest and the assurance of paradise if they fell, was irresistible till 732, when their progress was checked in the West by Charles Martel, and 740, when they met defeat in the East by Leo III. at Acroinon.
The present strength of Mohammedanism can only
be estimated, since an Eastern census is not exact.
Estimates for 1909 place the number of adher
ents in Europe at 6,000,000, in Africa at 72,000,000,
in Asia at 192,000,000, or about 270,000,000 in all.
	II. Mohammed: Mohammed, " The Praised,"
the posthumous son of Abdu Allah, a member of
the Koraish tribe, by Aminah, was born at Mecca
Aug. 20, 570, and died at Medina June 8, 632.
His grandfather, Abdu al‑Muttalib, took charge of
him when at the age of six he lost his mother, and
his foster mother gave him additional protectors
by the fact that she belonged to the Bani Saad.
He was again bereaved at the age of eight by the
death of his grandfather, and he then entered the
family of his uncle, Abu Talib. From his mother
		he inherited a nervous, excitable tem
	i. Early perament and a tendency to epilepsy,
	Life, manifested by a fit when he was four
	Physique, years old, again when he was six, and
	Tempera‑ later in life by relapses into the cata
	ment leptic state, the latter at that time
		apparently under control. He was mel
ancholy in disposition, easily depressed, exceed
ingly sensitive to disagreeable odors, superstitious,
a believer in jinn, omens, dreams and charms, vivid
in imagination, and with a taste for the sublime.
In maturity he was .of medium height, of large but
somewhat stooping frame. He had a large head
covered with long wavy hair, an oval face, blood
shot but keen black eyes with shifty gaze, a prom
inent nose, and a large mouth with well separated
teeth. A fleshy tumor surrounded with moles on
his back was claimed by him as a sign of his pro
phetic mission. He was careful in habit, fond of
the bath and of perfumes, amorous in disposition,
and exceedingly fond of the delights of the table.
His spiritual development began at the age of
twelve, when his uncle took him to Syria and he
came into closer touch with both Jews and Chris
tians than he had so far experienced. It was pos
sibly at that time that he gained his first insight
by contrast into the enormities of Arabic idolatry
and immorality. When he was twenty‑five he en
tered the service of Vadijah, a rich Meccan widow,
was entrusted with the charge of her trading ven
tures, and again visited Syria, where he gained new
insight into Judaism and Christianity. Probably at
the initiative of Ijadijah, he married her, though
she was fifteen years his senior, and while she lived
he married no other. Meanwhile, by the exercise
of native sagacity he had obtained a reputation for
practical wisdom and was frequently appealed to
as the arbiter of disputes. When thirty‑five years
of age he settled in characteristic fashion a hot re
ligious quarrel among four parties at Mecca, each
of which claimed the right to replace in its niche
the Black Stone of Mecca‑representatives of the
four parties raised it to the level of its position by
lifting the four corners 'of a cloth placed beneath
it; and then Mohammed himself put the stone in
place. It was at this period that he began to feel
his mission; he became more highly contemplative,
used to retire to a mountain cave for meditation,
and finally, in 609, in consequence of a vision in
which Gabriel commanded him (though illiterate)

487	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	X oh
to read what appears in the Koran as Surah xcvi. 1‑5, he began to preach.
His earliest labors were in his family and among his intimates. Vadijah was his first convert, Ali and Zaid, his adopted children, were neat, and then his friend Abu Behr. Three years of preaching gained him about fifty followers, and then (612) he began to teach in public, using a house
		Second opposite the Kaaba. His points were
	Period.	three: (1) the oneness and absolute
			ness of Allah who (2) revealed his will
to men (3) by chosen men who were prophets (cf.
the beginning of Surah xcvi.). By this time he had
abandoned idolatry in consequence of his first prin
ciple. Part of the period following the beginning
of his work was marked by intervals of depression
during which Vadijah alone could comfort him.
His hearers demanded credentials of his mission in
the shape of miracles. But he disclaimed the power
to produce these: his claim was that his witness
was his preaching, in which he resembled his pre
decessors Adam, Abraham, Moses, David, and
Jesus; and that since he was sent to preach, his
hearers would reject him at their peril. When his
audience became indifferent, he used invective, and
this in turn evoked insult and persecution, so that
his followers fled to Abyssinia. At this time he
compromised with idolatry, having been misled,
as he claimed, by Satan. The Mecesns urged that
if one revelation was Satanic, others might be, to
which Mohammed could reply only by passionate
oratory. Avoided by the Meccans, he began to
preach to strangers visiting Mecca, among them
some from Yathrib (soon to be known as Medinat
al‑Nabi, " City of the Prophet," or simply as Me
dina), who carried his story home and sent others
and still more to hear him. The Medinans urged
him to leave Mecca and adopt their city as his
home, promising him protection there. The ran
corous opposition of Meccans continuing and ex
tending even to the point of banning him and his
supporters, he exiled himself, and in the Hejira,
" Flight," to Medina he took the step which made
the Mohammedan era, June 16, 622 A.n. This was
the turning point in his career, the beginning of
success.
Mohammedanism owes much to the differences between Mecca (q.v.) and Medina. The former, gathered about the Kaaba (q.v.), in which were collected about the Black Stone more than 300 idols representative of the gods of the tribes,
3. The made trade of religion then as now,
Medina	and was the seat of such fanaticism as
	Period.	perhaps only Arabs could show. Mo
		hammed's propaganda seemed to strike
at the very foundations of the city's trade and pre
eminence, and its present prestige and future pros
pects seemed menaced when Mohammed attacked
idolatry. Medina, 250 miles north, was a center
of traffic, open therefore to the civilizing influences
of the empires of, Rome and Persia, consequently
more cosmopolitan and tolerant. Idolatry was al
ready under suspicion, and there was consequently
an opening for the prophet's resolute preaching.
Mohammed's repute for wisdom grew with the fre
quency with which he was called upon to act as
arbiter; his decisions he claimed not as his own but as the dictates of Allah, and his position soon came to be practically that of city judge and dictator. Ordinances for practise were soon formulated by the prophet; prayer was directed toward Mecca (not Jerusalem, which, in the endeavor to conciliate the Jews and gain their support, he had formerly adopted), the fast of Tisri was changed for that of Ramadan. The five fundamentals of Islam (see below, IV.) were conceived and formulated at Medina. Most important of all, citizenship was made dependent not on family but on faith, preparing the way for a united Arabia and a world religion. For the triumph of the faith the bonds of kinship had to yield if they stood in its way‑Mohammed did not blanch at fratricidal war. The idolater, even though a brother, was doomed unless he gave up this practise, and to the believer belonged the idolater's goods. In this last was manifested Mohammed's shrewdness, making capital of the Arab's lust for plunder. Mecca was idolatrous, therefore its caravans were fair booty. When the Meccans retaliated, they were defeated by the appalling fury of the Moslems' attack. Thus the battle of Bedr (Jan. 13, 624) was the result of a raid in which Mohammed hoped to capture a rich Meocan caravan, but instead he found himself confronted by an unencumbered armed force of twice his own strength, over whom he won a decisive victory. Yet the Medina period was not one of unvarying success. Mohammed lost heavily in the‑ battle of Ohod (Jan. 625), when the Homish defeated the Moslems, and in some minor affairs his followers lost. This period was marked also by many assassinations instigated or sanctioned by the. leader and by wholesale slaughter of those opposed to him or whose wealth he coveted for his followers, including that of the Jews. These latter looked with scorn upon Mohammed's claim that he was reinstating the religion of Abraham, while in retaliation for treachery he had the men of a whole tribe, 800 in number, slaughtered in cold blood and their women and children sold into slavery, while the proceeds were divided among his followers. In self‑interest Arabs flocked to him, and he was soon ready to march upon Mecca, which he had already fixed upon as the center of the faith. In thus deciding, he was doubtless influenced by his kinship with the Koraish, also doubtless by the fact that in this method he was following the lines of least resistance and would eventually conciliate the Meccane.
The start for Mecca was made early in Jan., 633. The city fell easily, doubtless because of an arrangement with some inside who favored Mohammed, and in part because his force was too great to be resisted. A general amnesty was proclaimed from which ten persons were excluded,
4. Final though of these, through the interces‑
	Period.	sion of persons in Mohammed's own
		circle, only four were put to death.
The Kaaba was swept of all idols except the Black
Stone. The Koraish were conciliated and the tra
ditional privileges of the city as a religious center
were retained. The Medinans, to whose fidelity so
much was due, were disappointed, but were recon
ciled by Mohammed's impassioned appeals to their

Xohammed	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	438
loyalty and by his promise still to make his home with them. As master of Mecca., the center of pilgrimage and the sanctuary of all the Arabs, the prophet was able to dictate the terms on which the tribes might worship there. Taif, a rival stronghold of idolatry, submitted in Dec., 630, and its idol was destroyed. A last attempt to overturn the new religion, made by a confederation of tribes, was defeated with comparative ease. The tribes soon accepted Islam, since Mohammed's policy toward Arabs was‑conciliation if possible, but at any cost submission. In 631 the Kaaba was closed to all but Moslems. This act marked the peninsula as Mohammedan. Before the prophet's death all Arabia was at his feet; Christians and Jewish tribes were permitted to exist, but only upon condition of paying a heavy tribute.
The non‑Mohammedan estimates of the founder vary in all possible ways, some classing him among the most highly endowed prophets and others placing him with rank impostors. Of his mental abilities there can be no doubt‑the Koran
g. Char‑ is incontestable testimony to his
	acter.	powers as poet and orator, organizer
		and statesman; and this book, chron
ologically arranged, affords an index to his charac
ter and is the chart of his development from the
time when he began to write. His courage was
magnificent and seems to have failed him but once
(when he compromised temporarily with idolatry).
To preach against idolatry in its home and under
such circumstances to incur persecution for what
had become conviction, later to prohibit wine to
wine‑loving Arabs, still later to refuse compromise
when that seemed an easy way out of an apparent
impasse, to insist upon the absolute submission
which eventually unified Arabia‑these are marks
of a courage almost sublime‑paralleled, indeed,
perhaps often in the history of Christian religion,
yet none the less worthy of acknowledgment when
found in Mohammed. Not the least eminent of his
characteristics was his faith in himself and his mis
sion. Two meritorious qualities, aside from what
have been mentioned, were enthusiasm and patriot
ism. Once more, the loyalty which he inspired
among men of worth such as Abu Bekr is absolute
proof of his deep sincerity. Of his, spiritual nature
his abhorrence of idolatry and lofty doctrine of God
are sufficient evidence. On the other hand, Moham
med had many of the vices of his age and sur
roundings. He showed often a cold vindictiveness,
a savage insistence upon vengeance, and a severe
ruthlessness in procuring or permitting the whole
sale slaughter of his foes or of those whose property
he needed for his followers. His lenience after the
taking of Mecca was due not to motives of mercy
but to policy. Those who escaped the proscription
at that time owed their lives to the urgent inter
cession of Mohammed's trustiest friends, not to his
clemency. Of his early sincerity as a reformer there
can be as little doubt as of his courage. But he
failed under the test of success. His decline began
with the Medina period. The early Surahs of the
Koran, long after they pass the period of inquiry,
bear well the test of examination. But after success
seemed assured, they show advancing deterioration
in the prophet's character. Revelations thereafter were not always in the interest of the faith, they pandered often to Mohammed's desires. When he wished another wife, a revelation was forthcoming to sanction it. If former utterances stood in the path of present wish, the doctrine of abrogation permitted removal of the obstacle. When he desired the wife of his adopted son Zaid‑among Arabs a scandalous thing‑Surah xxxiii. sanctioned the divorce by Zaid of his wife that she might be free to marry the prophet. Four was the legal limit of wives for a believer, but the same Surah gave the prophet all license. And when old age and approaching death aroused his uxorious jealousy, though by Arab law a widow not only may but rather must marry, it was revealed for his comfort that his wives were to remain bereaved.
III. The Koran: There is no room to question that the Bible of Islam is the work of one man and that man Mohammed. The speaker, except in the prayer in the opening Surah and in a few scattered passages, is Allah. But as he is too exalted to speak directly even with his prophet, Gabriel is the medium of communication. The book, the claim runs, is not a new creation, but exists in archetype in heaven, fixed in the very essence of God, and was delivered piecemeal to the prophet. But the arrangement is due to the editor. Mohammed had not only memorized his own deliverances but had taught them to his followers. Necessarily many knew parts of the Koran, none knew all. When the prophet died, the utterances existed on scattered bits of leather, ribs of palm leaf, even on stones, and in the memory of the faithful. In the wars of revolt which followed the path of Mohammed, many who knew parts of the Koran perished, and Omar began to fear that it would be wholly lost. He therefore begged Caliph Abu Bekr to have it collected. From all the sources named Zaid of Medina, who was made editor, gathered it. But variant texts existed. A second edition was therefore made by Zaid with the help of three members of the Koraish tribe; this was made canonical, and all variants obtainable were destroyed. In the editing no principle was thoroughly carried out, the one that is partly observable being to place the longer Surahs first. The immediate acceptance of this text by those who had heard the original is fairly presumptive of its fidelity, especially in view of the antagonisms of the times. The claim is made by Mohammedans that its contents evince its entire and complete inspiration. Since it is spoken by Allah, it is absolutely and wholly true. As a historical monument the Koran is valuable for the light it throws upon the mentality of the prophet. Significant is the diffuse and prosaic character of the latest Surahs as compared with the concise, exalted, and poetic style exhibited by the earlier ones. As to the order in which the Surahs were delivered, it must be said that of five authorities, Jajalu al‑Din, Rodwell, Muir, N61deke, and Hughes, no two agree and Palmer favors a still different order. As to the originality it displays, there is now no doubt that while most of the matter is new, Mohammed wove into his deliverances bits of tribal tradition, popular sayings, legends beloved by the

439	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
people, and much that he had gathered from his converse with Jews and Christians, though in the latter case the real origin was apocryphal rather than canonical, while the Jewish matter was haggadic rather than derived from the Old Testament.
IV. The Religion: The coming of Mohammed was in a sense opportune. The local religions of the Arabs were growing effete. Allah was already known, but much in the same way as Baal was in
pre‑Israelitic Canaan‑each tribe might r. The call its own deity Allah, and a process Back‑ of unification had already begun.
ground. That this was due in part to the influ‑
ence of Judaism and Christianity is very probable. There were a number of Jewish tribes in Arabia, and to Arabs Jews were " the people of the book." Jewish accounts of Arab origins were accepted, and both peoples claimed Abraham as the common ancestor. That from the Jews in his early journeys the founder derived his tendency toward a rigid monotheism is at least possible; and Mohammedanism employs many Jewish theological terms. Christianity also, through two channels, affected Islam: (1) through the hermits whose huts and caves dotted the desert, while they themselves were respected by the nomads; (2) through the faith of the Abyssinians, whose country was the refuge of Mohammed's followers in the stormy times of the close of the first Meccan period. By Mohammed and his followers Jesus was recognized as a prophet second in honor only to Mohammed, while the devout Moslem never speaks of him without uttering the benediction " on whom be peace." But the complexion Christianity takes on as reflected in Islam is, like that of Judaism, apocryphal rather than as portrayed in the Gospels. A third source of Mohammed's inspiration was the Hands ‑a discovery comparatively recent. Hanif probably means " penitent," and the name was applied to men who, not constituting a sect, were scattered through Arabia as recluses, individual seekers after God. Among these men had developed belief in a deity like Allah, who was rising into lofty superiority above the idols of the tribes. The problems of sin and judgment were real to these Hanifs, and the practise of austerity and penitence were parts of their solution of the question. Through a cousin of Hadijah Mohammed came into contact with these men and their developing monotheism; and the light gained from Judaism and Christianity doubtless illumined for him the meditations of the Hanifs as communicated to him. His own rapid logic and invincible spirit conducted him to his own absolute monotheism, and the later steps followed as already indicated: instruction of his friends, public preaching, intensification of purpose through opposition, development at Medina, assimilation of elements not absolutely incompatible with the system, break with Judaism, politicalization of the faith, and the submission of Arabia.
The fundamental theological doctrine of Islam is the unity of God, whose will, declared by the prophet Mohammed, is law for man. The doctrine of God is intensely and baldly unitarian. Special points antagonized were the Christian trinity and the deity of Christ. Emphasis was laid upon the
sovereignty of Allah and his omnipotence. Allah was not a philosophic first cause, but a present
active agency ever working in his world a. The and accomplishing his purposes. In Theology other words, Mohammed's was a prao‑
		and its	tical, not a speculative monotheism.
	Implicates. Allah was sharply distinguished from
			his creation, and the latter included
evil as well as good. From no logical consequences
of this doctrine did the founder shrink. Right is
right not because of its essence but because Allah
decrees it. Hence Mohammedan predestination is
arbitrary in its absoluteness, acquiring the force of
fatalism. The practical result was the inspiration
of a magnificent but terrible courage. Arab war
riors went into battle convinced that their life‑span
was so definitely determined that whether they
stayed at home or went to the fight their hop would:
surely overtake them. This fanaticism was intensi
fied by the eschatology of the faith, which is gross,
crude, and vivid. Both heaven and hell are mate
rial, both are preceded by resurrection and judg
ment, through which all Moslems pass with success
‑though some may have to be purified in purgar
tory. But the warrior who dies in battle is sure of
paradise. It is to these facts that the dread of a '
jehad or holy war is due. Hell is in seven regions,
of which the first is purgatory; to hell all infidels
	(non‑Mohammedans) are destined. Heaven is across'
a chasm over which is a bridge broad and easy for
the believer, but shrinking to the width of a razor's
edge when infidels attempt its passage, and they
then fall from it into the fire which for them is
eternal. While the delights of the Moslem heaven
as portrayed in the Koran are sensual, there can be
no doubt that, as in other religions, the idea con
	veyed depends upon the mental and spiritual cul
ture 		}
ture of the individual. One may well compare the conceptions inspired in Christians by the reading of the Book of Revelation, though the adjectives sensuous and sensual well distinguish the views held by Christian and Mohammedans respectively. Surah xiii. proves that the prophet's heaven was not hounded by the delights of the senses. Another consequence of the doctrine of the unity of God was the prohibition of idolatry, both of the making and worshiping of images. The only inconsistency is the retention of the Black Stone of the Kaaba‑an inconsistency recognized and denounced by some of the sects of the religion. Equally a corollary of the doctrine of the absoluteness of deity is the angelology of Islam. Angels are a postulate of the faith. They are required as ministers of Allah, who is too exalted to accomplish his ends by personal ‑ministrations. The angelology is elaborate, the angelic beings are arranged in order of rank, with the archangels Gabriel, Michael, Israfil, and Asrael at the head, each of whom has duties here or hereafter in relation to mankind. There are also recording angels whose records appear as testimony at the judgment. Of angels of lesser rank there are hosts; besides these there are genii, good and bad. The devil is a fallen angel named Iblis.
Briefly, the four practical points of the Mohammedan creed are: (1) prayer five times a day; directed toward Mecca.; (2) almsgiving on a fixed

lcohammed	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	440
scale at least, above that scale according to one's inclination; (3) fasting in the daytime during Ramadan; (4) pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime. These things are regarded as most
firmly binding on all Moslems. By 3. System prayer, in Arabic, five times a day
of Practise. facing Mecca, the day is mortgaged to
God. Yet the prayers are short, therefore soon over, and consequently not burdensome. On Friday, in addition to the prayers, brief hortatory addresses or sermons are delivered in the mosques. But Friday is not a day of cessation from labor. There can be little doubt that the injunction to turn toward Mecca at prayer does much to support the observance of the injunction to make the pilgrimage. Equally faithful are Mohammedans in observing the command to bestow alms, a consequence of which is the large proportion of beggars found in most Mohammedan centers. In its social system Islam lags centuries behind because of its legitimation of polygamy, of divorce by the husband at will, and of slavery. The charter of Islam is the Surah numbered ix. by Sale, caiii. by Rodwell, and caiv. by Muir, and believed to be the last but one delivered. Moslems are to enforce conversion of idolaters with the aIternative of death, while to Jews and Christians the alternative is payment of heavy tribute. Force became the basis of the propaganda, the sword was the instrument. Hence the two characteristics which obtrude themselves in .contact of Moham. medanism with other faiths are fanaticism and intolerance. Yet it is not improbable that modern Mohammedan success in Africa is not wholly due to the sword. The function of this religion in world history seems to be that of disciplining peoples in a low stage of culture. Its fault is that it is an insuperable obstacle to progress beyond a certain stage. Christianity makes relatively few converts from its adherents.
V. Developments after Mohammed: While the primitive doctrine of Islam was as thus stated, that the Koran would continue alone to be the norm of action was not to be expected. This work summed up merely the phenomena within the founder's horizon. Consequently, just as in Christianity there grew up in the ecumenical councils and in the life of the Church norms as really authoritative in
belief and practise as the New Tester. The ment itself, so in Islam there came to Four Bases recognition four bases of authority,
of Doc‑ the Koran, aunnah, ijma, and kiyas.
trine and Sunnah, " custom, usage," sums up
Practise. the doctrine that so far as practicable
not only the injunctions but the practise of the founder is to be followed. This led to a collection of traditions respecting Mohammed, made in the third Mohammedan century, which were compared with the Koran, and this body of tradition, thus sifted, became equally authoritative with the Koran. Ijma is a word which is the Islamic equivalent of the Christian semper, ubique, et ab omnibus, or " universal assent." It is the collection of legal and doctrinal decisions made by the prophet, his companions, and their immediate successors. It is of three kinds, unanimity in opinion, in practise, and by
tacit consent. Where this unanimity exists with reference to any doctrine, that doctrine is as binding as any explicitly taught in Koran or sunnah. Kiyas is the Mohammedan equivalent of the Jew ish Talmud. It is a collection of inferences drawn from the more general pronouncements of Koran, sunnah, and ijma, meant to be applied to special calm such as may at any moment arise. It is therefore the interpretation of the other three collections applied to practical life. It will at once be noticed that these three additions to the Koran added immensely to the elasticity of the system.
At the death of Mohammed there were three possible candidates for leadership: Ali, nephew and son‑in‑law of the prophet, of whom it is said that Mohammed indicated him as leader before his death, but that the pronouncement was suppressed by Ayesha because Ali had accused
The her of unchastity; Omar, a father=inEarly law of Mohammed; and Abu Bekr,
	Caliphate.	father of Ayesha. Omar refused to
		stand, and Abu Bekr was elected. The
partisans of Ali were prevented from contesting the
election with arms only by the general revolt of the
tribes which left Mecca, Medina, and Taif the only.
faithful centers, While the revolt was quelled only
on the return of the army then operating in south,
ern Palestine. Under the first caliph (" succes
sor ") Arabia was once more united, ‑ and Persia,
Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and
Egypt came in large part under Moslem rule. Be
fore Abu Bekr died (634) he nominated Omar, who
was elected, the conquest of the countries named.
was nearly completed, and the erection of a Mos
lem state proceeded under the able administration
of Omar. At his death in 644, Ali was again a candi
date, but was defeated by Othman supported by
the Koraish, against whom uprisings at once be
gan, and Othman, detected in double‑dealing, was
slain (655). Ali was then elected, and his two rivals
fled to Persia and raised a revolt, but this was sup
pressed, Ayesha was captured and the two rivals
killed (656). The governor of Syria at this time
was Mu'awiya, holding a strong position because
of the better discipline of the Arabs who formed
his army. He espoused the cause of Othman, re
fused to acknowledge Ali as caliph, and an attempt
was made to arbitrate the dispute. Meanwhile Ali's
following became divided and a part deserted him,
while a conspiracy was formed to murder both
parties to the dispute and also the General Amr,
who was acting as arbitrator. Ali alone was killed,
though Mu'awiya was wounded. Ali's brother
Husain went to Mecca to assume the caliphate, but
he was slain and Mu'awiya was acknowledged in
his place. Thus Mu'awiya became the first of the
Ummayad caliphs (so named from Ummaya, great
grandfather of Mu'awiya), fourteen in number, who
ruled at Damascus till 750, and were succeeded by
the Abbasids (claiming descent from Abbas, uncle
of the prophet). Out of this contest, which involved
the first five caliphs, sprang the prime distinction
in Islam between Sumzah and Shiah, two forms of
doctrine which comprise between them all the lesser
distinctions or sects into which Islam has been and
is still divided. The Sum‑ah doctrine is that all

441	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xohammed
four of the first caliphs were legitimate; Shish holds that the office of caliph is not elective and not usurpable, that it comes by divine right and is spiritual, and that Ali was the first caliph or Imam, kept from his own by Ayesha, and finally dislodged by Mu'awiya.
Possibly the tradition is apocryphal which attributes to Mohammed the prediction that Islam would split into seventy‑two divisions, but for a man who knew his people as did the prophet the prediction is not improbable. Within his own lifetime the seeds of division were sown in the honor paid to the Muhajirs, " companions in the Hegira," who
went with him from Mecca to Medina 3. Shiites (together with the Ansar, " helpers,"
	and	who invited him thither); and in the
Sunnites. distinction of these from the converts
who accepted Islam because they must, among whom developed the Ummayads, so important in the very near future of Mohammed's time. The events of the succession created a party to whom the name "legitimists " may be applied, because they held that succession was through appointment by Allah and not through election by men. The election of the third caliph was a triumph for the Ummayads, his assassination and the election of the fourth caliph (Ali) was a triumph for the legitimists. The contest between Ali and Mu'awiya was fruitful in divisions. Thus the promise by Ali given to Mu'awiya, to submit his right to the caliphate to arbitration, evoked the active disapproval of a large party of his followers on the ground that the duly elected caliph had no right to submit to question his unquestionable right. These were the Kharijites, " seceders," who differed from the legitimists in that they held election to give an undisputed title. The Kharijites in turn continued for centuries to split into factions, each of which differed from the others on various counts, practical or theoretical, and their survivors in the present are the sect of Ibadites. But the great division was between Shiah and Sunnah, already defined. Shiah started as a political tenet, concerned primarily with the succession to the caliphate; but this had a theological basis, and naturally the distinction between Shiites and Sunnit~ became essentially theological. From the Shiah doctrine of the inherent right of Ali developed divisions in the body of Shiites according as the conception of Ali's personality varied‑Ali being regarded at one time as an incarnation of deity, at another as an Imam in whom the heavenly light existed (see BABISM), and so on‑or as opinions varied concerning the line through which legitimacy flowed, whether through descendants of Ali by his wife Fatima, the daughter of Mohammed, or through some other of Ali's descendants. The great freedom in Speculation which has always characterized Shiah contributed further to division into sects as pantheism and mysticism and rationalism evolved positions around which those to whom the variant doctrines appealed easily gathered. Especially fruitful of divisions was the doctrine of the Imamate, the two great parties of the " Seveners " and the " Twelvers " differing on the question whether the Imamate descended to the twelfth or only to the seventh
generation from Ali before it suffered occultation. The Druses (q.v.) and the Assassins are but extreme developments in the circle of Shiah. The distinction between Shiites and Sunnites in its total intra‑Islamic effect is that between the heterodox and the orthodox, the latter term being applicable to Sunnah doctrine alone. The Sunnites were, so to speak, driven into existence by the necessity of opposing Shiah tenets . and their developments. Hence Sunnites are the traditionalists of Mohammedanism, whose central position is that in the four bases of authority named above all necessary guidance is contained. But even while they thus explicitly disavowed philosophizing, this activity claimed its workers among them, and as differences of theory and practise grew up in the larger life opened up by Islamic conquests, discord arose, and the history of Sunnah is no less a story of division than is that of Shiah. But the Sunnites are by far the more numerous, constituting nine‑tenths of Mohammedan religionists.
The reasons for this great diversity of sects in a system theoretically so rigid as Mohammedanism may be given as follows: (1) Advance in culture through contact with the peoples of the world brought its immediate consequences in an acquired bent for speculative and analytical
4. Causes philosophizing‑not a native trait in of Sec‑ Semites (see ARABIA). Thus the im‑
	tarianism.	plicit contradictions in the Koran re
		specting predestination and free will,
the interpretation and methods of interpreting that
book, difficulties in eschatology‑all these chal
lenged individual opinion, prejudice, and passion,
and opened chasms between bodies of believers.
(2) The diversity in the human make‑up of the
great realm covered by the faith had its influence.
Peoples as diverse as the Negro races of Africa, the
Aryans and native races of India and Persia, Malays
and Mongolians own its away. Peoples so different
could not be expected to hold the faith in the same
way. An illustration of the modifications thus
brought in is furnished by Persia, where the de
cided trend of the mind of the Eastern Aryan toward
pantheism and the liking for the theory of reincar
nation have compelled Islam to include within its
fold believers in both these originally un‑Moham
medan principles. (3) The fanaticism which Mo
hammed evoked and fostered contributed to the
ardor with which any tenet once enunciated and
received with any degree of favor was embraced
and its propaganda carried on. (4) Coordinate ele
ments were the Semitic tendency to segregation and
the hugeness of the Mohammedan realm. Arabs of
unnumbered clans, Babylonians, Assyrians, Syrians,
Arameans, Copts‑indeed the whole Semitic world
except the Jews‑accepted the faith. Scission was
in the very material of which the fabric was built,
even if no account be taken of the alien races, each
with its own psychological history and categories
of religious intuitions. The mystery is not that
sects developed, but rather that the religion has
held together the hordes of Semites, not to mention
the swarms of other peoples whom it dominates.
From these roots therefore sprang division. Scho
lasticism developed, and logical, theological, and

Mohammed
Mohammedans	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	449
metaphysical discussion proved an orchard which bore apples of discord. Mutazilites denied in deity the existence of attributes and did not allow the truth of predestination; Jabarites were content to deny predestination; Sifatites maintained the existence of attributes and through it became the supporters of the rankest of anthropomorphic doctrines. Some sects, agaih, would interpret the Koran literally; others insist upon a thoroughgoing metaphorical exegesis; some again use here the literal, there the metaphorical, and are by both the others charged with inconsistency. The literalists descended to anthropomorphism; the metaphorists read Allah out of the world except as pantheism makes room for him. And yet the marvel is, that while a deadly hatred exists between Shiite and Sunnite, both unite in even a bitterer hostility to the " infidel " who denies the tenets of Islam. From the standpoints of Christianity and of missions, Islam presents perhaps the most difficult problem which they have to meet.
GEO. W. GILMORE.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The literature on the subject is enormous. An authoritative bibliography of some of the phases is given in the indispensable volume of D. B. Macdonald, Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory, pp. 358‑367, New York, 1903. On the founder consult: the lives by W. Muir, 4 vols., London, 1858‑61 (the classic; contains valuable introduction and notes; an abridged eel., Life of Mohammed from Original Sources, appeared, ib. 1877, and still further abridged, 1887); Syed Ameer AIL London, 1873, cf. his Life and Teachings of Mohammed, ib. 1881; A. Sprenger, 3 vole., Berlin, 1861‑69; T. N51deke, Hanover, 1863, cf. his Sketches from Eastern History, chap. ii., London, 1892; W. Irving, under title Lives of Mahomet and his Successors, New York, 1849‑50, often reissued. The preceding are of importance. Further literature on Mohammed is: G. Weil, Mohammed der Prophet, Stuttgart, 1844; B. SRint‑Hilaire, Mahomd et to Coran, Paris, 1865; R. B. Smith, Mohammed and Mohammedanism, London, 1874; J. Wellbausen, M mmad in Medina, Berlin, 1882; R. Krehl, Dae Leben~die Lehre dea‑Mohammeda, Leipeic, 1884; W. Koelle. mined and Mohammedanism. London,1889; H. P. Sm th, The Bible and Islam, chap i., New York, 1897; H. Gramme, Mohammed, new eel., Munster, 1904; D. S. Margolioutb, Mahomet and the Rise of Islam, London, 1905; R. Dueasae, Mahomet dons son temps, Geneva, 1909; Ibn Sand, Biographien Muhammade, eel. E. Sachau, vols. i.‑ii., Leyden, 1905‑09. The works on the Koran and on the religion usually contain sketches of the life of the founder.
Of the Koran the best eel. is that by G. Fluegel, Leipsic, 1834, often reprinted. Of English translations the best are by E. H. Palmer, in SBE, vole. vi., ix., and by J. M. Rodwell, London, 1879. Still of high value for its notes is the rendering of G. Sale, London, 1734, and often, e.g., 1882; valuable also is E. Lane, Selections from the Koran, ib. 1879. For introduction consult: G. Weil, Einleitung in den Koran, Bielefeld, 1878; E. Sell, Historical Development of the Quran, London, 1905; and for exegesis, E. M. Wherry, Comprehensive Commentary on the Quean, 4 vols., London, 188286. Consult further: T. N51deke, Geschichte des Qorans, GSttingen, 1860, 2d eel., eel. F. Schwally, part 1, Leipsic, 1909; W. St. C. Tisdall, Original Sources of the Quran, London, 1904; H. Hirschfeld, Beitrdtge zur Erkltirung des Korans, Leipsie, 1886.
On the religion: T. N51deke, Orientalische Skizzen, Berlin. 1892, Eng. transl., London, 1892; I. Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, 2 parts, Leipsic, 1889‑90; J. W. H. Stobart, Islam and its Founder, ib. 1878; T. P. Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, ib. 1885; W. St. C. Tisdall, The Religion of the Crescent, ib. 1895, new eel., 1906; T. W. Arnold, The Preaching of Islam, ib. 1896; R. F. Burton, Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to al‑Madinah and Mecca, 2 vols., London, 1898 (indispensable for insight into the character and psychology of the Arabs); E. Sell,
The Faith of Islam, ib. 1908; idem, Essays on Islam, Madras, 1901 (Sell's attitude is polemical); idem, The Religious Orders of Islam, ib. 1908; P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionegeschichte, i. 438‑538, Tiibingen, 1905 (contains sketch of Mohammed's life and a treatment of the Koran); A. N. Wollaston, The Sword of Islam, London, 1905; Die Kultur der Gegenwart, L, iii. 87‑135, Berlin, 1906; F. A. Klein, Religion of Islam, London, 1906. Special topics are discussed in: M. Wolff, Muhammedanische Eschatologie, Leipsic, 1872 (giving the ideas of the populace); C. Brookelmann, Geschichte der arabiachen Litteratur, Weimar, 1898‑‑99; T. J. De Boer, Geschichte der Philoaophie in Islam, Stuttgart, 1901, Eng. tranal., London, 1903; D. B. Macdonald, ut sup.; E. M. Wherry, The Muslim Controversy, London, 1905; H. Galla,nd, Easai sur lea Motaulites, Paris, 1906; E. Herzfeld, Samarra. Aufnahmen and Untersuchungen cum islomiechen Arehdologie, Berlin, 1907; L. Caetani, Annali dell' Islam, 2 vole., Milan, 1907; W. Eiekmann, Die Angelologie and Dnmonologie des Koram im Verglefeh zu der Engel‑ and Geiaterlehre der heiligen Schrift, Leipsie, 1908; T. N. Juynboll, Handbuch des ialamischen Gesetzes each der Lehre der scha f'itischen Schule, nebst einer allgemeinen Einleitung, ib. 1908; W. Niekrens, Die Engel‑ and Geister‑oorstellungen des Korans, Rostock, 1908; H. Saladin, Manuel d'art musudman, Paris, 1908; A. G. Leonard, Islam: her moral and spiritual Value, London, 1909; D. B. Maedonald, The Religious Attitude and Life in Islam, Chicago, 1909; H. R. Sayani, Hasan, Ibn Adham, and Junaid, in Saints of Islam, London, 1909; Carra de Vaux, La Doctrine de flslam, Paris, 1909. Consult further: H. P. Smith, The Bible and Islam, ut sup.; T. N61deke, Sketches, ut sup., chap. iii.; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap. 1.; Smith, Rel. of Sem, and Kinship; and the literature under ARABIA, especially Doughty. The new Enzyklopddie des Islam (in English, Encyclopedia of Islam, London) begun by T. Houtsma and A. Schaade, Leyden and Leipsic, 1908, has unfortunately suspended publication.

MOHAMMEDAN PROPAGANDISM AND OPPOSITION TO CHRISTIANITY: Two features distinguish Mohammedanism from all other non‑Christian religions, its bitter opposition to Christian teaching and its active missionary spirit. Islam is one of the great missionary religions of the world, and its spread may be divided chronologically into three periods. The first period was from the death of Mohammed, 632‑8()0; the second under the Ottomans and Moguls, 1280‑1480; and, lastly, the modern period from 1780 on. During the first period Islam triumphed in western Asia, North Africa, and western China. During the second it extended into Central Asia, India, Malay Archipelago, and southeastern Europe. Recent advance has taken place in Africa, Russia, Malaysia, and India. Islam is still aggressive and is overrunning districts once pagan. Its numbers are increasing in Bengal, Burma, South India, the East Indies, West Africa, Uganda, the Congo Basin, Abyssinia, and on the Red Sea coast. In West Africa and Nigeria missionaries know of a " Mohammedan peril."
To the modern Christian world, missions imply organization, societies, paid agents, subscriptions, reports, and the like. All this is absent from the present Moslem idea of propagation, and yet the spread of Islam continues. With loss of political power, the zeal of Islam seems to increase, for Egypt and India are more active in propagating the faith than are Turkey or Morocco. The three currents of present progress in Africa are along the Upper Nile from Zanzibar into the Congo Region, and up the Niger Basin. Five factors favor the spread of Islam in Africa: the strategical geographical position, the advantage of higher culture over paganism,

443	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Mohammed
Mohammedan
the favor of European colonial governments, the growth of race‑hatred against Europeans, and the low moral standards and pagan elements in Islam. All this applies, although to a less extent, to the spread of Islam in other parts of the world.
Mohammedan opposition and objections to Christianity either arise from unregenerate human nature, in common with all other religions, or spring from belief in Islam and ignorance of the true nature of Christian faith. The latter are by far the stronger obstacles, and include: objections assailing the genuineness of the Bible and its present authority, those directed against leading Christian doctrines, especially the Trinity and the need of the atonement; and objections based on the claim that Mohammed succeeded Christ as Christ did Moses. Nine out of ten of objections by Mohammedans come from the ineradicable tendency to look upon everything and interpret everything carnally. It is the task of the missionary to meet these objections, since they are not only urged orally by individuals, but are the basis of an immense antiChristian literature, which, although constantly shifting its ground of attack and defense, continues to spread in the Moslem world, chiefly from Cairo, Delhi, Constantinople, and Calcutta, as centers.
S. M. ZWEMER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. W. Arnold, The Preaching oflalam, Westminster, 1896 (a history of the propagation of the Moslem faith); W. St. Clair Tisdall, A Manual of the Leading Muhammadan Objections to Christianity, 2d ed., London, 1909; E. M. Wherry, Islam and Christianity in India and the Far East, New York, 1907; S. M. Zwemer, Islam. A Challenge to Faith, ib., 1907; F. WOrz, Die Ausbreitung des Islam in AJrika, in Allgemeine Misaionazeetschrift, Jan, 1910; Azharul‑Hak (an Arabic work against Christianity in 2 vols., published at Cairo, of which there are Persian and Urdi translations, and one in French issued at Paris) ; At Hidayah (an Arabic work in 4 vols. issued at Cairo; replying to Arabic polemics, especially to the Azharul‑Hak).
	MOHAMMEDANS, MISSIONS T0: The long
standing neglect of the Mohammedan world by those
engaged in Christian work is explained by the mutual
		hostility of the two religions (see CoM
	General PARATivE RELIGION, II., § 1). Yet
	Survey of the names of John of Damascus and
	Missionary Peter the Venerable (qq.v.) are mem
	Effort. orable for tha double fact that they
		studied Mohammedanism sympathet
ically and wrote against it in defense of Christian
ity. The former's " Conversation between a Sara
cen and a Christian " (MPG, xciv. 1585 sqq.) was
long the armory in the Eastern Church for contro
versial writings against Islam; while Peter was the
first to translate the Koran into Latin, ar~i he ad
vocated the translation of the Scriptures into the
language of the Saracens, treating also in his two
books against Mohammedanism (ed. J. Thoma,
Leipsic, 1896) the questions of the inspiration of
the Koran and the prophetship of Mohammed with
true insight. Raymond Lully (q.v.) was the first
to attempt actual missionary operations among
Mohammedans; he devised a philosophical system
to show to them the truth of Christianity, and es
tablished missionary colleges for the study of orien
tal languages. Five centuries of inactivity fol
lowed, and then came Henry Martyn (q.v.) as the
leader of a band of missionary pioneers in this field,
among whom Karl Gottlieb Pfander (q.v.) is especially worthy of mention not only for his personal efforts, but for his "Balance of Truth" which impressed not merely Persia but the whole Mohammedan world. Operations have been carried on since Martyn's day by the Church Missionary Society, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, the London Missionary Society, the Church of Scotland Mission, by American Presbyterians and Methodists, and English and Australian Baptists, the fields being India, Persia, Turkey, Africa, Arabia, and the East Indies.
In Persia (q.v.) work was attempted prematurely in 1834 by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, and in 1871 the work was taken up by the Presbyterians with
Special	some success, converts having been
	Fields.	gained, with also the result of some
		martyrdoms (cf. the story of Mirza
Ibrahim in R. E. Speer, Young Men who Over
came, New York, 1905). In 1875 the Church Mis
sionary Society opened work at Ispahan for Mos
lems, and Yezd, Kirman, and Shirza have been
occupied with large results. In Arabia (q.v.) the
pioneer missionary was Ion Grant Neville Keith
Falconer (q.v.), whose work has been continued by
the United Free Church of Scotland at Aden. The
American Arabian Mission (organized 1889) has
opened stations at Busrah, Bahrein, and Muscat,
and is working directly for Mohammedans, reaching
far inland by tours and hospital service. It has
twenty‑five missionaries on the field, three hospi
tals and three outstations. The Danish Church has
also opened work in this field. In the Turkish Em
pire (see TURKEY), the American Board occupies
European Turkey, Asia Minor, and eastern Turkey;
the Presbyterian Church, Syria; the Reformed
Presbyterians, northern Syria; and the Church Mis
sionary Society, Palestine. These together count
a total of nearly 700 missionaries, but until recent
years the difficulties of the problem and the terror
of the Turk prevented direct work for Moslems,
although by printing‑presses, schools, colleges, and
hospitals they have been reached indirectly and a
great work of preparation has been accomplished.
The entire population has the Bible in the ver
nacular. Hundreds of thousands have been taught
to read; the spirit of inquiry has been awakened,
and educational institutions have broken the fet
ters of superstition and ignorance and to a degree
emancipated womanhood. The proclamation of a
constitution and the deposition of the late sultan
have completely changed the attitude of the govern
ment, and by freedom of the press and religious
liberty made possible work which was forbidden
for centuries. The translation of the Scriptures
into Arabic, begun in 1848 and completed in 1865,
together with the Turkish and Persian versions,
marked an epoch in missions to the Mohammedan
world. Work in North Africa, among Moham
medans was attempted but abandoned by the Mo
ravians .and the Church Missionary Society as early
as 1825. The American United Presbyterian Church
missionaries reached Egypt in 1854, and their work
has spread along the entire Nile Valley with results

Molina Kohazamedaum	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	"4
chiefly among the Copts, but also among Moslems. Over 3,000 Moslem pupils attend their schools, and special literature for Moslems has been printed and distributed. In 1882 the Church Missionary Society resumed its work in Egypt directly among Mohammedans and has met with encouraging results. In 1880 work was begun at Algiers. It now has eighteen stations in Egypt, Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers, and Morocco, with nearly a hundred missionaries. The American Methodist Episcopal Church opened work in 1909 at Algiers. There are also smaller independent missions, and recently work has begun in the Sudan.
In Malaysia Sumatra and Java are the principal typical fields of work for Moslems. The Rhenish mission entered in 1861, and with other societies from the.Netherlands has gained over 30,000 living converts from Islam.
No direct missionary work has yet been carried on for the Mohammedans of Afghanistan and central Asia, western China, the Russian empire, central and western Arabia, and the central Sudan. In western Africa and in Nigeria every effort should be made to forestall the entrance of Islam into the pagan border‑lands before this religion renders evangelization tenfold more difficult. The situation is alarming, and every mission north of the equator in Africa will sooner or later be compelled to do direct work for Moslems or imperil its very existence.
From the standpoint of missions, Islam is unique (see MOHAMMED, MOHAMMEDANISM, I.). CODeequently missions to Moslems have a special character and require special methods and trained workers who have knowledge of the vernacular, Arabic, the Koran, the traditions, and the doctrine and ritual of Islam. While, because of the extent of the Mohammedan world, Moslem mis‑
Difficulties sion fields differ vastly one from anand other, yet in all the difficulties are
	Methods.	practically the same. These may be
		enumerated as: (1) the utter divorce
between morality and religion; (2) the intolerance
and pride of the Moslem creed which stands dia
metrically opposed to the spirit and teaching of
the Gospel; (3) the almost universal hostile atti
tude of the Moslems toward a convert from their
religion to Christianity, making it almost impossi
ble for Moslems to confess Christ without serious
risks; (4) the intellectual difficulties and popular
objections to Christianity, nine‑tenths of which are
due to the ineradicable tendency on the part of
Moslems to look upon everything carnally (they
misunderstand the Bible, misinterpret its spiritual
symbolism, and stumble at the doctrine of the Trin
ity, the incarnation, and the atonement); (5) finally,
in Turkey, Morocco, Perch, Tripoli, Afghanistan,
and parts of Arabia, the union between the tem
poral and spiritual power blocks effort. Apostasy
in Turkey until the proclamation of the constitu
tion was treason to the State. As regards methods,
the distribution of God's Word is efficient, inoffen
sive, strikes at the root of Islam, and is possible
nearly everywhere. Medical missions overcome
prejudice and have been fruitful in results as no
other agency. Educational institutions disinte‑
grate Islam. From the kindergarten to the university, all educational forces help to undermine that stupendous rock of ignorance and superstition, Moslem tradition. Street preaching is seldom possible, but the door of access to individual Mohammedans is open, and women missionaries find ready entrance into Moslem homes.
	In spite of long neglect and feebleness of effort,
the results direct and indirect have not been incon
siderable. The latter have been far greater than
the former and have in God's providence prepared
		the way for final victory. Much pre
	Results.	liminary work has been accomplished;
		nearly every strategic center has been
occupied; the Bible has been translated into every
language spoken by Moslems and has a constantly
increasing circulation among them. An important
apologetic literature has been prepared in the chief
literary languages; the attitude of the learned
classes has changed for the better, and the number
of inquirers and converts is steadily increasing. In
North India there are at least 200 preachers who
were once followers of the prophet. A special con
ference of missionaries from every part of the Mos
lem world met at Cairo in 1906, and from this con
ference dates a revival of interest in the study of
the subject, the reports and literature of the con
ference calling attention to the greatness and diffi
culty of this work. A similar conference is to meet
at Lucknow in January, 1911. S. M. ZWEMER.
BIHLIoaRAP87: M. Steinsahneider, Polamiache and apolopetische Litteratw in arabiacher Sprorhe swiachen Mudimen, Christen and Juden. Leipeic, 1877; A. Keller, Der GeiateekampJ' des Chriseantuma gegen den Islam bin sur Zed der Kreussape, ib. 1896; W. Muir, The Mohammedan Controversy, Edinburgh, 1897; idem, The Old and New Testaments . . . Moslems intuited to see and read them, ib. 1899; H. H. Jessup, The $ettinp o/ as Crescent and the Rising of the Cross; or, Bamid Abdul Messiah, Philadelphia, 1898; Imad‑ud‑Din, A Mohammedan Brought to Christ: an Autobiography . . . from the Hindustani... by the late Rev. R. Clark, London, 1900; J. Rutherford and E. H. f31enny, The Goa‑Pei in North Africa, ib. 1900; S. M. Zwemer, Arabia, as Cradle ofldam, New York, 1900; idem, Islam, a Challenge to Faith, ib. 1907; idem and others, Mohammedan World of Today: Papers read at the . . . Conjsrmce . . . at Cairo, . . , 1808, ib. 1906; J. Awetaranian, OeschwJde einee Muhammedanera der Christ wuade, Graeeliehterfeld, 1905; J. L. Barton, Daybreak in Turkey, Boston, 1908; Our Moslem Sidera: a Symposium, New York, 1906; C. R. Watson, Egypt and the Christian Crusade, Philadelphia, 1907; and the literature under LvtcT,
RAYMOND; MARTIN. HENRY; PFANDE6, KARL (io7r LinB; and also under MiesioNs To THE HAATEMN; and
MOHAMMED, MOHAMMEDANISM.
MOLANUUS, mo‑ld'nus, GERHARD, ger'hard, WALTER: Lutheran theologian; b. at Hamelin (25 m. s.w. of Hanover) Nov. 1, 1633; d. at Looeum (26 m. w.n.w. of Hanover) Sept. 7, 1722. He studied theology at Helmstfidt; and in 1659 was appointed professor of mathematics and theology in the University of Rinteln. In 1674 Duke John Frederick called him to Hanover as director of the consistory, and in 1677 he became abbot of Loccum, one of the most influential offices in the duchy. As a disciple of Calixtus, Molanus used his power to abolish the hostility which prevailed between the Lutherans and the Reformed. He was very active in aiding the Reformed, who after their expulsion from France by the revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685) found a refuge in the country of

¢¢fl	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	X°ahammedona
Hanover. Molanus was also commissioned by the duke to bring about a reconciliation between Protestants and Roman Catholics. The Roman Catholic representative was Christoph Rojas de Spinola (q.v.), who appeared in Hanover in 1676 and then in 1683. These discussions were followed in 1691, 1692, and 1693 by negotiations between Bossuet and Molanus, but no agreement resulted. Molanus found himself in agreement with Boesuet in regarding most of the differences between the Catholics and the Lutherans as misunderstandings or as different designations of the same content. But he did not regard the Council of Trent legitimate because the Protestants had been condemned without being heard, and because it had not been accepted by the entire Catholic Church. Molanus considered further negotiations in vain, as the Protestants would never concede the matter of communion under both species. On account of the spirit of conciliation which Molanus manifested in these negotiations, it was rumored that he had become Roman Catholic, and he had to defend himself publicly in letters and treatises. (A. HAucg.)
BraLIOaaAPBl: The correspondence between Molanue and Bonnet in in Migne'e ed. of Bossuet, ix. 809‑1070, Paris, 1868. A life of Molanus was written by J. J. von Einem, Magdeburg, 1734; a sketch is also given in K. A. Dolls, Labanabeachrefnp aller Professorum theolopia su Rinteln, ii. 331‑338, Hanover, 1752; and by Wagenmann in ADB, zxdi. 86 sqq.
MOLINA, LUIS, MOLINIISM: A Spanish Jesuit, and his doctrine of the relation of divine grace to the human will. Two efforts had already been made to reconcile the teachings of Augustine with the Semipelagianism dominating the moral tradition of the Church‑by the Spanish Thomist Didacus Deza (bishop successively of Salamanca and Valencia), and by the Belgian Michael Bajus (q.v.). A new phase of the controversy began with the appearance of the LdreK arbiWi cum gralite donis, diroina prtsacieWia, providerdia, prtedestinatione, et reprnbatione mncordia (Lisbon, 1588) of the Jesuit Luis Molina. Born at Cuenca (100 m. n.w. of Valencia) in 1535, Molina entered the Society of Jesus in early life, studied theology with distinction at Coimbra, and became professor there. He taught Thomistic philosophy at Evora twenty years, and finally was called to Madrid, where he was professor of moral theology until his death, Oct. 12, 1600. He wrote many works, including De juatuia et lure (6 vols., Mainz and Antwerp, 1593‑1609), and a commentary on the first part of the Summa of Thomas Aquinas (Cuenca, 1592, and often), but his greatest fame was won by the Lrberi arbitrii, which ran through repeated editions (e.g., Cuenca, 1592; Lyons, 1593; Venice, 1594, 1602; Antwerp, 1595, 1609, 1715; Paris, 1876). Strictly speaking, the work is a commentary on certain sections of the Summa of Thomas Aquinas, through which Molina endeavors to harmonize Augustine and Semipelagianism.
God's knowledge determined by his will, being the source of all things, is also the basis of the free acts of man. Through the cooperation of God (see CoNcvasvs Drvmus) man, even though not in a special state of grace, can accomplish some moral good; and when the free will is prepared by
its natural faculties to accept all that appertains to faith, repentance, and justification, the necessary grace and aid for immortal life are given by God. This aid, however, is not the result of any human merit, but only of the merit of Christ, for whose sake God gives man grace whereby he may experience the supernatural working of salvation. Nevertheless, the free will is unceasingly active even with this gift and growth of grace; and it is in human power to render the help of God effective or noneffective. Justification, moreover, depends on the union of will and grace.
The doctrine here sketched was a distinct modification of the unconditional predestination taught by Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, since it holds that God has given the power of cooperating freely in their own salvation to all those who he foresaw would surrender their will to his grace. In this theory Molina was aided by the hypothesis, known by his name and developed and applied by him, though borrowed from his teacher Fonseca, of " intermediate knowledge." According to this, God perceived, from his. inscrutable survey of every free will in his essence, what each one would do of his own free will. God, therefore, saves or condemns men according as he knows that under their conditions they will be good or evil. Predestination thus becomes the gracious will of God, which is conditioned by the divine foreknowledge, and thus takes into consideration the free will of man.
While the attempt was thus made to blend strict Augustinianism with popular Roman Catholic synergism, and while the new doctrine gained favor by its antitheses to the views of Calvin and Luther, its Semipelagiani8m was attacked, not only by such Jesuits as Henriquez of Salamanca and Mariana of Toledo, but especially by the Dominicans. A public disputation was held at Valladolid, and complaints of the book were even lodged with the Holy Office. In 1594 all controversy on the subject was forbidden until the Church should decide, and in 1596 all documents were submitted to Clement VIII. So difficult was the problem, however, that in 1598 a special Congregatio de auxiliis grants was appointed, before which Jesuits and Dominicans pleaded in countless sessions in the interests of their orders. The congregation came to an end in 1607, but since it did not give the decision which it had promised, Paul V., in 1611, absolutely forbade all further discussion of the theme. The controversy was revived by the works of Hyacinthe Serry and Gerhard Schneemann (see bibliography).
(O. MCglsat.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: K. Werner, Thomas won Aquin, iii. 378 sqq, Regensburg, 1858; idem, Brans Suares and die Sdolaaib der lefsten Jahrhunderte, i. 244 eqq., Vienna, 1881; Angus. tin Is Blanc (pseudonym for Hyacinthe Berry), Historia conprepalionis de auxiiiis pratio, Louvain, 1700; G. Schnee. mann, Die Entstekunp and Enturickelunp der domistiarhmolinistieden %ontrovarsie. Freiburg, 1879‑80; T. de Rsgnon, Barnes and Molina, Paris, 1883; idem, Ban. nesianisme et Molinisme vol. i., ib. 1890; P. Schanz, in TQ, 1885, i. 141 eqq.; F. H. Reusch Der Index der very botenen Bacher, ii. 45~18, 298‑309. Bonn, 1885; H. Gayraud, Thotnisme et molinism, Paris, 1890; Feldner, in Jahrbuch Jar Philosophic and speculative Thedapis, v (1889), 282‑332; Ranks. Popes, ii. 89 eqq.; %L, viii. 1731‑50.

Xolinoe
Molooh	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	448
MOLINOS, MIGUEL DE: The founder of Spanish quietism; b. at Saragossa Dec. 25, 1640; d. at Rome Dec. 28, 1697. The son of noble parents and educated at Coimbra, where be received his doctorate in 1669 or 1670, he settled at Rome, where he gained the friendship of distinguished ecclesiastics, through his personal piety. Among
Life and his patrons was Benedetto Odeschal‑
	Writings.	chi, who ascended the papal throne as
		Innocent XI. in 1676. In the previ
ous year Molinos had published the work on which
his fame rests‑the Guida spirituale, the disinvolge
l'anima a la conduce per l'interior camino all aquisto
dells perfetta ‑contemplazione a del ricco tesoro della
pace interiore (Rome, 1675; Eng. transl., The Spir
itual Guide which Disentangles the Soul, and Brings
it by the Inward Way to the Getting of Perfect Con
templation, and . . . Internal Peace, London, 1688,
and often; reprint, Glasgow, 1885; Golden Thoughts
from the Spiritual Guide, Glasgow, 1883). To
this was usually appended (after 1687) the Breve
trattato della cottidiana communione. Though pub
lished with reluctance by Molinos, both works
proved most popular among Protestants as well
as Roman Catholics. Long before the appearance
of the " Spiritual Guide " the Jesuits had begun
their propaganda in France against Jansenism
and mysticism as well as against Protestantism.
Even Molinos' favor with the pope and the esteem
in which he was held as a priest and confessor in
Rome could not prevent the Jesuits from regarding
his concentration on inward piety to the neglect of
outward religion as perilous. The first formal at
tack was by the Jesuit Paolo Segneri, in his Cony
cordia tra la fatica a la quiete nell' oratione (Bologna,
1681). Feeling ran high in favor of Molinos, and
the Inquisition appointed a committee to investi
gate the writings of Molinos and the Contemplazione
mistica acquistata of his friend Petrucci, bishop of
Jesi. The result was a complete approval of the
writings of Molinos and Petrucci (1682) and the
more or less complete condemnation of the polemics
against them.
The struggle was now transferred from literature to the political arena. In 1585, at the instance of Pbre La Chaise, Louis XIV. urged the pope to proceed against Molinos' doctrines, which Teachings were endangering the Church. At first Condemned. referring the matter to the tribunal of the Holy Office, Innocent soon found that his favor to Molinos gave rise to suspicions of himself, and felt himself obliged to change his course. In 1685, accordingly, Molinos was placed under arrest. His position was rendered still more grave by the revelations of some 20,000 letters from all parts of the Roman Catholic world, showing not only the wide diffusion of his mystical teachings, but also their danger for the Church and even for morality. Molinos was now kept in confinement until he should recant, and in Feb., 1687, about 200 persons, some of high rank, were suddenly arrested by the Inquisition for " Quietism." In August of the same year the Inquisition pronounced its condemnation, and three months later the verdict was confirmed by the pope. Molinos escaped the stake by recantation, probably in harmony with
his own teachings of submission, but was confined in a Dominican monastery until his death. While the records of the trial have never been published, though preserved in manuscript at Munich, the nineteen articles of accusation issued by the Inquisition (La Condemnation du Docteur Molinos et de la secte des Quietistes, Cologne [7], 1687), and the sixty‑eight propositions on which the condemnation was based (reprinted from the decree of the Holy Office as an appendix to A. H. Francke's Latin translation of the Guida spirituale, Manductio apiritualis, Leipsic, 1687, and repeatedly since, e.g., in H. Denzinger's Enchiridion symbolorum, pp. 266274, Wtirzburg, 1888), suffice to show that the unfavorable verdict was rendered partly because of unhappy expressions and partly because of pas. sages where misinterpretation might readily have been distinguished from true opinion. In any case a man who declared that meditation, confession, and outward mortifications were only for tyros, and who counseled monks and nuns to discard their rosaries and relics to serve God inwardly, could only have been regarded by the Jesuits as perilous to the traditions of the Church and as opening the way for the inroads of Protestantism. The excitement roused by his trial at a time when the continued triumph of the Jesuits and the still undecided struggle between papal authority and the Gallican Church formed the center of attention, was intense among both clergy and laity. In Germany this interest was heightened by the affinity between Molinos and the Pietists, who, feeling the common bond of inward piety, saw in Molinos an innocent victim of Jesuit intrigue. The persecution of his adherents lasted into the eighteenth century.
The teachings developed by Molinos in his Guida spirituale are based on principles adopted (on a Neo‑Platonic basis) by the Church,
His developed by Dionysius the AreopaDoctrines. gite, and maintained more or less by the foremost ecclesiastical authorities. Mystical phenomena and testimonies were especially rich in Spain in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; and Molinos himself was deeply influenced by St. Theresa (q.v.), St. John of the Cross, the Mexican hermit Gregorio Lopez (d. 1596), and Madame de Chantal. Otherwise his sources were such fathers and mystics as Augustine, Thomas Aquinds, Bernard, Dionysius the Areopagite, and Bonaventura; and the true bases of his doctrines were simple experiences of Christian piety. Endeavoring to reconcile the life of active service with the life of contemplation, Molinos seeks in his " Spiritual Guide " to show the way to inward peace. This way is fourfold: prayer, obedience, frequent communions, and inward mortification. Yet he is so far from urging abstraction from external affairs of life, that he characterizes the exercise of one's ordinary calling, provided it be done with true inward concentration and devotion to the divine will, as " virtual prayer." At the same time, he is in harmony with those who see the highest degree of mysticism in an inward abstraction which even excludes either theoretical speculations on the Godhead or practical longing for it. From meditation, necessary for the beginner, the mystic must pro‑

447	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Mo11nos
		XOIOoh
need to contemplation. As a practical counterpart
to this, there must be a progressive resignation to
the divine will. Thus there is an earthly counter
	part to the bliss of the saints in heaven, " the only
difference being that they see face to face, we in
dim faith." In this way the requirement to ab
stain from speculation on, or longing for, the God
	head looses its harshness, and at the same time
Molinos gives a rational basis to hypermysticism.
	Finally, the author advances to the still more ab
struse height of " passive infused contemplation,"
a state of complete quietism and resignation in
	which contemplation has become habitual. At the
same time Molinos clearly sees the dangers that be
	set the contemplative life‑aridity, dim faith, and
	the temptations of the world. In obedience, abso
	lute subjection to the father confessor and subjec
	tion of self‑will are required by Molinos as by many
others.	External mortifications, being too often
	mixed with this self‑will, and even confession are
	enjoined by him only for beginners, the latter being
	merely a preparation for inward peace. Frequent
	communion, on the other hand, is recommended,
	because of the ineffable mystery in which the in
	finite God becomes incarnate in the finite creature.
	(O. Z6CKLERt.)
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Bigelow, Molinoa the Quietist, New York,
	1882; G. Burnet, Three Letters concerning the Present State
	of Italy, Written . . . in 1687 Relating to the Afair of
	Molinos, and the Quietists (London?), 1688; J. M. Guyon.
	The Life of Lady Guyon . . . . to which are added . . . the
Lives of Worthy Persona . .	, 2 vols., Bristol, 1772;
	J. B. Bossuet, Instruction cur lea &aft d'oraison, Paris,
	1687; idem, (Euvrea, xxvii. 493 sqq., Versailles, 1817;
	C. E. Welamann, Memorabilia eccleaiaatica, vol. ii., Stutt
	gart, 1745; K. E. Scharling, M. de Molinoa, Gotha, 1855;
	H. Heppe, Geachichte der quidiatiachen Myatik in der katho
	lisehen Kirche, pp. 110‑135, 26G‑282, Berlin, 1875; Men
	endea Pelayo, Hiat. de loa hderodoxaa BepaRolas, vols.
	iii.‑iv., Madrid, 1880; F. H. Reuseb, Index der verbotenen
	Bacher, ii. 610‑619, Bonn, 1885; E. de Brogue, J. Ma
	billon d la eociM de 1'abbaye de 3t. Germain, i. 397 sqq.,
	Paris, 1888; J. Kbhler, in 2KG, 1898, pp. 572‑595; R. A.
	Vaughan, Hours with the Mystics, ii. 171, 180, 242, 245,
8th ed., London, n.d.; KL, viii. 1750‑57.
MOLL, WILLEM:	Dutch Protestant; b. at
	Dort Feb. 28, 1812; d. at Amsterdam Aug. 16,
1879.	After completing his theological education
	at the University of Leyden in 1836, he was pastor
	at De Vuursche, Utrecht, from 1830 to 1839, when
	illness forced him to retire. A few months later,
	however, he was able to go to Heidelberg, where he
	studied until the autumn, when he returned to De
	Vuursche and resumed his charge. Here he wrote
	his Geschiedenis van het kerkelijke leven der Chris
	tenen gedurende de zes eerste eeuwen (2 vols., Amster
	dam, 1844‑‑46); but his intention to continue the
	work to modern times was never carried out. After
	a brief pastorate at Arnheim in 1845‑46, Moll was
	appointed professor of theology at the Athenaeum
	Illustre at Amsterdam, where he remained until his
	death, declining a call to Leyden in 1860. Although
	lecturing for many years on exegesis. and dogmat
	ics, his favorite subject was church history, and as
	an author he devoted himself almost exclusively
	to the pre‑Reformation period in Holland. Here
	belong his Johannes Brugman en het godadienstig
	leven onzer vaderen in de vijftiende eeuw (2 parts,
	Amsterdam, 1854). and his Kerkgeaehiedenis van
Nederland voor de Herforrning (6 vols., Arnheim,
1864‑71), both of which consider not merely the
external course of events, but also take into ac
count the development of spiritual life, motives,
and other phases of internal history. Deserving
mention are two essays in the publications of the
Amsterdam Academy of Sciences, of which Moll
was a member and vice‑president twenty‑four
years, Gozeloijn Comhaer, een Nederlander aan het
hoofd der kerk van Ysland (1877) and Geert Groote's
didaehe vertalingen (1880).	Moll was also the
author of De musica sacra in ecclesia Protestantium
ad exemplum veterum Christianorum ernendanda
(Leyden, 1834) and Angelus Merula, de hervormer
en martelaar des geloofs (Amsterdam, 1851). To
gether with some of his pupils, he founded, in 1853,
a society for the study of the church history of the
Netherlands, which lasted until 1868, and pub
lished, under his guidance, Kalender voor de Protes
tanten in Nederland (8 vols., Amsterdam, 1856‑63)
and Kerkhistorische jaarboekje (2 vols., Sehoonhoven,
1864‑65). 	(J. G. R. Acduoyt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. G. R. Aequoy, in the Jaarboek van de
koninklijke Akademie van wetenechappen for 1879, pp. 66137; F. Nippold, Die r6misch‑kafholiache Kirche im K6nigreich der Nederlanden, pp. 486‑489, Leipsie, 1877; Rogge, in Mannen van beteekenis in ones dagen, Haarlem, 1879.
MOLLER (MOELLER, MUELLER), HEINRICH:
Supposed formerly to be the proper name of Henry of ZiAphen. Accordingly Henry was credited with the authorship of the hymn, " Hilf Gott dass mir gelinge," as the initial letters of the lines spell Heinrich Muler, and the song closes with " has Heinrich Moller sung in his prison." As Moller was not the name of Henry of Ziitphen, Henry could not have composed this song, or the two others attributed to him by Wackernagel, which are written in high German. For further treatment see ZCTPHZN, HENRY OF.
The authorship of the above‑mentioned poem was attributed by Johann Christoph Olearius to Heinrich Moller, professor of Hebrew at Wittenberg, 15601574, who died in Hamburg, 1589, as a result of imprisonment during the crypto‑calvinistic controversy (see PHILIPPISTB); but as the poem was printed in 1527 and this Heinrich Moller was born in 1530, the conjecture is not tenable, and the au= thorship of the poem is still undetermined.
(CARL BERTHEAB.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. F. Iken, Heinrich von Zittphen, Halle,
1886; ADB, xxii. 554, 758 sqq.
MOLOCH, MOLECH.
The Problem (§ 1). Old‑Testament Mention (1 2). Pronuneiatiqn of the Word (¢ 3). Compounds of Mlk (§ 4). The Cult ($ 5). Date of Introduction into Israel (1 6).. Source of the Cult (1 7). Basis in National Conscience (¢ 8).
According to the common conception, Moloch (Hebr. Molek) . is the name of a West‑Semitic deity whose cult was introduced into Israel. between the time of Solomon and Ahaz and was practised by both king and people. The existence of this deity has been universally assumed from early Christian times, probably even from the period of the Greek

solooh	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	448
translators of the Old Testament, down to a very recent date. But in the present century mainly, close study of the Old‑Testament text
x. The and of the cults of peoples into con‑
	Problem.	nection with whom the Hebrews
		came has raised the question whether a
deity of that name existed or whether a rite in
volving human sacrifice from a source not hitherto
understood was superposed upon the worship of
Yahweh in much the same manner as the Baal
cults were associated with it (cf. Jer. nix. 5, which
asserts that the Hebrews "burnt their sons with
fire for burnt offerings unto Baal "). In the latter
case, this rite was imported from abroad from the
worship of some deity (or deities) whose proper
name was not Moloch or Molech, but one to whom
the title " king " was applied much as " Baal " was
applied to different local deities.
An examination of the passages in which the name occurs or in which there is mention of the rites belonging to this worship is necessary. As a preliminary it is to be remarked (1) that the consonants of the word rendered " Moloch " are those which compose the word for " king,"
z. Old‑ and (2) that the article is attached in Testament every case where " Moloch " is read
	Mention.	except one (I Kings xi. 7), where it is
		practically certain that the reading
should be Milkom, " Mileom," and not Molek,
" Moloch " (Septuagint, A, Melcho; Lucian, Mel
chom). The only textual differentiation between
the Hebrew word for " king " and " Moloch " is
the pronunciation, concerning which it is to be re
membered that the punctuation of the Hebrew text
is at best as late as the sixth Christian century (see
BIBLE TExT, I., 2, 1 2). In the following passages
the reading in the Hebrew is molek with the article:
Lev. xviii. 21, xx. 2, 3, 4, 5 (Gk. archon, "ruler,"
"king "); I Kings xi. 7 (see above); II Kings
xxiii. 10 (Lucian, Melchom); Jer. xxxii. 35 (Septua
gint conflate reading tai Moloch bas" " to Moloch
king "). In these passages the characteristic prac
tise associated with the name which is forbidden
or denounced is the " giving of one's seed to Mo
lech (Moloch) " or " making one's son or daughter
to pass through the fire (i.e., offering by fire) to
Molech." With the preceding eight passages are
to be taken the numerous places which refer to
offering son or daughter by fire without stating spe
cifically to which deity the offering is made. The
representative passages are Deut. xii. 31, xviii. 10;
Ps. exxgvi. 37; Is&. lvii. 5; Jer. vii. 31, nix. 4‑6; Ezek.
xvi. 21, xx. 26, 31; cf. II Kings xvii. 31. In many of
these the rites are localized in " the valley of Ben
hinnom," or at " Tophet (Topheth) in the valley
of the son (sons) of Hinnom." In all probability
the early name of this place was Tapheth, the vo
calization coming from the Jewish practise of read
ing bosheth, " shame," wherever the word occurs.
The meaning of Tophet is uncertain, but the ren
dering " fireplace " is provisionally proposed (cf.
Isa. xxx. 33). It is conjectured that the name Ben
hinnom is connected with the rites performed there,
and that the element hinnom is derived from the
root naham, " to groan." The later name of the
locality was Gehenna (q.v.), distinctively a " place
of burning," which with Tophet came to be applied figuratively to the place of eternal punishment. Certain passages other than those quoted are read in the light of these as referring to the same cult. Thus, Isa. xxx. 33, where Tophet is mentioned, is regarded as referring to the cult elsewhere associated with Moloch, but the word is pointed so as to read " the king." There is some question as to Isa. lvii. 9. The chapter is one in which various forms of idolatry are mentioned, and " the king " probably refers to the deity with whom the sacrifice of children is associated (cf. verse 5). Amos v. 26 is difficult; the Hebrew reads malkekem, " your king," Septuagint Moloch (the first appearance of this form, quoted by Stephen in Acts vii. 43); A. V., " ye have borne the tabernacle of your Moloch," margin and R. V., " Siecuth your king." Another verse concerning which two opinions are possible is Zeph. i. 5, where the Hebrew text reads malkam (Septuagint Moloch, Metchom, thus showing a wavering between Moloch and Milcom; A. V., R. V., " Malcham," R. V. margin " their king "). The Hebrew here is susceptible of the pointing which makes of it the name of the Ammonite deity Milcom (q.v.)‑not an impossibility, but it is better, considering the date of Zephaniah (q.v.), viz., in the period when this form of sacrifice was prominent (see below), to render the last part of the verse " which swear to Yahweh and swear by their (divine) king," or, still better, to read " which swear (we are) Yahweh's (people), and swear by their (divine) king." In this case, the reference would be to the practise under consideration in combination with the worship of Yahweh.
According to the above, in eight passages the Hebrew is vocalized Modek. Outside of the Hebrew Old Testament, the versions, the quotation in Acts vii. 43, and writings based upon these
3. Pro‑ sources, this pronunciation or that
nunciation rendered " Moloch " has not been of the found. Moreover, the versions are
	Word.	discrepant in their renderings, the
		Septuagint in particular showing a
confusion and an uncertainty between a form cor
responding to Moloch and one corresponding to Mil
aom. Accordingly it has by critical scholars been
accepted that the pointing of the Masoretic text
has arisen from an understood Keri (see KERI AND
KETHIHH) by which. in place of the textual mdk
(however it was pronounced), there was read the
word bosheth, " shame," to recall the idolatry of the
cult; and then the vowels of the Keri were used by
the Masoretes to point the consonants of the text.
This is supported by several considerations: (1) by
the known usage of the Hebrews in such cues.
(2) By the fact that Tophet is similarly pointed,
though both Septuagint (Thapheth, Tapetk, Thaph
pheth) and Syriac (Tappath) suggest a different
vocalization. In other words, both to the name
of the assumed deity and to the chief place of his
cult the vowels of the word bosheth were applied.
(3) By the conjunction of the article with the word
in all the undoubted cases of its occurrence, while
it is against the genius of the Hebrew to employ
the article with proper names. If this reasoning be
correct, the above facts reduce to the statement

449	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Moloch
that the practise in question was one in honor of a deity one of whose titles was hammeZek, " the king," whoever this deity was. Several considerations point to the application of this title to a number of West‑Semitic deities, one of which is the case of Milcom (q.v.), whose name appears to be formed from the word, while a salient case, to be discussed later, is that of Melkarth (" king of the city ") of Tyre; and the method was not dissimilar from that by which Baal was applied to these and other gods.
Much stress has been laid upon the fact that the word, the consonants of which form the assumed god‑name Moloch and the word for " king," is a frequent element in names, some of them divine, among the West Semites. Thus it appears in the
Palmyrene Mlk‑'el, " Mtk is god," or
	4. Com‑ " a king is god " (M. Lidzbarski, Norct
	pounds	semitische Epigraphik, Berlin; 1898);
	of Mlk.	among the West Syrians occurred the
			names Adrammelech, " Adar is king "
and Anammelech, " Anu is king " (II Kings xvii.
31); in early Canaanitic history and among the
Philistines were such names as Abimelech (Gen. xm,
xxi., xxvi.), as also among the Hebrews (Judges
viii. 31, ix.; I Chron. xviii. 16); kings of Byblos
are known with the names Mlkshp' and Adarmlk,
while other names from the same locality are Urumlk
and the Grecized form Melkdrthm (which gives a
clue to the pronunciation and is against the pro
nunciation Moloch or Molech). The Tyrian Mel
karth (melek karath, " ° king of the city," Gk. Met
kwthm) is of great importance here, not only because
it was probably from his worship that the cult was
imported into Israel (see below) but because of the
light which the formation of his name throws on
the use of mlk as a divine name or as an element
in such names. Mlk does not occur among Pheni
cians as in itself a divine or human name, only as
an element in compound names; an instance of
the occurrence alone as a proper name is found in
the Hebrew in I Chron. viii. 35. In this usage mlk
is to be compared with Baal, which was not orig
inally a proper name (see Baal, § 2) but came to
be applied to the local divinity in many places as
his name. It is inherently probable that the same
process was carried out with metek, " king," so that
it, too, in conjunction with a further element, be
came practically a proper name. The forms Baal
m1k, " Baal is king," Melchizedek, " a king is (the
god) Zede$ "(7) or "Melek is righteous" (cf. Zedo
kiah, " Yah[weh] is righteous "), ,Zdkmlk, " (the
god) 7ede$ is king," Mlkythn, " Mlk has given,"
or " the king has given," Gdmdk, " Gad is king "(7),
Malik‑mmmu, the name of an Edomitic king given
on the Taylor prism of Sennacherib, Mlkb`b, a deity
of Palmyra, 'bdmlk, " servant of Mlk " (quite de
cisive of m1k as a divine name), and 'hthmlk, " sis
ter of mlk," from a (Phenician7) seal of the seventh
century, are excellent examples from West Semitic
sources and finely illustrate the use as a divine
name or title of the word under consideration. It
is pertinent that Malik is the Islamic name for the
watchman of the lower regions. An array of names
partly inclusive of the foregoing has been supposed
to show that a deity Moloch or Molech was widely
worshiped among the West Semites. But the argu
		VII.‑29
ment fails for three reasons: First, the pronunciation of that element in the names cited is seldom known. In cases where these names are cited as compounded with Moloch, the pronunciation is assumed. Two excellent examples of this are given in Vigouroux, Dictionnaire, fasc. xxvii., col. 1226, where " Moloch‑Baal " is twice given as the reading, though the text is unpointed and only mlkb'l appears in the inscription. Second, where the pronunciation is given at all, it does not appear in the form molok or molek, but in a form which suggests the local pronunciation of the word for "king," as in Melkarth; in the absence of definite knowledge of such a deity, the probabilities are against the vocalization assumed. Third, compounds apparently of the form cited above appear in the early periods of Hebrew history, though no trace appears of such a cult as that under discussion. Thus there are Melchishua, " king of help " or " Melek is help " (I Sam. xiv. 49); Abimelech (cited above). They exist also in the later periods, when there are met Nathan‑melech, " a king has given " (II Kings xxiii. 11); Malchiram, " my king is exalted" or " Melek is exalted " (I Chron. iii. 18); The Ebedmelech of Jer. xxxviii. 7, xxxix. 16 is a Cushite (" Ethiopian "), whatever that may mean (see Cuss), and so can not be counted to Israel; but his name extends perhaps the area in which this form was used; and in this particular it is to be put with Regemmelech (tech. vii. 2). But Malchiah or Malchijah (I Chron. vi. 40, ix. 12; Ezra x. 25 and elsewhere) is Jewish. These are possibly to be brought into connection with the application of the honorific title of king applied to Yahweh (see below, § 8). The sum of the foregoing discussion is therefore adverse to a vocalization of the word in the form Moloch or Molech, and implicitly against the existence of a deity known by that name.
The cult in Israel, it is clear, was the sacrifice of children, often if not invariably the first‑born, by fire. Ezek. xvi. 20‑21, xxiii. 29 (cf. Isa. lvii. 5) seem to imply that the victims were killed before being placed in the fire; and the verb saraph in passages like Jer. vii. 31, xix. 5; cf. 5. The Cult. Deut. xii. 31 would indicate merely the characteristic method of completing the offering. Closer description of the method of making the offering as practised among the Hebrews is not obtainable, and the Christian and rabbinic accounts lack historical basis. At
Carthage, a Phenician colony, according to Diodorus Siculus (B2bliotheke histarike, xx.14) the method was to place the victim on the hands of a colossal image, whence it rolled into a furnace of fire beneath. The Hebrew accounts furnish no basis for the supposition of such a method in Israel, and so notable an image could hardlykave escaped description by the prophets. If the derivation of the practise was
from Melkarth's worship (see below, 1 7), it is to be noted that this deity was probably a sun god and that therefore his worship by fire was natural and appropriate. His symbols appear to have been two pillars, and he is reported to have been represented by the bull. Dr. William Hayes Ward knows
of a representation of a bull with pyramidal or pointed back, from the breast of which two arms

Xo1och	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	460
stretch out; and there are representations of bull‑
headed deities in the Semitic region. But these can not be identified securely with Melkarth or with a " melek‑deity." Diodorus Siculus describes the statue of the Carthaginian Kronos as human in form with the arms outstretched‑a feature used in the rabbinic descriptions already alluded to. Yet Melkarth is not to be conceived wholly as a malign divinity, since compounds such as " Melkarth is gracious," " Melkarth saves," " Melkarth hears (answers) " are known. Human sacrifice seems rather abnormal among the Semites. , There are traces or direct testimony for it among Aramaeans (Palmyrenes) and Phenicians, and it appears as a phenomenon of a decadent stage in religious development. Such a feature is not unusual in the development of a religion when distrust of ordinary means of obtaining‑divine favor has entered. It must be noted, however, that human sacrifice does not imply a special divinity to whom it is offered; emergency may be conceived to warrant it as a present to any god. In such a case it is the result of a common anthropopathism‑what is of highest value to mortals is held in the same estimate by the gods. Attempts have been made by Jewish interpreters and others to minimize the worship by reducing the practise to the simple custom of passing children through the fire for purposes of purification and not as sacrificial victims. This custom is one widely prevalent among primitive peoples, fire and water being recognized as the two purgative elements. Such a practise is described by Theodoret (on II Kings, quest. x1vii.), and was forbidden by the Trullan Synod of 692 (canon 65; Hefele,, Conciliengeschichte, iii. 338, Eng. transl., v. 232). But the passages cited above are decisive of the fact of sacrifice. [Indeed the descriptive phrase does not mean " to pass through " but " to pass over," " to transfer," i.e., " to dedicate or offer," as is shown by its use in Ex. xiii. 12, where Yahweh is the object of worship and there is no allusion to fire. a. r. u.J. The attempt to minimize the wickedness is no more successful here than in the case of Jephthah's daughter.
A factor in the question of the date of the introduction of this practise among the Hebrews has been the assumption of the practical identity of Moloch and Milcom (q.v.). The basis for this is the linguistic fact that the same word " king " is at the root of both forms. Were the identity
6. 'Date of the two established, supposing alof Intro‑ ways that there were a deity Moloch, duction the date of the introduction of the cult into Israel. into Israel would be fixed by I Kings xi. in the time of Solomon. But several sets of data are against this. (1) The sacrifice of children is not in the Old Testament associated with Milcom. (2) The plate of worship of the two cults was different. (3) In the category of the sins of Solomon in the chapter cited the sacrifice of children does not appear; he burned incense and saorificed to the gods of the peoples, but there is silence as to human sacrifice. (4) The condemnation of this sin by the prophets is not in evidence till a late period, and it is inconceivable that such a practise could. have. escaped the denunciation of
early prophets had it existed. The cases of human sacrifice in Israel prior to Solomon do not suggest a custom of offering children. The case of Abraham and Isaac is altogether individual, the instance being quite exceptional; that of Jephthah was emergential in nature and appears also as unusual. It is true that something sacrificial is imported into the killing of Agag, whom Samuel hewed to pieces " before the Lord " (I Sam. xv. 33), but there is no connection between this example and the offering of children by fire. II Sam. xii. 31 can not be adduced, since the corrected Hebrew text affords the reading " made them labor at the brick kiln " for " made them pass through the brick kiln " (S. R. Driver, Notes on. the Hebrew Text of Samuel, pp. 226‑229, Oxford, 1890). The age of Solomon as the period of the introduction of the cult may be dismissgd. There is nothing at all to connect Ahab or Jezebel with the cult except inference based on Jezebel's derivation from Tyre where it was known to exist. The earliest definite statement of this practise is in connection with Ahaz (II Kings xvi. 3; cf. II Chron. xxviii. 3). The historicity of the passage is questioned on the ground of the silence of the prophets of his own and the immediately following period. That the objection is not insuperable in this instance is shown by those who defend the historicity by supposing that the sacrifice (the case is singular, " his son ") was emergential and in some measure like that of Mesha (II Kings iii. 26). Further, that Ahaz was inclined to syncretism, or at least to following fashions of worship, is shown by the passage II Kings xvi. 10‑13. Moreover, Isa. xxx. 33 plays suggestively upon the words Tophet and melek (Driver regards the passage as Isaianic, but Guthe, Cheyne, and others refer verses 27‑33 to the exilic period). Isa. viii. 21 (which should read: "curse the house of their king and their God," see ISAIAH, II., 2, § 2) can not be brought into this connection since " their king " refers to Yahweh, of. Isa. vi: 5‑unless the cult was one imposed upon his worship and " their king " refers to him (cf. Isa. vi. 5 and see below, § 8). Manasseh is the next king connected with the sacrifice of children (II Kings xxi. 6; of. II Chron. xxxiii. 6, where Tophet is mentioned). To the extension of the practise under Manasseh may be due the passages in Deuteronomy (xii. 31, xviii. 10), the one denunciatory and the other prohibitory. They seem to show that just before the time of Jeremiah the practise had become one of which it was necessary that the legislators take note‑the cult had become prominent with a definite locus. It is not surprising therefore that Josiah " defiled Topheth " (II Kings xxiii. 10) so as to make it a place unfit for sacrificial purposes. The passages cited from Jeremiah (xix. 5, xxxii. 35) and Ezekiel show a renewed prevalence during the last days of the Judaic kingdom. Lev. xviii. 21, xx. 2 belong to an early stratum of the priest code, while Isa. lvii. 5, 9 look back on preexilic or early exilic practise. The indications therefore are that it was introduced and in force under Manasseh.
It was long the custom, in this as in other matters, on account of inexact knowledge of Assyrian and, Babylonian practises, to refer the origin of the

451	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xo1twh
" Moloch " cult to the Assyrian‑Babylonian religion. But as already noted, the traces of human sacrifice in that region are few and 7. Source faint. II Kings used to be advanced of the Cult. in favor of this theory; as Sepharvaim was identified with Sippara (see BABYLoNiA, IV., § 11). But it is now known that Sepharvaim was a town in western Syria, and this 1ocation falls in with the testimony yet to be adduced. In this connection it is noteworthy that Deut. xii. 29‑31 regards the practise as Canaanitic. The practise of offering children has been shown not to be early Hebraic, and this is corroborated by the excavations at Gezer (q.v.), where the foundation sacrifiev, common and quite normal in the prehebraic period, as is usual among civilizations of a low grade, disappears in the Hebraic period. The case of Hiel the Bethelite (I Kings xvi. 34) has often been explained as a case of " foundation " and " completion " sacrifice. While this interpretation may be correct, since the period as a whole is one of adoption of Canaanitic cults by the Hebrews, the data are too incomplete to permit of dogmatizing, and another explanation, that of accidental fatality coincident with beginning and end of the building operations, is at least possible. II Kings iii. 27, R. V. margin," there came great wrath upon Israel," is explained by many facts revealed by comparative religion as the common fallacy of post hoc propter hoc, associating an Israelitic disaster with the sacrifice, and shows the practise in the Ca^ naanitic region to have been sometimes one of emergency. But this feature of the case argues against the Moabitic origin for the cult as practised by the Hebrews. The most likely and almost certain fountain of the Hebrew practise is the Phenician cult. Abundant testimony is extant from Greek and Roman authors, agreeing therefore with the passages in Deuteronomy and Leviticus, that in Phenicia and in Phenician colonies, notably at Carthage, the sacrifice of children was a prominent rite in the public religious services. The Greeks, following the common custom of identifying the gods of other peoples with their own, called the deity to whom these offerings were made Kronos, to whom, it is relevant to note, Greek writers applied the term baaileus, " king." Pliny .(Nat. hist., XXXVI., v. 12) states that to Melkarth, god of Tyre, identified by the Greeks with Herakles, child sacrifices were offered; a fragment of Philo of Byblos asserts that sacrifices of this type were offered to " El," which, however, is not necessarily a proper name. Other Greek writers call the god of this cult Zeus. For the references to Greek and Roman writers of. F. C. C. H. Miinter Religion der Korthager (Copenhagen, 1816). Melkarth and cognate deities appear to have been sun‑gods, to whom sacrifice by fire was normal and natural. The connection between Phenicians and Hebrews was sufficiently close to make this derivation easy.
If, then, as the facts seem to justify, it may be concluded that the rite was one imposed upon the worship of Yahweh and was in his honor and imitation of a foreign cult, can a motive be found? This can be done, and the indirect testimony is rather strong. The codes (e.g., Ex. xiii. 11‑15) de‑
manded the consecration of the first‑born to Yahweh, with, however, the option of redemption (in the ethnic history of sacrifice a late device; H. Basis in see COMPARATIVE RELIGION, VI., 1, d,
	Rational J 4). Under the principle already
Conscience. enunciated, that in times of trouble
		nations not infrequently resort to
human sacrifice, though it is not a usual bAbit, it
is not impossible that the Hebrews followed the
stress of feeling in the later days of their kingdom
under accumulated disaster and decay of power.
There seem to be hints that their logic led them
to the conclusion that their law demanded this
form of worship, that they had long been remiss in
not paying what was due, and that their cumula
tive distress was due to this. Jer. xix. 5, " to burn
their sons with fire for burnt offerings unto Baal,
which I commanded not, nor spake it, neither came
it into my mind," reads like a disavowal of such an
interpretation as is here suggested. It is an ex
plicit disclaimer by Yahweh that he had ordered
such a cult, together with the statement that it is
really an offering to Baal. The two motives‑der
nier resort in time of trouble, and, in view of this,
a not impossible construction of a well‑known legal
provision‑are sufficient to explain such an impor
tation into the Yahweh worship. This appears the
easier since to Yahweh the title and attributes of
king were often attributed. He is called king in
Num. xxiii. 21; Deut. xxxiii. 5; Isa. vi. 5, xxxiii.
17, 22, xli. 25, xliv. 6; Jer. viii. 19; Micah ii. 13;
and often in the Psalms; the use of the verb " reign "
is also frequent in connection with his relation to
Israel (e.g., Ex. xv. 18; Isa. Iii. 7; Micah iv. 7);
while the mention of him on his throne appears in
such passages as I Kings xxii. 19; Isa. vi. 1. If
there were a melek cult of human sacrifice among
the surrounding nations, the fact that this epithet
was applied to Yahweh would make the cult more
feasible. The one difficulty is that the rite does
not appear to have been practised in the Temple
or inside Jerusalem. Ezek. xxiii. 38 sqq. appears
to make a distinction between the worship of Yah
weh and this rite. The passage states that the rite
was performed on the sabbath, and that on the
same day the worshipers went into Yahweh's sanc.
tuary and thus defiled it. The answer of course is
that this is the view of one who condemns the cult,
and would not be held by those who employed it,
who would not jeopardize success by alienating the
deity. It is well known that a deity may have of
fered to him sacrifices differing essentially in char
acter. Thus to Zeus it is known that the pig was
offered, though this animal was appropriate as an
offering only to chthonic deities (of. Jane Ellen Har
rison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, pp.
13 aqq., Cambridge, 1908). The cult in Tophet may
have been in honor of Yahweh, and the following
of a double cultus may have been regarded as
doubly efficacious. 	GEo. W. GILMORE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The earlier literature, from the modern point of view for the most part antiquated, is given in Hauck‑Herzog, RE, 3uii. 28270; much of it is collected in Ugolini, Thesaurus anliquitatum aacrarum, vol muii., Venice, 1780. Consult: J. Bolden, De die Syria, London, 1817; F. C. Movers, Dio Relipim der Phtinieier, pp. 322498, Bonn, 1841; C. Schwenek, Die Mythologic der Semi‑

Molokahi
Xoasrohiaaism	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	458
ten, Frankfort, 1849; A. Kuenen, in ThT, ii (1868), 551
598; idem, De Godedienet roan Israel, chap. iv., Eng. tranal.,
Religion of Israel, i. 249‑252, London, 1873; H. Oort, in
Waarheid in Liefde, 1868. pp. 1‑31, 81‑108, 161‑173;
W. von Baudissin, Jahve et Moloch, Leipsic, 1874; E.
Nestle, Die israelitiechen Eigennamen, pp. 174‑182, ITear
lem, 1876; P. 8eholtz, Gctzendienst and Zauberweeen bei
den alten Hebrdern, pp 182‑217, Regensburg, 1877; C. P.
T1ele, Hid. compar6e lee anciennes religions de 11gypte
et des peuples s6mitiques, 281 eqq., 311 eqq., 435 sqq.,
Paris, 1882; idem, Geechichte der Religion in Altertum,
i. 240‑244, 343‑344, 349‑352, Gotha, 1896; . Hoffman:
ZATW, iii (1883), 124; idem, in GGA, aarcvi (1890), 25;
B. D. Eerdmans, Melekdienst en verserinp van hemellicha
men in larval's assyriache periods, Leyden, 1891; G. B.
Gray, Studies in Hebrew Proper Names, pp. 115‑120, 138,
148, London, 1896; A. Kamphausen, Dae Verhdltnis des
, 	ppli161165RanEB, iii. 3183
G. F. Moore, in JBL3191; M. J. Lagrange, Etudes our les religions sbmitiques. pp. 99, 109, Paris, 1903; Schrader, KAT, pp 469‑472; Smith, Hot. of Sam., pp. 372 eqq.; DB, iii. 415‑417; JE, 653‑664; Vigourous, Dictionnaire, fasc. uvii., ools. 12241230.
MOLOKANI. See Russ1A, III., § 6.
MOLTHER, mel'tiAr, MENRAD: Humanist and Reformer; b. at Augsburg in 1500; d. at Heilbronn Apr. 8, 1558. He received his first education in the school of Johann Pinicianus; went to Heidelberg in 1526, where he became a tutor for young noblemen, and also edited several works, some of which had been recently recovered, e.g., those of Alcuin, Avitus, Christian Drutmar, and W illimar Ebersbergiensis; he directed the Realistenburse, 1532; was called as preacher to Heilbronn to assist Johann Lachmann (q.v.) 1533, whom he succeeded in 1539; and in 1543 he arranged the church rules according to the pattern of Hall. Because of the threatening presence of the imperial troops, he advised, in 1548, the acceptance of the Interim (q.v.); but he continued to preach in a strictly Evangelical and anti‑Roman spirit, without, however, being able to persuade the council to abolish the mass. His successor was Jacob Ratz (q.v.). G. BOssERT.
B113LIOGRAPELY: G. Bossert, in Bldtter far w¢rttembergieche
Kirchengeschichte, 1887, pp. 57‑61.
MOMBERT, JACOB ISIDOR: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Cassel, Germany, Nov. 6, 1829. In early life he went to England, where he was engaged in business for a number of years, after which he studied both in England and at the universities of Leipsic and Heidelberg. He was ordered deacon in 1856 and in the following year went to Canada, where he was ordained priest. He was then curate of Trinity, Quebec (1857‑59), curate (1859‑60) and rector (1860‑70) of St. James', Lancaster, Pa., and rector of St. John's, Dresden, Germany (1870‑76), Christ Church, Jersey City, N. J. (1877‑79), and St. John's, Passaic, N. J. (1879‑82). In 1882 he retired from active parochial work, and since that time has been engaged in literary pursuits. He has translated F. A. Tholuck's " Commentary on the Psalms " (London 1856) and the commentary on the Catholic Epistles for the American Lange series (New York, 1867), edited William Tyndale's Five Books of Moses (1884), and has written: Faith Victorious: Account of the Venerable Dr. Johann Ebel , Late Archdeacon of the Old Town Church of K6nigsberg ire Prussia (1882); Handbook of the English Versions of the Bible (1883; new ed., 1907); Great
Lives: A Course of History in Biographies (Boston, 1886); History of Charles the Great (New York, 1888); Short History of the Crusades (1894); and Raphael's Sistine Madonna (1895).
MOMERIE, ALFRED WILLIAMS: Church of England; b. in London Mar. 22, 1848; d. there Dec. 6, 1900. He was of Huguenot stock and restored his name from its phonetic form of Mummery. His father was a Congregational minister, who, after sending him to the City of London School, sent him to the University of Edinburgh (M.A., 1875; SC.D., 1876). But to his Scotch training he added English, for he went through another university course in Cambridge (M.A., 1881). Previously be had been admitted to holy orders, in the Church of England, becoming deacon in 1878 and priest in 1879. In 1879 he was elected fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge, and in 1880 professor of logic and mental philosophy at King's College, London. He was curate of Leigh in Lancashire from 1878 to 1880. In 1883 he became morning preacher at the Foundling Hospital in London. His sermons and his teaching attracted great attention, but their outspoken " Broad Churchism " brought him into trouble, and he was forced to retire from his preachership and professorship in 1891. After that he preached at the Portman Rooms, London. In 1896 he married. The number and sale of his publications attest the interest in his teachings. Mention may be made of: Personality the Beginning and End of Metaphysics (London, 1879, 4th ed., 1889); The Basis of Religion (Edinburgh, 1883, 2d ed., 1886), a criticism of J. R. Seeley's Natural Religion; The Religion of the Future, and other Essays (1893); The English Church and the Romish Schism (1896); and Essays on the Bible, ed. J. Nield (1909).
BiBL7oGRAPHY: Alfred Williams Momerie: his Life and Work, written by his Wife, Edinburgh, 1905; DNB, Supplement, iii. 183.
MOWERS, MUMMERS: The contemptuous name, meaning " hypocrites," given to certain strict Calvinists in the two French cantons of Switzerland, Geneva and Vaud, because of their fervent acceptance of the doctrines of the Trinity, the divinity of Christ, and of total depravity, which had been denied by the great majority of the pastors of the State Church, and because of their practise of holding meetings in which these and similar socalled " pietistic " views found expression. In Geneva the party was started in 1813 by Henri Louis Empaytaz, a theological student; in 1820 their most distinguished leader, Rev. Cesar Malan (q.v.), organized them into a church. In 1831 a theological seminary was started, and in 1848 the party declared themselves free altogether of the State Church. In Vaud they ran a similar course. They started about the same time and were ignored by the authorities till, on Dec. 24, 1823, three of the cantonal clergy, who had been prominent members, resigned from the State Church. Four others followed them the next month. The authorities condemned this action and so the meetings held henceforth were subjected to some petty persecution.
BrBwoampHY: G. B., Geschichte der sopenannten Ifomie rs,
	einer in einigen schweizer‑Cantonen arch ausbreitenden
	.Sects, 2 parts, Basel, 1825.
0

453	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xolokani
		Xonarohianism
	I. The Beginnings of Monarchianiem.
		Christology of the Early Church
			(§ 1).
		Discrepancies in Primitive Chris.
			tologies (§ 2).
		Meaning of " Monarchian " (§ 3).
		Relations to the Catholics (§ 4).
II. The " Alogi " of Asia Minor.
III. Adoptionism in the West.
		Theodotue and His Teachings (§ 1).
		Successors of Theodotus and Their
			Exegesis (§ 2).
		Melchieedicians (§ 3).
		Theodotian Concept of Christ (§ 4).
I. The Beginnings of Monarchianism: Up to the end of the second century the doctrine of the Logos had by no means been definitely fixed, despite the statements of the apologists, Irenmus, Tertullian, and Clement, and despite the general recognition that Christ must be thought of in the same way as God. There was, there‑
r. The fore, no strict formulation of the nature Christology and dignity of the Redeemer or of the of the Early being of God. Nor was a comparison
	Church.	of the two persons even contemplated,
		for the recognition of the preexistence
of the Son had influence on the concept of the God
head so long as this preexistent Son was considered
a creature, and so long as a plurality of heavenly
spirits and personified powers was assumed. The
points regarding the personality of the Redeemer
generally established and defended between 140
and 180 were derived from the short creed based on
Matt. xxviii. 19: the Son of God, the Lord and
Savior, born of the Holy Ghost and the virgin.
The recognition of the supernatural birth (itself as
suming preexistence) marked the delimitation be
tween the strict Judaeo‑Christians and those who
would merely admire Christ as a second Socrates;
while the recognition of his physical birth and true
human life formed a barrier against the Gnostics.
Even at this early period there existed side by side
Christologies which were to form the bases of the
Monarchian, Arian, Athanasian, and even Docetic
and Gnostic systems; and the same writer uses
formulas in which the divinity of the Son is ascribed
in one place to special election and endowment by
the deity, in a second to the actual indwelling of
the Holy Ghost, and in a third to a celestial hypo
stasis or an incarnation of the Godhead. There is
nothing to show, however, that at that time Christ
was regarded as the actual Godhead. He was rather
deemed either as the man in whom the Godhead or
the Spirit of God dwelt, or‑this being doubtless
the more general view‑as the heavenly Spirit
which had become incarnate and manifest. Those
who maintained the latter view held that Christ
became what he is before his miraculous birth;
while those who adhered to the former hypothesis
believed that the indwelling of the divine Spirit had
taken place at his baptism, it being also possible to
assume a progressive filling of the Son of Man with
the Holy Ghost.
To the two views here set forth may be referred the various Christologies of the second century; and, although the distinction between them might be
MONARCHIANISM.
Artemas; Decay of Western Dynamistic Monarchianism (§5).
7V. Suppression of Adoptionism in the East.
Opponents of Logos‑Christology in the East (§ 1).
Paul of Samosata (§ 2).
Paul's Homoousianism and Influence (§ 3).
V. Modalistic Monarchisnism in Asia Minor, Rome, and Carthage.
Wide Popularity of Modalistic Monarchianism (§ 1).
Rise of Patripassianism at Rome; Pmxeas (§ 2).
Doctrines of the Early Modalists (§ 3).
Later Modalism and Catholic Compromise (§ 4).
Struggle between Hypostatism &no Modalism (§ 5).
VI. Modalistic Monarehians in the East; Sabellianism.
Sabellius; Obscurity of the Sources (§ 1).
Relations and Decay of Sabellianism (§ 2).
glossed over in public worship, the theological dis
crepancy was still felt, and even the laity came to
		take part in the ensuing controversy.
	2. Discrep‑ The Bible was cited in support of both
	ancies in views, although the conditions of the
	Primitive time favored belief in the incarnation
	Christol‑ of a special divine being in Christ.
	ogies. This was confirmed by the interpreta
		tion of the theophanies of the Old Tes
tament as explained by the Alexandrine school, by
the testimony of St. Paul and a series of ancient wri
tings, and by the cosmological and theological prin
ciples borrowed from the religious philosophy of the
period to serve as the basis of a rational Christian
philosophy. Assuming the theory of the divine
Logos to explain the origin and history of the world,
the establishment of the divine dignity and the di
vine sonship of the Redeemer was already fixed.
Nor did this involve any peril to monotheism even
when the Logos was allowed to be more than a pro
cession from the creative will of God, since the in
finite substance of the Godhead might be developed
in various subjects and be communicated to vari
ous persons without being emptied or divided in
essence. Neither was the divinity of Christ im
periled by the doctrine that he was the incarnation
of the Logos, for the Logos‑concept was capable
of the most varied interpretation and lent itself to
each new development of speculation and exegesis.
It accordingly developed finally into the very an
tithesis of its original concept, but until this hap
pened, and so long as the Logos connoted either the
archetype of the world or the rational law of the
universe, it was somewhat mistrusted as a means
for establishing the divinity of Christ, for the pious
would see in Christ nothing less than the Godhead
itself. Athanasius was the first to render this pos
sible by his interpretation of the Logos, though he
practically put the Logos‑doctrine into the back
ground; so that from him to Augustine the history
of Christology became the history of the replace
ment of the concept of the Logos by that of the
sonship of Christ. The first formal protest against
the Logos‑Christology in the second century was
prompted by a desire to preserve strict monothe
ism‑primarily by the interest in the humanity of
the Redeemer‑combined with a repugnance to the
employment of Platonic and Stoic philosophy in
Christian doctrine. The primary concern of the
Monarchians, who were at first charged with lower
ing (if not destroying) the dignity of the Redeemer
‑a charge they later turned against their oppo‑

Xonarohisaism	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	464
nents‑was the man Jesus, and then monotheism and the divine dignity of Christ. Hence gradually developed a controversy on the entire theological implication of the first two articles of the rule of faith,.which were suspected of both ditheism and reminiscences of Gnosticism. The beginnings of the struggle, which lasted more than a century and a half, are wrapped in obscurity. It may be regarded as the history of the substitution of the preexistent for the historic Christ and as the replacement of the person of Christ by the mystery of the person, or as the victory of Platonism over Aristotelianism in Christian theology.
The term " Monarchians," coined by Tertullian, denotes the representatives of strict monotheism in the early Church. This definition,
3. Meaning however, is too narrow, for some, if
of "Mon‑ not all, of the older dynamistic Mon‑
	archian."	archians assumed two hypostases,
		recognizing the Holy Ghost as the eter
nal Son of God. Since, on the other hand, these bi
nitarians did not consider Jesus as the real incarnar
tion of this Holy Ghost, they were, Christologically,
neither trinitarian nor binitarian, but Monarchian.
But the term was restricted in the early Church to.
those who recognized in Christ an incarnation of
God the Father; and while the Arians and all who
held the acknowledged independence of a divine
element in Christ to be a product of the creative
activity of the Father may be considered in a sense
Monarchians, such an application of the term would
lead too far from the ancient connotation and would
fail to recognize the limitation of rigid monotheism
among even the most radical Arians. It is best,
therefore, to apply the term only to those who re
garded Jesus either as the man filled with the Holy
Ghost and called to be the Son of God (though some
considered the Holy Ghost a second hypostasis),
or as an incarnation of God the Father.
The Monarchians, arising, as implied above, after the establishment of the anti‑Gnostic interpretation of the rule of faith in the Church, 4. Relations must be considered as Catholic. They to the accordingly were in harmony with their
	Catholics. opponents except in the points in con
		troversy; and even had traces of pro
Catholic (but not non‑Catholic) characteristics, so
that their deviations from the Catholic canon point
to the period before the formation of this canon,
while other " heresies,, of the older group must be
referred to the formative age of the Catholic Church.
The history of the movement is as obscure as its
origin. Even the current distinction between dy
namistie (or rather adoptian) and modalistic Mo
narchianism the former regarding the power or
Spirit of God as indwelling in the man Jesus, and
the latter considering Jesus as the incarnation of
the Godhead‑is not free from objections. Though
the common bond between the Monarchian systems
was their concept of God, and their differences con
cerned revelation, no strict classification is possible
on the basis of the sources thus far known, which
consist almost entirely of the accounts of oppo
nents, who garbled, distorted, and misrepresented
the doctrines of their antagonists. Both the his
tory and the geography, moreover, of Monarchian‑
ism are uncertain, nor are definite dates yet determined for the Alogi, Artemas, Praxem, Sabellius, or the synods at Antioch against Paul of Samosata.
II. The Alogi (q.v.) of Asia Minor: Hippolytus (quoted by Epiphanius, Hist. eccl., li., and others) and Philaatrius (Hcer., lx.) recognize the existence of a sect in Asia Minor to which the former applied the name Alogi (perhaps designedly ambiguous, meaning both " without the Logos " and " irrational "). Hippolytus also says that they rejected the Gospel of John and the Apocalypse, ascribing them to Cerinthus; of their views on the Johannine Epistles nothing is certainly known, although they probably rejected them also. Besides his Syntagma, Hippolytus wrote a work in defense of the Johannine writings, and apparently a special polemic against the Monarchians, probably in 204205. It is clear, from the statements of Hippolytus and Irenaeus (Hint. eccl., III., xi. 9) that the sect existed in Asia Minor between 170 and 180. Belonging to the radical anti‑Montanistic party, they sought to exclude all prophecy from the Church, thus proceeding to reject the Gospel of John (and consequently the Logos which it postulates‑whence their name) as containing Christ's prophecy of the Paraclete, and the Apocalypse because of its prophetic revelations. They likewise alleged internal evidence, discrepancy with the other Gospels, absurdity, and untruthfulness against the two books; and they regarded the Gospel of John as tending to Docetism because of its abrupt transition from the Logos to the ministry of Jesus. They objected to the use of the term Logos, in which they saw Gnosticism, to denote Christ, and to the statement in John they opposed the natural origin given by Mark. Nevertheless, both Hippolytus and Irenaeus considered the Alogi schismatics rather than heretics, the former expressly emphasizing their orthodoxy, except on the points in controversy. Of their Christology nothing is known except that they rejected the concept of the Logos and the birth " from on high," and that, from their antipathy to Gnosticism, their chief interest lay in the human life of Christ. It is also probable that they laid special stress on the events at the baptism of Christ, though this can not be demonstrated. They seem to have been the first within the Church to apply historical criticism to Christian writings and tradition; but how long they existed, or when, how, or by whom they were excluded from the Church in Asia Minor, are all unknown.
	III. Adoptionism in the West: Toward the end
of the pontificate of Eleutherus or at the beginning
of that of Victor (d. 190), Theodotus the tanner
went from Byzantium to Rome, and became the
founder of dynamistic Monarchianism. He had
		probably come into contact with the
:. Theodo‑ Alogi of Asia Minor, and was a man tus and His of thorough education and highly es‑
Teachiags. teemed. All that is certainly known of him, however, is that he was excommunicated by Victor between 189 and 199 because of the Christology which he taught at Rome. The Philoaophumena explicitly affirms Theodotus' orthodoxy in theology and cosmology. In Christol0gy he taught that Jesus was a man born of a

456	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Monarchianirm
virgin through the operation of the Holy Ghost in accordance with a special decree of God; but that he received no specifically divine essence until, after a ufe of perfect purity, the Holy Ghost descended on him at baptism, so that he became Christ and received the power for his mission and the righteousness which rendered him preeminent above all mankind. Nevertheless, even the descent of the Spirit did not entitle Jesus to be considered God. Some of Theodotus' followers asserted that Jesus became God through his resurrection, but others denied this. Theodotus and his school sought to base their Christology on the Bible, and his citations, as preserved by Epiphanius through the Syntagma of Hippolytus, show that the canon of Scripture was now established and that the Gospel of John was recognized. His exegesis is of interest as representing the same sober system as that of the Alogi. Epiphanius mentions the appeal of the Theodotians to Deut. xviii. 15; Jer. xvii. 9; Isa. liii. 2‑3; Matt. xii. 32; Luke i. 35; John viii. 40; Acts ii. 22; and I Tim. ii. 5. From Matt. xii. 32, they deduced that the Holy Ghost is superior to the Son of Man; while from Deut. xviii. 15 they argued that even the risen Christ was not God. In Luke i. 35, Theodotus stressed the phrase, " The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee," and, if Epiphanius may be believed, misread the remainder of the verse, besides interpreting the " Word " of John i. 14, as " Spirit " (cf. II Clement, ix. 5).
The circle which gathered around Theodotus at Rome seems to have been small, nor did he found a separate sect there. His most im‑
s. Succes‑ portant scholar, Theodotus the moneysors of changer, and a certain Aselepiodotus
Theodotus	(both apparently Greeks), after being
and Their excommunicated by Pope Zephyrinus
	Exegesis.	(199‑218), made a fruitless attempt to
		found a church of their own in Rome,
and persuaded the confessor Natalius of Rome,
who soon deserted them, to become their bishop
at a monthly salary of 150 denarii. This abortive
attempt in itself shows the wide cleft between the
Catholics and the Monarchians at Rome about 210;
while the author of the " Little Labyrinth " (pre
served in extracts by Eusebius, Hist. eccl., v. 28)
charges the leaders of the sect with shameless per
versions and falsifications of Scripture, in which
they were not even consistent with each other;
and also accuses them of rejecting the law and the
prophets altogether, and seeking support for their
allegations in the writings of Euclid, Aristotle, The.
ophrastus, and Galen. It is clear, from the very
statements of the author of the "Little Labyrinth,"
that the Monarchians, adopting the same methods
as were doubtless followed by the Alogi and the
older Tbeodotus, pursued their system of exegesis,
text‑criticism, and the study of logic, mathematics,
and natural science entirely in the cause of their
theology; and he was also obliged to acknowledge
that they assailed neither the inspiration nor the
canon of the Scriptures. This implies, as con
trasted with orthodox Catholicism, the substitu
tion of the Empiricists for Plato and Zeno, gram
matical for allegorical exegesis, and a more original
for the traditional text. But the distinction, in the
theology of the time, was more than ane of method. They remained, therefore, outside the Church, though they considered themselves Catholics. Of their works all traces have vanished, but their researches confirmed them in their concept of Christ as the man in whom the Spirit of God was peculiarly operative, and made them opponents of the Logos Christology.
It is not clear wherein the tenets of the younger Theodotus differed from those of the older, though it is evident from the PhiWophumena that ",ere was a controversy among the Monarehians whether Christ could be called God after the resurrection.
On the other hand, they recognized 3. Melchi‑ the miraculous birth. Later writers, sedicians, however, following Hippolytus' inter‑
pretation of Theodotus the younger's exegesis of Heb. v., vi. 20‑vii. 3, 17, ascribed to him the foundation of a sect of Melchisedicians. Theodotus is said to have taught (Epiphanius, Hiat. ecd., Iv.) that Melchizedek was " a very great power " and more exalted than Christ, the relation between the two being that of copy and original. Melchizedek was considered the advocate of the heavenly powers before God and as the high priest of mankind. Jesus is a priest a degree lower and born of Mary, while the origin of Melchizedek is hidden because heavenly (cf. Heb. vii. 3). Epiphanius likewise adds that the sect offered their oblations " in the name of Melchizedek," since he was the " guide to God," " the king of righteousness," and " the true Son of God." It would seem, however, that Theodotus here played an exegetical joke on his opponents, showing that by their arguments a preexistent Melchizedek could be deduced from Heb. v.‑vii., a sarcasm the more biting since the Catholics themselves were involved in controversy on the signification of Melchizedek. Nevertheless, the explanation can not be so simple, for the statements of the Syrdagma and Philmophumena are obviously based on written sources and stand in close proximity to assertions which are clearly Theodotian, but which at the same time show an exact parallelism with a concept long current in the Catholic community at Rome (cf. the Shepherd of Hermas, Similitude V., especially vi. 3). As is clear from their exegesis of I Cor. viii. 6, where " Christ " was made to connote " Holy Ghost " (the name of Jesus being here stricken out), these Theodotians maintained that the.sole divine essence besides the Father was the Holy Ghost, who was identical with the Son of God (thus agreeing with Hermas). This Holy Ghost accordingly appeared to Abraham as the " King of righteousness." They further maintained that Jesus was a man anointed with the power of the Holy Ghost; and they were thus in accord with Catholic teaching when they held that prayers and oblations were due the true, eternal Son of God, the King of righteousness that had appeared to Abraham, who had blessed him and his descendants, i.e., the Christians. Furthermore, according to both Theodotus and Hermas, Jesus, the chosen and anointed Son of God by adoption, was inferior to and not to be compared with the Holy Ghost as the true Son. It must be borne in mind, however, that there was

monarchianism	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	468
a wide divergency between the Theodotians and Hernias in that the former designed their speculations to discard the historic Jesus in favor of the metaphysical. Views closely resembling those of the Theodotians are repeated by Origen in elevating the eternal Son of God above the crucified; while a like tendency is found with Hieracs<s and his monks, as well as among the Origenistic monks in Egypt in the fourth and fifth centuries. It is evident, therefore, that these theologians retained the old Roman Christology, though they revised its theology and changed its purport.
The question arises whether the doctrine of the Theodotians was really Monarchian, since a special and apparently independent place was given the
Holy Ghost beside the Father. Al
5. Theodo‑ though it is not clear how the hypo‑
tian Con‑ stasis of the Holy Ghost was reconciled cept of with the unity of the Godhead, it is at Christ. least certain that in the Theodotian
Christology the Spirit was regarded merely as a " power." They differed from their opponents not in their concept of God, but in their views of Christ. For if an eternal Son of God, or anything resembling that Son, appeared in the Old Testament, then the traditional estimate of Jesus could no longer be retained; nor would the theory of the Man anointed by the Spirit suffice to establish the preeminent magnitude of the revelation of God in Christ. It thus becomes clear why, under the spur of theological speculation, the old ChristologY gave place at a comparatively early date to the complete and essential apotheosis of Jesus.
Twenty or thirty years later another attempt was made by Artemas to revive the early Christology, apparently at Rome. The sources here are scanty, for Eusebius confined his excerpts from the work against Artemas and its appendix, the " Little
Labyrinth," almost exclusively to the 6. Artemas; Theodotians. It is plain, however,
Decay of that the followers of Artemas claimed
Western that the ancient Christology which
Dynamistic they defended had been distorted by
Monarchi‑ Zephyrinus. Wherein they differed anism. from the Theodotians is uncertain,
and they clearly agreed with them in denying the epithet " God " to Jesus. Artemas was still living in excommunication at Rome about 270, as is shown by the condemnation of Paul of SamoBata by the Synod of Antioch (Eusebius, Hist. ecd., vii. 30). It is evident, moreover, that he must be considered a dynamistic Monarchian; while by his association with Paul of Samosata he eclipsed the fame of Theodotus in the East. In him dynamistic Monarchianism exhausted itself at Rome without ever gaining importance in the Church. The adherents of Artemas are probably implied by Novatian when in his De trinitate, he speaks of those who considered Jesus simply as a man, and he is also mentioned by Methodius (Symposium, viii. 10). Hilary of Poitiers, in his De hinitate (especially x. 18 sqq., 50 sqq.), shows how various were the Christologies existing in the West in the middle of the fourth century. Even as late as the beginning of the fifth a certain Marcus was expelled from Rome for maintaining Photinian views and founded a
community in Dalmatia. Though there is no evidence that Photinus' doctrines ever gained much following in the West, it is noteworthy that Augustine, even when preparing to enter the Catholic Church, entertained a Christology essentially Photinian (Conf., vii. 19 [25]).
IV. Suppression of Adoptionism in the East: It is plain from the writings of Origen that there were many in the East who rejected the
z. Oppo‑ Logos‑Christology. The majority of
nents of these were modalists, but there were
Logos‑	also those who ascribed to the Son
Christology merely a human nature, and others in the still who regarded Christ as a man
	East.	filled with the Godhead but not spe
		cifically different from the prophets.
Origen did not brand those who held these tenets
as heretics, but considered them misguided or sim
ple, reclaimable by a friendly attitude. Origen's
own complicated Christology was unjustly consid
ered by some to be adoptionistic. Dynamistic Mo
narchianism seems to have been taught by Beryllus
of Bostra (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., vi. 33; Socrates,
Hist. cad., iii. 7), who, probably in 244, was con
vinced of his error in a disputation by Eusebius,
who had been sent to Arabia for that purpose.
The wide dissemination of dynamistic Christology in the Semitic and Hellenistic East is shown by the fact that Paul of Samosata, bishop of Antioch, the most important see of the
z. Paul of East, began expressly to promulgate
	Samosata.	it about 260 and opposed the doctrine
		of the essential divinity of Christ.
The result was the great Eastern controversy which
ended with the downfall of adoptionism. The Alex
andrine theology of the third century had made
the terms logos, ouzioa, pros", and the like cur
rent and indispensable in dogmatics; and at the
same time the belief had become widely prevalent
that the original nature of the Redeemer was not
human but divine, and that he did not first come
into existence with his birth on earth. These tenets
were opposed by Paul, and‑though little is known
of the beginning of the controversy‑there is rea
son to suppose that he, as the viceroy of Zenobia,
was opposed by the Roman party in Syria. His
fall, therefore, meant their triumph, and behind
the theological controversy there lay political strife.
But Paul proved a doughty antagonist. A great
synod was convened at Antioch in 264, attended
by bishops from the most various parts of the East,
but their debates, like those of a second synod,
came to no result. It was not until a third synod,
held at Antioch between 266 and 269 (probably in
268), that the metropolitan was excommunicated
and succeeded by Domnus. The proceedings of the
synod were sent by its members to Rome and An
tioch and to all the Catholic churches. Neverthe
less, Paul remained in office with Zenobia for four
years, while the church in Antioch was divided.
Iii 272, however, Antioch was taken by Aurelian,
who, when appealed to, decided that the church
edifice should be given to him with whom the Chris
tian bishops of Italy and the city of Rome were in
correspondence. The teaching of Paul of Samosata
was as follows: The Father, Son, and Holy Ghost

46"/	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xonarchianiun
are one person; and though in God the Logos (Son) and " Wisdom " (Holy Ghost; elsewhere in Paul Logos is identical with " Wisdom ") may be distinguished, they nevertheless remain qualities of God. God sent forth the Logos from himself from eternity and even begat him, so that the Logos may be termed " Son " and have a being ascribed to him, though he remains an impersonal power. The Logos, which can not be made manifest, worked in the prophets, still more in Moses, and most of all in the son of David born of the Holy Ghost by the Virgin. The Redeemer is, therefore, human in essence and comes " from hence," while the Logos works in him " from above." The union of the Logos with the man Jesus is to be considered an indwelling (with an appeal by Paul to John xiv. 10), so that the Logos is in Jesus what the apostle called the " inner man " in the Christian. On the other hand, since the Logos does not dwell essentially in Jesus, the two are to be distinguished, the Logos being the greater. Mary did not give birth to the Logos, but to a man essentially like other men; and the man, not the Logos, was anointed with the Spirit in baptism. On the other hand, Jesus was made peculiarly worthy of the divine grace, and was correspondingly preserved from sin. In consequence of his mental endowment and his will, Jesus was like God and became one with him, not only being without sin himself, but also overcoming by his toil and struggle the sin of the first parent of mankind. As Jesus steadily progressed ethically, the Father endowed him with miraculous powers; so that he became the redeemer and savior of mankind, and finally became inseparably united with God forever, receiving as the reward of his love a " name which is above every name " and the power of judgment. He is, moreover, enthroned in divine honor, so that he may be termed " God from the Virgin." His preexistence may, therefore, be postulated on the basis of foreknowledge and prophecy; and in like manner he may be regarded as born through the grace of God. Doubtless Paul of Samosata, in his view of the baptism, recognized a special degree of the indwelling of the Logos in the man Jesus; and he seems to have held that Jesus did not become Christ until his baptism. In his polemics Paul sought to show that the belief that Jesus was by nature the son of God led to ditheism; he openly opposed the Alexandrine exegetes; and he banished from the liturgy all psalms of the Church in which the essential divinity of Christ was maintained. While the doctrines of Paul of Samosata clearly mark a continuation of those of Hermas and Theodotus, he not only adopted the current theological terminology of his time, but also gave a philosophical, ethical, and Biblical foundation to the old heterodox type of doctrine. While in certain respects he was foreshadowed by the complicated theology of Origen‑and also perhaps by the Alogi of Asia Minor and the Theodotians of Rome ‑his development of the nature and the will in the persons, the character and power of love, and the recognizability of Christ's divinity solely from his activity as being one with the divine will‑these stand almost alone in the entire dogmatic literature of the oriental churches of the first three centuries.
He is especially characterized, however, by his conscious substitution of history and ethics for metaphysics, as in his rejection of Platonizing dogmatics. While, moreover, he considered the peculiar divinity of Jesus to consist in his attitude and his will rather than in his nature, he held that the spirit and the grace of God rested in special measure (in accord with the divine promises) on Christ as the peculiar object of the predestination of God, Christ's activity and his life in and with God thus becoming unique. By this theory room was left for a human life.
Yet Paul taught an eternal son of God, and an indwelling of that son in Jesus; he proclaimed the
divinity of Christ, held the doctrine 3. Paul's of two persons (God and Jesus); and,
Homoousi‑ like the Alexandrine theologians, reanism and jected Sabellianism. The very synod Influence. of Antioch which condemned him ap‑
parently rejected the term homoousios in deference to him, on the ground that (according to the conjecture of Athanasius), if Christ was of the same nature as the Father, the latter was not the ultimate source of divinity, but both the Father and the Son must be derived from a primordial substance, and thus be in the relation of brothers. The possibility must also be borne in mind, however, that, as Hilary says, the synod rejected the term homoousios because Paul himself had declared God and the (impersonal) Logos (the Son) to be of the same substance. At all events, the majority of the synod considered the doctrines of Paul extremely heterodox, and, with ail their own uncertainty on the precise character of the essentially divine element in Christ, they picked a very real flaw in Paul's Christology‑his practical teaching of two sons of God, though the actual difference between the two parties lay in the problem of the divine nature of the Redeemer. With the deposition of Paul of Samosata it was no longer possible to gain a hearing for a Christology which denied the personal, independent preexistence of the Redeemer. It was no longer sufficient to interpret his theanthropic life from his deeds, but it was necessary to believe in his divine nature. Nevertheless Paul's school lingered on for a time, giving inspiration to the tenets of Lucian of Samosata (q.v.) and his followers, who ultimately developed into the Arians. In the fourth century Photinus approximated the teachings of Paul, whose affinity with the great Antiochian theologians is also clear, independent though the tenets of the latter school were in their origin. Among the great Antiochians Paul of Samorata was again condemned, and his name was used a third time in the Monothelite controversy (see MONOTHELITES). Even in the early fourth century the Acts Archelai show that in easternmost Christendom there was a Christology untouched by Alexandrine teachings and to be ranked with Adoptionism. Here it is clearly evident that as late as this period the Logos‑Christology had not overpassed the boundaries of the Christianity confederated in the empire.
[The influence of Paul of Samosata was probably perpetuated in the Pauli^.ians of Armenia (q.v.), and his name appears in their denominational

Monarohtaniem	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	468
epithet. It is highly probable that adoptionist Christology widely prevailed in Armenia until the triumph of Greek influence and continued to be zealously maintained by a persecuted minority until its adherents crystallized into the Paulicianism the chief peculiarities of which were the uncompromising rejection of infant baptism and the maintenance of adoptionist Chnstology. " The Key of Truth " (edited and translated by F. C. Conybea,re, Oxford, 1896), probably written in the ninth century, but representing the doctrines and practises of a much earlier time, is outspoken in its adoptionism. In the section on the baptism of Christ it is said: " So then it was in the season of his maturity that he received baptism; then it was that he received authority, received the high‑priesthood, received the kingdom and the office of chief shepherd. Moreover he was then chosen, then he won lordship, then he became resplendent, then he was strengthened, then he was revered, then he was appointed to guard us, then he was glorified, then he was praised, then be was made glad, then he shone forth, then he was pleased, end then he rejoiced.
. It was then he became chief of beings heavenly and earthly, then he became light of the world, then he became the way, the truth, and the life. Then he became the door of heaven, then he became the rock impregnable at the gate of hell; then he became the foundation of our faith; then he became savior of us sinners; then he was filled with the Godhead . . . . Furthermore, he then put on the primal raiment of light which Adam lost in the garden. Then accordingly it was that he was invited by the Spirit of God to converse with the heavenly Father," etc. A. a. x.]
V. Modalistic Monarchianiem in Asia Minor, Rome, and Carthage: The real peril to the LogosChristology between 180 and 240 was not the dynamistic Monarchianism thus far disc. Wide cussed, but the view which regarded Popularity Christ as God in person, and as the of Modal‑ Father incarnate. Called Monarchiiatic Mon‑ ans and Patripassians in the West, ambianism. and Sabellians in the East, they were combated by Tertullian, Origen, Novatian,, and, above all, Hippolytus. According to the latter, the Monarchian controversy disturbed the entire Church; while Tertullian and Origen declare that in their day the " economic " Trinity and the application of the concept of the Logos to Christ were regarded with suspicion by the majority of Christians. The popularity of modalism, especially in the East, is reflected in the multitude of apocryphal acts of the apostles (see APOCRYPHA, B, II.), which almost invariably represent or approximate modalistic Christology. Here, too, falls the Christology of Irenueus, with its strange attempt to blend the Logos‑Christology with modalism. In Rome Monarchianism had been the official teaching for nearly a generation; apd that it was no new thing in the Church is clear from the presence of a Monarchian faction among the Montanists and Marcionites. The predominance of Monarchianism in the Church was due primarily to the struggle with Gnosticism; and though its adherents were mostly not professed theologians, adherents of
scientific training were not lacking. The modalists claimed by their doctrines to obviate ditheism, to assert the complete divinity of Christ, and to cut the ground from under Gnosticism. But the weakness of its cardinal hypothesis was too evident, and it was lost as soon as it saw itself obliged to assume either the defensive or offensive. Its contest with orthodoxy was strikingly reminiscent of the controversy between the genuine and the Platonizing Stoics on the concept of God. As the latter subordinated Plato's transcendental, dispassionate God to the Logos (God) of Heraclitus and the Stoics, so Origen reproached the Monarchians with remaining content with the visible God operating in the world, instead of proceeding to the " ultimate " God. It is not surprising, therefore, that when once modalistic Monarchianism had invoked the aid of science (i.e., of Stoicism), it was on the road to a pantheistic concept of God. Nevertheless, the earliest literary representatives of Monarchianism had a distinctly monotheistic interest which centered in Biblical Christianity.
As dynamistic Monarchianism first gained vogue in Asia Minor, the Church of this same region seems to have been the scene of the earliest Patripamian controversy; and in both instances
s. Rise Asia Minor may be regarded as having of Patri‑ transplanted the strife to Rome. Noopasaianism tus, who seems to have been excom‑
	at Rome.	municated about 230, doubtless first
		attracted attention as a Monarchian,
probably in the last fifth of the second century,
either at his native city Smyrna, or at Ephesus.
His excommunication in Asia Minor seems to have
taken place after the entire controversy had been
settled at Rome. Epigonus (d. 200), a pupil of
Noetus, came to Rome during the pontificate of
Zephyrinus, and is said there to have promulgated
the teachings of his master and to have founded a
separate Patripassian party. The first head of the
faction was Cleomenes, the pupil of Epigonus, and
in 215 he was succeeded by Sabellius. Although
they were opposed at Rome especially by Hippoly.
tus, the sympathy of the majority of the Roman
Christians was Monarchian. Even Zephyrinus, like
his predecessor Victor, was inclined toward modal
ism, though his chief endeavor seems to have been
to avoid schism at any cost. His policy was fol
lowed by his successor Calixtus (217‑222); but
when the struggle only became intensified, he re
solved to excommunicate both Sabellius and Hip
polytus, though it is not impossible that Hippolytus
and his minority had already broken with Calix
tus. The moderates of both parties seem to have
been satisfied with the Christological formula pro
posed by Calixtus, and formed the bridge by which
the Roman Christians passed from Monarchian to
hypostatic Christology. The small faction of Hip
polytus maintained an existence in Rome for some
fifteen years; the Sabellians survived still longer.
The scantiness of the sources for the history of
Monarcbianism in Rome‑to say nothing of other
cities‑despite the discovery of the Philosophu
mend, is exemplified in the fact that Tertullian
never mentions Noetus, Epigonus, Cleomenes, or
Calixtus, but mentions a monarchian in Rome

469	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	xonarohianism
ignored entirely by Hippolytus, Praxem. He probably came to Rome during the pontificate of Vio‑, tor, but remained there only a short time. Fifteen years later, when the controversy was in full course at Rome and Carthage, his name was forgotten. Notwithstanding this, Tertullian polemized against him as the first to arouse controversy in Carthage, although in his attacks he regarded the conditions of about 210, with reference, apparently, to the Roman Monarchians. Praxeas was a confessor of Asia Minor, the first to bring the Christological controversy to Rome, and a man filled with zeal against the rising prophetic school. Not only did he find no opposition at Rome, but he even induced the pontiff (either Eleutherus or Victor) to retract the " letters of peace " which he had bestowed on the new prophets and their communities in Asia. But the presence of Praxeas in Rome caused no lasting strife. From Rome he went to Carthage, where he opposed the hypostatic Christology, only to be silenced and forced to a written retraction by Tertullian. Thus ended the first phase of the controversy, and the name of Praxeas vanished; nor is anything certainly known of the downfall of Monarchianism in Carthage.
The sources are too scanty for a complete presentment of the tenets of the earlier modalistic Monarchianism. Yet the sources are not alone to blame; for the theory that in Christ
3. Doc‑ God himself had become incarnate
trines of might lead to wild hypotheses of trans‑
the Early formation or approximate dynamistic
	Modalists.	Monarchianism. Again, so soon as the
		indwelling of the " divinity of the Fa
ther " in Jesus was not regarded strictly as an in
carnation, the way was open for the Artemonite
heresy (see ARTEMON). In the wtitings of Origen
are many passages which may refer to either mod
alists or Artemonites, especially as the two were
united by their opposition to the Logos‑Christology.
The best account of the older modalists is contained
in the polemic of Hippolytus against Noetus. His
followers held that Christ was the Father, and that
the Father himself had been born, had suffered,
and died. If Christ is God, he is surely the Father,
or else not God; and therefore, if Christ suffered,
then God suffered. Yet it was not only their de
cided monotheism, which made them term their
opponents ditheists, that led them on; they were
impelled, besides this, by their interest in the divinity
of Jesus, which, in their opinion, could be main
tained solely by their teachings, in support of which
they appealed to such passages as Ex. iii. 6, xx.
2‑3; Isa. xliv. 6, xlv. 5, 14‑15; Bar. iii. 36; John
x. 30, xiv. 8‑9; Rom. ix. 5. While they thus reo
ognized the Gospel of John, they explained away
its allusions to the Logos allegorically. In his Phi
losophumena Hippolytus asserts that the Noetians
maintained that the distinction between the Father
and the Son was merely nominal (except in so far
as it was redemptorial), since the one God, when
born as man, appeared as the Son. God is invisible
when he will, and visible when he will (this being
based on an appeal to the Old‑Testament the
ophanies); and in like manner he is both incom
prehensible and comprehensible, unconquerable and
conquerable, unbegotten and begotten, immortal and mortal. In so far as the Father suffered himself to be born of the virgin, he is the son of himself, and not of another, and he who suffered the passion and rose on the third day was the God and Father of all. While Stoic influence can not be denied in the Noetian system, the basis is certain ancient quasiliturgical formulas as used by Ignatius, the author of II Clement, and Melito, and of similar purport with the views just cited.
The concept and importance of the human " flesh " of Jesus, according to these Monarchians, is uncertain (see FLEsH). More complicated are the Monarchianistic formulas attacked by Tertullian in the Advemus Praxeam and as‑
4. Later cribed by Hippolytus to Calixtus.
Modalism Tertullian's Monarchians maintain the and Catho‑ complete identity of the Father and
lic Com‑ the Son, and had no place for the Logos
	promise.	in their Christology, regarding the
		word as empty sound. Like the Noe
tians, they were intensely monotheistic and feared
the recrudescence of Gnosticism in hypostatic
Christology. Obliged to explain the Biblical pas
sages in which the Son appears as distinct from the
Father, they asserted that the flesh made the Fa
ther the Son, or that in the person of the Redeemer
the flesh (the man, Jesus) was the Son, and the
spirit (God, Christ) was the Father, appealing, in
support of their view, to Luke i. 35. Since God is
spirit only, he could not suffer; but by assuming
human flesh, he could be a fellow sufferer. It is at
once evident that as soon as the distinction be
tween flesh (the Son) and spirit (the Father) was
taken seriously,, the doctrine approached the Artem
onite teaching. Yet such a distinction could not
satisfy the advocates of the Logos Christology,
since it maintained the identity of the Father with
the spirit in Christ. Any attempt to recognize the
Logos Christology on the basis of modalism neces
sarily led to dynamistic Monarchianism; yet the
formulas of both Zephyrinus and Calixtus had
arisen from efforts at compromise. In the formula
of the latter‑that God (the Logos, both Father
and Son) was an indivisible spirit filling all things,
the incarnate spirit being identical with the Fa
ther, so that the human manifestation was the Son
and the indwelling spirit the Father, the Father
suffering with the Son‑Origen rightly recognized
a mixture of Sabellian and Theodotian views. The
adoption of this formula in Rome, except by a few
extremists of either party, was due not only to its
admission of the Logos‑concept, but to its declara
tion that, at the incarnation, God had deified the
flesh; and that the Son, as representing the essen
tially deified flesh, should be regarded as a second
person, though truly one with God. The formula.
was, moreover, admirably adapted, by its ambigu
ity, to establish among the faithful the mystery
under whose protection bypostatie Christology
gradually gained entrance.
Hypostatic Christology, as opposed to modalism, was evolved between 200 and 250 on the basis of the theology of the apologists. It easily refuted, by arguments from the Bible, the Monarchian identification of the Father with the Son, and rejected

Xonarchianiem	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	480
Xonaoticism
as an innovation the Patripassian doctrine. In
their concept of God, on the other hand, the Mon
			archians were generally supported by
	5. Struggle the earliest Christian tradition. Their
		between opponents, well aware of the difficul
	Hypostat‑ ties confronting them, plunged into
		ism and speculation, even at the risk of ap
	Modalism. proximating Gnosticism. Yet in their
			Christology Tertullian and his disciples
were unable either to satisfy the Christian views
or to silence their opponents; for though their
	Logos was essentially one with God, yet in origin
he is an inferior divine being. This view, moreover,
conflicted with liturgical tradition, which taught
that God himself must be seen in Christ; while the
attempt to deduce the appellation of Son of God
for Christ from an act before the creation of the
world, instead of from his miraculous birth, was
	opposed by dogmatic tradition. The final conquest
of Monarchianism, impossible for Tertullian and
	Hippolytus, was achieved by Origen and the Alex
andrine theologians. In the Logos‑doctrine of the
third century, there was no positive answer to the
problem whether the divine which was manifest on
earth in Christ was identical with the Godhead.
Athanasius was the first to make certain reply on
the basis of the Logos‑doctrine; but until his time
the modalistic Monarchians represented a primi
tive and valuable movement in the Church. After
Calixtus' formula of compromise and the excom
munication of Sabellius (see CALrxTUB I.), aggres
sive modalism, as well as Hippolytus' sect, declined
in the West. Nevertheless, sporadic modalistic
tendencies, formulas, and doctrines still survived,
as assailed by the Creed of Aquileia, by Cyprian,
and by Dionysius of Rome, and as shown by nu
merous passages in the writings of Commodian.
There were Sabellians at Rome as late as the fourth
century. The true cause of the downfall of western
modalism lay in the firm attitude assumed by the
West in the Roman struggle, in the energetic de
fense of the homoouma, and in the rejection of the
formula of three hypostases.
VL Modalistic Monarchians in the East; Sabel
liariism: The term " Sabellians " was applied in
the East, after the beginning of the third century,
			to the modalistic Monarehians, and
	i. Sabellius; occurs sporadically in the West in the
	Obscurity fourth and fifth centuries. The data
		of the	concerning the teaching of Sabellius
Sources. himself and of his immediate succes
			sors, however, is very confused. Not
only have the doctrines of Marcellus of Ancyra
	(q.v.) been confounded with those of Sabellius
especially as Monarehianism assumed various forms
in the century between Hippolytus and Athana,
sius‑but philosophical speculation also entered in,
and Kenotic (see KENosis) and transformation
theories were developed; besides which, deductions
were drawn and consequent tenets assigned by the
sources which probably never existed in the form
described. It is, therefore, impossible to write a
	history of Monarchianism from Calixtus to Marcel
lus, no matter how carefully all available material
be studied. Nevertheless, it is clear that, at least
between 220 and 270, the battle against Monarchi‑
anism must have been bitter in the East, and that the development of the Logos Christology was there directly influenced by this opposition. The very fact that in the East Monarchianism was almost exclusively known as " Sabellianism "shows that schisms first arose there through the activity of Sabellius, that is, after the fourth decade of the third century. Apparently during the pontificate of Zephyrinus, Sabellius, who was probably born in the Pentapolis in Libya, became the successor of Cleomenes as the head of the Monarehians at Rome. With his excommunication by Calixtus, he became the leader of a Monarehian sect ~ which branded Calixtus as an apostate. He was still in Rome when Hippolytus wrote the Philosophumena, and there developed far‑reaching relations, especially with the East. His doctrines, which were evidently unknown to Origen, were closely akin to those of Noetus, from which they differed, however; both in their more exact theology and in their recognition of the Holy Ghost. The cardinal tenet of Sabellius was that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost are identical, but with three names. Ever inspired by a rigid monotheism, Sabellius also termed the one God the " Son‑Father," evidently to avoid all suspicion of ditheism, meaning hereby the final designation of God himself, and not any manifestations of a monad remaining in the background. At the same time, he taught that God is not the Father and the Son simultaneously; but that he became operative in three successive energies: first, as the person (" manifestation," not " hypostasis ") of the Father, the creator and legislator; then as the person of the Son as the Redeemer (this period extending from the incarnation to the assumption); and finally as the person of the Holy Ghost as the maker and giver of life. It is improbable, however, that he was able to make a strict delimitation of these successive persons, for he can scarcely have avoided the recognition of the continuous activity of God the Father in nature.
While both Sabellius and his followers acknowledged the catholic canon, Epiphanius states that they derived their entire heresy from certain apocryphal books, especially from the Gospel of the Egyptians. It is thus evident that the Sabellian
Christology was not essentially differs. Relations ent from the older Patripassian sys‑
and Decay ten. The only noteworthy points of
	of Sabef‑	divergence were the attempt to dem
	lianism.	onstrate the succession of the per
		sons; the recognition of the Holy
Ghost; and the formal parallelization of the per
son of the Father with the two other persons. The
first point may be regarded as a harking back to
rigid modalism, while the second was in keeping
with the new theological school. The most impor
tant point was the third, since by paralleling the
person and the energy of the Father with the other
two persons, not only was cosmology introduced
into modalism as a parallel to soteriology, but the
preeminence of the Father over the Son and the
Holy Ghost was broken. Thus the way was pre
pared for Athanasian and Augustinian Christology
‑‑Sabellius was the forerunner of the exclusive

481	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Monarchianirm
		Monasticism
homoottsim. The doctrines of Sabellius were re
jected by Marcellus of Ancyra (q.v.), who found no
recognition of the Logos in Sabellianism, and con
sequently deemed that his fellow Monarchian had
formed an incorrect concept of God. But his Mon
archianism won few adherents. The times had
changed; the consubstantiality of the Father and
the Logos had been enunciated; and Monarchian
ism had become superfluous in the Church. The
controversy of the two Dionysii, though properly a
preliminary to Arianism, must be mentioned here,
since the Sabellian tendencies in the Pentapolis led
Dionysius of Alexandria to a rigid statement of his
doctrine. The ambiguity of Origen's Christological
terminology, however, is revealed in the formulas
of his disciples Dionysius and Gregory Thaumatur
gus, which contain passages susceptible of Mon
archianistic interpretation, though, like Origen,
both were bitter opponents of the Monarchian sys
tem. It must be borne in mind, however, that in
the period between 250 and 320 there was a fre
quent tendency toward tritheism, while, on the
other hand, there was a deep‑seated mistrust of
the Logos Christology as imperiling Monarchian
ism, so that Origen's followers felt themselves
obliged to emphasize Monarchianistic tenets. In
the second half of the third century the fluidity of
all dogmatic concepts thus led to a condition of
theological confusion. What Athanasius and later
writers called Sabellianiem was a comprehensive
			MONASTICISM.
	In Asia Minor (¢ 7).
	Later History of Oriental Monasti
		cism (§ 8).
	Relation to Church and State
		(§ 9).
II. Monasticism in the West.
	Beginnings in Italy, Gaul, and Ger
		many (§ I).
	I. Monasticism in the East: Monasticism is a
general term for the system of renunciation of life
in the world for that of devotion and asceticism.
A trace of the attitude which later characterized this
		system may be found in the preference
	:. Ante‑ given by Paul to the unmarried over
	Nicene the married state (I Cor. vii. 38, 40) and
	Practise. in his counsel not to marry on account
		of the expected return of the Lord
(verse 26). In the Roman church of the apostolic
period there appeared an Encratite tendency which
taught abstinence from meat and wine (Rom. xiv.
2, 21). The Acts, too, characterize the four daugh
ters of Philip the deacon as virgins; and the book
of Revelation designates as the " first‑fruits unto
God and to the Lamb " the hundred and forty‑four
thousand " which were not defiled with women "
(xiv. 4). Hegesippus states that James, the Lord's
brother, lived as a Nazarite in complete abstinence
from meat and wine (Eusebius, Hiat. etxl., II., xxiii.).
The works of the apostolic fathers and apologists
are full of references to both men and women who
lived an ascetic life. Ignatius names as their mo
tive for renunciation of marriage " respect for the
body which is the Lord's," Athenagoras the hope
of a higher reward in heaven, The claim of the
T. Monasticism in the East. Ante‑Nicene Practise (§ 1). Official Status (¢ 2). The Motive (§ 3). Egyptian Origins; Anthony and Ammonius (§ 4). Other Egyptian Settlements (§ b). In Palestine and Syria (§ 8).
term for various doctrinal systems, modified by philosophical concepts and the influence of Alexandrine theology. The bold attempt of Paul of Samosata to return to primitive tradition came too late; and the same judgment holds of the effort of Marcellus of Ancyra to abandon Alexandrine speculation as a whole and to solve the Christological problem by again taking up Biblical concepts and the theology of Irenaeus. The problem remained confined to the limits of Origen's theology, and here it met its fate. See ANTITRINITARIANI6A2, § 2.
(AnoLIr HwxNecs.)
Blsrrooswrar: Consult the literature under Anoal, and 5nder the sketches of the leaders named in the text, especially Epiphsnius, Hippolytus, Trengeus, and Philaeter. Important ere the works on the history of doctrine, cape. cially: Harnack, Dogma, i. 198, 331 ii. passim, iii. S‑B8, 93; K. R. Hagenbach, History of Christian Doctrines, i. 74, 180, 178, Edinburgh, 1880; I. A. Dorner, Die Lshra von der Parson Christi, 4 vole. Stuttgart, 1848‑b8, Eng trend., History of the Development of as Doctrine of the Parson of Christ, b vole., Edinburgh, 1881‑1883. Also the works on the church history of the period, eg., Schaff, Christian Church, ii. b71‑583; and Neander, Christian Church, i, 575 eqq., ii. passim. Consult also: L. Lange, Geachiehta and Lehrleprily' der Unitarier vor der nicdnierhen Syaode, Leipaio, 1831; F. D. E. $chleiermacher, SBmmh licks Wer)re‑Zur Theotop9e, vol. ii., 30 vole., Berlin, 183b1884; J. $ehwane, Dogmangeachichta der roorreic8niachan Zait, pp 142‑158, 199‑203, Miineter, 1882; H. Hegemann, Die rlmiecha ICsrchs in den araten dre's Jahrhundertan, Freiburg, 1884; J. Bornemsnn, Die Taufa Christi, Leipeio, 1898; Hefele, Concii%enpeachic7Ua, vole. i.‑ii., Eng. travel., vole. i.‑iii.
The Rules (¢ 2).
Relation to Civilisation (§ 3). The Mendicant Orders (§ 4).
Later Orders (§ 5).
Monastic Attempts under Proteetantism (§ 8).
ascetics to the first rank in the church on earth, as
the most perfect Christians, is early heard. Clem
ent of Rome warns them not to boast, and Igna
tius rebukes some who thought themselves more
than the bishops. There was perfect freedom in
the ascetic life in this early period. Some merely
abstained from marriage, others from meat and
wine as well. The renunciation of property did not
always go with that of marriage; Gyprian (De
habitu tirginum., vii.) knew some consecrated vir
gins who still retained their own property. Some
of them continued to live in their own houses, others
lived in common in special dwellings called par
thenottes. The same is true of the male ascetics.
Origen lived unmarried, without property, in con
stant prayer and meditation, abstaining from meat
and wine and imposing the severest penancea on
himself; in fact, his life differed from that of later
monks only in being passed in the midst of the
world. A strict cloistral separation is not found in
early asceticism, though a certain degree of retire
ment was required from women who adopted this
life. The male ascetics passed from place to place
after the manner of the apostles, " ° confirming the
churches." Their self‑denying activity and care
for the sick and friendless during the persecution

Monasticism	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	488
of Diocletian is lauded by Eusebius (De marlyribua Pala°atine, x., xi.).
The first witness for a public vow of virginity for women is Tertullian (De trirgine velanda, xiv.). This vow, however, had no legal force; a marriage contracted by one who had made it
s. Official was valid (Cyprian, Epiat., aid.). But
	Status.	penalties were early decreed for a
		breach of such a vow; thus the Span
ish Council of Elvira (306) imposed lifelong ex
communication, while that of Ancyra (314) only
required the same penance as for bigamy, or excom
munication for a year. About the middle of the
fourth century the custom seems to have been in
troduced of the priest before whom the vow was
pronounced giving the virgin a veil and a special
robe (Ambrose, DS trirgi:ntbus, I., xi.). Men, on the
other hand, as late as the time of Basil made no
public vow and were distinguished by no special
costume. In spite of the high regard felt for the
ascetics, the church of the first centuries was forced
by its opposition to Gnostics, Encratites, and Mon
tanists into a certain reserve on the subject. While
some of these sects required from their adherents
complete abstinence from meat and wine, and even
from marriage, in the Church only tentative efforts
were made to enforce the ascetic ideal on all its
members in regard to food (see FASTING, II.).
Origen, indeed, exhorted Christian priests to per
petual continence, and the Council of Elvira threat
ened with deposition bishops, priests, and deacons
who did not abstain from intercourse with their
wives; but the first Council of Nicma (325) declared
against the enforcement of clerical celibacy (see
CELIBACY). At the end of the third century for the
first time is mentioned the foundation of an associa
tion of ascetics (Epiphanies, Hwr., lxvii.). It
originated with Heraclas, a disciple of Origen, who
came from Leontopolis in Egypt. It embraced both
men and women, who lived in perpetual abstinence
from marriage, from meat, and from wine (see
HERACLAS).
It was in this second half of the third century that monasticism properly so called originated and the ideal of an entire separation from the world was realized. The cause of the new movement, which made large numbers desert the world in order to live an ascetic and contem‑
	3. The	plative life in the desert, has been
	Motive,	sought, on Jerome's authority (Vita
		Pauli, j.), in the Decian persecution;
but historical proof is lacking (for origins see be
low, 1 4). The same lack of evidence weakens
the theory of imitation of non‑Christian practise,
as of.Buddhism (Hilgenfeld) or the Egyptian cult
of Serapis (Weingarten). Keim's theory of the
influence of Neo‑Platonism is equally untenable;
though this system undoubtedly affected the
Church, it can not possibly have been a deter
mining factor in the growth of monasticism, and
it could not have had a specially strong influence
upon the rural population of the Thebaid. The
real source of the monastic movement is to be
sought in the development of the Christian ideal.
In the picture which Clement of Alexandria draws
of " the true Gnostic," and still more clearly in
Origen, may be traced the conception of the perfect Christian as one who lives remote from the world and its passions. It is true, of course, that the distressing social and political circumstances of Egypt later in the third century contributed to the increase of Christian heroism and of the tendency to fly from the world, just as similar conditions farther west called forth the movement of the Circumeelliones (q.v.) in connection with the Donar tist controversy (see DCNATIBM). But the principal motive of Christian monasticism was the desire to attain everlasting happiness and moral, perfection by escape from the world.*
Some individual instances of this flight may have existed as early as the beginning of the third century. In connection with Jerome's Vita Pauli (ut sup.) it was formerly the custom to
.E. Egyptian find the origin of Christian monasOrigins; ticism in Paul of Thebes as a result of
Anthony the Decian persecution. This was and thought to be substantiated by . the
Ammonius. account in Eusebius (Hilt. eccl., VI., xlii.) of "flight into deserts and mountain regions " at this time. But the historicity of the Vita Pauli is now not recognized. As a consequence, if satisfactory historical evidence alone be considered, the title of the first hermit must be assigned to Anthony, whose life was written, from knowledge based on close personal relationship, by Athanasius (soon after Anthony's death, or between 356 and 362; Eng. transl. in NPNF, 2 ser., iv. 188221). St. Anthony was born of wealthy Christian parents at Coma, on the borders of Upper Egypt, c. 250, lost his parents when he was in his eighteenth year, six months later gave all his goods to the poor, leaving his sister to the care of a pious woman, and retired first to a tomb and then to a ruined castle near the Nile, where he lived alone for twenty years. He issued from his retirement at times to instruct the multitudes who came to hear him, and sometimes visited the Christians of Alexandria to comfort them in times of stress. Eventually he retired still farther into the solitude near the Red Sea, where he died at the age of 105, attended only by the two disciples Amathas and Macarius (q.v.). He seems to have created no regular organization; the colonies of hermits which were known as monastewia were united only by ties of free fellowship under his spiritual direction. The " Rule " ascribed to him is not his, though it is of Egyptian origin and very old. Tracing the further develop‑

s While in the text the proximate cause of monasticism is probably correctly given, and " imitation " of non‑Christian practise is rightly rejected, the more fundamental cause is passed over. This is the belief, common to most advanced and to some primitive religions, that " the world " or " the flesh " in as evil, and that consequently perfection in the religious life is soonest and best attained by retirement from the world and mortification of the flesh. This was the motive in the asceticism of Brahmanism and Buddhism (qq.v.), of Greece, and of the Hanife of Arabia (see MOHAMMED, MOHAMMEDANrsM, IV., 1). It is one of the curious facts of history and of logic that the subduing of the flesh was attempted in either of two forms‑total abstention from indulgence in sensual pleasures and denial of the demands of appetite or extreme indulgence. In the Christian sphere this latter appeared in certain of the Gnostic outgrowths, and a sporadic case was the Christian‑Philadelphia Society
(see BuTrrsa. EVA VON).	G. W. G.

463	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Monasticism
ment of Egyptian monasticism, especially in the HisOrid Lausiaw of Palladius and the Hiatoraa monachomm of Rufinus, during Anthony's lifetime independent colonies of hermits appear to have been established in Lower Egypt by Ammonius or Amun, the father of Nitrian monasticism. He had been married against his will; after a life of continence lasting eighteen years, his wife turned their house into a home for consecrated virgins, while he went out into the desert, forty Roman miles to the south of Alexandria, and gathered (according to Palladius) not less than 500 disciples around him. They lived either solitary or in small communities, and assembled every Saturday and Sunday in the church, served by eight priests, for common worship. The day was divided between work and prayer; the strictest discipline prevailed. After twenty‑two years of this life, Ammonius died some time before 356, while Anthony was yet living. Among his disciples were Arsisius, Serapion, Cronius, Putubastus, Asion, and Didymus, while the younger generation of the Nitrian colony included Pambo, Benjamin, Apollonius, and the four " Long Brothers," Ammonius, Dioscurus, Eusebius, and Euthymius. The Nitrian monks were especially devoted to the theology of Origen, and when he was declared a heretic by Theophilus of Alexandria in 399, they had their share of persecution.
Twenty‑four hours' journey to the southward, in the Soetic desert near a place called Cellia, another famous colony had its abode. The cells were even more primitive than the Nitrian, and perpetual silence was the rule, except when the monks came
together on Saturdays and Sundays
5. Other for public worship. According to Cas‑
Egyptian sian, Macarius, called " the Great," Settlements. was the first to settle here (see MA‑
cAmus, 1). Palladius asserts that this was at the age of thirteen, and that he possessed the gifts of healing and prophecy. His sayings in the Apophthegmata and the fifty homilies still preserved give the idea of a pious and humble character and an important representative of primitive Christian mysticism. He died at the age of ninety, either in 387 or in 383. His principal associates were the Ethiopian Moses, Pachon, and Macarius the Younger. Two of his disciples, Evagrius Ponticus (q.v.) and Marcus Eremita (q.v.), attained some importance as writers. By the end of the fourth century Egypt was full of hermits, living either solitary or in communities. The numbers attributed to them may be exaggerated (e.g., 20,000 women and 10,000 men at Oxyrhynchus in central Egypt); but the extent of the movement is attested not only by Athanasius in more than one passage, but by the edict of the Emperor Valens in 365, and by his drafting 5,000 Nitrian monks as soldiers in 375. The loose fellowship of the Egyptian hermits was organized by Pachomius (q.v.), who surrounded the scattered cells by a wall and gave the monks a common rule of life. This earliest monastic rule is primitive and incomplete; but it enforces the duty of labor, makes an effort to systematize the devotional life, contains provisions concerning clothing, food, and hours of sleep, and by forbidding the reception of
strangers attempts to shut off the monastery from the world. While the older sort of hermit colonies still maintained their existence, the cenobitic system spread rapidly throughout Egypt. The hermit life was less adapted for women. Pachomius founded the first convent for his sister Mary, and the cloistered life was adopted by a constantly increasing number of female ascetics. At the same time a number of communities of women continued to exist in which a less strict rule of asceticism and seclusion from the world prevailed.
From Egypt monasticism spread to the peninsula of Sinai, which produced two important ascetic writers in Nilus Sinaita (see Nirus, 1) and Johannes Climacus (q.v.), and to Palestine, in the southern part of which Hilarion (q.v.) of Gaza,
,6. In a disciple of Anthony, introduced the Palestine hermit life in the latter half of the
	and Syria.	fourth century. Sozomen and Pal
		ladius mention a number of Palestin
ian hermits, and numerous monasteries arose here
about the middle of the fourth century. Melania,
a rich Roman woman and a friend of Rufinus,
founded a convent on the Mount of Olives, and an
other Roman, Paula (d. 404), houses for both monks
and nuns at Bethlehem. A younger Melania (d.
439) was also a noted founder. The western monks
and nuns lived here in the spirit of their Egyptian
models, and Jerome translated the rule of Pacho
mius for Paula's convent. Syria was, however, after
Egypt, the country in which early monasticism
flourished most remarkably. The men and women
who were associated with Aphraates did not leave
the world, and were " solitary " (as he calls them
in the sixth homily, of 337) only in the sense of
having taken a vow of celibacy. But Jacob of
Nisibis (q.v.) seems to have led a hermit's life
with Eugenius, the founder of Persian monasti
cism, before he became bishop of Nisibis in 309.
According to the account which he wrote of Eugo
nius (published in P. Bedjan, Ads martyrum .
Syriace, iii. 376‑380, 7 vols., Paris, 1890‑97), the latter seems to have come from Egypt, bringing with him the cenobitic tradition of the monasteries of Pachomius. He is perhaps to be identified with the Aones whom Sozomen calls (VI., xxxiii. 4) the founder in Syria of the strict hermit life, as Anthony was in Egypt. Among the monastic pioneers of Edessa and Osrhoene, Jerome names as the first a certain Julian, a contemporary of Julian the Apostate; Ephraem Syrus (q.v.) was one of the celebrated ascetics of this region. In eastern Cilicia and in the neighborhood of Antioch flourishing colonies of hermits existed from the middle of the fourth century in the desert of Chalcis, which acquired the name of the Syrian Thebaid. Here Jerome lived as a hermit from 373 to 380. In northern Syria the peculiar form of asceticism represented by the ". pillarsaints " became common in the fifth century. Its earliest example is supposed to have been Simeon, who abode on the top of a column near Antioch, gradually increasing its height, and after thirtysix years died about 460. This form of mortification is apparently connected with pagan Syrian prototypes. Scattered practitioners of it were found in the east until the fifteenth century. The

Xonasticism	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	484
most famous of them was the younger Simeon (d. 596), who lived for sixty‑eight years on top of a pillar near Antioch. See STYuTES.
Information as to Galatia comes from Palladius, a native of that region. In Roman Armenia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus, monasticism owed its origin to Eustathius of Sebaste (q.v.),
y. In Asia whose semi‑Atian associates, like the
	Minor.	bishops Marathonius and Macedonius
		(q.v.), were zealous supporters of the
movement. It assumed a fanatical character in Ar
menia, and conflicts resulted with the hierarchy; the
Council of Gangm (? 343) was obliged to take action
against the exaggerated asceticism of the Eustatbi
ans. A cognate phenomenon is the party of the
Euchites or Messalians (q.v.) in northern Syria and
Pamphylia in the latter half of the fourth century.
They were still more radical in their insistence on a
life of unbroken prayer, rejected the sacraments and
fasts of the Church, and displayed distinctly Mani
chean tendencies. Repressed by the bishops, they
disappeared for the time, to come up again in the
medieval sects of the Bogomiles (see NEW M.uvi
cgEerrs, 1.) and Paulicians (q.v.). [The Paulicians
had scarcely anything in common with Manicheans
or Messaliaas, and their origin can be otherwise ac.
counted for. A. H. N.] Monasticism was domesti
cated in Cappadocia first by Basil the Great and
then by Gregory Nazianzen and Gregory of Nyma
(qq.v.). The work of Basil was epoch‑making.
The two rules, a longer and a shorter one, which
bear his name, while they are rather catechisms on
monastic virtues and duties than formal rules, are
to‑day the only standard of Greek monasticism.
His ideal is essentially identical with that of An
thony. The monk is the perfect Christian; the
ascetic life consists not in specific practises of self
denial but in the sanctification of the whole person
ality; the monk must exercise, next to the love of
God, that of his neighbor, though practically this
was confined to his fellow monks and contemplated
no far‑reaching influence on the Church at large or
on society. According to Basil, the monastic life
meant not a suppression of nature but the return to
it, not opposition to but the completion of ancient
wisdom. As to the life in detail, the candidate for
admission to a monastery was required to renounce
his property and go through a period of probation.
No binding vows were made; the apotaga was a re
nunciation of all relations with the world, but not an
external act. The proestaa or head of the monastery
had full disciplinary powers. The daily life of the
monks was divided between prayer, for which there
were six fixed hours, and work, especially agricul
ture. There was no prescription as to food except
that it should be taken in moderation and not serve
to pamper the palate; the use of wine was prohib
ited. No special costume was prescribed.
In spite of Basil's influence in favor of a cenobitic system, the hermit life continued to be held in the highest esteem. It seemed to many that the monastic ideal of uninterrupted devotion could be attained only by the anchorite. But the two classes of monks lived peaceably together, the cloister being regarded as a training‑school for the higher stage. During the fifth and sixth centuries, Palestine
was the special home of monachism, partly on so‑
count of its associations, which brought thither an
increasing number of devout pilgrims. Soon after
		the beginning of the fifth century an
	8. Later attempt was made to link together the
	History of various monasteries and colonies of
	Oriental hermits in a common organization.
	Monasti‑ Each of these classes now had an archi
	cism. mandrite of its own, chosen by the
		whole body and confirmed by the
patriarch of Jerusalem. These offices assumed
considerable importance when the Cappadocian
Theodosius (414‑519), head of the monastery
founded by him and named after him at Jerusalem,
became archimandrite of the monasteries, and an
other Cappadocian, Sabas (q.v.; 439‑532), held the
corresponding position among the hermits. Sabas
founded seven ]auras (see ABBEY) or colonies of
hermits in Palestine, of which that at Jerusalem,
under his own guidance, was the principal one.
Even after the Mohammedan conquest in the
seventh century, monasticism maintained its foot
ing in Palestine; but its consequent isolation caused
it gradually to decline. After Egypt and Palestine
had ceased to be the centers of eastern monasticism,
this place was taken by Constantinople. About 430
the system of the akoimetw (monks who kept up an
unbroken prayer day and night in three divisions
which relieved each other) was introduced there by
Alexander, an abbot from a monastery on the
Euphrates. The monastery of this kind founded
about 460 by the Roman consular Studius and
known from him as Studion attained special im
portance in the epoch of the iconoclastic contro
versy through the work of its abbot Theodore (see
THEODORE THE STUDITE), who reformed Byzantine
monasticism by adapting the Basilian rule to al
tered conditions. His " Constitutions," which, if
not drawn up by him, represent his work, give pre
cise information as to the life of his own house, and
were accepted by many others. The reception of
a monk, with the binding vow which had been re
quired since the Council of Chalcedon, was a solemn
act, considered almost as a second baptism in its
power to cleanse from sin. It was made at the foot
of the altar during the liturgy and in the presence
of all the brethren. After receiving the tonsure
and habit, the new monk then partook of the com
munion. Besides domestic economy and agricul
ture the monks were occupied in theology, philoso.
phy, and grammar, so that their houses became
nurseries of orthodox divinity. The abbot was re
quired to give a catechetical lecture three times a
week to the monks. They were to live simply and
temperately, but the use of meat was allowed. The
distinction between makroschfwi and mikroschftoi
seems to have been introduced about the time of
the iconoclastic controversy. The latter, answer
ing to the lay brothers in the West, performed the
household duties; the former, the western choir
brothers, lived in complete abstraction from worldly
things, devoted wholly to contemplation and study.
This gradation, though it weakened the sense of
unity, served to facilitate the entrance into the
monastery of those who did not feel called to take
upon themselves the extremer obligations. The

485	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Monasticism
next great center was Mount Athos (see ATHOs), which was inhabited by hermits from the middle of the ninth century, though the first regular monastery was not founded until 963. In the Hesychastic controversy (see HEsYCHAsTs) the fanatical element in eastern monachism once more found expression. The monks regarded themselves as inspired and endowed with the gifts of miracles and of prophecy in order to make what amounted to a new development of revelation. The colonies on Mount Athos increased in number until in 1045 there were 180. With its numerous hermits and monasteries of combined aristocratic and democratic constitution, Athos is still the most famous seat of Greek monasticism.
Although monasticism stood out briginally in sharp contrast to the Church in the midst of the world, open conflict was avoided. The bishops,
especially Athanasius, succeeded in
g. Relation abating the anticlerical tendencies of to Church monasticism, which on its side preand State. served an abiding respect for the Church and its institutions, so that the relations between secular and regular clergy in the East finally became a very friendly one, until by the increasing enforcement of celibacy and the choosing of dignitaries from the monastic ranks the opposition was almost entirely removed. The trouble which the Church had in the fifth century with monastic fanaticism led to strict regulation by the Council of Chalcedon (canons iv., viii., xxiii., xxiv.). The monasteries and all the monks of a diocese were to be subject to the bishop, without whose leave no new monasteries might be erected; slaves were not to be received without the consent of their masters; to the ordinary vows was added the obligation of " stability " or continuance in one fixed residence, to prevent disorderly roving. The same line was followed by Justinian in his monastic legislation, which became the model for all subsequent state regulations in the East. The second Trullan synod of 692 increased the freedom of entrance into the monastic state, which Justinian had facilitated for slaves, ordered wandering hermits either to allow themselves to be gathered into monasteries or to retire into the desert (see GYROVAQI), and laid down the principle that only he who had approved himself as a cenobite should become a hermit. Under the iconoclastic emperors the monks led the defense of images, with John of Damascus (q.v.), who belonged to the monastery of St. Sabas on the Dead Sea, at their head. The monasteries underwent great trials during this period, and there is some reason to think that the emperors contemplated their total suppression. The Second Council of Niceea (787) allowed the unrestricted foundation of monasteries (though that of Constantinople, 861, restored the requirement of episcopal permission), and reiterated the prohibition of monks and nuns leaving their convents. Since the Trullan synod of 692 had confined the requirement of celibacy to the bishops, they were thereafter usually taken from the monasteries, which gave great power to monasticism. This was increased by the fact that the monks, who had given to the practise of confession its systematic development, were long its VII.‑30
chief ministers. The main service of Greek monasticism as a whole was the awakening of the Church to the consciousness of practical needs. The monks' constant effort for the sanctification of their own hearts had given them a deep insight into the inner life, and the great preachers of the East, such as Basil, Chrysostom, and Gregory Nazianzen, had learned to know human nature through monasticism, while its influence may be traced also in the attention paid to psychological problems in the dogmatic theology of John of Damascus.
II. Monasticism in the West: This was wholly of eastern origin. In his Roman exile (341‑343) Athanasius spread the news of the work of Anthony and Pachomius, and according to Palladius (Hia‑
toria Lausiaca, i.), a monk named Isi‑
x. Begin‑ dore visited Rome about 350. Peter,
nings in the successor of Athanasius, who took
Italy, Gaul, refuge in Rome in 373, perhaps deter
and Ger‑ mined the movement of ascetics many. toward the East already noted. The
first western monasteries seem to have originated between 370 and 380; but the movement made slow progress, and was hindered rather than helped by the older institution of communities of consecrated virgins. During his Roman sojourn (382‑385), Jerome labored for the promotion of monasticism; but when the daughter of his pupil Paula died in 385 as a result of her extreme asceticism, the populace broke out in violent opposition, and he was forced to leave Rome, Paula and her other daughter Eustochium following him to the East to end their lives in a convent at Bethlehem. Nevertheless, when Augustine was in Rome in 388, he found a number of monastic " abodes of the saints " there, and he states that the inmates of the Roman convents procured their livelihood by spinning and weaving. In northern Italy Ambrose was the most prominent promoter of monasticism; he founded in the suburbs of Milan a monastery modeled on the eastern type, though he maintained it from his own resources, which was a departure from the model. Eusebius of Vercella; deserves special mention as being, with Augustine, the first to organize a community life of a more or less monastic kind for the clergy (see CHAPTER). In southern Italy, Paulinus (q.v.), later bishop of Nola, was a pioneer of the new movement. It was for the monastery of Pinetum, probably near Terracina, that Rufinus translated the rule of Basil. By 412 Jerome was able to boast of " many convents of virgins and an innumerable multitude of monks " in Italy. In Gaul Martin of Tours (q.v.) forwarded the movement by founding, soon after 360, the monasteries of Ligugd near Poitiers and .Marmoutiers near Tours. In the south an association of hermits was founded at the beginning of the fifth century by Honoratus on the island of Lerins, and two others in Marseilles by Cassian about the same time (see Gessmwus, JoHANNEB), followed by a large number of others in the course of the century. The new institution soon took root in German soil, possibly owing to an impulse given by Athanasius during his exile at Treves. When the officer Pontitianus came from that city to Milan in 387, he told Augustine of the

Monasticism
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Vita Antonii, which he had come to know there, and of the hermits who lived in the vicinity of the city. It seems to have been planted in Spain by one Donatus from North Africa, where Augustine had been its most influential promoter, but where, as in Italy, it had encountered strong opposition.
	In spite of the desire to imitate Egyptian and
Palestinian models, divergences from them soon
appear in western monastic institutions. Great
freedom prevailed; each monastery followed its
		own rule; in some more than one was
a. The observed, in others the directions of
	Rules.	the abbot took the place of a written
		rule. Cassian, who was the first to
undertake (in his De institutis cwwbiomm) the codi
fication of these diverse systems, speaks strongly in
favor of independent development in the West, on
the ground of differences of climate, surroundings,
and social order. The costume of the eastern monks
he considered unsuitable to the West, and he op
posed the use of the hair‑shirt as both hindering
the monks in their work and tempting them
spiritual pride. He mitigated the rule as to food
by allowing two meals, one at three o'clock and the other in the evening. He had the ancient ere‑
mitieal character of monasticism in mind, as is shown by his enjoining the monks to work alone in their cells and to avoid as far as possible all intercourse with the outside world. In a condensation by a later hand of the first four books of the Institute, the so‑called " Rule of Cassian " served as a standard down to the ninth century; other rules employed were that of Basil in Rufinus' translation, that of Pachomius as rendered by Jerome, and that of Macarius. Convents of women frequently followed the so‑called " Rule of St. Augustine "‑really a treatise written by him on a special occasion for a community of African nuns. This was used by Ciesarius of Arles (q.v.; d. 542) as a basis for his own Regula ad virgams. We have several others of the sixth and seventh centuries which are independent of the Benedictine rule; but they were only local in their authority, while Benedict's spread far and wide from Monte Cassino (q.v.) until it drove out all the others. The Benedictine rule (a8 BENEDICT OF NOBBIA AND THE BENEDICTINE ORDER) was marked not so much by originality as by reasonable moderation and wise elasticity. It was intended to educate the monks in the principles of strict obedience, stability, and ordered work. It was due to Magnus Aurelius Camiodorus (q.v.) that systematic study formed a part of the plan. The most serious obstacle to its general adoption was found in the competition of the rule of the Celtic missionary Columban (q.v.), the founder of the abbeys of Luxeuil and Bobbio, which was used in many monasteries of France and northern Italy. But the stern rigorism off' this rule could not stand against the greater mildness of Benedict's, which Gregory IL, Gregory III., and Boniface made the standard for the Frankish empire. Their work was continued by Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, with the help of Alcuin and Benedict of Aniane. .As the number and importance of the monasteries increased, it became the interest of the bishops to see that they were brought under episcopal juris‑
diction. The clerical character of the abbot made him in a sense dependent on the bishop, who, however, on his side, could not ordain any monk without the abbot's consent. Though the Benedictine rule prescribed the election of abbots by the monks, founders frequently reserved to themselves a right of nomination. From the sixth century the abbot was installed in his office by episcopal benediction. By the end of that century many monasteries sought to oppose a barrier to the encroachments of the `bishops by placing themselves under the special protection of kings or of the pope (see ExEMPTION).
From the time of Boniface, western monasticism stood forth as the standard‑bearer of civilization. Benedictine monks turned the forests into ploughed
'	fields, brought the message of Chris‑
3. Relation tianity to the north of Europe, and
to Civilize‑ handed down the ancient theology
	tion. and some part of ancient civilization.
Monasteries were the central points of
to the religious life of the day, and schools everywhere
od
arose in connection with them. Yet the assumption of the work of general civilization, together with the growth of possessions which made it possible for them to do so much, tended to secularize the monastic life. The first of many attempts to restore the ancient strictness is connected with the name of Benedict of Aniane (q.v.); for some that suoseeded see BENEDICT OF NLTRBIA. Special notice must be given here to the reform of Cluny in the tenth and eleventh centuries, to which the cooperation of temporal princes and the patronage of popes gave a universal significance, and enabled it to reform not only its order but the Church at large (See CLUNY, ABBEY AND CONGREGATION OF). The Cluniac reform, however, by the foundation of a separate congregation with the abbot of Cluny at its head, began the process of disintegration of western monasticism, which had been everywhere united under the rule of Benedict, first into congregations and then into separate orders. In the twelfth century the greatest influence was exercised by the new congregation of the Cistercians (q.v.), which took up the task of reform when the Cluniac congregation had been infected in its turn by worldliness. Their success was due in no small measure to their abandonment of the antiquated economic system of the older monasticism. They farmed their own land, and combined industrial activity with agriculture. While all these congregations still adhered to the rule of Benedict as a basis and merely developed it by their particular constitutions, the Premonstratensians (q.v.) were an order of clerics living by the rule of St. Augur. tine and attempting to combine monastic strictness with the duties of secular clergy. The re‑

form movement of the eleventh century gave a powerful impulse to the crusades, and created, as a product of these, the knightly orders in

which the temporal and spiritual ideals of the Middle Ages were singularly united. New orders and congregations multiplied to such an extent that a check was finally put upon their further

increase by the (fourth) Lateran council of 1215 (canon aiv.).

487	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Monasticism
Monasticism took a novel form in the work of Francis of Assisi (q.v.). The old vow of poverty became an absolute renunciation of all possessions
not only by the individual but by the
4. The order. The cloistered retirement of
Mendicant the existing orders gave place to a
Orders. vigorous attempt to influence the life
of the day through preaching and the confessional. Western monasticism had been aristocratic down to the end of the twelfth century; it now became popular. A mighty spirit of new devotion went out from Assisi and took possession of the Church, breathing a fresh life into preaching, church music, art, and learning. Side by side with the Franciscan order arose the Dominican (see DommIC, SAINT, AND THE DOMINICAN ORDER), destined originally for the conversion of heretics, but soon conforming to the spirit of the Franciscan and becoming like it a mendicant order. These two associations, in the later Middle Ages, produced the chief representatives of scholastic theology, while the mysticism which flourished among them awoke the religious spirit of the individual and recast the ideal of the Christian life in a new form, which amounted to a reformation. The thirteenth century saw the development as mendicant orders of two communities which had begun as associations of anchorites, the Carmelites (q.v.) and the hermits of St. Augustine (see AUOUBmNIANs). They were followed by other mendicant orders‑the Servites, Hieronymites, Minims, Trinitarians, and the Order of Our Lady of Mercy. Worldliness, however, crept into these as it had into the cloister. The Franciscans were rent asunder by the controversy regarding the vow of poverty, and the breach between the extreme or " spiritual " party with the pope displayed oneedIore the old antinomy between monasticism and the Church in the world. The attempts at reform in the fifteenth century had 'only a temporary success, and in spite of the vast number of monasteries and religious brotherhoods of all sorts, monasticism seemed doomed to fall into a state of idle unprofitableness.
The age of the Counter‑Reformation, however, brought new life to some of the older orders in the work of the Theatines and Capuchins (qq.v.), the Discalced Carmelites, and the French Cistercian reform of the Feuillants. But more importance at‑
tached to the new foundations, espe‑
S. Later cially the Jesuits (q.v.), who developed
Orders. a wholly new phase of monasticism.
Standing between the secular clergy and monasticism, they considered ascetic practises and renunciation of the world only mesas for the spread of the Church's dominion. Thus purpose is expressed in a new fourth vow, " to devote the life to perpetual service of our Lord Jesus Christ and the Roman Pontiff." A number of other new orders now arose which replaced the old monastic ideal of perfection and retirement from the world by adaptation to a variety of practical ends such as the education of the clergy, that of the laity in the confessional, the pulpit, and the school, and the care of the sick. The services of women were especially organized for the work of the Church. Most of these
new foundations took the freer and more elastic form of congregations; in some the vow was only for a time, or was simple instead of solemn. Only a few of these can be named here, such as the Ursulines (1535), the Piarists (1600), Vincent de Paul's great foundations of the Lazarists and Sisters of Mercy, and the Brothers of the Christian Schools (1681). Theological learning and popular devotion were promoted by the Oratory of Philip Ned (q.v.), and the French Oratory (1611). In the Tmppists (q.v.) the old spirit of severe asceticism revived, on the basis of the Benedictine rule. The order of the Visitation (1610) is the only important foundation of the seventeenth century. The Jesuits found several imitators, of which the most prominent is the Redemptorist order founded by Alfonso Liguori (q.v.). The Reformation had largely diminished the sphere of influence of monasticism; but the effect of the French Revolution was still more radical. Its work was foreshadowed by that of Joseph II., who in 1782 suppressed in his dominions a number of contemplative orders and greatly reduced the numbers of the others, and was followed by the secularization of the German monasteries in 1803. With the revival of the Jesuits in 1814 began the restoration of Roman Catholic monasticism, pervaded, however, whether in the old orders as restored or in the new foundations, by the spirit of the Jesuits. The Benedictine order alone has been able to preserve an independent adherence to the ancient ideals, and at Solesmes (restored 1833), Beuron (1863), and Maredsous (1872) to achieve a remarkable work in many departments of learning.
According to the careful statistics of the Benediotine Baumgarten, which are in most eases brought down to 1901, the membership of the following orders may be given: Christian Brothers, 20,457; Franciscans, 16,458; Jesuits, 15,073; Capuchins, 9,464; Marists, 6,000; Benedictines, 4,565; Trappists, 4,538; Dominicans, 4,350; Lazarists, 3,304; Fathers of the Holy Ghost, 2,149; Carmelites, 2,000; Augustiniana, 1,858.
In the Protestant churches, before the nineteenth century, ascetic zeal was strong enough to impel
their members to a formal monastic 6. Monastic life only among the so‑called °' Pre‑
Attempts cisians " of the Reformed Church. under Prot‑ Thus Johannes Gennuvit, of Vennigen
estantism on the Ruhr (d. 1699), attempted to
restore the cloistered life. In 1728 John Conmd Beissel (see Commuxism, II., 5; DUN%ERB, I., 2), a German Pietist, who had emigrated to America and had joined the Dunkers (q.v.) in 1724, withdrew to live in solitude, and was joined by others who formed a community and adopted a habit something like that of the Capuchins. In the latter half of the nineteenth century the Highchurch movement in the Anglican communion brought about the foundation of a large number of quasi‑monastic communities for both men and women. Most of them are modeled in their organization on the type of Roman Catholic monasticism, though as a rule without binding vows; and the main purpose of nearly all of them is missionary or charitable work, at home or abroad. See ABBHY;

	oaasttfam
~oney of flea Bible	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	488
ANDRBW mm PmLIp, pB~R~OTmn~RHOOD or; AscETI
Cram; MzTSoDwTS; P80mTANT EPI8coPAL~AN8.
(G. GRtneclmR.)
Bntzooss.rst: A Isree part of the story of Monasticism is
	told in the literature under the articles referred to in the
	text dealing with the persons there mentioned and with
	the different orders. Consult also the literature under
	Ascwricwt. A ‑all group of books of first importance
	consists of: C. F. de Montalembert, Lee Moines de l'occi
	dent, 7 vole., Paris, 1880 siq., Eng. tranel, Monks of the
	West from St. Benedict to St. Bernard, 6 vole.; London,
	1895; Helyot, Orders nonastiques: 0. ZBekier, Askew and
	M6ndltush 2 vols., Frankfort, 1897; J. S. Aseemani, Bib
	hdhew orientalis, vol. iii., Rome, 1728; and Heimbucher,
	Orden and Kongregationen. Consult further: M. R. A.
	Henrion, Hidoire des ordres rsligie~ 2 vole., Paris, 1835;
	T. D. Fosbrooke, British Monachisrn; or, Manners and
	Customs of the Monks and Nuns of England, London, 1843;
	S. Fox, Monks and Monasteries: an Account of English
	Monasticism. ib. 1845; W. Dugdale, Monaeticon Angli
	canwa, 8 vole., London, 1849; F. S. Merryweather, Bi3
	liornania in the Middle Ages, with Anecdotes Illustrating
	the Hilt. of the Monadic Libraries of Great Britain, ib.
	1849; W. J. Marigold, Ds monachatus originr3us d causis,
	Marburg, 1852; S. P. Day, Monastic Inadtutions: their
	Origin, Progress, Nature, and Tendency, London, 1858;
	W. Reeves. The Culden of the British lalanda, Dublin,
	1873 (contains many documents); 0. D. T. Hill. English
	Monasticism, London, 1867 (deals particularly with Bene
	dictine and Franciscan influence on art, literature, and
	common life); M. E. C. Walcott, Church Life and Work
	in Brplish Minaters, vol. if., ib. 1879; P. Ladewig, Poppo
	con Stablo and die Klodsrrejormen unter den eraten Saliern,
	Berlin, 1883; F. Suares, The Religious State, 3 vols., Lon
	don, 1884; C. Kingsley, The Hermits: their Lives and
	Works, London, 1885; A. Lindner, Die Aufhebung den
		laden in Dsutechtirol, Innebruok, 1888; E. Am6lineau,
		sun to dnobitisme primu%f dana la Haute‑Ogypte,
	Cairo, 1887; idem, Hidoirs des monaWres de la Basao
	ggypts, Cairo, 1894; E. van Bertouch, Geachichte den
	OeMossonschaften, Wiesbaden, 1888; F. Herve‑Basin, Les
	Grondea Ordres des femmes, Paris, 1889; F. C. Doyle, Prin
	ciples of Religious Life, London, 1890; A. Hamaek, in
	OBA, 1891; I. G. Smith, Christian Monad*i8m from the
	Fourth to the Ninth Centuries, London, 1892; H. D. M.
	Spence, Cloister Life in the Days of Cwur de Lion, London,
	1892; J. Berthier, L'ftat rdipiaus, La $elette. 1893;
	J. Sokolow, Zustand des Mostanaessns in den byzantinischen
	Ruche (88.¢‑It04), Rum, 1894; E. Spreitsenhofer, Die
	Bntuncklunp des alien Mbnchtums in Italien bit auf
	Benedikt, Vienna, 1894; T. Holds, Die kirchlichen Bruder
	sehaften and dos religifs Leben in modemen Katholisis
	nus, Erlangen, 1895; L. Eekenetein, woman under mo
	noaticiam, Cambridge. 1898; Mrs. A. Jameson, Legends
	of the Monastic Orders, many editions, e.g., Boston, 1896;
	T. W. Allies, The Monastic Life from the Fathers of the
	Desert to Charlamagne, London 1890; F. C. Woodhouse,
	Monasticism. Ancient and Modern, its Principles, Origin,
	Development, Triumphs, Decadence, and Suppression,
	London, 1890; E. Mario, Ds studio camobio Constantino
	yolitano Paris 1897; idem Les Moines de Constantinople
	(330‑888), ib. 1897; U. Berlibre, Monaaticon beige, 2 vole.,
	Bruges, 1897; W. Nissen, Die Regdung des %lostenoesens
	in Romderrsieha bis sun Ends des 8. Jahrhunderta, Ham
	burg, 1897; E. Preuschen, PaUadinua and Rufnus. Bin
	Beihap our Qudlenkunde des dlledm Mdnchtuma, Giessen,
	1897; K. Hall, Enthuaiaamua and Bussgeuralt beim grsech
	ixhen M6nchtum, Leipeic. 1898 D. Bolter, Der Uraprung
	des MSndt‑, Freiburg, 1900; A. Harnack, Monadi
	aiam: its Ideate and History, London, 1901; F. M. Keels,
	The Convents of Great Britain, London, 1902• H. J. Feasey,
	Monasticism: what is it f St. Lours, 1902; A. W. Wishart,
	A Short History of Monks and Monasteries, Trenton, 1902;
	J. 0. Hannsy. Spirit and Origin of Christian Monasticism,
	London, 1903 idem, The Wisdom of the Desert, London,
	1904; J. Hoaark Le Monachiame. Sari orsginea paiennea,
	Paris, 1903 W. Humphrey, Elements of Religious Life,
	London, 1903• J. Jaeger, %lodsrlebm im Mittdafer,
	WtMraburg 1903; F. M. Steels, Anchoresses in the Wed,
	London, 1903; F. A. Gasquet, The Old English Bibles
	and Other Essays, London, 1897; idem, English Monastic
	Life, won, 194; rdem, Henry VIII. and the English
Monasteries, new eel., New York, 1908; C. E. Hooykaas, Oust christdijks Ascots, Leyden, 1905; J. van Walter, Die eraten Wanderprediper Frankreichs. Studien sun Geschichte des M6nchtums, Leipsie 1908; E A. W. Budge, The Paradise or Garden of the Holy Fathers; being Histories of the Anchorites, Recluses, Monks, Comobitea, and awdie Fathers of the Deserts of Egypt ,860‑.;00, compiled by Athanasius . . , Palladius . . , St. Jerome and Others, 2 vols., London and New York, 1909; A. Savine, English Monasteries on the Eve of the Dissolution, New York, 1910; S. Schiwiets, Des morpenlandische Mdnchtun, Mains, 1904; Schaff, Christian Church, v. f., pp. 308‑428; and, in general, the works on the history of the Church in all periods.
MONEY OF THE BIBLE. Standardised Forms Anterior to Coinage (1 1). The Unit of Value. Ratio of Gold to Silver (¢ 2). The Earliest Coins (§ 3). Maccabean Coins (§ 4). The Roman Time (§ 5). Coins of the New Testament (§ fl). Value of the Coins (§ 7).
	Even prior to the Israelites' occupation of Canaan,
gold and silver were standards of value and medi
ums of exchange in that country. In the Old Tes
tament no other metals are named in this conneo
tion. The word keseph, " silver," is the usual He
		brew term for money in general (cf.
	:. Stand‑ the Latin argentum), showing the in
	ardized fluence of Babylonia, where silver, the
	Forms An‑ " moon metal," was the basis of the
	terior to fiscal system. Coined money was not
	Coinage. known before the Exile; in making
		payments the gold or silver was weighed
(Gen. xxiii. 16; II Sam. xviii. 12; I Kings xx. 39;
of. the marginal readings). The scales and apper
taining weights were carried in a bag at the girdle
(Deut. xxv. 13; Isa. xlvi. 6; Prov. xvi. 11). This
does not exclude the probability, of course, that
these " pieces of money " were used mostly in pre.
scribed forms, the weight of which was known, and
which, according*, it was not always necessary to
weigh out expressly. In the Egyptian tribute‑lists
and paintings, gold appears in the shape of bars
(cf. Polybius, x., xxvii. 12; Pliny, Hist. rat.,
XXXIII., iii. 17) and especially rings. The ring
form is perhaps indicated by the use of the He
brew kikkar (" circle ") for talent. Since in I Sam.
ix. 8 the fourth part of a shekel of silver is
mentioned, inference points to a silver piece of defi
nite form. Whether ,keaitah (Gen. xxxiii. 19; Josh.
xgiv. 32; Job xlii. 11) denotes a definite piece of
money, or is an otherwise unknown designation of
weight, remains uncertain; and it is likewise un
certain whether the golden " wedge " or " tongue rr
of Josh. vii. 21 was a species of gold bar or an orna
ment (but see GEzER, § 5). These rings or bars
were proportioned according to divisions or mul
tiples of the unit of weight; the gold rings dis
covered in Egypt weigh 4. A, ‑, 4, of the stand‑
ard mina, that is, 2, 3, 4, 5 standard shekels.
The shekel, the unit of weight, was also the unit of value (cf. the terms lira, lirore, pound, as applied to coins). In the course of time, however, this oocasioned practical difficulties in connection with the conventional ratio of gold to silver. In all western Asia, this was the standing ratio of 1 : 131,
assumed under the influence of astral mythology, wherein each planet has its own metal. Silver is moon metal; gold, sun metal; the lunar and solar

469
revolutions bear the proportion of 27 : 360=1 : 13J. From this it resulted that 1 standard gold shekel =
13* standard silver shekels, which, s. The however, was not a ratio that found
Unit of practical currency in the circulation of
Value.	gold and silver money. If the gold
Ratio of shekel were made the base of com‑
Goldto	parison, then the silver unit‑had to
Silver.	be so modified that it both stood
	in a convenient ratio to the gold
shekel and yet aptly coincided with the weight
system. This was done by making the silver shekel
either i o or 1~ (in value) of the gold shekel;
that is, A or Ili of L81P‑ of a mina (1 gold shekel
_of a silver mina). In the former case the
result was a piece weighing 1'~ of a mina = 10.913
gr., or A of a gold shekel in value; in the latter
case rh of a mina = 7.275 gr., or A of a gold shekel
in value. Both silver units are found in use; and
they both alike bear the name of "shekel," though
having nothing to do with the shekel of weight.
The fifteen‑shekel basis was in use prior to the
Persian era; and this lesser shekel is halved and
quartered (Ex. xxx. 13; I Sam. ix. 8). A half
shekel (J of Th of a mina), in terms of this lesser
shekel,=* of the greater shekel (* X ‑4= rh of a
mina). The greater shekel (_ A of a gold shekel)
then came to have currency through the Persian
monetary system. It is subdivided into thirds, for
at this period the temple assessment is one‑third
of a shekel (Neh. x. 32). The Persian monetary
system had for its basis the smaller talent; and the
Persian shekel was half the Babylonian. In the
Maccabean period, the fifteen‑shekel basis again
came into current use. In the time of Christ, the
temple tribute was a half‑shekel (=2 drachmae, ac
cording to Josephus, Ant. III., viii. 2; Matt. xvii.
24, 27). The Maccabean coins are a determining
factor in these questions; the shekels vary in weight
from 14.50 to 14.65 gr.; an amount or value corre
sponding to rh of the great Babylonian mina
(14.55 gr.). So the entire scheme of minas and tal
ents was once more adjusted to this twofold basis
of the silver shekel; and specifically the mina to
the equivalent of 50 shekels (see WEIGHTS AND
MEASURES).
Stamped coins did not begin to circulate among the Jews until the Persian period. The earliest ones named in the Old Testament are the darics (Ezra
viii. 27, R. V.; I Chron. xxix. 7, R. V.), 3. The by which name is also designated the
Earliest	gold stater of Craesus (Ezra ii. 69,
Coins.	R. V.; the A. V. reads " drams " in
the three passages; Heb. adharkondaric, dorkemon ‑ drachma). The real darks, i.e., the gold piece which Darius Hystaspes made a national coin, weighed 8.40 gr., or very nearly ‑h of the lighter Babylonian mina. The corresponding silver coin (Gk. sigW Madikos) is mentioned in Neh. v. 15, and x. 33, under the ancient name, shekel. Subsequently, too, Alexander's coins (gold staters and silver coins) were current in Palestine, and some of Alexander's tetradrachmae have been discovered. They were succeeded, as rulers changed, by the coins of the Ptolemies and Seleucidse.
By the terms of an edict of Antiothus VII. in
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
XoaartioiSn
Xoaey of the Bible
the year 174 of the Seleucidan era (139‑135 B.c.; I Macc. xv. 6), Simon Maceabeus was authorised to stamp coins of his own. But whether the coins that
are so frequently ascribed to him, dated 4. Mao‑ , in the years 1 to 5, belong to him and
cabean	to the era of Jerusalem beginning in
Coins.	143‑142 B.c. (170 of the Seleucidan
era), or whether they did not rather originate in the years 66‑70 A.D., is doubtful (cf. Scharer, Geschichte, i. 192). There are silver shekels and half‑shekels; on one side is a lily, with the inscription " Jerusalem the Holy "; on the other, a cup and the inscription " shekel of Israel," with no mention of the ruling prince, though the year is given. Some copper coins of Simon's suors are known with various designs. The first prince who had his name stamped on these coins was John Hyrcanus. The Greek language was first utilised by Alexander Jannaeus, the Hebrew for " King Jonathan " appearing with the Greek translation, BASILEOS ALE%ANDROU, on his coins.
In the Roman period the provinces were licensed to issue none but copper coins under their own stamp; so that copper coins are the only ones known
prior to the Herodian line. The deg. The signs vary,‑cups (or vases), anchors,
Roman	tripods, three ears (of wheat), etc. No
	Time.	silver coins were struck again till dur
		ing the two insurrections under Ves
pasian and Hadrian. The coins of Eleazar, during
the first insurrection, bear on the obverse a pitcher,
on the reverse a cluster of grapes, and are dated
according to the "Years of Israel's Liberation."
Bar‑Kokba's coins show similar notation of date,
and bear the name "Simon." In many instances
the new Jewish stamp is simply imprinted upon old
Roman denarii. Even down to the latest period
the larger plate of Palestine retained the right to
stamp small coin (cf. the coins of Hadrian's time
with the inscription Alia CapiWina, i.e., Jerusa
lem).
Collaterally with the Jewish, the Greek and Roman coins were continually in use. The New Testament mentions the drachma (_ I shekel; Luke
xv. 8); the double drachma or didrach6. Coins of »Ia (Matt. xvii. 24); the atattr (acthe New cording to Matt. xvii. 27, where it is
Testament made the temple tax for two persons, =4 Attic drachmae _ 1 shekel); the lepton (_ the Roman quadrana, Mark xii. 42; Luke xii. 59); and, of Roman coins, the denarim (Matt. xxii. 19; Mark xii. 15), the universal monetary unit in the Roman Empire, a silver coin of 3.898 gr., which was made legally equivalent in value to the Attic drachma; the as or asearion (Matt. x. 29; Luke xii. 6), a copper coin _ of a denarius; and the quadrans (Matt. V. 26; Mu zii. 42) _ I of an assarion.
The bullion value of all these coins may easily be calculated, but this tells nothing in respect to the money's purchasing‑power. Nor do many data of comparison exist to determine the latter factor. Joseph was sold for twenty shekels, and to other cases a slave is valued at thirty shekels (Ex. xxi. 32; cf. Hos. iii. 2; Matt. xxvi. 15); at a later time, slaves were considerably dearer (II Mace. viii. 11).

X°~'i1`
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
470
A vineyard, inferentially of great value, is assessed at a thousand shekels for a thousand vines (in&. vii. 23). Ten shekels of silver, with "a suit of ap‑
parel and victuals," were the hire of y. Value a household priest in ancient times of Coins. (Judges xvii. 10). The companion of
	Tobias received " a drachma a day." In
the time of Christ the usual day's hire was a dena
rius. Unfortunately, however, there is no knowledge
of the most important item, namely, the cost of
living. 		I. BENZINQER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. E. Mionnet~ Description de medailles antiques, Vol. v., supplement vol. Viii., Paris, 1811, 1837; A. BO" UnterauAunpen aber Gewichte, Mnncfaess, and Masse den Altertums, Berlin, 1838; M. A. Levy, OearAichta der ffidiackatt Munsen. Breslau, 1862; B. Zuckermann, Tahnudiache tismichta and Miansen, ib. 1862; J. Brandis, Das Milne‑, Mass‑, and Gewichtseysfm in Vorde~ Berlin 1868 C. . King, Early Christian Numismatics, London, 1873• F. de Saulcy, Numismatique do la tsrre saints, ans, 1874; F. W. Madden. Coins of as Jews, London, 1881 (authoritative); T. Reinaah, Les ‑Monnaies iuives Paris, 1887; F. Friedeneburg. Die Mfnsa in der Kulturgeachichte, Berlin. 1909; Bensinger, Ardtdolopis, pp.196‑204; Nowaek Archaolopie, i. 209‑213; C. W. Johns, in Expositor, Nov, 1899; Soh(krer, tlescAic>de, and Eng. trawl., consult the Indexes (eaoeedingly full); DB, iii. 417‑432 (highly valuable); BE, iv. 4442‑47.

MONGOLS, CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE.
Religious Toleration among Early Mongols (1 1). Christianity in Mongolia and China (¢ 2). Christianity in Mongolian Persia (i 3). Christianity in Turkestan and Hipahak (¢ 4).
	The Mongols were an important stock of Central
Asia. In their original home, south of Lake Baikal,
they were ahamanists, and even when Genghis Khan
was preparing for his great invasion, Christianity
		seems to have numbered no converts
:. Religious among them, though it had been
	Toleration brought by Nestorian missionaries to
	among their neighbors the Keraits and Uigurs.
	Early These latter tribes had been among the
	Mongols. first to affiliate with the Mongols, and
		the resultant matrimonial alliance be
tween Mongols and Keraits exercised considerable in
fluence on the treatment of Christians in many parts
of the Mongol empire. The expeditions of Genghis
Khan, moreover, brought his people into contact
with the Lamaists, Confucians, and Taoists of China
and with the Mohammedans of Turkestan and
Persia, as well as with scattered but well‑organized
and influential communities of Nestorian, Jacobite,
and Greek Christians; while still further westward,
in Armenia, Georgia, and Russia, entire nations had
long professed the Christian faith. The Mongol
empire was essentially political, not religious. Gen
ghis Khan himself, like his grandsons Mangu and
Kublai, is reported to have held that there was one
God, but that creeds and rituals were immaterial.
So long as such views prevailed, the priests and
monks of the various creeds of the East were able
to worship freely and were even welcomed for their
prayers and blessings. Mohammedan mullahs,
Buddhist bonzes, and Nestorian priests were al
most entirely untaxed and were exempt from mili
tary service. Khan Kuyuk (1246‑48) permitted a
Christian chapel with daily services near his tent,
while Mangu (1251‑59), together with his son and
daughter, fasted with the Christians and kissed the
crucifix. Yet all this marked no real conversion, and it was frequently the case that a khan, after being brought up as a Christian, renounced this faith for the religion which happened at the time to be in the ascendent. The treatment of religions other than the one professed by the khan varied according to his disposition and the conditions of the time.
In the ancient Mongolian capital Karakorum, where the monk Rubruk spent Easter, 1254, there were twelve temples, two mosques, and a church with Nestorian clergy. The fame of Kuyuk as a friend of the Christians attracted to the capital
monks from Asia Minor, Syria, Bag2. Chris‑ dad, and Russia, while Christians of
tianity in various nations were brought thither
Mongolia as prisoners of war. A like policy of and China. toleration was pursued by Kublai at
Peking after 1264, when he showed equal favor to priests of all religions. Rubruk reports that Nestorians resided in fifteen cities of Cathay and that they had a bishop in " Begin " (probably Singan‑fu); while Marco Polo, who resided in the country in 1275‑92, records a church at Kinsai (Hang‑chau), three at Kenchu (the capital of Kan‑su), and two at Chingiansu, built by Barghis in 1278. When the Venetian brothers Niccolo and Massio Polo were about to return home from Khanbaligh (Peking), the great khan requested that the pope send a hundred scholars to China to give instruction and to demonstrate the superiority of Christianity to other religions. The pope accordingly sent the Franciscan John of Montecorvino (q.v.), and as a result three churches were built in Peking between 1299 and 1307. In a letter of 1305 John complained of the antagonism of the Nestoriam, but lauded Khan Togan Temur (1294‑1307). In 1307 John was consecrated archbishop of Khanbaligh in recognition of his conversions in the East, which were estimated at between 5,000 and 6,000, and suffragan sees were erected. In 1342 a second papal legate appeared in Peking in the person of the Franciscan Giovanni de Marignola, who three or four years after was able to report a cathedral and several churches in Peking, and three churches in Chuan‑chi‑fu. With the fall of the Mongols, however, Christian missions in China came to an abrupt end, and all traces of them vanished with the accession of the Ming dynasty.
The first khan of Persia, Hulagu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, was the more favorable to Christianity since it was the religion of both his mother
and his wife. His successor, Abaka 3. Chris‑ (1265‑$2), followed a similar course,
tianity in and the Curia availed itself of this op‑
Mongolian portunity both to thank the khan for
	Persia.	his kindness to his Christian subjects,
		and to make a vain effort for his own
conversion. After a brief period of persecution
under the Mohammedan Sultan Ahmad (1282‑84),
Khan Argun (1286‑91) again favored the Chris
tians and expressed willingness to engage in a cru.
sade, promising to be baptized if Jerusalem should
be taken. With the death of Argun, however, it
became clear that the rising power of Mohamme.
danism in Persia rendered it impossible for a prince

471	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
favorable to Christianity to mount the throne. The victorious candidate, Gasan (1295‑1304), embraced Islam, and as his first royal act ordered the destruction of the sacred edifices of idolaters, Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians. Buddhist priests were put to death unless they renounced their faith, and Christians were treated with ignominy, though the intercession of Hethum II. of Armenia secured the rescinding of the edict to destroy the churches. The succeeding reigns of Uljaitu (1304‑16) and Abu Said brought the Christians no relief. The Persian Christians, who were Nestorians, Jacobites, and other schismatics, despite all persecution preserved their organization through their patriarchs, whose seat was at Bagdad and who controlled over twenty metropolitan sees. At this same period, moreover, the Roman Catholic Church established dioceses, orders, and lay communities in Persia in answer to the request of some of the khans to the popes, who gladly sent many mendicant monks. The majority of these wandering missionaries were more interested in the reclamation of schismatics to the Roman Catholic Church than in making new converts. Their most important colonies were at Tauris and Sultanieh, especially as in the former city many Fraticelli had settled. At Sultanieh John. XXII. erected an archiepiscopal see with six dioceses, while others were afterward created for a bishop of Tauris. The speedy dissolution of the khanate, however, rendered these archdioceses and their dependent sees short‑lived.
East Turkestan and southern Siberia had passed, on the division of Genghis Khan's dominions, to his third son Ogotai; while his second son, Jagatai,
had received western Turkestan. Here 4. Chris‑ the great majority of the inhabitants
tianity in were Mohammedans, and desperate
Turkestan efforts were made to extirpate the
	and	Christians. Nevertheless, two papal
gipchak. briefs of the first half of the fourteenth
century are extant which thank a Tatar prince of the region and two of his court for their protection of the Christians under their sway and for the building and the repair of churches. The Franciscans had settled at Jagatai's capital, Almaligh on the Ili, but in 1338 a persecution there brought a martyr's death both to their bishop and to a visiting Franciscan from Spain. On the other hand, Giovanni de Marignola, when on his way to China, was able, two years later, to build a church in Almaligh and preach and baptize in public. West of Jagatai's dominions lay the khanate of Kipchak, its center on the lower stretches of the Volga. The population was mixed, the invading Mongols being settled among Ossetes, Kipchaks, Cherkesses, Russians, and Greeks. Between the Mohammedan Bulgarians and Kipchaks were Christian Armenians and Ruthenians. The rulers must, therefore, be either Christian or Mohammedan. Berke, the brother of Batu, the founder of the capital, Sarai, was a zealous Mohammedan; but Sertak, Berke's son, was rumored to be a Christian. The monk Rubruk was accordingly sent to the land, only to find that the rumor was false. Mohammedanism took firm root in this branch of Genghis Khan's family. Usbek Khan (1313‑41),
while a firm follower of Mohammed, in 1813 granted the Metropolitan Peter a patent of protection and exemption from taxes to the Russian Church in his archdiocese. This policy of Usbek's was dictated by political expediency; but the patent was respected by his successors, though some of them again imposed taxes on the Christians. In 1261 the Greek Church received a further concession when Berke permitted the erection of a bishopric in Sarai. Pope John XXII., in 1318, made Kassa the see city of a diocese extending from Sarai to Varna, the first bishop being a Franciscan named Hieronymus. Orther Latin bishoprics were established in Soldaia, Cembalo (Balaklava), and Kertsch, often side by side with Greek sees. The Franciscans, moreover, had two dioceses, one with ten stations in the province of Sarai, and the other with seven in the province of Gazaria (Crimea). These monks developed great activity, and frequently converted to Christianity members of the Mongol royal family. For more recent missions see CHINA; MISSIONS TO THE HEATHEN. (W. HEYDt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Howorth, Hiat. of the Mongols, 3 vole., London, 1881‑88; W. W. Rockhill, Land of the Lamas: Notes of a Journey through China, Mongolia and Tibet, New York, 1891; J. C. Hannah, Brief Hist. of Eastern Asia, London, 1900; J. Curtin, The Mongols, Boston, 1907; idem, A Journey in Southern Siberia; the Mongols, their Religion and their Myths, ib., 1909.
MONHEIM, men'haim, JOHANN: German Roman Catholic, evangelical in type; b. at or near EIberfeld 1509 (?); d. at Diisseldorf Sept. 9, 1564. Educated at Munster and the University of Cologne, he was rector of the cathedral school at Essen in 1532‑36, then in like position at Cologne until 1545, when he became rector of an institution founded by his patron, Duke William of Jdlich‑Cleve‑Berg, at Dusseldorf, where he remained until his death. Under his guidance the school attained high prestige and an attendance surpassing that of most universities. As an author Monheim showed his pedagogical devotion by restricting himself to educational themes. After revising a catechism of C. Hegendorfer (Wesel, 1547), he published (Cologne, 1551) two catechisms based on Erasmus. The point of view is essentially Roman Catholic, the doctrines of purgatory and the seven sacraments being maintained, although communion in both kinds is advocated for the laity. After his death appeared his commentary on the Gospel and epistle for each day of the year (Cologne, 1569), the translation used being that of Erasmus.
The most noteworthy work of Monheim, however, was his Catechiamus in quo christiante religionis elements syncere simpliciterque explicantur (Dusseldorf, 1560), which was momentous for the ecclesiastical development of western Germany in that it was the first catechism of Evangelical spirit to appear on the lower Rhine. Deviating from its author's former Erasmian position, in its eleven dialogues it treats of God, man, the law (exegesis of the Decalogue), faith (exegesis of the Apostles' Creed), justification, prayer (exegesis of the Lord's Prayer), the sacraments in general, baptism, the Eucharist, penance, and the other sacraments. The material is borrowed largely from Calvin's "Institutes," with reminiscences of the Geneva

Moaheim l~onod
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
catechism and of Luther's smaller catechism. In the section on the Eucharist there is an unmistakable effort to preserve a middle course between Geneva and Wittenberg, and in the dialogues on the Church and the sacraments the author endeavors to retain certain Roman Catholic traditions with a Protestant basis. The work is, therefore, unionistic in spirit.
It was, ae ordingly, not surprising that Monheim incurred the displeasure of the Jesuits, and the Ceneurd et dodo explicatio errorum calechismi JoarH nia Monhemii (Cologne, 1560), inspired by them, marks the first noteworthy Jesuit. polemics against Protestantism in Germany. Attack after attack was made on Monheim. The papal nuncio Commendone implored the duke to remove him, the cardinal legates of the Council of Trent were invoked, and the Jesuits persuaded the emperor to request the duke to banish Monheim. But all was in vain; the duke at most forbade his protegd to defend himself publicly and prohibited the use of the catechism. Monheim was also defended in J. Anastasius' Bekenntnia von derv wahren Letbe Christi gegen der Papisten abgottische Masse (1561), H. Hamelmann's Resolutio duodecimi articuli in canaura theologorum Colonienaium de catechism M. Johannis Monhemii (1561), H. Artopaeus's Ad theologastrorum Colonienaium rensuram responsio pro defensaane catech'ismi Johannis Monhemii (Grenoble, 1561), and, above all, in Martin Chemnitz's Theologise Jesuitarum prswipua capita (1562). Polemics for and against him continued after his death, the chief work being Chemnitz's monumental Examen cs»waii Trcdentini (1565‑73).
(E. SiMONa.)
BIBLIOOEAPIT: F. E. Koldewey, in ZWT, 1899; C. W. Kortdm Nachrirht fiber das Gymnasium zu DVeaeldorj im 16 Jahrhundert, Dilismldorf, 1819; C. Krafft, Die golkhrte Schule au D4eseldorJ, ib1853 A sketch of Monheim's life appears in C. H. Sack's ed. of the Catechism, Bonn, 1847.
MONNNICA (MONICA), SAINT: Mother of Augustine; b. of Christian parents possibly at Tagaste (60 m. w. by s. of Carthage) c. 332; d. at Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, May 4, 387. She was married at an early age to Patricius of Tagaste, to whom she bore three children, Augustine (q.v.), Navigius, and an unnamed daughter. Her husband was apparently coarse, unsympathetic, choleric, and unfaithful; but such was her beautiful Christian life, that she was the means of his conversion. He was baptized in 371, and shortly thereafter died. Monnica shared Patricius' ambition respecting Augustine's career as a scholar, but was deeply grieved when he abandoned the catholic faith. For many years she followed him with her prayers; and at last made the journey to Milan to be with him. There the one wish of her life was met. Augustine was converted 386, and was baptized by Ambrose, Easter (Apr. 25), 387. Monnica shared the society of the little company of friends Augustine had gathered around him immediately before and after his baptism, and added much to the spiritual value of their intercourse. After the purpose of their meeting was accomplished, viz., his conversion and baptism, they set out for Africa. On the WAY, Monniea fell sick and died. As the
472
mother of the greatest of the Latin Church Fathers, and as herself a wise, loving, and Christian woman, she will always be remembered.
	In 1430 her remains were removed by Pope
Martin V. from Ostia to Rome, and buried in the
Church of St. Augustine. Her most imperishable
monument, however, is the Con fessiona of her illus
trious son, who has written of his unfilial conduct
with a candor unsurpassed, and who ends his biog
raphy of his mother with an outburst of sorrow
over her death, and a prayer for her eternal welfare.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Early lives and collections from the " Confessions " of Augustine (the one source) are brought togather in ASB May, i. 474‑492. Consult C. Braune, Monnika and Aupustinw, Grimma, 1848; P. Schaff, Life and Labors of St. Augustine, New York, 1854; idem, Saint Augustine, Melanchthon, Neandsr, it.. 1888; A. Is Goupils, S. Monique, module et padonru des mires ehr66iennea, Tours, 1878; It. Bougaud, Hiet. de S. Monique, Paris, 1887; A. Vivoli Vita di S. Monica, Bologna, 1888; Mrs. A. Jameson, Sacred and Legendary Art, i. 324 eqq., Boston, 1893; DCB iii. 932‑934; and, in general, the literature dealing with Augustine's life.
MONOD, ADOLPHE (LOUIS FREDERIC THEODORE): French Protestant; b. at Copenhagen Jan. 21, 1802; d. at Paris Apr. 6, 1856. The eon of a distinguished pastor first at Copenhagen and then, after 1808, at Paris, he was educated at the Collisge Bourbon at Paris, and in 1820‑24 studied theology at Geneva. In 1825 he visited Italy and soon founded a Protestant congregation at Naples, where he was pastor until 1827. Returning to France, he became pastor of the Reformed church
at Lyons, but was deposed in 1831 because of the opposition aroused by his orthodoxy, the ostensible cause being a sermon in which he sought to restrict participation in the communion to worthy recipients. He then founded a free church at Lyons which still exists, but in 1836 he was called to a theological professorship at Montauban, where he taught and preached till 1847, when be was called by the Reformed Consiatory to Paris. Here he labored, especially at the Oratoire, until his death. The secrets of Monod's success were not only his clear intellect, his deep sympathy, and his thorough training both in literature and theology, but also his absolute insistence on the Bible, his unwavering adherence to the Reformed principles of the sixteenth century, and, above all, his Christian character. He was unquestionably the foremost pulpit orator of the French Reformed Church in the nineteenth century. The one purpose of his sermons was to rescue immortal souls from destruction, and to this one theme were devoted his merciless logic, his intense earnestness, his almost exclusive selection of the weightiest questions of salvation for his themes, his glowing eloquence, and his confessions of his own difficulties, doubts, and struggles.
In 1830 Monod published three sermons in which he sharply controverted the Pelagian views which had crept into the Reformed Church in the course of the eighteenth century, declaring that man can be saved only by the truths of the Gospel. From this time on he frequently published individual sermons and collections of addresses which ran through repeated editions. Among these special mention moat be made of his Sermon: (psr* Ig¢¢;

478	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	X°ah°in'
Xonod
Eng. transl., London, 1849); La Femme (1848;
Eng. transl., London, 1851), and Saint Paul (1851;
Eng. tranal., London, 1853). He was likewise the
author of Lucile, au la lecture de la Bible (Paris,
1841; Eng. tranal., Lucilla; or Reading of the Bible,
London, 1842) and Explication de l'epttre attx Eph&
eiena (1866). An edition of his sermons in com
memoration of the centenary of his birth appeared
Paris, 1902. Even in his last illness he continued
to preach to his friends in his sick‑room, these ad
dresses appearing posthumously under the title
Adieux d'Adolphe Monod d sea arms et h l'egliae
(Paris, 1856; Eng. transl., The Parting Words of
Monod to his Friends and the Church, London, 1857,
New York, 1873). 	(C. PFENDER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Of the first importance is Adolphe Monod:
Souvenirs de la vie, extraites de la correspondancs, choir de
litres, 2 vols., Paris, 1885‑1902. Consult further: A.
Riehatdot, A. Monod eoneid&i comme prMicateur Stras
burg, 1863; A. J. Vabre, Ptude sur la pr6dimtian d'A.
Monod, ib. 1865; E. de PressenA Contemporary Por
traits, London, 1880; L. Comte, Etude homil6tique cur
la pridication contemporaine; A Monod et Lacordaire, Paris, 1882; P. Stapfer, La Grande Pr4dication chraienne en France; Bossuet, Adolphe Monod, ib. 1898; Liohtenberger, ESR, ix. 317‑325.
MOAOD, m8"nb', FREDERIC: French Protestant, brother of Adolphe Monod (q.v.); b. at Monnaz, near Morges (7 m. w. of Lausanne), Switzerland, May 17, 1794; d. at Paris Dec. 30, 1863. He received his education at Geneva, but was more influenced by Robert Haldane (q.v.) than by his Unitarian teachers. Ordained at Geneva in 1818, he went to Paris, where he was active for a time in the Bible society there. He was then a private tutor in Jena for a brief period, but in 1820 he returned to Paris, being at first assistant to his father, and after 1832 titular pastor of the Oratoire. In the early years of this period he assumed the editorship of the Archives du ehriatianiame au dixneuvibrne s*cle, which he conducted for forty‑three years as a bold and uncompromising advocate of Calvinistic orthodoxy. His editorial position brought him into prominence in 1848, when the revolution began to affect religious conditions. Here he was eager both for the separation of Church and State and for the formulation of a creed for the Reformed Church. In Sept., 1848, a general synod of the Reformed Church was held in Paris without governmental recognition. But though Manod delivered the opening sermon in the Oratoire, his motion for the formulation of a creed was voted down and it was held that questions of dogma should not be considered by the synod. Monod, convinced that he could no longer remain in a creedless Church, resolved to form a free church on an orthodox basis, even hoping that such a step would lead to a union of all the orthodox who had hitherto been divided into Reformed and Lutherans, free churches and State churches. The synod, the Paris Consistory, and his brother Adolphe urged him to reconsider his decision, but their efforts were in vain; and on Jan. 8, 1849, he resigned his pastorate of the Oratoire. A few months later he opened in Paris a small chapel, where he gathered the first members of the future tglise Libre; and a synod to form a constitution of the union of " free evangelical churches " was held Aug.
20,SSept. 1, 1849. Monod thus succeeded in welding together the scattered Protestant communities which had broken off from the State Church or had been constituted as a result of the " awakening," the characteristics of their organization being their separation from the State and their mutual creed. The first sentence of the constitution which he proposed for the new church declared: " We believe that the entire Scripture of the Old and New Testament is inspired by God, and thus constitutes the sole and infallible rule of faith and life." See FRANCE, II., 1.
	Monod remained pastor of his free church until
his death, aided by generous contributions from
America, England, and Scotland. He forms one of
the most striking figures of modern French Protes
tantism. Yet he was no learned theologian, though
he had the knack of skilfully presenting his dog
matic and ecclesiastical views in journalistic form.
He was, moreover, a clever administrator, and as
president of the synodical committee of the Union
des 1~ glises 6vang6liques libres he guided the alli
ance of French free churches with consummate skill.
The Union celebrated its fiftieth anniversary Oct. 25, 1899. It has sought from the first to leave problems of organization, liturgy, discipline, and even the mode and time of baptism to the discretion of the individual communities. A synod is held biennially. At the third (1852) a committee of evangelization was formed which now has twenty‑two posts with numerous afiliations; the fifth (1856) established a committee to supervise the education of ministers; and the ordination of pastors was regulated at the ninth (1864). The external development, however, has not kept pace with its internal organization. Up to 1873 new congregations were formed until they numbered seventy‑three; now there are but thirty‑six. This decrease is due primarily to the changed conditions in the Reformed Church of France, for with the adoption of a creed by the older body the younger has lost its reason for existence. Many accordingly returned to the Reformed Church, among them Monod's own son Thdodore (q.v.). (EUQEN LACHENMANN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Monod, La Famine J1onod, Paris, 1890; J. P6desert, Cinquante an& de souvenirs retwinw, Paris,
1898; the work on the jubilee of the French Church,
L'Union des ~glisea 6vanplliqua hbrea de Francs, Paris,
1899; Lichtenberger, BSR, ix. 316‑317.

MONOOD, THEODORE: French Reformed, son of the preceding; b. in Paris Nov. 6, 1836. He studied law 1855‑58; accompanied his father to the United States, and was converted in New York Apr., 1858; studied theology in the Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa., 1858‑60; preached among the French Canadians in Illinois, 1860‑63; was his father's successor at the Chapelle du Nord, Paris, 1864‑75; traveling agent for home mission work in France, 1875‑‑78; and became pastor of the tglise Reform6e, Paris, in 1878. From 1875 to 1879 he edited Le LiLErateur, later absorbed in the Bulletin de la mission intirieure. His writings embrace: Regardant d Jisua (Paris, 1862; Eng. tranal., Looking to Jesus, New York, 1864); Le Chritien et sa croix (Lausanne, 1865); The Gift of God (London, 1876; French, Le Don de Dim, Paris, 1877); Life

Monogram oP Christ
Monophysites	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	474
More Abundant (London, 1881); Loin du Nid, posies (Paris, 1882); Crumfats avec Christ (1883); Au vent la voile, posies (1898).
MONOGRAM OF CHRIST. See JEsus CHRIST, MONOGRAM OF.
MONOIMOS: Arabian Gnostic; known only from the Refutatio of Hippolytus (VIII., V.‑viii., X., xiii.; Eng. transl. in ANF, v. 120‑122, 146). His system, in so far as it is determined, is a mixture of Pythagorism and Biblical conceptions. The Supreme Being is the unborn and perfect " Man "; and from him the Son of Man proceeded, not in the way of procreation, but as light proceeds from fire. The perfect Man has for his symbol the " one iota "; and is, therefore, a monad. But as iota is the Greek numerical symbol for 10, he is likewise dekas, a decad. Men imagine, indeed, that the Son of Man is born of woman; but all who are involved in this error are powerless to apprehend his beauty. (The argument of Monolmos reflects an acute phase of docetism, if it be not an utter rejection of the historic Christ.) The world is created not by the Son of Man, but by the hexad, contained in the decad. This thought is based upon the Mosaic narrative of the six days of labor, and is an obvious attempt tb derive the world otherwise than from the Supreme Being, yet it does not attempt to offset him dualistically. Monolmos construed the Old Testament allegorically. His use of the New Testament appears from the circumstance that he cites Matt. v. 18. R. LIECHTENHAN.

MONOPHYSITES, men‑ef'i‑sans.
The Chalcedonian Decree (§ 1). Outbreak in Palestine (§ 2). Events in Egypt (§ 3). At Antioch and Constantinople (§ 4). Attempts at Peace (§ 5). The Henoticon (§ 6). The Breach with Rome (§ 7). Eastern Support of the Henoticon (§ 8). Radical Monophysitiam (§ 9). Attempts at Reconciliation (§ 10). Beginning of Victory for Orthodoxy (§ 11). Events under Justinian (§ 12). Theodora's Efforts for Monophysitism (§ 13). Final Schism of Monophysite Churches (§ 14). Various Aspects of Monophysitism (§ 15).
On Oct. 25, 451, the Council of Chalcedon proclaimed a new dogmatic definition, requiring all the faithful to acknowledge " our one Lord Jesus Christ, perfect God and perfect man . . . of one substance
with the Father as touching his Godr. The head, of one substance with us as Chalcedo‑ touching his manhood . . . in two nian Decree. natures without confusion, without
change, without distinction, without separation," in such a way that " the difference of natures is in no way abolished by the union, but rather the properties of each nature are preserved and united in one person and one mode of being." The politicians agreed to this definition in the hope of securing peace. The edict of Feb. 7, 452, issued jointly by Marcian and Valentinian III., imposed severe penalties on all who should thenceforth publicly discuss the points of controversy. But this could be enforced.only in the neighborhood of the court.
The first signs of the coming trouble appeared in Palestine, where a positive revolution broke out under the leadership of fanatical monks. Bishop Juvenal of Jerusalem (q.v.), who at Ephesus had been an active partizan of Dioscurus (see EUTYCHIANISM), had been induced at Chalcedon by the
fear of danger to his ecclesiastical posit. Out‑ tion not merely to break away from break in the Alexandrians and their protege Palestine. Eutyches, but to support the definition, in the final formulation of which he had a hand. This change of front cost him the confidence of the monks, who were specially numerous and influential in Palestine. When after his return he declared his adhesion to the decrees of the council, a monk named Theodosius was set up as a rival bishop, and Juvenal was obliged to flee. A similar course was followed in other places; bishops of the orthodox party were driven out, sometimes with bloodshed, and their places filled by their opponents. The most noted intellectually of these was Peter the Iberian, who, brought up at the court of Theodosius II., had become a monk and was now made bishop of Majuma. They were supported by the widow of the Emperor Theodosius, Eudocia, who was then living in Jerusalem. Cyril asserts that almost all Palestine was carried away by the movement. Juvenal returned to Conetantinople to ask for aid. Marcian, underestimating the force of the revolt, sought to suppress it by simple edicts, but when they went unheeded took stronger measures. The comes Dorotheus was sent with troops, who, after an attempt at compromise had failed, sternly put down the insurrection. Among the monks who took flight was Theodosius, who was afterward captured, suffered a long imprisonment in Constantinople, and was set free under Leo I. only to die as a result of the treatment he had received. Peter the Iberian escaped to Alexandria; but the movement was not even provisionally suppressed before July, 453.
Still more significant was the course of events in Egypt, where an irreconcilable conflict broke out. A large part of the people, apparently the monks and the lower classes, held to Dioscurus after his deposition; the other party elected Proterius, who
seems to have been personally and ins. Events tellectually allied to Dioscurus until in Egypt. the decision of the council caused him to change his attitude. Supported by the civil authorities, he enforced these decisions by means of confiscation and banishment, which led to riots and excesses. An imperial edict of July 28, 452, condemned in the sternest language those who held to the Eutychian errors and refused to aoknowledge Proterius. Two thousand soldiers were ordered to Alexandria, and peace seemed likely to follow upon their vigorous repressive measures. But the death of Dioseurus in his exile at Gangm in Paphlagonia (Sept., 454) stirred up fresh excitement. There was a powerful party at court indisposed to harsh measures and this tendency gained strength at the death of Marcian and the succession of Leo I. (Feb., 457). The party of Dioscurus in Alexandria took courage and elected as patriarch Timotheus Alurus, who had followed Dioscurus

475	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xonoeham of Christ
		7(<onophyaitea
into banishment. He was consecrated in a tumultu
ous and irregular manner. Military aid enabled
Proterius to expel him; but after bloody riots his
partizans gained the upper hand, when he returned,
and Proterius was murdered by the mob at Easter,
457. Timotheus now took e:lkgetic measures to
confirm his power, and drove out a number of or
thqtiox bishops, who appealed to the pope and the
emperor. Leo ordered an investigation of the murder
of Proterius and inflicted severe penalties on those
who were found responsible; but he did not at
once move against Timotheus, in spite of urgent
requests from Rome. He thought of calling an
other council, but was persuaded out of the notion
by Anatolius, who suggested a circular letter ask
ing all the bishops of the empire their opinion on
the decrees of Chalcedon. Such a letter was sent
out, probably in Oct., 457, and the replies, as was
to be expected, were for the most part unfavorable
to Timotheus, even where a certain lack of enthu
siasm for the decrees of Chalcedon may be read
between the lines. Pope Leo answered on Aug. 17,
458, in a long letter (Epist., clxv.) which should be
read in connection with his famous " Tome."
Meantime Anatolius had died (July 3, 458) and
been succeeded by the learned Gennadius (q.v.), a
determined adherent of the definition of Chalcedon.
He did not, however, accomplish the banishment
of Timotheus Alurus until the beginning of 460,
when another Timotheus, known as Salophaciolus,
was chosen in his place.
	Even in Antioch, the place where in general Alex
andrian theology was most unfavorably received,
trouble was now made by the instigation of Peter
			the Fuller, a presbyter of Chalcedon,
		4. At	who was supported by the emperor's
	Antioch son‑in‑law Zeno. He was zealous for
	and Con‑ the proposition that " God was cruci
	stantinople. fied," and for the insertion in the
			Tswaagion of the words " Who was cru
cified for us," in such a way as to make it appear
that the Son of God in his deity suffered for us.
He intruded into the see, driving out the legitimate
Bishop Martyrius, but was himself expelled by the
emperor on the advice of Gennadius not. long after
ward. Meantime political intrigue had been busy
at the court, and after the death of Leo I. (Feb. 3,
474) and his seven‑year‑old grandson Leo II. (Nov.,
474), Zeno secured the throne for himself, having
practically held the power for some time. Only a
few weeks later, however, he was overthrown in
his turn by Basiliscus, another son‑in‑law of Leo
I. In the train of the usurper, Timotheus lElurus
held a prominent place, and in spite of the efforts
of the patriarch of Constantinople, Acacius, who
had succeeded Gennadius in Sept. (F), 471, he per
suaded Basiliscus to send out a circular letter or
encyclical condemning the " Tome " of Leo and
the definition of Chalcedon, and threatening their
adherents with the severest penalties. The weak
ness of the eastern bishops is shown by the fact
that at least five hundred of them accepted this
pronouncement. Timotheus Elurus was now able
to return to Alexandria, from which see his name
sake had already been removed. On the way he
consecrated a bishop of his own party for Ephesus
and presided at a synod ‑which sent a solemn admonition to the emperor, exhorting him to remain constant in the good work and to remove Acacius, as unworthy, from the patriarchate of Constantinople.
But the day of Timotheus was nearly over, although Antioch and Jerusalem were occupied by Monophysite bishops. Acacius was absolutely firm, and did all he could to arouse the capital against the usurper. The populace responded 5. Attempts to his efforts; a great ecclesiastical
	at Peace.	demonstration was arranged, and Dan
		iel the Stylite came down from his
pillar to bear witness to the orthodox faith. Ba
siliscus was forced to abandon the city, and Zeno,
gathering strength as he came, approached. A last
means of averting the counter‑revolution was tried
in the recall of the encyclical; but it was of no
avail, and Zeno, resuming the throne, annulled the
acts of his opponent (Dec. 17, 476). The bishops of
Asia Minor made haste to declare with the utmost
penitence that their assent to the encyclical had
been extorted from them by force. Pope Simplicius
had already written to Basiliscus, and now wrote
again to Zeno, to demand the deposition of Timo
theus Nlurus; but Timothy died July 31, 477. The
Monophysite party elected Petrus Mongus, then
archdeacon, to succeed him, but the government
restored Timotheus Salophaciolus by military force.
Feeling his end approaching, he was urgent with
the emperor that only an orthodox bishop should
be chosen to succeed him. When he died (prob
ably in June, 482) his aconommus John Talaja con
trived to secure the succession; but it was not long
before Zeno saw fit to restore Petrus Mongus, on
condition of his assenting to the document (after
ward so famous under the name of Henottcon) put
forth by Acacius with the view of securing peace.
Acacius was an accomplished politician, as is sufficiently proved by his ability to maintain himself for eighteen years (471‑489) amid all
6. The the changes and conflicts of the times. Henoticon. Unfortunately the sources are unsatisfying on the preliminaries to the issue of the Henoticon; but there must have been negotiations in which Acacius endeavored to secure the good‑will of Petrus Mongus, evidently his candidate for Alexandria and like himself a politician. The formula of unidn, addressed to the bishops, clergy, monks, and people of Alexandria, Egypt, Libya, and Pentapolis, is a masterpiece of tactical skill. It is avowedly based on the faith of Nioa'a, Constantinople, and Ephesus, condemns Nestorius and Eutyches, adopting the twelve articles of Cyril against the latter, and while not expressly repudia. ting the decisions of Chalcedon, rejects the statements of " anyone who now or at any time, in Chalcedon or elsewhere, has thought or thinks otherwise." On the positive side, it asserts the consubstantiality of the Son of God with both the Father and man, going on to insist that it was one and the same person who wrought wonders and endured suffering‑thus virtually accepting the " God crucified " of the Monophysites. It repudiated all separation as confusion (of the natures, although the term is carefully avoided), as well as anything like

Koaophysit"	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	476
Dooetism. The first result was the settlement of the Alexandrian difficulties, as far as could be expected in the heated state of the popular mind. Petrus'e position was not an easy one, and he got through only by some very adroit juggling with terms. Even then an irreconcilable party remained, led by a certain Nephelius, who did all possible to keep up the disturbance; but the majority were content, and, what was of greatest importance, Constantinople and Alexandria werd once more on good terms. In Antioch also the situation seemed to improve. Peter the Fuller had been deposed after the downfall of Basiliscus; and when the next incumbent but one, Stephen, had been assassinated, Acacius availed himself of the opportunity to appoint of his own motion a certain Calandion as patriarch (probably at the end of 481). Calandion soon entered into an alliance with the Chaloedonian opponents of the Henoticon and with Rome. He was in consequence deposed in 485, and Petrus returned for the third time, it is said amid great enthusiasm, accepting the Henoticon, as did also Martyrius of Jerusalem‑so that the leading rulers of the Eastern Church seemed now to be at one.
But they were reckoning without Rome. The pope was offended not only by the disregard of his wishes in Alexandria but by the arbitrary action of Aeacius in the appointment of Calandion. In the latter case, he was appeased by the
The assurance that it had been done merely Breach out of necessity, by the subsequent
with Rome. calling of a synod, and by the formal notification of the choice on the part of Calandion and his suffragans. It is uncertain whether Simplicius had heard of the Henoticon; his last extant letter complains merely of Acacius' silence in regard to what was happening in Alexandria. He died Mar. 10, 483, and was succeeded by the more determined and successful Felix III., who at once sent two long epistles to Constantinople. He warned Zeno not to lay rash hands on the faith of Peter and to bear in mind the fate of Baailiscus; he admonished Acacius in the tone of a superior not to remain recalcitrant but to atone for past misdeeds by redoubled zeal. The letters, however, had scarcely been despatched when he learned through John Talaja, who on his expulsion had finally come to seek support in Rome, more of the Eastern situation. In great displeasure he sent off fresh letters citing Acacius to appear in Rome and informing the emperor of this prodding. But Acacius got hold of the papal envoys and either overawed or cajoled them. Felix made haste to call a synod in which he deposed his untrustworthy legates, excommunicated Acacius, and notified the people of Constantinople on July 28, 484, as well as the emperor on Aug. 1. Acacius took no notice of the sentence except to retaliate by striking out the name of Felix from the diptychs, and the breach was complete between Rome and so much of the Eastern Church as remained in communion with him. It is usual to represent this breach and the thirty‑five‑year schism which followed as the result of the Henoticon, and this document as a thoroughly harmful measure. Superficially, of course,
this view is correct; if the decrees of Chaloedon had been adhered to and submission had been rendered to the directions of Rome, there would have been no schism. But it is by no means certain that such an unconditional surrender to the will of Rome would have been either possible or desirable. It is evident from Felix's letters that he held a startling conviction of the supremacy of the pope which was in irreconcilable conflict with the solution of the Eastern precedence question set forth in canon xxviu. of Chalcedon and Zeno's edict of 476, in which he had strongly confirmed the prerogatives of the patriarch of Constantinople. The development of this prelate's power had been accepted with complacency in the East, and a patriarch who attached so much importance to it as did Acacius was likely to regard it as more vital than the maintenance of a good understanding with Rome. He was in a position to carry his point as long as the government of Constantinople was absorbed in securing its position in the East; it was only when, a generation later, the imperial ambition attempted to embrace the whole known world that the question of reunion with Rome became pressing‑for whoever wished to rule in the West was obliged to take the pope into account. In the mean time, however, the main thing was to establish ecclesiastical and dogmatic unity between the great sees of the East. This could be done neither by a formula which should center around the definition of Chalcedon, nor by an absolute rejection of the definition and the council. The method adopted in the Henoticon was thus the only practicable one, although not without its difficulties; it was no use trying to reconcile the fanatical extreme Monophysites, and on the other wing the orthodox opposition in Constantinople was kept in line by the monasteries, accessible to Roman influence and supplying the pope constantly with information on current events; while the successors of Acacius were not equal to their task, and threw many obstacles in the way of the imperial union

	Acacius died probably at the end of 489. .His
successor Fravitas (probably a Goth) notified Petrua
Mongus of his election in a letter which definitely
		adheres to the status quo, and wrote to
	8. Eastern Felix in the usual way, although, it
	Support appears from Felix's answer, without
	of the making any distinct pledges as to his
	Henoticon. future conduct. His incumbency of
		the patriarchal see, however, lasted
but four months. His successor was Euphemius,
who took his stand outspokenly among those who
wished to place as orthodox a construction as pos
sible upon the Henoticon, if not to drop it alto
gether. This brought him into conflict with Petrus
Mongus, whom he was apparently preparing to
depose in a synod when Petrus died, being suc
ceeded by Athanasius II. Euphemius announced
hi§ elevation to the pope, who refused recognition
on the ground that he had not struck the names
of Acacius and Fravitas out of the diptychs. About
a year later (Apr. 9, 491) the Emperor Zeno died,
and the throne was occupied by the former ailenr
tiaraua Anastasius, who set out to follow in Zeno's

477	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Monophy~
path and maintain the Henoticon and the same unyielding attitude toward Rome. Personally a convinced Monophysite, he was led, especially toward the end of his reign, into unreasoning subjection to the extreme wing of the party. But at first Euphemius opposed his elevation to the imperial throne, and succeeded in forcing him to sign an undertaking to introduce no innovations and to recognize the decisions of Chaloedon. During the Isaurian war, the patriarch entered into treasonable communications with the enemy, and thus gave the emperor an excuse to depose him and banish him to Euchaita in Pontus (probably in the summer of 496). The new patriarch was Macedonius, a grandson of Gennadius. He was compelled to sign the Henoticon, but his Heart was on the other side, and it took only a little pressure from the orthodox monks to range him definitely with them.
The struggle entered a new stage when, about the same time, the Syrian Monophysites attempted to go beyond the Henoticon as an inadequate conces‑
sion. Flavian, bishop of Antioch from g. Radical 498 (or 499), had been approved by Mono‑ the emperor and had signed the Henphysitism. oticvn, while apparently at heart favor‑
ing the orthodox creed. The Monophysites of his province rose in revolt against him under the leadership of Philoxenus (q.v.), made bishop of Hierapolis by Peter the Fuller, and succeeded in inducing him to condemn (in a synod at Antioch 508‑509) Diodorus, Theodore, and others of the same group, and to express his own belief in four distinctly Monophysite propositions. Not contented even with this, in a synod held at Sidon, 511‑512, Philoxenus demanded the explicit repudiation of the Council of Chalcedon. Flavian, however, strengthened by the presence of the less flexible Elias, patriarch of Jerusalem, refused to do this in the synod, but later yielded to imperial and popular pressure and anathematized the Council of Chalcedon. His submission profited him little, for in 512 he was banished by the emperor to Petm in Arabia. The change in the policy of Anastasius is assigned by Theodorus Lector (ii. 20) to the period following the end of the Persian war in 506, by which time he had come under the personal influence not only of Philoxenus but of John III. (Niceta), patriarch of Alexandria 505‑515, and still more of the clever Severna, who from 510, with many other monks of Palestine, was present in the capital. The position of Macedonius became increasingly difficult; his opponents were continually finding new causes of complaint against him, and the end was that he was banished (Aug. 7, 511) to Euchaita, like his predecessor. His place was taken by Timotheus Litrobulbes or Celon, who interpreted the Henoticon in a Monophysite sense; but the unrest was not appeased, and finally a fierce revolt broke out over the Monophysite interpolation into the Trisagion, when Anastasius grew timid. Yet the Monophysite party in the East was on the eve of its triumph. Flavian was succeeded by Severus on Nov. 6, 512. He called a synod at Tyre in 513 (or 515, according to Diekamp), at which Chalcedou
was repudiated and the Henoticon, with the Monophysite exposition of Philoxenus and himself, affirmed. Soon afterward (in 514 according to the usually accepted chronology; in Aug., 516, according to Diekamp), Elias of Jerusalem was banished to Aga on the Red Sea, where he died in 518; and his successor, John, was kept in check by the work of Sabas, the pillar of Palestinian orthodoxy. In Egypt, under the illegally chosen Patriarch Dioscurus II., Monophysitism kept the upper hand; and at the death of Anastasius (July 9, 518) the moderate party of the strict adherents of the Henoticon had practically disappeared.
No real change took place in the relations with the Roman see under Anastasius. Pope Gelasius 1.
(492‑496) had been known before his ro. Attempts elevation as a determined opponent of
at Recon‑ Monophysitism and of the policy of
ciliation. Acacius, and as pope he maintained
the same attitude. His successor Anastasius Il. (496‑498) was a man of a different temper. He notified the emperor of his election, which Gelasius had neglected to do, and he must in other ways have shown a desire for reconciliation, or the pa~ricius Festus could not have sent an embassy to the emperor hinting at the possibility of winning his assent to the Henoticon. His pontificate was too short for the development of these hopes; but in spite of the efforts of Festus to secure the election of his candidate, the orthodox majority chose Symmachus (498‑514), who wrote to the emperor in energetically uncompromising terms. That it was too late for any thought of subjecting the papacy to the ideals of eastern imperialism is shown very plainly by the first proceedings in the pontificate of Hormisdas (514‑523). At this time the position of Anastasius was seriously endangered by the revolt of Vitalian, who put forward the protection of the orthodox faith as a pretext for his movement. In the negotiations between them, the emperor expressed his readiness to seek the mediation of the pope with a view to the termination of religious controversy. In two letters (Dec. 28, 514, and Jan. 12, 515) he formally invited Hormisdas to a synod to be held at Heraciea. Hormisdas returned a courteous answer, expressing his benevolent interest in the proposal, but instructed his envoys to do nothing which might seem to involve a resumption of communion. He required a full recognition of the Council of Chaloedon and a repudiation of Acacius; on these conditions he was willing to attend in person. Anastasius was not, however, prepared to go so far in the direction of submission, and sent the legates back with a letter denying that he had ever repudiated the decrees of Chalcedon, but saying that he was unable to give way on the question of Acacius, since to do so would be to provoke serious trouble among his subjects. In two other letters he expressed a wish for reconciliation, but Hormisdas remained firm, and the emperor broke off the negotiations in a letter of July 11, 517.
On the death of the emperor a year later, the throne was seized by Justin, captain of the guard, a rough, uneducated man, full of zeal for orthodoxy, and from the beginning a mere tool in the

Xononhylites	THE NEW SCHAFF‑19ERZOG	478
hands of his clever and ambitious nephew Justinian. The orthodox throughout the East began to rise
against their late oppressors. Five
:i. Begin‑ days after Justin's accession, a mob ning of Vic‑ entered the cathedral, and the Patri‑
tDry for arch John II. (the Cappadocian, who
Orthodoxy. had succeeded Timothy on Apr. 17) was compelled to anathematize the "Manichean," the " new Judas," Severna of Antioch (q.v.), and promise the people that he would solemnly confirm the decrees of Chalcedon, which he did the next day. Four days later a synod met and made formal request to the emperor and empress for the restoration of orthodoxy. This was echoed from Jerusalem on Aug. 6, and from Tyre on Sept. 16. In the province of Antioch, where Monophysitism had held undisputed sway, Severus was banished in September, and fled to Alexandria, where Timothy IV., patriarch since the previous October, received him and still supported him. Justin, who had already notified the pope of his accession, wrote again on Sept. 7 to express his willingness and that of the Synod of Constantinople to resume negotiations. Hormisdas first sent a formal acknowledgment, and then despatched legates with detailed instructions, directing they to avoid holding intercourse with the patriarc
until he should have signed a formula condemning the Monophysite leaders with Acacius and his "followers," apparently meaning Euphemius and Macedonius‑although they were allowed in case of necessity to let the last condition drop. On Mar. 28, 519, the patriarch signed the formula, and in presence of the legates struck out the names of Anastasius and Zeno from the diptychs. Promises of submission were freely made; but the execution was somewhat disappointing. At Thessalonica the metropolitan Dorotheus opposed the union, supported by the people who murdered the host of a Roman legate; another legate was dangerously wounded. Hormisdas demanded that Dorotheus should be sent to Rome for judgment; but he was set at liberty. There was also some delay in filling the see of Antioch with an orthodox candidate, although flnally the choice fell on Paul, a presbyter of Constantinople, who proceeded with such severity against the Monophysites that he was forced to resign in two years. His successor Euphrasius had been on the Monophysite side but returned to the faith and apparently continued to persecute his former associates, while the next patriarch, Ephraem (526‑545), came out also in support of the official orthodoxy. The same policy ruled at Constantinople, where Epiphanius was patriarch from 520 to 535; and the capital witnessed an unprecedented sight when the successor of Hormisdas, John I. (523‑526), assisted in person at the Easter mass of 525, side by side with the local patriarch but on a more elevated throne.
Justinian (q.v.) was proclaimed co‑emperor on Apr. 1, 527, and when his uncle died, exactly four months later, began his absolute rule. For his attitude toward the West and Rome see THREE CHAPTER CONTROvERBY; THEOPABCHrTES; VIOILIUB. He was probably more anxious to restore unity to the Church than to give the victory to any particu‑
lar phase of doctrine, while his wife Theodora, a woman of great force of character and influence,
was believed to favor the Monophya. Events sites. He caused conferences to be held
Under between Catholic and Monophysite
Justinian. bishops, but without result. On Mar. 15,
533, he issued an edict declaring Chalcedon to be, with the three earlier councils, the standard of orthodoxy. Negotiations still proceeded with the Monophysites; a long correspondence was held with Severna, the real head of the party, who, however, declined to come to Constantinople until 535. Anthimus, who became patriarch about the same time, was a favorite of Theodora, and, though of a devout and ascetic life, strongly inclined to agree with Severna, who announced the fact with joy to his friends in Alexandria. Their joy was shortlived; Ephraem of Antioch, who knew Anthimus of old, made haste to lay the matter before Pope Agapetus, and he, coming to Constantinople to plead for the Gothic King Theodahad, then hard pressed by Belisarius, had sufficient influence to bring about the disgrace of Anthimus. Mennas was raised to tie vacant throne (Mar. 13, 536), and was consecrated by the pope himself, who died in Constantinople a month later. In May and June Mennas held an important synod at which Anthimus, Severna, and their principal partizans were excommunicated. Another, held at Jerusalem in September, approved the deposition of Anthimus, without apparently touching the case of the others; and Ephraem of Antioch subjected the Monophysites of his jurisdiction to a severe persecution. In Alexandria, during the episcopate of Timothy IV., the Monophysites had split up into the conflicting parties of Severians and Julianists, each of whom set up a candidate for the vacant see on Timothy's death (Feb. 8, 535). Ultimately both were put down, and Paul, an abbot from Tabennae, was consecrated by mennas in Constantinople and entrusted with far‑reaching powers by Justinian. He seems to have been unsuccessful in his use of them, and it is possible that his dogmatic position was not wholly satisfactory. At any rate, he fell into disfavor with the court, and Justinian, through the papal legate Pelagius (later pope himself) brought about his deposition by the other eastern Patriarchs at a synod held at Gaza not later than Easter, 542.
But Theodora had been busy in the direction of Rome also. She had gained influence over the deacon Vigilius, who had come to Constantinople
with Agapetus, and he is said to have :3. Theo‑ promised her that if he were elected
dora's pope he would set aside the Constan‑
Efforts tinopolitan Synod and hold commu‑
for Mono‑ ‑nion with Anthimus and Severus. In
physitism. his absence Silverius had been chosen
pope in Rome; but at Theodora's bidding Belisarius, then all‑powerful in Italy, imprisoned and banished him on a charge of treasonable intercourse with the Goths, and procured the election of Vigilius (Mar. 29, 537). Vigilius now sent to Theodosius, Anthimus, and Severna a confession of faith which rejected the two natures and condemned the Antiochian theology, requesting

479	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xonophysite.
them, however, to keep it secret that he might the more effectively work for their cause. At the same time he was officially declaring his adherence to the faith of Chaloedon, and in his letters to Justinian and Mennas (Seat. 17, 540) he formally approved the anathemas of the synod of 536 against the three Monophysite patriarchs. The Monophysites maintained their existence as a party in Constantinople to the end of Justinian's reign, and had a preponderating influence in Syria and Egypt. At Theodora's bidding Jacobus Baradeeus was consecrated bishop in Constantinople by Theodosius, the Severian patriarch of Alexandria at the time of the conflict with the Julianists, and set out to begin his career as organizer of eastern Monophysi tism (see JACOBiTEs). Justinian himself became increasingly interested in theological discussions, and toward the end of his life gave fresh offense to the orthodox by hias support of the Aphthartodoceteo (see JULIAN op HALICABNA99U6). Eutychius (q.v.), patriarch of Constantinople from 552, was deposed and banished for refusing to agree to this (Jan. 22, 565), and Anastasius Sinaita, patriarch of Antioch, escaped a similar fate only by the emperor's death (Nov. 13, 565).
Justinian's nephew Justin II., who succeeded him (565‑578), was a tool in the hands of the patriarch Johannes III. Scholasticus (q.v.), and from 571 there were severe persecutions of the Monophysites in the capital. There were,
x4. Final however, long‑continued negotiations
Schism of with the party leaders, of whom the Mono‑ principal ones were now John of physite Ephesus (q.v.) and Paul " the Black,"
	Churches.	nominal bishop of Antioch. A diplo
		matic appeal was made to the union
formula of 433 (see NESTORIUa) and the authority
of Cyril in its favor. The Monophysite bishops were
distrustful and hesitated a long time; they were
just on the point of avowing their readiness to re
enter the communion of the Church when the pa
triarch startled them by saying that the matter
must first be referred to Rome. Feeling that they
had been deceived and regretting their concessions,
they drew back, and after being summoned before
the emperor were banished. Few of the Egyptians
accepted the patriarch of Alexandria who had been
appointed under the influence of Justinian; the
great majority chose a patriarch of their own,
and formed a schismatic church which was never
reconciled, and the Ethiopian church out in
its lot with the Alexandrian. In Armenia also
the Monophysite party, favored by the Persian
rulers of the country, gained the upper hand to
ward the end of the fifth century. Early in
the sixth the Synod of Theoria declared in favor
of Monophysite views, and about 600 the Arme
nian church ceased to be in communion with the
Iberian, which held to the decrees of Chalcedon.
In Syria and Mesopotamia the Monophysites,
persecuted and forsaken, seemed to be on the
point of disappearing altogether, when they were
revived by the extraordinary zeal and energy of
Jacobus Baradeeus, after whom they were called
Jacobites (q.v.).
M was the case with other opposition parties
in the Church, the Monophysites were united only
in their repudiation of the orthodox formula; among
		themselves they differed widely and
xg. Various fiercely. The party whose most prom.
	Aspects inent representative was Severus always
	of Mono‑ protested energetically against the im
	physitism. putation of Eutychianism and Apol
		linarianism; in fact, they accused the
adherents of Chalcedon of being Nestorians, and
called themselves the orthodox; they emphasized
the view that their faith was that of the fathers of
Niceea, which was confirmed at Constantinople and
Ephesus, and made the rejection of the definition
of Chalcedon and the Tome of Leo a matter of prin
ciple, while they could accept the Henoticon of
Zeno only by putting their own interpretation on
the passage relating to Chalcedon. Severus and
other like‑minded theologians were far from wish
ing to reduce the human element in the Logos to
mere appearance, nor did they entertain the idea
of a mixture or transubstantiation. According to
them, the Christ came into being by the junction
of two natures, whose attributes were in the ab
stract distinguishable; but they refused to speak
of two natures after the incarnation, because the
conception of two independent factors seemed neo
essarily to involve that of two subjects or individ
ual beings. Following the phraseology of Cyril
and of the Areopagite, Severus spoke of a divine
nature and person of the Logos complete in itself,
which by the assumption of flesh, together with a
reasonable soul, became flesh and man; the united
elements form one nature and divine‑human hypo
stasis to which all the activities of the Savior are
to be referred. The radical Monophysites, on the
other hand, adhering to an expression of Eutyches,
refused to speak of the body of Christ as consub
stantial with us; nothing merely human was to
cling about the person of the Incarnate Word.
This fanatical party of extremists was always power
ful in Alexandria, and was constantly receiving ac
cessions from the lower clergy and the monks. It
was out of such elements that the faction of Ju
lianists or Gaianites grew up there in contradis
tinction from the Theodosians (see above). Julian's
doctrine of aphthorsia (see JULIAN of HALicAa
NASSUS), that the human nature of Christ was so
absorbed in the divine that he was not subject to
the accidents of humanity or to corruption, from
which his party gained the name of Aphtharto
docetee or Phantasiasts, had nothing in common
with the assertion of consubstantiality by the or
thodox and the Severians alike, although Severus.
was forced by the need of support against the up
holders of Chaleedon to make common cause with
him. A section of the Julianists even went so far
as to say that the body of Christ, from the mo
ment of the incarnation, was actually untreated,
whence they got the name of Actistetss. There was
division, too, among the Severians. Against the
Patriarch Timothy IV. of Alexandria arose a
deacon Themistius with the assertion (supported
by passages like Mark xiii. 22; John xi. 34) that
as the body of Christ was subject to natural txm
ditions, so also he could not be conceived as omni
scient. The doctrine of the Themistaans, or Ag‑

SonophYUtes	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	480
HonotheUtes
noetse, must have caused no little excitement; for
even toward the end of the sixth century the ortho
doer monks in Palestine are found communicating
on the subject with the papal legate in Conatanti
nople, who not only reported the matter to Gregory
I., but requested a formal pronouncement from
Eulogius, the orthodox patriarch of Alexandria.
It was going wholly beyond the bounds of Mono
physitism in the strict sense when Stephen Niobes,
an Alexandrian sophist, was driven by his feeling
of the contradiction between the asserted unity of
nature and the attempted maintenance of natural
differences between the divine and human to say
that after the incarnation there was in Christ no
distinction of natures whatever. Against him and
his followers, called Niobites, the Patriarch Dami
anus and Peter of Antioch (Peter of Callinicus)
came forward decidedly. Besides all these differ
ences, the Monophysite party was disturbed also
by the Tritheistio Controversy (q.v.).
	For convenience in following the course of the develop
ments, the following dates . of the patriarchs of Conetanti
nople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem are given.
Constantinople: Anatolius, Aug. (?), 449‑July 3. 458; Gen
nadiw to Sept. (?), 471; Acacius to the end (?) of 489;
Fravitas till spring, 490; Euphenliw probably till the sum
mer of 498; Maoedonius II. till Aug. 7, 511; Timothy I.
till Apr. 5 (?), 518; John II. of Cappadocia, Apr. 17‑Feb.,
520; Epiphanius Feb. 25, 520‑June 5, 535; Anthimus to
Mar., 538; Mennae Mar. 13, 536‑August, 552; Eutychiw
till Jan. 22, 565; John III. Scholasticw till probably Aug .
31, 577; Eutyohius till Apr. 12, 582; John the Faster till
Sept. 2, 596.
	Alexandria: Proteriw Nov., 451‑ (probably) Mar. 28,
457; Timotheue Murus till the beginning of 480; Timo
theus Salophakiolue, June, 460‑Nov., 475; Timothew
Murw till July 31, 477; Petrw Mongw till Sept.. 4, 477;
Timothew Salophaciolue till probably June, 482; John I.
Tabenneeiotes till the end of 482; Petrw Mongw till May,
490; Athanasiw II. May, 490‑Sept. 17, 496; John II. Hem
ula, 498‑Apr. 29, 505; John III Nikiotee till May 22, 515
(518); Diowurue II. till Oct. 14, 517 (518); Timothy IV.
till Feb. 8, 535 (536); Theodosius I. Feb., 10‑11, 535 (536);
Gaian, Feb. 10‑May 23, 535 (536); Theodosius I. July,
bib‑ (probably) 537 or 538 (Jan., 540); Paul, 539? (541)
Easter, 542 (543 at the latest); Zoilw till 551 (550); Apol
linariue, 551 (550)‑M; Peter IV., 576‑Jan. 19, 578; Da
mianus, July, 578‑June 12, 605.
Antioch: Maximus 449‑Mar.. 455(1); Basil 456(?)‑4b8; Acaaiw 458‑459(?); Martyriue 480(1)‑470(?); Peter the Fuller 468 (? 470)‑471; Julian 471‑475‑478; Peter the Fuller 475‑4‑476‑7 (4778); John 477 (478); Stephen 478481 (?); Calandion 481‑2‑485; Peter the Fuller 485‑488 (?); Palladino 488 (?)‑498; Flavian 498 (499)‑512; Severna Nov. 6. 512‑Sept. 29 (?), 518; Paul II. end of May. 519‑May 1, 521; Euphraeiw 521‑May 29, 528; Ephraem 526‑545; Domnus III. 545‑559.
Jerusalem, according to Diekamp: Juvenal 422‑458; Anaetaaiw beginning of July, 458‑beginning of Jan., 478; Martyriw 478‑Apr. 13, 486; Sallust Apr. ,486‑July 23, 494; Elias 494‑Aug., 518; John I. Sept., 516‑Apr. 20, 524; Peter 524‑beginning of Oct., 532; Macariw Oct.‑Dec., 552; Ewtochiw Dec., 552‑563 (564); Maoariw 583 (564)‑c. 575.
(G. KRt)GER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The principal sources are: (1)The sate of
the synods named in the text to be consulted in the
works of Maui and Hefele (the latter is available here in
Eng. and Fr. trawls.). (2) The letters and deliverancee
of the popes, Such as are collected in A. Theil Epistola
Romanorum pontocum vita, vol. i., Bruwberg, 1868;
Jaff6, Regatta, Vol. i. (3) Histories: Evagrius, Hiet.
ecol., Eng. trawl., London, 1898; John of Antioch, in
C. Muller's Frapmenta, Paris, 1870; John of Nijion, in
H. Zotenberg'a article in JA, 7 ear., xii (1878), 245‑347;
$oba Malalae, Chronographia, xiv.‑xviii.; Nicephorw Cal
lletus, Hiet. sect.; Proeopiun, Hist. arcana, in CSHB, 1833;
Theodore Lector, is MPG, Ixxxvi. 1. pp‑ 16`‑228; Libera
tor, in MPL, ixviii. 963‑1098; Marcellinw Comes in T.
Mommsen, MGH, Chron. min., ii (1894). The Syrian Chronicle of Zechariah of Mitylens, London, 1899; the " Commentary " of John of Ephesus. in Latin, Amsterdam. 1889; The Chronicle of Joshua Stylite, text and Eng. trawl., ed. W. Wright, Cambridge, 1882; John of Majuma (cf. F. Nau, in Revue de L'orient ehrdtiew, iii. 232259. 337‑392); Timothy the Presbyter, in MPG, lxxxvi. 1; pp. 11‑74; Select Letters orSeverua, Patriarch ofdntioeh, 608‑618, 4 parts, London, 1902‑04; Corpus scriptorum Chriatianorum ordentalium, note especially vol. xxv., Vita virorum spud Monophysitae celebmimorum, part 1, text, ed. E. W. Brooks, and vol. xxxvii., Documenta ad ori4ines Monophysitarum illuatnandos, ed. J. B. Chabot, Paris and Leipeie, 1907‑08; Timothew A?Aurw, Widerlegunp der auJ der Synods su Chaleedon festpsadstan Lehre, Armenian text with preface, ed. K. TerMekrttachian and E. Ter‑Minaseianta, Leipsic, 1908.
The subject is treated in the works on the history of doctrine, see DocTRINx, HISTORY oat in the literature under ALExANDRIA, SCHOOL OF; ANTIOCH, SCHOOL or; and in the works on the church history of the period. Consult further: G. Kroger, Monophysitiseks Sheitigkeiten, Leipeie, 1884; S. A. Aseemani, Bibliodeca orientWis, vole. i.‑ii., Rome, 1719‑21 (valuable); M. Le Qulen, Oriena Chriatianus, 3 vole., Paris, 1762‑6; F. C. Baur, Die chriatlicha Lehre von der Droisinipkeit, ii. 37‑96, T6bingen, 1842; I. A. Dorner, Person Christi, ii. 150‑193, 5 parts, Berlin, 1845‑63, Eng. trawl., 5 vols., Edinburgh, 1861‑63; H. G. Kleyn, Hat leven van Johannes van Tdla door Elias, Leyden, 1882; idem, Biudrage tot de Kerkpeachisdenia van her Oosten durends de B. sours, Utrecht, 1891; J. C. L. Gieseler, Commentatio: Monophysifarum vaterum varies . . . opinionee, 2 vole., G6ttingen, 1835‑38; J. Langen, Geschichte der r6miwhen Kirche von Leo 1. bit Nikolaus I., Bonn, 1885; G. A. Rose, Kaiser Anaetaeius l., vol. f., Halls 1882, vol. ii., Wohlau, 1888; J. B. Bury, Hist of the Later Roman Empire, 2 vole., London, 1889; A. von Gutechmid, Kleine Schriften, ii. 395‑525, Leipeio, 1890; H. Gelser, in Byzantiniache Zaitachrift, i (1892), 34‑49; idem, in Krumbacher, Geachichte, pp. 911 Hqq.; A. Knecht, Die Relipionepolilik Justinian#, i., Wersburg, 1896; W. H. Hutton, The Church of the Sixth Century, London, 1897; F. Diekamp, Die origenietieehen Stroitipkeitan and daa 6. 6kumenische Konzil, Monster, 1899; O. Baumatark, in Origins Christianus, ii (1902), 151‑169, 358‑389; F. Sohmid, in ZKT, xxx. 2 (1902); J. Pargoire L'Itplise bysantins 687‑8/,7, Paris, 1905; Gibbon, Decline and FaU, chap. xlvii.; DCB, iii. 308‑320; KL, viii. 1781‑1797.
MONOTHELITES, men'eth‑el‑sits.
Rise under Sergiw (¢ 1). Union of Monophyaitee and Monothelites (¢ 2). The Statement of Sophronius; the Ekthesis (; 3). Rising Opposition to the Doctrine (§ 4). The Trullan Councils (5 5). Basle in Patriotic Dogmatics (1 6). Relation to New‑Testament Statements (f 7).
	The Monothelites owe their origin to an attempt
to bridge over the difference between the orthodox
position based on the decrees of the Council of
Chaloedon and the Monophysite principles (see
		MONOPHYSITES), which had caused a
	z. Rise schism in the Eastern Church. The
	under impulse to this reconciliation was two
	Sergius. fold. During the age of Justinian the
		development of theology had tended
toward the Christology of Cyril to whom the Mon
ophysites had always appealed. The Emperor
Heraclius (610‑641) had political reasons for en
couraging the movement. The Asiatic provinces
of the empire were being invaded both by the Per
sians and the Arabs, and it was necessary to con
solidate the population for defense. The emperor
was powerfully supported by the Patriarch Sergius
(q.v.), whose sympathies were with the program
of union from the first. It was theological discus.
sion in Alexandria that first brought to the front
the terms " one energy " and " one will " or at

h
481	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	M	ysitea
		31ononoo9elites
least " one state of will " as descriptive of Mon
ophysite views. This teaching had been opposed
by the Patriarch Eulogius (q.v.), but Sergius was
not prevented by this from establishing relations
with the Alexandrian adherents of " one energy "
and " one will." He requested a Monophysite
leader, Georgius Arsas, to supply him with the
proofs to which he appealed for the teaching of
" one will." His conciliatory letter excited the dis
pleasure of the Patriarch Johannes Eleemon (q.v.),
who was prevented only by the capture of Alex
andria by the Persians from taking steps to pro
test against Sergius' scheme (Maximus Confessor,
in MPG, xci. 333). During the next few years
Sergius won over the emperor to his plan of union
based on the teaching of " one energy'; more than
once during his residence in the East, Heraclius
attempted to secure prominent bishops as adher
ents for the new teaching. Later, the Metropolitan
Cyrus of Phasis is found corresponding with Ser
gius and asking for further information on this sub
ject (Mansi, Concilid, xii. 525 sqq., 560‑661). He
was referred by the patriarch to the letter of Pope
Leo I. as bearing witness to the fact that the teach
ing of two " energies " had not formed a part of
orthodox dogma. He also cited a letter not now
extant from the Patriarch Mennas of Constanti
nople to Pope Vigilius, which contained the expres
sion " one will of Christ " and " one life‑making
energy." He used the same arguments with several
other bishops to win them over to his plan.
	For some years there is obscurity about the suc
cess of the movement. But in 631, Cyrus was ap
pointed patriarch of Alexandria under the distinct
			condition that he would work for re
	s. Union union with the Monophysites. The
	of Mon‑ conditions were carried out, for on
	ophysites June 3, 633, the principles of union
	and Mon‑ were formulated on the basis that the
	othelites. one Lord Jesus Christ acts in a human
			and divine way with one human‑di
vine	rgy (Mansi, Concilia, xi. 564 sqq.). The
	teach of Cyril was appealed to concerning the
one incarnate nature; the recognized theopaschite
principles of the Church were especially stressed.
The result was that Cyrus reported the adherence
of thousands of Monophysites. About the same
time the Armenians united with the orthodox
Church at a synod at Karim at which the emperor
was present. In 634 Heraclius was arranging a
union with the Monophysite patriarch of Antioch,
Athanasius, whom he agreed to appoint orthodox
patriarch on condition that he accepted the Coun
cil of Chalcedon with the Monothelite interpreta
tion (Vita Maximi, MPG, xc. 76‑77). At this point
a new difficulty arose through the interference of
the monk Sophronius (q.v.), who came from Pales
tine to Egypt to protest against the terms of union
with the Monophysites (Mansi, xi. 532‑533, x. 690
691)‑ The Patriarch Cyrus defended his concilia
tory policy, appealing in its defense to historic pre
cedents. Sophronius, still discontented, proceeded
to Constantinople and attempted to induce Sergius
to remove the expression " one energy " from the
act of union. Sergius refused, but he directed
Cyrus not to allow any dispute over the one or
		VIL‑31
two energies, but to insist on the fact that the one and same incarnate Logos was the source of each divine and human action. Especially to be avoided was the teaching of two wills. In 634 the patriarch of Constantinople was directed to furnish to the emperor passages from the writing of Mennas to prove the position as to the single energy. Sergius advised that speculation on this subject be dropped. He placed the situation before Pope Honorius, who, in a writing now extant only in a Greek translation, agreed with the patriarch's position, accused Sophronius of bringing up idle questions, and expressed the opinion that the controversy over one or two energies should be abandoned or left.to logicians; the use of either expression, he declared, savored either of Nestorianism or Eutychianism. On one point he was perfectly definite: " We confess one will of the Lord Jesus Christ." " There can be no question," he said, " of a second different or opposing will." Even passages like John . v. 30 and Matt. xxvi. 39, where Christ seems to set his own and the divine will in contrast, do not really prove a different will but refer only to the " economy )y of the assumed manhood. In these places, he argues, Christ is speaking as our example, that we may follow his footsteps and that each may choose not his own will but the will of God.
In the mean time Sophronius had been elevated to the patriarchal see of Jerusalem. He took occasion immediately to issue the so‑called Synodikon (MPG, lxxgvii. 3, cots. 3148‑3200), in which he laid down the following principles: that from the
two natures, divine and human, two 3. The energies proceed; the human oondiStatement tions of the life of the Son of God were of Sophro‑ real. Room was given to human nanius; the ture to do and to suffer what is pecuEkthesis. liar to human nature. This was voluntary, but the process took place after a natural way. All of the words and works of both natures are to be referred to the one person of the God‑man, but the unity is not a simple one. Sophronius applies to it the expression of Dionysius " a new and divine‑human energy "; he makes no mention of two wills. He attempted to get Honorius' support against the Monothelites. The pope tried to quiet his difficulties by appealing to the Scriptures where nothing is said about one or two energies, stating that both natures were naturally united in the one Christ (Mansi, xi. 579581). Sophronius agreed to reject the expression " two energies " and Cyrus of Alexandria consented to give up speaking of " one energy." It is on this basis that Sergius in the year 636 prepared the socalled Ekthesis (Mansi, Concidia, x. 991‑998), which was signed by the emperor in 638. This stated that neither one nor two energies are to be spoken of. Although there was precedent for the use of " one energy " in the writings of the Fathers, the term might be considered to be a denial of the two natures; " two energies " was not supported by authority and might be interpreted as establishing two contradictory wills. There is one will in Christ; at no point of time does his body, endowed with reason and soul, fulfil separately its own natural motion contrary to the impulse of the divine Logos

8onothelites	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	.¢gg
united hypostatically with it, but only at what time and in what way and in what degree the Logos himself wills it. This amounted to a practical abandonment of monergism, but was an emphatic statement of Monothelitism.
Sergius was succeeded by a patriarch of like views, Pyrrhus (638‑‑641). In Italy the emperor's religious policy met with great disfavor. Severinus, who followed Honorius as pope (638), and his successor John IV. led the qpposition.
4. Rising The Ekthesis was condemned at a Ro‑
Opposition man synod (641; Mansi, x. 607).
to the John asked the new emperors, the sons Doctrine. of Herachus, Constantine and Heraoleon, to withdraw the document, and wrote explaining and apologizing for Honorius' acceptance of the one‑will theory (Mansi, Concilia, x, 682‑‑686). Political changes led to the fall of Pyrrhus, who took refuge in North Africa. after‑ a celebrated disputation with Maximus the Confessor, the records of which are most important for this controversy‑‑giving up his Monothelite views. The African churches warmly seconded the papal protest against Monothelitism, and appealed to the emperor to abandon the false teaching. Pyrrhus, now in Ravenna, was induced by court influence to return to the Monothelite position. The pope excommunicated him and declared his successor, Paul, patriarch of Constantinople, deposed. Paul attempted to settle the difficulty by abandoning the Ektheris and by inducing the emperor to publish a new religious document called the Typus (648), which forbade, under severe penalties, discussion of the question as to whether Christ had one or two wills (Mansi, x. 1029‑32). The question came up in an acute form in a widely attended Roman synod held in 649 under Martin I. (Mansi, x. 8631188). It specially added to the Chalcedonian creed the doctrine of two natural wills and two natural energies, explaining as a deduction from Cyril's teaching on the incarnation that there is one nature of the God‑Logos incarnated, and that the word " incarnated " indicates a full and undiminished human nature apart from sin. The unity of the closely united wills is made dependent on the operation of a nature willing man's salvation. Martin sent the decrees to Constantinople and took active steps in Gaul, North Africa, and even in the East to bring support to them. He was accused of treasonable relations with the exarch of Ravenna, was taken forcibly to Constantinople, and from there sent into exile where he died (655). His successor, Eugenius (654), was inclined to compromise on the basis of allowing the conception of two wills as well as of one will, the terms to be interpreted from different points of view. The hypostatic union constituted one, but the fact of the conjunction of the two natures made it allowable to speak of two. Maximus the Confessor, who has been already mentioned as taking a prominent part in the controversy from the first, was appealed to as an authority for this last declaration (MPG, xci. 229c), but he denied in several public letters that he had ever held such teaching and was active in raising public opinion in the West against it. But for a while communion between Rome and Constantinople was
restored; Vitalian worked in harmony with the Em‑
peror Constans, who was loyally received in Rome
in 663. While the Eastern Empire was resisting the
attacks of the Avars, Bulgarians, and Saracens, dif
ficulties again rose between the two sees. The un
derstanding between Rome and Constantinople was
interrupted, and Adeodatus (q.v.) declined the
Synodikon of Constantine I. of Constantinople (Mansi,
Coneilia, xi. 576). The name of Pope Vitalian (657
672) was stricken from the diptychs in Constanti
nople. The Emperor Constantine Pogonatus
(668‑85) tried to arrange a reconciliation. Pope
Agatho (678‑681) took occasion to rally about him
the support of the Western Church, and proclaimed
himself the representative of orthodox teaching,
declaring that the patriarchs of Constantinople had
introduced heretical tendencies into the church.
As the patriarch, Theodore (676‑678), resisted the
emperor's conciliatory policy, he was deposed and
Georgius was appointed in his place, who carried
out imperial directions to summon and consult
the metropolitans and bishops of his patriarchate.
	This gathering became the sixth Ecumenical
Council, called Trullan because it met in the domed
hall (troullos) of the imperial palate. It lasted from
Nov. 7, 680, to Sept. 16, 681 (Mansi, Concilia,
		xi. 189‑922). Macarius of Antioch de
	5. The fended the Monothelite standpoint.
	Trullan He appealed to the letter of Mennas to
	Councils. Vigilius, to Vigilius's letters to Justin
		ian and Theodore, all of which were
declared by the Roman representatives to be fab
ricated by the Monothelites. The patriarch of Con
stantinople, supported by his bishops, was openly
in favor of the views of Agatho. Pope Vitalian's
name was restored to the diptychs, Maoarius and
his supporter Stephanus were deposed for falsifica
tion of documents and for heresy. In the thirteenth
session, on Mar. 28, Pope Honorius, along with sev
eral of the recent patriarchs of Constantinople, all
of whom had been condemned in a letter from
Agatho, were anathematized by the counc Hon
orius was placed with the other Monothel~ lead
ers, because the council considered that his letter
to Sergius proved that he was a Monothelite him
self and established his godless teaching. All com
promise plans were rejected, and the synod would
hear nothing of the patriarch's attempts to save
the reputations of his predecessors. In the eight
eenth session, a dogmatic decree was accepted,
acknowledging the teaching of two natural wills
and two natural energies, but stating that the two
natural wills are not opposed. Rather the human
will follows and is subordinate to the divine will.
In accordance with the doctrine of Athanasius,
that Christ's body is called and is the body of the di
vine Logos, the natural will of his body is called
and is the proper will of the Logos; just as his
holy, sinless, rational body is not done away with
by the deification but continues in its own proper
limitations and relations, so by the deification the
human will is not destroyed but preserved. Agatho
died before the council concluded its sessions. Ma
carius who was sent to Rome for instruction,
refused to retract, and with his adherents was im
prisoned in a monastery. The second Trullan Coun‑

483	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Monothelites
cil of 692 accepted the acts of the first. One emperor, Philippicus Bardanes (711‑713), attempted to reestablish Monothelitism, but unsuccessfully.
The Monothelite discussion may be considered a sequence of the Monophysite controversy. An important point, however, to notice is that correct diphysite opinion had not previously led to diothelite consequences. Sergius in his letter to Cyrus of Phasis makes a good deal of this
6. Basis in fact and insists that no evidence for
Patristic the expression " two energies " can be
Dogmatics. found in earlier teachers. Although this statement is not true, as several authorities used it (Eustathius, MPG, Ixxxvi. 1, 909 B; Justinian, ib. 1149A), yet Sergius was correct in pointing out the lack of recognized patristic examples. His case is still better as concerns the use of the term " two wills." Apparently it had not been a matter of debate to any considerable extent; Eulogius of Alexandria is the only writer who made the question the subject of polemical discussion (MPG, 1xxxvi. 2, 2939‑44). Interest in it seems to have been limited to Alexandria. Sergius was not aware of the existence of this work of Eulogius and it escaped the notice even of Photius. It can not be said that the monergistic question was decided in the time of Justinian along lines identical with those of its latest settlement. It is true, though, that the Leonine teaching concerning the dual nature logically admits of two natural energies. Indeed Sergius may be accused of quibbling when he appeals to Leo for support, since that pope had never used the expression " two energies." It must be allowed, though, that the point of departure for the monergistic view was in no way unorthodox. It is fair to contend that as from the moment of the Incarnation the personal center in which the human nature subsists and grows is the person of the Logos, all that Christ says or does can be ascribed to the one energy of the God‑man. Good patristic precedent is found for this position, especially the passage appealed to by Sergius and his supporters from Dionysius, where the expression " one theandric energy" is used (MPG, iii. 1072C), and the passage from Cyril, where, in commenting on Luke viii. 54, he had spoken of Christ's " showing through both, namely, the commanding word and the touch with the hand, one correlated energy" (MPG, lxxiii. 577C). The idea of the monergists was that there is one sole source for all the actions of the God‑man, that is, the divine nature. The impulses of this source are carried out through the rational human soul and through the human body. The acts and activities of Christ, they claimed, do not have their origin in the human nature, as this does not subsist for itself. There is one energy, its creator God, its instrument humanity; there is one will and that divine. Sergius could claim orthodoxy for his statement that the body of the Lord, endowed with soul and spirit, carried out its natural motions according to the measure of the divine will. And he could say that as man's body is controlled by his rational soul, so with Christ the whole complex of his human nature is always under the control of the Godhead.
:..; ._m
7 , 77
	The objections to the unity of the "energy" are
concerned with the involved necessity that the dis
tinctively human element with its self‑determined
activity would be done away; human nature would
be reduced to a dead organ, without soul, or, at
		least, without reason. On this account
	7. Relation the Monothelites were affirmed to be
	to New‑ followers of Apollinaris. On account
	Testament of the obscurities and ambiguities in
Statementa. volved in the term " energy," Sergius
		and his school abandoned its use, and
concentrated their attention on the kernel of the
whole question, the unity of the will. For two wills
seem to call for two willing subjects. When pas
sages like Matt. xxvi. 39, with their contrast of the
human and divine will, were appealed to, they
argued against the two‑will theory on the basis that
with the appropriation of human nature through
the personal Logos, a will that makes itself known
in the personal subject of the God‑man, in distinc
tion from his divine will, must be due to an
undivine direction in the nature which has been as
sumed. They appealed to Gregory of Nyssa'a state
ment (Gratio ii., De flio) "for his act of will is in
no way contrary to God, it is wholly from God."
They insisted on the impossibility of two mutually
distinct wills even if they had the same content,
and quoted the dictum of Macariua: " For it is im
possible that there be in one and the same Christ,
our God, two wills together and at the same time
contrary, even if they are alike." More ancient
patristic authorities in their comments on this pas
sage of St. Matthew treat it as if the God‑man, in
conditioning himself to a human will, assumed as it
were voluntarily a special character in this as a dis
tinct act of salvation. The Monothelites made use
of this explanation, for they did not deny a human
operation, they only affirm that it was called forth
by the divine will. Accordingly, in relation to the
divine energy, the human manifestation of it is
passive rather than active. When Gregory of
Nyssa (MPG, xlvi. 616D), speaking of Christ, says,
the soul wills, he means, according, to Monothelite
explanation, that the willing of the soul takes place
through the divine willing of the Godhead, which
is personally united with it. It is, therefore, divine
willing in human form. The Monothelite concep~
tion, therefore, was not far removed from the posi
tion of the Church on the teaching of the incarnar
tion. Even Maximus himself, after the term " one
energy" had been abandoned, made no essential
objection to the standpoint of Pyrrhus. But through
the efforts of Maximus, the logical consequences of
the Chalcedonian decrees were drawn. The will
was treated as an essential and characteristic part
of human nature. He who denies the human will
in Christ, denies the human soul in him. If Christ
did not take a human will, but only adopted one,
he placed himself in the relation of a willing human
subject; the taking of all the other characteristics
of humanity must be placed in the same class and
the whole incarnation becomes docetic. Yet the
opponents of Monothelitism were careful not to
allow to Christ a gnomic will, that is, he did not de
cide for the good through weighing arguments for
and against it; unity of the human nature with the

Xonothelitee
Xontaawa	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	484
divine Logos directed necessarily the decision toward the selection of the good. Maximus was not afraid of saying that the God‑man had, according to his nature, a human will, but according to his essence, a divine one. This statement is hard to reconcile with the Scriptural passages adduced to prove the duality of the will (John i. 43, v. 21, xvii. 24, xix. 28; Matt. xxvii. 34; Luke'xiii. 24); it shows how close Maximus approached Monothelite terminology. See CHRISTOLOGY, V., § 2: (G. KRRGER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: The acts of the Lateran and other synods and councils mentioned in the text, for which consult Mansi, Concilia, vols. x.‑xi., and Hefele, Concilienpe8chichte, books xvi.‑xvii. in the Ger. and Fr. (vol. iii.) and in Eng. (vol. v.); Collectanea ad Joaxinem diaconum, most convenient in MPL, exxix. 561‑690; the Opera of Maxi‑us the Confessor, also convenient in MPG, xc.xci.; the Chronikon pmachale, in MPG, xcvii.; the Historia syntomos of the Patriarch Nicephorus, ed. C. de Boor, Leipeic, 1880; the Chronographia of Theophanes, ed. De Boor, ib. 1883‑‑85; the Vita Maximi Confessoris, in MPG, xc. 67‑110. Earlier discussions of note are: F. Combefis, Auctarium novum, ii. 1‑198, Paris, 1648; J. B. Tamagnini, Hiat. Monotheletarum, ib. 1678; C. W. F. Walch, Hiatorie der %ettereien, ix 1‑686, Leipsic, 1780. Of modern discussions not to be overlooked is G. Owsepian, Die Bntstehunpapeschichte des Monothelatiamus, Leipsie, 1897. Consult further: F. C. Baur, Die ehristliche Lehre von der Dreieinigkeit and Menschmerdunp Gotten, ii. 96‑128, Tiibingen, 1842; 1. A. Dorner, Development of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ, 5 vols., Edinburgh, 1862; 0. Bardenhewer in TQ lxxviii (1896), 353‑401; Krumbacher, Geachichte, pp. 946‑959; F Gregorovius, Hist. of the City of Rome, vol. ii., chap. v., London, 1894. The eubjelt in, of course, treated in the works on the church history of the period, e.g., Schaff, Christian Church, iv. 489‑511; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 175‑197; and in those on the history of dogma, e.g., Harnack, Dogma, vole. iii.‑v. Note also the works given under CHRIBTOLOOY.
For the relation of Honorius to the discussion and the consequent debate in its bearing upon infallibility see the literature under HoNORIUB, and P. Bottata, Pope Honorius before the Tribunal of Reason and History, London, 1868; G. Sehneemann, $tudien fiber die Honoriuefrage, Freiburg, 1868; J. von Hefele, Honorius and dal sechate allgenwine Concil, Tfibingen, 1870, Eng. tranal., in Presbyterian Quarterly and Presbyterian Reviem, Apr., 1872; J. Pennaehi, De Honorai 1 . . . . cauea in concilio V1., Rome, 1870; P. Le P. Renouf, The Condemnation of Pope Honoriue, London, 1868; idem, The Case of Honorius Reconsidered, ib. 1870; J. J. 1, von D511inger, Fables Respecting the Popes in the Middle Apes, pp. 223‑248, New York, 1872.

MONSELL, JOHN SAMUEL BEWLEY: English hymnist; b. at St. Columb's (1 m. n.e. of Londonderry), Ireland, Mar. 2, 1811; d. at Guildford, Surrey, England, Apr. 9, 1875. He graduated from Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1832; LL.B. and LL.D., 1856); was ordained deacon in 1834, and priest 1835; was successively chaplain to Bishop Mant, chancellor of the diocese of Connor, and rector of Ramoan; and became vicar of Egham, Surrey, 1853, and rural dean; then rector of St. Nicholas, Guildford, 1870. His verse has been drawn upon largely for hymnologicaI collections. He was the author of Hymns and Miscellaneous Poems (Dublin, 1837); Parish Musings, in Verse (London, 1850); Verses Addressed to the Cross (1854); His Presence, not his Memory (1855); Spiritual Songs for Sundays and Holidays throughout the Year (1857); The Beatitudes, Sermons (1861); Hymns of Love and Praise for the Church's Year (1863); The Pa8sing Bell and Other Poems (1866); Our New Vicar, or Plain Words on Ritual and Parish Work (1867); Lights and Shadows (1868); Teachings of the Epiphr
any (1871); Watches by the Cross (1874); Simon the Cyrenian, and Other Poems (1876). He edited also The Parish Hymnal (1873). Among his individual hymns are " Earth below is teeming" and " Holy offerings rich and rare."
BIBLIOGRAPHY: DNB, xxaviii. 192‑193; S. W. Duffield, English Hymns, p. 235 et passim, New York, 1886; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 762‑763, 1673‑74.

MONSTRANCE. See VESSELS, SACRED, § 3.

MONTAGU (MOUNTAGUE), RICHARD: Church of England bishop; b. at Dorney (26 m. w. of London) in Buckinghamshire, during Christmastide, 1577; d. at Norwich Apr. 13, 1641. He was educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1598; M.A., 1602; and B.D., 1609). He received the living at Wooten Courtney, 1610; was made rector at Stanford Rivers, Essex, and fellow of Eton, 1611; dean of Hereford, 1616; canon of Windsor, 1617; and archdeacon of Hereford the same year. Throughout life Montagu was continuously active as pamphleteer and controversialist, aiming, as he professed, to support the Church of England against its enemies on both sides. His Diatrfbm (London, 1621) in defense of tithes threw him into the brunt of popular controversy. The Immediate Address unto God Alone (1624) brought upon him the charge of advocating prayer to saints and angels. This he answered with his Apello Cwsarem (1625) in which he sought to vindicate himself against the charge of Arminianism and popery. It was issued without license; and in 1626 the House of Commons petitioned the king that the book be burned and the author fitly punished. In 1628 he was elected bishop of Chichester. He was strenuously opposed by the Presbyterian tendency, but applied himself assiduously to the promotion of his diocese and, in 1638, was elected bishop of Norwich. He bore the reputation of great scholarship and left besides his controversial works: Eusebii de demAnstratione evangelica (Paris, 1628); Apparatus ad origines ecclesiastical (Oxford, 1635); De originibus ecclesiasticis (London, 1636, 1640); and The Acts and Monuments of the Church before Christ Incarnate (1642).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. H. Overton, The Church in England, ii.
43‑56 59 London, 1897; W. A. Shaw, Hint. of the Enpli8h Church, 18/,0‑80, i: 323, ii. 412, 430, New York, 1900; W. H. Hutton, The English Church (1826‑171.¢), London, 1903; DNB, xxxviii. 266‑270.

MONTALEMBERT, man"td"Idn"b5,r', CHARLES FORBES RENA, COURT DE TRYON: French Roman Catholic; b. at London Apr. 15, 1810; d. at Paris Mar. 12, 1870. After receiving his education at the Collbge Sainte Barbe, already imbued with liberal Roman Catholic principles, he became associated with Lamennais and Lacordaire (qq.v.) in Paris about 1830; in 1832, when the encyclical of Aug. 15 condemned Lamennais and his friends, Montalembert reluctantly parted company with him, and made his formal submission to Cardinal Pacoa Dec. 8, 1834. He then spent several years in Italy and Germany, devoting himself particularly to the study of early legend and religious art, primarily of the medieval period. The results were his Histaire de Sainte Elisabeth d'Hongrie (Paris,

486	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	1lonot7hn%ter
lont~ns
1836) and Du vandditame et du oatholiciame dares
fart (1839). He lived in Madeira, 1842‑44, but
still continued his political activity, writing several
pamphlets on questions of the day. In the house
of peers, which he had entered in 1835, Montalem
bert championed Roman Catholicism, for which he
sought to regain temporal power; but his wish to
found an organized Roman Catholic party gained
little favor among the bishops, who feared lay par
ticipation in ecclesiastical and religious affairs.
When Pius IX. ascended the papal throne, Mon
talembert hoped for a triumph of liberal Roman
Catholicism; elected representative for the depart
ment of Doubs, he continued his defense of the
Church; while on the coup d'Etat of Dec. 2, 1851, he
became a member of the commission consultatif,
and from 1852 to 1857 was a member of the corps
legislatif. At last, hopeless of his cause, he retired
from public life, representing liberal Roman Car
tholicism only in Le Correspondant, and expressed
his fear of the approaching downfall of the tem
poral power of the Church in his Pie IX. et la Frame
en 18/h9 et en 1869 (Paris, 1860; Eng. transl., Pius
the IX. and France in 184,9 and 1859, Boston, 1861).
The encyclical of 1864 was a severe blow to his
liberalistic hopes; he sought consolation in wri
ting his Les Moines d'occadent (5 vols., Paris, 1860
1867; Eng. tranal., 7 vole., The Monks of the West,
London, 1861‑79). He died before the proclama
tion of the infallibility of the pope, yet his letters
show that, much as he deprecated the doctrine, he
would, had he lived, have assented to the will of
the Church. A few other noteworthy books are:
Des Intdr9ta catholt'qttes au X1Xe sikcle (Paris, 1852;
Eng. tranal., Catholic Interests in the Nineteenth
Century, London, 1852); De l'avenir de l'Angleterre
(Paris, 1856; Eng. transl., The Political Future of
England, London, 1856); Un debal our l'Inde au
parlement anglais (Brussels, 1858; Eng. tranal.,
Moatale»ibert on Constitutional Liberty, London,
1858); and L'Inaurrection Polonaise (Paris, 1863;
Eng. tranal., The Insurrection in Poland, London,
1863). His works were collected in 9 vole., Paris,
1861‑68. 	(C. PFENDER.)
BIRLIOGRAPRT: The main biography in English is by Mrs. M. O. Oliphant, 2 vole., Edinburgh, 1872; in French the notable work in by E. Lecanuet, 3 vols., Parts, 18951901. Briefer notices and estimates are: A. Cochin, Paris, 1870; A. L. A. Perranl, ib. 1870; G. White, London, 1870; J. T. Foiseet, Lyons, 1877; L. Bouthors, Abbeville, 1896; C. de Meaux, Paris, 1897; and E. Leoanuet, L'‑0plise et to second empire, vol. iii,, Paris, 1902. His Correspondance with the Abb6 Texier (1835‑59) was published, Paris, 1899, and that with Oornudet in 1905.

MONTANUS, men‑0'nue, MOPTANISM, men'ta‑nizm.
The Origin of Montanimm (§ 1). Mqntanue; His Mode of Prophecy (§ 2). Characteristics of Early Montanism (1 3). Catholic Opposition (¢ 4). Decline of the System (4 5). Western Montaniem; Tertullian (§ 6).
The chronology of the Montanistic movement bas as its starting‑point the remark of its anonymous opponent in Eusebius (Hint. ecd., V., xvii. 4) that thirteen years of peace had passed since the death of the Montanistic prophetess Maximilla. This anonymous author must have written about
192‑193, and Maximilla must accordingly have died in 179. The year of her death is likewise mentioned by Epiphanies (Ha:r., x1viii. 2),
i. The especially as she had associated that
Origin of event with the end of the world. In Montanism. the same year that she died, according to Epiphanius, Montanus began his activity. The latter event is placed by the anonymous writer (Eusebius, Hid. eccl., V., xvi. 7) in the proconsulate of Gratus, this name evidently being corrupted from Kodratos (Quadrates). Since a Quadratus was proconsul of Asia Minor in 155 and another in 166, the Montanistic movement must have originated in one of these two years. By 177 the movement must have had a long development behind it; and even in the writings of Apollinaris the tenets of Montanism seem to have been condemned. Moreover, Maximilla died not long after Montanus and Prisca, and it is noteworthy that the prophecies lamenting persecutions by the Church are ascribed to her alone. A fruitless effort to convict Maximilla is mentioned both by the anonymous writer and by the anti‑Montanist Apollonius (Eusebius, Hist, eccl., V., xvi. 17‑18, xviii. 13) in connection with the probably contemporary martyrdom of Thraseas. The latter event, according to Rufinus, took place under Sergius Paulus, who was apparently proconsul in Asia Minor about 166‑167. In addition to all this, the antipathy of the Alogi (q.v.; zee also MONARCHIANISM) t0 the Johannine writings seems to have been evoked by the appeal of the Montanists to them; and since the Montanistic prophets claimed to have received their prophetic powers from Quadratus and Ammia, the latter two can not have been long previous to the former. The account of the martyrdom of Polyoarp, finally, shows that at that time tendencies existed in Phrygia which corresponded to the Montanistic views. It is evident, therefore, that the Montanistic movement must have arisen after the middle of the second century. About this same time a transformation began in the life of the Church. As in the early period the prophets had exercised the first authority in the churches (of. Acts xiii. 1 eqq., and the Didache), so now those who were vested with the administration of the organised communities were termed " gifted with the Spirit." The Church now felt herself to be catholic as opposed to the heretics; but with the increase in her membership there came an accession of earthly interests; the lively expectation of the last day (I Clement, fix. 4; II Clement xx. 2‑3; Barnabas iv. 3, 9, xv. 5 sqq.; Didache ix. 3, x. 5‑6, xvi.) gave place to other views. A conservative reaction was the natural result. The struggle was most intense in Asia Minor; and here, where the Church could already point to lights of prophecy (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., III., xxxi., V., i. 49, iii. 2), there was a peculiar inspiration for the revival of prophecy.
Montanus, but recently become a Christian, ap. peared in a village of Phrygia as such a prophet. He is said by Jerome to have been formerly a priest of Cybele, and the " new prophecy " was doubtless influenced by the wild enthusiasm of the Phrygian religious nature. Tile very names applied to the

Xontanns	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	488
Xonte Cassino
	Montanista‑Phrygians and Cataphrygians‑imply
	that the movement had a quasi‑national character.
			Voluntarily placing himself in a state
		a. Mon‑ of abstraction, Montanus is said to
	tanus; His have proceeded to involuntary ecstacy,
		Mode of seeing in this suppression of self‑con
Prophecy. sciousness, and in his submission to
			the Godhead as a will‑less instrument
	the proof of his perfect prophecy (see ECsTnsy).
This form of prophesying, however, was regarded
as contrary to the custom of the Church, essentially
	different as it was from the prophecies recorded in
	the New Testament and the writings of the early
	Church. Moreover, the ecstatic utterances of Mon
	tanus must gradually have changed from what was
	customary in the Church. The Montanists ap
	pealed in support of their form of prophecy to the
	examples of ecstacy recorded in the Bible, yet at
	the same time claimed that their mode was a proof
	of the magnitude of the new revelation. It was,
	indeed, the completion of the law of Christ, and in
	it the promised Paraclete had appeared, since the
	time of full maturity had now replaced childhood
	(I Cor. xiii. 11). The new prophecy, therefore, not
	only was a protest against suppression, but also
	claimed the right, in view of the approaching end
	of all things, to regulate life in the Church.
		On the other hand, Montanistic prophecy made
	ao claim to reveal further the truths of salvation.
	Whenever it touched on dogmatic problems, its
			utterances were designed only to sup
3. Charac‑ port the Church's tradition. The
teristics of practical trend of Montanism led it to
		Early	defend the doctrine of the resurrec
	Montanism. tion of the dead and to develop a rich
			eschatology. The entire purpose, in
	fact, of the new prophecy was preparation for the
	approaching end, and expectation of this great event
	should determine the entire life of the Christian.
	Yet the new prophecy was seldom introduced
	by new forms; what had hitherto been vol
	untary now became duty. Thus, if the Church ap
	proved only first marriage and virginity, the Mon
	tanists regarded second marriages as impure and
	excluded those who contracted them. Sexual pur
	ity was a necessary condition for receiving revela
	tions, and the voluntary fasts on the " station
	days " were extended from three to six in the after
	noon and made obligatory. There were likewise
	xerophagia, or half fasts, consisting in abstinence
	from meat, soups, and juicy fruits, and " fasts
	proper," apparently kept at the same time as the
	public celebrations peculiar to the Montanists.
	Again, wherever the Church permitted a distinc
	tion between a laxer and a stricter rule, the Mon
	tanists invariably allowed only the latter, so that,
	for example, flight in persecution was forbidden
	and martyrdom was encouraged. All these re
	quirements were made by the Pamclete because
	the last day was nigh, and marriage should no
	longer be contracted. Because of the shortness of
	the time, the Paraclete could annul the words of
	Paul as Christ had abrogated those of Moses. Even
	fasting was advocated by Tertullian (De jejunio,
	xii.) not for ascetic reasons, but as a preparation
	for the last day; while sinners must be excluded
from the Church that, as the pure bride of Christ,
she might prepare to receive the bridegroom. In
its consistency Montanism urged its followers to
withdraw from their churches and assemble at
Pepuza in Phrygia, which Montanus plainly con
sidered the " wilderness " of Rev. xii. 14, that they
might await the second advent. At the same time
he arranged for a propaganda. As prophetesses he
had Prisca (or Priscilla) and Maximilla, whose say
ings, like those of Montanus himself, were collected
by their followers into quasi‑Gospels, even though
such a proceeding was a deviation from the funda
mental concepts of Montanism. Montanus also
found valuable support in one Alcibiades (Miltia
des 7) and Theodotus, the latter being mockingly
designated the first steward of the new prophecy
(Eusebius, Hist. wcl., V., xvi. 14). A similar posi
tion was held somewhat later by a certain Themis
tion, while a martyr Alexander was also highly
honored by the sect. The prophets were succeeded
in the development of organized Montanism by
the Cenones, who assumed a place immediately after
the patriarchs and above the bishops. While only
a portion of the followers of Montanus could be
emancipated from all their previous associations,
all retained a close connection with Pepuza, where
they sent representatives at the feast of the Para
clete (probably Whitsuntide), while those who
could not attend took part in spirit by a common fast.
	The precise date of the formal organization of
the Montanists as a distinct sect is uncertain. The
adherents of the new prophecy sought to remain
		members of the Catholic Church, and
4. Catholic the Church hesitated long before she
	Opposition. definitely decided against them. There
		was much in common in Catholic and
Montanist teaching‑the ethical ideals of marital
life, fasting, martyrdom, and the expectation of
the last day‑while a hasty rejection of prophecy
was regarded as sin against the Holy Ghost (Di
dache, xi. 7). Nevertheless, sharp opposition to the
new prophecy soon arse, first headed by Apollonius
(q.v., 2), and attempts were also made to exorcise
both Prisca and Maximilla. Various synods of
Asia Minor discussed the problem, filled with a
vague dread of the new movement. The ecstatic
aspect of the sect seems first to have aroused sus
picion, and was attacked in a special polemic by
Miltiades (q.v.), while the Alogi (q.v.) went to the
extreme of denying the authenticity of all the Johan
nine writings because of the Montanist appeal to the
Apocalypse and to the promise of the Paraclete in
the Gospel of John. Yet even the antagonists of
the Alogi assumed a position of hostility toward the
new prophecy, and by the seventh decade of the
second century the opposition to Montanism was
evidently general. In the lifetime of Maximilla the
antagonism had become intense, for she makes the
Spirit lament that he was driven away like a wolf.
For the ecstasy of the prophets the Montanists ap
pealed to Gen. ii. 7 sqq.; Ps. cxvi. 11; and Acts
x. 10, as well as to the prophecies recorded in Acts
xv. 32, xxi. 11; and I Cor. xii. 28, and to John,
the daughter of Philip, Ammia, and Quadratus,
while they based the right of prophetesses on Miriam
and Deborah. Their opponents, on the other hand,

487	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Nontanus
		Monte Cassino
declared that prophecy ended with John the Bap
tist and was sealed by the passion of Christ, also
urging the words of Christ and the apostles against
false prophets (Matt. vii. 15; II Thess. ii. 9; I John
iv. 1‑3; and especially I Tim. iv. i‑3). The doc
trine that the Paraclete had not come until now
was an insult to the apostles; the legalistic require
ments of the Montanists destroyed Christian free
dom, and directly contravened such passages of
the Bible as Isa. Iviii. 4‑5; Ps. li. 16; Jer. viii. 4;
Ezek. xviii. 23; Mark vii. 15; and Matt. xi. 19.
		About 177 the confessors and the church at Lyons
sought, without sharing Montanistic views; to plead
			for a certain recognition of the pro
	g. Decline phetic gift and to effect a peaceable
		of the	understanding, writing both to the
		System.	churches in Asia, Minor and to Eleu
			therus at Rome. Nevertheless, the
latter (or possibly Victor) seems to have decided
	adversely to Montanism; yet the slow exclusion of
the sect from the Catholic Church is clear from the
fact that about 192 the church at Ancyra was filled
with the new prophecy, while forty years after the
appearance of Montanus Apollonius had to battle
	against his teachings, and about 200 Serapion of
Antioch had to demonstrate the untenability of
Montanistic doctrines. About 230 the Synod of
Iconium refused to recognize Montanistic baptism;
	yet they themselves declared that the Christian
faith had arisen with them, and in the eyes of out
siders they were the " Christians of the ancient
	faith." The Montanists deviated from the Catholic
Church in several other respects. They reckoned
	Easter by the sun and celebrated it on the eighth
	before the ides of April or on the following Sunday;
women might be deacons (on the basis of I Tim.
	iii. 11), or even priests and deacons (appealing to
	Gal. iii. 28); they had either three or four seasons
	of fasting; their doctrine of eight heavens and their
accounts of the tortures of the damned point to
	the use of apocalyptic writings among them. Be
	ginning with the reign of Constantine imperial
	edicts were issued against them, though these were
at first dead letters, at least in Phrygia and its vi
	cinity. Finally, however, Montanism could pre
serve its existence only in secret. [It is reported
	that in 550 John of Ephesus had the remains of
	Montanus and three prophetesses exhumed and
	burned (J. S. Assemani, Bibliotheca orientalis,.ii.
	88, 3 vols., Rome, 1719‑28)].
		Though primarily a phenomenon of the Church
	of Asia Minor, Montanism spread to the West with
a suppression of its ecstatic features and emphasis
			on its ethical requirements. In Rome
	6. Western it was represented by Proclus, who de
	Montanism;bated with Caius between 200 and 215.
	Tertullian. But the great Montanist of the West
			was Tertullian (q.v.). Led on by its
	moral earnestness, and predisposed against any con
	formity with the world, Tertullian saw in the new
	prophecy the divine seal of his endeavors. In his
	Passio Perpetum Montanistic tendencies may .al
	ready be recognized, and are more strongly ex
	pressed in his De corona and De fuga. As a Mon
	tanist he was the protagonist of the Church against
	Gnosticism; and in his De ecstasi he definitely, de.
fended the Montanistic revelations, polemizing in
part directly against Apollonius. Tertullian's final,
though gradual, break with the Church seems to
have resulted primarily from its opposition to Cal
lixtus, exemplified in his indignant rejection, in the
De pudicitia, of the declaration of the pontiff re
garding the return to the Church of those guilty of
carnal sins, since Tertullian affirmed that only the
Spirit in the " pneumatic " could decide in matters
of discipline. In his De monogamia and De jejunio
he combated the. Catholics as harshly as the " psy
chics " for their rejection of the things of the Spirit.
How ineffectual was the suppression of all revela
tions by the rejection of Montanism is evident from
the case of Cyprian. The followers of Tertullian
were won back to .the Church by Augustine, al
though an attempt was made to found a Tertul
lianistic community at Rome (Praedestinatus, Her.,
lxxxvi.). 	(N. BoNWETSCH.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The prophetic utterances of the founders of Montanism are collected in F. Miinter, Efata et oracula Montaniatarum, Copenhagen, 1829; in G. N. Bonwetsch, Die Geschichte des Montanismus, Erlangen, 1881; and in A. Hilgenfeld, Die Ketzerpeaehichte des Urchriatenthums, Leipsic, 1884. Further sources are: the Montanistic writings of Tertullian (Erg. transl. in ANP, vol. iii.); Iren&‑us, Har, III., xi. 9, IV., xxxiii. 6‑7; Epiphanius, Horn xlvill.‑xlix.; and the passages in Eusebius named in the text. The beet single work is that of Bonwetsch, named above. Consult further: C. W. F. Welch, Hiatorie der Ketzereien, i. 611‑666, Leipsic, 1762; A. Schwegler, Der Montanismue, Tabingen, 1841; A. Short, The Heresies of Montanus, Pelapius, etc., Oxford, 1846; A., Hilgenfeld,. Gloesolatie in der alter Kirehe, pp., 115 eqq., Leipsie,1850; A. Ritsehl, Entetehunp der allkatholischen Kirche, pp. 402550, Bonn, 1857; A. Reville, in Nouvelle revue de th&logie, 1858, and in Revue des deux mondee, Nov., 1864; F. C. Baur, Geschichte der christlicken Kirche, i. 235‑245, 288295, Leipsic, 1863; E. Strohlin,. Essai our Is montaniante. Strasburg, 1870; J. de Soyres, Montanism and the Primitive Church, Cambridge, 1878; W. Cunningham, The Churches of Asia, London, 1880; W. Belck, GescAichte des Montanismus, Leipsic, 1883; H. Weinel, Die Wirkunpen des Geietes and der Geieter im nachapoetoliechen Zeitalter, Freiburg, 1899; E. C. Selwyn, The Christian Prophets and the Prophetical Apocalypse, London, 1900; Harnaak, Dogma, vols., i.‑iii.; idem, Litteratur, ii. 363 aqq.; idem, Expansion of Christianity, 2 vols., London, 1904‑05; Neander, Christian Church, i. 206, 808‑527, 715, et pasaim; Schaff, Christian Church, ii. chap, x.; DCB,.iii. 935945; KL, vii. 252‑268; and the literature under TzHTuL‑
LIAN.
MONTE CASSINO: The mother house of the Benedictine order (50 m. n.w. of Naples). For the story of the foundatipn see BENEDICT OF NURSIA, I., § 3. Though repeatedly disturbed by barbarian hordes during the rule of the three abbots following Benedict (d. 543)‑Conatantius, Simplicius, and Vita. lis‑it was first destroyed by the Lombards in 589, when Bonitus was abbot. The monks escaped to Rome, and Pelagius II. permitted them to build a monastery beside the Lateran, where they remained almost a century and a half, ;enjoying the special favor of Gregory the Great, Meanwhile only a few hermits remained at Monte Cassino, and about 653 it was alleged that the bones of Benedict and his sivter Scolastica had been translated to Fleury in France (hence called St. Benoit sur Loire) by Aigulf and his companions. A long controversy consequently arose between the monks of: the restored monastery of Monte Cassino and those of Fleury, and a bull of Pope,Zacharias implies that the bones, in question, were in their original.. grave at Monte

Xonts~o	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	488
Camino about 742. The explanation seems to be that merely certain portions of the remains were taken to Fleury.
The monastery of Monte Camino was restored about 720, during the pontificate of Gregory II., by Abbot Petronax of Brescia (d. 750). During his rule, the autograph copy of Benedict's rule, brought to Rome when the monastery was destroyed, is said to have been returned to Monte Camino in 748 by Zacharias, who also granted the monastery special privileges and enriched its library. At this same period, too, began the literary fame of Monte Cassino, and here Paul the Deacon (q.v.), ex‑chancellor of the last Lombard King Desiderius, wrote his Hisloria Longobardorum and Expositio in reguZam Stanch Benelicti. The monastery was further enlarged and beautified during the abbacy of Gisolfus (797817), and was enriched by princely gifts in the period immediately following. Abbot Bertharius (856‑884) was a distinguished scholar, both as exegete, grammarian, and physician, and his writings on the latter theme make the beginning of Monte Cassino's services to medical science. The monastery possessed an excellent hospital, and thus influenced the Benedictine monastery of Salerno and its medical school.
A second period of devastation and of seventy years' exile was caused in 884 by the Saracens, who murdered Abbot Bertharius at the altar. The surviving monks fled to Teano, where they remained thirty years, after which they went to Capua. Here they degenerated, but, returning to Monte Cassino, Abbot Aligernus (949‑985) began a rigid reform and a restoration of the former grandeur of the monastery. Nevertheless, a new period of degeneration came under Abbots Manso (985‑996) and Atenulf (1011‑1022), until Theobald (1022‑35), aided by Odilo of Cluny, restored strict discipline. Under Liderius (1059,87; later Pope Victor III.) Monte Cassino reached its zenith. Desiderius turned all his influence to the advantage of the monastery, increasing the number of the monks, restoring the buildings, and beautifying the basilica with the aid of artists from Upper Italy, Amalfi, and Conetantinople. He fostered the progress of learning by obtaining valuable liturgical books, and enlarged the monastery hospital.
The policy of Desiderius was continued by his successors Oderisius I. (1087‑1105) and Bruno (1107‑23). Although Monte Cassino's temporal power declined in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries through the hostility of feudal lords and Hohenstaufen emperors, the monastery was still adorned by noteworthy authors, such as Peter the Deacon and by artists, especially painters on glass. In 1240 the monks were expelled by Frederick II. The decline of discipline, moreover, had become so pronounced that it could not be permanently restored even by the efforts of Abbot Bernardus Ayglerius (1263‑82), who prepared a new rule, nor by Celestine V., who sought to change the Benedictines into Celestines (1294), nor by John XXII., who made the abbey a bishopric and its monks cathedral clergy (1331). In 1349 an earthquake almost annihilated its buildings, and during the pontificate of Urban V. Abbot Andreas of Faenza
again made a transitory reform of discipline. After the middle of the fifteenth century Monte Camino was ruled by secular abbots in commendam, who shamelessly robbed it and impaired its discipline. Julius II., in 1504, forced it to accept the reform of St. Justina, and in 1515 Abbot Squarcialupi began an extensive renovation of its buildings.
Throughout the sixteenth century Monte Cassino controlled four bishoprics, two principalities, twenty counties, 1,662 churches, and much besides, while its income was reckoned at half a million ducats. Still more important were its spiritual, artistic, and literary treasures. In 1645 its library was the most important in Italy and one of the most valuable in Europe, containing over 1,000 documents from popes, emperors, kings, and princes, and more than 800 manuscripts earlier than the fourteenth century. In 1866 the monastery was made a national monument of the kingdom of Italy and became an educational institution under clerical control, while at the same time its literary treasures became more generally accessible than had been ‑ possible previously. [The monastery of Monte Cassino is a fortress‑like structure with a commanding location, 1,715 feet elevation, overlooking the town of Cassino, 851 m. s.s.e. of Rome. In it are forty monks and some 200 pupils. The buildings are on different levels. Lowest is that in which is shown the cell of St. Benedict; highest is the church, which is richly adorned. The noteworthy frescoes in its subterranean chapels are by German Benedictines. Among the objects shown is a figure of the Virgin Mary which is reported to have once spoken. The library is rich in beautifully written manuscripts.] (O. Z6CKLERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are to be found in Leo of Ostia, Chronicon Casinenee, ed. Wattenbaeh in MGH, Script., vii (1846), 551‑727; Peter the Deacon, De vir. ill., in Angelus de Nuoe, Chronica . . . monasterii Casinensis, Paris, 1688, cf. Alfani Versus, De situ . . . monasterii Caainensie, in A. F. Osanam, Documents in6dits, Paris, 1850; and C. Margarini, Bullarium Casinenee, 2 vols, Venioe and Todi, 1750‑70. Consult further: E. Gattola, Historia abbatim Casinensis . . Venice, 1733‑34; W. Giesebrecht, De litterarum studiia apud Italos, Berlin, 1844; A. Dentier Monattbres d'Italie 2 vols., Paris, 1866; G. Krittzinger, Der Benediktinerorden and die Kultur, Heidelberg, 1876; J. Peter, in Revue chr4tienne, July, 1881; H. Rickenbach, Monte Cassino roan miner Grandung bie to miner ht6cheten Blfte . . . , Einsiedeln, 1884‑85; Tabularium Casinense Spicileaium Caeinense, and Miecel7gnea Casinense, 3 vols., Monte Cassino, 1887‑97; L. Tosti, in his Opera, vols. Iav.‑xvi., Rome, 1888‑89; G. Griltamaeher, Die Bedeutunp Benedikes roan Nursia, Berlin, 1892; G. Clauses, Lee Oripinee bhn6dictines, pp. 81110, Paris, 1899; 0. Kaemmel, Herbetbilder aue Italien and Si‑eilien, pp. 135‑183, Leipsic, 1900; E. Caspar, Petrus Diaconue and die Monte Cassineser Pelschunpen, Berlin, 1909; Heimbueher, Orden and Kongregationen, i. 209 sqq., et passim; KL, viii. 1842‑47; and also the literature under BENEDICT OP' NORBIA AND THE BENEDICTINE ORDER.

MONTENEGRO: A principality of Europe bounded by Dalmatia, Herzegovina, Rascia (NoviBazaar), Albania, and the Adriatic Sea; the estimated area is 3,486 square miles and the population is estimated at 225,000, nine‑tenths being Montenegrins, and members of the Orthodox Greek Church, whose metropolitan obtains his commissions from the Holy Synod in Russia, while 13,000 are Mohammedans and 14,000 Roman Catholics,

489	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xonte caeeino
B;ontfanoon
these being Albanians or Serbs. From 1516 to 1852, the bishop or metropolitan held the additional title of prince, there being at the same time a governor of temporal and military affairs. The bishop was long elected by popular vote; but from the time of Daniel I. (1697‑1737) the office has been hereditary, needing, however, the confirmation of the Servian patriarch at Ipek, later at Carlovitz, while beginning with the eighteenth century the Czar of Russia became the recognized head. The metropolitan of the capital city, Cetinje, retains a merely qualified influence. As supreme head of the ninety parishes of the land, whose precincts chiefly coincide with those of the temporal districts, he controls most of the parochial clergy as priests; but there are also thirteen small cloisters, whose monks also exercise pastoral duties. The popular education is backward; even the regulation as to a general four years' course of obligatory schooling is far from thoroughly carried out. There are three intermediate schools, and a girls' seminary and boarding‑school at Cetinje, established by Russian contributions. The Roman Catholic faith has a considerable following in the southern districts, where they number about 8,000. The Roman Catholics are affiliated, in the main, to the archbishop of Antivari; save the more scattered ones northward, to the bishop of Cattaro. Their pastoral care is committed almost entirely to Franciscans. The Catholic Church became a nationally recognized religious community in Montenegro by the Concordat of 1886 (Bee CONCORDATS AND DELIMITING BULLS, VI., 2, § 8, 4), and Catholics again enjoy the advantages of the civil code of 1888. The Mohammedans, since conditions are less favorable to them, emigrate more and more to Turkey. W. G6Tz.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Denton, Montenegro, its People and their History, London, 1877; P. Coquelle, Hist. du Montin6pro, Paris, 1895; W. Miller, The Balkans. New York, 1898; L. Pasearge, Dalmatian and Montenegro, Leipsic, 1904; R. Wyon, The Balkans from within, London, 1904
MOIQTES PIETATIS: Institutions for the relief of the poor on the principle of the pawnshop, but designed to protect their patrons against usury, though a certain interest was charged to cover expenses. Primarily religious institutions, the montes pietatis later became secularized. They originated in Italy, where the cardinal of Ostia established one at Orvieto in 1463, which was confirmed by Pius II. Leo X., by the constitution Inter multiplices at the tenth session of the fifth Lateran Council (May 4, 1515), gave general approval to the montes pietalis and declared their opponents excommunicated. They soon spread to Lombardy and the continental possessions of Venice, and thence reached France, Germany, Holland,. England, and other countries. [In New York these institutions are represented by the Provident Loan Society, which has been very successful.] (A. HAucs.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Holsapfel, Die Awyjdnpe der Monte* pietatia, Munich, 1903; W. Endemann, in Jahrbarlwr ftlr National4konomie, i (1863), 324 sqq.; idem, Studien in der romanisch‑kanonietiachen Wirtadhqfta‑ and Rechtelehre, i. 460 sqq., Berlin, 1874.
MONTTFAUCON; men"f5"can', BERNARD DE: French Maurist; b. at Soulatge (department of Aude, just east of Toulouse, France) Jan. 16, 1655;
d. at Paris Dec. 21, 1741. A scion of a noble family, he entered the army in 1672, serving in Turenne's campaign against Germany until 1674. Resuming his studies, he made his profession in the Maurist congregation on May 13, 1676, and after being stationed at Sorcze, La Grasse, and Bordeaux, he was sent, in 1687, to Saint‑Germain des Pr6s, the scientific center of his order, where he devoted himself primarily to editing Greek Church Fathers. He published, with the collaboration of J. Lopin and A. Pouget, a single volume of a projected Artalecta Grow give varia opuscula Grmc hactenu8 non edita (Paris, 1688), which he followed by his La Verite de l'hiatoare de Judith (1690). After publishing the best edition of Athanasius thus far madeAthanasii archiepiacopi Alexandrini opera omnia (3 vols., Paris, 1698), he went, with his fellow Maurist Paul Briois, to Italy, since the manuscripts at Paris were inadequate for his plans. While at Rome, and being for a period the administrator of his congregation, he wrote his anonymous Vindicim editionis Sancti Augustini a Benedictinis adornata; (Rome, 1699) in answer to Jesuit critics. In 1701 he returned to Paris, where his interests ranged over the literature and all other remains of classical antiquity, as evinced by his Diarium Italwum, sire monumentorum veterum, bibliothecarum, musworum, etc. Notitim singulares (Paris, 1702; Eng. transl., The Travels of Father Montfaucon from Paris 'through Italy . . . , London, 1712). In his Palmographia Grteca (Paris, 1708) he laid the foundations of the science of paleography, while in his Bibliotheca Coisliniana olim Seguzriana (1715) and his Bibliotheca bibliothecarum manuscriptarum nova (1739) he proved his ability as a bibliographer. In his Collectio nova patrum et scriptorum Grocorum (2 vols., Paris, 1706) he published much unedited material, including the commentaries of Eusebius on the Psalms and Isaiah, minor writings of Athanasius, and the Christian geography of Cosmas Indicopleustes. This was followed by an edition of the fragments of the Hexapla‑Hexaplorum Origenia qua; aupersunt (2 vols., Paris, 1713; superseded by the work of Frederick Field, q.v.); as well as by a complete edition of Chrysostom (Joannia Chrysostomi opera omnia, 13 vols., Paris, 1734‑41). Montfaucon's classical interests found expression in his L'Antiquim expliqu6e et re"enttze en figures (10 vols., Paris, 1719; 5 supplementary vols., 1724; Eng. tranal., Antiquity Explained and Represented in Sculptures, 10 vols., London, 1821‑25), in which he considered the mythology, religion, and private and social life of the Greeks and Romans, with an account of the religious monuments of the Egyptians, Arabs, Syrians, Persians, Scythians, Germans, Gauls, Spaniards, and Carthaginians. The work was continued for France in his Lea Monumens de la many archie franpise (5 vols., Paris, 1729‑33; partial Eng. transl., A Description of the Basso Relievos
. , London, 1767), of which only the first section, comprising the dynastic monuments to Henry IV., appeared. Among the other works of Montfaucon, who became a member of the Acad6mie des inscriptions et belles lettres in 1719, special mention may be made of his Le Livre de Phidon de la

Xontgomery Xoody
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
490
vie contemplative . . . allec des observations oil l'on fait voir qtee lee Th&apeutes dont il pane etotent Chr4tiens (Paris, 1709); and Lettres pour et contre sur la fameuse question si lee solitaire, appellez Th6rapeutes . . doient Chr9tien8 (1712). Many of his letters, which are preserved in the BibliotMque Nationale and elsewhere, have been published in Valery's Correspondance in6dite de Mabillon et de Montfaucon avec l'Italie (3 vole., Paris, 1846); U. Capitaine's Correspondanee de Bernard de Montfatccon avec le baron G. de Cramier (Liege, 1855); and E. Gigas's Lettres inkdites de divers savants, vol. ii. (Copenhagen, 1892‑93). (G. LAUBMANN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. de Broglie, La SoeiW de l'abbaye de Saint‑Germain des Pr& au 18. sitcle, especially ii. 311323, Paris, 1891; R. P. Tessin, Hist. litt6raire de la conpr6pation de S. Maur, pp. 585‑818, • Brussels, 1770; H. Omont, Bernard do Montfaueon, in Anrwlea du midi, 1892, pp. 84‑90; J. B. Vanel, Les B6nbdictina de S. Maur, pp. 112‑115, Paris, 1898.
MONTGOMERY,	went‑gum's‑ri, HENRY
Founder of the Rerilonstrant Synod of Ulster in Ireland; b. in the parish of Killead (on Lough Neagh, 4 m. a. of Antrim), County Antrim, Jan. 16, 1788; d. at Dunmurray (4 m. s.w. of Belfast) Dec. 18, 1865. He studied at Glasgow College (M.A., 1807); was ordained minister of Dunmurray, 1809, and spent his life there. He combined teaching with his pastoral duties, from 1817 to 1839 was head master of the English school in the Belfast Academical Institution, gave lectures to divinity students from 1832, and in 1838 was appointed professor of ecclesiastical history and pastoral theology at Belfast for the association of Irish non‑subscribing Presbyterians. During the greater part of his life he was the antagonist of Henry Cooke (q.v.), whose strenuous advocacy of orthodoxy drove him and his associates from the Synod of Ulster in 1829; as an orator and thinker he was Cooke's equal, but he lacked his power to persuade the majority. He was liberal in politics and his views of religious liberty were in advance of his time. His publications were sermons, speeches, and magazine articles.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. Crosier, Life of . . . Henry Montgomery . . . with Selections from his Speeches and Writings, vol. i (no more published), London, 1875; idem, Henry Montgomery, ib. 1888; the literature under COOKE, HENRY; DNB, acxviii. ,313‑315.
MONTGOMERY, JAMES: English religious poet and hymn‑writer; b. at Irvine (25 m. s.w. of Glasgow), Scotland, . Nov. 4, 1771; d. at Sheffield, England, Apr. 30, 1854. After attending school in Fulneck, the chief Moravian settlement in England, he settled at Sheffield (1792), where he became proprietor and editor of The Iris. In 1789 he was sentenced to three months' imprisonment and a fine of twenty pounds for having printed The Bastile, a poem surmounted by a woodcut representing liberty and the British lion. A little later he was sentenced to six months' imprisonment because of reflections upon a colonel of militia, published in his paper. In spite of these judicial condemnations his name was unaffected, and when he retired from the editorship of his paper, in 1825, he received public favors, and at his death had the honor of a public funeral. In 1830‑31 he delivered a series of lectures on poetry and literature before the Royal
Institution; and in 1846 a life pension was settled upon him of a hundred and fifty pounds. He made no public profession of religion till his forty‑third year, when he united with the Moravians; but ever afterward, eminent for his piety, he was most active. in furthering all philanthropic and religious work.
He was one of the best sacred poets of his day. Among his works may be named: The Wanderer of Switzerland, and Other Poems (London, 1806) ; Poems on the Abolition of the Slave Trade (in collaboration with J. Grahame and E. Benger, 1809); The West Indies (1810); The World before the Flood (1813); Greenland (1819); The Songs of Zion, being Imitations of the Psalms (1822); The Christian Psalmist, or Hymns, Selected and Original (Glasgow, 1825); The Pelican Island, and Other Poems (London, 1827); The Christian Poet; or, Selections in Verse on Sacral Subjects (Glasgow, 1827); Journal of Voyages and Travels by the Rev. D. Tyerman and G. Bennet Esq., . . compiled by J. Montgomery (London, 1831); Lectures on Poetry and General Literature Delivered at the Royal Institution in 1830 and 1831 (1833); A Poet's Portfolio: or, Minor Poems (1835); Lines of the Most Eminent Literary and Scientific Men of Italy, Spain and Portugal (in collaboration with Mrs. Shelley and others, 3 vols., 1835‑37); Our Savior's Miracles. Six Original Sketches in Verse (Bristol, 1840); The Poetical Works of J. M., Collected by himself (4 vols., London, 1841); and Original Hymns for Public, Private, and Social Devotion (1853). He was a favorite lyric poet, and many of his works went through numerous editions. He was known chiefly for his hymns, of which the favorites are the missionary hymns, " O Spirit of the living God," " Hail to the Lord's Anointed," the fine advent hymn, " Angels from the realms of glory," and " Forever with the Lord."
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The main biography is by J. Holland and J. Everett, 7 vols., London, 1854‑58 (expanded to a tedious degree). Others are by J. W. King, ib. 1858; A. $. Patterson, in Poets and Preachers of the 18th Century, Glasgow, 1862; S. Ellis, ib. 1864; 8. C. Hall, in Book of Memories of Great Men and Women, pp. 81‑93, ib. 1883; $. W. Duffield, English Hymns, pp. 481‑483, New York, 1886; G. W. Tallent‑Batsman, in Papers of the Manchester Club, 1889, .pp. 385‑392, 435‑440; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 763‑764.
MONTH, THE HEBREW. See MOON; and YEAR.
MONUMENTAL THEOLOGY: That branch of Christian archeology which deals with monuments of various descriptions, inscriptions, coins, medals, statuaries, paintings, and architectural constructions so far as they are expressive of theological ideas. Comparison of the medieval cathedral of Europe with the modern meeting‑house of America, shows that, though in the congregations which built those houses of worship the piety may have been the same, the theology was different; and further comparison can not fail to lead to a definite conception of the theological differences, since the very outlines of the structures show that they were built to realize different ideas. Thus, the study of the literary monuments of theology may at every point be aided by the study of the corresponding archeological monuments. In some

491	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	2outgomery
Moody
cases it will be supplemented (a great portion of the history of the church of Rome during its first centuries has been dug out of the catacombs); in others it will be strikingly illustrated. See ARCHEOLOGY, CHRISTIAN; ARCHITECTURE; ART AND CHURCH; SCULPTURE, CHRISTIAN USE OF.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Piper, Einiaitunp in die monumentaie Theolopie, Gotha, 1867; J. P. Lundy, Monumental Christianity, New York, 1881; H. D. M. Spence, The White Robe of Churches, ib. 1900; and the literature in and under the three articles referred to above.

MOODY, DWIGHT LYMAN (RYTHER): Evangelist; b. at Northfield, Mass., Feb. 5, 1837; d. there Dec. 22, 1899. He was the sixth of the nine children of Edwin and Betsy Moody (nAe Bolton). His father, who was a mason, died in 1841 (aged 41) and the family was in very straitened circumstances for years. His mother died in 1895, aged ninety. Moody received his first religious impressions in the village Unitarian church and his first missionary work was in getting pupils for its Sunday‑school, which he attended. His schooling was carried only as far as the district school could take him, and while a young boy he had to earn his living. In 1854 he resolved to try his fortunes in Boston, and there was hired by his uncle, Samuel Holton, as a clerk in his boot and shoe store. One of the conditions of his engagement was that he should regularly attend his uncle's church, the Mount Vernon (Orthodox) Congregational Church, and also its Sunday‑school. This promise he faithfully kept and was so much impressed by the truths he heard taught that in 1855 he applied for admission into the church. But his examination was not considered satisfactory and his application was held over for a year when he was thought to have made sufficient attainments in theology for church membership. In Sept., 1856, he went to Chicago and quickly found a more lucrative position than his uncle could offer him, and made a reputation as a salesman and traveler in the shoe trade. He also accumulated $7,000 toward the $100,000 upon which he had set his heart. But while diligent in his business and uncommonly successful he became absorbed more and more in religious work. His energies were first spent upon the Sunday‑school as teacher, as gatherer‑in of new pupils, and most unpromising ones, who under his instruction improved marvelously, and then as superintendent of the North Market Hall Sunday‑school which he built up until it had a membership of 1,500 and out of it in 1863 the Illinois Street Church was formed. He thus was well known in the state as a Sunday‑school worker. From the time of his coming to Chicago he had entered heartily into the work of the Young Mena' Christian Association, and he raised a large part of the money for its building, not once but twice, for the first was burned in 1867, and the second in 1871. In 1861 he gave up business and was an independent city missionary, then agent of the Christian Commission in the Civil War, and after that again in Sundayschool work and the secretary of the Chicago Young Men's Christian Association. But as yet he had done nothing to give him international fame.
In 1867 he made a visit to Great Britain on so‑
count of his wife's health‑he had married in 1862. He made some valuable acquaintances and did a little evangelistic work. One of his converts was John Kenneth Mackenzie (q.v.). In 1872 he was again in Great Britain, held numerous meetings and won the esteem of prominent Evangelicals. From these he received an invitation to return for general revival work. He came the next year, bringing with him Ira David Sankey (q.v.), who was henceforth to be linked with him in fame as a revivalist. They landed at Liverpool on June 17, 1873, and held their first services in York. Moody's downright preaching and Sankey's simple but soulstirring singing won attention, and as they passed from city to city they were heard by great crowds. They spent two years in this arduous labor, and then returned to America. Their fame was now in all the churches and invitations poured in upon them to do at home what they had done abroad, so they repeated these services and duplicated their successes, and that in all parts of the country. In 1881 and again in 1891 and 1892 they were in the United Kingdom. One of their most loyal supporters was Henry Drummond, who owed to them the quickening of his religious life in 1874.
In 1892 Moody by invitation of friends made a brief visit to the Holy Land. It was on his return to London that autumn that he first knew of the heart difficulty which ultimately caused hiss death. It may have been this knowledge that induced him during his remaining years to seek rather to deepen the spiritual life of professing Christians through church services of the ordinary quiet type, than to address the enormous miscellaneous crowds in all kinds of buildings as he did in earlier days. It was while holding services in Kansas City, Mo., on Nov. 16, 1899, that he broke down, and, although he was able to reach home, he was fatally stricken and soon after died.
Moody had " consecrated common sense." He was honest, preached a Calvinistic creed which he accepted with all his heart, and was master of an effective style. His sermons and shorter addresses abound in personal allusions, in shrewd remarks and home thrusts. He had a hatred of shams and scant respect for persons who had only place to recommend them. He was often abrupt, sometimes brusk. He had no polish, small education, but he knew the English Bible and accepted it literally. He was fond of treating Bible charao. ters very familiarly and enlivening his sermons by imaginary conversations with and between them. But that he was truly bent upon promoting the kingdom of God by the ways he thought most helpful there is no doubt. Like other great revivalists he had much praise which was undesirable, but he never lost his head. He also never allowed excitement to carry his audiences off their feet. For sanity, sincerity, spirituality, and success Moody goes into the very first rank of revival preachers.
During Moody's and Sankey's mission at Newcastle, England, in 1873, the first form of the familiar hymn‑book which bears their name appeared in response to the necessity of having a book which was adapted to their needs. This book was originally little better than a small pamphlet, but it

Xoody	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	498
was enlarged and has taken on various shapes and had varied contents while preserving its main features. The sale of the book in its different forms has been enormous. Up to 1900 more than a million and a quarter of dollars had been paid its compilers in royalties. Of his share in this money Moody made noble use, and thus opened a chapter in his life which is less known to the public, but will have more permanent interest than his preaching. For with it he founded, or helped to found, the chain of educational institutions which does not bear his name but which is his greatest monument. The first was the Northfield Seminary for Young Women, erected and carried on in his native town. It dates from 1879. This is a school which trains girls for college, if they go so far, but in any case gives them good instruction permeated with religion. All the work of the house is done by the students. In 1881 Mount Hermon School for Young Men was started. The two schools are only a few miles apart. The students are taken at very low rates, combine manual training with the usual school courses, and are under strong religious influences. The Bible Institute for Home and Foreign Missions in Chicago, open to both sexes, is another of the educational aids which owe their origin to him. The Students' Conferences and the Northfield Christian Workers' Conference, both of which meet annually at Northfield, were inaugurated by him. They have exerted a great influence, and of a very sane and thoughtful type.
In church connection Moody belonged to the independent Chicago Avenue Church. In his activities he belonged to the Church universal.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The principal biography is by his son W. R. Moody, New York, 1900. Others are by H. Drummond, New York, 1900; J. S. Ogilvie, ib. 1900; and A. W. Williams, Philadelphia, 1900. Phases of Moody's life and work are treated in: T. S. J., D. L. Moody at Home, New York, 1886; H. M. Wharton, A Month with Moody in Chicago, Baltimore, 1894; H. B. Hartsler, Moody in Chicago, New York, 1894.
MOON,. HEBREW CONCEPTIONS OF THE.
Names; Relation to Time (1 1).
Conception of the Moon and its Functions (§ 2). Worship of the Moon (1 3).
The New Moon (!1 4).
The usual Hebrew name for the moon (yareah; cf. Assyr. irihu, arhw, " month "; Ethiopic wareh; Palmyrene yrh) is evidently to be connected with a root yarah or wdrah, cognate with 'arah, " to wander," cf. Assyr. ur(tu, " road," connoting the moon's
motion among the stars. With this i. Names; Semitic root meaning is to be conRelation trasted the Aryan idea of the moon to Time. as " the measurer (of time)." While
the moon did not among the Semites receive its name from its function as a marker of tinge periods, the regularity of its phases made its use general as a fixer of times and periods, as with other peoples, and with this were connoted other related conceptions. Thus in Egypt the moon‑god Thoth was god of measures, then of knowledge and wisdom in general (with which cf. the Assyrian Sin, explained as zzo‑en, " knowledge‑lord," and the Greek ideas associated with Hermes). The Manda'ans (q.v.), who derived a large part of their system from Babylonian sources, made the demiurge
Ptahil say: " I gave the moon as time‑measurer for the world " (A. J. H. W. Brandt, Die mandtiiache Religion, p. 61, Leipsie, 1889). Similarly among the Hebrews the idea of the moon as a divider of time was predominant, and its measuring‑function is strikingly expressed in Ps. civ. 19: " He appointed the moon for seasons." The Hebrews and Phenicians called the new moon hodesh, " new," the former called the new moon kese' (cf. Assyr. kuae'u, " cap," connected with the idea that the moon‑god wore a cap when the moon was full). A Hebrew poetic name for the moon is lebhenah, " white "; and in Gen. i. the terminology used is " the lesser light." The Assyrians and Babylonians called the moon‑god Sin (see above; from him the Sinaitic peninsula drew its name), while other names in the Semitic region were Aku (Elamitic'), Nannar, Aa (consort of Shamash; also frequently rendered " queen "), and the Phenician Ashtaroth‑Karnaim. The importance of the moon to the Hebrews is seen when it is noted how fundamental a division of time the month was for them. The date of the new moon as marking the beginning of a new reckoning of time was by them not calculated but observed. The length of a month, twenty‑nine or thirty days, depended, therefore, upon the day when the moon was first seen, except that in cloudy weather the thirtieth day was reckoned to the preceding month. That this basis of reckoning determined the custom of counting the day, not from morning till morning or midnight to midnight, but from evening to evening can not be proved; but it may be confidently assumed, since in general peoples who have only lunar months use this method of defining the day. It is equally difficult to be assured that the week was derived from the month by division of the latter into four parts (see WEEK). There is general agreement that the seven‑day period was derived from Babylonia, where it was employed in pre‑Semitic times‑this is confirmed by the fact that not only were the seventh, fourteenth, twenty‑first, and twenty‑eighth days of the month observed, but that the nineteenth was also a special day, the reason being apparently that thirty plus nineteen are forty‑nine, this number making up a week of weeks. The union of the planetary bodies with the names of the days of the week seems to have been a very late phase, probably not completed till the Greek period. While the sacred seasons of the Hebrews were fixed by reference to lunar reckoning, there is a suggestion of solar reference in the Old Testament. It may be mere coincidence that Gen. viii. 14, cf. vii. 11, apparently makes the length of the flood a year and eleven days, i.e., a lunar year of 354 days plus eleven, or 365 days. The circumstances of husbandry necessitated regard for the solar year, but the adjustment of the solar and the lunar periods by intercalation was probably not made in the Hebrew region till after Old‑Testament times (see TIME, BIBLICAL RECKONING OF).
There are a number of indications that the preCanaanitic relations of the Hebrews with the mooncult were close. Abraham is traced back to Haran (q.v.) and Ur (see BABYLONIA, IV., § 3), two noted centers of moon‑worsbip. Moreover, in the Abrahamic family names and genealogies the moon has

RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
left its mark. Thus with Terah may be compared
Assyr. torah, u, " gazelle " (sacred to Ishtar); Nahor
		is connected with Nannar, the name of
	2. Concep‑ a moon‑god; Abram recalls aburammu,
	tion of the " exalted father," a frequent title of
	Moon the moon‑deity; Sarah (" princess ")
	and Its and Milcah (" queen ") are titles of
	Functions. the moon‑goddess; Laban is to be
		connected with kbanu, " the white
one," cf. lebhenah above; while Lamech may be
brought into relations with Assyr. Lamgu, a name
of Sin. Yet with the Hebrews the moon was sub
ordinate and secondary to the sun. Whether this
represents the original Semitic conception is un
certain, since it is held, though not demonstrated,
that the moon‑cult represented an earlier Semitic
stage of culture. The age of the worship of Sin is
not determined; the Aramean cult at Haran was
of great antiquity and persisted into the Roman
period. Sahar, the name of a moon‑god, is prob
ably to be seen in the Mandeean Sauriel, while the
Palmyrene deities Yarhibaal and Aglibaal were
moon‑deities. The Hebrews were, therefore, in the
provenance of the moon‑cult, and their conceptions
of this body were in general agreement with those
of their neighbors. The idea that the moon influ
enced the earth and its products was practically
universal, and this influence was conceived as either
malign or benign. This body was thought to be an
agent in the production of crops, perhaps through
its supposed function as a creator of dew (W. von
Baudissin, Jahve et Moloch, p. 24, Leipsic, 1874;
	W. H. Roscher, Ueber Selene, pp. 49‑99, ib. 1890).
The Aryans went further than this and attributed
to the moon the growth of animals (Avesta, Mah
	Yast, Mah Nyayis, $BE, xxiii. 88‑91, 355); the
Indo‑Iranians connected the moon with the pri
	meval bull, itself a symbol of fertility; Pliny (Hist.
fiat., ii. 221) associated growth with the moon;
Macrobius (" On the Dream of Scipio," I., xi. 7)
	attributes to the moon power over terrestrial ob
	jects for increase or decline; while it is a world
	wide superstition that a waging moon brings increase
	of crops, and occasionally even the power of im
	pregnation is attributed to that body. The Old
	Testament references to this notion are necessarily
	scanty, yet beyond question Dent. xxxiii. 14, " the
	precious things put forth by the moon," is to be
	brought into relationship with this idea. In the
	Assyrian hymns the moon is called " the mighty
	bull, with large horns, perfect form, and flowing
	beard, bright as crystal " (the bull is also a Semitic
	symbol of fertility); the supposed beard in seals is
	probably the effect of a necklace with pendants.
	On the malign side pestilence was associated with
	the moon (Ps. exgi. 6), while the Greek notion of
the lunar origin of epilepsy (cf. the Greek verb
	aeleniazesthai, " to be struck with epilepsy," from
	selene, " moon ") is shown to be held by Jews
	(Matt. iv. 24, xvii. 15). With this may be con
	nected the name of the Mandwan angel of death,
Sauriel, as well as such passages in the Old Testa
ment as Gen. xxxi. 40 and Jer. xxxvi. 30. In the
imagery of the Day of Yahweh (q.v.) the moon
was to participate with the other heavenly bodies
in the cataclysmic phenomena of that time (Isa.
xiii. 10; Ezek. xxxii. 7; Joel ii. 10, iii. 4, 15; Matt. xxiv. 29; Acts ii. 20; Rev. vi. 12); also in the repair and glorifying of all nature (Isa. xxx. 26), though in the new era there will be no need for its light, since God is to be the light of his people (Isa. Ix. 19; cf. Rev. xxi. 23, xxii. 5). Yet its stability is one of the images of eternal duration (Ps. lxxii. 5, 7, bcxRix. 37), and it is also a synonym of beauty (Job xxxi. 26; Cant. vi. 9; Ecclus. 1. 6).
Worship of the moon appears to have been native with the Semites. Wadd in Arabia, Sin and Nannar in Babylonia, Sahar in Mesopotamia (appearing on Aramaic steles at Merab near Aleppo; cf. C. Clermont‑Ganneau, in Biblioth?que de lWole des hautes Etudes, fase. 113, pp. 193‑195, 211‑215, Paris, 1897) are but a few of the examples which might be cited, the moon being rep3. Worship resentative of both male and female
	of the	deities. Apart, however, from the
	Moon.	suggestions contained in the tracing
		of Abraham to centers of moon‑wor
ship and in the connections of names in the Abra
hamic family with names or titles of moon‑deities,
there is little or nothing in the early history of the
Hebrews to connect them with worship of the
moon (cf. Smith, Red. of Sem., 2d ed., p. 135). It
was only toward the end of the monarchy, in the
period of declension and of eclectic religious prac
tises, that the worship of this body appears among
them, when it is registered by the denunciation of
the prophets (Jer. viii. 2, xix. 3; Zeph. i. 5), by
prohibition through legislation (Dent. iv. 9, xvii.
3), by the repressive measures of Josiah (II Kings
xxiii. 5), and later by the disavowal of participa
tion in the cult by the righteous sufferer (Job xxxi.
26‑27). In general the worship of the moon was
associated with that of other heavenly bodies, and
the method was by prostration, and by kissing of
the hands (Job. xxxi. 26‑27), the latter a custom
mentioned by Pliny (Hist. fiat., XXVIII., ii. 25).
In Jer. vii. 18, xliv. 17‑19, 25, there is mention of
the " queen of heaven " in which a distinct cult is
evidently distinguished, and its peculiarities in part
given, as in the offering by fire of special cakes in
the preparation of which men, women, and children
united. The prophet in chap. xliv. represents the
people as arguing for this worship on the experi
ential ground that its practise was attended with
prosperity and the cessation of it was contempo
raneous with disaster. It has been the custom since
Jerome to identify this " queen of heaven " with
the moon, though from the time of Isaac of An
tioch (c. 450) she was also identified with Venus.
The concrete deity with whom identification was
made, however, was Ishtar, whose most intimate
connection was with Venus and not with the moon
(see ASHTORETH, § 5); accordingly later scholars
are disposed to see in the cult under question the
Ishtar‑Venus type and to disconnect it from the
moon. Perhaps the last word has not been said on
the subject. As cults passed from the East to the
West, Ishtar was associated with the moon, and
this association registered itself in the Greek religion
as well as in the Sidonian conception of Astarte as
the moon. It is not beside the mark to note that
cakes were offered in Athens to Artemis (the moon‑

Noon
Moore	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	494
goddess), a practise which may be the analogue of that noted in Jeremiah. On the other hand, offerings like these were made in Arabia to the sun and to Venus. Other indications of worship in the Hebrew region are seen in Isa. iii. 18, in the ornaments " round like the moon," R. V., " crescents " (Hebr. saharonim; cf. the proper name Sahar, for the moongod in the vicinity of Aleppo, mentioned above), which seem to be referred to in Judges viii. 21‑26, A. V. margin " ornaments like the moon," R. V. " crescents," and are by the commentators associated with worship of the moon.
The new‑moon festival as an occasion of joyous character seems to belong to the oldest stratum of Hebrew observance. I Sam. xx. 5‑6 shows it in connection with clan celebrations, and this implies antiquity. In II Kings iv. 23; Isa. i. 13; Hos. ii. 11; and Amos viii. 5 it is placed apparently on an equal footing with the Sabbath, and 4. The New the passage last named involves ces‑
	Moon.	sation from work on that day, while it
		was in popular practise a day of as
sembling at the sanctuaries with offerings. It is,
therefore, a peculiar phenomenon that JE and D
are silent regarding the festival, which reappears in
Ezekiel and the priestly legislation. Various ex
planations have been offered for the silence noted.
Dillmann (in his commentary on Exodus‑Leviti
cus, p. 635, Leipsic, 1897) supposes that the ob
servance was so common and such a fixture that
provision for it was unnecessary; in that case it is
difficult to account for other provisions covering
matters known to be no less firmly fixed (cf. Ex.
xxi.‑xxiii.). Benzinger (EB, iii. 3402) thinks that
the increasing importance of the sabbath " forced
the new‑moon festival into the background "; if
this be true, it is difficult to say what brought it
into notice in the later codes, though it is not im
possible that popular insistence made its demands
felt. Wellhausen (Prolegomena, p. 118, Berlin, 1883)
makes the ignoring in the JE and D legislation
purposive, the intent being to wean the people
away from an observance in which the Canaanitic
rites were an especial feature. Whatever the rea
son for this silence, later popularity of the festival
is evinced by the fact that the prophets dated their
oracles by it (Ezek. xxvi. 1, xxix. 17, xxxi. 1, xxxii.
1; Hag. i. 1), and this further implies actual gath
erings of the people at which the prophecies were
delivered, while it is known that at this time the
people also visited the prophets (II Kings iv. 23). In
the newer legislation the day was not one of rest
(except the new moon of the seventh month, Lev.
xxiii. 24) but of extraordinary sacrifices, surpassing
in richness those of the Sabbath. Thus in Ezekiel
(xlvi. 4‑6) for the new moon there were prescribed
a bullock, six lambs, and a ram; for the Sabbath,
six lambs and a ram. In Num. xxviii. 9‑13 (which
prescribes from a national standpoint) for the Sab
bath were prescribed two lambs with one‑tenth deal
of flour for each;, for the new moon, two bullocks
with three‑tenths deal of flour for each, a ram with
two‑tenths deal of flour, and seven lambs with one
tenth deal for each. To the daily burnt offering
there was added a festal offering. For notes of the
observance cf. I Chron. xxiii. 31; II Chron. ii. 4,
viii. 13, xxxi. 3; Ezra iii. 5; Neh. x. 33, which regard the offerings as fixed and normal. Further, that the new moon was regarded as one of high observance is shown by the directions to blow the trumpets. The new moon of the seventh month has a sabbatical character in that cessation from labor is directed together with assemblage at the sanctuary, and possibly after the exile this took the character of a New Year's festival (Ezra iii. 6; Neh. viii. 1 sqq.). Judith viii. 6 shows the observance still later, while Gal. iv. 10 and Col. ii. 16 indicate that Jewish Christians were inclined to lay stress upon the observance. See FEASTS AND FESTIVALS, I.; SYNAGOGUE, II. GEO. W. GILMORE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. L. Ideler, Handbuch der Chronologie, Berlin, 1831; D. Chwolsohn, Die Ssabier, pp. 399‑443, Leipsic, 1856; R. Pietsehmann, Hermes Trismegistos, Leipsic, 1875; F. Baethgen, Beitrage zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, Berlin, 1887; A. Kuenen, De Godsdiewt van Israel, Haarlem, 1889, Eng. transl., The Religion of Israel, London, 1897; P. de Lagarde, in GGA, xxxv (1889), 46; P. Jensen, Die Koemologie der Babylonier, pp. 101108, Strasburg, 1890; W. H. Roseher, Ueber Selene and Verwandtes, Leipsic, 1890; E. Sachau,~in Sitzungaberichte der Berliner Akademie, 1895, pp. 119‑122; F. X. Kugler, Die babylonische Mondrechnung, Freiburg, 1900; E. Maass, Die Tagesgotter in Ram and den Provinzen, Berlin, 1902; W. St. C. Boscawen, First of Empires, pp. 31, 80‑81, 306, London, 1906; J. G. Frazer, Adonis, Attis, Osiris, pp. 295 sqq., London, 1906 (for ethnic notions regarding the moon); Schrader, KAT, pp. 361‑367; Benzinger, Archllologie, passim; Nowack, Archeologie, ii. 138‑144; DB, iii. 433‑435, 521‑523; EB, iii. 3192‑97, 3401‑04; JE, viii. 678‑679, ix. 243‑244.
MOORE, CLEMENT CLARKE: Protestant Episcopal; b. in New York July 15, 1779; d. in Newport, R. I., July 10, 1863. He was graduated from Columbia College, 1798; though prepared for the ministry he never took orders, but devoted himself to literature; and from 1821 to 1850 he was professor, first of Hebrew and Greek, then of Oriental and Greek literature, in the General Theological Seminary, New York. The ground on which the seminary now stands was his gift. He was the pioneer in America of Hebrew lexicography, for his Hebreto and Greek Lexicon (2 vols., New York, 1809) was the first Hebrew lexicon published in the United States. He wrote also: Poems (1844); George Castriot, Surnamed Scanderbeg, King of Albania (1850); and the favorite A Visit from St. Nicholas (1848; a story for children in verse), beginning "'Twas the night before Christmas."

MOORE, DUNLOP: Presbyterian; b. at Lurgan (19 m. s.w. of Belfast), County Armagh, Ireland, July 25, 1830; d. at Pittsburg, Pa., Nov. 14, 1905. He was educated at Edinburgh and Belfast, being graduated in 1854. He was next a missionary of the Irish Presbyterian Church in Gujarat, India (1855‑67), and to the Viennese Jews (18691874). From 1875 to 1891 he was pastor of the Presbyterian church at New Brighton, Pa., but after the latter year was without charge, engaged in evangelistic and literary work. After a year at Lansdowne, Pa., he made his home in Pittsburg. While in India be aided in preparing the Gujarati translation of the Bible and wrote treatises on Jainism and Mohammedanism in the same language. He likewise edited the Gujarati monthly JACinadipaka, and besides a number of contributions to the

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
periodical press, collaborated with S. T. Lowrie in translating C. W. E. Nagelsbach's Isaiah for the American Lange series (New York, 1878).

MOORE, EDWARD: Church of England; b. at Cardiff, Wales, Feb. 28, 1835. He was educated at Pembroke College, Cambridge (B.A., 1867), and was ordered deacon in 1859 and ordained priest two years later. From 1858 to 1864 he was fellow and tutor of Queen's College, Oxford, and since the latter year has been principal of St. Edmund Hall, Oxford. He has been honorary fellow of Pembroke College since 1899 and of Queen's College since 1902, as well as canon of Canterbury and librarian of Canterbury Cathedral since 1903. He is best known as a Dante scholar, and has written or edited Introduction to Aristotle's Ethics, i.‑iv. (London, 1871); Aristotle's Poetics, with Notes (Oxford, 1875); Time References in the Divina Commedia (London, 1887); Textual Criticism of tie Divina Commedia (Oxford, 1889); Dante and his Early Biographers (London, 1890); Tutte le opere di Dante Alighieri nouvamente rivedute nel testo (Oxford, 1894, 1904) ; Studies in Dante (3 series, 1896‑1903) ; L'Autenticith dells Qumstio de aqua et terra (London, 1899); and Gli Accenni al tempo nella Divina Commalia (Florence, 1900).

MOORE, EDWARD CALDWELL: Congregationalist; b. at West Chester, Pa., Sept. 1, 1857. He was graduated from Marietta College, Marietta, 0. (A.B., 1877), Union Theological Seminary (1884), and studied at the universities of Berlin, Gottingen, and Giessen (1884‑86). He was pastor of the Westminster Presbyterian Church, Yonkers, N. Y. (18861889) and of the Central Congregational Church at Providence, R. I. (1889‑1902). He was appointed to his present position of Parkman professor of theology at Harvard University in 1902. He was Lowell lecturer in 1903 and chairman of the Board of Preachers of Harvard University in 1905, and has also been a member of the Prudential Committee of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions since 1899, being chairman since 1905. He has written The New Testament in the Christian Church (New York, 1903).

MOORE, GEORGE FOOTE: Congregationalist; b. at West Chester, Pa., Oct. 15, 1851. He was educated at Yale (A.B., 1872) and Union Theological Seminary (1877), after having taught in the Hopkins Grammar School, New Haven, and privately in Columbus, 0. (1872‑74), and after having been principal of the High School at Lancaster, 0. (18741875). He was then pastor of the Presbyterian Church at Bloomingburg, 0., in 1877‑78, and of the Putnam Presbyterian Church, Zanesville, 0. (18781883), and Hitchcock professor of the Hebrew language and literature in Andover Theological Seminary (1883‑1902). Since 1902 he has been professor of the history of religion in Harvard University. In theology he belongs to the critical school, and is a member of the Deutsche morgenlandische Gesellschaft and the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, and recording secretary of the American Oriental Society. Besides articles in the Eru:yclopodia Biblica, he has written Commentary on Judges
Moon
Xoore
(New York, 1895) ; translated and edited Judges for the Polychrome Bile (2 vols., 1898‑1900); and assisted in editing Old Testament and Semitic Studies in Memory of William Rainey Harper, 2 vols., Chicago, 1908, to which he also contributed.

MOORE, HENRY: Wesleyan Methodist; b. in Dublin Dec. 21, 1751; d. in London Apr. 27, 1844. In 1780 he became an itinerant on the Londonderry circuit; later as the constant companion of John Wesley in London he did most efficient service. After Wesley's death he figured prominently in the discussions from 1791 to 1797 concerning the permanent ecclesiastical organization of the Methodists, personally favoring the Episcopal form. He was a stanch upholder of the authority of the conference, even though disagreeing with its policy in certain matters. He opposed the movement to found a theological institute for training men for the ministry, and as the last survivor of those ordained by John Wesley he championed the right of the Wesleyan ministers to administer the sacraments. He was active in the itinerant ministry till 1833, when he became a supernumerary. His works of significance are: The Life of the Rev. John Wesley, Including an Account of the Great Revival of Religion of which he was the . . Instrument (in collaboration with T. Coke, London, 1792); Thoughts on the Eternal Sonship of the Second Person of the Holy Trinity. Addressed to the People Called Methodists, . . (Birmingham, 1817); The Life of Mrs. M. Fletcher . . . Compiled from her Journal (2 vols., London, 1817); The Life of the Rev. J. Wesley . . . in which are Included, the Life of his Brother the Rev. C. Wesley, . . and Memoirs of their Family, Comprehending an Account of the Great Revival of Religion in which they were the Chief . . . Instruments (2 vols., 1824‑25); Sermons Held on General Occasions . . . With a Brief Memoir (by the Author) of his Life and Christian Experience from his Birth to the First Conference Held after the Death of Mr. Wesley (1830).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mrs. R. Smith, The Life of Rev. H. Moore, . Including the Autobiography, London, 1844; and the literature under METHODIsTs dealing with the early hisCory of that people.
MOORE, JOHN HENRY: Dunker; b. at Salem, Va., Apr. 8, 1846. He was educated in the Illinois public schools, and in 1868 entered the ministry of his denomination, of which he was chosen bishop in 1879. In 1876 he became editor of The Brethren at Work, a Dunker weekly published at Lanark, Ill., but later merged with others and removed to Elgin, Ill., and renamed The Gospel Messenger. Of this he is still editor. In theology he is strongly Puritan, being opposed to war and intemperance in all forms. Like his denomination, he accepts only the New Testament as his creed. He has written: Trine Immersion Traced to the Apostles (Elgin, Ill., 1872); The Perfect Plan of Salvation (1874); and One Baptism (1876).
MOORE, WALTER WILLIAM: Presbyterian (Southern assembly); b. at Charlotte, N. C., June 14, 1857. He was educated at Davidson College, N. C. (A.B., 1878), and Union Theological Seminary, Va. (1881). He was an evangelist in Bun‑

Moors	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	498
Moralists
oombe County, N. C. (1881‑82) and pastor at Mil
lersburg, Ky. (1882‑83). Since 1883 he has been
professor of the Hebrew language and literature in
Union Theological Seminary, Va., of which he has
also been president since 1904. He is a member of
the Richmond Education Association and has been
a trustee of Hampden‑Sidney College since 1905.
He has written A Year in Europe (Richmond, Va.,
1904).
	MOORE, WILLIAM EVES: Presbyterian; b. at
Strasburg, Pa., Apr. 1, 1823; d. at Columbus, O.,
June 5, 1899. He graduated from Yale College,
New Haven, Conn., 1847; studied theology under
Dr. Lyman H. Atwater at Fairfield, Conn.; became
pastor at West Chester, Pa., 1850; and at Colum
bus, 0., 1872. From 1884 he was permanent clerk
of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church.
He was the author of The New Digest of the Acts
and Deliverances of the Presbyterian Church, New
School (Philadelphia, 1861); and The Presbyterian
Digest, United Church (1873).
	MOORHOUSE, JAMES: Church of England, for
mer bishop; b. at Sheffield Nov. 19, 1826. He
was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge
	I. Introduction.
II. Development of the Autonomy of
			Ethics.
		The Roman Catholic Theory (§ 1).
		The Protestant Position (§ 2).
		The State and the Law of Nature
			(§ 3)•
		Influence of the Renaissance (§ 4).
	I. Introduction: The British moralists of the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries accomplished
for ethics what the English deists of the same period
accomplished for the science of religion. The deists
cut loose from the ideal conception of religion
founded on psychology and metaphysics, and es
tablished an analysis of religion founded on the
psychological study of its phenomena. The British
moralists cut loose from a dogmatically founded
system of ethics, controlling the State, the Church,
and private life, and founded an autonomous sys
tem of modern scientific ethics. In neither case
were these movements isolated, they were a part
of the social phenomena of an age which, among
other things, tended to build up independent treat
ment of the various sciences. Specifically the work
of the British moralists may be distinguished as
follows. First they gave a scientific form to the
practical material furnished them by Christian
ethics, to which they stood sometimes in a hostile
relation, sometimes enlarging its conceptions, some
times incorporating with it purely secular interests
and aims. Second, in place of deriving morality
from dogmatic authoritative teaching and from
the supernatural dualistic system of salvation and
grace, they introduced the method of psychological
analysis.
	II. Development of the Autonomy of Ethics: The
first stage of the discussion concerns itself with the
ethical ideas of Roman Catholicism. The combina
tion of Christianity with the culture of the ancient
(B.A., 1853), and was ordered deacon in 1853 and ordained priest in the following year. He was curate of St. Neots (1853‑55), Sheffield (1855‑59), and Hornsey (1859‑61), and perpetual curate of St. John's, Fitzroy Square, London (1881‑67). From 1867 to 1876 he was vicar and rural dean of Paddington, London, and in 1876 was consecrated bishop of Melbourne, Australia. In 1886 he was translated to the see of Manchester, which he resigned in 1903. He was Hulsean lecturer in 1865 and Warburtonian lecturer in 1874 and chaplain in ordinary to the queen and prebendary of Caddington Major in St. Paul's Cathedral (1874‑76). He has written Nature and Revelation (London, 1861); Our Lord Jesus Christ the Subject of Growth in Wisdom (Hulsean lectures; 1866); Jacob (three sermons before the University of Cambridge; 1870); The Expectation of the Christ (1889); The Dangers of the Apostolic A e (Manchester, 1891); The Teaching of Christ (London, 1891); Church Work (1894); and The Roman Claim to Supremacy (Manchester, 1894).
MOORS. See SPAIN. MORAL THEOLOGY. See THEOLOGY, MORAL.
MORALISTS, BRITISH.
Importance of Reformed Protestant Ethics ($ 5).
English Ethics under Puritanism (§ 6).
The New Psychological Basin (§ 7).
Problems Presented (§ 8).
111. Specific Contributions.
Hobbes and Mandeville (§ 1).
Cambridge School, Cudworth, More, and Cumberland (§ 2). Clarke, Hartley, and Price (§ 3). John Locke (§ 4). Shaftesbury, Butler, and Huteheson (§ 5). Hume and Adam Smith (§ fi). Results (§ 7).
world drove into the background the primitive system of Christian ethic, which concerned itself with the end of the world and a life of coma. The plete divine indwelling. The great prop. Roman ess . of amalgamation resulted in the Catholic objectification of Christianity, with Theory. the Church conceived as a supernatural institution of grace. Various elements were taken up in the process of combination. Participation in the divine was secured through neo‑Platonic theories, by which the interval between the natural and supernatural was bridged. As each of these two spheres had its legitimate existence, a place was made for an ethical system resting largely upon the traditional law of nature as found in the philosophy of the Stoics, while the Aristotelian conception of the State was also wrought into the scheme. The esthetic ethics of antiquity completely disappeared. The law of nature was made identical with the decalogue, hence the sphere of a real political and civil ethics was very limited. Ecclesiastical ethics had the predominance. A different value was given to the morality of the layman from that of the clergy. As time went on, the weak points of this system were criticized and the secular element accentuated, and at the same time direct protests were heard against the prevailing conception of ethics as a system of laws and regulations enforced by the objectively divine institution of the Church.

497	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xoors
		Moralists
	The Protestant movement accomplished much
in minimizing the dualism between natural and
	supernatural factors. But the distino
2. The	tion between natural powers weak
	Protestant ened by original sin and the super
	Position. natural morality of grace still remained.
	It is true that from the Protestant
	standpoint religious perfection could be attained
in the world. Normal man, not the ascetic, is the
	object of saving grace. The State with its various
	functions is allowed to be free of ecclesiastical pre
	scriptions; although it represents fallen human
nature, it can be inspired by a real Christianity.
	So the Christian as a citizen can live as a Christian
	without performing some specially divine works at
	the bidding of his ecclesiastical superiors. Calvin
	took an optimistic view of the possibility of living
a Christian life according to Christian rules in the
	State. The primary authority was founded on the
	identity of the law of nature with the decalogue,
	of which the first table contained the demands of a
	spiritual character and the second controlled the
	natural forms of life in a civilized state. The ob
	ject of Christianity is to restore the law of nature
	in this form, for heathendom was supposed to have
	been forgetful of the natural law in both directions.
	Protestants avoided adding to this scripturally con
	tained law of nature by the so‑called Evangelical
	Counsels (see CONSILIA EvANGELICA). But the
	idea of secular law was to be accepted as a guide
	only for the unregenerate. The Christian could
	not accept it as a standard of conduct; it stood
	only for a natural form of life. Its prescriptions
	and indeed all of the forms and activities of the
	State were regarded as a species of discipline
	prepared and ordained by God as a part of that
	earthly system through which the Christian had to
	go as a pilgrim in his journey to heaven. As
	to the right of resistance to the prescriptions of
	the State, Lutheranism and Calvinism differed.
	Both united, however, in denying any proper eth
	ical aim to the State and to civilized society per se.
	All its rights in this sphere came through the divine
	ordinance as laid down in the second table of the
decalogue.	(On this cf. H. Wiskemann, Daratel
	lung der in Deutschland zur Zeit der Reformation
	herrschenden nadionalokonomischen Ansichten, Leip
	sic, 1861; P. Lobstein, Ethik Calvins, Strasburg,
	1877; E. Troeltseh, Vernunft and Ofenbarung bei
	. Gerhard and Melanehthon, G6ttingen, 1891;
	C. Thieme, Sittliche Triebkraft des Glaubens, Leip
	sic, 1895; E. Brandenburg, Luthers Anachauung
	von Staat and der Gesellsehaft, Halle, 1901; M.
	Schulze, Meditatio futurie vitce in System Calvins,
	Leipsic, 1901; G. Honnicke, Studien zur altprote
stantiechen Ethik, Berlin, 1902.)
	What had been repressed by Roman Catholicism,
	viz., the free sphere and subjectivity of the Christian
	idea of ethics, was more fully developed, but in
	neither aspect can the development be called com
	plete. The existence of the State and the value of
	the State's activity as a religious entity, not in
	opposition to spiritual concerns, was acknowledged.
	What was omitted was the recognition that the
	State and social institutions were derivations from
	the Christian idea. A necessarily ethical aim was
VIL‑32
not allowed to the State. The State was permitted as a part of a natural order, with the duty laid upon it of providing for the supremacy of
3. The Biblical truth and Biblical moral law. State and On this ground its special forms of ac, the Law of tivity were acknowledged as legiti‑
	Nature.	mate. Secular ends alone, such as
		the laying‑down of systems of law,
and the provisions for economic prosperity, were
assigned to it. A further stage in the emanci
pation of the State came from the conception of
the law of nature that had been made a part of the
religious system by both Roman Catholics and Re
formers. This conception of natural law can take
on a thoroughly conservative color if it is made a
mere abstraction from existing political ordinances
and from commonly acknowledged legal and ethical
principles. These are assumed to be a natural di
vinely created system, the postulates of all social
life. This Was the point of view taken in the ethics
of the Reformers, and on it was built the, political
system and the theoretical ethical system of the
Reformation. But the law of nature is capable of
being handled as an instrument of criticism of the
actual and the existent. In this fashion it is used
by Grotius, who gives it a free sphere, apart from
the decalogue or any other theological sanction.
Its power would come from reason even if there
were no God, and it is to be referred to God only
because he is the source of human activity in which
the ideas of reason work themselves out. In this
way a path is made for the ethical idea of the State
and of law. Grotius wished to preserve this idea
on a sound basis, independent of confessional
contests and unmoved by theological subtleties.
Indeed his law of nations is the opponent of con
fessionalism and religious warfare. The idea as
developed by Grotius strengthened the unity and
sovereignty of the State, gave ethical and legal in
dependence to the individual, and aimed at a rational
derivation of political .and social conditions in the
State, making legitimate its care for the welfare of
the citizens, and also constituting its ideal aim, the
realization of the idea of law. Yet even here the
profounder ethical tasks of State life are left out of
consideration. Non‑ecclesiastical morality still has
limitations, but the system performed good serv
ice as being the kernel of ethical independence
from which modern civilization is derived. The
emancipation of the State through the discussion
and supporters of the theory of natural law became
complete. Along with the full recognition of the
sovereignty of the State as an end in itself comes
also the recognition of the right of the individual
citizen in the State to share in the aims of the State's
life. The result of the English political movements
of the seventeenth century was a definite separa
tion between political freedom and theology. On
this ground, England became a model, furnishing
practical ideas and political theories to the Conti
nent. (Cf. C.		Kaltenborn, Vorlduferdes Hugo Grotius,
Leipsic, 1848; O. Gierke, Johann Althusius, Bres
lau, 1880; G. Jellinek, Das Recht des modernen
Staates, i. 288‑301, 399‑424, Berlin, 1900.)
Less important to the question under consideration is the influence of the Renaissance. It is true

Xoralists	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	498
it proclaimed the independence of secular morality from the traditional transcendent ethical theories of the Middle Ages, and produced a 4. Influence sharp‑cut expression of individualism.
	of the Re‑	But the leaders in the Renaissance
	naissance.	lacked system; they were inclined
		to skepticism and anarchy and rep
resented an exclusive and aristocratic type of
thought. Through its great representative Machia
velli, the Renaissance exercised strong influence
over Hobbes and his critics. The ethical analysis of
the Renaissance with its dependence on a psycho
logical treatment of ethics is of importance, but on
the whole the ethical ideas of the Renaissance had
slight impelling power and were too esthetic in
character to admit of wide application. In this
way the influence of the Renaissance remained in
direct and of minor importance.
	Of really	decisive importance was Protestant
ethics in the particular form assumed by it in the
Reformed Church in Geneva, France, Holland, and
		England, where the supremacy of the
5. Impor‑ Calvinistic system of predestination tance of worked out a complete civil order. Reformed It recognized political, economic, and Protestant social elements, but its science was Ethics. theology, while it left art altogether out of account. The law of nature was made identical with the revealed law; the State was to aid the Church to advance pure teaching and establish a civil life corresponding to Christian ideals. On the one hand, there was the external discipline keeping citizens in subjection to those ideals and, on the other hand, the so‑called " guardianship of both tables " by which civil discipline and the purity of church teaching were maintained, a combination of the law of nature and the proclamation of salvation. Calvin's position on this point was much more thoroughgoing than Luther's, who left to the State a large sphere of activity for its natural functions and assigned to it considerable control in Church administration (see POLITY, IV., 1 2). Calvin provided for a theocracy by which the demands and forms of civil life should be brought into barmony with the exact standards of Christian ethics, proclaimed by an independently organized Church acting as the interpreter of the Bible. The various elements of Calvinistic theology, its theory of predestination and grace, were brought into practical application in the life of the individual and the State. But the political conception of Calvinism was aristocratic. It thought of the Church as the fellowship of the predestinated who were to bear sway over the whole sphere of life; the Bible in all its details was the standard of ethical conduct, not simply a source of grace and guide to penitence. Calvinism was not content with the small sphere of Lutheranism in directing the moral conduct and ethical aspirations of the individual citizen, it attacked also directly the control of important ecclesiastical functions by the State authorities. The State indeed was bound to maintain order and execute law, and also by divine and natural right it had to maintain Biblical truth and Scriptural ordinances within its territory. If it failed to do this
the society of the elect had the right of revolt, and this right was exercised in the wars of the Huguenots and of the Netherland Reformers. The Christian people were sovereign, and the Christian democracy was the supreme court of appeal. This was a very different principle from the Lutheran conservatism with its principles of practical passive obedience and its inconsistent distinction between the Church with its guidance of the individual and the State with its right to carry out measures of general utility. With Calvin Church and State worked together to establish the Scriptural social order. So one of the crucial stages in the spiritual development of modern times is reformed teaching and practise in ethics and politics and in the construction of state and society. (Cf. M. Schneckenburger, Vergleichende Darstellung des lutherischen and reformierten Lehrbegrifes, Stuttgart, 1855; Elster, Calvin als Staatsmann, Gesetzgeber and National6konom, in Jahrbiicher fur National6konomie and Statistik, 1878; W. Walker, John Calvin, chap. x., New York, 1906.)
This system found realization in England on a different ground from that in any other country, for there was a monarchy struggling for absolutism, a church catholicizing in tendency, both
6. English set over against a parliamentaiy sysEthics tem standing for the rights of the peoUnder plc and a popular demand for a purely Puritanism. spiritual ecclesiastical system. As a result there came about a dissolution of the old historical constitution. Cromwell and his army did away with that compromise with historical institutions which prevailed on the continent, and proceeded to the erection of a real Christian state on a revolutionary basis. Scotch and French Huguenot influences combined with the theory of the rights of the people and natural law to make up Puritanism. The most radical religious ideas, the desire for autonomy, the claim for toleration, the separation of the Church from the State, found a home in Cromwell's army. Some of these ideas are due to continental influences, to the Anabaptists, and others. A considerable mystical element was also present among the armed supporters of the Commonwealth. They were desirous of a certain amount of freedom in dogma and worship, but their moral idea was meant to be strictly and absolutely maintained. So far as Christian society went Church and State had a common aim, the erection of a Christian commonwealth where the pious minority would be in control. The new system was to be built on the basis of specific English traditions, and it held to the old English idea of the rights and duties of a Christian state. Its special marks are religious and ecclesiastical autonomy, sovereignty of the people, puritanical strict morality, a continental policy based on uniting the Protestants and opposing Roman Catholics, popularizing and Christianizing law and justice. The experiment lasted only a short time and failed because of its impracticability, since it not only destroyed the existing church organization but also conflicted with the rights and interests of individuals. The gains made by the Commonwealth could he maintained in succeeding periods only by treating the

499	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Moralists
idea of church autonomy as entirely distinct from the idea of political freedom. The two spheres, the ecclesiastical and political, had to be isolated from one another. As to the moral ideal of Puritanism, it had massed together State and law, war and polities, property and trade, trying to control them and the individual in his private life through the conception of a God‑serving and God‑fearing peoplc. But the leaders of Puritanism soon realized that these various elements could not be developed in such a combination. Cromwell became an opportunist and gave up his idealistic religious international policy for a realistic commercial policy. Milton allowed that true Christian morality could be practised only by the select few, not by the whole people. Among the masses the problem was solved in quite a different way. There. the various religious convictions led to the foundation of numerous sects, some with extravagant political ideals like those of the Fifth Monarchy Men (q.v.), or like those of the Quakers and Ranters, who were indifferent to political forms and secular ordinances. In this confusion there came a severe crisis to a purely Christian ethics. Traditional elements had to be sacrificed, ethical problems in their practical shape were reconsidered, and, in the Restoration, the ethical consciousness was investigated objectively and scientifically, Christian and secular aims were surveyed under new relations, and the opposition, combination, or compromise between the two was treated from the scientific point of view. (Cf. on this section the literature under CRomwELL, OLIVER; and PURITANISM.)
	This scientific reconstruction of ethics depends
first of all on a psychological analysis which leaves
aside all metaphysical assumptions of the essence
		of the soul and the action of God upon
	The it, and devotes itself to discovering
	New Psy‑ the laws of its own action and nature
	chological from a study and classification of its
	Basis. peculiar processes. This marks a dis
		tinct separation from the old theologi
zing ethics. Psychological analysis of a sort entirely
different from its form in the scholastic theolog
ical system assumes the chief r6le, different, too,
from the old psychology, which was a compromise
between the religious language of the Bible and the
scientific psychology of Greek philosophy. The old
system insisted on the eternal worth, the unity,
and the isolation of the soul from things of sense;
transcendent causes were introduced as its influ
ences‑God, angels, and demons‑‑just as all ex
traordinary natural processes were referred to the
immediate activity of divine or diabolic power.
This naive psychological supernaturalism had been
transmitted as a part of the traditional system of
revelation, which worked upon the soul in a miracu
lous way through its association with the means
of revelation in the sacraments and ecclesiastical
ordinances. Ancient psychology was brought in as
its support, and place was made for immanent psy
chological explanation, which, however, played a
very subordinate r81e. The chief concern of both
Roman and Protestant ethics was with the proo
eases of salvation, and revelation and the power of
grace. The opposition to this system started back
as far as the thirteenth century. It had two sours, the Stoic study of the emotions and temperament and the free poetical and artistic analysis of man as found in the literature and art of the Renaissance. It ended in the principle of universal psychological analysis, based on historic induction and supported by the achievements in the study of nature. Especially original in this respect is Machiavelli, with his psychological analysis, his historical comparison, and his empirical generalization. Men like Descartes, Gassendi, Malebranche, and Bayle contributed also by their study of the emotions and passions. But the chief impulse came from Hobbes, the founder of a purely psychological analysis, intended to build up an original conception of morality. Along with Hobbes must be placed Spinoza, the creator of the mechanical method of treating the emotions and passions. These were the tendencies that were popularized by English thinkers. One of the effects of this method was a change in the view of history. The matter of history had been studied only in relation to conceptions about the character and purpose of a world derived from the revelation of the Church and the Bible. A causal determination of facts in themselves had not been attempted; but with this new view of psychology there came a causal explanation of history, with its study of historical characters on the basis of psychological analysis. Nothing consistent could be achieved here, however, unless there were a' new foundation of ethical rules inductively derived from social and historical facts. This was really an extension of the principle of the consensus of mankind acknowledged to be valid by theological ethics. So there came from this psychological foundation a so‑called natural system of intellectual sciences, in which the eighteenth century produced the most original work, just as the seventeenth century holds the first place in scientific analysis of the natural sciences. Even when a distinction was made between natural and supernaturally caused processes, the fixed point of departure was the results of psychological analysis founded on the assumption of regularity and normality in the phenomena under review. Morality was no longer regarded as a miracle of grace, the moral law was no longer identified with the revealed law. All of the old dogmatic scholastic problems either disappeared or became of subordinate interest, and an entirely new set of fundamental problems were treated as of primary importance.
First in older came psychogenetic problems. In these are discussed the sources of moral phenomena, whether they have grounds outside of their own sphere, as utilitarianism declares; or & Problems whether their source is exclusive and
	Presented.	independent, according to the stand
		point of idealistic intuitionism. This is
a crucial question for Christian morality as a whole;
all others, such as the connection of morality with
grace and its dependence on revelation, are con
cerned ultimately with this. Another primary
classification arises from the question of determi
nism; not determinism in the old sense of divine
predestination, but that scheme which brings moral
ity within a fixed causal nexus of psychological laws.

Moralists	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	600
Determinism seems to destroy the value of ethics
altogether, while indeterminism may be made to
harmonize with the recognition of grace. There is
bound to come up also the principle of autonomy,
that is, whether conduct is necessarily subordinated
to the principles of rational insight or to the effects
of psychological motives. From this point of view,
all individuals stand alike. It is really an applica
tion of the convictions of political equality and
ecclesiastical toleration, as they were developed in
the course of the seventeenth century. The next
problem is concerned with the relation of morality
and religion. Under the older system they were
identical; no true morality was possible without
faith. The new point of view was to treat religion
as a kind of by‑product, a special modification of a
common natural morality. Religion itself became
the subject of psychological analysis. The question
arose as to the necessary relation between divine
sanction or the fate of man in the next world and
man's striving and willing in this. Finally, it be
came necessary to establish a formulation of the
content of the moral law as a psychological prin
ciple in such a way that its obligations could be
established as ultimate derivatives from the prin
ciples above classified and analyzed. If the Bib
lical standards were abandoned as necessarily au
thoritative, in what way could Christian ethics be
brought into relation with this general analysis
outlined above? The problem was finally solved by
turning over the discussion of Christian ethics to
theology, although at first the general formulation
of moral ideas was certainly influenced by Christian
types of thought. But these attempts were unsat
isfactory, old scholastic conceptions were seen to
lack clearness, and in proportion to the degree of
removal of extraneous elements from the moral
idea, the more its autonomy became plain and in
dependent by right. These were the problems
which the political and social condition of England
in the seventeenth century forced into the atmos
phere of thought and discussion, as they are rep
resented in the speculations of Hobbes, the ideas of
the Levellers (q.v.), and the practical program of
the Erastians (see ERAsTus, THOMAS, ERAsTiANIBM).
	III. Specific Contributions: It was Hobbes (q.v.;
and see DEISM, I., § 2), writing under the influence
of the French and Italian Renaissance, who op
		posed the practical workings of the
	:. Hobbes Reformed independent ideal, the rig
	and Man‑ oristic spiritualism of their Christian
	deville. social order, and tried to found moral
		ity on a purely sensualistic basis. His
political ideal of the State was that of Machiavelli,
and the weapons he employed against spiritual
ism were the sensualistic ideas of Pierre Gassendi
(q.v.). But the whole structure of his thought
is based on keen psychological analysis. He
accomplished a complete and radical revolution
in ethics, finding the source of the moral law
in the secular sphere. The law of nature and
divine law he interprets in an entirely novel way.
The law of nature is differenti‑a•ted from natural
law, which by itself implies a primitive war of
all against all. The law of nature is maintained
because man's interests demand it. The. abso‑
lute State which comes into existence through its operation has also the right to establish the true religion, for the divine law has also its sanctions from the existence of that absolute political system which man, coming out of his original confusion and discord, discovers as the sole condition of his social existence. Hobbes brings Christianity into full conformity with his absolute State. The State decides what form of Christianity shall be adopted by its subjects; even heathen states have the right of maintaining untrue religions for the sake of common welfare, and must not be resisted on this account. Hobbes' originality consists in his concentration on secular interests, his psychological analysis, and his introduction of historical illustrations into his system. Mandeville (1670‑1733; see DEisM, I., § 8) is important as attempting to show that moral conceptions are artificial creations intended to hold the mass of people in subjection, and from his arguments that the specific ideas of Christian ethics can not be accommodated to political, social, commercial needs.
In the Restoration there was a strong reaction against the sensualism and nominalism of Hobbes, showing itself in an attempt to establish the necessity and the apriority of moral ideas by metaphysics,
and more particularly/the metaphysics z. Cam‑ of Platonism. This was the work of bridge the Cambridge school (see CAMBRIDGE
School, PLATONiBTs) which allied itself with
Cudworth, Anglican rationalism and ArminianMore, and ism and was antagonistic to CalvinisCumberland. tic positivism and rigorism. The law
of nature is completed, according to this school, in the divine law. Stress is laid upon the necessary element of ethics and the impossibility of a purely psychological foundation. The head of the school was Cudworth (q.v.), who, like Kant and Plato, insisted upon the absolute character of morality. He asks whether the mind as the source of all necessary truth is the first factor and the experience of sense, the simple material of mind, is the second; or whether the reverse is true, so that the spiritual and the necessary must be derived from the accidental and occasional. He himself, of course, defends the neceseariness of ethical ideas on the basis of the eternally necessary relations of minds to one another, which relation is based ultimately on God and is, in a fragmentary way, reflected from the conceptually necessary in God's mind to the mind of man. Henry More (q.v.) introduds the element of psychological analysis, applying it to the feelings and emotions, and combining morality with the happiness of the whole community and the individual member. It is in what he calls the " boniform faculty " that he finds the special sphere for the moral principles. The coincidence of happiness with moral conduct follows from the divine plan of the world. Richard Cumberland (16311718), whose special interest lay in contesting Hobbes' view of the original condition of man, shows the a priori character of the moral demands by proving that the faithful maintenance of Hobbes' contract between the individual and the State depends on a previously existing moral element. The operations and processes of sense only bring out

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
some latent element, while the coincidence of happiness with morality is teleological. Good‑will, love of one's neighbor, altruism, the whole field of Christian morality, work in and for the common weal.
Related to the Cambridge school is Samuel Clarke (q.v.), who accepts an absolute standard for all positive laws. Moral distinctions are therefore not accidental; the standard which is
3. Clarke, represented in the typical ideas of
Hartley, the good, the righteous, the truthful,
	and Price.	and so on, the moral judgment of the
		plain man, come from the necessary
relations between the parts of the world, themselves
all arising like mathematical relations from the idea
of the whole, which, in turn, is dependent on the
will of God. The above relations are assumed to
be normal because the welfare and maintenance of
the whole depends upon them. On this law of
nature is based both positive human law and posi
tive divine law, the latter bringing the completion
of happiness through the idea of immortality. David
Hartley (1705‑57) derives from an original self
love the moral judgment in its objective shape;
obligations associated with commands apart from
the individual have the immediateness of an in
stinct. These different products of the psycholog
ical process are parts of the accomplishment of the
divine purpose in man, hence the moral law has a
divine necessary character, representing a deter
ministic pantheism. Richard Price (1.723‑91)
represents the defense of the intuitional character
of the moral judgments of approval and disap
proval. What originally is confused in instinct is
clarified by thought. These judgments do not stand
for considerations of interest, are quite distinct from
any sensuous feeling of pleasure, and rest ultimately
on the system of values established in the divine
mind. This rationalizing Christian ethics aimed to
establish the derivation of individual and social
moral ideas from the presence of God in man's soul.
It recognized no distinction between religious and
secular aims, and had no intimate connection be
tween the teaching of grace and original sin, but
the coincidence in the next world of moral worth
and happiness was brought out. The autonomy
and divine nature of moral law was not brought
into connection with the acts or facts of individual
social life. These thinkers were not concerned with
the erection of a Christian state nor the separation
between a religious morality and the morality of man
as citizen and subject of law.
Against such a priori idealistic theories, john Locke (see DEisns, I., § 4) worked out his a posteriori sensualistic system, opposed by his philosophy all innate ideas, making the foundation as well for ethics as for knowledge the inves‑
4. John tigation of the simplest elements of
	Locke.	experience, viz., the feeling of pleasure
		and pain and the power of reflection.
There was no criterion, according to him, of intuitive
knowledge; this was proved by the great variety of
ethical ideas in the field of ethnography and his
tory. On the simplest elements of consciousness he
based his principles of conduct. It is this common
and simple basis that gives the character of ne
cessity to morality. The law of nature is only an
Moralists
abstraction from the acts of men directed toward happiness. But moral law depends on a positive legislative will, adding pleasure and pain to the fulfilment of these commands and requiting them by punishment and reward. In this way the divine law of Moses and of Christ is introduced into his system as holding the supreme place, and after that the law of civil society in the State and in justice, with its ordinances resting expressly or unconsciously on a social contract. A third type of law, lying outside of both of these two, is developed from the free intercourse and judgment of society, having its sanction in public opinion and its motive in social respect. These are the chief rules of human action, because the highest attainment of happiness comes through their pursuit they correspond with the law of nature, and harmonize with the revealed law of God; they represent the principles by which the law of the State secures social welfare; they stand for the principles by which public opinion reaches its clearest form. The State law aims at the union of the religious and political autonomy of the individual with the welfare of the whole, while the other two types of law require self‑control and benevolence. In Locke's system the Christian character of morality is preserved, but it has a very loose relation to the fundamental basis of his thought. It comes into view chiefly in his discussion of tolerance, the freedom of the Church, and the political fregdom of the individual. But Locke's ethics was the point of departure for two movements, one which further reduced the religious element of Deism (q.v.) contained in it, while on the other side he was appealed to by the anti‑deists who established a system of utility and ethical law characterized by rational supernatural elements (William Warburton, 1698‑1.779, and William Paley, 1743‑1805, qq.v.). But after all, in deism the chief point was its criticism of positive religion, rather than its ethical teaching; nor can any real progress be shown by the opponents of deism, in their combination of a natural and rational with a supernatural eudemonism. The greatness of Locke's work consists in his denial of innate ideas and in his establishment of moral rules adequate to the manifold examples of historical morality. He widened the sphere of ethics also by making a place for political and social morality. The practical side of his teaching made him popular in England, although in appreciating the true character of ethical study, he was less profound than the Cambridge school.
The separation of this sensualistic empiristic eudemonism from Christian ethics was made more complete by Lord Shaftesbury (see Drism, I., § 8), who handled the subject as a kind of arithmetic of the feelings. His work shows the es5. Shaftes‑ thetic standpoint of ancient times and bury, But‑ the Renaissance, especially as he re‑
ler, and produces many Stoic points of view. Hutcheson. He opposes the rationalism of the Cambridge school, and rejects the place acoorded to reflection by Locke. Man approves the altruistic impulses and feelings that tend to social progress in the State and society, and disapproves whatever disturbs the harmony of so‑

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ciety or of his own nature. Ethics assumes the harmony, internal and external, between nature and man. But there is no connection in the system either ethically or metaphysically with positive religion. The power of reflection and the content of consciousness were clearly and powerfully analyzed by Bishop Joseph Butler (q.v.). The natural impulses, the feelings of self‑love and benevolence, are distinguished by the different objects to which they are referred. Moral judgments arise only after reflection has established their relation to one another and their place in the economy and constitution of man. From these thoughts arises the authority of conscience, which acts as a governor over the interplay of the feelings. The central ides of tile conscience is love to one's neighbor, or the ideal of the harmony of society as a whole, in which the individual ego forms s part. The idea of God is included in the idea of morality, but the power of morality is strengthened by revelation and salvation as developed is Christianity. Locks practically kept the field in England, Shaftesbury influenced both German and Scottish thought. The purely human basis of his system was never recognized in England, or in any case it received narrow limitations and applications. At the head of the Scotch school stands Francis Hutcheson (1894‑1746), with his development of the life of the soul from the principle of self‑love. He distinguishes moral principles from sensual feeling. An instinctive tendency admires benevolence wherever it is seen, and man's conduct is controlled by this feeling of admiration. The approval of altruistic acts is seen by further reflection not to exclude a just type of self‑love. This reflection is worked out in a casuietical and mathematical formulation of moral judgments in general, on which family life, private life, the society, and the State are ordered. By the same standard historical diversities in morality are socounted for. There is no difference in feeling itself, variations are produced solely by reflection on the feeling, or the conquest of the moral sense through egoistic passions.
It is tfiis intuitive moral sense that David Hume opposes (q.v.; and see DEISM, L, § 8). . As an empiricist he desires to introduce nothing except the sensations and the feeling of pleasure and pain for the establishment of moral principles. Imagination, sympathy, association, habit, and
6. Hums custom are the foundation of all eth‑
and Adam ical acts and judgments. Man can
	Smith.	place himself in a sympathetic attitude
		toward the action of others even when
that action does not personally concern him, and
can arrive at an average conception of the kind of
action that benefits the individual and society.
This attains the character of an objective ideal
which he uses as a standard for his own conduct.
A common norm is thus attained for all types of
conduct. By education, culture, tradition, and
positive law, this ideal has an objective power,
either as law or in the instinct of conscience; its
origin is forgbtten. It will thus be seen that sym
pathy does not aim at the satisfaction of common
self‑love as such, but at attaining what is useful to
END OF V01.. VII.
608
men as a whole. So Hume ends with the humanity idea of Shaftesbury and his morality takes on a utilitarian character. Hume's system has nothing to do with positive religion or Christianity, for morality is destroyed by superstition; theism or pantheism would form a better combination with it. Hume's theory of sympathy was further developed and applied by Adam Smith (1723‑90), who made the foundation of society enlightened self‑interest. Ethics constituted only one part of a whole; the significance and action of ethics on that whole had to be determined. Moral ideas can arise only through association with others. By reflecting on the judgments of others sympathetically, there arises the idea of an impartial observer sympathizing with us with whom we also can sympathize; this makes up the corporate common consciousness, giving a necessary character to morality. The rules for man's conduct are at the same time the rules for attaining happiness and the harmony of society. Accordingly ethics, while not created by considerations of happiness, yet has its power increased by being brought into living relation with the harmonious organization of the whole of nature. So the idea of sympathy was transferred to the sphere of social psychology, and its individual basis was virtually abandoned. This social philosophy is regarded as coinciding with Christian altruism.
So arose the conception of modern scientific ethics. Great continental teachers such as Kant and Schleiermaeher were making their several contributions, contemporaneous with the progress of
		English ethical thought. But the im
	q. Results. pulse of the whole current came from
		English sources. Through the effects
on theology, a new religious philosophy, dependent
on moral psychology, came into existence. Theo
logical ethics was established as a new form of
study, made independent of dogmatic theology
with a far wider sphere of interest than the old;
laying down the lines of Christian ethics by analyt
ical processes without sacrificing supernatural im
pulses, it tried to unite Christian determination of
ethical value, originating in an other‑worldliness,
with a human " in‑the‑worldliness." See ETHICS;
MORALITY, MORAL LAW. 	(E. TROELTaCH.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. A. Selby‑Bigge, British Moralists, 2 vols.,
	Oxford, 1897; Leslie Stephen, History of English Thought
	in the ISth Century, London, 1881; 0. F. StsOdlin, Gio
	achichle der chrisuichen Moral, Gottingen, 1808; w. Gene,
	licechichte der chrieuiahen Ethik, Berlin, 1881‑1887; F.
	Jodi, OescAiehte der Ethik do der neuren Philosophic Stutt
	gart, 1882; V. Cousin, Coura d'hieEeire de la philosophis
	morale au 18iPme aaPck, Paris, 1840‑1841; I. H. Fichte,
	System der Ethik, vol. i., Leipeic, 1850; H. T. Buckle. His‑
tory of Civilization in England, 3 vole., London, 1889;
J. Tulloch, Rational Philosophy and Christian Philosophy in England during, the 171h Century, Edinburgh, 1874; C. de Rkmueat, Hietoirs do la philosophic en Anglatene dspuis Bacon juaqu'h Locke, 2 vole., Paris, 1875; P. Janet, H7dtOiT6 de la science politique done acs.rappmis sues la mmwTe, Paris, 1887; C. E. Luthudt, Geachirhte der eAfserliehen EAik Leipeio, 188893, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1889 eqq.; J. H. Overton, The Church in England, 2 vole., 1897; M. Guysu, La Morale anpdaiee eontemporaine, Paris, 1900; J. H. Overton and F. R.elton, The English Church, 1714‑1800, London, 1908.
MORALITIES. See R>etlalovs DRAMAS.