THE NEW
SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
Editor‑in‑Chief
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
Editor‑in‑Chief
of
Supplementary Volumes
LEFFERTS A. LOETSCHER, Ph.D., D.D.
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF CHURCH HISTORY
PRINCETON THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
BAKER BOOK HOUSE
GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN

THE NEW

SCHAFF‑HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA
0R
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
EDITED BY
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
(Editor‑in‑Chief )
WITH THE 80L6 ASSISTANCE, AFTER VOLUME Vi., OF

GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.
(Associate Editor) .
AND THE FOLLOWING DEPARTMENT EDITORS
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D.
(Department of Systematic Theology)
HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D.
(Department of Minor Denominations)
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.
(Department of Liturgics and Religious Orders)
JAMES FREDERIC IIcCU$DY, PH.D., LLD.
(Dtpartment of the Old Testament)

HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.
(Department of the New Testament)

ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, )).D., LL.D.
(Department of Church History)
FRANK HORACE PIZETELLY, F.S.A.
(Department of Pronunciation and 71tpography)
VOLUME VII
LIUTPRAND ‑ MORALITIES
BAKER BOOK HOUSE
GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN
1953

EXCLUSIVE AMERICAN PUBLICATION RIGHTS
SECURED BY BAKER BOOK HOUSE FROM FUNK AND WAGNALLS
PHOTOLITHOp3tINTED BY GUSHING ~ MALLOY, INC.
ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
1955

EDITORS
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.

(EDITOR‑IN‑CHIEF.) Professor of Church History, New York University.
GEORGE	WILLLdM GILMOB.E, M.A.
	(A$$OCIATE EDITOR.)
New York,
Formerly Professor of Biblical History and Lecturer on Comparative Religion,
Bangor Theological Seminary.
DEPARTMENT EDITORS, VOLUME VII
CLARENCE AU(iUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D.
(Department of Systematic Theology.)
Professor of Systematic Theology. Chicago Theological
Seminary.
HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D.
(Department of Minor Denominations.)
Secretary of Executive Committee of the Western Section for the Fourth Ecumenical Methodist Conference.
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.
(Department of Liturgies and Religious Orders.)
Rector of St. Arribrose's, New York City.
JAMES FREDERICK McCURDY, Ph.D.,
LL.D.
(Department of the Old Testament.)
Professor of Oriental Languages, University College,
Toronto.
HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.
(Department of the New Testament.)
Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New
Testament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass.
ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D.
(Department of Church History.)
Professor of Church History, Southwestern Baptist
Theologicsl Seminary, Waco, Tex.
FRANK H03LACE QIZETELLY, F.8.8.
(Department of Pronunciation and Typography.)
Managing Editor of the STANDARD DICTIONARY, etc.,
New York City.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME VII
HAMS ACHELIS, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Theology, University of Halle.
JEAN GERARD RICHARD ACAUOY (t),
D.D.,
Late Professor of Church History and the History of
Dogma, University of Leyden:
OTTO WILHELM FERDINAND
ALBRECHT, Th.Lic.,
Pastor at Naumburgon‑the‑Saale.
JOHN ALEXANDER BAIN, M.A.,
Pastor of the Westport and Newport Presbyterian
Churches, County Mayo. Ireland.
EDOUARD BARDE (t), D.D.,
Late Professor of New Testament Exegesis, School of
Theology, Geneva.
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH,
D.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological
Seminary.
HEINRICH BEHBi, Ph.D.,
Superintendent in Doberan, Mecklenburg.
EARL BENRATH, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Iitinigsberg.
IMMANTTEL GUSTAV ADOLF
BENZIN(#ER, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
German Orientalist and Vice‑Consul for Holland in
Jerusalem.
CARL ALBRECHT BERNOULLI, Th.Lic.,
Author at Arleshetm, near Basel
CARL BERTHEAV, Th.D.,
Pastor of St. Michael's, Hamburg.

33ERNHARD BEES, Th.Lic.,
Librarian, University of Halle.
WILLIAM LLOYD BEVAN, Ph.D.,
Assistant Editor of The Churchman, New York City.

EDWIN MUNSELL BLISS, D.D.,
Author of Books on Missions, Washington, D. C.

THEODORA CROSBY BLISS,
Writer on Missions.

CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME VII
HEINRICH BOEHHER, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Professor of Church History, University of Bonn.
HERMANN BOZNIG,
Gymnaalal Professor in Konigsberg.
AMY GASTON CHARLES AUGUSTE
BONET‑1lIAURY, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Church History, Independent School of
Divinity, Paris.
GOTTLIEB NATHANAEL BONWETSCH,
Th.D.
Professor of Church History, ~Tniveraity .of Gottingen.
FRIEDRICH HEINRICH BRANDES,
Th.D.,
Reformed Minister and Chaplain at Btickeburg. Schaum
burg‑Llppe.
CHARLES AUGUSTUS BRIGGS, D.D.,
Litt.D.,
Professor of Theological Encyclopedia and Symbolics,
Union Theological Seminary, New York.
JAMES MONROE BUCKLEY, D.D., LL.D.,
Editor of The Christian Advocate, New York City.
OSKAR GOTTLIEB RUDOLF
BUDDENSIEGF (t), Ph.D.,
Late Director of the Teacher's Seminary in Dresden.
FRANTS PEDER WILLIAM BURL, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Professor of Oriental Languages, University of Copenhagen.
B:eB,L BURGER (t), Th.D.,
Late Supreme Coneletorlal Councilor, Munich.
JACQUES EUGENE CHOISY, Th.D.,
Pastor in Geneva.
J083CPH BOURNE CLARK, D.D.,
Editorial Secretary of the Congregational Home Mis
sionary Society, New York.
FERDINAND COHRS, Th.Lie.,
Conelatorial Councilor, Ilfeld, Germany.
HENRY COW", D.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Aberdeen,
Scotlad.
AUGUST HERMANN OUZX31B (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Systematic Theology, University of
Greifewald.
OU$TAV HERMAN DALHAN, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis University of Leip
sic, and President of the German >;vangelical Arche
ological Inatitute, Jerusalem.
SAMUEL MARTIN D31CUTSCH ( f ), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, University of Berlin.
HENRY MARTYN DEXTER (t), D.D.,
Late Editor of The Conyrepationaliat, Boston.
GORTON DEXTER, M.A.,
Congregational Clergyman and Author, Boston.
WILHELM DILTHEY, Ph.D.,
Professor of Philosophy, University of Berlin.
PAUL GOTTFRIED DREWS, Th.D.,
Professor of Practical Theology, University of Have.
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.,
Pastor of St. Ambrose's Church, New York City.
DUCHEMIN,
Pastor in Neuilly‑sqr‑Seine, France.
7RIEDRIOH HERMAN CHRISTIAN
DUE$TERDIEO$ (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late General Superintendent, Osuabriick, Germany.
EMIL EGLI (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, University of Zurich.
RUDOLF EIBACH, Th.D.,
Consiatorlal Councilor, Dotzheim, near Wiesbaden,
Germany.
HUBERT EVANS, Ph.D.,
Member of the Editorial Stall of the Encyclopaedia Bri
tannica Company, New York.
	JOHN	OLVF EVJEN, Ph.D.,
Professor of Theology in Aupaburg Seminary,
		Minneapolis, Minn.
HERMANN AUGUST PAUL EWALD,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics and New Testament Exegesis,
University of Erlangen.
CHRISTIAN THEODOR, FICHER, Ph.D.,
Emeritus Pastor at Eythra, near Leipeic.
DAVID HAY FLEXING, LL.D.,
Honorary Secretary of the Scottish Historical Society,
Edinburgh.
FRITZ FLIEDNER (t), M.D.,
Late German Evangelist in Spain.
GUSTAV WILHELM FRANK (t) Th.D.,
Late Professor of Dogmatics Symbolics , and Christian
Ethics, University of Vienna.
GEORG FROBOE$S,
Director for the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Prussia.
EMANUEL VOGEL G ERHART (t), D.D.,
Late Professor of Systematic Theology at Lancaster, Pa.
GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, X.A.,
Formerly Lecturer. on Comparative. Religion, Bangor
Theological Seminary, Associate ditor of TaE
NEW SCHAPP‑)~EHZOfi ENCYCLOPEDIA.
FRANZ (iOERREB, Ph.D.,
Assistant Librarian, University of Bonn.
WILHELM GOETZ, Ph.D.,
Honorary Professor of Geography, Technical High School,
and Professor, Military Academy, Munich.
JOHANNES FRIEDRICH fiOTTSCHICH(t),
Th.D.,
Late Professor of New Testament Exegesis, Ethics, and
	Practical Theology, Evangelical Theological
Faculty,	University of Tilbingen.
CASPAR REN$ GREGORY, Ph.D.,
Th.D., D.D., LL.D., Dr. Jtrx.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of
Leipeic.
PAUL CiRQENBER(i, Th.D.,
Pastor In Strasburg.
GEORG GRUETZMACHER, Ph.D., Th. Lie.,
Extraordinary Professor of Church History, University
of Heidelberg.
PETER REINHOLD GRUNDEMANN,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Pastor in Mors, near Belzig, Prussia.
EDUARD GfUEDER (t), Th.D.,
Late Preacher in Biglen, Canton of Bern, Switzerland.
HERMANN QUTHE, Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of
Leipsic.
.HEINRICH HAHN, Ph.D.,
Formerly Professor of History and German In the
Luisenstadt Realgymnasium, Berlin.
ADOLF HARNACS, Ph.D., Th.D., Dr.
Jur., M.D.,
General Director of the Royal Library, Berlin.

CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME VII
ALBERT HAUCK, Ph.D., Th:D.; Dr. Jur.,
Professor of Church History, University of Leipaic,
Editor‑in‑Chief of the Hauck‑Herzog ReaiencykiopBdie.
HERHIAN HAUPT, Ph.D.,
Professor, and Director of the University Library, Giessen.
JOHANNES HAUSSLEITER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Consistorial Councilor, Professor of New Testament The
ology and Exegesis, University of Greifswald.
MAX HEINZE ( t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Philosophy, University of Leipaic.
ERNST HENKE (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Marburg.
WILHELM HEYD (tJ, Ph.D.,
Late Oberstudienrat, Stuttgart.
KARL HOLL, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor, of Church History,. University of.Berlin.
LOUISE SEYMOUR HOUGHTON,
Author and Translator.
JOHANN FRIEDRICH 13KEN Q
Late Pastor in Bremen.
HEINRICH FRANZ JACOBSON (t), Ph.D.,
Late Professor of Law, University of KtSnigsberg.
ALFRED JEREMIAS, Ph.D., Th. Lie.,
Privat‑docent for Old Testament Exegesis, Leipaic.
GUSTAV ADOLF JUELICHER, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Professor of Church History and New Testament Exegesis,
University of Marburg.
ADOLF HERMANN HEINRICH BAMP
HAUSEN.(t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of
Bonn.
FERDINAND FRIEDRICH WILHELM
BATTENBUSCH, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics, University of Halls.
PETER GUSTAV BAWERAU, Th.D.,
Consistorial Councilor, Professor of Practical Theology,
and University Preacher, University of Breslau.
	KONRAD	KESSLER (t)y Ph.D.,
Late Professor of Semitic Languages, University of
		Greifswald.
OTTO BIRN, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics, University of Leipaic.
RUDOLF BITTEL, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of
Leipsic.
FRIEDRICH EDUARD KOENIG,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Bonn.
HEINRICH ADOLF X03ESTLIEN (t),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Privy Councilor in Cannatadt, formerly Professor of
Theology, University of Giessen.
JULIUS 80ESTLIN (t), Ph.D., Th:D.,
Dr. Jur.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Halls.
THEODOR FRIEDRICH HERMANN
80LDE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Erlangen.
RICHARD BRAETZSCHMAB, (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of
Marburg.
HERXANN'GUSTAV EDUARD KRUEGER,
Ph.D., Th.D.;
Professor of Church History, University of Giessen.
JOHANNES WILHEL3k BUNZE,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic and Practical Theology, Univer
sity of Greifawald.
GE03ELG RITTER VON LAUBMANN (t),
Ph.D.,
Late Director of the Royal State Library in Munich.
WILLIAM LEE (t), D.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, University of Glasgow.
FRIEDRICH LEZIVS, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Konigsberg.
RUDOLF LIECHTENHAN, Th. Lie.,
Pastor In Buch, Canton of Zurich, Switzerland.
FRIEDRICH LIST (t), Ph.D.,
Late Studiendirektor, Munich.
FRIEDRICH ARM'!N LOOFS; Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Halls.
JOHANN LOSERTH, Ph.D.,
Professor of History, University of Graz.
JAMES FREDERICK XcOURDY,
Ph.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Oriental Languages, University College,
Toronto.
PEDER MADSEN, Th.D.,
Professor of Theology. University of Copenhagen.
WILHLLM JULIUS MANGOLD (t),Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Bonn.
THEODOR MEINHOLD,
Superintendent in Barth, Prussia.
JOHANNES MERZ, Ph.D.,
Consiatorial Councilor, Stuttgart.
PHILIPP MEYER, Th.D.,
Supreme Consiatorlal Councilor, Hanover.
GEROLD XEYER VON BNONAU,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of History, University of Zurich.
CARL THEODOR MIRBT, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Marburg.
WILHELM ERNST MOELLER (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology in Kiel.
RICHARD CARY XoRSE, X.a.,
General Secretary of the International Committee of Young
Men's Christian Associations.
GE03ELG MUELLER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Inspector of Schools, Leipsic.
CHR,ISTOF EBERHARD NESTLE,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor in the Theological Seminary, Maulbronn,
W Urttemberg.
ALBERT HENRY NEWXAN, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Church History, Southwestern Baptist Theo
logical Seminary, Warn, Texas.
CONRAD VON ORELLI, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and History of Re.
ligion, University of Basel.
MARGARET BLOODGOOD PEEBE (t),
Late Inspectresa‑General of the Martiniet Order for
America.

CARL PFENDER,
Pastor of St. Paul's Evangelical Lutheran Church,
Paris.
ERWIN PREUBCHEN, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Pastor at Hirachhorn‑on‑the‑Neckar, Germany.
QOTTHILF PAUL EVIL LEOPOLD
FRIEDRICH RANgE, Th.D.,
Head Pastor and Senior at Ltibeck.
GEORG CHRISTIAN RIETBCHEL, Th.D.,
University Preacher and Professor of Practical Theology,
University of Leipaic.
ROBERT WILLIAM ROGERS, M.A.,
Ph.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, Drew
Theological Seminary, Madison, New Jersey.
FERDINAND SANDER,
Councilor for Schools in Bremen, Germany.
DAVID SCHLEY SCHAFF, D.D.,
Professor of Church History, Western Theological Semi
nary, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania:
PHILIP SCHAFF (t), D.D., LL.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, Union Theological Sem
inary, New York, and Edior of the Original
SCHAFF‑HERZOO ENCYCLOPSDiA.
REINHOLD BCHMID, Th. Lie.,
Pastor in Oberholzheim, WUtttemberg.
CARL WILHELM BGHOELL (t),
Ph.D., D.D.,
Late Pastor of the Savoy Church, London.
THEODOR FRIEDRICH SCHOTT (t),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Librarian and Professor of Theology. University of
8tuttkart.
JOHANN FRIEDRICH BITTER VON
SCHULTE, Dr. Jur.,
Professor of Law, University of Bonn.
LUDWIG THEODOR SCHULZE, Ph.D.,
'i'h.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Rostock.
REINHOLD BEEBER(i, Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology. University of Berlin.
EMIL B'EHLING, Dr. Jnr.,
Professor of Ecclesiastical and Commercial Law, Univer
sity of Erlangen.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME VII
EDUARD BIMONS, Th.D.,
Extraordinary Professor of Practical Theology, University
of Berlin.
PHILIPP FRIEDRICH ADOLPH THEO
DOR SPAETH, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor in the Lutheran Theological Seminary, Mt. Airy,
Philadelphia.
GEORG EDUARD STEITZ (f), Th.D.;
Late Pastor in Frankfort‑on‑the‑Main.
HERMANN LEBERECHT BTRACS, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Extraordinary Professor of Old Testament Eae,
m	B rl,
nd Semitic Languages, University of Berlin.
ERNST PETER WILHELM TROELTBCH,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of
Heidelberg.
JOHANN GERHARD WILHELX
UHLH03ELN (t), Th,D.,
Late Abbot of Lokkum, Germany.
BIETBE DOUWEB VAN VEEN, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History and Christian Archeology,
University of Utrecht.
JOHN PIENOT, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, Independent School of
Divinity, Paris.
JOHN VINSON,
Founder of the Church of the Living God.
WILHELM VOL03K (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of
Rostock.
GUSTAV WARNECS, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Formerly Honorary Professor of the Science of Missions,
Halls.
JOHANNES WEISS, Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of
Heidelberg.
EDWARD ELIHU WHITFIELD, M.A.,
Retired Public Schoolmaster, London.
ALBERT EDMUND WILLLA MBON,
Pastor in Brooklyn, N. Y.
OTTO ZOECSLER (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History and Apologetics, Uni
versity of Greifswald.
BA>lILTEL MARINUS ZWEMER,
Formerly Missionary in Arabia.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑yOLS. I‑VII
The following list of books is supplementary to the bibliographies given at the end of the articles contained in vole. L‑VII., and brings the literature down to March, 1910. In this list each title entry is printed in capital letters. It is to be noted that, throughout the work, in the articles as a rule only first editions are given. In the bibliographies the aim is to give either the best or the latest edition, and in case the book is published both in America and in some other country, the American place of issue is usually given the preference.
ABRAHAM A SANCTA CLARA: Werke in Ausleae, ed. H. Strigl, 6 vole., Vienna, 1904‑07.
ADAM OF BREMEN: P. W. Kohhnann, Adam von Bremen, Leipsie, 1909.
ADENEY, W. F.: See below, GOD.
AFRICA: S. A. Donaldson, Church Life and Thought
in North Africa, A.D. 200, London, 1909.
J. C. Lambert, Missionary Heroes in Afros, Philadelphia, 1909.
AGRICULTURE, HEBREW: F. Lundgreen, Die Be‑
2utzu der Pflanzenwelt in der alfte8tamentliMeligion, Giessen, 1908.
AINGER, A.: E. Siehel, The Life and Letters of Alfred Ainger, London, 1910.
ALEANDRO, G.: J. Pa uier, Lettres familihrea de JErome Alfandro 1610‑1f0), Paris, 1909.
AMORITE$: A. T. Clay, Amume, the Home of the Northern Semites; a Study showing that the Religion and Culture of Israel are not of Babylonian Origin, Philadelphia, 1910.
ANDERSON, G.: Hitherto Untold, New York, 1910.
ANDREwES, L.: An edition of his Manual for the Sick is published, New York, 1909.
ANGELS: T. Laval, Le Monde invisible, ou traits dogmatique et ascetique des angea, Paris, 1909.
ANGELUS: The Angelus and the Regina. Coeli; with a few short Notes, explanatory and historical, New York, 1910.
APOCRYPHA: H. M. Hughes, The Ethics of Jewish Apocryphal Literature, Lohdon, 1909.
APOLOGETICS: E. Boutraux, Science and Religion in Contemporary Philosophy, London, 1909.
H. C. KiLetters on the Greatness and Simplieity the Christian Faith, Boston, 1909.
A. S. Peale,, Christianity: its Nature and its Truth, New York, 1909.
W. S. Turton, The Truth of Christianity. Being an Examination of the more important Arguments for and against Believing in Christianity, New York, 1909.
C. D. Williams, A Valid Christianity jor To‑day, ib., 1909.
ARABIA: O. Weber, Eduard Glaser's Forschungsreisen in Siidarabien, Leipsic, 1909.
ARIANISM: D. H. von Schubert, Das alteste germanische Christentum, oder der sogenannten "Arianismus" der Germanen, Tubingen, 1909.
ARISTOTLE: The Works of Aristotle are to be trans‑
lated into English under the editorship of J. A. Smith and W. D. Roes; of this series there have appeared the Parva naturalis, De lineus inaexTiua, Metaphysics.
I. Bywater, Aristotle on the Art of Poetry (Text,
Introduction, Tranel.), London, 1908‑1909.
ARNOLD, T.: H. M. Butler, Ten. Great and Good Men, New York, 1909.
ART AND CHURCH: L. von Sybel, Chriatliehe Antike. EirkJ'ithrung in die altchriatliche Kunst, vol. ii., Plastik, Architektur, urul Malerei, Marburg, 1909.
ASBURY, F.: G. P. Mains, Francis Asbury, London,
1910.
ATHANABIAN CREED: W. Hay, The Athanasian Creed, London, 1909.
ATONEMENT: E. DeW. Burton, and J. M. P. and G. B. Smith, Biblical Ideas of Atonement, Chicago, 1909.
AUGUSTINE: Scnpta. contra Donatistsa, pare iii., ed. M. Petachenig, Vienna, 1910.
BAALBEK: K. Maurer, Baalbek, Darmstadt, 1909.
BACON, B. W.: See below, JOHN THE APOSTLE.
BACON, R: Tuber primua Communium naturalium; Panes prima et seconds ed. R. Steele, New York, 1909, also Metaphysics, de viciia con. tractis in studio, ib., 1909.
BANKS, L. A.: The Problems of Youth; A Series of Discourses for Young People on Themes of the Book of Proverbs, New York, 1909.
BARNARA$: J. M. HeerDie veraio Latina des Barnabasbriejea and hr Yerhdltnia zur altlateinisehen ibel, Freiburg, 1908.
BELLARMINE: J. de la SerVl6re, La ThklOg2e de Bellarmine, Paris, 1909.
BIBLE TEXT: Der Codex Boerleerianua der Brieja des Apoatela Paulus in Liehtdruck naehgebildet, Lelpsic, 1909.
BIBLE	VERSIONS: H. von Soden, Daa lateiniache
	Neue Testament in Afrika zur Zeit Cypriana,
in T U, xxxiii., Leipsic, 1909.
Die aramdisehen B£bel‑Yersionzn (Targumim); Targum Jonatan ben Uzxiel and Targum Jerusalem, Tent, Umschrift, and Ueberseizung . von M. Altschiiler, vol. i., Genesis, Vienna, 1909.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑VOLUMES I‑VII
The. Octatzuch in Ethiopec, According to the Text o the Pads Codex, With the Variants of Five
MSS, ed J O. Boyd, part i, Genesis, in Bibliotheca Abessiniea, ed. E. Littmann, Leyden, 1909.
S. Feist, Etymologiachea Wbrterbuch der gotiechen Sprache, mit Einschluas der aogenannten Krimgot%achen, part ii., Halle, 1909.
BIBL16AL CRITICISM: P. Fiebig, Aufgaben der. neuteatamentlichen Forachung in der Gegenwart, Leipsic, 1909.
BIBLICAL THEOLOGY: A. Sehlatter, Die Theologie des Neuen Testaments, Vol. i., Das Wont Jesu, Stuttgart, 1908.
S. E. Keeble, The Social Teaching of the Bible, New York, 1909.
F. S. Schenck, The Sociology of the Bible, ib.; 1909.
M. DibeliusDie Geiserwelt im Glauben des Paulus, GSttingen, 1909.
J. Adams, Israel's Ideal; or Studies in O. T. Theology, Edinburgh, 1910.
Boi roMEy MARGARET: Heart to Heart Letters; being
	Extracts from the Letters of Margaret Bottom
	to a Son, New York, 1910.
BOURI(iNON DE LA, PORTE, A.: A. R. Macewen, Antoinette Bourignon, Quietist, London, 1909.
BaansnsM: H. Haekmann, Buddhism as a Religion; its Historical Development and present Conditions, London, 1909.
BURIAL: S. HIein, Tod and BegrGbnia in Paldfatina zur Zeit der Tannaiter, Berlin, 1909.
BUTLER, H. M.: Ten Great and Good Men. Lectures, New York, 1909.
CABALA‑ Sepher ha‑Zohar. Le Livre de la dear. Doctrine 6aoWnque des laraditea, Paris 1909.
CALVIN J.: A. RVegg, Die Betiehungen Calvins to t`leinrich Bulhnger and der von ihm geleiteten txlrcherischen Kirche, Zurich, 1909.
CAMPBELL, A.: J. Egbert Alexander Campbell and Christian Liberty, 9t. Louis, 1909.
CAMPION, E.: Works, ed. P. Vivian, Oxford, 1909.
CEMETExIEB: J. Wilpert, Die Pa Bber and die Cdtariliengrusn der Kat<~ des heiligen Kallistus, burg, 1909.
CHASE, F. H.: Confirmation in the Apostolic Age, London, 1909.
CHINA: See below, KOREA.
S. P. Conger, Letters Jrom China, London, 1909.
J. J. M. Degroot, The Religion of the Chinese, New York, 1910.
Feng‑Shen‑Yenl. Die Metamorphoaen der Glitter. Am dem Chineaiachen . . . by W. Grubs, voL i., Leyden, 1909.
CHRISTMAS: R. Beck, Daa heilige Weihnachtsfest, Regensburg, 1909.
CxR18TOL0(iY: J. C. Granbery, Outline of N. T. Christology, Chicago, 1909.
CHURCH: A. M. Fairbairn, Studies in Religion and Theology; The Church in Idea and in History, London and New York, 1910.
CHURCH HISTORY: S. A. Donaldson. See above, AFRICA.
K. Heusai, Kompendium der Kirchengeachich)x Zd half, 2d division, Aufkldrung. Neueate Zeit, Tilbingen, 1909.
A. C. Flick, The Rise of the Medieval Church, London, 1909.
CLEMENT VIL: C. F. Young, The Medici, i. 436493, London, 1909.
CLEMENT of ROME: H. Hemmer, Clement de Rome, epttre aux Corinthiena. Homelie du ii. aikcle, Paris, 1909.
COLEN80, J. W.: A. T. Wirgman, Life of James Green, London; 1909. (Dr. James Green was the arehopponent of Colenao; and this book in dealing with Green throws much light on Colenso.
COMPARATIVE RELIGION: W. S. Lilly, Many Manaima; being Studies in Ancient Religions and Modern Thought, London, 1907.
F. B. Jevons, An Introduction to the Study of Comparative Religion, New York,1908.
W. O. E. Oesterly, The Evolution of the Messianic Idea. A .Study in Comparative Religion, London, 1908.
G. Galloway, The Principles of Religious Development, ib., 1909.
R. R. Marett, The Threshold of Religion, ib., 1909.
E.M ogk, Die Menachenopfer bei den Germanen, in the ,Abhayedlungen of the Royal Saxon Academy, Philological‑historical class, Vol. xxxvii., no. 17, 1909.
F. Gumont, Lea Rel	orientalea dons le
	paganisme romain, 2., Paris, 1909.
W. St. C: Tisdall, Comparative Religion, London, 1909.
CONDEx, C. R.: The City of Jerusalem, London, 1909.
CONFIRMATION. See above, CHASE.
CONFUCIUS: L. H. Schiltz, Die hone Lehre dea Confucius, Frankfort, 1909.
CONSCIENCE: G. Hughes, Conscience and Criticism, London, 1909.
CONBTANTINOPLE: E. M. Antoniadi, Beachreibung der Hagia Sophia in Konatantirwpel, vol. i., Paris, 1909.
CONWELL, R. H.: He Goeth before you, Cleveland, 1910.
Coshes INDICOPLEUBTEB: The Christian Topogra by of Cosmos . . . , ed. with Geographiead Notes by E. O. Winstedt, Cambridge, 1910.
CourrclLS: C. J. Hefele, New French transl. of the Conciliengeschichte, Hiatoire dea conches augmented with notes, vole. i. . . . iii. 1, 'Pane, 1907‑09.
CREATION: W. F. Warren, The Earliest Cosmologies, New York, 1909.
CREIGHTON, M.: Lessons from the Cross, London, 1910.
DANTE: W. H. V. Reads, The Moral System of Dante's Inferno, New York, 1909.
P. Toynbee, Dance in English Literature from Chaucer to Cary, 2 vole., ib., 1909.
Qua;atio de aqua et terra, ed. and transl. C. L. Shadwell, ib., 1910.
DEACONESS: W. M. Tippy, The Socialized Church, New York, 1909.
DIVORCE: J. P. Lichtenberger Divorce ; a Study in Social Causation, New 'York, 1909.
Doxseaftz, E. VON: The Apostolic Age, London, 1909.
DOCTRINE, HISTORY OF: O. Pfleiderer, The Devel‑
of Theology in Germany since Kant, New York, 1909.
Dons, M.: Christ and Man, ed. H. R. Mackintosh, London, 1909.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑VOLUMES I‑VII
DRIVER, S. R.: Modern Research as Illustrating the Bible, London, 1909; Introduction to the . . . 0. T., 10th ed., 1909.
EDDY, M. B. G.: G. Milmvine, The a of Mary Baker
	G. Eddy and the History of ~hristian~c£ence,
	New York, 1909.
EGLI, E.: Schwe£zerische Kirchengeachichle, Vol. i., 1619‑25, Zurich, 1909.
EGYPT: J. O. Bevan, Egypt and the Egyptians. Their History, Antiquities, Language, etc., London, 1910.
E. Naville, The Old Egyptian Faith, ib., 1909.
E. A. W. Budge, new ed. of his transl. of the Book of the Dead, ib., 1909.
EGYPT E%PLORATION FUND: E. Naville, The Temple Deir el Bahari, London, 1909. The
onkey Tomb and the Gold Tomb, by T. M. Days. King Siphtah and Queen Tanaorit, by G. Maspero. The Excavations of 1906‑07, by E. Ayrton, ib., 1909.
ENGLAND, CHURCH OF' C. S. Carter, The Engliah Church in the Seventeenth Century, New York, 1909.
Church Congress held at Swansea Oct. 4,8, 1909, Official Report, London, 1909.
ErrsTOra OBBCURORUM VIRORUM: The Latin Text, unth an Engliah Rendering, Notes, and an Historical Introduction by Frances Green Stokes, London, 1909.
ERBHTNE, T.: H. M. Butler, Ten Great and Good Men, New York, 1909.
EUSEHIiTS OF C.ESnRES: Kirchengeachichte. Die lateinische Ueberaetxung den Ruftnus betzrbeitet . von T. Mommaen, part 3, Einleitungen, Ueberaichtera and Register, Leipsie, 1909.
ERORCISM: F. J. DtSlger, Der Exorciamus im altchristlichen Taufritual, Paderborn, 1909.
EZRA eND NESEnrres: G. Jahn, Die Biicher Ezra (A and B) and Nehemja . . , wit Erkl& rungen der einschlttgigen Propheten$tellen and sinew Anhang ‑aber hebrdische Eigennamen; Leyden, 1909.
FAIRRAIRN, A. M.: See above, CHURCH.
FAITH: R. J. Drvmlnond, Faith's Certainties, London, 1909.
G. Hoffmann, Die Lehre von der Fides implicita, Leipsic, 1909.
FANkLON, F.: M. Cagnae, Feneton. etudes critiques, Paris, 1909.
Frei<ER, P. J.: AnfiYnge reformatorischer Bibelauslegung, i., parts 1‑2, Luther's Yorieaung vber den Ramerrbrief 1676‑1676, Leipsie, 1908.
Fox, W. J.: R. Garnett, The Life of W. J. Fox, Public Teacher and Social Reformer, 17861864, New York, 1910.
FRerrers SAINT, of SALES: M. Hamon, Vie de S. Frances de Salsa, 2 vole., Paris, 1909.
FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF: Elizabeth B. Emmott, The Story of Quakerism, London, 1908.
Amelia B. Gummere, The Quaker in the Forum, Philadelphia, 1910.
FUTURE PUNISHMENT: W. R. Savage, The Resurrection of Judgment (St. John v. 29 R. Y.); or, Eternal not Endless Punishment the Dootrine of Holy Writ, London, 1909.
GAR v=, A. E1910 a and Teaching of Paul, Edin
	burgh,
H, 1: Add to the works by him Sextus Julius Africanus, 2 parts, Leipgic, 1880‑98; Auagew&hlte kleine Sehriften, 190?; Byzantinische . Kulturgeschiehte, 1909, the last two ed. his son Heinrich.
GENEVA: C. Borgeaud, Hiatoire de l'Universitk de Gen~ve, Geneva, 1909.
GOD:	W. F. Adeney, The Christian Conception. of
	God London, 1909:
L. Hill, The Two Great Questions; The Existence of God and the Immortality of the Soul, Chicago, 1909.
GOLTZ, E. FREIHERR VON DER: Add to the works by him Ignatius van Antioch, in fiU, xiii. 3 (1895); Nachrichten aus dew evangetiacJaen Predigeraeminar, Wittenberg, 1909.
GOLTZ, H. FREIHERR VON DER: KiTChe fluff SfQat, and Gfundlagen der ehristlichen Sozial‑Ethik, both ed. his son, Berlin, 1907‑08.
GORE, C.: Orders and Unity, London and New York, lslo.
GOSPEL AND GOSPELS: C. G. Montefiore, The Synoptic Gospels . with Introduction and Commentary, additional Notes by I. Abrahams, vole. r.‑ii., London, 1909.
W. Fairweather, The Background of the Gospels; or Judaism in the Period between the Old and New Testaments, New York, 1909.
J. C. Hawkins, Hors aynoptiae. Contributions to the Study of the Synoptic Problems, 2d ed., New York, 1910.
GOTTHErL, R. J. H.: Semitic Study Series, ed. R. J. H. Gottheil and Bi. Jastrow Jr., Leyden, 1909.
GRAPRbN, C. C.: A Journey Godward of Doulos leaou Chriatou (a Servant of Jesus Christ), Milwaukee, 1910 (autobiography).
HADES: M. Landau, Hblle and Fegfeuer in Yolksglaube, Dichtung and Kircherclehre, Heidelberg, 1909.
HALL, T. C.: Social Solutions in the Light of Christian Ethics, New York, 1910.

HAMBURG, ARCHBISHOPRIC OF: F. Cureehmann Dmalteren Papsturkunden des Erzbiatums 71a burg, Hamburg, 1909.
H_~ntuReRr: A. Ungnad, Keilschr(Jltexte der Geaetze Hammurapia Aulographie der Stele sourie der altbabylonzschen, asaynsthen urul neubabylo‑
nischen Fr ag , rim, lie, 1909.
J. Kohler and A Ungnad, Hammurabis Geaetz,
	Vol. iii., ib.; 1909.
HARMONY OP' THE Gomm: H. M. Loudon, The Life of Our Lord in the 'Words of the Evangelists, London, 1909.
IiARxMwNN, K. R. E. VON: O. Braun, Eduard von Hartmann, Stuttgart, 1909.
HAWAIIAN ISLANDS: N. B. Emerson, Unwritten Literature of Hawaii; The Sacred Songs of the Hula, collected and transl. with Notes and an Account of the Hula, Washington, 1909.
HEINRrer, K. F. G.: Beitrtige cur Geschichte and Erklarung des N. T., vol. v., Den Petrus von Laodueca Erkldrung den Matthdusevangeliums, Ixipsic, 1908.
HExeTEUCa: F. A. Jones, The Dates of Genesis, London, 1909.
W. Engelkemper, Heil xgtum and O feratdtten
	in den Geaefxera den Pentateuch, Ppsderborn,
	1909.
W. A. Van Es, De Eigendom in den Pentateuch, Kempen, 1909.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL. APPENDIX‑VOLUMES I‑VII
H. M. Wiener, Essays in Penlateuchal Criticism; Oberlin, 1910 ~reatatea the conservative position).
HIHHERT LECTURES: 1909, W. James, Pluralistic Universe, London and New York, 1909.
HINDUISM: R. B. L. B. Nath, The Bhagwad Gita in Modern Life, Calcutta, 1909.
HOBBES, T.: In Cambridge Modern. History, vi. 785 sqq., New York, 1909.
HOLLAND: G. W. Edwards, Holland of To‑day, New York, 1909.
Jaarboek der Vereeniging voor nederlandschr luthersche Kerkgeschiedenis, ed., d. W. Pout, Amsterdam, 1909.
HOLY SPIRIT: A. C. Downer, The Mission and Ministration of the Holy Spirit, London, 1909.
HOMILETICS: A. S. Hoyt, The Preacher; his Person, Method, and Message, New York, 1909.
HORSLEY, S.: H. H. Jebb, A Great Bishop of One
	Hundred Years ag o. A Sketch of the Life of
	Samuel Horsley, London, 1909.
HORT,	F. J. A.: The Epistle of St. James; Greek Text, Introduction, and Commentary as far as iv. 7, London, 1909, New York, 1910.
HBL$EAN LECTURES: 1909‑10, W. E. Chadwick, Social Relationships in the Light of Christianity, London, 1910.
HUME, D.: In Cambridge Modern History, vi. 819 $qq., New York, 1909.
IDEALISM: C. Werner, Aristote et l'id6alism platonic cien, Paris, 1909.
R. C. Eucken, Christianity oral the New Idealism, New York, 1909.
IGNATIUS OP LOYOLA‑ See below, JESUITS.
J. Thompson, St. Ignatius of Loyola, ed. J. H. Pollen, London, 1909, New York, 1910.
IMMORTALITY: See above, GOD.
INCENSE: E. G. C. F. Atchley, A History of the Use of Incense in Divine Worship, London, 1909.
INDIA: S. von Ketkar, The History of Caste in India. Evidence of the Laws of Manu on the Social Conditions in India during the third Century A. D., Vol. i., New York, 1909.
A. Lillie, India in Primitive Christianity, London, 1909.
INFALLIBILITY OF THE POPE: W. J. S. Simpson,
Roman Catholic Opposition to Papal Infallibility, London, 1909.
INGE, W. R.: Faith and its Psychology, London, 1909, New York, 1910.
ISAAC	OF NINEVEH: De perfedione religions, ed.
	P. Bedjan, Leipsic, 1910.
ISRAEL, HISTORY OP: E. E. Jessel, The Unknown History of the Jews. Discovered from the ancient Records and Monuments of Egypt and Babylon, London, 1909.
J. H. Kann, Geschichte der jiidischen Literatur, 2 vols., 2d ed., Hamburg, 1909.
N. Slouschz, The Renaissance of Hebrew Literature (17,¢3‑1886), Philadelphia, 1909.
H. Brody and K. Albrecht, The New Hebrew School of Poets of the Spanish Arabian Epoch, London, 1909.
O. A. Tofteen, The Historic Exodus, Chicago, 1909.
B. H. Alford, Old Testament History and Literature, London, 1910.
D. W. Amram, The Makers of Hebrew Books in Italy; being Chapters in the History of the Hebrew Punting Press, Philadelphia, 1910.
A. T. Clay, Amurru, the Home of the Northern Semites; a Study showing that the Religion and Culture of Israel are not of Babylonian Origin, ib., 1910.
N. D. Davis , Notes on the History of the Jews in Barbados, ib., 1910.
JAINISM: U. D. Barodia, History and Literature of Jainism, London, 1909.
JAMES: See above, HoRT.
JAPAN: See below, KOREA.
H. B. Montgomery, The Empire of the East. A simple Account of Japan as it was, is and will be, Chicago, 1909.
JEFFERSON, C. E.: Talks on High Themes for Young Christians, Boston, 1909.
JESUITS: In Cambridge Modern History, vi., 388 aqq., 591 aqq., New York, 1909.
A. Aatrian, Historia de is Compsnia de Jesus en la Asistencia de Espaiaa, Vol. m., Madrid, 1909.
P. von Hoensbroech, Ih Jahre Jesuit. Persdnliches and grundsdtzliches, Leipaic, 1909.
T. Hughes, The History of the Society o,/' Jesus in North America Colonial and Federal, London, 1909.
Attention should be called to the important sources available in the Monuments hxstorica societatis Jesu in course of publication in several aeries at Freiburg since 1894, of which over thirty volumes have already been published, including J. A. de Polanco's Vita lynatii Loiohe et rerum aocietalis Jesu hiatoria, 6 vole., 1894‑98, and several aeries of Epistolte.
JESUS CHRIST: W. Bauer, Dos Leben Jesu im Zeitalter der neutestamentlichen Agokryphen, Tubingen, 1909.
C. Mommert, Zur Chronologie des Lebena Jesu, Leipsic, 1909.
JESUS	CHRIST, PICTURES . . OF: J. Burns, The
	Christ Face in Art, London, 1909.
JOHN THE APOSTLE: B. W. Bacon, The Fourth Gospel in Research and Debate, New York, 1910.
JOHN of SALISBURY: C. I. Webb, John of Salisbury, 2 vole., Oxford, 1909.
KEMPI$, THOMAS A: J. Williams, Thomas of Kempen, London, 1909.
KING, H. C.: The Ethics of Jesus, New York, 1910; also see above, APOLOGETIC&
KLIEFOTH, T. F. D.: E. Haack, Dr. Theodor Kliefoth, 1910.
KNO%, G. W.: The Gospel of Jesus the Son of God; an Interpretation for the modern Man, Boston, 1909.
KOREA: H. G. Underwood, The Religions of Eastern Asia, New York, 1910.
Miss A. L. A. Baird, Daybreak in Korea, New York, 1909.
LADD, G. T.: Knowledge, Life, and Reality; an Essay in Systematic Philosophy, New York, 1910.
LAMAISM: J. Sheepshanks, My Life in Mongolia, London, 1903.
H. Leder, Das geheimnisvolle Tibet. Reisefriichte aus dem geistlichen Reiche den DalaiLama, Leipsic, 1909.
S. Hedin, Transhimalaya, New York, 1909.

LAMENNAIS, H. F. R. DE: Le Pr€‑tre et t'ami. Lettres inkdites de Lamennaia d la baronne Cotter, 1818‑64, Paris, 1909.
LAN©, A.: Aphoristiaehe Betraehtungen fiber daa Kausalprobtem, Cologne, 1909.
LEA, H. C.: Die Werke von Henry Charles Lea and xxrwandte Biieher, Miinater, 1908.
LEIBNITZ: E. Rack, Die lexbniz'scTteStaataidee, Tiibingen, 1909.
LEO X.: C. F. Young, The Medici, i. 403‑427, London, 1909.
LrruRales: J. B. Wainewright, The Office for the Commemoration of Peter arid Paul according to the Byzantine Rite, London, 1909.
A. Franz, Die kirchliche Benediklionere im MiLtelalter, 2 vole., Freiburg, 1910.
LoesE, J.: In Cambridge Modern History, vi. 809 sqq., New York, 1909.
LOMBARDS: C. Blasel, Die WanderzxTge der Langobarden, Breslau, 1909.
F. Dahn, Xbnigthuma der germanischen Stamme I and seine Geachichte &is zur Auftosung ilea kar‑ j olingischen Reiches, Vol. ail., Die Langobarden,
Leipsic, 1909.
Loan's PRAYER: J. D. Jones, The Model Prayer; a Series of Exposiliona, New York, 1909.
Los vow Rom: F. E. Clarke, The Gospel in Latin Lands. Outline Studies of Protestant Work in Latin Countries of Europe and America, London and New York, 1909.
LOURDES: P. G. Boissarie, Heaven's Recent Wonders;. or, the Work of Lourdes, New York, 1910.
A. Imbert‑Goubeyre, La Stignuzlisation, l'extase divine, et lea miracles de Lourdes, 2 vole., Paris, 1894.
LULLY, RAYMOND: O. Keicher, Raymundxs Luaus and seine Stellung zur arIiiacn Philosophic, Munster, 1009.
LUTHER, M.: H. Denifle and A. M. Weirs, Luther and Lxcthertum in der eraten Entxoickelung, Vol. ii., Mainz, 1909.
LUTHERANS: See above, HOLLAND.
MenNz: R. Wenek, Die Strltung ilea Erzatiftea Mainz
im Garage der deutschen Geachichte, 1909.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑VOLUMES I‑VII
Maul,	MANICHEIBM: C. Salemann, Manich8iache .8tudien. Die mittelpersiachen Texte in . . . Transcription, mit Gloasar xmd grammatischen Bemerkungen, Leipsie, 1909.
MARY, MOTHER OF JESUS CHRIST: B. BSrtmBEn, Chxxstxcs ein Gegner ilea Maxienkultua p Frei‑
burg, 1909.
MATERIALISM: H. Thoden van Velzen, .System ilea religioaen Materialismus, Leyden, 1909.
MATHESON, G.: St. John's Portrait of Christ, London, 1810.
MATHEWS, S.: The Social Gospel, Philadelphia, 1910.
MATILDA, COUNTESS OF TUSCANY: Nora Duff, Ma‑
tilda of Tuscany, London, 1909.
MATTHEW: A new commentary is by E. E. Anderson, Edinburgh, 1909.
MEDIATOR: W. O. E. Oesterley, The Jewish Doc‑
trine of Mediation, London, 1910:
MEDQ‑PERHIA: A. Hoffmann‑Kutsehke, Die altpersischen Keilinschriften ilea Groask&niga
DarajawauBCh 1. bei Behistun, Stuttgart, 1909.
METHODIST: W. Burt, Europe and Methodism, Cincinnati, 1909.
MmRnsa: M. S. Zuckermandel, Tosefta, Mischnca and Boraitha in ihrem Verhliltxxia zu einander, oiler palastinensiache and babylonische Hat‑
acha, Vol. ii., Frankfort, 1909.
MILICZ OF KREMSIER: F. H. H. V. Lutaow, The Life and Times of Master John Hue, pp. 2?‑37, London and New York, 1909.
MISSIONS To THE HEATHEN: A. Launay, Hint. ilea
missions de Chine, 4 vole., Paris, 1909.
MODERNISM: J. H. F. Peile, Eccleaia discena: the Church's Lesson from the Age, New York,
1909.
MOFFAT, J.: The Second Things in Life, London, 1910.
MOHAMMED, MOHAMMEDANISM: J. Schapiro, Die
j	haggadixchen Elemente im erxdhlexldezt Tell
ilea Korans, Strasburg, 1907.
M. Hartmann, Der Islam. Geachichte, Leipsie, 1909.
MONASTICISM: K. Lake, The Early Days of Monasticism on Mount Athos, London, 1909, New York, 1910.
MONTE CASSINO: E. Caspar, Petrua Diaconxas urui die Morale Cassixleaer FcFlaehungen, Berlin, 1909.
BIOGRAPHICAL ADDENDA
BUDDENSIE(i, O. G. R.: d. at Dresden Oct. 13, 1908. CASANes Y PA(iEB, S.: d. Sept. 27, 1908. DEZTTSCH, S. M.: d. at Berlin July 4, 1909. DODS, M.: d. at Edinburgh Apr. 26, 1909. FISHER, G. P.: d, at Litchfield, Conn., Dec. 20,1909. Foes, C. D.: d. at Philadelphia Jan, 29, 1910. GOLTZ, E. FREIHERR VON DER: since 1906 principal of the Predigerseminar at Wittenberg. GRESSMANN, H.: became extraordinary professor of 0. T. exegesis at Berlin, 1906.
HAUPT, E.: d. at Halle Feb. 19, 1910. HAUSRATH, A.: d. at Heidelberg Aug. 2,1909.

HEITMUELLER, W.: became ordinary professor at Marburg, 1908.
HoN, R. H.: retired from service, 1910. HUNTIN(iTON, W. R.: d. at Nahant, Macs., July 26, 1909.
KNEUCB;ER, J. J.: d, at Heidelberg Due. 24, 1909. Luc$ocg, H. M.; d. at Lichfield (14 m. n, of BiriIigha‑) Mar. 24, 1909,

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑VOLUMES I‑VII
ADDENDA ET
Vol. i., p 56, col. 2, line 10: Read " 1855 " for `< 1850."
Vol. i., p 56, col. 2, line 14: Read " 1863 " for " 1862."
Vol. i., p 56, col. 2, lines 22‑23: Cancel the teat and read " is not. by nature immortal but receives eternal life poly by faith in Christ."
Vol. i., p. 80, col. 2: Insert " AFRICAN UNION METHODIST PROTESTANT CHURCH. See METHOnraTS, TV., 9.
Vol. i., D.~ 88, col. 2, line 16 from bottom: Read " lIL, 2 " for " IL, 3."
Vol. i., p. 123, col. 2: Insert " ALERANDER, MICHAEL b$oLOmoN., See .IERUBALEM; ANaLICeN‑GERMAN BISHOPRIC IN."
Vol. i., p. 151, col. 1, line 10: Read " 397 " for " 379."
Vol. i.,	178, cot. 2: Insert "ANGELUS sILE9IU6.
	SCHEFFLER,.TOHANN."
Vol. ii., p. 193, col. 2, line 15 from bottom: Read "a majority" for "two‑thirds."
Vol. ii., p. 230, col, 1, line 8: Read "Nimes Mar. 23" for "Paris Apr. 15."
Vol. ii., Db 298, col. 2: Insert:
THE ~BL(iARIAN .NATIONAL . CHURCH IN TIC UNITED STATES: There are, according to moderate
CORRIGENDA
calculations, about 25 000 Bulgarians in the United States and Canada, le immigration of Bulgarians becoming numerous since 1903. They have settled in great numbers at Granite City and Madison, Ill., Hopkins, Mich . and St. Louie, Mo., and are scattered also fart~er westward, while a considerable number of them is to be found in New York City and also in Toronto and other parts of Northern Canada. The first Bulgarian church in the United States was built in 1907 in Madison, Ill.; being followed by those at Granite City and St. Louis. There are at present three Bul anan priests in the United States. ~. A. STAMOULI.
Vol. ii., p 321, col. 1, line 5 from bottom: Read "Old Orchard, Me." for "Newton Centre, Mass."
Vol. iii., p. 343, col. 2, line 34: Read " 1858‑89 " for " 1858‑59." .
Vol. iii., . 346: Under Damien, Father. Read " Veuster " for "'Venster."
Vol. iv., p. viii, col. 2: Read ". Robert William Stewart " for " Robert Walter Stewart."
VOL iv., p. 73, col. 1, line 20 from .bobtom; Read Ann Morse (or Moore, or O'Moor) " for "Ambrose Morse."
Vol. v., p. 466, col. i, line 12.:. Read "inamiesibility " for," inadmissibility."

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations in common use or self‑evident are not included here. For additional information couderning the works listed, nee vol. i., pp. viii.‑xx., and the appropriate articles in the body of the work.
	ADB .		;Allpemeiru deutsche Biopraphie, Leipeio,
		1875 eqc), vol. 53, 1907
	Adv .		adveraua. a~ ainet
		American Journal of Philology, Balti
		more, 1880 sqq.
		American Journal of Theology. Chicago,
	AJT	..	..	1897 sqq.
AK& . . . . , . . . . ~ Arch* far kaAolisehes %irdunrecht. Innsbruck, 1857‑81, Mains. 1872 sqq.
	Arehiv for Litteratur‑ and KirrJusnpe
ALRa ... . . . .. , 		achidvk du Mitlddtere. Freiburg, 1885q.
	Am. . . . . . . . . . . As~merican
				Abhandlunpen Jar Mfinc)uner A)uutsmie,
	AMA 			MurdoU 1783 eqq.
jAnk‑Nic6no Falters, American edition
	ANF .				by A. Cleveland Cows, 8 vole. and in
				dex, Buffdlo, 1887; vol. ix., ed. Allan
				Missiles, Newt York, 1897
	Apoa, .				Apoorypha apocryphal
	Apol .				Apolopia, Rpolopy
	Arab .				Arabio
Arum . . . . . . . . . . Aramaic
art.. . . . . . . . . . . . . article
Art. Sobmsl .... .Bchmalksld Articles
ASB .. . . . . . . . . . ~ Aa "anctorum, ed. J. Bollaad and others.
	Antwerp.1843 xIq.
A3M. . . . . . . . . , ~ Acts sanctonam ordsnis S. BensdiW. 9d.
	J. Mabillon, 9 vole.. Paris, 1888‑1701
Ass .:::::::::::Assyrian
A. ~ . . . . . . . . . . . Attu Testament, " Old Testament '
	An ge. Con		Augeburg Confession
	A. V . . . . 	. . .Authorized Version (of the English Bible)
AZ. , . , . . . : . . . . . . A	,eZ'
Ugon	sdtun~ Augeburg.TQbingen,
	tutt ~' ,'t, and TVbingen, 1798 eqq.
Baldwin,,	J' M' nudwin. Dictionary o Philosophy
	and Psychology, 3 vole. m ~ New York,
	Dictionary 	1901‑05
Bsvl~,le,	The Dictionary Historical and Critical of
	eKienara. _ .	M~:P~ Boyle, 2d ad., b vole	London,
	Bensinger,	I. Bensinger	wHe6r3iechs ArcAddopie,
	Archtblopit~ ed Freiburg, 190?
	BFBB .		British and Foreign Bible Society
Bingham, , J. Bingham, Oripinu ecaluiaatias, 10
		vole., London,' 1708‑22; new ed., Ox
		ford, 1855
	M. Bouquet, RecuQil du hietoriene du
Bouquet, Ranuit		Oautcs at de to Prance, continued by
various heads, 23 voles.. Paris. 1738‑Z8
	Archibald, Sower, History of the P
Bower, Popu. , .		. . to 1768. coati	by S. H,
3 vole.. Philadelphia, l 4b‑47
BQR .. . . . . . . . . . ~ Baptist Quarterly Review, Philadelphia,
			1887 eqq.
	BRO	. 	See JIM
Cant. . . . . . .. . .. .Canticles, Bong of Solomon
	sap .			oaput,, " chap~fsr
Ceillier. Auteurs~	11
	R• OeOlier. lliehire du autEura awrEe Et
	e ~tiques, 18 vole. in 17, Paris,
soerbs ........
Claron . . . . . . . . . . . Chronic^ " Chronicle "
	I Chroa: .		I Chronicle
	II Chron 	II Chronicles
	CIO 	..	..	. C 1 ~ ipionum Orasoarum, Berlin,
	CIL .				C 863 ~~•Pti°num latinarum, Berlin,
	CIS 	.....	Corp" tftacripti°num 3emitioarum, Paris,
			1 1 rqq,
	cod .			epdex
	cod. D		:	oodex Bee
tod. Thud. . . . , . . •bdex Thudosianus
Col . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Epistle to the Colossians
CE co	columns
Conj. . , . . , , . * . . Confuaionu "Confessions"
	I Cor .	.......		First Epiatls to the Corinthians
	II Cor .			$econd Epistle to the Corinthians
	COT .			8ee Schrader
CQR .. . . . . . . . . ~ T7&e Church Quarterly Review, London,
	1875 xlq,
2d
C	rejormatorum; begun at Halle,
CR . .... .,. .. ..,. ~ , vol. Ixaxiz.. Berlin and Leipsic, 190b~qq.
(M. Creighton, A History of the Papae~t
Creighton,	I from the Great Schism to the Sack of
	Papacy . . . . . . IRonu:, new ed., 8 vole.. New York s do
		London. 1897
~Cm~puaaaiytorum Chriatianorum orients
CSCO . . . . . . . .. . i'	hum, ed. J. B. Chabot, I. Guidi, and
	others, Paris end Leipeic, 1903 aq
CSEL . . . . . . . . . ~ Corpus "c"1°tor""' "°siacticxum
		rwrum, Vienna, 1887 aqq.
	CSHB		~ Corpus seriptorum‑hseWrioz Byaantinas, 49
		vole. Bona, 1828‑78
Carrier, Religious C. W. furrier, History of Religious Orders,
	Orders 	. . . . . ~ New York 1898
	D 	Deuteronomrat
DACL ........
Dan..........
	DB		,
DCA.........
DCB.........
I3C(f .........
Deist...:.....
Do vir, ill.
DOQ.....
F, Cabrol, Dictionnaire d'arcb6otopia chrEtitnna at do Iiturgie, Paris, 1903 eqq .
. . . Daniel
J. Haetinga, Dictionary ~ the Bible. 4 vole. and extra vol., Edinburgh and New York, 1898‑1904
W. Smith and 8. Cheetham, Dictionary
i $C~ n Antiquitiu, 2 voie., London,
[ Wi7 Smith and H. Wave. Dictionary of
;( hristian Biography, 4 vole., Boston. 187787
	~J. w J. A. Seib* sad J. C. Lambert.
	Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels, 2
	vote.' Edinburgh and Now York, 1908
1908 .
. . . Deutero~sY
. .‑. De viris.illusbfbua .. Bee Wsttenbsah
		S L, Stephen and B. Lee, Dictionary oDNB .	,	National Biography, 83 vole. ans
				supplement 3 voles, London, 1885‑1901
Driver, Introduo‑~ B' It. Driver Introduction to the Literature
lion . . . .. , . . . °yJo* 19Use ~ Testament, 10th ed., New

	E		,	Elobiet
			T. K. Cho and J. 8. Black, Sncydo‑
EB .. . . . , . . . . . . xedia B'zbl 4 vole., London sad
	Yor~l~‑1903
Red .. . . . . . . , . . . . Eedceio, Churoh ' ; sodesiaeticua, '• so‑
			clesisetiasl '
	Booles 		Ecclesiastes
Eccles . . . . . . . . . Ecclesiaetioue
.edition; edidit, " edited by"
. Epistle fn the Ephesians
Epiat . . . . . . . . . . . Epiaola, Bpi#" ~, Epistle," " Epistles "
Erach sad Gru‑ J, B. Ersoh and ,l. G. Gruber, Acne
ber Encyklo‑ ~ BE,	der Wisesmdaffen and
	is 		ICttnats peio, 1818 q.
	E. V	....	.English versions (of the Bible)
Ex .. . . . . . . . . . . . . Exodus
	Ezek 		Ezekiel
	fssc	,		fasciculue
	Fr 	.......	,	J
		. French
Friedrich, ICD. ..~ J• Friedrich, RirdunpuchicAte Dsutseh
			lands, 2 vole.. Bamberg, 1587‑R9
Gal . , . . , . . . . . . . . Epistle to, the Galatians
Gams, Series	P• B. Game, aeries epiaeoporum eeduiss
	episwporum . . ~ 		CatAohaee, I;,egembrrg, 1873, and eup‑
		plemeat 18 68
Y,
	Documents 	~ H.raGee~ a of ~ithaC urn H ~tornts
y,
		London, 1998
	Gen .		0eneeis
	Germ 	German
C.OA . . . , . . . . . . 1 a f~"Ae rle Ann, Ggttingen,
Gibbon DadineI
E• Gibbon. History of as Decline and
Fall of the Roman Empire, ed J. B. and ~'afl, . , . . Bmy, 7 vole.. London, 1898‑19UQ
	Gk 	Greek,
Gi C. Gross. The Sources and Literature of
ross, Sources. .8
		tisA, History . . . to 186, London,
	Yiab .	.8ebaktuk

H
Hom .........
Hos..........
Iea. .... ....
	Ital	....
J. ... ......
JA.. . • ...
Jacobus, Dictionary.
JBL . .........
Haddan and JA• W• Haddon and W. Stubbs, Council* Stubbs, Coup‑ and Ecclesiastical Documents Relating to Great Britain and Ireland, 3 vole..
	eila		, Oxford, 1889‑78
Refers to patristic works on heresies or heretics, Tertullian s De asoriptione, the Pru haireaeie of ~ na'us, the Panarion of Epiphanius, etc.
Hag . . . . . . . . . . . . Haggs~i
Harduin, Con‑	J. 4TI	Concilioram collectio regia
	cilia .. . . . . . . . ~ 	maxima, 12 vole., Paris, 1715
A. Harnack, History of Dogma .~from
Harnack, Dogma	the 3d German edition, 7 vole., Boston,
	1895‑1900
Harnack, Litters‑ ( A• Harnack, Guchichte der aldchriatlichen LitteraBur bsa Euaebiua, 2 vole, in 3,
	tur .		~ Le_,paic. 1893‑1904 ~ A. Hauck, Kirchenguchichte Deutach
	Hauck, RD 	lands, Vol. i., Leipaic, 1904; Vol. ii.,
1900; Vol. iii., 1906; Vol. iv„, 1903
Realeruykloptidie ftir Tot 	Tlee‑
Hauck‑Herzog, ~ ologie and Kirche, founddh ey J. J.
	RE	....	..	.	Herzog, 3d eel. by A. Hauck, Leipsic,
					1898‑1909
Heb . . . . . . . . . . . . . Epistle to the Hebrews
	Hebr .		ebrew
Hefele.Concilien‑~ C• J, von Hefele, Conciliengeachichte, con‑
guehichto. . , . •	tinued by J. Hergenr&ther, vole. i.‑vi.,
	viii.‑ix., Freiburg, 1883‑93
Heimbucher, Or‑ M. Heimbucher, Die Orden and Kongro‑
	den and Kon‑	gationen der kathdischen Xirche, 2d eel.
	gregationen. . .	3 vole., Paderborn, 1907
Helyot, Ordrea P• Helyot, Hiatoire des ordtea monsa
		tiquea, rdigieux et militairea, 8 vole.,
		Pans 1714‑19; new ed.,1839‑42
Henderson, Doc‑ E. F. Renderson, Select Historical Docur
u,nenta . . . . . ~ manta o! the Middle Ages, London, 1892
Hiat .. . . . . . . . . . . . History, kiatoire, hiatoria
		Hiatoria ecdesiaatus, em, '• Church
	Hiat. ecd	~ History '
Homilia, homiliai, " homily, homilies "
Hoses
. . . Isaiah
. . . Italian
Jahvist (Yahwist)
.Journal i	Aaia6ique Paris, 1822 eqMA StandardB e Dictionary, eel. . W. Ja‑
cobus, . . . E. E. Nourse, . sad A. C.
Zones, New York and London, 1909.
JaH6, BRO.. . . . ~ P• Jaffd, Bibliotheoa rerum Germanicaram, 8 vole., Berlin, 1884‑73
P. Jaff6, Repeeta pontijRcum Romanorum
Jaff4, Reputes. ..		ad annum 1188, Berlin, 1851;
	2d eel.. LeiPeic, 1881‑88
	JAGS . . . . . . . ~ Journal o/ the American Oriental Society.
			New Haven, 1849
			'Journal of Biblical Literature and Exego
			sia, first appeared se Journal of the
			Society o,/ Biblical Literature end Ere
			ptaie, Middletown, 1882‑88, then Bos
			ton ~ 190eEq
	JE .	...	The 38#h nedoPadia, 12 vole, New
			York, 1901‑06
lE . , • , . . . , . . . ~ The combined narrative of the Jahvist
			(Yahwist) and Elohist
	Jer .. . . 		Jeremish
Joeephus, Ant . .; Flevius Joaephua, " Antiquities of the Jews "
Josephu0. A.pion .Flavius Joeephue, " Against Apion "
Joeephus, Life. . Life of Flavius Joeephus
JoaePhus. War. . . Flaviua JosePhu& The Jewish War "
	Josh ' 	..	Joshua
JPT .. ... ..,;'J°h'fgr protutantiadea Thadopie, Leipaio, 1875 eqq.
JQR . . . . . . . . . ~ The Jewish Quarterly Review, London, 1888 eqq
JRAS . . . . . . . ~ Journal of do Royal Asiatic Society. London, 1834 eqq.
Journal of Tludnpical Studio, London. 1899 eqq.
J. Julian, A Dictionary of Hymnology, revised edition, London, 1907
Jaarbodcen voor Wetenechappdijke TAeo‑
. . . .8ee~li aderht' 1845 eqq•
.See Schrader
. JTS .........
Julian, Hym
	nolopy . . . . . .
JWT.,.......
RAT . .
KB............
	KD 	........	See KL. . . . . 	. . . ~	Friedrich, Hauck, Rettbig
n. ?d Wow and Wdts'a Kexikoeel.. by J. Hergenrither and F. Kslen,
	12 vole., Freiburg, 1882‑1903
G. Kroger, History of Early Christian
Kroger, History	Literature in the First Thru.Csnluries,
	New York, 1897
	Kr‑‑b=	K. Krnmbaeher, l7uehiehte der byzarr
	Cletrh	tihiKJwn Littsratur, ?d eel	Munich,
		1897
	P. Lsbbe.,	m uneiliorum nova at
Lsbbe, ComeiTia	am 	isnma ooaeetio. 31 vole., Florence
	and Venice, 17b8‑98
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Lam . . . . . . . . . . . . Lamentations
Lanigan, Ece1. f J.lar~ Lanigan 13th Century,	.~jDub‑11
Haat . . ... .. . ) fin, 1829
	Lat .		1.atin, Latinized
	Leg .		Legea Legum
	Lev 	Leviticus
Lichtenberger, ~ F• Lichtenberger, EncydopEdie du aci
	ESR . . . . . . . .	ansii lea, 13 vole., Par* 1877
		1882
Lorenz, DGQ . . ~ O. Lorenz, Deuhchianda t3each%chteaud
		len oimnMz' Mittelalter, 3d eel., Berlin 1887
LXX . . . . . . . . . . . The Septuagint
	I mace 	I Maccabees
	II Mace 	II Maccabees
Mai, Nova col‑I A. Mai, Seriptorum veterum nova col
	Iedio , . . . . . . . lectio, 10 vole., Rome, 1825‑38
Mai . . . . . . . . . . . . . Malachi
Mann, Popes.
MOH . .
R. C. Mann, Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, London, 1902 sqq.
G. D. Msnai, Ssn,ctorum conciliorum Manei, Concilia. ~ colledio nova, 31 vois., Florence and
		Venice, 1728
	Matt 	Matthew
		Monuments Germanise hiatorica, eel. G. H,
		Peru and others, Hanover and Ber
		lin, 1828 eqq. The following abbrevia
		tions are used for the sections and
subsections of this work: Ant.. Ai
tatea, ' Antiquities "; Auct. ant., uo
tore antiquiaaimi, " Oldest Writers ";
Chron, min.. Chronica minors, " Lesser
Chronicles ; Dip., Diplomats, Diplomas, Documents "; Epiat., Epiatdo, Letters "; Gut. pout. Rom., Guts pontiJicum Romanorum, " Deeds of the Popes of Rome ' Leg., Legea,
Laws "; Lib. do life, Libdli de file inter regnum et eaeerdotium aeecalonam xi. et xie. coraacripti, ' Books concerning the Strife between the Civil and Ecclesisetical Authorities in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries Nee ., Necrologia Gerniasim, ' lfecrology of Germany "' Poet. Lat. avi Car., Poets! LaLini 2vi Cardini, " Latin Poets of the Caroline Time "' Poet. Lot. mod. anri, Poata! Latini medii nevi,
	Latin Poets of the Middle Apo ";
Script., Scriptoree,	Writers "; Script.
	rer. Germ., Scriptoru rerum Giermani
carumt	' Writers on German Sub
	jects ; Sen'yt. rer. Langob., ScriPtoree
rerum Lang	et Italicarum,
	" Writers on Lombard end Italian
	Subjects "; Script. rer. Merou., Scrip
	torea reram Meroroinpiearum, " Writers
		Merovingian Subjects . 	Micah
	H. H. Mihnan, History of Latin Chria
Milmsn, Latin ~ tianit7~,~ Indudi that of the Popes to
	Christianity . .			Nidwlae ~., 8 vole., London,
1880‑81
C. Mirbt, QueRen rur Ouchichte du PapatMirbt, Quellen. . ~ lama and du rtimiadun Katholieiamue, Tiibingen, 1901
MPG . , . . . J. P. M e. Pa6rolopiae tarsus tom tus,
	. .			~ivc
too	~ 162 vole., Paris. 18‑66
ser
MPL . . . . . . . . I J. P. Mia;ne,, Patroiogio; tarsus completua,
		aeriu nd, 221 vole., Paris, 1 44‑84
	MB., MSB		Manuacript. M~uacriPts
Muratori, Scrip‑~ L. A. Muratori, Rerum Itarlicarum scrip.
	toru. . .. . . . . . fares, 28 vole.. 1723‑51
	. . . ~ Names Archiv der OeseRachaft far altars
NA . . deabdae Ouchichtekunda. Hanover,
		1878 sqq.
Nah . . . . . . . . . . Nahum
n.d. . . . . . . . . . . . . no date of publication
Nesnder Chris.S A• Neander, General History f the CAris‑
	in dhuh		'~ lion Religion and Ch.,.% vole., sad
		index, Boston, 1872‑81
	Neh .		Nehemiah
N i c e r o n, M6 ‑ ~ R., P. Niceron, bf lnwiru pour aeruir h moiru . . ... .. 1hiatoire du hommu iAuabEa . . . , 43 vole., Paris, 1729‑45
NRZ . . . . . . . . . ~ New kirrhLidu Zsitechrift. Leipeic, 1890 eq
No. Archs‑ ~ W. ~owaek, LeArbuch der habr3iaches~Archdolopie, 2 vole., Freiburg, 1894
n.P. . . . . . . . . . . . . no pleas of publication
The Mans snot Put‑Niuns Fathers, 1st
NPNF . .. . . . . . .	series, 14 vole., New York, 1887‑92; 2d
	series, 14 Vol*., New York, 1890‑1900
N. T.. .. . . . . . . .; Near Test‑tit, Noown TeNamenlum,
	Nouveau Tastamtnt, Nauss Tutament
Num . . . . . . . . . . . ..Nnmbere
	I Ch .		:Obadiah

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
O. $. B.. . . . . . . . 1 O‑1° aa'ct' B‑adicti' " Order of St.
		Benedict "
	O, T„ , . . , . . . . 	Old Testament
	OTJC .		See Smith
	p„ „ „ „ , . . . . . 	Priestly document
		L. Pastor. The His"	the Popes from
	pact" Popes	the Close of the M	Ages, 8 vole.,
		London, 1891‑1908
	PEA 	. 	...	~ P°t'ea ecdeaio; Anglicans, ed. J. A. Giles,
				34 vole., London, 18.38‑48
	PEF			. . . . 	:Palestine Exploration Fu'ad
	I Pet 	........		First Epistle of Peter
	II Pet.::: .		8econd Epistle of Peter
`B. Platins, Lives of the Popes from .
Plating, Popes.. jl	Gregory VII. to . . . Paul Il., 2 vole.,
	London, n.d.
Pliny, Hiat. not. ..Pliny. Hiatoria naCuralia
Potthast, Wep‑~`''' ~ott~at,~Bias'~lu~the~ aieoGeschtau'°i°°''• • • •' • • • urerke, Berlin, 1898
	Prov .		Proverba
	Ps .		Psalma
	PSBA	. . . .) Proceedings o1 the Society of Biblical
I ‑Archeology, London, 1880 Aqq.
	qv., qq.v	. 	.Wdd, (qua!) vide, ' which see
	R .			ctor
Ranks, Popes. . . ~ L' 7on Ranks, History of the Popes,
			3 vole., London, 1908
	RDM .			Revue des deux mondea, Paris, 1831 sqq.
	RE			See Hauck‑Herzog
Reich, Docu‑ ~ E. Reich, Select Documents Illustrating Me‑
	mento 		. diaroal and Modern History, London, 1905
	REJ .			Revue des Etudes ?uivea, Paris. 1880 sqq.
	Rettberg, RD	11 F' ~ 2 volg. Ga'ottingen,ch1848‑48 chRev .	Aook R Revelation
	RHR . 	...	.; Revue de l'hiebirs des religions, Paris,
			1880eq q.
			E. C. Richardson, Alphabetical Subjectln‑
			dex and Index Encyclopaedia to Period
			ical Articles on Religion, 1880‑98, New
			York 1907
			A. L. Aiehter Lehrbuch des katholiachen
			wnd evanpe~iachen Kirchenrechta, 8th
			ed. by W. Kohl. Leipaic, 1888
			( E. Robinson Biblical Researches in
an	Palestine, hoeton, 1841, and Later
~ Biblical Researches is Palestine, 3d ed.
"arches . . . . 	of the whole, 3 vole1887
Robinson, Euro‑ J. H. Robinson, Readings in European pears History. . ~ flietory, 2 vole., Boston, 1904‑08
Robin eon and J. H. Robineon, and C. A. Beard, DevdoPBeard, Modern ~ mend of Modern Europe, 2 vole.. Boston, Europe .... 1907
Rom . . . . . . .... . . . Epistle to the Romans
	RSE .. . . .; R‑ d°" sciences eedEaiaatiques,'Arrea,
		1880‑74, Amiena, 1875 sqq.
	RTP	. . . . . . . ~ Revue de thlolopie et de philosophic‑,'
		Lausanne. 1873
	R. V		Reviaed Version (of the English Bible) ,
	ea!c .		eaxulum. ' century'
	I Sam . . . . . .I Samuel
II Sam ... ... . . . . .II Samuel
SBA . .. . . . . . . . ~ Su"'agaberidUe der Berliner Akademie,
Berlin, 1882 eqq.
F• Dfax MOller and others, The Sacred
BBE . . . . . . . . . I Books of. • the, East. Oxford, 1879 sqq.,
				Vol. xlviu., 1904
				Sacred Books of the Old Testament (" Rain
	.BBOT	. . 	.	bow 4 sqq.
				sic' London, and
3ehaff. Christian ~ P' $eb°ff• History of the Christian Church,
Church . . . . . . .	vole. i•‑iv., vi., vii., New York 1882‑92,
	vol. v., part 1, by D. S. Schaff, 1907
Bchaff. Creeds... Ip. 8ehaff. The Creeds of Christerutom, 3 vole., New York, 1877‑84
	E. Schrader Cuneiform Inscriptions and
Schrader, COT. . the Old 1'eatament, 2 vole., London,
		1885‑88
Schrader, RAT . ~ E. 8chrader, Die Keilinachr(ftcn and doe Alto Testament. 2 vole., Berlin, 1902‑03
Schrader, KB . . . ~ E' Schrader, KeilinachrifUiche BibZwthek, 8 vole.. Berlin, 1889‑1901
	~E. Scherer, (eschichte des	jUd%achen
8eht5rer.		Valk‑ 4m Zeitattu•JeauChriatt, 4th ed.,
	Oeachiehte.	3 vole., Leipaic.1902eqq,; Eng. trans]., b
		vole., New York, 1891
	Script 	.Scriptarea, ' writers 11
Scrivener, ~ F. H. A. Scrivener, Introduction to New Tes‑
Inb»dudion . . tamsnd Criticism, 4th ed.. London, 1894
	Seat .		Seatantia• Sentences '
	$. J. . . . . . 	. . .Societae ,l eau. Society of Jesus '•
$MA . .. . . . . . . ~ Sitsu aberichte de, demo, Munich 1880 sqq.
				Aka
	$mith			. Kinship	~ WE ~ Smith, Kinship and	awe in
Richardson En
	cydopae~ia...
searches, Later 	Re‑
Richter, Rirchsa
	retht .........
Robinson, Re‑
d
Smith, OTJC. . . ~ R'' R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church. London, 1892
Smith, Prophets.. {w~ Eighthh6e~ry Lo don 895 • . Israel 	to
Smith, Rel. of.~W• R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, Sent ... . „ , . . . London, 1894
$. P. C. K. . . . . . 1 8ociety for the Promotion of Christian Z Knowledge
S. P. G. . . . . • • , ~ Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts
°qq, , , , ,••. . and following
	Strom .		Stromata. Miscellanies"
	s.v		nub voce, or nub verbo
$wete, Introduc‑ y H. B. $wete, Introduction to at Old Ter
	lion 	. . . . . lament in Greek, London. 1900
	Syr .		:	SYriac
	TBS . 	..	........		Trinitarian Bible Society
That	and	O. J. Thatcher and E. H. McNeal, A
	MeNeaI,Source~ 	Source Book for Median;al History..
	Book. 	. New York, 1905
	I Theca 	. . .First Epistle to the Thessalonians "'
	II Theca 	..	.Second Epistle to the Thessalonians
ThT . , . . . . . . . . I Tacha Tijdachrift, Amsterdam and Ley en, 1887 sqq.
Tillemont, M6‑~ L', $•	Is Nain de Tillemont, M&moirea
	eocl€siaetiquea des six premiere
	mo‑irea• • • • ~ ~ aiprles, 18 vole.: Paris, 1893‑1712
	I I Tim . 		First Epistle to Timothy
II Tim: 	Second Epistle to Timothy
Theolopiacher Jahreaberxcht, Leipeie, 1882‑
	TJB .. 1887, Freiburg, 1888, Brunswick, 1889
			1897, Berlin, 1898 aqq.
	Tob			Tobit
	TQ	. 	. ~ Theol°giacha QuartalachriJt, Tilbingen,.
			1819eq q.
	TS			~ J• A. Robineon, Teats and Studies,

	Cambridge, 1891 ~ eqSTSBA . 	. . . , Transactions of the oeitty o1 Biblical
		Archawlopy, London, 1872eq q.
TSK		. . . . . . , ~ Theolopieche Studies and Kritiken, Ham
		burg. 1828 sqq.
		Texts and Unterauchungen our Geachichts
		der altehrisUichen Litteratur, ed. O. von
	TU	Oebhardt and A. Harnack, Leipsic.
		1 1882 aqq
	TZT	.......	~ T12binger ~eitachriJt I(tr Thwtopee, Tit‑
	.......	Lgolini, Thewu‑ I B. Ugolinus, Thesaurus antiquitatum,
	rue .		1 sacrarum. 34 vole	Venice. 1744‑89
	V. T. . . . . . . . . . Ystus Teatamendum. Vieux Testament, "Old
					Testament
Wattenbaoh,		W. Wattenbach, Deufachlanda Geechichta
		. _ . . ,			pu.dlen, 5th ed., 2 vole., Berlin, 1885;
					8th ed. 1893‑94; 7th ad., 1904aqq.
Wellhauaen,	) J. Welihaueen, Reate arabiachen Heiden.
	Heidentum I			fume Berlin, 18$7
Wellhaueen.	J. VI'ellhnusen, Prolepomerut our Geschichts
Prolegomena... ~	laraela, 6th ad., Berlin, 1905, Eng.
	teasel.. Edinburgh, 1885
ZA. . : . . •. . ,. . . . . Z°itsch t far Aaayriolopie. Leipaic,
‑	~ 	1888, Berlin, 1889 eqq.
	' T. Zahn, EialeiEung in daa Neus Teata‑
mant, 3d ed., Leipsic, 1907; Eng transl
	Introdudion to the New Testament, 3
	vole., Edinburgh, 1909
T. Zahn, Geachidtk des neuteatament‑
	Zahn, Kanoa .	.	lichen Kanona, 2 vole	Leioeie, 1888‑92
		Zeitachrift Air die altfeatamenUiche Wia
	ZATW .	eenachaft. Giessen, 1881 sqq.
ZDAL. . . . . . . . . .~ ZsitachrtJtJtlrdeutachea Alterthum and deutacheLateratur, Berlin, 1878aqq
Zeitachrift der dautachsn morpenitindiachen Gesell*". Leioaic. 1847 eqq
Zeitsdusjt far deutsche Philolopie, Halls, 1889 aqq.
~ZeetechrLdss deuteehan. Pal7lalina‑Ver‑
11 sins 	psic. 1878 sqq.
..Zechariah
	..	Zephaniah
		Zeitarh~ttt~ur die hisloriadts Thtdopie,
	ZHT .	pubh~a6ed successively at Leipeic.
Hamburg, and Goths, 1832‑7b
		Geitadar%Jt Air Ki
	ZKG 	187~8_~ q	cAichle' Goths,
ZKR .. ... .. . . .. ~ 2dt°• p! Rirdunreeht, Berlin. Tt‑
~ 	en Freiburg, 	q
ZKT .. ... . . . . . . Z=r~t Jir katholieche Theotopie, Inn, bruek, 1877 eqq
ZKW ... .. . . .. .; Zr'Sjt far ku•chlfdes 1Vieaeaschaft and kirchlwhea Leber, , LeiPeie. 188089
ZNTW. . . . . . . . j ‑Veitao1Wt tar die »suteaWmsntliehe Wia‑
	I	nenachaft, Giessen, 1900 sqq.
i ZPK. .. • ... . ... . ; Z 			n~8tantiamwuadXirds~le&38‑,
Zeitadvift !8r urisasneehq/tlicAe T
	ZIYT .	..	.	Jena, 18b8‑80, Halls. 1881‑87, LeiPei
				1868 eqq.
Zahn, Eiaki‑
tuttp .. ....
ZDMG ......
ZDP.... . . . .
Zech .......... Zeph..........

SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION
The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew:
~ _ ' or omitted at the	? = z	y =
	beginning of a word.	11 =1~	9 = P
3=b	b=x	D=phorp
3=bhorb	~=y
Y=~
=g	?=k	a=~
~‑ghorg	.2 =khork	1=r
‑.,=a	5=1	m=a
7=dhord	n=m
			~=ah
	=h	2 =n	11=t
	~=w	D=s 	n=thort

The vowels are transcribed by a, e, f, o., u, without attempt to indicate quantity or quality. Arabic and other Semitic languages are transliterated according to the same system as Hebrew. Greek is written with Roman characters, the common equivalents being used.
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
when the pronunciation is self‑evident the titles are not respelled; when by mere division and accentuation it can be shown sufficiently clearly the titles have been divided into syllables, and the accented
syllables indicated.
	a	as in sofa	a as	in	not	iu	as in duration
	d " " arm	8 "	"	nor	c = k	" " cat
	a " " at	u "	"	full'	ch	" " church
	8 " " fare	t3 "	"	rule	cw = qu as in queen
	e " " pen `	v "	"	but	ah (th)	" " the
		« « fate	~ « «		burn	f	fancy
	i " •• tin	ni "	"	pine	g (hard) "	" go
	f " " machine	au " `'		out	II'	" " loch (Scotch)
	o " " obey	ei 1,		oil	h, (,h)	why
	8 " " no	if, " "		few	j 	" " jaw

1 In accented syllables only; in unaccented syllables it approximates the sound of a in over. The letter n, with a dot beneath it, Indicates the sound of n as 1n ink. Naesl n (as in French words) Is rendered n. 2 In German and French names ti approximates the sound of a in dune.

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
LIUTPRAND, It1t'prand: Medieval Italian historian; d. about 970. He was of Lombard descent and was educated at the court of Pavia, where he attracted the attention of King Hugo, and later became the chancellor of King Berengar. In 949 he went to Constantinople on a mission for the king, but afterward became opposed to Berengar and went to the court of Otto L, who made him bishop of Cremona in 962. Six years later he made a second journey to Constantinople to gain the hand of a Greek princess for Otto II. His three works, none of which are complete, are as follows: Ayttapodosis, a history from 887 to 949, designed to requite the good and evil which he had experienced and directed especially against Berengar and Wills; Liber de rebus gestis Ottonis magrti imperatoris, a history from 960 to 964; and Relatio de legations ConstantinoPolitanca, describing his second visit to the city. His style is attractive, but the subjectivity and unreliability of his writings render their historical value only secondary. (A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His works are collected in MGH, Script., iii (1839), 284‑383, and in MPL, cxaxvi. 787‑938. Consult: R. A. Kopke, De vita et scriptie Liudprandi, Berlin, 1842; C. Dandliker and J. J. Willer, Luidprand non Cremona and seine Quellen, Leipaic, 1871; F. KShler, Beilrt<ge zur Textkritik Liudpranda von Cremona, in NA, viii (1883), 49‑89; A. Zanelli, Una Zegazione a Coatantinopoti net aecolo x., Brescia, 1883; Wattenbach, DGQ, i (1885), 347, 391‑398, i (1893), 372, 42328; L. von Ranks, Weltpeachichte, viii. 834‑655, Leipaie, 1887; Potthsat, Wegmeiaer, 742‑744 (for further literature).

LIVERMORE, ABIEL ABBOT: American Unitarian; b. at Wilton, N. H., Oct. 30, 1811; d. there Nov. 28, 1892. He was graduated at Harvard College (1833) and at the Harvard Divinity School (1836). He was pastor at Keens, N. H. (1836‑50), Cincinnati, O. (1850‑56), and at Yonkers, N. Y. (18573); editing while he was in Yonkers The Christian Inquirer. He was president of the Meadville, Penn., Theological School (1863‑89). He wrote: Commentaries on the Gospels (2 vole., Boston and New York, 1850), Acts (1844), and Romans (1854); Lectures to Young Men (Keens, 1846); and the Marriage Offering (Boston, 1848).

LIVIffG GOD, CHURCH OF THE: An organization founded in 1894 in Indianapolis, Ind., by John Vinson (q.v.) and his mother, Mary Jane Vinson, and by others in other places. It is Congregational in polity; has as officers elders and deacons, serving the local churches; and believes in annual associations of all local churches by dele‑
VIL‑1
gates. It lays stress upon the fact that its ministry is composed of men and women called by the Holy Spirit; makes the Bible its creed and book of discipline; and its ordinances are baptism of converted believers by immersion, the Lord's Supper, washing of feet, and the kiss of salutation, and it regards as of special importance the visitation of the sick and needy. The church also decals of special importance the doctrine of sanctification. It holds that Adam and Eve were created holy in soul, spirit, and body, and were posed of free will; that both were allured by Satan and being led by him they disobeyed God's command, after which Satan in spirit entered into, and depraved them wholly. The depravity to which they were thus subjected affected by heredity only the bodies of their descendants, but soul and spirit of all infants, being the creation and gift of God at conception (Eccl. xii. 7; Zech, xii. 1; Heb. xii. 9), are pure until by voluntary yielding to Satan's temptations they become defiled by their can first act of sin, after the fashion of Adam and Eve. To meet this doctrine of sin and depravity they regard the true doctrine of sanctification to be the following. The act itself is a " setting apart," a " separation," in which there are six steps: (1) Universal Salvation through the blood of Jesus Christ of all infants from conception until the time when they voluntarily sin (Rom. v. 18; Matt. xix. 14). (2) Regeneration‑conversion, by faith and repentance through the blood of Jesus, whereby the indwelling Satan, installed by the commission of the first act of sin, is turned out, when Jesus Christ, the Holy Spirit and love enter the believer by faith in the risen Lord (Luke xi. 24‑26; Eph. ii. 2, iv. 22‑23; Col. iii. 9‑10; John i. 13; Rom. v. 5). (3) Instantaneous cleansing of soul, spirit and body, of all depravity, thus resulting in perfect holiness (II Cor. vii. 1; Heb. vi. 1), by the blood of Jesus Christ and the believer's faith and consecration (Rom. xii. 1; Heb. xii. 14, etc.). (4) Baptism by the Holy Spirit resulting in the full manifestation of the fulness of the Holy Spirit and of the fire of love (Matt. iii. 11; Acts i. 5, 8, ii. 1‑21). (5) Resurrection, affecting the body on the final judgment day, the body being changed, cleansed from its vileness into the likeness of Christ's glorious body (Dan. xii. 2; Rom. viii. 23; I Cor. xv. 52‑55; Phil. iii. 21). (0 The healing of the physical body from all diseases by and through the blood of Jesus and by the prayer of faith, diseases being caused directly or indirectly

Livingston
Livingstone
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
by Satan and his demons (Isa. liii. 4‑5, R. V. margin; Matt. viii. 17; James v. 14‑15; Mark ix. 2129; Luke xiii. 11‑17).
Statistics are not at hand, but the church reports two congregations in Indianapolis, Ind., and many scattered adherents elsewhere. JOHN VINSON.

LIVINGSTON, JOHN HENRY: The "father of the Reformed Dutch Church in America, "; b. at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., May 30, 1748; d. in New Brunswick, N. J., Jan. 20, 1825. He attended Yale College (M.A., 1762) and began the study of law, but went to Holland in 1766 to study theology at the University of Utrecht (D.D., 1770). He was licensed by the Classia of Amsterdam in .1769, and in 1770 he became second English preacher. in the Reformed Dutch Church in New York. Driven from the city by the Revolution, he preached at Kingston 1776, at Albany 1776‑79, at Livingstone Manor 1779‑81, and at Poughkeepsie 1781,83. In 1784 he was appointed by the general synod professor of didactic and polemic theology; and in 1810 the synod called him to New Brunswick to open a theological seminary there, and at the same time he was elected president of Queen's (now Rutger'a) College. These two offices he held until his death. By his learning, piety, and dignity, he won the respect of both parties then existing in the church; and under his skilful management "the Conferentie" and "the Coetus" were united (1771). Thus the credit of forming the independent organization of the Reformed (Dutch) Church in America (q.v.) moat be given to him. It was he, also, who principally shaped the constitution of this church, and prepared its first psalm‑ and hymn‑book (1787). As a preacher he was much admired. His theological lectures are preserved in manuscript in the Sage Library, New Brunswick, but an abstract of them was published by the Rev. Alva Neal,‑New York, 1831, 2d ed. 1832. His publications include several sermons, also Funeral Service, or Meditations adapted to Funeral Addresses (New York, 1812); and A Dissertation on the Marriage of a Man with his Sister‑in‑Law (strongly condemning it as unlawful; New Brunswick, 1816).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Gunn, Memoirs qJ John Harry Liroinp
	aWn, New York, 1829, condensed by T. W. Chambers, 1868.
	LIVIftGSTONE, DAVID: Explorer and mis
sionary in Africa, was born at Blantyre (8 In. s.e.
of Glasgow) Mar. 19, 1813, and died in Ilala,
Central Africa, May 1, 1873. He grew up amid
the austere Scotch piety of his home, with very
limited schooling. At ten he went to work in a
cotton factory, and formed the habit of putting
		most of his earnings into the acquisi
	Early tion of books (a Latin grammar, works
	Life and on natural .aeienoe, etc.), which he
	Education. studied far into the night. His studies
		were so successful that in 1830 he was
able to enter the University of Glasgow, with the
object of studying medicine, supporting himself by
factory work in the summer months. To this pe
riod belongs his awakening to personal Christian
ity. He describes his inner transformation as be
ing similar to the curing of color‑blindness. His
desire to serve the kingdom of God was directed
by an appeal of Giitzlaff's toward the mission in China. He began to study theology with the design of going to China as an independent missionary. Some friends, however, induced him to join an organized mission. In 1838 he entered the service of the London Missionary Society, at whose expense he continued his studies. When these were completed, his proposed expedition to China was prevented by the outbreak of the Opium War. Through the influence of Robert Moffat, then in England, his thoughts were turned to South Africa, for which he was duly commissioned on Dec. 8, 1840.
At Moffat's station, Kuruman, Livingstone was to learn the language of the Bechuana, people. While astonished at the results already achieved there, he was obliged to modify his earlier conceptions. In many particulars he was
Early Mis‑ not in harmony with the existing
sionary methods. Before long his character‑
Labors.istic impulse to go further manifested
	itself. A few months after his arrival
	he made a journey of over 700 miles, winning the
	confidence of the natives wherever he went by his
	medical activity. Upon Moffat's return with the
	young missionary Edwards, Livingstone migrated
	with the latter to the Ba‑katla tribe. Here, with
	great practical efficiency, he organized the Mabotsa
	station, to which in 1843 be brought Moffat's
	daughter as his wife. On account of difficulties
	arising apparently out of the wounded vanity of
	his colleague, who even brought charges against
him before the In.	board of directors, Liv
	ingatone proceeded in 1846 to the country of the
	Bakwena, deserting the house and plantations at
	Mabotsa. He now founded a station on the river
	Kolobefi to which Setshele, the chieftain, trans
	ferred his capital. This chief, who had known
	Livingstone since his first journey, was deeply im
	pressed by his teaching, and when he made up his
	mind to abandon polygamy he was baptized.. Un
	fortunately, but few of his subjects followed him.
	Concerning Livingstone's personal missionary la
	bors at this period little is known, as his diaries have
	been lost. Since he refused ‑to_ take in any but
	true believers, the congregation remained very
	small. He himself seems to have been far from
	satisfied with his labors here, which would never
have made him famous.
His great nature impelled him onward. There was no rest for him at KolobeH. At the coat of laborious journeys, he was continually seeking new tribes. The immediate occasion was furnished by the destruction of his station by the Boers, who, having retreated before the English power into the interior, kept a sharp watch to prevent the natives from obtaining firearms, while Livingstone, a thorough free‑trader, paid no attention to their wishes. So when Setshele failed to comply with the demand of the Boers that he should suppress this traffic in his tribe, a retaliatory expedition was undertaken against his capital, in which the mission station was destroyed. At the time Livingstone with his wife and child was on the journey in course of which he discovered Lake Ngami, and was paving the way by his acquaintance with Sebituane, chief of the Makololo, toward wider enterprises.

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Livingston
Livingston$
After escorting his family to Cape Town, he returned, and in 1853 began some preliminary missionary labor with the tribe at Linyanti on the River Tahobe, which was in time to spread abroad to the Barotse race, then subject to the Makololo, in the luxuriantly fertile Zambesi plain. A mission of this kind‑, however, required a direct and easy way of communication with home. In order to seek ouch a way, Livingstone, supplied by Sekeletu (son and successor of Sebituane) with a great company of bearers, undertook the journey to Loanda, where he arrived May 31, 1854. After a short rest he returned to the Makololo, whose capital; by his advice, was transferred to the north bank of the Zambesi. Next he proceeded down stream to the east, discovered Victoria Falls, and in the spring of 1856 reached the Portuguese colony of Tete, where he left his Makololo companions and returned by way of Kiliinane to England.
Livingstone the missionary had become a worldrenowned explorer. While writing the accounts of his travels, and, in the midst of diverting influences, very extensive new plane took shape in his mind. A mission on vast lines, combined with colonization and trade, was contemplated. He severed his connection with the London Missionary Society,
after it had sanctioned the founding Ezplora‑ of a Makololo mission, which he promtions iced to support. He personally as‑
i8g8fi¢. sumed the leadership of an expedition
to the Zambesi with government support, in the capacity of British consul. With this was combined an enterprise of the Universities Mission looking toward the establishment of a " colonizing mission " in the Zambesi district. This second period of Livingstone's activity in Africa. (18584) was full of difficulties, disappointments, and failures. In the ascent of the Zambesi, the expedition found little support among the Portuguese. What proved the most serious obstacle to Livingstone's plans was their toleration of the slave‑trade. Meanwhile be explored the Shire, a left‑bank tributary of the Zambesi; discovered Lake Shirwa and reached, by way of the south, Lake Nyasa, which had been recently discovered along its eastern shore by the German explorer Roscher. He then journeyed overland to the Makololo, among whom in the mean time a mission had been founded by the London Society amid the greatest difficulties, but fever had carried off its entire staff. Shortly afterward, in an uprising of the subject tribes, the Makololo were exterminated. Their tribal lands were assigned to the Barotse, among whom eventually the Paris mission assumed the labor toward‑ which Livingstone had aspired in connection with that region. Bishop MacKenzie meanwhile had arrived with missionaries and colonists. The first station of the colonizing mission was founded near Lake Shirwa. But while Livingstone was occupied with the farther exploration of Lake Nyasa (1862), the new establishment once again succumbed to the ravages of fever, drought, famine, and the assaults of the savage slave‑hunter Ajawa. After the bishop's death, the few remaining members removed the colony to the Shire. They succeeded no better
here in effecting a permanent settlement; and thus
the realization of Livingstone's favorite . plan was
frustrated. Besides all this, he had been troubled
by dissensions among the officers of the expedition.
A fresh reinforcement arrived, including Mrs. Liv
ingetone, who desired to .share her husband's
journeys. A few weeks later, he had to commit
his wife to the grave (1862). From the depth of
mourning he roused himself to new labor. He
sought to discover a better approach to Lake
Nyasa and the interior by way of the Rovuma.
Here again many difficulties and disappointments
were encountered. It grew plainer and plainer that
the objects of the expedition were not yet to be real
ized, and in 1864 it was recalled by the Government.
	Livingstone remained only a year in England.
With the vigorous cooperation of persons of influ
ence, he formed new plans, which no longer had to
do with definite missionary labors, but contem
plated the solution of that great problem of civil
		ization, the opening up of central
	Final Africa, especial stress being laid on
	Period of the suppression of the slave‑trade.
	African Directly after completing his second
	Work, book, The Zambesi and its Tributaries
	:86g‑q3. (London, 1864), he sailed for Bombay
		with the idea of organizing a new ex
pedition from that base. He recruited soldiers in
India; and two native Africans, Chums and Susi,
trained in an Indian mission school, became his
faithful servants. The bearers were recruited on
Johanna Island. Provision was made for beasts
of burden, including camels, buffaloes, mules, and
asses. This imposing expedition was led by Liv
ingstone, the sole European member of it, by way
of Zanzibar to the mouth of the Rovuma. His
plan was to pass around the Portuguese colony and
open a route for legitimate trade communication
and Christian influences all the way to the interior
of the continent. As the expedition proceeded
geographical exploration became more and more
prominent in its work. Again, and very soon,
unexpected difficulties occurred. In course of a
few months the Indian soldiers had to be sent back
as totally unserviceable. Livingstone: understood
the Africans very well, but not the Indians. The
animals perished down to the last one. Lake
Nyasa was reached with great efforts. Attacked
by the savage Mafitu, the carriers from Johanna
fled back to their home, and spread the report that
Livingstone had been murdered, but he and the
remnants of the caravan eluded the pursuers.
While all Europe was mourning over his death, he
still pushed on amid the greatest obstacles, sick,
without medicine or proper food; and, falling in
with an Arab caravan, arrived at Kasembe, thence
discovering Lake Moero, and reaching Ujiji on Lake
Tanganyika. Provisions were to await him here,
but the Arab agent, weary of the delay, squandered
them and embezzled the money. Despite all this,
Livingstone so promptly recovered his strength in
the wholesome air that he soon (1869), with his few
attendants undertook a new expedition westward
through the district of the cannibal Manyeina. At
Nyangwe lie reached the Lualaba, and supposed he
had discovered the upper reaches of the Nile. He

Livingstone	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	4
Lobwadser
	sought 'vainly to obtain a boat of some kind, fell
sick again, and wearily dragged himself, with three
attendants, back to Ujiji.	Here he was met by the
	intrepid explorer, Henry M. Stanley, who had been
sent out in search of him.	Under his fostering care
	Livingstone recovered, and they both undertook
a journey of exploration to the north end of Tan
	ganyika, ascertaining that this lake was not con
nected with the Nile.	The search for the source
	of the Nile had come to be more and more Living
stone's preoccupation, and with this in view he
	withstood Stanley's entreaties to return with him
to Europe.	They parted with regret in Mar., 1872,
	and Livingstone turned to the exploration of the
sources of the Lualaba.	He discovered Lake Ban
	gweolo, by a journey which took him largely through
swampy and flooded country.	His servants car
	ried their sick master day after day, many a time
through long reaches of water.	At Tshitambo's
	village in Ilala they built him a but and nursed
	him faithfully, until one morning they found his
	dead body in a kneeling posture by his couch. They
	embalmed his corpse, packed it in a bale of mer
	chandise, and carried it in a wonderful funeral pro
cession, amid many perils, to the coast.	On Apr.
18, 1874, it was deposited in Westminster Abbey.
	Livingstone the missionary developed into the
	pioneer of civilization, and ultimately into the geo
graphical explorer.	But he never lost sight of the
	fact that only the Gospel could bring true succor
	to the peoples of Africa,. During his very last
	journey, he still observed regular devotions with
	his attendants, and, as long as his strength lasted,
	divine worship on Sunday. The latest entries in
his diary evince unswerving profound piety.	His
	discoveries were carried further with much success
	by Stanley, and the African continent was opened to
	European civilization and to the colonial eiiterprisea
of ambitious nations.	Although this is unhappily
	not always directed by a Christian spirit, yet mis
	sionary work also has received a great impetus and
	achieved successful results in the spirit of the great
	pioneer, whose name can never be forgotten by the
peoples of Africa.	R. GRUNDEMANN.
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: The works of Livingstone consist of his
	Missionary Travels and Researches %u South Africa, Lon
	don, 1857; Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and
	its Tributaries, ib. 18&5; and Last Journals, ed. H. Walter,
	2 vole., ib. 1874. Besides the standard biography by
	W. G. Blaikie, London, 1888 and often, other lives have
	been written by: J, $, Roberts, ib. 1874; $. Moe®an, in
	Heroes of Discovery, Edinburgh, 1877; idem, Livingstone,
	the Missionary Traveller, London, 1882; J. Marratt, ib.
	1877; A. Gavard and A. Perier, Paris, 1878; T. Hughes,
	London, 1891 and often; H. H. Johnston, ib. 1891; T.
	B. Maclachlan, Edinburgh; 1901; B. K. Gregory, Lon
	don, 1906; and in DNB, xxadii. 384‑396. Further ma
	terial is found in: H. M. Stanley, How 1 Found Living
	atone, London, 1872; W. D. Cooley, Dr. Livingstone and
	the Royal Geographical Society, London, 1874; C. F.
	Loriot, David Livingstone et as minion noeiale, Paris, 1881;
	R. Noel, Livingstone in Africa, London, 1895; . and Sir
	Bartle Frere, in Proceedings of the Royal Geographical
Society, vol. xviii., 1874.
LIVONIANS, CONVERSION OF THE.	See AL
BERT OF RIGA; and BERTFIOLD OF LIVONIA.
LLORENTE, lyo‑ren'tk, JUAN ANTONIO: Histo‑
rian of the Spanish Inquisition; b. at Rincon de
Soto (90 m. n.w. of Saragossa) Mar. 30, 1765; d. in
Madrid Feb. 5, 1823. He studied at Saragossa and became both doctor and priest before he had reached the canonical age. He was appointed a commissioner in 1785, and secretary general of the Inquisition ‑in 1789. The opportunity that was thus presented for becoming acquainted with the functions and the archives of those in authority was well utilized by Llorente. His endeavor to make the procedure public throughout was frustrated on the fall of his like‑minded patrons, the Grand Inquisitor Manuel Abad y la Sierra, and the Minister Jovellanoa. Llorente became so far involved in the tatter's fall that he, too, was subjected to prosecution, which resulted, however, in his acquittal. Upon the downfall of the Bourbon Government in 1808, Llorente took the side of the followers of King Joseph. As member from 1808 of the Council of State, Llorente assumed the supervision of the abrogation of the cloisters, at which time he began to write the history of the Spanish Inquisition. This highly important work was first published in French, Histoire critique de l'Irtquisition d'EsPagne (4 vole., Paris, 1817‑18); then is Spanish (10 vole., Madrid, 1822); then in German, English (London, 1826), Dutch, and Italian. The reactionary Government succeeded in punishing the author, for his ecclesiastical functions were annulled, and at the university there was even issued an order forbidding him to give instruction in his mother tongue, and when the Portrait polilique des Pages (2 vo1s., Paris, 1822) appeared, he was banished. But being included under the universal political amnesty of 1820, he returned to Spain; he had scarcely reached Madrid, however, when his death occurred. The value of his principal work lies in the fact that it supplies extracts from documents no longer accessible. K. BENRATH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources for a biography are his own statements in the Notice biopraphique, Paris, 1818, and the life by his friend Mahul in Revue eneyelopEdique, xviii (1823). Consult further: C. J. von Hefele, Der Cardinal Ximenea, Tiibingen, 1851, Eng. tranel., London, 1860; P. Gams, Zur GeachichG der apauiachen Inquisition, Regensburg, 1878; idem, Die KirehengeaehichG van Spanien, iii., part 2, ib. 1879; KL, viii. b8‑59. The German transh of Llorente's history of the inquisition appeared in 4 vole., Gmiind, 1819, and after the 3d ed. of the original, Stuttgart, 1824. The 2d ed. of the Italian transl. appeared, 8 vole., Milan, 1854.
LLOYD, WILLIAM: Bishop of Worcester; b. at Tilehurst (18 m. w. of Windsor), Berkshire, Aug. 18, 1627; d. at Hartleburg Castle (4 m. s. of Kidderminster), Worcester, Aug. 30, 1717. He studied at Oriel and at Jesus College, Oxford (B.A., 1642; M.A., 1646; B.D. and D.D., 1667), becoming a fellow of the latter college. He became a royal chaplain (1666), prebendary of Salisbury Cathedral (1667), vicar of St. Mary's, Reading, and archdeacon of Merioneth (1668), dean of Bangor and prebendary of St. Paul's (1672), vicar of St. Martin's‑in‑the‑Fields (1677) and bishop of St. Asaph (1680). He was translated to the see of Lichfield and Coventry in 1692, and to the see of Worcester in 1700. He was one of the most indefatigable opponents of Romanism under James IL, and was one of the seven bishops who were imprisoned in the Tower June 8‑15, 1688, for protesting against the Second Declaration of Indulgence. With the other

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
bishops he was tried and acquitted June 29. He assisted at the crowning of William and Mary and shortly afterward became lord high almoner. He furnished material for Burnet's History of the Reformation of the Church of England (3 parts, London, 1679‑1715), wrote many tracts, and also one valuable work, An Historical Account of Church Govern.. meat as it was in Great Britain and Ireland when they first Received the Christian Religion (London, 1684; reprinted in T. P. Pantin's edition of Stillingfleet's Origines Britannicce, vol. ii., Oxford, 1842).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A valuable lint of sources is appended to the article in DNB, xxjaii. 43B‑439. Consult: N. Salmon, Lives of the English Bishop@, pp. 147‑158. London, 1733; F. B. Howell, Complete Collection of State Trials, aii. 183254, xiv. 545‑580, ib. 1812; E. H. Plumptre, Life of Bishop Ken, i. 88, 140, 145, 293‑318, ii. 1‑10, 302, London, 1888; J. H. Overton, The Church in England, ii. 181 eqq., ib. 1897; w. H. Hutton, The English Church (Itt86171/,), pp. 227 eqq., ib. 1903.

LOBO, lb'b8, JERONIMO: Portuguese Jesuit missionary; b. in Lisbon 1593; d. there Jan. 29, 1678. After teaching for a time in the Jesuit college at Coimbra he went as a missionary to India in 1621, arriving at Goa in 1622. In 1825 he settled in Abyssinia as superintendent of missions in the kingdom of TigrS, but some years later he was driven from the country, along with the patriarch and other Jesuit missionaries (see ABYSSINIA AND THE ABYSSINIAN CHURCH, § 8). After trying in vain to enlist the pope and the Spanish and Portuguese governments in a scheme to reclaim Abyssinia to the Romish Church by force of arms, he returned to India in 1640 and became provincial of the Jesuits at Goa. In 1656 he returned to Lisbon, where he spent the rest of his life. He wrote in Portuguese an account of his travels, which, it seems, has never been published. The manuscript is preserved in the monastery of St. Roque, Lisbon. Balthazar Tellez drew largely upon Lobo's work for his Historic general de Ethiopia a Alta (Coimbra, 1660), which has often been attributed to Lobo. AbbE; Legrand translated Lobo's work into French under the title Voyage historique de Abisainie (Paris, 1728), which was translated by Dr. Johnson‑as A Voyage to Abyssinia (London, 1735; new ed., 1$87).

LOBSTEIN, lob'stain, PAUL: German Protestant; b. at Epinal (264 m. e.s.e. of Paris), Department of the Vosges, France, July 28, 1850. He was educated at the universities of Strasburg, Tubingen, and Gdttingen, and in 1878 became privat‑docent at the first‑named institution. In the following year he was appointed associate professor of theology at the same university, where he has been full professor since 1884. In theology he is a disciple of Reuss, A. Sabatier, and Ritachl. He has been associate editor of the works of Calvin in the Corpus Rejormattrrum, xxiii.‑xaxii., xlv., and has written Die Ethik Calvin's in ihren Grundziigen eretworfen (Strasburg, 1877); Petrua Ramus ala Theolog (1878); La Notion de la preexistence du Fils de Dieu (Paris, 1883); etudes christologiques (5 parts, 1885‑94; the second part, La Doctrine de la neissance mireculeuae du Christ, 1890, was translated into English by V. Leuliette under the title The Virgin Birth of Christ, London,
1903); La Doctrine de la Sai7ste‑Cane (Lausanne, 1889); &,/leziona sur le baPte3me des enfanla (Paris, 1892) ; Essai dune introduction h la dogmatique Ilrotestante (Paris, 1896; Eng. transl. Introduction to Protestant Dogmatics, Chicago, 1902); etudes our la doctrine chretienne de Dim (Lausanne, 1906).

LOBWASSER, 18b‑v8s'ser, AMBROSIUS: Author of the welt‑known " Lobwasaer Psalter "; b. at Schneeberg (20 m. s.s.w. of Chemnitz) Apr. 4, 1515; d. at Ktinigaberg Nov. 27,1585. He was educated at Leipaic, especially in jurisprudence (under his elder brother Paul, then professor of that subject); took his master's degree at twenty, and worked as a lecturer till 1550. During the next seven years he traveled as tutor to some young men of rank, and in 1557 became court councilor and chancellor at Meissen. At Bologna, in 1562, he attained the degree of doctor of laws. From 1563 to 1580, when he retired from active life, he was assessor and professor of law at KtSnigaberg. He was a thorough and versatile scholar, and more than once filled the office of rector of the university. Although a Lutheran by conviction, he was viev~ed askance by his coreligionista for the reason that he based his translation of the Psalter of Beza and Marot not on the original text, but on the Reformed French Psalter. His object was to popularize in Germany the melodies of the French Psalter, of the beauty of which he had received a deep impression during a long sojourn in Berry; and thus he adhered to the texts which served as channels for these melodies, in order that the meter and versification might accord with the French model. His work was primarily designed for private edification. Accidental circumstances, above all a pestilential epidemic, afforded him the requisite leisure for the undertaking; a " noble Frenchman," Gaurier, gave him encouragement, and thus the Psalter was completely rendered into German by 1562. Duke Albert of Prussia, on whose patronage Lobwasser had doubtless reckoned, died in 1568, and the publication was deferred till 1573. The title reads: Der Psalter des k6nigliehen Prophden Davids, In deutsche reyme verstendiglich and deutlich gebracht, mit vorgehender anzeigung der reymen weiae, such einea jeden Psalmes inhalt: Durch den ehruesten Hochgelarten Hewn Ambrosium Lobwasser, der Rechten Dodorn and Fiirstlicher Durchlauchtigkeit in Preussen Rathe. Und hieriiber beg einem jeden Psalmen seine zegehdrige vier stimmen: Ynd taut der Paalmen arideclitige sch&w Gebel (Leipsic, 1573).
The prayers appended to every psalm are translations of the Oraisons of Augustin Marlorat, preacher at Rouen. The summary preceding each psalm and the appended prayer stamp the work as a manual of edification. Although but a mediocre performance in point of language and practical objectiveness, the Psalter enjoyed a success not much inferior to that of the Huguenot Psalter itself. For nearly two hundred years, Lobwasaer had almost unlimited sway in the German Reformed Church; and to this day, he is not quite out of date. He owed this success distinctly to the verbally exact adaptation of his version to the French melodies.

obwasser ~ooke
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
These melodies formed the common musical language of the Reformed of all tongues.
The work was recast musically in 1607 by Landgrave Maurice of Hesse, who sought to bring it into harmony with the declamatory style of singing at that time coming into fashion, and again by Samuel Marechall (Basel, 1606); by Criiger (Berlin, 1858); by Sultzberger (Bern, 1675) and others. The teat was also rendered into other languages: Latin, by Andrews Spetke, 1596; Danish, 1682; Italian, by Plants, 1740, as well as earlier; by the daughter of Landgrave Maurice of Hesse, 1608; by Casimir, 1753; Nicolai, .1762, etc. The attempts of eighteenth‑century taste to improve and expand the Lobwasser Psalter led gradually to its disuse. The appendix, which had at first comprised only the Decalogue Hymn (" Erheb' dein Herz, thu' suf dein Ohren ") and the Song of Simeon, and had then been enlarged‑ by the addition of German hymns, many of them Lutheran, grew continually stouter and heavier, till at last the " appendix " swallowed up the Psalter, and new hymnals arose in which only selected psalms were retained.
As the melodies lost their distinctive rhythm, their charm likewise vanished which the Lobwasaer text, notwithstanding its stiff and far from poetic language, had possessed. The German hymns which bad flourished, indeed, in the sixteenth century, although through the importance attached to Scriptural language and the charm of the French psalm melodies it had yielded to the latter, now gained the supremacy.
	Besides his Psalter, Lobwasser also published a
collection of Hymni patrttm and anderer gottseliger
Mdnner, welche durchs game Jahr in den Kirchen
gesuragen tverden, aus dem Ltitein ins Deutsch mit
gleichen Reimen gebracht (Leipsie, 1578‑79). Some
of these translations found acceptance in the Lu
theran Church. 	H. A. KtSsT1.IN t.
BIHLIOaaAPHY: Sources are: J. C. Wetzel, Hymnopoe
	praphia, ii. 79 sqq., Herrnetadt, 1721; M. Adam, Vita
	Garmanicorum jureconsultorum pp 287 sqq., Heidelberg,
	1820; C. llartlmoeh. Preuaaisehe Kirchenhiatorie. PP. 498 I
sqq., Frankfort 1888. Consult: P. Waokernagel, Dae deatache Kirchsnlied, i. 509 eqq., iv. 844 sqq., Leipeio, 1883‑78; G. Dbring, Choralkunde, pp. 52‑57, 234, Danzig, 1885; E. $5pfner, Reformbeetrebungen au,/ dem Genet der dsufecken Dichtunp, Berlin; 1888;' E. Koch, Geachidate des KirchsnZiedes, ii, b94‑597, Stuttgart, 1887; F. Bovet, Hut. du Peautier des tgZiaee roornt&a, Paris, 1872; O. Douen, Clement Marot et le Psautier huguenot, ib. 1872; P. Wolfram, Die Entetahunp and erete Entuiekelunp du dautechen euanpalischen Kirchenliedee, pp. 134 sqq., Leipsi0. 1898: J. Zahn, Die Melodien der deutachen KirchenZ%edsr, vi. 58 sqq., Giiterslob, 1893; ADB, xis. 58‑58; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 883‑884.

LOCI THEOLOGICI: A term applied by Melanchthon to Evangelical systems of dogmatics and retained by many as late as the seventeenth century. The word was borrowed, as he himself says, from the usage of the classic rhetoricians, in whose works Eoluoi or loci, denote the places or sources from which proofs are deduced. Various systematized indexes of these loci were made from the days of Aristotle, and mere formal categories, such as " person," " nature," or " fortune," were also reckoned under this head. It was the particular task of the rhetorician, however, to trace the concrete case, or " hypothesis," to the general, or
" thesis." Thus were evolved loci communes, or arguments which could be applied to many specific cases. The humanistic rhetoricians frequently confused loci communes with simple loci, or general basal concepts. This was especially .true of Melanchthon, as is clear from his De rhetorical libri tree (Cologne, 1519), in which he sought to train students for disputation. He accordingly advised them to prepare lists of all possible loci communes, and to enter under the proper rubrics (capita) any examples gathered in the course of their reading. Among theological loci communes he lists " faith,"
destruction of the body," " Church," " word of God," " patience," " sin," " law," " grace," " love," and " ceremony." Elsewhere he defines loci communes as " certain general rules of living, of which men are persuaded by nature, and which I might not unjustly call the laws of nature." These two definitions, however, are not clearly distinguished and the discussion of the loci communes is consequently somewhat vague. This criticism applies also to the loci theologici of his famous Loci communes rerum theologicarum (1521), which are primarily basal concepts appearing in the science of theology, to which all in it must be referred. .He accordingly begins with his favorite list " God,"
«	., <.
one, triple,„ and creation,„ and closes with " condemnation " and " beatitude." Although this list was derived from Peter Lombard, Melanchthon's treatment is not only more clear than that of his predecessor, but he draws his examples from the Bible instead of from the Church Fathers, and under Pauline influence deduces, in addition to loci communes, certain loci communiraimi, such as " sin," " grace," and " law." In view of the long and powerful influence of this book, the result of his failure to give a methodical proof of his series of loci was that Lutheran dogmatics was slow in reaching inherent unity. The term loci theologici gradually came to denote the content, and thus the chief passages of the Bible as included in the individual loci, although this meaning was forced into the background when Melanchthon laid more stress on the development of doctrine.
	For Lutheran theology Melanchthon's book had
the same importance which the work of Peter
Lombard possessed for scholasticism. His loci
were the subject of commentary as late as Leon
hard Hatter, and the term loci communes came to
connote any work dealing with the sum of Christian
doctrine. Among the Reformed the phrase loci
communes was accepted by Wolfgang Musculus
(Basel, 1560), Peter Martyr (London, 1576}, Jo
hannes Maccovius (Franeker, 1639), and Daniel
Charmer (Geneva, 1653). After the middle of the
seventeenth century, however, with the rise of a
more systematic treatment of dogmatics the term
fell into disuse. 	(JOHANNES IS,UNZE.)
LOCK, WALTER: Church of England; b. at Dorchester (8 m. n. of Weymouth), Dorsetshire, July 14, 1848. He was educated at Marlborough College and Corpus Christi, Oxford (B.A. 1889), and was fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1869‑72, where he has been honorary fellow since 1897. He was assistant to the professor of humanity

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
at St. Andrews in 1889‑70, and from the latter yeas to 1897 was tutor of Keble College, Oxford, as well as aubwarden in 1880‑97 and warden since 1897. Since 1895 he has been Dean Ireland's professor of the exegesis of Holy Scripture in the University of Oxford, and was also examining chaplain to the bishop of Lichfield in 1881‑91 and to the archbishop of York since 1891, examiner in the Honour School of Theology in 1885‑87, and select preacher to the university in 1889‑90. He has edited Keble's Christian Year (London, 1895) and Lyres Innountium (1899), and has written the essay on The Church in Lux M'undi, (London, 1890); and on The Bible and The Old Testament in Oxford House Papers (1888‑97); John Keble, to Biography (1892); St. Paul, the Master Builder (1899); and The Bible and Christian Life (1905).

LOCKE, JOHN: English philosopher; b. at Wrington (10 m. s.w. of Bristol) Aug. 29, 1632; d. at Oates, Essex, Oct. 28, 1704. He studied at the College of Westminster (1646‑52), and at Christ Church, Oxford (B.A., 1655‑56; M.A., 1658), there making the acquaintance of a circle of eminent men which included Edward Pococke and Robert Boyle (qq.v.), and continuing his residence there for. some years. The Aristotelian‑scholastic philosophy then dominant at Oxford left him unsatisfied; meanwhile, he was teaching privately, became Greek lecturer in 1860, lecturer on rhetoric in 1682, and censor in moral philosophy in 1663. He had . also pursued the study of medicine, and had become interested in physical science. In 1665 Locke went as secretary of the English mission to the elector of Brandenburg, but the next year settled as a physician at Oxford, through his profession becoming a friend of the first earl of Shaftesbury, to whom he was in large part indebted for political preferments which continued to come to him through life. Thus, in 1672 Locke was appointed to a secretaryship which was, for the times, moderately well compensated. His health was not good, however, and he resided in France 1675‑79, not in idleness, however, but making investiga^ tiona along scientific, political, and social lines. After that he was in England until 1684, principally at Oxford, and then h0 went to Holland, remaining abroad till 1888‑89, when he returned and became commissioner of appeals, an office which he retained till death.
The moat important event in his life was the publication of the work which brought him lasting fame as a philosopher, his Essay concerning Human Understanding (London, 1690; five editions by 1706). The purpose was to investigate the origin, certainty, and extent of human knowledge. In this work Locke sought to prove that innate ideas do not exist, and that all knowledge comes through experience by sensation and reflection. He was thus the originator of the empirical philosophy of the eighteenth century which spread over England, France, and Germany and greatly influenced both the political and social theories of his times. His letters on Toleration (1889‑90), Tim Treatises of Government (1690), a work on the national currency (1692), and Some Thoughts concerning Education
Lobwsaser
Locke
(1893) are further weighty ‑ productions of this period. Locke was a member of the council of trade (1696‑1700), but because of failing health was obliged to decline other preferments.
Locke's influence continued dominant until the spread of Kantian ideas, and he is called " the founder of the analytic philosophy of mind " (J. S. Mill, Logic, book L, chap. vi.). His principles were either so carried out or so misapplied in theology that. he became the object of sharp attack; to which he as sharply replied. This ass especially the case with Bishop Edward Stillingfleet (q.v.), whose Discourse in Vindication of the Doctrine of the Trinity (London, 1698) brought on a controversy with Locke which continued till 1699. Locke has sometimes been regarded as the father of late English skepticism (see DEISM, §§ 4‑5; ENLIGHTENMENT, THE, § 7). While in early life he had deliberately turned away from theology as a vocation, his interest never died out, and this came to its fruitage in his Reasonableness of Christianity (1695), and in his Paraphrase of the epistles to the Galatians, I and II Corinthians, Romans, and Ephesians (posthumous, 1705‑07). Of his Works many editions have appeared (3 vole., London, 1714; best ed. by E. Law, 4 vats., ib. 1777); and his Posthumous Works (ib. 1708).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources of knowledge are: Some Familiar Letters between Mr. Locke and Several of his Friends, London, 3d ed., 1737; Original Letters of Locks, Algernon Sidney and Anthony Lord Shaftesbury, ib. 2d ed., 1847; Shaftesbury. Life, Unpublished Letters, and Philosophical Regimen, ed. E. Rend, ib: 1900; J. Le Clere's EtZope hiatorique de Jeu Mr. Locks Amsterdam, 1705; and the life prefixed to Law's ed. of the Works, ut sup. Consult further: G. W. van Leibnitz, Nouveaux eeaaia our L'en. tendement, Amsterdam, 1765, Eng. tranal., New Essays concerning Human Understanding, London, 1898; J. G. Buhle, Geachichte der neuern Philosophic, iv. 238‑438, Gottingen, 1803; F. Bowen, Critical Essays, pp. I‑32, Boston, 1842; A. H. Everett, Critical and Miscellaneous Essays, pp. 381‑451, Boston 1848 J. D. 1lforell, Historical and Critical Review of the Speculative Philosophy of Europe in the 19th Century, i. 91‑147, London, 1846; R. Vaughan, Essays in History, Philosophy, and Theology, ii. 59‑120, ib. 1849; E. Tagart, Locke's Writings and Philosophy historically Considered, ib. 1855; T. E. Webb, The Intellectualism of Locke, Dublin, 1857; V. Cousin, La Philoaophie de Locks, Paris, 1863; J. Tulloeh, Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy %n England in the 77th Century, 2 vats., London 1872; T. H. Green, A Treatise on Human Nature byDavidHume(Introduction),ib.1878; H.Marion, J. Locks, so vie et son avuvre, Paris, 1879; J. Brown, Hora: aubsecivar, Locke and Sydenham, Edinburgh, 1882; P. King, Life and Letters of John Locks; with Extracts from his Commonplace Books, new ed., New York, 1884; H. Winter, Darlepung and Krilik der lockeachen Lehre vom empiriachen Uraprung der aiUlichen GrundaStze, Bonn, 1884; R. Falekenberg, Geachichte der neuren Philoaophie, pp. 111133, Leipsic, 1886; J. Fowler, Locks, London 1887; . M. M. Curbs, An Outline of Locke's Ethical Theory, Leipsie, 1890; W. L. Courtney, Studies at Leisure, London, 1892; G. F. van Hertling, John Locke and die Schule van Cambridge, Freiburg, 1892; P. Fischer, Die Religionsphiloaophie des John Locks, Erlangen, 1893; J. McCosh, Locke's " Theory of Knowledge," with a Notice of Berkeley, New York, 1894; E. Fechtner, John Locks, Stuttgart. 1898; W. Graham, English Political Philosophy, London, 1899; E. E. Worcester, The Religious Opinions of John Locks, Geneva, N. Y., 1899; A. C. Fraser, Locks, Edinburgh, 1901; idem, J. Locke as a Factor in Modern Thought, London, 1905; J. Riekaby, Free Will and Four English Philosophers, London, 1906. Of importance, also, are the works on the history of philosophy, particularly those of J. E. Erdmann, Eng. transl., London, 1893; W. Windelband, Eng. transl., ib. 1893; A. Weber, Eng. transl., ib. 1896; and F. Ueberweg, Eng. transl., New York, 1874.

Locust
Loshe	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
LOCUST: A common and familiar insect of the East. Locusts are counted among the small winged animals which " go upon all four" and were all regarded as unclean, with the exception of those which had two hind legs projecting above their feet " to leap withal upon the earth " (Lev. xi. 21‑22). These legs for leaping are a characteristic of the locust, while other marks are a head set at right angles with the body, armed with strong mandibles and having two antennae, large eyes, and a body formed of nine annulets. The four wings are of nearly equal length, but the rear ones are considerably broader than those in front. The female with her ovipositor throats the eggs, after they are fertilized, into the loose earth. In the spring, when the sun warms the ground, the larvae creep out, greenish white or black, small as flies, in shape like the full‑grown locusts, only without external sexual organs. They cast their akin four times; after the third casting the sexual parts appear and after the fourth the insects are able to fly. In Syria locusts begin to breed by the middle of April.
The two species which are moat common in Syria (Aeridium Peregrinum and (Edipoda migratoria) are particularly dreaded on account of their voracity and their great numbers. When the desert winds drive the immense swarms through the air (Ex. x. 13; Prov. sag. 27) they darken the sun like heavy clouds and the rattling of their wings sounds like the noise of chariots (Joel ii. 2, 5; Rev. ix. 9). Wherever they settle down, the verdure immediately disappears, even the Garden of Eden becomes a desert (Joel ii. 3). Those which are not yet winged crawl on the ground and no obstacle can atop them or divert them from the path they have chosen (Ex. x. 6; Joel ii. 7, 9). Broad ditches and large fires avail little to destroy the swarms, and even the red‑hawk and the rosy grackle (turdus roams), which fly along with them and devour many, scarcely lessen the swarms. Rain is their most dangerous enemy, as it destroys their eggs, and a severe storm does away with them altogether by sweeping them into the sea (Ex. a. 19; Joel ii. 20).
Locusts were looked upon as clean'according to Lev. xi. 22, and they were eaten by the poor as they are to‑day by the Bedouins (cf. Matt. iii. 4; Mark i. 5). By the Assyrians they were regarded as a delicacy. They are often mentioned in the Old Testament as a type of an enormous multitude (Judges vi. 5; Jer. xlvi. 23; Nah. iii. 15; Eccles. xliii. 17); of littleness, unimportance, and transitoriness (Nom, xiii. 33; Ps. cia. 23; Isa. xl. 22; Nah. iii. 17); of greed (Deut. xxviii. 38; Isa. xxxiii. 4), and of destruction (Amos vii. 1). Their advancing in bands is described in Prov. xxx. 27; in their leaping and in their appearance they are. compared to horses (Joel ii. 4; Rev. ix. 7). A plague of grasshoppers was one of the moat dreadful judgments of God (Deut. xxviii. 38; I Kings viii. 37; Amos iv. 9). A highly poetical description of a swarm of locusts and the destruction and waste they left behind them is given by Joel (chaps. i.‑ii).
The Old Testament has many names to designate locusts. The one most generally used, 'arbeh,
is a generic name (cf. Ex. x. 4 sqq.) as well as the
name of a particular species, probably the flying,
migratory locust (gryllus migratorius), which is
said to bear this name in Bagdad at the present
day. In Lev. xi. 22, sal'am, hargal, and haghabh
are named as different species; haghabh, however,
seems to be also a common designation. The
names in Joel (i. 4, ii. 25) are popular expressions
(cf. basil, " the devourer," Deut. xxviii. 38; Pa.
lxaviii. 46) which serve everywhere as general
designations (Jar. li. 27; Amos iv. 9; Nah. iii. 16).
To these may be added gebh and gobh (Isa. xxxiii. 4;
Amos vii. 1; Nah. iii. 17)‑an exceptional wealth of
synonyms easily understood from the great part the
locust played everywhere in the land. Some of these
synonyms may have had their origin in the various
dialects of the country. 	I. BENZINCIER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 8. Bochart, Hierozoicore, IL, iv. 1, 3 vole., Leipaie, 1793‑98; J. L. Burekhardt, Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabia, London, 1830; H. B. Tristram, Natural Hiat. of the Bible, pp. 306 eqq., ib. 1880; A. Munro, The Locust Plague and its Suppression, ib. 1900; DB, iii. 130131; EB, iii, 2807‑10; JE, viii. 147; and the commentaries on Leviticus at xi. 22, and on Joel, particularly that by Driver, in the Cambridge Bible, containing an excursus on locusts and giving the literature.
LODENSTEIN, lo'den‑stain, JODOCUS VAN: Reformed preacher and ascetic; b. at Delft Feb. 6, 1620; d. at Utrecht Aug. 6, 1677. He studied theology at Utrecht under Voetius, Schotanus and De Meets, and in 1642 went to Franeker in order to devote himself to the study of Oriental languages under the direction of Coccejus. In 1644 he became preacher at Zoetermeer near Delft, in 1650 at Sluis in Flanders, and in 1653 at Utrecht, where he labored until his death. He was the originator of a reformation of life and morals in the Netherlands, and was thus for the Dutch and German Reformed Church what Spener soon after became in the German Evangelical‑Lutheran Church, and by the same analogy he was followed by a party of " Lodensteinians," who kept aloof from the external life of the Church without formally separating themselves, unlike the adherents of Labadie, who were outspoken dissenters. He was a reformer of practical life, not of doctrine. The Netherlands were at that time exceedingly prosperous, and the popular mind seemed to be entirely absorbed by secular pursuits. Lodenstein, however, made a wide‑spread impression by his preaching, by his writings, and by his spiritual songs. Of his sermons many were published and often reprinted in various collections, such as Geestelyke Opwekker (Amsterdam, 1701); Vervalle Christendom (Utrecht, 1711); Heerlijkheid van sere wear Christelijk leven (Amsterdam, 1711); Boetpredikatien over Jerem. xlv (Utrecht, 1779). Of his important ascetic works must be mentioned especially Weegschale der onvolmaacktheden (Utrecht, 1664) and Beaehouvn;rtge van Zion (ib. 1674‑76). A collection of his spiritual songs is in Uytapanningen en artdere Gedigten (ib. 1676). (S. D. vur VEEN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. I. Prooat, Jadocua van Lodenatein, Amsterdam, 1880; M. Goebel, Geachichte des christlichen Lebens in der rhe%niach‑weetfadiachen evaupeliachen Kirche, ii. 180‑180, Coblenta, 1852; H. L. J. Heppe, Geschichti des Pietiamua and der Myatik in der reformirtea Kirehe, Isyden, 1879; A. Ritschl, Geachichte des Pietiamue, i. 152 eqq., Bonn, 1880.

9	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Locust
		Loehe
	LOEBE, 1$b'e, AUGUST JULIUS: German Lu
theran; b, at Altenburg (24 m. s. of Leipsic) Jan.
8, 1805; d. at Rasepbas (a suburb of Altenburg)
Mar. 27, 1900. He was educated at the gymna
sium of his native city and at the universities of
Jena (1825‑27; Ph.D., 1831) and Leipsic (1827
1828), after which he conducted a private school in
Altenburg until 1839. Becoming deeply inter
ested in Gothic, he determined on the first critical
edition of the translation of Ulfilas (q.v.) in col
laboration with Hans Conon von der Gabelentz;
and for this purpose he visited Upsala in 1834 to
inspect the famous Codex Argenteua, and in the
following year went to Wolfenbiittel with Von der
Gabelentz to study the Codex Carolinas of Ulfilas.
The edition, which appeared under the title Ul
filas: Veteris et Novi Teatamenti veraionis Gothicce
jragmenta qute supersunt (3 vole., Leipaic and AI
tenburg, 1836‑46), was accompanied by Lobe's
Beitr6ge zur Textberichtigung used Erklarung des
Skeireires (Altenburg, 1839) and supplemented by
the collaborators' Nachschrift zu der Auagabe des
Ulfilaa (Leipsic, 1860).
	In 1839 Lobe became pastor at Rasephas, where
the remainder of his life was to be spent. Here he
contributed largely to Pierer's Universal‑Lexikore,
and practically edited the fourth and fifth editions
of the work (1857‑64; 1867‑72), as well as the
three additional year‑books incorporated in the
same encyclopedia (1865‑73). He also did most
of the work on the edition planned by Preuss of
the Loci, theologici of Johann Gerhard (9 vole.,
Berlin and Leipaic, 1863‑$5). His third field of
activity was the local and ecclesiastical history of
Altenburg, represented by his Geschichtliche Be
sehret'bung der Residenzatadt Altenburg and ihrer
Umgebung (Altenburg, 1841), and the completion,
in collaboration with his eldest son, Ernst Conon
LtSbe, of Saehse's Altenburger Kirehengalleri.e (3 vole.,
ib. 1886‑91).
	LOEHR, lo'e, JOHANN KONRAD WILHELM:
Lutheran theologian and philanthropist; b. in
Furth (5 m. n.w. of Nuremberg) Feb. 21, 1808;
d. at Neuendettelsau (12 m. s. of Nuremberg) Jan.
2, 1872. Descended from a pious middle‑class
family, he went from the gymnasium of Nurem
berg to the University of Erlangen in 1826 to study
theology. First the Reformed, then powerfully
and inflexibly the Lutheran, view influenced him.
In 1828 he spent a term at the University of Ber
lin, attracted not so much by the lectures of the
professors as by the sermons of the famous preach
ers. In 1831 he became vicar at Kirchenlamitz
where he drew large congregations by his original
and fervent preaching. But the civil and ecclesi
astical authorities on the charge of mysticism re
moved him after two years and he became assistant
pastor of St. Giles in Nuremberg. Here his gift of
preaching was fully developed. Like a prophet of
old, Lobe denounced sin without fear, and thus set
the magistracy of the city against him. He had,
however, the support of the Church authorities.
In 1837 he finally settled as preacher at Neuendet
telsau, an inconsiderable and unattractive place,
which after many a struggle he transformed into
a busy Christian colony. From 1848 to 1852 the idea of leaving the Bavarian State Church frequently took hold of him, and his relations with its authorities became very strained. The reason for his dissatisfaction did not lie so much in actual conditions, but in the fact that L6he measured these conditions by his ideal standards. It was the conflict between the ideal and the real that agitated him; he tried to identify the communion of saints with its visible organism. He planned originally not a reformation, but an entirely new formation of the Church. He addressed a petition signed by 330 people to the General Synod in which he demanded the withdrawal of secular supremacy over the Protestant Church, complete purification of confession, and the strictest adherence to the symbols of the Church. Although the synod tried to meet his demands as far as possible, L6he was not satisfied and was several times actually on the point of secession; but his historical feeling and love for the traditions of the Church deterred him from the execution of his plan. As a strictly orthodox Lutheran, he was chiefly offended by the free intercourse between the Lutherans and the Reformed, and especially by their common celebration of the Lord's Supper, which threatened to eliminate the differences in doctrine, although no actual union existed. A proposition was made to suspend Lohe, but many voted against this measure, which, on account of his numerous following, would have led to an actual split within the Church of Bavaria. But these disagreeable conditions were changed when in 1852 the leadership of the consistory was entrusted to Harless, whose attitude toward L6he was less hostile, and who effected a definite but peaceable separation between the Lutherans and Reformed. In his great work on the Church (Drei Bucher von der Kirche, 1845) L6he propounds the strictest Lutheran orthodoxy. Impurity of doctrine is for him as bad as immoral conduct, and Lutheran doctrines are complete and perfect, in no need of development. But his zeal for orthodoxy was at times so excessive that it brought him dangerously near to Roman Catholicism, as for instance in his doctrine of ~ a visible Church and his ideas of church government, the efficacy of works, self‑denial, and celibacy. But he was so firmly rooted in the doctrine of justification that it is impossible to speak of a conscious inclinar tion toward the Roman Catholic Church.
The personality of L6he moat, however, be judged in its entirety. He was not only a man of pure, although sometimes one‑aided, orthodoxy, but a creative power in the field of charitable work. From 1840 he was active in edui;ating spiritual workers for the German emigrants to America. He founded the Missouri Synod in union with the emigrant Lutherans of Saxony, the Franconian colonies in Michigan, and at a later time the Iowa Synod. Neuendettelsau possesses two stately buildings devoted to the education of missionaries for North America and Australia. In 1849 L6he founded the Lutheran Society of Home Missions, and in 1853 an institution of deaconeases which was dedicated in the following year, the eighteenth in order of foundation, but the third or

Looee~her	TIE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	10
fourth in numbers of all Germany. Around this center there grew up with wonderful rapidity a number of institutions, such as asylums for idiots, a Magdalen asylum, hospitals for men and women, s chapel, industrial schools, etc. In 1865 a branch of the institution of deaconeases was founded at Polsingen near Oettingen, consisting of a department for male idiots, a district hospital, a reformatory, and an asylum for infants.
The characteristic trait in LBhe's personality was a healthy combination of orthodoxy with originality of thinking. Sin and grace, justification and sanctification, were the central points of his theology. As a preacher, he was among the greatest of the century. Originality of conception, vivid imagination, and prophetic fervor, were his chief characteristics in the pulpit. Lohe also made a profound study of liturgies and laid down his views in Agende fur christliche Gemeinden (1848). He awakened everywhere the sense for liturgical order. But he was perhaps even greater as a pastor than as a preacher. Ldhe was a man of striking appearance. His head was large, his forehead high; his mouth made the impression of great decision of character; his voice was powerful, and his eye bright and searching. He wrote not less than sixty works growing out of the experiences of his spiritual office and serving practical purposes. His earlier writings originated from his opposition to the State Church, Unsere kirchliche Lage (Niirdlingen, 1850); Aphorismen fiber die netdestamentlichen Aemter and ihr Verhaltnisa zur Gemeinde (Nuremberg, 1849); Kirche and Amt, rtette Aphorismen (Erlangen, 1851); Die bayerisehe Generalsynnde vom Friihjahr 18.¢9 and das lutheriaehe Bekenntnis (Nuremberg, 1849). Of a permanent value are Drei Biicher von der Kirche (Stuttgart, 1845); Rosenmonate heiliger Frauen (1860); Der evangeliache Geiatliche (2 vole., 1852‑58); Sieben Predigten (Nuremberg, 1836); Prediglen fiber das Vaterunser (1837); Sieben Vortrage fiber die Worte am Kreuze (Stuttgart, 1859); Erinnerungen aua der Reformationageachiehte von Franker (Nuremberg, 1847); Haus‑, Schul‑ and Kirchenbueh fur Christen lutherischen Bekenntnisaea (Stuttgart, 1845); Samenkorner (Nordlingen, 1844). (A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Deinaer, W. L6hee Leben; 3 vole., 3d ed., Giitereloh, 1901; H. Back, Die inhere Mission in Bayern, pp. 18 eqq., Hamburg, 1880; K. Eiohner, Withetm Ltihe, sire Le6ensbild, Nuremberg, 1907.

LOEHR, 18r, MA%: German Protestant; b. at Stettin Apr. 30, 1864. He was educated at the universities of KSnigsberg and GSttingen (Ph.D., 1889), was member of the royal Domstift at Berlin (1889‑90), and then became privat‑docent for OldTestament exegesis at the University of KtSnigsberg. Since 1892 he has been associate professor of the same subject at the University of Breslau. He was engaged at the German Archeological Institute in Jerusalem in 1963‑04, and has edited the Syriac annotations of Bar Hebr:eue on the Pauline epistles (Giittingen, 1889) and written Die Klagelieder des Jeremias erkhirt (for W. Nowaek's Handkommentar zum Allen Testament; 1894); Der Miasionagedanke im Alter Testaments (Freiburg, 1896); Geschichte des Volhes Israel (Strasburg,
1900); Untersuchungen zum Buche Amos ‑(Giessen, 1901); Babel and die biblische Urgeschichte (Breslau, 1902); Seelenkampfe and Glaubensnote vor zwei Tauaend Jahren (Halls, 1904); Der vulgararabische Dialekt von Jerusalem (Giessen, 1905); Alttestamentliche Religionsgeachvehte (Leipsie, 1906); and Die Stellung des Weibea zu Jahwe‑Religion and ‑Kult (1908). He likewise prepared the third edition of O. 'Thenius' Kommentar zu den Biichern Samuelis (Leipaic, 1898).

LOEft, Ion, JOHANN MICHAEL VON: German statesman and author; b. at Frankfort‑on‑theMain Dec. 21, 1694; d. at Lingen (38 m. w.n.w. of Oanabriick), Hanover, July 26, 1776. He began the study of law at Marburg in 1711, but removed to Halls in 1712, and finally settled at Frankfort in 1723. As a prolific, open‑minded writer, he attracted considerable attention in the literary world, and gained the notice of Frederick the Great, who, in 1753, conferred on him the offices of Prussian privy councilor and administrative president of the County of Lingen and Tecklenburg, which he held until his death.
	His copious writings, of historical, esthetic, lit
erary, political, ethical, and religious range, were
published under the title Gesammelte kleine Schrif
ten (ed. J. E. Schneider, 4 vole., Frankfort, 1749
1752). His standpoint is essentially that of the
Enlightenment (q.v.), except that with him con
fessional indifferentism is still associated with a
warm and genuine ethical religious interest. His
aim of working in the cause of church union and a
comprehensive type of Christianity expressed itself
in his first work, the pseudonymous Evangeliacher
Friedenslampel, reach Art der ersten Kirche ertt
warfen (Frankfurt, 1724). He made a German
translation of F6nelon's spiritual writings; while
his personal association with Zinzendorf resulted
in Der verniinftige Gottesdienst reach der leichteyt
Lehrart des Heilartdes (Frankfurt, 1738 and often).
The work which made Loon's name best known,,
yet brought upon him the moat numerous and ve
hement attacks, was Die einzige wahre Religion
(Frankfort, 1750). In the first half he shows this
to consist solely in faith in God through Christ,
and in a correspondingly devout and virtuous life
according to the eternal law of love. The second
part treats of the ideal union in the outward de
tails of Christian life. This remarkable book com
bines liberalizing thoughts with the principles of
the Roman Catholic hierarchy, and blends rational
istic and pietistic ideas into its dream of one universal
Christian Church. 	Coral. MIRBT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. C. $trodtmann, Daa neue petehrte Europa, ii. 520‑570, x. 428‑439, wolfenbiittel, 1753‑58; J. A.
Trinius, Freydenker Lexikon, pp. 545‑575; F. G. Meueel,
Lesikon der . . 1760‑18fN! veratorbenen teutaehen 3chriftsteller, viii. 324‑329, Leipaie, 1808; E. Hoyden, in Arehiro
fur Frankfurts Geschiehte and Kunst, iii (1885), 534‑582.

LOESER, lffn'er, gASPAR: German reformer and poet; b. at Markt Erlbach, near Baireuth, 1493; d. at N6rdlingen (39 in. n.w. of Augsburg) Jan. 6, 1546: He received his early education in the monastery of Heilsbronn, and in 1508 entered the University of Erfurt; while in 1520 he was assistant ptiest at Nesselbach, combining this office

11	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Loehe
		Loesoher
with pastoral functions at the Cistercian monastery
of Birkenfeld (near Neuatadt‑on‑the‑Aisch). There
is reason to believe that he was already cautiously
active in the cause of the Reformation, and the two
conservative imitations of Luther's baptismal
ordinal‑Ordnwng der Tau,$' nach tuirtzburgischer
Rubricken von wont zu wort verleutacht and Ordnung
der Tauff nach bambergiseher Rubricken van wort zu
wont verleutscht (both subsequent to 1523)‑are
very plausibly ascribed to him. In 1524 the Mar
grave Frederick of Brandenburg transferred him
to Hof, as his representative in the incumbency of
St. Michael's. His Evangelical attitude, however,
caused his speedy removal, and after.preaching for
a short time in the Franciscan church, he was ob
liged to leave Brandenburg and went to Witten
berg, where he matriculated at the university in
1526. After a brief visit to Markt Erlbach in Jan.,
1527, and a short incumbency in Oelsnitz, the so
cession of Margrave George permitted him to re
turn to Hof late in 1527 or early in.1528. Here he
introduced Evangelical worship and also prepared
an agenda, a hymnal, and a catechism for his con
gregation, the first‑named forming the basis of the
Naumburg agenda of Nikolaus Medler (1537‑38)
and Widmann's agenda of 1592.
	LtSner was. equally independent as a hymnolo
gist; and in 1527 twenty‑six of his compositions were
printed anonymously under the title Gantz news
geystliche teiitache Hymn= vnd geaang; while as late
as 1561 hymns written by him, but hitherto un
published, were still printed, so that their entire
number, amounts to something more than thirty
seven. In like manner his Vntsrricht des glaubena
oder Christlicher kinderzucht in LXXII. Fragen vnd
Antwortt verfast (Nuremberg, 1529) is an independent
work, despite its indebtedness to Althamer'a cate
chism and the earlier catechetical writings of Luther.
	Ldner took an active part in the preparation of
the Brandenburg‑Nuremberg agenda, but in May,
1531, his position became intolerable through the
opposition which he had aroused, intensified by
his attacks on the papacy, and in July he was ex
pelled from Hof and retired to Oelanitz. There,
after a brief period of poverty with his wife and
children, he resumed his pastorate through Me
lanchthon's influence, and there he published, un
der the title GeistLiche geaang, aus heiliger Schrift
mit vleis zu aamen gebracht, Vnd auffs new zu gerickt
(Wittenberg, 1538), a collection of twenty of his
hymns, three of them new. In 1539 he preached
in Leipaic, but failed to secure the call he desired
and contemplated retiring from pastoral work, de
clining a call to Oschatz. In 1542, however, he
became preacher at the Naumburg cathedral, al
though the opposition of the canons gave him little
scope for activity. In Jan., 1544, he became pas
tor of St. George's, NSrdlingen, where he remained
until his death, and where, as first superintendent,
he organized ecclesiastical affairs as he would;
sometimes with an excess of zeal, and prepared a
new agenda, catechism, and hymnal. The ;agenda
is essentially the same as the one he had prepared
for Hof, while the catechism, despite its depend
ence on Luther's Enchiridion, is noteworthy for its
division into six conversations with 128 questions
and answers, its abundant meditations, and its seven original catechismal hymns. The hymnal, moreover, is of liturgical interest in its distribution of the hymns according to individual services and the seasons of the Christian year.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His Briefburh is in Baib6pe tur bayeriachen Kirchengeschichte, ad. T. Kolde, vole. i.‑iii.. Erlangen, 1895‑97. Other sources are the letters of Melanohthon in CR, v.‑vi. passim, and of Luther in De Wette's ed. of Luther's letters, vole. iv, v.; V. L. von 8eckendorf, Commmtariua a%ticaa . do Lutheraniamo, i. 241, iii. 188, 219, 221, Leipeio, 1892. Modern treatment of the subject will be found in G. W. A. Fikenacher, GeleArtea Fflreb snturn Baireut, v. 305‑318, Nuremberg, 1803; P. Waokernagel, Dae deuteehe Kirchenl4td, i. 388 aqq., 392, 4D8409, 421‑422, iii. 818‑8A3, Leipeic, 1882 eqq.; G. Kawerau, in ZKW, x (1889), 487 eqq„ big‑525; F. Cobra, in Monuments Germanise ymdaAogica, xxii. 483‑480, Berlin, 1901; C. Geyer, Aua der Reformationepeachichte Ntirdlingene, pp. 18‑23, Nordlingen, 1901; ADB, xix. 152 eqq.

LOESCHE, lOah'e, GEORG EARL DAVID: Austrian Lutheran; b. at Berlin Aug. 22, 1885. He was educated at the universities of Berlin, Bonn, and Tiibingen (Ph.D., Jena, 1880; lie. theol., Berlin, 1883), was preacher to the German church in Florence, Italy (1880‑8b), and privat‑docent for church history at the University of Berlin in 18851887. In 1887 he accepted a call to the Evangelical Protestant faculty at Vienna as associate professor of the same subject, and in 1889 became full professor. He is a privy councilor, president of the examining board for Evangelical theological candidates in Austria, and vice‑president of the Austrian branch of the Gustav‑Adolf‑Verein and of the Gesellschaft fur die Geachichte des Protestantismua in OeaterTeich. In theology he is an adherent of the " modern " school. In addition to his work as editor of the Jahrbuch der Gesellschaft fur die Geachichte des Protestantis7nus in Oesterreich, he has edited Johann Matheaius' AuagewBhlte Werke (4 vole., Prague, 1896‑1904) and Gustav Frank's Die Theologie des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (Leipaie, 1905), and has written Florenxer Predigten (Halls, 1884); Ernst Moritz Arndt, der deutache Reichsherold (Goths, 1884); Bellarmins Lehre vom Papst and deren actuelle Bedeutung (Halls, 1885); Analecta Lutherans. et Melanchthoniana (Goths, 1892); Johann Matheaius, sin Lebena‑ and Sittenbild aus der Reformationazeit (2 vole., 1895); and Geachichle des Protestantismus in Oesterreich (Leipsie, 1902).

LOESCHER, lAah'er, VALENTIN ERNST: German Lutheran; b. at Sondershausen Dec. 29, 1673; d. at Dresden Dec. 12, 1749. At the University of Wittenberg, where his father was professor of theology, he gave his attention mainly to philology and history, but out of respect to his father's wish he selected a theological subject for his master's dissertation, in which he opposed the Pietistic. position. Subsequent study at Jena aroused his interest in church history. During travels undertaken at this time he formed the acquaintance of a number of influential anti‑Pietistic theologians. In 1696 he began to lecture at Wittenberg on the origin of Deism and Pietism. After serving as superintendent at Jiiterbog (1698‑1701) and Delitzsch (1701‑07) and professor of theology at Wittenberg (1707‑09), he became pastor of the Kreuzkirche and superintendent in Dresden. Here

oeaoher~ogoe	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	12
he remained the rest 9f his life. His practical duties here turned his attention more particularly to the needs of the Church. His orthodoxy did not prevent him from admitting the truth of the claims of the Pietists concerning the prevailing perfunotorinees of religious life, which he ascribed to the negligence of orthodox pastors. He at once took earnest measures to encourage a deeper spiritual life in the Church. He had already begun the publication of his Unachuldige Nochriehteyt Von alien and neuen theologiachen Sachen (Wittenberg and Leipaic, 1701 eqq.), the first theological periodical. The comprehensive scope and able management of the magazine gave it great importance. Through it Ltlscher became the leader of the orthodox party, as opposed to the Pietistic and naturalistic factions in the Lutheran Church, and the representative of scientific Lutheran theology.
In opposition to the proposal that Pietism should be considered the best means of promoting the union of the Lutheran and the Reformed Churches (advocated at the time by the Prussian Government), Ldacher published several works, including Ausfiihrliche Xialorea motuurn zurischen dent Evartgelisch‑Lutheriachen and Reformierlen (3 parts, Frankfort, 1707‑‑08). In the course of a controversy with the Pietist Joachim Lange, LtSscher defended orthodoxy in his Prenotionea et notionea theologicce (Wittenberg, 1708). However, his most comprehensive criticism of Pietism appeared in his magazine under the title Timotheua Verinua, in which work he held that the Pietists had a false conception of the relation between piety and religion and that their zeal for piety placed them in opposition to the doctrine of justification by faith. The work inspired a bitter reply from his Pietistic opponents, which called forth from Lbscher his greatest work, Vollstdndiger Tirnatheua Yerinus (2 parts, Wittenberg, 1718‑22). In this he discusses the origin and rapid development of Pietism and elaborates upon its evils. Nevertheless he was unable to check the advance of Pietism or even to pass a true judgment upon the real significance of the movement. The importance of Lbscher'a part in the Pietistic controversy wen not fully recognized anti! the return to Evangelical doctrine in the nineteenth century.
LSscher took an active part also in the controversy which at that time was being waged against the Roman Catholic Church in Dresden and contributed a number of studies to that cause, notably his Vollatdndige Reformations‑Akta and Doeurnenta (3 vo1s., Leipaic, 1720‑29). He also opposed Wolff's system of philosophy, claiming that " philosophical indifferentism " portended a revolution in
Christianity. 	(Gitoxo Mtrlraa.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. von Engelhardt, V. E. Ldseher each aeinem Lebsn and Wirken, Stuttgart, 1856; G. W. GStte,
Dos jetst lebsnde.pe7ehrk Europa, ii. 189‑233, Brunswick,
1738; J. J. Mower, Bsitrap zu einem Lexicon luthaiecker
and reJorrnierter 2^Moiopen, pp. 116‑X39. Zfilliehsu, 1740; T. CrVger, Ldren Laaeher's, Dresden, 1751; G. Kramer, Aupwt HArstann Praucks, ii. 72‑84, 272‑319, 343, Halls, 1882; F. Blanakmeister, in Bsibaps sur sachsixAen %irchenpesckiehk, viii. 330‑344, Leipsie. 1893: idem, BBchaieehe Hire7unpemeAiehk, pp. 224‑254. 282‑286, 304331, Dresden, 1899; ADD, xia. 109‑213.
LOGIA JESU. Bee Aciasr>is.
LOGOS.
I. Content of tits Term. II. Source of the Term.
III. Significance of the Term.
On the influence which the doctrine of the Logos exerted on the general Chriatological development of the early Church see CHRIBTOLOGY; and cf. TRINIxy. This article will deal with the origin and signification of the term in Biblical literature, especially in the writings of John.
I. Content of the Term: The prologue of the Fourth Gospel sets forth the nature and work of Jesus primarily from the standpoint of the apparition of the Logos. The evangelist lays down first the essential nature of the Logos in relation to God; the world, and humanity, characterized by primeval existence before all worlds‑an existence "with God" in the manner of personal relation (pros ton theon, cf. Matt. aiii. 56; II Cor. v. 8) and participation in the divine nature. All creation is by him; without him is no life or light of truth and salvation. Next comes his relation to the Baptist, who was born in time, a human prophetic messenger with the mission to bear witness to the Light, while the Logos is the mediator of a marvelous new fife to all who receive him. Then comes the statement that the Word became flesh, revealing the glory of an only‑begotten Son, full of grace and truth. This revelation can be made only by the Son, who has dwelt from all eternity in the bosom of the Father. After this the prologue returns to its starting‑point, emphasizing the personal intercourse with God face to face as the incomparable privilege of the Logos conferred upon Jesus Christ, the only‑begotten Son. Thus the conception originally laid down has gained in clearness not only by the exact definition of attributes, but by the identification of the person to whom the function of the Logos, the making known of God, is assigned.
The term Logos, then, denotes neither here nor anywhere else in the writings of John the " reason," but always the " Word," who is with God and comes into the world with the function of making known the thoughts and purposes of God. The Word is not an abstract revelation made to the world, but something greater, transcending the earthly sphere and belonging to that of the divine life. More exactly, the Word is a person communicating with God as with one of the same nature, then assuming a fleshly form and proclaiming, without lose of his supernatural being or unequaled closeness to God, that which he has seen of the Father and the Father's counsels. The personal nature of the Logos would not of itself follow from the identification with Jesus Christ, which might mean simply the assumption of a personality and a universal function, but it follows inevitably from verses 1 and 3 and the use made of the thought in verse 18. This is confirmed by other Johannine passages: in I John i. 1, the "Word of life," like the " life " which is afterward taken as equivalent, is the personal bearer of this life, first in the supernatural and then in the natural sphere; and still more obviously in Rev. xix. 13 the rider on the white horse, the triumphant executor of the divine judgments, is conceived as a person. It is safe,

RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Loe~oher Logo
then, to say that in all the Johannine writings the Logos is conceived as a personal revelation of God for salvation or for judgment, a person who has an existence of his own with the Father before and after the duration of this world, as well as an existence here in time and in the flesh. Between the eternal and the temporal being of the Logos it is clear from the whole trend of the prologue that the difference is only one of manner sad not of essence.
II. Source of the Term: To the question whence the author derived the term several different answers have been given: (1) It is simple enough to Hofmann, who asserts that the primitive Christian community designated as " the word of God " the Evangelical message. The author of the Fourth Gospel would thus associate himself only so far with this conception as to allow him to emphasize the personal content of the message. But more than one phrase in the prologue quite obviously precludes the acceptance of this view. (2) Others, especially Weiss, find the source of the term in the Old‑Testament expressions concerning the Word of God. There is this much in favor of such a view, that the prologue plainly refers to the account of creation in Genesis, and that in the Psalms and prophets a poetical personification of the word of God as a creative and saving power sent forth into the world occurs not infrequently; but in these cases the spirituality and omnipotence of God are the fundamental thoughts, and the proclamation of his unconditioned unity leaves no place for a personal principle besides himself as the mediator of his activity in the world. Moreover, wherever on purely Hebraic soil in later times the idea of a creative intermediate cause appears, it is connected with the name not of the Word but of Wisdom (Prow, viii. 22‑31; Ecclua sxiv.), just as where the Word occurs (as in Wisdom ix. 1, xvi. 12, aviii. 15) the influence of Greek, especially Stoic, thought is discernible. The Johannine doctrine of the Logos may have taken up the Old‑Testament notion of the word of God as operative in the world, but this can not be its sole source. (3) Still less can it be shown to have come from the use made of " Word of Yahweh " (dibra dayay, mey»zra dayay) in Palestinian theology. The meymra is used as an abstract term to conceal the name and spiritualize the idea of God; it is thus employed instead of " God " where his operation in history is spoken of or where the context contains anthropomorphic expressions. There is no hint of a concrete hypostasis of the Godhead or of a being mediate between him and the world. (4) The derivation of the Johannine doctrine from the Alexandrian religious philosophy, and especially from Philo, was taken up in the eighteenth century and accepted in the nineteenth by Liicke, De Wette, and the school of F. C. Baur. Philo, interested alike in the tradition of his people and the contemporary pagan culture, found in the Logos a means of reconciling the transcendence of the Jewish conception of God with the immanence taught in the philosophy of his day. A pupil of Heraclitus, familiar with the Platonic doctrine of ideas, and still more strongly influenced by the Stoic doctrine of the Logos as the active, rational, teleological principle which
forms the passive matter, he attempts to connect these really pantheistic views with the Jewish conception of God, and thus gives the Logos an intermediate place between God and the world; his Logos is at once the world immanent in the divine thought and God operative in the world, a nuaitta in every sense‑‑ooamological, moral, and religious. Stoic elements are most prominent in his idea, but there is room also for the Mosaic creative word and the later Jewish developments which add religious weight to the purely cosmological idea. But the religious motives and convictions in the two writers are, as might be shown by a detailed examination, too radically distinct to justify the theory of a definite borrowing from one by the other‑though this only proves that the term Logos receives in the Gospel an entirely new direction when the historic redeeming work of Christ becomes its essential content, and not that there is not a considerable range over which the two are in harmony. If to these points are added a number of others throughout the Fourth Gospel which go to show that the author was well acquainted with Hellenic Judaism, either in the Philonic or some other popular form, the derivation to some extent of the Logos‑idea from that source acquires a considerable degree of probability. But this by no means justifies an attempt to deduce the portrait of Christ in the Evangelical story from philosophic speculation, nor to confine the influence of the Logos‑idea to the prologue, as Harnack has sought to do. The truth of the Johannine combination of an abstract idea with history is shown by the manner in which the eternal, inexhaustible personality of Christ not only permits but actually requires it.
III. Significance of the Term: In determining this it is necessary to read into it nothing from Philo or from the later church doctrine, but to confine oneself strictly to the account given by the evangelist. Its significance for him lies altogether in the religious department, giving him the answer to the questions " Who is God? How may I come to him and to participation in his life and light? " The cosmological interest is for him wholly subordinate; his use of the term serves only to place the whole human race on an equality with the favored people of Israel. The Logos, by whom the world was made, was made flesh for the world; but the mission which he is to perform in this universal field is the soteriological one of revealing God and thereby bringing grace and truth. When John identifies the person of Jesus Christ with the Logos, his purpose is to express in a universal way, comprehensible without as well as within the limits of Israel, that Jesus is set over the world, in union with God as the eternal mediator of his creative and redeeming will, and that therefore he is in his historical appearance the absolute and universal self‑revelation of the Godhead, the exclusive conveyer of salvation. He does not so much as touch the metaphysical problems which from Justin onward make the Logos‑idea a fertile source of questionings. Of the later theology on the subject it has been truly said that it subordinates the moral interpretation of the plan of salvation to the logical, and that it leads either to deistic or to pan‑

Log oe
Lollsrds
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
theistic consequences, according as separation or
union is principally emphasised in the conception
of a mesiti3a between God and the world. The
Logos‑idea as found in the Johannine writings is
well adapted to guard against the Christology
which sees in Jesus merely a prophet or a genius;
it requires the recognition of his identity of being
with God, without which the absoluteness of his
historic mission can not be conceived. But it does
not go into the metaphysical profundities from
which it might be hoped to gain an insight into the
inner recesses of the divine nature. It lights up
history with the light of eternity; but it can show
us eternity only in the light of history, not in its
own supernatural radiance. 	(O. KIRN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On Jewish and ethnic doctrines of the Logos consult: A. Aall, Der Logos, Gsachichte seiner Entwickelung, 2 vole., Leipaie, 1896‑99; J. M. Heinze, Die Lehre vom Logos in der priechiechen Phidoeophie, Oldenburg, 1872; Schiirer, Geachichte, iii. 55fr557, Eng, trsnel., TL, iii. 374‑376; works on O. T. theology, especially that of Schultz; and the literature under Pamo.
On the Johannine doctrine: H. H. Wendt, Daa Johaxneaevangelium, Gottingen, 1900; M. Stuart, in Bibliotheca Sacra, 1850, pp. 281‑327 W. Emlieht, Thsophania; or, Scriptural View of the Manifestation of the Logos or pre‑existent Messiah, London, 1857; RShrieht, in TSK, 1888, pp. 299‑315; J. Rwille, La Doctrine du Logos dens Is qualripme 6vanpiLe et dana Zee auvree de Philon, Paris, 1881; H. P. Liddon, Divinity of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, lecture v.. London, 1885; H. W. Watkins. Modern Criticism Considered in its Relations to the Fourth Gospel, lecture viii., ib. 1890; A. Harnack, in ZKT, ii (1892), 189‑231; idem Dogma, vole. i.‑iv (contains also the later development); G. B. Stevens, Johannine Theology, chap, iv., New York, 1894; W. Baldensperger, Der Prolog des !,. EvanOetiuma, Freiburg, 1898; Jannsrie, in ZNT1V, Feb., 1901, pp, 13 eqq,; W. R. Inge, Personal Idealism and Mysticism, lectures ii.‑iii., New York 1907; Lichtenberger, ESR, viii. 334‑339; DB iii. 132‑138; EB, iii. 2811‑2812; the commentaries on the Fourth Gospel, especially that of H. J. Holtzmann, Tiibingen, 1893; the works on N. T, theology, particularly that of Beyechlag; and the works on the history of doctrine. The last‑named class of works is also to be consulted for the later development of the doctrine, and further works of value are: L. Atzberger Die LoOOalehre des heiligen Athanariue, Munich, 1880; C. Bigg, Christian Platoniata of Alexandria, London, 1886.
LOISTS, f'o'ists: A pantheistic sect of the sixteenth century. The first mention of the sect of the Lolsts occurs in a letter of Luther's dated Mar. 21, 1525, in which he writes that some " new prophets " from Antwerp had appeared in Wittenberg, and that they put the mind and reason of man on terms of equality with the Holy Ghost. A disputation took place, in Luther's presence, between Melanchthon and the leader of this sect, a slater named Eligius (Loy) Pruystinck; and shortly afterward Luther directed a warning to his own adherents at Antwerp against dangerous " blustering and noisy spirits." Pruystinek was subjected to an examination by the Inquisition at Antwerp (Jan., 1526); he recanted, and was cleared with the sentence of public ecclesiastical penance. Nevertheless his doctrines in the following decades spread not only in Antwerp but also in the district about Cologne, in Brabant, and in Flanders. But an additional investigation ensued in the summer of 1544, ending in the execution of Pruystinck and of six of his followers and completely disbanding their sect. The Loists religious attitude may be defined as a corollary of practical pantheism. Man's
intellectual nature is a spiritual substance; =in
	other words, every one possesses the Holy Ghost.
Since man's flesh and spirit are thoroughly inde
	pendent, and with no influence upon each other,
	the spirit of man incurs no responsibility for the
	weakness of the flesh; hence the spirit, as such, is
	sinless. The final goal of man is to vanish into the
	divine being. The LoYsta based their doctrines
	upon forced exegesis of the Bible. There appears
	to have been no relation .between the Lolsts and
	any sects antedating the Reformation, and they
	seem to have been wholly independent of the Bap
	tists. (They certainly had much in common with
	the Begharda (q.v.) and the Brethren of the Free
	Spirit (see FREE SPIRIT, BRETHREN ON THE). A. H. N.]
	It is fair to suppose that the pantheistic doctrines
	of the " Libertines," which from 1545 onward were
	combated notably by Calvin, in the Romance coun
	tries took their point of departure from the sect of
	the Lolats disbanded at that very time. [David Joris
	was probably a disciple of Pruyetinck, and the latter
	may have influenced Henry Nicolas, founder of the
	Family of Love (see FAMILISTa; and ANTINOMIANa),
	and through him several of the more recent varieties
	of Antinomians. A. H. N.] 	HERMAN HAUPT.
BIHLiOaRAPH7: A valuable collection of sources and history of the sect is given in J. Fredericha, De sects der Lofaten of Antwerpsche libertijnen U626‑l,6), Ghent, 1891; idem, Un LuthBrien jranvaia devenu libertin spirituel, in Bulletin hiatorique et ZittPraire de la aoci,Etk de l'hiatoire du proteatantisme jrareCais, xli (1892), 250‑269; idem, La Moralifk des libertine epirituela, ib., pp. 502‑504; A. Jundt, Hiat. du panthkiame populaire au molten spa, pp. 122 eqq., Paris, 1875.

LOISY, lwa"zi', ALFRED FIRMAft: . French Roman Catholic; b. at Ambriisres (6 m. tl. of .Mayenne) Feb. 28, 1857. He was educated at the Seminary of ChT<lona and was ordained to the priesthood in 1879, after which he was parish priest of Brousey‑le‑Grand and Landricourt (187"1); became lecturer in Hebrew at the Institut Catholique, Paris, in 1881; was appointed associate professor in 1882 and titular professor of Holy Scripture in 1889. The freedom of his views, however, caused such distrust of his orthodoxy that in 1893 he was removed from the Inatitut and appointed chaplain of the Dominican nuns engaged in teaching at Neuilly‑our .9eine. In 1899 he retired to Bellevue, and in 1900‑04 lectured at the Sorbonne on Assyriology, but in the latter year was again obliged by
his.superiors t0 Ceme lecturing. Slllffi lhij J;ne
he has lived in retirement at Garnay, in the department of Eure‑et‑Loire. His works attracted considerable attention, and five were placed, in 1903, on the Index, although Loisy claims to seek to refute the radicalism of A: Harnack (q.v.) and to defend the orthodox faith of the Church. He has written: HiBtoire du canon de l'Ancien Testament (Paris, 1890); Hiatoire du canon du Nouveau Testament (1891); Le Livre de Job, tretduit del'hebreu (1892); HiBtoire critique du teaxe et am versions de la Bible (2 vole., Amiens, 1892‑93); Les Mythes babylonierta et lea premiers chapitrea de la Genkse (Paris, 1901); PEudes biblique8 (1901); Lo
Religion d'larazl (1901); Audea wangdliques (1902); LIvangile et Z'eglise (1902; Eng. transl. by C. Home, The Gospel and the Church, London, 1903);

1'S	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Logos
		Lollarde
Le Quatn;eme eva'~ le (1903); Autour d'un pent livre
(1903) ; and Les Evanyiles synoptiques (1908).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. J. Williams, Newman, Pascal, Loiay,
	and the Catholic Church, London, 1908; Publisher's
	Weekly, Feb. 22, 1908, p. 884; Expository Times, Aug.
	1909, pp. 488‑495; A. Ddtres, L'Abbe Loiay, Paris, 1909.
		LOLLARDS.
Origin of the Lollards (¢ 1).
Wyclif and the Early English Lollarda (¢ 2). Spread of Lollardism in England (¢ 3).
Lollard Memorial of 1395 (¢ 4).
Ecclesiastical Opposition to Lollardiem (¢ 5). The Constitutions of Arundel (¢ 0).
Sir John Oldcastle (¢ 7).
Suppression and Decline of Lollardiam (§ 8). Tenets of Lollardism (§ 9).
Lollard Opposition to Roman Catholic Doctrines (¢ 10). Lollard View of the Eucharist (¢ 11).
The name Lollards is applied both to a semimonastic charitable society originating in Brabant in the fourteenth century and to the English followers of John Wyclif. The Brabantine Lollards are mentioned by J. Hocsem, a canon of Liege c. 1350, in a notice of the year 1309, and from his account it is obvious that they received their name from the Middle Dutch loellen (" to sing softly, hum "). They first appeared prominently on the outbreak of the plague in Antwerp c. 1350, devoting themselves to the care of the sick
r. Origin and the burial of the dead, and reof the ceived the name Alexians (q.v.) from
	Lollards.	their patron saint. Suspected of her
		esy from the very start, they were tol
erated conditionally after 1347, and their dubious
reputation transferred their name to the adherents
of Wyclif when he began in 1380 to assail the ac
cepted teachings of the Church in regard to the
Eucharist. The term was so used for the first
time by Thomas Walden and the Cistercian Crompe
in 1382, who applied it to Wyclif's friends Here
ford and Repington. Five years later five itiner
ant preachers are described as Lollards, and the
name henceforth appears frequently in English
documents, finally losing all trace of its Dutch
origin and becoming the national term of derision
for Wyclif's followers from the fourteenth to the
sixteenth century.
The middle of the fourteenth century was a period of religious transition for the English people, and the calm but intense conviction that the evils of the time must be overcome and that religious and social life must be reformed found expression in John Wyclif (q.v.). In 1378 he denied the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church, receiving the support of his university, the court, the nobles, and the knights. Finding his model in the mendicant monks, he sent his closest friends, including Hereford, Aston, Bedeman (all members of the University of Oxford), Purvey (his
	a. Wyclif	vicar at Lutterworth), Thorpe, Parker,
	and the	and Swinderby, to preach among the
	Early	farmers and the artizans. For the
	English 	first time in English history an appeal
	Lollards.	was made to the people rather than to
		the scholars, and dogma wag superseded
by the Bible, which was made the sole source, of
faith and practise. Yet, though the stereotyped
sermons of the mendicant orders were replaced by a new note of religious conviction, Wyelif had no ground of opposition to the ideals of St. Francis and St. Dominic, as is amply proven by his Short Rule of Life with its close affinities to the aims of St. Francis. Their followers, on the other hand, he bitterly assailed, not only for their teachings about the Eucharist, but also for their adherence to the two antipopea of the Great Schism (see SCHISM) after 1378, for their opposition to free preaching, and for their hostility to the Bible in the vernacular. Wyclif accordingly sent out his " Eoqr Priests" to invade the territory of the mendicant orders. Bound by no vows and no formal consecration, poor, and yet not mendicant, they wandered from village to village, barefoot, with a long staff in token of their pastoral vocation and coarse habits of reddish brown to symbolize poverty and toil. Prelates, priests, and abbots scorned and hated them, but the people loved them and flocked around them.
This was the beginning of the Lollard movement, which stirred England to its depths for nearly a century and a half and formed the essential basis of the Reformation. [It seems probable that Wyclif and his " Poor Priests " did not originate the type of Evangelical life and thought known as Lollardism. They rather evoked and made aggressive older forms of Evangelical life which survived the Roman Catholic conquest and may have been influenced by continental Evangelicals like the Waldenses, with whom they had much in common. The movement seems too extensive to be ascribed solely to the .preaching of Wyclif's evangelists. A. 11. N.] The ranks of the " Poor Priests " were soon increased by many of the laity, who boldly opposed the authority of the Church, while some of the nobility who did not fear the wrath of the powerful John of Gaunt, such as the count of Salisbury, likewise joined them. Among the common
people their success was enormous,
3. Spread until their adherents were believed to
of Lollard‑ number at least half the population.
ism in [This estimate is too high. It is not England. likely that one in ten was a Lollard.
A. H. rr.] Their weapon was the Bible in the vernacular, and true to their doctrine that each priest had the same power to bind and loose as pope or bishop, they ordained others to extend their work. By the middle of the fourteenth century the Lollards were at their zenith, at least numerically, but even during Wyclif's lifetime they met a rude shock when in 1382 Courtenay, archbishop of Canterbury, urged Parliament to take measures against the " Poor Priests," whom he accused of disobedience to their ecclesiastical superiors, stirring up class hostility, and propagating heresy. This was averted by Richard IL, but on the insistence of the primate he placed the matter under the jurisdiction of the ordinaries, which were to proceed against the Lollards through their own episcopal officials. The result was the excommunication of Aston and the suspension of Hereford, Repington, and Bedeman from university privileges. On Dec. 31, 1384, Wyclif died, but the movement which he had inaugurated lived and grew.

Lollards	THE NEW ScHAFF‑HERZOC	is
A few years later Lollards were numerous in London, Lincoln, Salisbury, and Worcester, and their tenets, no longer restricted to religion, extended to economic and political life. In 1395, doubtless emboldened by the blunt refusal of Parliament to pass the archbishop's bill for the destruction of all Wyolif's translations of the Bible, the Lollards felt themselves sufficiently strong to present a memorial to Parliament and to demand the cooperation of that body is carrying out their reform. The twelve clauses of this memorial were as follows: Faith, love, and hope had vanished from the English daughter‑
churcb since she bad been lost in
4. Lollard worldly wealth through her association Memorial with her great stepmother of Rome; of z3g5. the Roman Catholic priesthood was not that of Christ; the priestly law of celibacy resulted in unnatural vice; transubstantiation was a feigned miracle and conduced to idolatry; prayers over bread, salt, wine, water, oil, was, and the like were unlawful magic rites; it was contrary to the word of Christ (Matt. vi. 24) to have king and bishop or prelate and judge in one person; prayers for the dead were ineffectual, pilgrimages and the invocation of images were nearly idolatrous; auricular confession was not essential to salvation, but was a source of priestly arrogance and permission to sin; war was contrary to the New Testament, and death and pillage to the poor; the vows of nuns led to infanticide and unnatural impurity; and art was unnecessary and conducive to luxury and extravagance. [Cf. the teat in Fasciculi Ziraniorum, ed. W. W. Shirley in Rdla Series, pp. 380‑369, London, 1858; Wilkins, Concilia, III., p. 221; condensed tranal. in Lechler's John Wyclif, ed. P. Lorimer, pp. 447‑448.] In this memorial, however, the Lollards had overestimated their strength, and the king, who bad taken no part hitherto in the episcopal proceedings against them, now admonished them sternly.
The decline of Lollardism now began. In 1396 Thomas Arundel, a bitter opponent of the movement, succeeded Courtenay as archbishop of Canterbury, and three years later Richard II. was murdered. The throne was then occupied by the Lancastrian Henry IV., who found it to his interests to follow the lead of the hierarchic and aristocratic faction which bad given him the crown. In Jan., 1400, the bishops declared that they were unable to make headway against the heretics, and the statute De oomburendo heeretico was accordingly passed. The first to be executed under its provisions was W. Sawtrey (Cbartris), who died at the
stake in the following month. The
g. Ecclesi‑ act was enforced with special severity
a.tical Op‑ in the counties of southern and middle
position to England, while those who were not
>rovardism, burned to death were either tortured
into recantation or ended their lives in prison. Undismayed by these measures, the Lollards sought support in their struggle for religious and political freedom is the hatred of the oppressed peasantry for the priests who lived in luxury. Both the secular and the regular clergy, and especially the friars, were regarded as baying long since deserted the principles of their founders and as hav‑
ing persecuted their own brethren, the Fraticelli, the Begbards, and the Lolla,rds, for remaining faithful to the teaching of their fathers. In Piers The Plomman'a Creed (c. 1394) a man in search of the true doctrines of Christ is represented as inquiring of the four mendicant orders in succession, only to meet the scornful reply that the words of Jesus are no longer remembered, and not until he finds the " Poor Priests " does he obtain what he desires. Popular approbation of the Lollards, however, could avail little against the power of the archbishop, who in 1408 extorted from the convocation of Oxford, then the center of the movement, the Conatitutionea Thomte Arundel, which were designed to crush the tenets of Wyclif. Among other prohibitions, these regulations forbade preaching without the permission of the bishop, as well as the punishment of the sine of the clergy
6. The by the laity, and required that the
Con.titu‑ writings of Wyclif and the Lollards be tions of destroyed. They likewise enacted
	Arundel	periodical inspection of the residences
		of Oxford students, and all suspected
of Lollardism were ruthlessly expelled. The suc
cess of the measure was complete, and within a
few years the university was one of the foremost
defenders of Roman Catholic orthodoxy.
The movement of repression was now extended, and commoners in city and country alike were in peril of gallows, ax, and stake. On the other head, many of the nobility remained true to their principles. Prominent among the latter was Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobham (see OrncnseTT.E, Six Joy), who gave free scope to the Lollards on his Kentish estates, especially as he was protected against Arundel by his friendship with Henry IV. and the Prince of Wales, afterward Henry V. The date of his conversion to Lollardiem is unknown, but was before 1410, when he was in high favor with the prince, whom he even sought to win over to his sect. During the reign of Henry IV. he bad no need to fear the hostility of the bishops, who hated him for his denial of transubstantiation and his opposition to auricular confession, pilgrimages, and the adoration of images, as well as for the wealth which he expended on the preparation and maintenance of itinerant preachers.
y. Sir Henry V., however, lent a ready ear John to the complaints of the archbishop Oldcastle. and the convocation. Oldcaatle refused to be convinced of his errors by the king, and left the court without permission, retiring to his castle of Cowley in Kent. Ignoring Arundel's citations, he was placed under the ban for contumacy and arrested by a royal warrant. He‑now formulated a reply to a committee consisting of Arundel and the bishops of Winchester and
London, but bas answers concerning transubstantiation and confession were unsatisfactory. After much urging, he finally declared himself ready to accept the teachings of the Church, but denied that the pope, the cardinals, or the prelates had the right to define these matters. He was accordingly brought before another episcopal court on Sept. 25. He refused to retract his opinions and sharply rebuked the pope and the clergy, where‑

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lobo
upon the archbishop delivered him over as a heretic to the secular arm. Henry vainly endeavored to induce him to recant, but he steadfastly refused and was imprisoned for weeks in the Tower. On Oct. 10, however, he escaped, and wild rumors spread through the country that the Lollards had resolved to kill the king and his brothers, as well as the archbishop and the clergy, to destroy all ecclesiastical edifices, and to make Oldcastle regent. There is no evidence that such a plot was actually formed, but on Jan. 11, 1414, about a hundred friends of Oldcastle, ignorant of his escape, gathered under the leadership of Sir Roger Acton in St. Giles to effect his liberation. They were dispersed without bloodshed, but some of the leaders were captured and executed, while two edicts were issued, one forbidding the reading of the Bible under penalty of death and the other declaring all Lollards heretics. Guarded by his friends, Oldcastle eluded capture for four years before he was taken in Wales by Lords Jeuan ab Gruffydd and Gruffydd Vychan of Garth. He was carried back to London and lodged in the Tower, where he was condemned to death Dec. 14, 1417, on the charges of high treason and heresy, his execution taking plate on the same day.
With Oldcastle's death the hopes of Lollardism vanished. Minor recalcitrants were forced to choose between recantation and execution, and all political and social aspiration, if they had ever existed, disappeared. The Council of Constance (1414‑18), moreover, had put an end to the Great Schism, and the Church, again able to devote its reunited energies to the suppression of heresy, forced the Lollards to seek refuge in secrecy and obscure hiding‑places. Driven from the fields and the streets, they concealed themselves
8. Suppres‑ in hovels and barns, sand‑pits and
aion and caves, while conventiclea in the houses
Decline of replaced preaching in the streets.
Lollardism. Their numbers at first remained undiminished, and in some parishes the Lollards formed so large a proportion that pilgrimages and processions, as well as the observance of saints' days, were neglected. Some of the clergy were found among them, but after the execution of Oldcaetle the leader was gone, although the Lollard hatred of the Church was occasionally manifested by rabid outbursts on the part of individuals. Executions for Lollardism continued long after the middle of the fifteenth century, and in 1476 the University of Oxford again had to proceed against some of its members for Wyclifite heresy. In 1485 and 1494 bishops preached in Coventry and Kyle against the " Bible Men," and in the first decade of the following century, before the thoughts of Luther had crossed the Channel, increasing numbers were condemned and burned for possessing Wyclif's writings, reading the Bible in the vernacular, and rejecting transubstantiation, auricular confession, the invocation of saints, and pilgrimages, the very things which had formed the point at issue in 1395. At Ameraham, a Lollard center, thirty men were executed in 1506, and eleven years later sectaries called " Brethren in Christ " or " Known Men " (the latter name derived from a mistranslation of I Cor. xiv. 38) were cited before the courts. VIL‑2
In a certain sense, therefore, Lollardiam, inherited for generations, was a real, though secret, precursor of the Reformation in England. With no Hues or Luther to lead them, they achieved what no other religious movement of the Middle Ages was able to do, when they succeeded in awakening and maintaining a longing for the Bible in the vernacular. The repeated efforts to secure an English Bible

which were made by Tyndale, Coverdale, Taver, ner, Cranmer, the Geneva fugitives, and Parker
were inspired primarily by the Lollard " Bible
Men." From England Lollardiam spread to Scot
land. Oxford infected St. Andrews, and the teach
ers there were repeatedly accused of adhering to
the doctrines of Wyclif'a followers, while Knox ex
pressly termed the Lollards of Kyle, Ayrshire, the
forerunners of the Reformation and the descend
ants of the Lollards of the fifteenth century.
The tenets of the Lollards must be gleaned from the legal proceedings against them, contemporary accounts, the memorial of 1395, Piers Plow»uen'a Creed, Piers Plowman's Complaint, The Lanthorn
of Light, The Plowman's Prayer, and the Repressor
of R. Peoock, but these documents moat be used
with caution. The scanty literature of the Lollards
themselves, on the other hand, shows no trace of
system. It is obvious from these sources, of which
the moat important is the Repressor, that Lollard
ism was based on the teachings of Wyclif and cen
tered about the Bible, whence were derived all Lol
lard arguments and postulates. According to the
Franciscan W. Woodford, their chief dogma was
		that only what the pope and the ear
g. Tenets of dinals could deduce from the Bible was
	Lollssdism. true, all else being false, while if they
		could be convinced of the erroneous
nature of this tenet, they would readily return to
the Roman Catholic Church. The Plowman's
Prayer makes true religion consist in love, fear, sad
trust in God above all things, and also declares that
the soul of man, rather than an earthly temple, is
the dwelling‑place of the Lord. Pecock, in like
manner, describes their faith as based on three
postulates: Only what can be found in the Bible
(especially in the New Testament) may be re
garded as the command of God; each Christian
man or woman of humble soul, and desirous to
know the Scriptures, may comprehend their true
meaning; whosoever has grasped the meaning of
the Bible moat refuse to accept any opposing argu
ments, whether derived from the Bible or reason.
He also adds that the Lollards were called " Bible
Men " because they memorised the New Testa
ment in their mother tongue and found the read
ing of the Bible so profitable that they preferred it
to instruction by scholars or priests. On the basis
of these views, the Lollards protested against a
		series of ecclesiastical requirements
	io. Lollard which find no authority in the Bible.
	Opposition They rejected the use of images in the
	to Roman churches, pilgrimages to holy places,
	Catholic the right of the clergy to possess land,
	Doctrines. the orders of the hierarchy, the legis
		lative power of the pope and bishops
above the Bible, the institution of spiritual orders
and the priestly mediation, the invocation of

Lollards
Lombards
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
saints, the extravagant decoration of churches, mass and the sacraments, the obligation to take oaths, and the justification of war and the penalty of death. These eleven theses are all derived primarily from Wyclif, and are permeated with the principle, common both to Wyclif and to Luther, that the Bible is the sole source of religious truth. The Old Testament, however, was far inferior, in their opinion, to the New, so that everything outside the New Testament was regarded as erroneous and harmful. Herein the Lollards departed from the conservative attitude of Wyclif and Luther with regard to the Old Testament [and were at one with early continental Evangelicals such as the Waldenses, and with the Anabaptists of the sixteenth century. e. H. x.]. This principle explains the negations already noted. The doctrines of God and man, as well as of the person and office of Christ, are lost in the intensity of their opposition to the Roman Catholic teachings concerning the means of grace and the sacerdotal function, although this frequently led to a spirituality which,was diametrically opposed to their Biblical objectivity, since it expected all from the spirit though it destroyed the means of intercommunication.
The faulty presentation in the scanty literature of the Lollards renders it difficult to tell whether they possessed a sharply defined system as opposed to the Roman Catholic teachings. Even their doctrine of the Eucharist nowhere receives a thorough proof, except that Oldcastle held that in the form of bread and wine the body and blood of Christ is present in the Eucharist after the consecration, although the elements still exist. This view accord‑
ingly represents the doctrine of the ::. Lollard Real Presence as often taught by the View of the Anglican Church, and approximates Eucharist. the position of Luther rather than that
of Calvin. On the other hand, Walter Brute, of whom little is known, held that the presence of the body of Christ in the Eucharist is sacramental (i.e., symbolical), and not sacrificial, thus attacking the Roman Catholic doctrine of the mass. This is not found in the works of Wyclif. The view is also found that Christ has written his law in the hearts of believers, and fulfils through grace what the law can not fulfil through righteousness, so that the believer is justified by faith and not by works, a tenet almost identical with that of Luther. (RunoLir BUDDEN81Edt.)
]BIBLIOGRAPHY: The literature under Wrci.rP, Joaia is of first importance, especially Lechler's work. For sources consult: Thomas Netter of Walden (7), Faecicuii sizaniorum . . Johannia Wyc1iJ cum tritico, ed. W. W. Shirley, in Rolls Series, no. 6, London, 1858 (the only contemporary account of the rise of the Lollarde, fitted by the editor with a masterly discussion of Wyclif sad his times); R. Pecock, The Repressor of Overmuch Blaming of the Clergy, ed. C. Babington, in Rolls Series, no. 19, ib. 1860 (valuable as preserving arguments used by the Lollarde against casting practises); Thomas Waleingham, Hiatoria Anglicans (1,87,8‑14,x$). ed. H. T. Riley, in Rolls Series no. 28, 1., 2 vole., ib. 1863‑64; Chronicon Anglia 138‑88 ed. E. M. Thompson, in Rolls Series, no. 84, ib. 1874 (adverae to Lollarde); Henry Knighton, hronicon ed. J. R. Lumby, in Rolls Series, 2 vola. London. 1889‑9b; Apology for' Lollard Doctrine, Attributed to Wiclif/e, ed. J. H. Todd for Camden Society, ib. 1842; The Peasants' Rising and the Lollarda, a Collection of Unpublished Documents, ed. E. Powell sad G. M.
Trevelyan, ib. 1899. Documents relating to ecclesiastical action against the Lollarde are in D. Wilkins, Concilia Mao" Britannia! et Hibernia, vol. iii., ib. 1737; parliamentary proceedings are given in RotuZi parliamsntorum, vole. iii.‑iv., ib. 1808‑34. Selections from T. Gsaeoigne's Liber roeritatum were published as Loci a libro veritatum, Oxford, 1881, and contain much of value.
Of more modern works, aside from Lechler (ut cup.), consult: The Lodlarda, some Account of as Witnesses for the Truth in Great Britain, 1.¢00‑16/,B, London, 1843; $. R. Maitland, Essays, pp. 203‑230, ib 1852; A. Jundt, Lea Preeuraeura de Jean Hues au 14. aiecls, Montauban, 1877; J. Gairdner and J. 8pedding, Studies in Brig. Hint., pp. 1‑b4, Edinburgh, 1881; W Marshall, Wycliffe and the Lotlatda, ib. 1884; J. F. Latimer, in Presbyterian Quarterly, April, 1888; R. L. Poole. Wycliffe and the Movement for Reform London, 1889; A. Snow, in Dublin Review, eaviii (1898), 40‑82 (Roman Catholic); H. L. Cannon, Poor Priests: a Study in as Rise of English Lollardry, in American Hiatoricial Association's Annual Roport, i (1899), Washington, 1900; G. M. Trevelyan, England in the Time of Wycliffe, London, 1904; W. H. Summers. Our Lollard Ancestors, ib. 1904; idem, Loilarde of as Chiltern Hill*, ib. 1908• Creighton, Papacy, i 348 eqq.: J. Gaitdner, Lollardy and the Reformation in England, 2 vole., London, 1908; and the literature on the church history of the period.
LOMAIf, ABRAHAM DIRE: Dutch Protestant; b. at The Hague Sept. 16, 1823; d. at Amsterdam Apr. 17, 1897. After completing his studies at the Lutheran and Mennonite seminaries at Amsterdam, he traveled through Germany and Switzerland. Returning to Holland in 1846 he became assistant pastor of the Lutheran Church at Maastricht, where he was pastor for a year (18481849), after which he occupied a similar position at Deventer for seven years (1849‑56). In 1856 he was appointed professor in the Lutheran seminary at Amsterdam, and in 1877, while still retaining his chair in the seminary, he became professor in the university of the same city, despite the fact that he had been totally blind since 1874. In 1893 he retired from active life.
As a theologian Loman belonged from the first to the so‑called " modern school "; as early as 1861 he had advanced the view in De Grids that the Gospel account of the Resurrection was due to visions of the faithful. His main field was the New Testament, although his only book was his Bijdragen ter inleiding op de Johanneische schriften des Nieutven Testaments (Amsterdam, 1865), of which the first part alone, on the testimony of the Muratorian Canon to the Fourth Gospel, was actually published. Later he devoted himself to the synoptic Gospels in his Bijdragen tee de criliek der sy,wPl'.,)te em, gelien (ThT, 1869‑79). Here is manifest the beginning of the symbolic interpretation of the Gospels which he later developed. His view found its expression in his address on Het ottdete Christendom before the "Free Congregation"at Amsterdam in Dec., 1881 (reprinted in Sternrnen uit de Vrije Ge>neente, Amsterdam, 1882), in which he declared that Christ was not a historic personality, but the incorporation of a series of concepts and the symbolization and personification of thoughts and principles which were first fully developed in the Christianity of the second century, the passion and resurrection being nothing more than the abasement and death of Israel and its revival as Christianity. The storm of opposition which this hypothesis aroused forced Loman to reconsider his attitude, and he

19	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lollards
		Lombards
granted, in 1882, the historicity of Christ, but de
nied that he had founded Christianity. He made
still further retractationa in his De oorsproytg van
het geloof aan Jezus opstanding in De Girls, 1888,
in which all trace of novelty disappears from his
theory, since he grants the historic personality of
Christ and the fact that he actually founded Chris
tianity, although still maintaining that the resur
rection represents merely the metamorphosis of the
Jewish Messianic community into the world‑wide
Christian Church.
	Loman's symbolic theory of the Gospels now
forced him to deny the authenticity of the Pauline
epistles, for if they were actually written by Paul
in the Apostolic Age, his Christological hypothesis
would become untenable. In his Quteationes Pa‑ttr
lime (ThT, 1882‑86), therefore, he distinguished
between s " historic Paul" and a " canonical
Paul," the former making a propaganda for the
Jewish Messianic ideal outside Palestine, and the
latter being merely a legendary figure.
	Loman was not only a theologian, but also a mu
sician, and composed a number of chorales and
choruses, besides writing the libretto of an ora
torio in four acts on the Song of Solomon.
BIBLIOGRAPHY'. H. U. Meyboom has contributed articles
	on Loman'e life to De Gida, 1898, ii. 80‑117, and to Le
	venatrerichten der afpeatoruem medeleden van de Maatachap
	pij der Nederlandsche letterkunde, 1898, 26‑28, 89‑72,
	and D. E. J. Vblter has written in Jaar6oek van de ko
	ninklijke Akademie van Wetenachappen, 1899, pp. 3‑38.
	LOMBARDS: A warlike Teutonic tribe of the
period of migrations. They are first mentioned
by Strabo. Their oldest abode on the Elbe is
recalled by such names as Bardowik and Bar
dengau. While settled here they were defeated
by the Romans in the year 5 A.D. A few cen
turies later, driven doubtless by hunger, they
wandered southeastward into the Danube region.
Under the heroic Alboin they destroyed the
Gepidse, and in 568 entered Italy. In the course
of the next few years they conquered northern and
central Italy, and erected Pavia (Ticinum) into
a royal residence. They failed to acquire Venice
and Naples and the Grecian coast strips, as also
Rome and Ravenna.
	The people they conquered became, for the most
part, half free (aldiones). The few free men were
excluded from public offices and army service, and
all stood subject to Lombard law, and were ob
liged to make over to their district lords a portion
of the fruits of the soil. The several divisions of
the people, classed as nobles, freemen, half‑free,
and serfs, were governed by kings of noble de
scent, endowed with conquered or confiscated
estates, and qualified as army leaders, judges,
lawgivers, and administrators. The leaders of
army divisions were at first dukes during only
a life term, but afterward they became heredi
tary princes with almost royal power, not a few
of them, such as the dukes of Spoleto and Bene
vento, being nearly independent. Unfortunately
for the Lombards, King Alboin was murdered by
his consort in 572, and in 574 his successor was
murdered. Then followed, under thirty‑five dukes,
a decade of turmoil, until an invasion of the
Franks led to the election of the powerful Autharis. He overcame the rebellious, concluded peace with the Franks, acquired the valley of the Po, and married the Catholic Bavarian Princess Theodelinda.
Under Theodelinda and her second consort, Agilulf, the Arian Lombards turned gradually to the Catholic faith. The royal pair founded and endowed churches and cloisters, as at Monza and Bobbio, installed Catholic bishops, and had their son baptized and brought up in the new faith. It was mainly Gregory the Great who contributed to this tranformation. Notwithstanding some relapses into Arianism, the orthodox faith continued to spread; and in towns where there were a Catholic and an Arian bishop the former took precedence over the latter. However, in relation to the pope, the bishop preserved an attitude of independence. After 653 all the rulers and all the bishops were of the orthodox faith, and Milan was the ecclesiastical center of the realm.
The reign of Rotharis (615), enlarger of the kingdom and subduer of formidable dukes, is distinguished by the promulgation of the Edict of Rotharis (643), comprehending penal and private law, and for the first time affording written law. Though barbaric in form it is humane in substance, and insures protection to the poor. Still more humane and equitable were the laws of Luitprand (712744), under whom the kingdom achieved its greatest prosperity. He mitigated slavery and combated abuses, such as premature abjuration of cloister vows and duels. His piety manifested itself in the building of many churches, and in reverence of the popes, although the latter resisted his efforts toward the unity of Italy, which the fusion of Romans and Lombards, already initiated, was to consummate. After reiterated threats from Rome (under Gregory II. and III.), Pope Zacharias obtained peace from him (743), and the partial restoration of Lombard conquests; likewise, from his successor Ratchis (744‑749), who was friendly to the Romans, the relinquishment of the siege of Perugia. Ratchia was succeeded by his warlike brother Aatolphus, whose resumption of menacing projects of unity drove Pope Stephen II. to an alliance with the Frankish King Pepin. In the course of two campaigns (754 and 756) Pepin won the capital, forced Astolphua to pay tribute, swear fealty, and surrender the exarchate of Ravenna, Emilia and Pentapolis, and places not as yet ceded, thus furnishing the nucleus for the temporal dominion of the popes (see PAPAL STATEB). Aatolphus' successor, Deaiderius (756‑774), was at first accommodating to the pope and the Frankish rulers; but after his power was well secured, he fell out with both Adrian I. and Charlemagne. In 774 Charlemagne conquered Desiderius, sent him to a cloister, confiscated the kingdom, and called himself king of the Franks and Lombards. Thus the unity of major Italy and the sovereignty over Rome was consummated by a Frankish, instead of by a Lombard king. However, the conqueror, as well as his son Pepin, the governor and king of the Lombards, still had to fight several momentous conflicts with the kinsmen of Desideriue, the dukes of Friuli and Benevento.

London Polyglot
Lord's Prayer	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	20
The former obtained recognition of his Lombard possessions by way of Byzantium. H. HA».
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources are in the reports of such Greek and Roman writers as 8trabo and Taoitus, in Byzantine writers such se Procopius (in CSHB, vole. i.‑iii.), Theophylect (in Labbe'e Corpus Xiatmta: Byaantine!, Paris, 1848) and Theophanes (ed. C. de Boor, 2 vole., Leipeic, 1885‑87): also in dfGH, Script. rer. Laugab., ed. Waits, 1878; MGH, Log., iv. 1888; C. Troys, Cadiz dipfomatieo tongobardo, 8 vole Naples, 1852‑bb; Dahlmann and Waits, Qnedlenku„de der deutec7un Ceachichte, Leipeio, 1905. The Hietoria Langobardarum of Paulus Diaconue is translated by W. D. Foulke, New York, 1907. Consult: P. Balan, Romans a Lanyobwdi, Modem, 1887; F. Dahn, Langobardiache Studien, vol. i.. Leipaic, 1878; idem, Urpeachiehte der germanischen and rllmiachan Vslher, vol. iv., chap. 7, Berlin, 1889; F. Bartolini, I Barbarfi. Stories dells dominazioni barbarieehe, 396‑ID84, Milan, 1878; J. Weiss, Italicn and die Lanpobardenlursecher, Halls, 1887; J. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, vole. v.‑viii., Oxford, 189589; L. . M. Hartmann, Geachichte Italians in Mittelalter, vole. i.‑iii., Goths, 19008; P. Villari, The Barbarian Invasions of Italy, 2 vola., London. 1902 (2d ed. of the Italian, Milan, 190b); L. Gauthier, Lea Lombards done lea De=‑Bourgopnsa, Parse, 1907; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap. xlv. and vol. v. b17‑b18; Nenader, Christian Church, vol. iii. Passim.

LONDON POLYGLOT. See BIBLES, POLYGLOT, IV.; and WALTON, BRIAN.

LONG, ALBERT LIMERICK: American Methodist Episcopal missionary; b. at Washington, Pa., Dec. 4, 1832; d. in Liverpool, England, July 28, 1901. He was educated at the Western University of Pennsylvania, Pittsburg, and at Allegheny College, Meadville, Pa., graduating from the latter in 1852. He then studied theology in the Concord Biblical Institute (now Boston University), and entered the Methodist Episcopal ministry in 1857. In 1857 he was sent to Bulgaria as missionary of the Methodist Episcopal Church, where he labored until 1863, when he went to Constantinople to assist E. Riggs in revising the translation of the Bible into Bulgarian. From 1872 till his death he was a professor in Robert College, Constantinople. Besides the translation of the Bible, he wrote several hymns in the Bulgarian language, and also edited a Bulgarian periodical.
LONG BROTHERS. See MONASTICISM; and OHIdENIBTIC CONTROVERSIES.

LOftGLEY, CHARLES THOMAS: Archbishop of Canterbury; b. at Boley Hill, near Rochester (27 m. s.e. of London), July 28, 1794; d. at Addington Park, near Croydon (10 m. s.w. of Cambridge), Oct. 27, 1868. He received his preliminary education at Cheam, Surrey, and at Westminster; in 1812 entered Christ Church College, Oxford (B.A., 1815; M.A., 1818; B.D. and D.D., 1829); was reader in Greek in his college, 1822, tutor and censor, 1825‑28, and proctor, 1827; meanwhile he took orders in 1818 and became curate at Cowley, then incumbent, 1823; was made rector of West

Tytherley, Hampshire, 1827; was elected headmaster of Harrow, 1829, a poet which did not serve to bring out his beat qualities, since the discipline grew lax' became first bishop of the new see of Ripon, 1836, in this position gaining success in his opposition to Roman Catholic teaching, though at first he received much blame which changed to
praise after several ministers became Roman Catholics; he was translated to the see of Durham, 1856; became archbishop of York, 1860, and a privy councilor the same year; was promoted archbishop of Canterbury, 1864. Two events of importance marked his primacy. The first was the deposition of Bishop John William Colenso (q.v.), in which Longley declared his belief in the unsoundness of Colenso's position respecting the documents of the Hexateuch and in the legality of his deposition. The second was the first meeting in 1867 of the Lambeth Conference (q.v.). His principal publications were charges and sermons.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Arnold, Our Bishops and Deans, i. 181188, London, 1875; A. jt. Aahwell and R. G. Wilberforce, Life of . . . S. Wilberjorce, ,paae;m, London, 1880‑82; DNB, auv.121‑122.
LONGBOARDS. See LOMBARDS.
LOOFS, lbfs, FRIEDRICH ARMIN: German Lutheran; b, at Hildesheim (21 m. s.s.e. of Hanover) June 19, 1858. He was educated at the universities of TUbingen, Gottingen, and Leipaic (Ph.D., 1881), and from 1882 to 1886 was privatdorent for church history at the latter university, becoming associate professor in 1886. In 1887 he went in the same capacity to Halls, where he has been full professor of church history since 1888. He is a corresponding member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, and in theology belongs to the school of Ritachl. He has written Zur Chronologis der auf die frllukischen Synoden des heiligen Bmaifatiua beziiglichen Briefs der btmifaziachen Briefaammlung (Leipsie, 1851); De antiques Britanum et Sco6orum ecclesia. (1882); Leorttius von Byzanz and die gleichnamigen Schriftsteller der gr£echischen Kirche, i (1887); Die Haadachriften der lateiniachen Ueberadzurag des Rend= and ihre Kapitelteilung (1888); Leitfaden zum Stadium der Dog?wtngeachichEs (Halls, 1889; rev. and enl. ed., 1908); PredigEen (2 vole., 1892‑01); Studien caber die dem Johannes von Ddmaakus zugeschriebenen Parallelen (1892); Die Auferatehurtgageachichte and ihr alert (Tilbingen, 1898); Eustathiua von Sebaste and die Chronologie tier Basiliusbriefe (Halls, 1898); Schdpfungsgeachichte, Siindenfall oral Thurmbnu zxc Babel (Tilbingen, 1899); Anti‑Haeckel, eine Replik reebet Beilagen (Halls, 1900; Eng. transl., London, 1903); Crrundlinien der Kirchengeschichte in der Form von Dispositionerr. (Halls, 1901); Symboliko der chriatliche Konfesaionskuruie, i (Tiibingen, 1902); and Neattrreana, die Fragmente des Nestorius geaammelt, uateraucht and herauagegeben (Halls, 1905).

LOOMIS, 1>Z'mis, AUGUSTUS WARD: American Presbyterian missionary; b. at Andover, Corm., Sept. 4,1816; d. at San Mateo, Cal., July 26, 1891. He was graduated at Hamilton college (1841) and at Princeton Theological Seminary (1844). He was missionary in China, at Macao, Chusan, and Ningpo (1844‑50); among the Creek Indiana at Kowetah (1852‑53); and among the Chinese in San Francisco (1859‑91). He was stated supply at St. Charles, Mo. (1853‑54), and at Lower Rock Island, Edwards, and Millersburg, Ill. (1854‑59). He wrote: Confu‑
cius and the Chinese Classics (San Francisco, 1867), and English arid Chineae Leaaorta (New York, 1872).

!il	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	LoadoaPrayPolyglot
Lord's	er
LORD: A term of address occurring in both the Old and the New Testament. In both A. V. and R. V. it occurs in three forms: " Loxn," " Lord," and ""lord," and represents both different words and different usages of the same word. (1) In the Old Testament " LORD " represents the divine name Yahweh or Yah (cf. I Kings viii. 39), translated in the Septuagint by kurioa. It should be noted that in Gen. xv. 2, 8; Iea. aav. 8, and other passages the collocation 'Adontti Yahweh occurs in the Hebrew, and in Ex. xxiii. 17, xxciv. 23, 'Acton Yahweh, and in these cases Yahweh is rendered " God " to avoid the collocation " Lord LORD." (2) In the Old Testament " Lord " is employed to render 'Adonay (a plural of excellence) when referring to deity, especially in theophaniea (cf. Gen. xviii. 3, xx. 4); also to render 'Adore in such passages as Ex. xxiii. 17 (Hebr. 'Acton Yahweh), and the Aramaic Mare, Dan, ii. 47, v. 23. In the New Testament the A. V. usually renders kurnoa by " Lord " when referring to God or Christ; also deapotka in Luke ii. 29; Acts iv. 24; II Pet. ii. 1; Rev. vi. 10 (the R. V. renders " Master " in the last two cases and in Jude 4 and puts the same word in the margin in the first two cases; in Jude 4 the A. V. translates "Lord God "). (3) In the Old Testament "lord" translates ten words which express various kinds of superiority of station or authority, including even the theophanic angel of Josh. v. 14. In the New Testament it translates kurios, »tegistan, and rabboni. Also see JEHOVAH; and YAHWEH.
LORD OF HOSTS. See Swswoxa.

LORD'S DAY: A designation of the first day of the week first found in Rev. i. 10, to kuriake hftera, Lat. Dominica dies. In the Didache, uv. 1, kuriak8 first appears as a noun with this meaning.
LORD'S PRAYER.
I. The Time and Place of	!. The Fourth Peti
	Inetitution.		lion.
II. The Contents.	b. The Fifth Petition.
1. The Invocation.	8. The Sixth Petition.
2. The First Petition.	7. The Seventh Peti
3. The Second and Third		lion.
	Petitions.	8. The Doxology.
I. The Time and Place of Institution: The teat of the prayer is found in Matt. vi. 9‑13 and in somewhat different form in Luke xi. 2‑4. In Mark xi. 25 there is a reminiscence of Matt. vi. 9, 14, and 15. Compare these passages with Christ's teaching to the woman of Samaria; God is the Father and moat be worshiped in spirit and in truth (John iv. 21). Matthew introduces the Lord's Prayer as supplementary to the Sermon on the Mount; Luke
under altogether different circumstances, although
he leaves time and place unspecified. It is immediately after the visit to Martha and Mary at Bethany (Luke x. 38‑42) that the institution of the prayer is related and the Mount of Olives is traditionally pointed out as the place where this incident took place, although there is nothing in the text to warrant this idea. It wag, however, the eight of Jesus himself in prayer that suggested to his disciples the request they made, '` Lord, teach us to pray." His power and willingness to do this
seemed all the more probable because his forerunner the Baptist had taught his disciples how to pray. In a Syrian fragment in the Bodleian Library an early fabrication of the Baptist's prayer is still extant and rune, " God make us worthy of thy kingdom and the joy that is therein, and show us the baptism of thy Son." On comparing Matthew's account with that of Luke the impression is produced that the prayer was on some occasion given not only to the personal companions of Christ but to the general multitude, after the delivery of the Sermon on the Mount and the calling of the twelve apostles (Luke vi. 20‑49), and that the institution took place on two separate occasions. But a closer examination warrants the belief that there is no real connection as far as time and place are concerned between the giving of the prayer and the delivery of the Sermon on the Mount. Closely related with the text of the Lord's Prayer in Matthew is the prayer found in the Didache (viii. 2), "Do not pray as the hypocrites do, but as the Lord commanded in his Gospel, so pray ye," and then follows St. Matthew's version, with the variant " for thins is the power and the glory for ever."
II. The Contents: Examination of thin prayer leads to the conclusion that it is not a new prayer in the sense that it introduces anything out of harmony with the historic traditions of Jewish piety and devotion. Thus the Kaddish or Synagogue liturgy begins with the words, " Glorified and hallowed be his great name in the world which he has created, according to his will, and may his kingdom prevail, and his redemption spring up, and may he send his Messiah and redeem his people." In the same tenor rune the great Jewish prayer, the Shemoneh `Esreh, or prayer of eighteen petitions, which the Jews offered thrice every day. Yet from the sense in which Christ's words in the Lord's Prayer moat be interpreted this composition may be fairly looked upon as a new prayer. It illuatratea in the fullest degree the meaning of the proverb " if two say the same thing it is not the same," for while the Lord's Prayer can be used to‑day by every Jew who may know nothing and wish to know nothing of Christ, yet it can only be properly offered by those who pray is the name of Jesus, and who know what is meant by praying in the name of the Crucified.
1. The Invocation: In the words, "Our Father which art in heaven," is summarized the whole Gospel, although in certain senses they might be used by Jews or heathen. In the Homeric poems the Greek prayed to Father Zeus, father of men and gods, and the Jews, although with much profounder consciousness of religion, called upon Yahweh, soknowlhim as their father and claimed the relationship of children (Deut. axxii. 6; Iga. lxiii. 16, Ixiv. 8). Yet the word " our " was not meant to include the disciples in the game relation of gonahip as that in which Jesus stood to the Father. Jesus made a distinction to this effect when he said " my father " and " your father " (Matt. vii. 21; cf. v. 16, vi. 8). Nevertheless their belief in their master as a God‑sent Messiah, as the bringer of redemption and reconciliation with God, placed them in a position toward God as their Father which

Lord's Prayer	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	22
rendered it neither impossible nor improper to join Jesus in his invocation of God as " our Father." That this prayer is not intended as an utterance of an individual but of believing disciples as a body appears in Luke's version from the fourth petition, and from Matthew's in the addition to the invocation "Our Father," etc. As the synagogue prayer was evidently congregational, so Jesus gave a prayer which was common and not individual. God is also addressed as Father in heaven (Matt. v. 48, vi. 14, 26, 32, xv. 13, xviii. 35, xxiii. 9) to indicate the distinction between him and a merely earthly father. With this may be compared the old Hebrew usage (Isa. xmwiii. 5), and in the Kaddish is read: " Let all Israel pray, and flee to the Heavenly Father." The Heavenly Father is the God unlimited by earthly bounds, who knows all, sees all, is the omnipotent. He is the Father who " seeth in secret" and hears the secret prayer (Matt. vi. 4, 6, 18). In other words he is the God who is spirit and life (John iv. 24, v. 26). In the earliest years of Jewish Christianity, for the use of which the first Gospel was written, the prayer was not considered a cast‑iron form, but as the gift of Jesus which might be altered and expounded at will in the words which Jesus himself employed.
2. The First Petition: "Hallowed be thy name." The Greek tiransla,tion of the original Aramaic uses throughout the aorist imperative, except in the fourth petition of Luke's version, didow. The sorist is employed to express an act at once completed (cf. I Pet. i. 13, where Wei& elpisate expresses a hope continuing to the end). The petition is not expressed in the active voice, " Hallow thou thy name," but " let thy name be hallowed by men, especially by thy disciples." As Bengel says: " God is holy, that is God is God, he is therefore hallowed when he is acknowledged, worshiped and proclaimed to be what he is " (Gnomon, on Matt. vi. 9).
8. The Second and Third Petitions: "Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven." Although it might be said that the full object of the prayer is attained when God's name is hallowed, yet this can actually never be realized until heaven and earth become one. God is manifested in his children, and his children walk as under his eye. Therefore Jesus directs the gaze of his disciples toward the future union of the heavenly and the earthly world. These two petitions must therefore be taken in an eschatological sense. " The kingdom of God, which we pray may arrive, tends unto the consummation of the age " (Tertullian, De orations, v.; ANF, iii. 683). Then shall the world be changed from a state of sin and death into a land of peace and life and the perfect congregation of the saints shall praise their king whose will it is their delight to fulfil.
The next four petitions deal with the earthly interval which must elapse before the consummation of all things and the actual kingdom of God arrive. The disciples of Jesus are taught to pray that they may have strength to live in faith and love as children of God and thus hallow the name of the Fa‑ I ther, who is asked to supply their material and
spiritual needs.
I 4. The Fourth Petition: " Give us this day our daily bread " (Matthew), " Give us, day by day, our daily bread " (Luke). Bread is the staff of life, " all that pertains to the support and necessities of life " as Luther says. The followers of Jesus may well expect to receive daily the bread they need, as on the night of his passion Jesus asked his disciples: When I sent you without purse and scrip and shoes, lacked ye anything? (Luke xxii. 35). The anxiety of the Gentiles or pagans about food and clothing is put forth by Jesus as a warning in Matt. vi. 25‑34. Although Cyprian (" On the Lord's Prayer," viii.; ANF, v. 452) and Tertullian (De orations, vi.; ANF, iii. 683) emphasize the spiritual meaning of the word " bread," yet they admit that it is used here also in a material sense. Jerome in translating epiousion by swPersubataretialia also attributes to it a spiritual meaning; still not only is this a false translation but it gives a false meaning to the words of Christ. Hugo Grotius is perhaps nearer the true interpretation when he says (Critici sacri, vol. vi.): " Epiousia is all that period of life which we have yet to live; unknown to us, known to God; epiousion what is sufficient for that period." In the same way Bengel interprets the word (Gnomon, on Matt. vi. 11), " Bread, as a single gift, is to be supplied to us for our whole life, but the giving of it is portioned off day by day."
6. The Fifth Petition: "And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors" (Matthew), "And forgive us our sins; for we also forgive every one that is indebted to us" (Luke). The interval which the disciples of Jesus moat spend before the coming of his glorious kingdom brings them not only in need of bodily nourishment but of permanent peace in the soul also. Man lives not by bread alone (Matt. iv. 4), especially sinful man. This is the connection of the fifth with the fourth petition. The forgiveness of sins prayed for refers to a daily forgiveness. The words imply that in comparison with God the suppliant is not good but evil (Matt. vii. 11); the spirit being willing but the flesh weak (Matt. xxvi. 41). It would be a sign of self‑deceit against which Jesus gives express warning (Matt. vii.) for a man to consider himself sinless John i. 8). The disciples of Jesus are to take an attitude exactly opposite to that indicated in the proud prayer of Apollonius of Tyana, " O ye gods pay the debts ye owe tome" (Vita APollonii, IL, i. 11, ed. Kayser, p.10). The term debt, opheile, opheilema, is primarily used of money owed but not paid (Matt. xviii. 32); hence in a spiritual sense it becomes equivalent to Paraptamata "transgressions" (Matt. vi. 15), or hamartice, "sins " (Luke xi. 4;, cf. Luke xiii. 4 and 2). But this prayer that God would remit our debts to him is not so much the appeal of slaves to a master (Luke xvii. 10) as of children to a father (Matt. xxi. 28‑31), and the less the disciples of Jesus boast of their own perfection and the more conscious they are of their debts to God, so much the more when they utter this prayer will they have the consciousness of God's forgiveness and feel moved to forgive their brethren, even to the end (Matt xviii. 22; Luke xvii. 4). For when the disciple of Jesus forgives his neighbor it is by no

23	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lord's Prayer
means in the sense in which God forgives him. A man's "debtor" in a spiritual sense is not a debtor to him as he himself is a debtor to God. As Jesus bids the man who brings a gift to the altar while at variance with his brother first to be reconciled to his brother before he dare to offer it (Matt. v. 23, 24), so he enjoins his disciples to "lift up holy hands, without wrath and disputing" (I Tim. ii. 8), and to dismiss rancor and hatred from their hearts before they come with s prayer to their father (cf. Matt. vi. 14, 15). This is illustrated in the parable of the unmerciful servant (Matt. xviii. 23‑35). A spirit of unmercifulness shuts the door of the father's mercy. This petition is even more pointed and earnest than parallel clauses in the Shemoneh `Esreh: " Forgive us, our Father, for we have sinned; pardon us, our King, for we have transgressed:' Polycarp recalls the intense devotion of this petition in the words: " If then we entreat the Lord to forgive us, we ought also ourselves to forgive; for we are before the eyes of the Lord" (Philippians, vi.; A NF, i. 34). Luther in his " Greater Catechism " (iii. 64) alludes to the spirit of the petition and says: "If you do not forgive, remember that God does not forgive you; but if you forgive others, you may have the certainty and consolation of knowing that you are forgiven in heaven."
8. The Sixth Petition: "And lead us not into temptation." The connection of the sixth with the fifth petition is evident. As the disciples of Jesus, during the time which elapses before the setting up of his kingdom in glory, utter the fifth petition with the consciousness of their sins, so they utter the sixth petition with the consciousness of their own weakness and of the ever‑present danger of their sinning. In this connection may be recalled the words of Jesus to his disciples in Gethsemane: " Watch and pray, that ye enter not into temptation; the spirit indeed is willing, but the flesh is weak " (Matt. wi. 41). This temptation is especially imminent when men go out into the world, where pleasure or the force of evil influence surrounds them, or the power of the spiritual world and of the enemy of mankind seek an opportunity of sifting the disciples like wheat (Luke xxii. 31). This temptation is very different from the trial by which the faith of the disciples is actually strengthened (James i. 2). Watchfulness which avoids light‑mindedness, overweening confidence, or cowardice, and sees all the dangers as they really are, prevents the falling into temptation, and the prayer against it insures at least that when temptation comes it may merely result in a sort of judgment in which only the unworthy fall (I Pet. iv. 17; cf. Rev. iii. 10; II Pet. ii. 9). When the spirit of the forgiving father produces in the disciples a strong disposition toward reconciliation with others, the deliverance from temptation asked of the father appears in their flight from sin, so that they do not seek out opportunities for sinning but avoid them. In strict accordance with the meaning of this sixth petition are such exhortations se those of St. Paul to the Corinthians (I Cor. vi. 18, x. 14). To be led into temptation is, however, sometimes a punishment from God, and Origen (" On Prayer," xxix. 16) observes: " Let
us do nothing which shall cause us by the just judgment of God to be led into temptation."
7. The Seventh Petition: "But deliver us from evil" (not found in Luke). This petition merely puts in positive form the substance of the negative sixth petition. The Church Fathers have been divided as to the meaning of " the evil "‑whether it means the Evil One (Satan), as Tertullian and the Greek fathers after Origin think, or the evil thing, sin, as Cyprian and the Latin fathers interpret it. The point seems to be decided by II Tim. iv. 18, where the exact words of the Evangelist are employed: " The Lord shall deliver me from every evil work."
	8. The Doxology: "For thins is the kingdom
and the power and the glory for ever and ever.
Amen." The oldest form of the doxology, as would
appear from the Didache, omits " the kingdom "
and " Amen." The Amen probably did not ap
pear in the original text of Matthew and Luke. At
an early period, however, it was imported into the
Christian liturgy from the synagogue prayers. In
the Didache the Lord's Prayer was ordered to be
repeated thrice a day, an order in which may be
seen the influence of the Jewish custom, which was
to recite the Shemoneh `Eareh thrice a day. The
variations in the versions of Matthew and Luke
seem to intimate that the congregation of the
disciples of Jesus when assembled in prayer
were not bound in slavish bondage to the letter,
but were united in the freedom ~r and power of
the spirit. 	(J. IIAUBSLEITER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The commentaries on Matthew and Luke are, of course, to be taken into account; many of them give considerable on the history of the exegesis of the Lord's Prayer. Patristic comment of note, other than that mentioned in the teat, is by Cyprian, De dominica orations; Augustine, De sermons Domini in monte, in MPL, xxxiv. 1229‑1308; Crisco, Peri euchee; Gregory of Nyasa, in MPG, xliv. 1120‑1193. A collection of patristic comment is by G. Tillman, Dae Gebet, each der Lehrs der Heiligen darpeatellt, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1878. From the historical and critical side may be named: A. H. H. Kamphaueen, Dae Gebet des Herrn, Elberfeld, 1888; A. Tholuck, Die Berprede Christi, Goths, 1872; E. Aehelie, Die Bergpredipt each Matthdue and Lukas, Bielefeld, 1875; F. H. Chase, The Lord's Prayer in the Early Church, in TS, i., no. 3, Cambridge, 1891; G. Delman, Die Worte Jam vol. i., Leipeic, 1898, Eng. travel.. Edinburgh, 1902; O. Dibelius, Dos VaEerunser, Umriaae zu einer Geachichte des Gebeta, Giessen, 1903; E. Bischoff, Jesus and die Rabbinen, Berlin, 1905; G. Hiinnicke, in NKZ, avii (1908), b7‑67, 108‑120, 189‑180; DB, iii. 141‑144; EB, iii. 2818‑23; DCC, ii. 573.
More of the homiletical is found in: N. Hall, The Lord's Prayer; a practical Meditation, Edinburgh. 1889; G. Karney, Peter Noater; Studies on the Lord's Prayer, London, 1889; H. J. Van Dyke, The Lord's Prayer, New York, 1891; J. Ruskin, Letters to the Clergy on the Lord's Prayer and the Church, late ed., New York, 1898; E. Wordsworth, Thoughts on the Lord's Prayer, ib. 1898; C. W. Stubbs, Social Teaching of the Lord's Prayer London, 1900; L. T. Chamberlain, The True Doctrine of Prayer, New York, 1908; F. M. Williams, Spiritual Ineductions on the Lord's Prayer, New York, 1907. Sermonic treatment is given by: H. Hutton, London, 1883; W. Gladden, Boston, 1881; H. W. Foots, ib. 1891; R. Eyton, ib. 1892; M. Dods, Cincinnati, 1893; F. W. Farrar, London and New York, 1893; W. J. $. Simpson, London, 1893; W. R. Richards, Philadelphia, 1910.
Important or interesting are: A. $. Cook, Study of the Lord's Prayer in English, in American Journal of Philology, zii. 59‑88; idem, in Biblical Quotations of Old Enpfiah Prom Writers, pp. 147 eqq., New York, 1898; The Lord's Prayer in 500 Languages, ed. R. Rost, London, 190b,

Lord's 8annsr	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	94
I. The New‑Testament Doctrine.
Question of Christie Origin (¢ 1).
Textual Basis for Denials (¢ 2).
The Basal Accounts (¢ 3).
Christ's Purpose in the Institution (¢ 4).
Significance for Humanity (¢ b). II. The Church Doctrine. L In the East.
Difficulties of the Problem (¢ 1).
The Didsohe and Ignatius (¢ 2).
Justin Martyr (¢ a>.
Early Designations of the Elements (¢ 4>.
Oriental Influences upon the Conception (¢ b).
Entrance of Sacrificial Conception (¢ e).
LORD'S SUPPER.
Doctrine of Irensaus (¢ 7). The Origenietic Doctrine (¢ 8). The Symbolic‑Sacrificial View (¢ 9). Cyril (¢ 10). Gregory of Nyeea and Chryeostom (¢u). Doctrine in Fifth and Sixth Centuries (¢ 12).
2. Development in the West. Tertullian and Cyprian (¢ 1). Transition to Transubstantiation (12). Augustine's Check upon Development (¢ 3). Transubstantiation (14). Teaching of the Reformers (¢ 5). Doctrine in the Lutheran Church (¢ B), The Reformed Doctrine (¢ 7). The Anglican Doctrine (¢ 8).
The Lord's Supper is one of the two sacraments generally recognized in the Christian Church, consisting in the blessing or consecration of bread and wine, the repetition of the words of institution (Matt. xzvi. 26‑29; Mark aiv. 22‑25; Luke xxii. 17‑20; I Cor, xi. 23‑28), and the eating and drinking of the consecrated elements. In connection with the treatment here given certain other articles should be consulted‑for the liturgy of the early Church and the method of celebration, the article EUCHARIST; for doctrine and liturgy of the Roman Church, MASS and TRANSUBSTANTIATION; for the Greek Church, EASTERN CHURCH, IIL, 5; and the special articles like ErIgLEpSIS; Kiss OF PEACE; MY6TwO00ICAL THEOLOGY; 17YMBOLIaM, etc.
I. The New‑Testament Doctrine: As to its origin, no one ever questioned that the Lord's Supper was instituted by the Lord himself for his Church before H. E. G. Paulus (Commentdr fiber das Ne:<e Testament, 4 vole., Lilbeek, 1800‑04; Leberi Jean, 2 vole., Heidelberg, 1828), followed by Kaiser in his BaZlliache Theologie (2 vole., Erlangen, 18131821). David Strauss apparently denied it in the first edition of his Leben Jean (183b) but admitted its possibility in the later popular form of this work
(1884), only questioning how far the
:. Question details, as given by the Evangelists, are of Chrfatic to be accepted. According to him,
Origin. Paul gave the tradition as be found it
	on his entrance into the Church, but
how much of this is the original fact and how much
comes from subsequent Christian practise is difficult
to determine. Ruckert is inclined to believe that
Jesus said nothing of a repetition of the observance,
but that it was daily repeated from the beginning in
the belief that this would be at least aCCeptable to
him, sad that thus the idea of an express command
grew up. According to Weiss, the apostles had
no express command either for this repetition or
for the performance of the baptismal rite, but car
ried out what they understood to be the Master's
intention, fording in both a bond of union for the
disciples. Weizebcker asserts positively that the
sacrament rests on a distinct command; and Bey
echlag calls the institution the moat certain of all
the facts recorded of Jesus. Recently Jillicher and
Spitta have vigorously denied it, while Harnack
accepts it, though giving the rite another meaning
than that expressed in the New Testament accounts.
III. Confessional Statements.
TV. The Liturgy in the Churches of the Reformation.
1. Luther and the Lutheran Church.
Luther's First Form (¢ 1).
Luther's Revised Form (¢ 2).
Variant Lutheran Forms (¢ 3).
2. Zwingli.
3. The Reformed Services.
4. The Anglican Communion.
V. Certain Points of Interest not Already Treated.
Infant Communion (¢ 1),
Communion of the Sick (¢ 2).
Requirements for Communicants (¢ a>.
Practises Connected with Admin‑
istration (¢ 4).
		The denial of the institutional character of
	Christ's action is based on the variation of the so
I counts‑the words " This do in remembrance of
	me " being found only in two places (Luke sxii. 19
	and I Cor. xi. 25). This variation is the more re
	markable because in Codex D the text of the
	former passage omits altogether " which is given
	for you; this do in remembrance of me." The re
	searches of Bless in the Acts render it very doubt
		ful whether the text of Codex D can
		a. Textual be accepted absolutely, and appear to
		Basis for indicate that what seems a reminiscence
		Denials. of Paul may be a correction accepted
		by Luke himself rather than a later
	accretion. The relation of Luke to Paul, and the
	value of the letter's testimony to the view of the
	institution taken by apostolic Christianity, makes it
	improbable that a tradition existed which did not
	contain a trace of the intention of Christ to have it
	repeated. There is no analogy for the account of
	Luke as found in D, and the teat of D may perhaps
	best be regarded as defective, if it is not rather an
	ancient corruption. Nor can the point be pressed
	that Matthew and Mark fail to mention the injunc
	tion of repetition. In both of them (Matt. xxvi. 28;
	Mark xiv. 24) the contents of the cup are designated
	" my blood of the covenant"; and Christ could
	scarcely have given his " blood of the covenant " in
	such a way as to offer it alone to the disciples there
	present, to say nothing of the reinforcement of this
	thought by the " many " following. Thus the so
	counts would have to be deprived of the presum
	ably original form of Christ's words in order to
	sustain the hypothesis of an intention which did
	not include repetition. To this Paul's account
	would offer a further obstacle. When he says
	(I Cor. xi. 23) " for I received of the Lord that
	which also I delivered unto you," he uses apo in
	stead of Para to express the idea that he has re
	ceived this from the Church as from the Lord him
	self. The analogy of Acts ii. 42, 46 shows that this
	must have been at the time of his baptism, and the
	basis of his account is thus put twenty years fur
	ther back than the date of I Corinthians, into the
	very earliest days of Christianity; it becomes an
	evidence that the Christian Church never had any
	thought but that the institution was meant for
	repetition. The only real difficulty may be found
	in the fact that the Gospel of John is entirely si‑

!d6	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lord's Supper
lent as to the institution. The hiatus which has been looked for in this Gospel, in order to find a place where this originally might have been, is discovered by Spitta just before chap. xv. Here he thinks the account once was, vi. 51‑59 having been afterward put in by another hand to supply its place when it had dropped out. But there is no need for this ingenious hypothesis. It is indubitable that when this Gospel was written the Lord's Supper was everywhere celebrated in the Church. The purpose of the Gospel presupposes an acquaintance with the whole story (cf. chap. vi.).
The real ground for the denial of the institution as an ordinance for the Church lies elsewhere than in the discrepancy of the accounts. RUckert finds it in the danger of externalism inevitably accompanying a formal rite. Spitta declares impossible the relation of the Supper to the death of Christ, since such a relation could be understood only in connection with the general New‑Testament view of the person and office of Christ, which he and others decisively reject. Harnack's position on the question shows that it is not absolutely necessary on this account to deny Christ's intention to institute a permanent observance. In any case, the institution would lose its real abiding value if the view of it contained in all the sours were not recognized. What this view is must next be considered.
For the understanding of the purpose and meaning of the institution, consideration is limited to four accounts, the scantiness of which is in inverse ratio to the importance which the sacrament held from the beginning in the Christian assemblies, but is, on the other hand, a proof that the primitive community was untroubled by doubts
3. The as to what the Lord had left behind .
Basal him. No part of the New Testament Accounts. offers an exposition of the meaning of the Lord's Supper. What Paul gives in I Cor. a. 122, xi. 23 eqq., is not an exposition, but a reminder of what was self‑evident to the Church, though perhaps in other places than Corinth (as is so often the case with self‑evident truths) it was not sufficiently borne in mind. According to all the sources, the institution stands in immediate actual, not merely chronological, relation tb the death of Christ. He gathers his disciples about him for the last time to celebrate the Passover. He stands face to face with death, which he has all along foreseen as in a special sense the purpose of his mission. He has repeatedly told his disciples, not only that they must not on that account lose faith in his Meesiahahip, but that they should have begun to understand something of the counsels of God (Matt. xvi. 23). They have not, however, understood. The hour of the Passover has come; of that sacred feast which pointed not only backward to the deliverance from Egypt, but also forward (as Pa, esvi.‑exviii., sung at the feast, show) to the fulfilment of prophecy in the final redemption. What is to become of their hopes if Jesus dies? Where is the promised " new covenant " (Jer. xxxi. 31) P This is the last Passover of the old; one day he will celebrate it with them in a new manner in his kingdom (Luke xzcii. lfi‑18, 29, 30). But they do not understand what lies be‑
tween‑his death; they do not believe it possible, as their strife for precedence shows. They are simply straining their eyes for the dawn of the new covenant. Jesus avails himself of a symbol. He takes the bread used in the paschal supper, gives it to them, and speaks words which lend it a new meaning. At the end of the supper, before the singing of the Halted, he takes in like manner the cup of wine, which was passed from hand to hand four times during the paschal meal, and gives it to them with similarly significant words. Amid the variants, what were the ipsisaima verbs of Christ can not be determined; the only question is whether the more extended forms correspond to his thought, or whether they add something to it or depart from it. This question may be answered by considering the undoubted connection of the two distributions. If they are taken together, the mention of a covenant which is common to all the accounts in connection with the giving of the cup supplies a key. This, term connects the institution with the Passover, which is closely connected with the old covenant, as this with the new. The giving of the body will thus have the same relation to the foundation of the new covenant as that of the blood, and both together will have reference to the sacrificial death (see Heb. a. 10) of Christ. The foundation of the new covenant is indicated by the shedding of the blood for many, for the remission of sins. In it the expression " my body given for you " finds its completion. No different thought is expressed in I Cor. g. 17 (taken in connection with aii. 27), where the words " for we being many are one bread, and one body" rest on the participation in the one bread; and this bread is (verse 16) " the communion of the body of Christ," as the cup is " the communion of the blood of Christ " ‑a community with the body and blood of Christ answering to that which those who ate of the Saorificea of the old law had with the altar, and that which those who took part in heathen sacrifices had with demons. The sacrificial conception dominates the whole Pauline doctrine on the subject, and contains the same interpretation of " my body given for you " which is to be taken from the connection of the bread and the cup and their relation to the " covenant." Thus what Jeans wished to symbolize for his disciples‑and not to symbolize alone‑was his coming death; but that death is not, as they suppose, a misfortune; it is to nerve the purpose of the " covenant," to be a sacrifice. Promises and hopes have not come to naught; as the old covenant comes to an end, the new (Jer. xxxi. 31) is instituted.
But this is not all. The purpose of Christ is not merely to give his disciples the right point of view for the understanding of his death. It is to give them himself, in order that they may overcome the
temptation to doubt into which the
4. Christ's mere thought of his death has thrown
Purpose them. What he now does stands on
‑	is the 	an entirely different footing from his
Institution. discourse at Capernaum (John vi.).
There he spoke, indeed, of the eating and drinking of his flesh and blood; but he spoke symbolically, with reference to the paradox of his

Lord's Sapper	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	so
lowly appearance, under which men must find the bread of heaven and of life. The image of eating and drinking represents the faith which lives by the humility of Jesus. Even verses 51 aqq. go no further than this, but declare that his humiliation must terminate in his death, and that men moat accept him as he is, in flesh and blood, in order to live by him. The thought of a sacrifice does not appear. All this is merely symbolic. The institution of the Lord's Supper is entirely different. Here he acts, not merely talks. To be sure, both speech and action are primarily symbolical, but what he symbolizes is the sacrifice then approaching completion, and the appropriation by man of the benefits of that sacrifice. The symbol is but the means by which he gives them what he means to give them. He, who is about to offer himself in sacrifice, gives himself not only for but to his disciples for their own, in a way in which he has never before given himself to them. The last barrier which has separated them is removed. He has reached his goal; the old is past. He is, not only is about to be, the sacrifice; the few hours that intervene before the crucifixion do not count. The sacrifice is prepared‑such a sacrifice as has never before been offered, and one in which they are to take part as none have ever taken part in any previous sacrifice. As their act of eating and drinking is both the symbol and the putting into operation of the faith by which they accept him, so his gifts are both the symbol and the realization of his utter self‑devotion for them and to them. The distinction between these two latter aspects is that between the provision of salvation and its appropriation; and the appropriation takes place now. When they see the sacrifice offered, they can now say to themselves that it is theirs, that they have part in it. Thus the institution of the Lord's Supper is the extension of the line which passes through the language of John vi. about the eating and drinking of his flesh and blood. The gift of himself, as a sacrifice, for us and to us is the completion of his appearance in flesh and blood. The eating and drinking of his gifts in the Supper is the highest point of the eating and drinking mentioned in John vi.; and this may account for the fact that John's Gospel does not describe the institution. On this fact, then, that Jesus (as the new covenant requires) does not merely symbolize but gives what he symbolizes, rests the understanding of the words which he used, and the conception of the sacrament as an institution destined for all who accept the new covenant. Accordingly, wherever the Lord's Supper is celebrated after his institution, he gives himself in the manner in which he symbolizes his gift; symbol and reality are joined; he is present exactly as he said, as he symbolized, and as he accomplished‑no otherwise and no less. There can be no question of the imparting of higher powers of life, as they are found in him, nor of nourishment for the resurrection body; but there is the sacrifice for the remission of sine, which he is for us, and which is ours.
The question remains how to understand the communion with Christ effected by the Lord's Supper, in what way the sacramental union with him
takes place in it. Of course, if Christ is no more than any other man, distinguished. from the rest of
		humanity only by his mission and his
	g. Signifi‑ work, there can be no question of a
cance for partaking of his body and blood, and
	Humanity. the conception of the thing which ap
		pears in all the accounts falls to the
ground. The occurrences of that night must have
been different, must mean something different, from
what these accounts imply. The New‑Testament
view of the institution is indissolubly bound up with
the New‑Testament conception of the person of
Christ expressed in the New Testament, proclaimed
by the apostles, and received by the primitive
Church. By entering human life and the human
mode of existence, he has so completely incorpo
rated himself with man that he is what he is to man
through his human nature. As through and in this
nature, in inseparable union with mankind, he be
came a sacrifice for us, so he continues to make
us partakers of him under this same aspect of sacri
fice. This is the meaning of his bodily presence
in the Lord's Supper. In this gift of himself is
concentrated all that he is and forever means to be
to mankind in perpetual union. We can have him,
we are meant to have him, for our own, as we can
have no one else. It is no new relation into which
he enters. That which he is for man, and (by vir
tue of his community of blood) with man, finds in
this sacrament its highest expression, as the re
ception of the sacrament is the highest expression
of the faith by which we accept him. And so the
Lord's Supper, although, or rather because, it is
the memorial of his death, is no mysterium
tremenclum, but something to be received, as
the first Christians received it (Acts ii. 46), " in
gladness." 		(H. CREMERt.)
II. The Church Doctrine (the teaching of the Fathers and the Early Church, the Greek Church, the Roman Catholic Church, and the Churches of the Reformation. See also the articles MASS and TRANSUBSTANTIATION).
1. In the East: Precisely because the NewTeatament exegesis of the past did not succeed in giving a decisive answer to the questions which have made the love‑feast of the primitive Church a battle‑ground for contending creeds, a constant
	appeal to history has entered into the
1. Diiacnl‑ controversy. Early in the discussions
ties of the
	Problem.	of the sixteenth century, (Ecolam
		padius appealed to the vetustissirni
audores, and in 152'7 Luther found himself involved
in a learned discussion with him on passages in
Augustine, Tertullian, Irenaeus, Hilary, and Cyp
rian. And so, in more recent times, the various
beliefs of the opposing religious bodies have been
found by their adherents mirrored in the history
of eucharistic doctrine. Ponderous treatises have
been written to prove that the Roman Catholic, Or
the Lutheran, or the Zwinglian view is that of antiquity; but they have not been fruitful in conversions. This lack of result is scarcely surprising, for little is really to be learned of the sense of the original institution from the history of the doctrine. The student finds too soon misconceptions and perversions, which are the result of non‑Chris‑

2"l	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lord's Supper
tian influences and superstitions within the Church. But the study of the question will be wholly unfruitful if it is pursued from the standpoint of sixteenth‑century controversies. The oldest nonScriptural sources give too little material, and as soon as more abundant testimony becomes available, it is in a world the civilization, education, and habits of thought of which are so totally different from those of the Reformation period as to give no premises for deducing the answer to the questions which agitated that period.
There were, prior to Irenaeus and Tertullian, only three non‑Scriptural authors who can be brought into the discussion: the author of the Didache, Ignatius of Antioch, and Justin Martyr. The indications of the first‑named are particularly interesting. Here the Lord's Supper is still a family feast of the believers, taking its relig‑
2. The Di‑ ious character from the thanksgiving
dacha and (Gk., eucharistia) which precedes and
	Ignatius.	follows the eating and drinking; the
		prayers, obviously received by the
author from tradition, are of venerable antiquity
and great beauty. But the treatise does not show
in what manner the eucharistic food was regarded,
except that it was considered as spiritual nourish
ment unto everlasting life. Nothing is said of the
body and blood of Christ; and the total omission
of any reference to his institution or to his death
is so singular that the theory of these prayers form
ing the close of the Agape (q.v.), and thus having
no reference to the sacramental feast which fol
lowed it, is worthy of consideration. Ignatius has,
besides other brief allusions, two passages of espe
cial importance, in which some have found a dis
tinct affirmation of the real presence of the glori
fied body of Christ (Ad Eph. xx.; Ad Smyrn. vii.
1; ANF, i. 57‑58, 89). But it is possible to lay
too much stress on them. According to Ignatius,
two special blessings‑eternal life and mystical
union with God‑are received by means of Christ's
incarnation and triumph over death. These latter
Ignatius is forced to emphasize by his opposition
to the Docetics; the flesh and blood of Christ are
to him the tangible security for the life‑giving union
with God. Thus, just as he calls the Gospel, the
proclamation of this tangible security, the " flesh
of Jesus " (Ad Phil. v. 1; ANF, i. 82), so bread and
wine, the tangible symbols of this blessing in the
Eucharist, might equally well be called the body
and blood of Christ: Ignatius preaches so strongly
the " bodily and spiritual unity," connects the
spiritual blessing so closely with its outward rep
resentation, that the denial of the outward would
endanger for him the reality of the inward; yet
that does not mean that he confuses the two, or
considers the material elements as such to bring
with them the divine. His view of the Lord's Sup
per, then, is certainly not purely symbolic; but it
would be rash to conclude from this that he
accepted the real presence of the glorified body
of Christ.
It is just as difficult to draw precise conclusions from the words of Justin. Only one passage in his writings needs special consideration for our purpose‑the long‑debated 1 AlOOI. Lzvi., which is
worth quoting in full: " For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like
manner as Jesus Christ our Savior,
S. Justin having been made flesh by the word of
God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of his word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh " (ANF, i. 185 [where the remark is made in a foot‑note that " this passage is claimed alike by Calvinists, Lutherans, and Romanists; and, indeed, the language is so inexact, that each party may plausibly maintain that their own opinion is advocated by it."]) It is perfectly clear that Justin recognized the designation of the eucharistic food as the body and blood of Christ for a universal Christian usage. It may also be admitted that the clause " from which," etc., stands in inseparable relation to the " food which is blessed "; in other words, that by the Eucharist our flesh and blood is nourished " by transmutation " (kata melabden). The most probable explanation of this is that through the Eucharist our bodies are so nourished that they experience a change, namely, " so as to be incorruptible." The " drug of immortality " of Ignatius (EPh. xx. 2) is more than a parallel; the dependence of Justin upon the prevalent teaching of Asia Minor, as met in Ignatius, may be shown from other passages. Justin, like Ignatius, sees in some manner the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist; and, following John vi., while he says nothing of remission of sins as a benefit conferred by it, he regards it as the food of immortality. There is no question of a change of the elements either in the Roman Catholic or the later Greek sense; nor is the body and blood of Christ so really present that they pass into the partaker " by transmutation," or are carnally eaten and drunk. The probable sense of the whole passage is this: as Jesus became man by the power of the Logos, so also the bread which is hallowed by the words of blessing derived from him becomes his flesh and blood; the Logos joins himself to the bread, as in the Incarnation he assumed flesh and blood. This theory, involving a real dynamic change of the elements, has been often repeated in later times; but it fails to tell anything of the fundamental meaning of the " this is " of the words of institution, and it is entirely foreign to the theories of the sixteenth century. So long as even the fuller expressions of later but still ancient times are studied in the light of that modern period, they can never be properly understood.
It will not do, then, to impale the Fathers upon the horns of a modern dilemma, BUt It T1111$t equally be admitted that the primitive Church spoke of the eucharistic elements as
4. Early the body and blood of Christ. Of
Designs‑ course the teaching of the Church in
tionaofthe the period about 150 did not bear the
Elements. aspect of the later formal conciliar utterances but Justin's word " we have been taught " shows that then (as thirty years later in Irenaeus, V., ii. 2, and in the Apostolic Constitutions, viii. 12) the Church reiterated what the Gos‑

Lord's Supper	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	Jib
pals gave it‑" this is the body of Christ "‑without troubling itself to reason at length on the meaning of the words. This view appears so selfevident in the above‑cited passage of Ignatius (Smyrn. vii. 1) that he says the heretics abstained from the communion because they did not believe " the eucharist to be the flesh of our Savior, Jesus Christ." And even the Gnostic heretics, who (in spite of what Ignatius says) had some sort of a Eucharist of their own, apparently all retained the designation of the elements as the body and blood of Christ, in spite of their dooetism and spiritualism; Ireneeus argues against them (IV., xviii. 4) as if this designation were common ground. The practise of the Church bears out the same contention. . Tertullian (De corona, iii.) and Origen (on Eaod. aiii. 3) both speak, as of an old‑established tradition, of the great care taken that no crumb or drop of the elements should fall to the ground. The oldest formula of administration known, going back certainly to the third century, is simply " the body of Christ, the blood of Christ, the cup of life." The same conception is evidenced by the reports of " Thyestean banquets " attributed by the heathen to the Christians in the second decade of the second century, in Asia (Pliny's letter to Trajan) and in Rome (Tacitus, Annalea, xv. 44). In a word, following the "this is " of the Gospels, in the methods of speech used by the Church, cateehetical as well as liturgical, in the popular belief, and in the practise based on that belief, the Eucharist was the body and blood of Christ.
The very circumstance, however, that this same fact is met alike among Gnostics and their opponents, in the writings of an Origen and of a Tertullian, should warn against concluding from it the
prevalence of a realistic conception a• Oriental (whether of a Roman Catholic or a zann°no" Lutheran kind) in the early Church. Oon~oeDtion. The same thing may be inferred from
the fact that no early apologist thinks it necessary to defend this designation of the elements se the body and blood of Christ against pagan opponents as anything irrational. Justin shows no consciousness that this must seem a stranger doctrine to the heathen than the inearnar tion or the resurrection; similar language is se much a matter of course to Origen writing against Celsus. But it would be equally unjustifiable to conclude that the language of the early Church may be understood in a Zwinglian or Calvinistic sense. The Fathers, whether Eastern or Western, must be interpreted by the presuppositions of their own times. Strauss draws a distinction (Leben Jean, ii. 437, let ed.) between the Oriental mind, which thinks in images, and the more abstract Western habit of thought. Yet it must be remembered that under the Empire the religious life of the West was permeated by Oriental influences. " Mysteries " were a natural concomitant of religion; and the idea that in a mystery earthly elements could " become " divine by the working of some invisible power without any change of their substance, was not unknown to the pagan philosophy of the West. It is now generally recognized that the Gnosticism of the second and third oen‑
turies understood or shaped Christian traditions according to the idea of mysteries; and, while it is not so universally admitted, it may safely be said that the same influence of pagan religious tradition which led in Gnosticism to " an acute Hellenizing of Christianity " (Harnack) began, about the same time, though more slowly and gradually, to have as effect on the Church which condemned Gnosticism. This is most clearly seen in the history of baptism and the Lord's Supper. The very name sacraments is a token of this. Tertullian is the first author who can be shown to have spoken of eacramentum boptisntatia et euchariatia'; but the idea is found in Clement of Alexandria, and is not far off in Justin. The developed Arcani Diaciplina (q.v.) of the fourth and following centuries must have been a consequence of this tendency, and thus later than the tendency itself. So, since the beginnings of the diaciptina are found in Tertullian, the beginnings of the development which led to the Hellenizing of Christian worship moat go back to the first half of the second century. The atmosphere of mystery thus inherited from the ancient world favored the leaving of the questions about which after ages contended without a definite and precise answer. A " symbolic " conception of the sacramental gift by no means excluded one which might be called " realistic." Harnack points out that whereas by " symbol " now is understood a thing which is not what it signifies, then it meant (for many people, at least) a thing which was, in some sense, what it signified. That the bread and wine were, in some sense, the body and blood of Christ was accepted in the second century, as has been seen. But this affirmation lay within the sphere of mystery, meaning different things to different persons according to the extent of their spiritual attainment; it was in no sense a defined dogma. This explains the fact that the doctrine of the Eucharist shows a much less regular development than the dogmas of the early Church, such as that of the Trinity or of the person of Christ.
The first important step in such development as there was is connected with the application of the idea of sacrifice to the Lord's Supper. The fact has often been overlooked that this application is unscriptural. It made its first appearance, to be
sure, under the aspect of New‑Testae. Entraaos went thoughts. Prayer was spoken
°_o'°rl' of as th0 sfterifiN ef the lips (HA. xui.
	°ial	1& of. Rev. v. 8
conception. ~ , viii. 3; Hos. aiv. 2);
to do good and to communicate was to offer a sacrifice with which God was well pleased (Heb. xiii. 1(1). $o it was not far to considering in the same light the offerings of love which served for the Eucharist, and, so far as they were not needed for that for. the necessities of the poor (Polycarp, Ad Phil. iv. 2). But the thing soon went further than this; even the Didache (xiv. 3) regards the Lord's Supper, in the words of the famous prophecy of Malachi (i. 11), as the "pure offering " of the new covenant. This might have been of little consequence if the Eucharist had remained, as it appears in Ignatius and in the Didache, a real meal, or connected with one, and if the " giving thanks 11 had remained an act of the com.

$9	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lord's 8upM
munity, or of members specially adapted to it or visiting prophets (Didache, a. 7). To realise the significance of the change from this to the speaking of the eucharistic words as a specialised funotion of the officials, it is necessary only to remember how utterly distinct from what was called worship in heathen tradition, from all sacerdotal and theurgic action, were the earliest Christian assemblies‑‑the gatherings " to edifying " of I Cor. siv. 23, 26 and the agape' of I Cor. xi Z(). The distinction, then, grew less when the administration of the Eucharist became the function of appointed officials (of. Ignat., Ad Smyrn. viii. 2; ANF, i. 89, " Let that be deemed a proper euchariat which is [administered] either by the bishop, or by one to whom he has entrusted it"). It grew still less when the Agape (q.v.) was gradually separated from the Lord's Supper. Alms and oblations, at first connected closely, began to be separated, the latter term designating the eucharistic elements, which alone received the mystical blessing of the bishop (Justin's " chief," Gk. proeatae); and it was an easy step to finding the sacrificial act in this blessing, instead of in the free‑will offering by the members. But, however this development is traced, the terms used by Justin are certainly noteworthy. If it was the Proeataa who "made the bread of the Eucharist a memorial of the suffering of Christ," it can hardly be denied that the distance is but short from this to the words of Cyp• rian: "the priest imitates that which Christ did and offers a true and complete sacrifice in the Church to God the Father" (Epiat, btiii.). Remembering that many of the ancient mysteries had their dramatic representations of sacred cultlegends, that the conception of the unbloody renewal of the sacrifice of Christ continued to shade off from a symbolic‑imitative commemoration feast until after the time of Gregory the Great, and that the Greek Church in the final development of its mass approaches closely to a dramatic representation of the Passion, it will seem not too much to say that the above‑quoted formula of Justin is is the direct line of development that leads to the Roman mass. The really important thing is that in the interval between Justin and Cyprian, the "sacrifice of praise" had become a priestly "sacrifice of propitiation." Immense as the change seems when judged by the New‑Testament standard, it will not surprise any one acquainted with the GrecoRoman world of that period; the conception of sacrifice, once admitted, brought with it all its natural concomitants. Nor were connecting links wanting. Prayer was made for those who brought the oblations; to emphasise the communion with the departed, oblations were made foe them too; and the " offerings for the dead " which Tertullian knows as a custom already ancient (De omona, iii.) show a more propitiatory character than those for the living. Tertullian still considered the giver of the oblations as the one who offered the sacrifice; commending his dead to God "through the priest" (De ezhortatione caatilalia, ai.). But even here s priestly mediation is assumed, and it is but a short step to the priestly sacrifice as the Church of the latter half of the third century knew it.
It has been necessary to disease this development of the sacrificial conception of the Eucharist because it was the deciding factor in the final shape assumed by the conceptions of the early Church as to the sacramental gift. In attempting to discover
what this latter was, it is expedient 7. Doctrine to discuss separately the developotIrenesne. ment in the East and the West,
though the examination will not be detailed. All that may be expected is a gradual assimilation of various views, without deliberate discussion, but under the influence of liturgical forms and popular conceptions; it is necessary here only to take up such views as offer a notion of one or other of the fundamental conceptions that were to be assimilated. Irenajus gives the first of these. He was appealed to in the Formula Concordica of Wittenberg (1536), as ha had already been by Luther in 1527, to support the Lutheran view; and it was not difficult for those who then read his words in the light of their own beliefs to find such support. His words, however, must be considered is their simple objective meaning, apart from modern ideas. Irenmus' words are (Her. IV., aviii. 5): "Then, again, how can they say that the flesh, which is nourished with the body of the Lord and with his blood, goes to corruption, and does not partake of life? . . . For, as the bread, which is produced from the earth, when it receives the invocation of God, is no longer common bred, but the Eucharist, consisting of two realities, earthly and heavenly; so also our bodies, when they receive the Eucharist, are no longer corruptible, having the hope of the resurrection to eternity" (ANF, i. 486). And again (He=r. V., ii. 3), of the bread and wine, that, " having received the Word of God, they become the Eucharist, which is the body and blood of Christ " (ANF, i. 528). The interpretation of the first quotation hinges on the meaning given to the " heavenly reality," which has bean variously explained by those who have forgotten the caution just given. If one must define precisely the " heavenly reality," it will appear, from the parallel between the " becoming the Eucharist " of the elements and the " becoming incorruptible " of the body, as well as from Hnr. V., ix. 3, to be the Spirit of God, who is invoked upon the elements. But so precise a definition is not really needed. It is sufficient to observe that by the ekkleaia or epikleais (Hcer. IV., aviii. 5) something heavenly is added to the elements, by which they become what they were not before‑‑a food that guarantees the partaking of eternal life to the receiver. If this were the whole of Irenseus' conception, it would not be difficult to find in it a Greek view of the eucharistic mystery modified by the primitive thoughts about the resurrection of the ffeeh. But it is not the whole. Other passages, such as Htsr. V., ii. 2, must be taken into account in the attempt to determine the teaching of Irenmus. As s theologian familiar with the Greek culture of his time, he took the view which he found in common Christian tradition (specifically that of the school of John and of Asia Minor) ‑that the Eucharist is in eon sense the body and blood of Christ, intended as a food unto eternal

Lord's Supper	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	30
life‑and made it fit his own mental processes by a theory of the " consecration " of the elements, somewhat as Justin had done before him. He does not lessen the significance of the traditional belief by his theory, but enforces it by words which have a very material sound (" nourished with the body of the Lord and with his blood ") without observing that his unsatisfying explanation of the received designation of the elements does not really fuse the two thoughts combined by him.
This peculiarity of Irenaeus' view will appear more clearly when it is compared with that of the Alexandrian school. Clement need not here be considered; his view is practically the same as that found in a more developed form in his pupil Origen. The latter reproduces the same traditional belief discovered in Irenxua (In Num.. hom. xvi. 9; In Matt. ser. Lxwi.; In Exod. horn. xiii.
8. The 3; In P8. xxxvii. hom. ii. 6). And Origenistio here also, more intelligibly than in
Doctrine. Irenaeus, this traditional belief is put in the light of a mysterious consecration (In Exod. hbm. xvi. 9; Contra Celsum, viii. 33; In Lev. hom. xiii. 5, 6). The difference is that in Origen scarcely anything but the mere words of tradition remain. The spiritualism of Origen was unable to conceive the notion of either the " body and blood " of the ascended Lord, or of eating unto life everlasting, or, in fact, of the resurrection of the flesh. Thus he says: " even if [Christ] was a man, at any rate he is no longer man " (In Jer. xv. 6); " he has ceased to be man " (In Luc. hom. xxix.) : the material belongs only to this transitory world, and perishes with it; eating and drinking have nothing to do with the spiritual life; in the resurrection, the material will disappear more and more from us, until in us too the word is fulfilled, " he who shall have followed Christ . . . will be no longer man " (In Luc. ham. ix. 11). Origen does not attempt to conceal the divergence of his view from the commonly received one; and he states with sufficient clearness what the eating of the body of Christ and similar liturgical expressions mean to him‑the " body " in the Eucharist is a " typical and symbolic body," only pointing to the " true food," the Logos, the living Bread. We drink his blood " when we receive his words, in which is life," just as, when we read the words of his apostles, who also shed their blood " and attain unto life from them, we drink the blood of their wounds " (In Num. hom. xvi. 6). Accordingly, the eating and drinking of the body and blood of Christ are not confined to the Eucharist; the only preeminence which it has over other hearing of the word of God is in the fact that here the symbol is added to the word. In this spiritualism it is not alone the traditional Christian conception that disappears; there is really nothing left of the thought‑more Greek than Christian‑that the elements acquire a °1 helping power" (In John, xxxii. 16) by consecration.
These, then, are the two views of the Lord's Supper which have the greatest importance in the history of eucharistic doctrine‑the spiritualism of Origen, and the realism of Irenaeus. The most radical difference between them is that to the spir‑. itualiat everything is spiritual, and the Eucharist a
food for the soul only; while Irenaeus, though not excluding the spiritual effect, yet lays his emphasis on the imparting of immortality to the " body, made fit for the Spirit " by means of the Lord's Supper. But neither was realistic in the Roman Catholic or Lutheran sense. The realistic view of Ireneeua was only realistic‑dynamic.
The spiritual‑dynamic view became the prevailing one with the theologians of that period. None of the great Fathers who followed Origen was, it is true, as extreme a spiritualist as he;
9. The none of them allowed the divergence
8ymbolio‑
	8aerificiel of the spiritualist view and the re
		View. ceived designation of the elements to
		appear as freely as he did; and even
the most decided spiritualists among them, since
they accepted the resurrection of the flesh, attrib
uted to the faithful reception (following John vi.
54) a secondary significance also for the body. But
Eusebiua of Caesarea, Basil the Great, Gregory Nar
zianzen, and Macariua the Elder ‑ must, in their
treatment of this subject, be classed as Origenists.
Athanasius, whom Steitz places wholly with them,
was, it is true, strongly influenced in his eucharistic
views by Origenistic conceptions, but Irenieus had
a still greater influence on him. One term is of
importance in the study of the Eastern doctrine be
cause its meaning does not seem to fall under either
of the two divisions adopted above, but rather
points to a third view which was not without its
effect on the later development. This is the ex
pression employed by Gregory Nazianzen for the
consecrated elements, " antitypea of the body and
blood of Christ." Euaebius (Demonstratio evan
gelica, i. 10) uses the equivalent term " symbols "
only in relation to the idea of sacrifice; and in
Gregory too a reference to the sacrifice may lurk
in the background. As objects of the " bloodless
and reasonable sacrifice " (Eusebius, DemonsCratio
evangelica, ut sup.) or the " sacrifice without blood "
(Gregory Nazianzen, 4ratio iv. 52), the elements
are symbols or antitypes of the real, historic body
of Christ; as objects of reception, neither Eusebius
nor Gregory could have called them by this name,
since, in their view, the actual body and blood of
Christ have nothing to do with the reception.
Eustathius of Antioch, on the other hand, sees in
Prov. ix. 5 a reference to the " antitype to the
members of Christ's body," and thus must have
found the elements as objects of reception antitypea
of the actual body of Christ. In this use of the
term Steitz and Harnack have seen a transference
of the sacrificial idea to the sacramental. In con
nection with the latter, as soon as the thought of
" offering the memorial of the great sacrifice " had
taken the shape of " offering the body," a reference
to the actual body of Christ was inevitable even
for the Origenists. Thus the desiguatip; Q1 Qg
elements as " antitypes of the body and blood of
Christ " might be taken as a spiritualistic reserva
tion; and so it might well have been originally
Alexandrian. But it is scarcely probable that
Eustathius, who was a vigorous opponent of both
Origen and Eusebius, would have taken up and de
veloped an Alexandrian term; and there is no evi
dence of its use or; definitely Alexandrian ground

81	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lord's 8uppor
until later than his time. It is rather an independent tradition which meets us in Euetathius‑the same that becomes evident concerning the Lord's Supper in a single passage in Theodore of Mopsueatia (on I Cor. xi. 34; MPG, lxvi. 889). Its essence consists in the subordination of the sacramental side to the sacrificial; as symbols of the body and blood of Christ, offered in sacrifice, the elements received communicate what was gained by the sacrifice of Christ, remission of sins and eternal life. Since Euatathiua is in more than one aspect a precursor, if not a member of the school of Antioch, his words may be taken as a proof that he already entertained this Antiochian conception of the Lord's Sapper. The record of the fragments of Irena;us edited by C. M. Pfaff (Irenwi fragmenta, The Hague, 1715), which seem to show a similar view, must be left out of the question as these fragments have by Harnack (T U, xx. 3, pp. 1‑69, 1900) been shown to be falsifications. Not the second Pfaff fragment, but the passage cited from Eustathius, is the oldest Oriental testimony for this view of the Lord's Supper, influential also in the West. It may be called the " symbolio‑sacrificial " view. The peaceful assimilation of the three conceptions described above resulted in the later eucharistic doctrine; and the one last set forth was distinctly influential. It had this advantage over the other two‑that it brought the Lord's Supper into a clear relation to the real body and blood of Christ, while the Origenista only made use of the Logos in him, Irenseus only of the incorruptibility of his body. The acceptance of the term " symbols " or " antitypes " in a sacrificial context by Eusebius, Gregory Nazianzen, and Macariua is an instance of the influence exerted by the Antiochian eucharistic doctrine in the fourth and early part of the fifth century.
The Christological conflicts of the fifth century mark an epoch in the further development. Up to this point the views of the Fathers show a mixture, in varying proportions, of the three conceptions just analyzed. Since the idea has been widely
10. Cyr,,. prevalent that three of the Fathers of
this period‑‑Cyril of Jerusalem, Gregory of Nyssa, and Chrysostom‑went beyond all three theories (which agree in the impossibility of conceiving a real presence of the actual body and blood of Christ), some reference must be made to the language used by them. One must begin by remembering that the liturgical tradition, becoming fixed and written by the fourth century, had still adhered closely, for all its increasing variety of expression, to the universal form of language in the Church. By its retention of the common designation of the elements, it could not fail to repress the spiritualism of theologians; and by its development of a " memorial of the great sacrifice," its emphasis on the " offering of the body of Christ," it brought the Eucharist into increasingly close connection with the real body and blood of Christ, The first of these three authors, Cyril, wag teaching his newly baptized hearers about the Lord's Supper with especial reference to the words and usages of liturgical tradition. Bearing this in mind, and remembering how closely church teaching in Justin's time held to the " this is," it is not
surprising to find the catechist coming down to the level of the aimplices. As the object of the " holy and moat awful sacrifice " (" Catechetical Leoturee," v [xsiii.], 9) the " bloodless service " (ib. v [axiii.], 8), he sets forth the " slain Christ " himself: "We offer up Christ sacrificed for our sins" (ib. v [xxiii.], 10); and the question as to the meaning of the eucharistic gifts is settled for him by the words of the Savior: " Since then he himself dodared and said of the bread, ` this is my body,' who shall dare to doubt any longer? And since he has himself affirmed and said ` this is my blood,' who shall ever hesitate, saying that it is not his blood? He once in Cana of Galilee turned the water into wine, akin to blood, and is it incredible that he should have turned wine into blood?" (ib. iv [xxii.], 1‑2; NPNF, 2 ser., vii. 151). As the cause of this " change " appears the invocation of the Holy Spirit; we pray God, he says " to send forth his Holy Spirit upon the gifts lying before him; that he may make the bread the body of Christ, and the wine the blood of Christ; for whatsoever the Holy Ghost has touched is surely sanctified and changed " (" Catechetical Lectures," v [xriii.], 7; NPNF, 2 ser., vii. 154). The neophyte is to believe firmly that " the seeming bread is not bread, though sensible to taste, but the body of Christ; and that the seeming wine is not wine, though the taste will have it so, but the blood of Christ " (" Catechetlcal Lectures," 1V [x%11.], 9; NPNF, 2 ser., vii. 152). Stronger or more positive language could scarcely be found; if his words were taken literally, they would necessitate the acceptance of a transubstantiation. But Cyril is speaking as a catechist. Even to him, as a matter of fact, the bread and wine are only so far transubstantiated as they are made more than common bread and wine; for him, too, the real sense of the eating and drinking the body and blood of Christ is the nourishment of the soul by the incarnate Word. What Cyril does show is how the transubstantiation theory grew up, by a sort of fusion of the realiatio‑dynamic and the symbolio‑sacrificial views. But before it could proceed in a definite form from this fusion, it was necessary for the idea of a change to be carried further than the mere " sanctification," and for the symbolic part of the symboliosacrificial to be discredited. The latter result followed on the defeat of, the Antiochian theology in the fifth century; the fulfilment of the former condition is usually attributed to Gregory of Nysea.
In his large catechetical work (chap. xwii.; NPNF, 2 eer., pp. 504‑508) Gregory undertakes to show how the body, not only the soul, of the:..be‑
liever can attain " participation and mingling "
with Christ. But a close study of his whole treatment shows that while Gregory has
11. Gregory bin often called the originator of o! 1Pysea the theory of transformation rather and ,
		e_ tberi transubstantiation), he . himself
	oetom. mew nothing of it, and carried the
		meaning of the Greek meraPoieiathei.,
" to transform," no further than what was already
understood by hagiazeatluii, "to sanctify.", His,
theory is the : assumption‑theory of Justin, which
Alexaudrians had apiritualized, and which now allied

Lord's Supper	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	82
itself in a realistic form with that of Irenseua. In thin shape it appears in Cyril of Alexandria. It is more difficult in regard to Chrysostom to sustain the assertion that the development had still gone no further than the sum of the three views described above. He speaks of the presence of Christ in terms which sound so material that the universal agreement to attribute to him a belief in a real reception of the actual body and blood is not surprising. But several things must be remembered. He belongs thoroughly to the school of Antioch, but unites its traditions with the realistio‑dynamic theory in a form which spiritualism does not succeed in refining away; he brings out these really irreconcilable thoughts colored by all the rhetorical artifice of his style as a preacher, accustomed to the wording of liturgical tradition; and he pushes the Lord's Supper back, as no one before him except the older Aleaendriana Clement and Origen had done, into the awe‑inspiring obscurity that hangs around the mysteries. It will not do to attempt to find dogmatic formulas in the exuberance of his gorgeous rhetoric. In a word, then, the conception of a change of substance is to be dated neither from Cyril of Jerusalem, nor from Gregory of Nyasa, nor from Chrysoatom. Realistic expressions which may seem to involve it are not rare in the fourth and fifth centuries; but they are usually brief unformulated protests against the acceptance of a purely symbolic presence of Christ. The definite theological theory leading up to transubstantiation is of later origin.
The opposing views held in the fifth and sixth centuries as to the incarnation were reflected in very varied conceptions of the Eucharist. Theodore of Mopsuestia and Nestoriua still represent the
symbolic‑sacrificial view of the school itd. Doc‑ of Antioch, while Cyril of Alexandria
trine is and the Monophyaitea favored the view
Fifth and
	Sixth which corresponded to their general
Centuries. C~ology, the realistic‑dynamic is
		the form which it had assumed with
Gregory of Nyasa. How far the former was dis
credited by the general overthrow of the school of
Antioch may be seen in Theodoret. The Antiochiaa
traditions, which he combines with other views into
such s curious mixture, did not wholly die out; but
the definitive victory of Cyril's Christology in the
reign of Justinian stamped the corresponding eu
chariatic doctrine, the realistic‑dynamic, as the
accepted one. The fact pointed out under Irenteus
(ut sup., 18) that the older theologians attempted
to combine two distinct meanings of the term
" body of Christ " without success became lees ob
vious when, in the iconoclastic controversy, popu
lar devotion made the " dim religious light,, of the
mysteries still more dim. Even the iconoclastic
council of 754 developed the view accepted as or
thodox in Justinian's time: the bread and wine
are only the images (types) of the humanity of
Christ; this image of the body of Christ is made di
vine (a " divine body ") through the " inspira
tion " (Gk. epiphoit8ais) of the Spirit. But even
before the date of this synod, John of Damascus,
the leading upholder of the images, had opposed
the view expressed by it: " the bread and the wine
are not types of the body and blood of Christ; let
it not be thought; but it is the visible body of the Lord " (De fide orthodoxa, iv. 13). If, he goes on, certain of the holy fathers called the bread and wine "antitypea of the body and blood of the Lord," they referred not to the consecrated but to the unconsecrated elements. These explanations of John were repeated by the second council of Nicaea (787). Since that time the Greek Church has had a eucharistic dogma; it teaches the real presence of the body and blood of Christ after consecration. And from the same date it has a theory of the change, for John of Damascus, who developed it, has remained the standard theologian of the East. According to him, the Logos assumes the body constituted out of bread and wine in the same hypostatic manner as he assumed the body born of the Virgin; but as there is only one hypostasis of the incarnate Logos, the eucharistic body on earth and the glorified body in heaven are one body, by virtue of the one hypoetasis to which they belong. This solution satisfied the theological needs of the age, and remained an axiom for those that followed, in the West as in the East. The Greek Church went no further for centuries; then, in the place of the theory of transformation (Gk. metaPoiesis), that of transubstantiation (Gk., mtouaibais) came in, probably as a result of the negotiations with the Western Church for reunion. The Greeks agreed to the term netousiasis in 1274 and 1277, in a confession of faith proposed by Rome; but it did not come into use among them until the fifteenth century, after the Union of Florence, and it was not until the contests raised by Cyril Lucar (q.v.) in the seventeenth that it gained a complete triumph, with all its accompanying details.
!d. Development is the West: The West was slower than the East to formulate s dogma on the point, not only because of the breach in continuity of intellectual development caused by the downfall of the empire, but because s different line was followed in the West. The result of the process is different, to begin with, and there is no parallel is the East for the preponderating influence exercised by Augustine in the West.
The views of Tertullian and Cyprian moat be first considered. The moat essential point is regard to the latter is that he subordinates the sacra‑
mental aspect to the sacrificial; the Eucharist ~
" the sacrament of the Lord's passion and of our redemption." His thoughts being thus occupied with the crucifixion of the body and
	1. Tertal‑	the shedding of the blood, it is not
	lien sad	surprising that he does not think of
	ftyprisn.
		them as really present. The sacra
ment is a symbolic commemoration of the Passion;
its reception conveys, not nourishment to eternal
life or anything of that sort, but the benefit of
Christ's redeeming work, in which every one has a
share who enters into union with him. Cyprian's
whole view is clearly and simply the symbolic.
sacrificial. The fact that an almost magical opera
tion is attributed to the sacred symbol (as is De
lapsis, acv., xxvi.) is no proof to the contrary; the
idea of some dynamic change in the elements was
(unless apiritualiaed away) always connected in
those days with that of consecration, and we prao‑

33	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lord's Supper
tically never find a purely symbolic view in the modern sense. It will not, perhaps, do to say as positively that Tertullian held the same view, in a less developed form and occasionally combined with other thoughts; but there is much to show that this was the case. Bread and wine are, for him as for Cyprian, symbolic forms under which the body and blood of Christ are represented. The commentators have, however, usually forgotten to ask whether these symbols were primarily intended to be offered or to be received. That, as with Cyprian, the answer is the former, one may conclude from the facts that with Tertullian, too, the body is the crucified body and the blood that which was shed, and that to him the Eucharist is the Passover of the new covenant, as well as from certain passages the discussion of which would occupy too much space.
These symbolic‑sacrificial ideas, which are inseparably connected with the actual body and blood of Christ, form the point of departure for the further development of Western doctrine. Thus
they determine Ambrosiaster's con2. Trami‑ option of the sacrament: " It [the
tion to Eucharist] is a memorial of our re‑
Transub‑ dem tion, that, mindful of the re‑
deemer, we may be worthy to attain greater things by him . . the testament is made in blood, because blood is a testimony of the divine beneficence." Thus Ambrose says on John vi. 56: " You hear ` flesh,' and you hear ` blood,' and you recognize the sacred pledges of the Lord's death." (De fide, iv. 10). Thus for Augustine the Eucharist is the "memorial sacrament " by which since the ascension the real sacrifice of Christ is commemorated. When, accordingly, from the fourth century, Greek ideas had a stronger influence in the West than before, these symbolic‑sacrificial conceptions prevented the dissociation of the real and the sacramental body which was often noticeable in the East; and the ideas of the realistic‑dynamic type took on, under their influence, an appearance more " realistic " in the modern sense. This is most clearly the case with Ambrose, though no passage in his authentic works shows him a believer in the real presence of the actual body and blood. When, however, he says (De fine, iv. 10) " As often as we receive the sacramental elements, which by the mysterious efficacy of holy prayer are transformed (trsnsfigurantur) into the Flesh and the Blood we do show the Lord's death," he comes close to connecting with the symbolic offering a change of the elements into the body and blood of Christ. It would thus not be inconceivable that Ambrose should have addressed his catechumens in the language found in the treatises De mystera'ia and De sacramenlis which pass under his name. Cyril of Jerusalem speaks strongly in the same way under the same circumstances (ut sup., § 9); and the writers of these two works do not accept the real presence. These treatises are of no small importance in the history of this question, even if they are not Ambrose's, since long before the ninth century they were thought to be his, and to the men of the Middle Ages it was " Ambrose " who led the way to the doctrine of transubstantiation.
In fact, they are really more interesting if not his. If they had been, they must have been interpreted by his other expressions; but as products of a later period, they show that (just as in the East with Cyril of Jerusalem and Chrysoatom) the realiaticdynamic conception, when it came under the influence of sacrificial ideas, approached ever nearer to the doctrine of a positive change‑nearer than was the case with Ambrose himself.
The Western development would probably have reached the same conclusion as the Eastern at an even earlier period, if it had not been for Augtts‑
tine. His position on the subject is the
3. Angus‑ same as his general attitude in regard tine's Check to the sacraments (see SACRAMENT)
upon De‑ °` the sacrament is one thing, the vir‑
velopment. toe of the sacrament, another "; (" On John's Gospel"xxvi. ll); "grace is the virtue of the sacrament " (Eruirrstio in Psalmos, Ixxvii. 2). The res sacrsmenti, the benefit to which the signum points, is here also the " sanctification of invisible grace " (Qucestionza in HePtateuchum, iii. 84), with all that this includes. The sanctification by invisible grace is defined by him in three ways: either he thinks, in accordance with the traditional symbolic‑sacrificial view, of the appropriation by faith of the redeeming work of Christ (De doctriren Christians, iii. 16. 24); or, turning in a spiritualist direction, he considers the mystical union with Christ given with the sanctification (De civitate Dei, xxi. 25, 4); or, with a reference to I Cor. x. 17, he deals with the thought that grace incorporates us into the Church‑the body of Christ (" On John's Gospel," xxvi. 15; Ser»ao, cclxxii.). Of an actual presence of the body and blood there is no mention; Christ is, indeed, " everywhere entirely present like God," but " in some place in heaven after the manner of a real body " (Epiat., clxxxvii. 13, 41). The fact that he uses expressions which sound " realistic " moat not mislead in the light of his own explanation (Epist., xeviii. 9): " For if sacraments had not some points of real resemblance to the things of which they are the sacraments, they would not be sacraments at all. In moat cases, moreover, they do in virtue of this likeness bear the names of the realities which they resemble. As, therefore, in a certain manner the sacrament of Christ's body is Christ's body," etc. (NPNF, 1 ser., i. 410). There is scarcely a passage in the early literature so illuminating for our purpose.‑unless it be De catechizandiF rudibua,
xxvi. 50, where he waCllg the C4%0hUmCp " thit if
he hears anything even in the Scriptures which may carry a carnal sound, he should, even although he fails to understand it, nevertheless believe that something spiritual is signified thereby, which bears upon holiness of character and the future life " (NPNI' 1 aer., iii. 312). Here the " something spiritual " throws a light on the " heavenly reality " already discussed. But although Augustine's " realistic " expressions have no significance as regards his own position, they have much for the hater history. He provided the later Roman Catholic development, which departed from his own symbolicspiritualistic view, with a quantity of formulas, and made it possible for people to close their eyes

Lord's Supper	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	34
to the fact that the moat important teacher of the early Western Church held a doctrine of the Lord's Supper scarcely distinguishable from that of the " heretics " Berengar, Wyclif, Calvin, and their followers. But the result of his actual teaching was also an important one. He checked the development toward transubstantiation in the West.
Among the theologians of the last period of the early Church, Fulgentius of Ruspe, Facundus of Hermiane, and Isidore of Seville represent a more or less genuine Augustinian view, while besides the pseudo‑Ambrose Ceesarius of Arles and 4. Transub‑ Gregory the Great belong to the realstsntistioa. istio‑dynamic school in which the dynamic was growing less and less as the realistic assumed prominence. Both traditions came down side by side to the Carolingian age. The renaissance of Augustinianism which characterizes that period brought the symbolic view to the front among theologians, though not, of course, in the popular mind, and though the theologians admitted a real dynamic change in the elements and asserted as freely as Augustine that the bread " receiving the benediction becomes the body of Christ." The stage which had been reached may be seen in the controversy between Paschasius Radbertus and Ratramnus (qq.v.). There is little difference between their formulas; but Ratramnus showed a survival of the spiritualistic attitude, which was ended only in the conflict with Berengar (q.v., see also LANFRANC; TRANSUBSTANTIATION). Lanfranc went beyond Paschasius Radbertus only by .the single important step of asserting the real presence for the unworthy as well as for the worthy; but other opponents of Berengar went further. Guitmund of Averse, was the first of the Western upholders of this change to assert clearly the lotus ix toto et lotus in qualibet parts, " the whole in the whole and the whole in any particular " ; he also used the terms substance and accidents in their later sense ‑asserting that the substance was changed, while the " accidents of the former essence " remained. This completed the doctrine of transubstantiation, though the word first became a dogmatic expression in the first half of the twelfth century (1215), and by its use in the confession of the fourth Lateran Council. The subtle minds of the schoolmen found much ogcupation in further refinements upon it, to which, however, little attention was paid in the final settlement of the Roman Catholic doctrine at the Council of Trent (see below, IV.). The Cateckismus Romauus, indeed (IL, iv. 42), borrows from Thomas Aquinas the distinction that Christ is present not"by way of quantity" but "by way of substance "; and the doctrine of concomitance, first. brought up by Anselm, proved serviceable in defending the practise of the laity in communing only in one kind.
Considering the infinity of varying views which the first fifteen centuries produced, we shall not be surprised to find that the Reformation period was 6. Tea ohias able to evolve but few new ones.
	of the	Many abuses which had grown up
8eformers. around the sacrament were swept away,
		many ideas which distorted and dis
honored it were denied; the sacrifice of the mass,
as a propitiatory offering, was no more; the adorer
tion of the sanctissimum, exposition, the festival of Corpus Christi, were abolished, and communion in both kinds restored. But the positive ideas of the Reformation, even Luther's own, are scarcely any of them new. If Luther, after 1520, replaced transubstantiation by the presence of the body and blood of Christ in the untranaformed elements, he was only following out a possibility already indicated by Nominalist schoohnen; he appeals to Pierre d'Ailly when he first brings forward this idea (De captivitate Babylonicd, in Tl'erke, vi. 508). He placed the benefit of the sacrament almost exclusively in the remission of sins, as the upholdders of the symbolio‑sacrificial view had done before him; and when he twice connected the immortality of the body with reception, he was adopting the Greek realistic‑dynamic view which he knew from IrenEeus. The doctrine of ubiquity on which he based his conception of the real presence (see UBIQUITY) was taken from the Nomina,liats, though carried further than scholasticism had carried it. [It seems probable that Luther's doctrine of ubiquity was closely connected with his doctrine of the Communicatio Idiomatum (q.v.), which latter came to him through mysticism from the Neo‑Plar tonic Christian thought. If so, it had its root in realism rather than in nominalism and was essentially Eutychian. Luther's mind was not sufficiently philosophical to grasp the points at issue between realism and nominalism, to which fact were due in part his inconsistencies.‑w. a. N.] The really new thing with Luther is the explanation of the "this is " by the grammatical figure of synecdoche, by which "one names a whole and means only a part," as when " a mother points to the swaddling‑clothes in which her child is wrapped, saying, ` This is my child."' Zwingli and Calvin followed Augustinian paths. The former accepted only the symbolic‑sacrificial idea, separated, of course, from any thought of a sacrifice in the Eucharist; Calvin has also the notion of the "spiritual eating of the body and blood of Christ " in a form modified by realiatiodynamic ideas. That both of them found the symbolic part of the " this is my body " in " is " ( = signifual) has, it is true, no exact parallel in ancient days. But the point where they placed the symbol is comparatively unimportant‑this " tropical " explanation was not new, and the gloss of (Ecolampadius‑" this is a figure of my body "‑‑combines Augustine's sense with words of Tertullian.
In order to understand the sequence of events among the Lutherans, three things must be borne in mind: the extremely conservative character of Luther's original teaching and practise e. Doctrine in this matter, Melanchthon's gradual
is the departure from it, and the lateness of
	Lab~,othe real effect of Luther's teaching on
		ubiquity. The popular mind paid
little heed to fine distinctions, and saw no great
difference between transubstantiation and conaub
stantiation. Luther's catechisms, which soon be
came, if informally, the standard of teaching, as
serted that " under " (or " in and under ") " the
bread and wine the true body and the true blood
of our Lord Jesus Christ is imparted [to all re
ceivers] as a certain pledge and sign of the benefit

35	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lord's Sapper
of the sacrament (to the faithful only), the remission of sins." The manner in which the form of public worship was but slightly changed from the pre‑Reformation mass produced a similar impression on the ordinary mind. The fact, then, was all the more notable that from 1531 Melanchthon drew away more and more from this position. As early as that date he dropped the doctrine of ubiquity, and somewhat later the "in the bread"; by 1535 he was sympathizing with the " tropical " meaning given to the words of institution, and then, though obscurely, abandoning the reception by the wicked; while toward the end of his life he agreed in all essentials with Calvin. About 1555 the doctrine of ubiquity began to have its effect. The Philippista (q.v.) were then directly attacked, after Melanchthon's death, as " crypto‑Calvinieta," and theological discussion turned with considerable heat to the question of the Lord's Supper, and to the doctrine of the Incarnation which the teaching on ubiquity connected closely with it. After the downfall of the Philippists in Saxony, it was possible to formulate definitely the anti‑Philippiat, anti‑Calvinist teaching in article VII. of the Formula Conr cordite (see section IV. and the article, FoRnarrre
OF CONCORD).
Among the " Reformed " Churches‑4hose which were neither Lutheran nor Anabaptist‑there was a general agreement from Zwingli's time that " the body and blood of Christ " were not, as with Luther and the Roman Catholics, the " sign of the sacrament " but the benefit which only the faithful,
" spiritually eating," received; that 7. The accordingly the " this is" must be
Reformed taken in a figurative sense; that Christ,
	Doctrine. exalted " bodily " to the right hand
of God, is present not " bodily " but according to
his divinity and " efficacy." There were, how
ever, differences on some points. In Zwingli's
mind the rite was one which rather imposed obli
gations on the recipient than conferred benefits;
" spiritual eating " was for him equivalent to the
faith in the sacrifice of Christ which was professed
by the congregation. It is true that he said more
than once that the sacrament was a pledge and as
surance of faith; but Bullinger emphasized much
more strongly the aide which gives, as in the gen
eral conception of a sacrament, so especially in the
communion. Calvin, whose view may more easily
be understood, and probably with more correct
ness, as a modification of Luther's, not of Zwingli's,
insisted strongly on the " giving " character of the
sacrament in opposition to what he thought the
" profane " conception of Zwingli, and gave a
much fuller meaning to the " spiritual eating."
His views have ultimately been adopted by the
great majority of the strictly " Reformed " bodies;
but to take a wide general view of the infinite gra
dations between the strict Calvinistic belief and the
rationalizing of the Zwinglian view into a mere ob
servance in commemoration of Christ would re
quire far too much space. 	(F. Loop,)
The position taken on the subject by the great Church of England divines represents a via media between the opposing views already cited, and differs essentially from that of any other reformed
church. It is true that, with the extraordinary latitude allowed in that church to the teaching of the clergy, all possible views from absolute transubstantiation to fiat Zwinglianism
8. The may be found at the present day; but A.usN°an none the lees there is a traditional Doctrine. attitude which may be designated se characteristically Anglican. Ire exponents call it simply the doctrine of the real presence, and lay distinguishing emphasis on the fact that " our dootrine leaves this subject in the sacred mystery with which God has enveloped it " (William Palmer, Treatise on the Church of Christ, London, 1838). The same idea is expressed at greater length by Bishop Andrewes (1555‑1628) in his answer to Bellarmine: " The Cardinal is not unless ` willingly, ignorant' that Christ bath said ` This is my body,' not ` This is not my Body in this mode.' Now about the object we are both agreed; all the controversy is about the mode. The ` This is' we firmly believe; that' it is in this mode' (the Bread, namely, being transubstantiated into the Body), or of the mode whereby it is wrought that ` it is,' whether in, or with, or under, or transubstantiated, there is not a word in the Gospel." In another place he quotes with approval, as does also Jeremy Taylor, a saying attributed to Durandus, " We hear the word, feel the effect, know not the manner, believe the Presence." Archbishop Laud (15731845) asserted in his conference with Fisher, " As for the Church of England, nothing is more plain than that it believes and teaches the true and real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist." The denial, in the so‑called " Black Rubric " appended to the communion service, of the " corporal presence of Christ's natural Flesh and Blood " is intended, not to deny the real presence, but to strike at certain gross material views current among insufficiently educated people in the period just before the Reformation.
III. Confessional Statements: * The Roman Catholic doctrine is officially given in the Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent, Seas. XIII., Oct. 11, 1551 (ii. 128‑139). The principal points are:
" In the Eucharist are contained truly, really, sad substantially, the body and blood, togothor with the COIF bid divinity of our Lord Jesus Christ, and consequently the whole Christ "‑Can. 1.
" The whole substance of the bread is [converted] into the body," and " the whole substance of the wine into the blood."‑Can. 2.
The whole Christ is contained under each species, and under every part of each species, when eepasated."‑Can. 8.
" The principal fruit of the moat holy Eucharist is the remission of sins."‑‑‑Can. b.
" In the Eucharist, Christ is to be adored."‑Can. 8.
" All and each of briet'e faithful are bound to communicate every year."‑Can. 9.
" Sacramental confession is to be made beforehand, by those whose conscience is burdened with mortal sin."‑‑Can. 11:
The same view is taught, though lees distinctly, in the Greek Church in the Orthodox Confession q/'
the Eastern Church, Ques. CVL, CVII. (ii. 380‑38b); in the Confession of Dositheua (ii. 427‑432); in the Longer Catechism of the Eastern Church, quest 310;

" 't u8t i the 1:011l11lbnion / ' A sacraiment, in which the
believer, under the forma of bread and wine, partakes of the very Body and Blood of Christ to everleetiug life" (ii. 49b)

e The references are to Philip Schaff. TAa Crtcde of Chriatandoal. 8 voL.. New York, 1877.

Lord's Supper	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	S8
" The true body end blood of Christ are truly present under the form of bread and wine, and are there communicated to and received by those that eat in the Lord's Supper " (iii. 13).
Afterward Melanchthon changed this article in the edition of 1540, substituting for distribuantur (" communicated ") ezhibemntur (" shown "). This departure occasioned much controversy. The Lutheran doctrine is thus given in the Formula of Concord (1576), Art. VIL, Affirmative:
" We believe, teach, and confess that in the Lord's Supper the body and blood of Christ are truly and substantially present, and that they are truly distributed and taken togather with the bread and wine " (iii. 137).
The authoritative teaching of the Reformed Churches is thus given: First Helvetic Confession (1536), XXIIL:
" The bread and wine [of the Supper] are holy, true symbols, through which the Lord offers sad prevents the true communion of the body and blood of Christ for the feeding sad nourishing of the spiritual and eternal life " (iii. 22b).
So also in the Second Helvetic Confession, Cap. XXI. (iii. 291‑295).
The French Confession of Faith (1559), XXXVL, =VIII.:
" The Lord's Supper is a witness of the union which we have with Christ, inasmuch as he not only died and rose again for us once, but also feeds and nourishes us truly with his flesh and blood, so that we may be one in him, and that our life may be in common."
" The bread and wine in the sacrament serve to our spiritual nourishment, inasmuch as they show, as to our eight, that the body of Christ is our meat, and his blood our drink"' (iii. 380, 381).
The Scotch Confession of Faith (1560), Art. XXL:
" The faithful in the richt use of the Lord's Table do so eat the bodie and drinks the blade of the Lord Jesus that he remains in them and they in him " (iii. 467‑474).
The Belgic Confession (1561), Art. XXXV.:
" Christ that he might represent unto us this spiritual and heavenly bread bath instituted an earthly and visible bread as a Sacrament of his body, and wine as a Sacrament of his blood, to testify by them unto us, that, as certainly as we receive and hold this Sacrament in our hands, and eat and drink the same with our mouths, by which our life is afterward nourished, we also do as certainly receive by faith (which is the hand and mouth of our soul) the true body and blood of Christ our only Savior in our scale, for the support of our spiritual life " (iii. 428‑431).
The Heidelberg Catechism (1563), Ques. 76:
" What is it to eat of the crucified body and drink the shed blood of Christ? It is not only to embrace with s believing heart all the sufferings and death of Christ, and thereby to obtain the forgiveness of sins and life eternal, but moreover, also, to be so united more and more to his sacred body by the Holy Ghost, who dwells both in Christ and in us, that although he is is heaven, sad we ere upon the earth, we are nevertheless flesh of his flesh, and bone of his bones, and live and are governed forever by one Spirit, as members of the same body are by the one soul " (iii. 332, 333).
The Thirty‑Nine Articles of the Church of England (1562), Art. XXVIIL:
" The Supper of the Lord is not only a sign of the love that Christians ought to have among themselves one to another; but rather it is a Sacrament of our Redemption by Christ's death: insomuch that to ouch as rightly, worthily, and with faith, receive the same, the Bread which we break is a [heavenly and spiritual] partaking of the Body of Christ: and likewise the Cup of Blessing is a partaking of the Blood of Christ " (iii. 505).
So the Irish Articles of Religion (1615; iii. 542, 543).
The Westminster Confession of Faith (1647), chap. XXIX.:
" The Lord's Supper [is] to be observed for the perpetual remembrance of the sacrifice of himself in his death, the sealing of all benefits thereof with true believers, their spiritual nourishment and growth in him, their further engagement is and to all duties which they owe unto him; and to be s bond and pledge of their communion with him, and with each other, as members of his mystical body."
" Worthy believers do inwardly by faith, really and indeed, yet not carnally and corporally,'but spiritually receive and feed upon Christ crucified, and all the benefits of his death " (iii. 863‑687).
The WeatminsterShorterCatechism (1647), Ques.96:
" What is the Lord's Supper? A sacrament wherein by the giving and receiving bread and wine, according to Christ's appointment, his death is showed forth, and the worthy receivers are, not after a corporal and carnal manner, but by faith, made partakers of his body and blood, with all its benefits, to their spiritual nourishment and growth in grace " (iii. 897.
The Confession of the Society of Friends (1675), Thirteenth Proposition:
" The communion of the body and blood of Christ is inward and spiritual, which is the participation of his flesh and blood, by which the inward man is daily nourished in the hearts of those in whom Christ dwells; of which things the breaking of bread by Christ with his disciples was a figure, which they even used in the Church for a time, who had received the substance, for the cause of the weak; even as ' abstaining from things strangled, and from blood'; the washing one another's feet, and the anointing of the sick with oil; all which are commanded with no leas authority and solemnity than the former; yet seeing they are but the shadow of better things, they cease in such as have obtained the substance " (iii. 797).
Reformed Episcopal Articles of Religion (1875),
Art. XXVIL:
" The Supper of the Lord is a memorial of our Redemption by Christ's death, for thereby we do show forth the
Lord's death till by come. It is also a symbol of the soul's feeding upon Christ. And it is a sign of the communion that we should have with one another " (iii. 823).
IV. The Liturgy in the Churches of the Reformation.‑1. Luther and the Lutheran Church: Although Luther hoped for a complete renewal of the whole life of the people by the preaching of a pure gospel, he did not try to attain this end by making his own external arrangement of the 1. Luther's ordinances of public worship. LookFirst Form. ing upon himself as a member of the one Church, and bearing in mind how the people were accustomed to liturgical forma, he concluded to retain as much of the Roman mass as did not conflict with the word of God. His order for the celebration of the Lord's Supper is, therefore,, only to be fully understood by a comparison with the Roman Mass (q.v.). He kept the first part of it almost unchanged as far as the creed; but the introduction of a sermon at this point made a sharp division between the misam catechtcmenprtcm and the offertory and canon which followed. In regard to the offertory of the mesa, Luther declares in his Formula misam (1523) that from that point nearly everything savors of a sacrifice, and that nocordingly, repudiating all that has this meaning, he has retained what is pure and holy. On this basis, he struck out the offertory and the five following prayers, and went on, after the creed and sermon, to (a) the preface of the Roman mesa, somewhat abridged, and then immediately to (b) the words of institution in Latin, beginning, as in the mesa, " Qtti pridie quam pateretur," but leaving out all

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA.
the additions not found in the Scriptural text and adding the Scriptural words " good pro vobis stator " after " hoc est corpus meum "; (c) the Sanctus and Hosanna, during the singing of which (d) the elevation was to take place. Then followed (e) the Lord's Prayer, (f) the Pax Domini, (g) the Communion, during which the choir was to sing (h) the Agnus Dei. He left optional a prayer from the mesa, and the old formula of .administration " Corpus (Sartguis) Domini nostri Jesu Christi custodial animam loam." The service closed with (i) two poet‑communion prayers from the mass, (j) the Benedicamus Domino, to be sung invariably with the addition of Alleluia; (k) the blessing of Aaron (Nom. vi. 24‑27), which had never been used except in the Spanish liturgy.
Three years passed between the publication of Luther's Formula misses and his Deutsche Mesas and Ordnung des Gotteadienatea. During this time a number of other services came into use. The earliest German mass known is that composed in
1524 by Kantz, a preacher of Nord2. Lather's lingen. There is a Latin one of 1524
Revised at Nuremberg, which in the following
Form. year began to be used in German with a few changes; this is characterized by the introduction of a German exhortation to the communicants immediately before the Pax. The same feature is found in a Prussian vernacular service of 1525, but is lacking in the Strasburg order of the same year. Luther's new service of 1526 retained his earlier Latin form for week‑days, but introduced the German form for Sundays. In the latter the preface was replaced by a paraphrase of the Lord's Prayer and an exhortation supposed to be written beforehand, of which Luther gives an example not intended to be binding; this was no innovation, but a medieval custom, which seems to have arisen in South Germany. During the communion of the people, either a German paraphrase of the Sanctus, or another German hymn, or the Agnus Dei was to be sung, followed by a new German prayer.
Although Luther did not regard the form drawn up by him as in any way generally obligatory, the types appearing in these two services became models for the Lutheran liturgies of the sixteenth century. These Kirchenordnungen may be generally described as follows: At the beginning of the
celebration, as prescribed by Luther, $• vsriaat the communicants were to take their
Lutheran places in the choir, the men on the
~°"n'' south and the women on the north. The preface was either retained as in Luther's two forms, or replaced for ordinary SUpdg3rg by an exhortation, or both preface and exhortation were used. In Southern Germany a general confession and absolution followed. The same variety appears in regard to the retention of the Sanctus and Hosanna, which were still sung in Latin in North Germany, elsewhere in either Latin or German. During the Saws, some liturgies prescribed three German prayers to be said by the celebrant; one for secular rulers, one for the ministers of the word, and one for Christian unity. Other new prayers were added in different places before the
Lord's Supper
consecration. As the moat important and indispensable part of the liturgy, all retained the words of institution, through which the tell consecration of the elements for their sacred purpose was auppoaed to take place. Luther omitted the sign of the cross made over the elements, and no aixteenthcentury service has it, while the Hanover form of 1536 directly forbids it. It is first mentioned in the Lutheran Church by Johann Gerhard in the begining of the seventeenth century as " an indifferent ceremony," possessing " no spiritual force "; and afterward it occurs not infrequently. The breaking of the bread and the placing of a fragment of it in the chalice were dropped because the former was connected with the Roman Catholic theory of sacrifice, and the latter with the denial of the cup to the laity. Unleavened bread was still generally used, but the mixture of wine and water was discontinued; the recitation of the words of institution was ordered to be in a loud voice, con. trary to the Roman usage. The elevation of the elements after consecration was retained by Luther expressly for the sake of weak brethren who might be offended by too many striking changes in the service; and it was retained also in a number of sixteenth‑century forms. The place of the Lord's Prayer, generally sung in German, varied. Though Luther had omitted the Pox Domini in his German
I mass, it was frequently retained in the light of a formula of absolution. The usual manner of distribution was for the minister to communicate first himself and then the people, placing the bread directly in their mouths. First the men and then the women were to approach; occasionally the young were to come before the old. Stress was frequently laid on provision that none of the consecrated elements should remain or be thrown away at the conclusion of the service. Luther first retained the Roman formula of administration as permissible, but gave no formula in his German mass. The other services show a great variety in this regard; but ultimately the struggle against Crypto‑Calvinism (see PHILIPPIaTS) brought about an agreement to adhere either to something like the Latin formula, or to the other one which had been frequently used, " Take and eat; this is the body of Jesus Christ, which is given for you." The later Lutheran formula. came into use first in 1647 at Ltibeck, where through Bugenhagen's influence no formula had previously been used. The blessing of Aaron generally concluded the service after Luther's example. The old liturgies tended more and more to fall into disuse, under the influence of Pietism, with
its depreciation of lituT01 (Qrui ana gull mom
Under that of rationalism. The preface was al‑
most universally omitted and replaced by exhortations in the spirit of the time. The words of in‑
stitution, however, and the Lord's Prayer (the latter frequently in a weak paraphrase), were still
considered essential.
8. Zwingli: Zwingli at first (1523), in relation to the order of di‑trine service, adhered to the canon of the mass; but in his treatise De canoree misses
errichireais he expressed himself with much severity about this part of the mass. In place of the offertort' he inserted a general prayer. Then he went

Lord'. suppw	THE NEW scHAFF‑IIERZOG	ss
on much like Luther: preface, Sanctu8, prayer for a blessing on the reception, leading up to the words of institution, distribution, thanksgiving, the Nunc dimiuis or Song of Simeon, and the blessing. In 1525 he worked out an independent form of service, which was to be said, not sung. The communicants being assembled in the choir, the minister first prayed, turning toward them, that they might be well prepared. Then followed the reading of I Cor. xi. 20‑29; the Gloria in excelsia, recited alternately in German by the men and women; the salutation and response " The Lord be with you," " And with thy spirit "; the reading of John vi. 47‑83; the Apostles' Creed, also recited alternately; a short exhortation on the comfort and the solemnity of the feast; the Lord's Prayer, and another prayer for worthy reception; and the words of institution. For the communion, unleavened bread on wooden plates and wine in wooden cups was given to the communicants, seated, by appointed assistants; each broke off a morsel of the bread for himself and took the chalice in his hands. Then, after the recitation of Psalm exiii. and a short thanksgiving, the minister dismissed the congregation with " Go in .peace." This form, which expresses the Zwinglian conception of the Lord's Supper as a profession of faith and devotion on the part of the congregation, was retained with slight variations in the later Zilrich liturgies until 1675. According to the form of d'xolampadiua, there was a preparation consisting of confession and absolution, psalm‑singing, a general prayer, and reading of the Gospel account of the Passion, after which a simple form of celebration followed, consisting of exhortation, the Lord's Prayer, words of institution, communion, thanksgiving, and blessing.
8. The 8eformed Services: After Farel had abolished the Roman mass in Geneva, Calvin instituted an independent liturgy in his La manii're de alebrer la ce'ne. The Lord's Supper was to be celebrated once a year, after a sermon on its aignifioanoe and s prayer for worthy reception. The service then continued with the reading of I Cor. xi. 25‑29 and an exhortation, which contained a solemn excommunication of grievous sinners and enemies of church unity, urged all to examine their consciences carefully, and gave comfort to those who were weak in the faith or tempted to despair. In the conclusion of this, the ancient Suraum cords was paraphrased according to Calvin's dogmatic conceptions: " Let us lift up our hearts and minds thither where Jesus Christ is in the glory of his Father . . . for our souls will be well disposed to be nourished and vivified by his substance, when they are thus raised above all things earthly, to reach heaven itself and enter into the kingdom of God, where he dwells." Then followed the communion, with the provision that the minister himself should first receive it, then give it to the deacon and then to the whole congregation, who were to approach the holy table. The formula of administration was the following (in French): " Take and eat the body of Jesus, which was delivered up to death for you. Thin is the cup of the New Testament in the blood of Jesus, which was shed for you." During the communion Psalm cwiii. wee sung,
followed by a prayer of thanksgiving, the Song of Simeon, and the blessing. Calvin's type of service wee followed by the scattered Reformed communities in Westphalia and on the Rhine. In Switzerland the Calvinistic and Zwinglian forma were combined and modified in such various ways that at least six different forma exist to‑day. The order of service drawn up in 1550 by Johannes a Lasco (q.v.) for the Dutch refugees in England, the first complete order for the Calvinistic Reformed body, prescribes that on the day preceding the administration of the Lord's Supper, a sermon is to be delivered. At the time of the celebration, four cups and three pewter plates are to be set out on a table covered with a linen cloth. Another sermon is delivered, ending with an exhortation forbidding the approach of those who have not yet made their profession of faith and put themselves under Christian discipline or who have not given notice of their intention to receive. Then follow a prayer, the words of institution, and an exhortation to aelfexamination, after which the minister reads I Cor. v. 7, 8. The communion has the character of a family meal. The minister, elders, and members of the congregation sit around the table, as far as there is room. The minister takes a piece of the bread which is in the larger plate and, with the words, " The bread which we break is the communion of the body of Christ," divides it into small pieces on the other two plates, then handing it to those who sit near him with the words, " Take, eat, remember and believe that the body of our Lord Jesus Christ was given up to death upon the wood of the cross for the forgiveness of all our sins." The plates are then passed to those who sit further off and the same proceeding is observed in the administration of the cup, with corresponding words. First the men and then the women take their places around the table in turn, while John vi. and xiii.xv. are read from the chancel. After the communion, the service closes with a word from the minister, thanksgiving, a psalm, and the blearing. The Dutch Reformed Church still maintains this order, in which is obvious the attempt to assimilate the celebration as much as possible to the brotherly fellowship at the table of the original institution. The Scotch Church also derives its form from the order of Johannes a Lasco, and, like the Reformed Church of France, gives a similar complexion to the celebration.
4. The Anglican Communion: In accordance with the general tendency of the English Reformer tion, a very large part of the Reformed service is taken more or leas directly from the older liturgies, and even some parts which do not occur in the Roman mass have ancient precedent. Thus the prayer for the Church militant occupies the same position as the great intercession in the Gallican rite, and the recitation of the Ten Commandments, while probably due to the ethical tendency of the age, has been explained by some liturgical scholars as answering to the prophecy, or reading from the Old Testament, which in some other ancient liturgies preceded the epistle and Gospel. Several portions newly added were intended to emphasise the aspect of the service as a communion; thus the

so	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lord's Suppm
prayer of Humble Access, the Comfortable Words, and the position and wording of the confession and absolution presuppose the reception of the communion by the bulk of the congregation. The canon is much shortened, following the Roman closely in the essential part, and the Lord's Prayer, as scarcely ever elsewhere, follows the communion. The Gloria in excelaia retained its ancient position in the first Prayer‑book of Edward VI., but was afterward moved to the end of the service, as an act of 'I thanksgiving. See also Commorr PRAYER, Boos: OF.
V. Certain Points of Interest not Already Treated: In the primitive Church, the newly baptized were immediately admitted to communion; and with the growing frequency of infant baptism the same custom was still maintained. Cygrian (De lapsis, ix.) speaks of children who at the outset of their lives have received " the meat and drink of the Lord," and similar
	z. Infant evidence may be collected from the
Communion. Apostolic Constitutions, Dionysius the
		Areopagite, Paulinus of Nola (d. 431),
and Gennadiue of Marseilles (c. 492). The neces
sity of communion to salvation being taught on the
basis of John vi. 53, this argument is applied to the
communion of infants by Augustine and by Inno
cent I. But evidences of the practise are not con
fined to the first six centuries, as some have con
tended; on the contrary, they come down as late
as the twelfth, in which Paschal II. (1118) prescribes
that the two elements are to be separately admin
istered " except to infants and those who are so
weak that they can not swallow the bread," and
Robertus Paululus speaks of the custom as extant,
although beginning to disappear. A synodal or
dinance of Odo, bishop of Paris, in 1175, and a
canon of the Synod of Bordeaux in 1255 attest its
cessation in France, the latter prescribing the ad
ministration of blessed bread (see EULDaIA) instead
of the Host. It is a question whether the existence
of the custom can be shown in Germany later than
the twelfth century. The Council of Trent ruled
finally (Seaaio XXI. chap. 4) that children below
the age of reason were bound by no necessity to sac
ramental communion of the Eucharist, " although
antiquity is not to be condemned for observing this
custom in certain places and times." The Greek
Church has retained the practise to the present day.
The Evangelical churches, making admission to
communion dependent on spiritual maturity as evi
denced by a special examination, have .naturally not
retained it. 		(GEORG RIEIBCHEL.)
In the early Church it was customary to carry the consecrated elements immediately after service to the sick and to prisoners; and two passages in Tertullian (Ad uxorem, IL, v.; De oraCiorae, six.) seem to imply the custom of communicating at home under the species of bread even apart from illness. Later we find the consecrated
3. Commit‑ bread carried on journeys and used as Ilion of an amulet, a practise against which
	the Sick.	more than one council legislated. With
		the introduction of communion in one
kind it became usual to carry the consecrated bread
to the sick immediately after mesa or from the
tabernacle in which it was reserved; and the strict
enforcement of the rule of fasting communion made
it desirable as obviating the necessity of the priest's
having to celebrate in the afternoon or evening for
a person in sudden danger of death. In the Church
of England a special service is provided for the
celebration of the communion in the sick room,
somewhat shorten than the usual form; but in re
cent years, with the growth of the practise of reser
vation, the elements are not infrequently carried
from the church and administered with a brief form
of prayer. The Lutheran Church freely allows pri
vate communion, while the Reformed discourages it.
	In the pre‑Reformation Church the principal re
quirements for a worthy reception of the sacra
ment were freedom from sin and fasting from the
previous midnight. Both of these are strictly re
quired in the Roman Catholic Church at the pres
ent day. The former is imposed as a matter of ab
		solute necessity in the case of mortal
	3. Require‑ sin, when confession must invariably
	meats for precede communion; in practise con
	Communi‑ feesion is usually recommended to in
	cants. frequent communicants, even though
		they may not be conscious of having
committed a mortal sin since their last communion.
The question of the frequency of communion is one
which has been much discussed at different times.
It is generally admitted that in the Apostolic Age
it was received, if not daily, at Ieast on Sunday,
Wednesday, and Friday. As the zeal of the days
of persecution diminished, it became ha frequent,
and Chrysostom had to rebuke those who com
municated only once a year. In Africa as late as
Augustine's day once a week was the usual mini
mum. The second Synod of Tours (850) required
at least three times a year; but by the Lateran
Council of 1215 the Church had come to limit the
actual requirement to once a year, at Easter. In
'the sixteenth century the frequency once more in
	creased, under the influence of Ignatius and Philip
	Neri, and was spoken of as highly desirable by the
	Council of Trent. The Janseniat and Quietist
	movements in France (especially through Arnauld's
	treatise De la ,frNuente communion) tended to di
	minish it once more, and the laxity of modern
times makes it usual for eYeIl MY deY0U6 p8(1p~
	to communicate at most once a month. In the
	Anglican communion, after the Reformation, the
	frequency of administration fell in most places to
	four times a year, or at most once a month, until
	the High‑church revival of the nineteenth century
	restored it to normally once a week and in many
	places daily, with a consequent increase in the fre
	quency of communion. In the other Protestant
	churches the quarterly administration is the most
	usual. The requirement of fasting, for which there
	is early evidence, was prescribed as a matter of
	reverence. In modern Roman Catholic practise
	the exceptions which excuse from it are serious
	illness and the necessity of protecting the sacred
i species from profanation or of completing the mass
	in the case of a sudden indisposition of the cele
	brant. Thin rule also is increasingly emphasized
	in the Anglican Communion under present condi
	tions, but does not occur in the other Reformation
	churches, which content themselves with requiring

Lord'seSupper	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	40
a genertil condition of faith and repentance. As to the first admission to communion, they usually require a formal ceremony of recognition of membership or the like; according to the rubric of the Anglican Prayer‑book " none shall be admitted to the Holy Communion except he be confirmed, or be ready and desirous to be confirmed."
The original Lutheran and Calvinist types of administration have been noted above. The mode of administration in non‑Episcopal churches in
America and England is almost uni4. Practises form. The elements are consecrated
Connected by prayer by the minister, who breaks
with as much bread and pours out as much Adminis‑ wine as he deems sufficient. He retration. pests the words of institution; he then
hands the elements for distribution to the elders or deacons, who serve him first and then pass to the other communicants sitting in their pews. In the Anglican Communion and also in many Lutheran churches the communicants kneel at the chancel rail. In the German Reformed Church they stand. On modern sanitary principles an agitation has recently been made in America for the introduction of individual communion cups, and the movement has slowly spread very widely. For communion in both kinds see Mnss, IL, 5.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the general subject the works cited under Eucawalsm should be consulted, as also those under TRANSUBSTANTIATION. On 3...conault: The works cited in Biblical Introduction, IL, especially those of Weise and Beyschlag; J. G. Scheibel, Daa Abendmahl des Horn, Breslau, 1823; D. Schulz, Die chriatliche Lehre vom Ahendmahl noch dem Grundlext des N. T., ib. 1824; J. J. I. von IuSllinger, Die Lehre von der Euehar%atie in den drei staler Jahrhunderten, Mainz, 1825; F. W. Linjner, Die Lehrs vom Abendmahl reach der Schrift, Hamburg, 1831; K. F. A. Kahnie, Die Lehre vom Abendmahl, Leipsie, 1E51; L. J. Rtlekert, Doe Aberdmahl, aein Wesen and seine Geechichte in der alters Kirche, ib. 1856; C. T. Keim, Goschichte Jean von Naeara, iii. 268, Zurich, 1872, Eng. trawl., 8 vole., London, 187582; H. Schultz, in TSK, 1888; P. Lobstein, La Doctrine de la saints cdne, Lausanne, 1889; Harnack, in TU, vii. 2, 1891; T. Zahn, Brot and Weir in Abandmahl der alter Kirche, Leipeic, 1892, cf. Barnack in TLZ, no. 15, 1892; A. Jiilicher, in Theolopiachs Abhandlungen . . K. von Weizattcker gewidmet, Freiburg, 1882; C. Weizeileker, Doe apoetoliache Zeitalter, pp. 574 eqq., Freiburg, 1892, Eng. travel., The Apostolic Ape, 2 vole., London, 1894‑95; F. $pitta, ZwGeachichte and Literatw des Urchrfietentuma, vol. i., GSttingen, 1893; E. Grafe, in Zeitaehrift far Theologie and Kirche, 1895, part 2, pp. 101‑138; F. $chulten, Doe Abendmahl im N. T., G5ttingen, 1895; A. C. MaGiffert, Hiet. of Christianity in as Apostolic Ape, pp. 88 eqq. et passim, New York, 1897; A. Eiohhorn, Daa Abendmahl im N. T., Leipsie, 1898; Schaff, Christian Church, i. 471‑474; and the commentaries on the basal passages.
On TT (history of the doctrine is the Church) consult: Harpack, Dogma, vole, i., ii., iv., v., vii. and, in general, the treatises on the history of doctrine; the works of DSllinger, Kabnie and Rilekert, ut sup.; F. C. Baur, in Tgbinper Zeitechrift flit Theolopie, 1839, pp. b8‑144; J. H. A. Ebrard, Daa Dogma vom heilipen Abendmahl and seine Geachiclue, 2 vole., Frankfort, 184b‑48; J. W. Nevin, The Mdatical Presence; Vindication of the Reformed or Calvinistic Docking of the Holy Eucharist, Philadelphia, 1848; W. J. E. Bennett, The Eucharist; its Hiat., Doctrine, and Practice, London, 1851; J. W. F. HSfling, Die Lehre der 8lteaten Kirehe room OyJer, Erlangen, 1851; R. Wilberforce, The Doctrine of as Holy Eucharist, London, 1853 (Anglican tractarian); A. W. DieckhoH, Die evangelisths Lehre im Reformotiomzeitalter, G&ttingen, 1854; R. Halley, The Saeramenta, part TL, The Lord's Supper, London, 1855; P. Freeman, The Principles of Divine Service, 2 parts, London, 1855‑82; E. Bickereteth, A 1'reatias on as Lord's Supper, ed. L. W. P. Batch, New
York, 1857; E. B. Pussy, The Real Presence of the Body and Blood of ow Lord do the Holy Eucharist, Oxford, 1857; G. F. Msmlear, The Witness of the Eucharist, London 1884; G. E. Steitz, in Jahrbilcher fiir deutsche Theologie, ix (1864), 409‑481, x (1865), 64‑152, 399‑483, xi (18&5), 193‑253, xii (1866), 211‑286, xiii (1868), 3‑66, 849‑700; J. B. Dalgavine, The Holy Communion, its Philosophy, Theology and Practice, New York, 1868 (Roman Catholic); H. Schmid, Der ICampf der lutheriachen Kirche um Lathers Lehre vom Abendmahd im Reformationazeitalter Leipaie, 1888; J. Harrison, Answer to Dr. Pussy's Challenge respecting the Doctrine of as Real Presence, 2 vole., London, 1871 (Anglican Low‑church); J. Macknaught, Cana Domini, ib. 1878 (on the doctrine of the Anglican Church); H. Schultz, Zw Lehre vom heiligen Abendmahl, Goths, 1888; L. Lanzoni, The Names of the Eudtaraat Dublin, 1887; J. P. Lilley, The Lord's Supper, . its Origin, Nature and Use, Edinburgh, 1891; F. L. Renz, Opfercharakter der Euehar%atie each der Lehre der Vader der drei eraten Jahrhunderte Padetborn 1892; J. It. Milne, Doctrine and Practice of the Eucharist, London, 1895; J. Wilpert, Fractio pants. Die dlteate Daratellung des eucharistiathen Opjera in der " Capella Grmca," Freiburg, 1895; J. Emend, Die eroanpeliachen deutachen Meaeen bia zu Luthera Deutacher Mesas, Gottingen, 1898; J. Behringer, Die heilipe Kommunion in ihren Wirkungen, Regensburg, 1895; A. Naegle, Die Euchariatielehre des
J. Chryaoatomus, Freiburg, 1900; V. Schmitt, Die Verheieaunp der Euchariatiebei den V4tern, Wiirzburg,1900; C. Gore, The Body of Christ; an Inquiry into the Institution and Doctrine of Holy Communion, London, 1901; W. G6tamann, Dos euchariatiache Opfer reach der Lehre der ttltern Scholaetik, Freiburg, 1901; A. G. Mortimer, Euchariatic Sacrifice; historical and theological Investigation of the sacrificial Conception . . . in the Catholic Church, London 1901; R. M. Adamson, Christian Doctrine of the Lord's Supper, Edinburgh, 1905; J. C. Hedley, The Holy Eucharist, London, 1907.
On IV. consult: SammZung liturgiacher Farmulare der evangeliach‑lutheriachen Kirche, part 3, NSrdlingen, 1842; A. L. Richter, Die evarageliachen Kirchenordnungen des Tti. Jahrhunderts, Weimar, 1846; H. A. Daniel, Codex litwpicua, vole., ii.‑iii., Ixipeic, 1847‑53; J. W. F. Hofling, Luwpiachet Urkunderabvch, viii. 75 aqq., Schwerin, 1861; L. $ch5berlein, Schatz des liturgiachen Chor‑ and Gemeindegeaanga, vol. i., Gbttingen, 1865.
On V. consult: W. Vaux, The Benefits Attached to Participation in, . . . as Lord's Supper, Oxford, 1826; A. N. Arnold, Prerequisites to Communion, Boston, 1860; T. W. Perry, Historical Considerations Relating to the Declaration on Kneeling in . . , the . . . Book of Common Prayer, London, 1863; F. Hall, Fasting Reception of as Blessed Sacrament, ib. 1882; J. W. Kempe, Reservation of the Blessed Sacrament, ib. 1887; R. $hiells, The Story of the Token as Belonging to , the Lord's Supper, New York, 1892; J. Hughes‑Games, Evening Communion, London, 1894; R. V. Bury, Vinum eacramenti; critical Examination of as Nature of the Wine of the Holy Communion, Dublin, 1904; C. R. Davey Biggs, The Lord's Supper; Text of the (Anglican) Service Explained, Oxford, 190b; $. Phillips, The Communion of the, Sick, London, 1905.

LORD'S TABLE. See ALTAR, IIL, 2, § 2.

LORETO, lo‑r5'to: The most famous place of pilgrimage in Italy, and the principal seat for that country of the devotion to the Virgin Mary. It is situated 14 m. s.e. of Ancona on the road to Fermo, and is celebrated for its possession of what is alleged to be the house of the Virgin, transported thither from Nazareth by angels. The legend, although its first mention in literature is found in Flavius Blondus about the middle of the fifteenth century, seems to have grown up at the end of the crusading period. In its developed form, as found in Baptists Mantuanus (1576) and on a tablet on the wall of the church cited by Matthias Bernegger in 1619, it asserts that this is the actual portion of the dwelling of Mary at Nazareth in which she was

41	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lord's Supper
Lorimer
born and brought up and received the angelic message, in which she lived after the ascension of her Son. Tile apostles, then, the legend goes on, made a church of it; St. Luke decorated it with a wooden figure of the Virgin holding the Child in her arms; and it was continuously used for worship until the fall of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Then, to save it from destruction by the unbelievers, angels appeared, caught it up into the air, and deposited it first at Raunitza in northern Dalma,tia, between Fiume and Tersato (1291). Its genuineness was accredited by the healing of some sick people who prayed within it and by an apparition of the Virgin to Bishop Alexander of Tersa,to, who was himself miraculously healed of a long illness. Three years later the angels again picked it up and carried it to the opposite coast of Italy (Dec. 10, 1294) setting it down in a wood belonging to a pious woman named Laureta, from whom the shrine took its name. It was once more removed a mile nearer to Recanati, and reached its final resting‑place Sept. 7, 1295. The second half of the fifteenth century saw a marked increase in devotion to the shrine. The earliest papal sanction of the devotion dates from Sixtus IV. (1471), who, as well as Julius II. (1507), uses the expression "as it is piously believed and the report is " in reference to the translation of the house. Sixtus V. (1587) founded a knightly order (Ordo et religio equitum Lauretanorum pontificiorum) for the protection of pilgrims, which as late as the eighteenth century had between two and three hundred members. Innocent XII. (d. 1700) sanctioned a special mass and office in honor of Our Lady of Loreto; and other popes granted special privileges, which, together with the munificent gifts of many Roman Catholic sovereigns, contributed to the spread of the devotion. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, not less than 200,000 pilgrims are said to have come to Loreto each year; but by the end of the eighteenth this number had much diminished, and in 1797 the French troops carried off nearly the whole of the enormous treasures of the shrine. Napoleon, however, made restitution of a part of them in 1800; and since the Roman Catholic revival of the nineteenth century the annual number of pilgrims has again exceeded 100,000. The artistic decoration of the shrine was carried on with great richness under Julius IL, Leo. X., Clement VIL, and Sixtus V. Numerous other shrines intended as reproductions of this have grown up in different parts of the world and attract many pilgrims. The Litany of Loreto, consisting of a long series of invocations of the Virgin under various titles, dates from the second half of the sixteenth century; the invocation Auxilium Christianortcm, ors pro nobt's was added in commemoration of the victory of Lepanto in 1571. The litany is now one of the most popular Roman Catholic devotions. (O. ZScgLER.)
BIBLIOIIRAPRY: The account by Baptists Mantuanus is contained in his Opera, iv. 216 sqq., Antwerp, 1578. Consult further: B. Bartoli, Le Clorie maeatose del aantuario dx Loreto, Maeerata,1712; Kirwan's Rornanis»I of Home, pp ~ 99‑107, New York, 1852: P. Arrigh7, Hiat. de la demeure de la S. Vi‑9c h Nazareth dam la baailique de Lorete, Paris, 1889; W. Garratt, Loreto, the New Nazareth, London. 1890; The Loretto Manual, Dublin, 1891; W. F. H Garratt, Loreto, the New .Nazareth and its Jubilee, London, 1895;
Lichtenberger, ESR, viii. 371‑372; KL, viii. 145‑1b2. A long list of the polemical writings of Protestants and of the apologetics of Roman Catholics is given in HauckHerzog, RE, xi. 647.
LORETO SISTERS. See ENGLISH LADIES; and WOMEN, CONGREGATIONS OF.

LORIMER, GEORGE CLAUDE: American Baptist; b. in Edinburgh, Scotland, June 4, 1838; d. at Aix‑les‑Bains (40 m. s.s.w. of Geneva), France, Sept. 8, 1904. He came to the United States in 1856 and studied at Georgetown College, Ky. He was pastor at Harrodsburg, Ky. (1859); Paducah (1860‑68); Albany, N. Y. (1868‑70); Boston (1870‑79); Chicago (1879‑90); Boston (18911902); and New York (1902‑04). He was the author of: Under the Evergreens (Boston, n. d.); Great Conflict: Discourse concerning Baptists and Religious Belief (1877); Isms old and new (Chicago, 1881); Jesus, the World's Saviour (1883); Studies in Social Life (1886); Baptists in History (BOStOIiI 1893); Argument for Christianity (Philadelphia, 1894); Messages of Today to the Men of Tomorrow (1896); Christianity and the Social State (1898); Christianity in the 19th Century (1900); Master of Millions (New York, 1903); and The Modern Crisis in Religion (1904); and edited the People's Bible History (2 vole., Chicago, 1896).

LORIMER, PETER: English Presbyterian; b. in Edinburgh June 27, 1812; d. at Whitehaven (36 m. s.w, of Carlisle), Cumberland, July 29, 1879. He was the son of a master builder who occupied a good position in his native city. He received the elements of his education at George Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh, and proceeded from the hospital to Edinburgh University. Here he passed through the classes of the arts curriculum with much credit, and also took his theological course, the professor of divinity at the time being Dr. Thomas Chalmers, to whom, as a teacher, Dr. Lorimer always acknowledged the highest obligations. In 1836 he was ordained as minister of the Presbyterian Church, River Terrace, London, connected with the Church of Scotland. In 1843, with his congregation, he cast in his lot with the Free Church. In 1845 he was appointed professor of Hebrew and Biblical criticism in the theological college of the English Presbyterian Church, then newly established in London, and in 1878 he was made principal. His most important writings are: a life of Patrick Hamilton (Edinburgh, 1857), the first of a projetted series of works on the precursors of Knox; The Scottish Reformation (London, 1860); John Knox and the Church of England (1875), founded on
the Kim papers preserUed Ameng ile M orr~
manuscripts; two lectures on The Evidential Value of the Early Epistles of St. Paul (1874); The
Evidence to Christianity Arising from its Adaptation to All the Deeper Wants of the Human Heart (1875); and a translation with notes of vol, i (containing Wyclif's personal history) of G. V. Lechler's Joharm von Wiclif and die Vargeschichte der Reforms,. Lion (John Wiclif and his English Predecessors, 2 vole., London, 1878 new eds. 1881, 1884).

W. LEEt, revised by HENRY COwAN. BIHLIOCRAYHY: DNB, XXX1V, 13$.

Los von Rom	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	42
LOS VON ROM.
Origin of Movement (§ 1). Austria (§ 2). Germany end France (§ 3). Other Countries (§ 4). Influence of " Modernimm " (§ b).
One of the most interesting features of recent religious life has been the growing movement away from Rome which has taken place during the past
half century. In the beginning of the r. Origin of nineteenth century it seemed to be un‑
Movement. questioned that the bounds of Protes‑
tantism and Romanian were finally settled and that a new Reformation was not to be looked for. But the middle of the century saw a great intellectual, political, and religious awakening which was destined to have unexpected results in the ecclesiastical world. It became impossible to maintain the persecuting laws against Protestants which characterised all Roman Catholic countries, and these laws gradually disappeared or were mitigated, and mission work began. These missions have been carried on with varying suoteas, partly by the small native Protestant Churches, partly by missionary societies in England, America, and Germany. But the movement away from Rome has not been due entirely or even mainly to these missionary efforts. It has been due to movements of various kinds inside the Church of Rome itself. The growth of political liberty made men dissatisfied with the despotism of the Vatican; and as the middle of the last century wag characterized in the political sphere by a fierce struggle between absolutism and democracy, so in the ecclesiastical world there was a similar struggle between ultrar montanism and the desire for greater freedom and elasticity of organization. In the political world democracy triumphed, but in the ecclesiastical ultramontanism won the day, and the result of its victory was the Vatican Council and the decree of papal infallibility (bee VATICAN COUNCIL). Owing to the reluctance of DtSllinger (q.v.) to create a schism and to the cowardice of some of the bishops who fought in the council against the decree, but accepted it when it had passed, the Old Catholic Church did not begin its career with numbers at all as large as were expected; but it hex continued its course with a hopeful future in Holland, Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, and with a few followers in France, Italy, and Mexico. Its friendship for Protestantism has drawn it more and more away from the characteristic doctrines of Romanian, and in some places it serves as a temporary spiritual resting‑place for those who are discontented with Rome, but not yet prepared for the decisive step of adopting a thoroughly Evangelical Protestantism. See OLD CAT80LICf3.
A movement away from Rome which was at first very promising, but in the end proved more or less abortive, was that known as German Catholicism
(q.v.). The remains of this move‑
s. Austria. went are associated with the Union of
Free Religious Congregations. This promising movement failed for want of a sufficiently vital religious and Evangelical element and from the excessive predominance of the political factor
(see FREE CONGREGATIONS IN GERMANY). The German‑speaking Roman Catholics, who furnished the greater part of these two movements, have recently given birth to a movement much more important than either of them, the " Loa von Rom " movement in Austria. For 4 long time there has been a considerable alienation of both the German and Slav inhabitants of Austria from the Church of Rome and its services, but whether this would have led to a movement toward Protestantism and what form such a movement might have taken it is difficult to conjecture. The actual initiation of the movement toward Protestantism was due to a combination of racial and political influences which can only be referred to here. The war of 1866 with Prussia had transferred the leadership of the German states to that state, and eventually, after the defeat of France, had led to the formation of the German Empire, from which Austria was excluded. This loos of political position and power was keenly felt by the Austrian Germans, who saw themselves displaced by a new Protestant power from the position they had occupied for ages, and the explanation that forced itself on many minds was that Romanian had sapped the vigor of their race. Their resentment against Rome was intensified by the attitude Rome assumed in the racial struggles between Germans and Slave. Having found France an ineffectual instrument for the promotion of its political aims, the Vatican began to throw its influence on the side of the Slavs against the Germans in order to build up a strong Slav Catholic power on which it could depend. Bitter antiRoman political feeling was excited by this, and at length on Nov. 5, 1898, Schonerer, the leader of the German National Party, made an appeal for a secession from Rome, issuing the watchword by which it has been since known, " Los von Rom," i.e., Away from Rome, or Free from Rome. The movement has been pronounced purely a political maneuver, but this entirely misrepresents its character. The possibility of the political movement arose out of the religious dissatisfaction that existed, and many, even at the beginning, came out under the cover of the political passion of the moment, whose impelling motive was religious. The political element began rapidly to recede into the background, and after two or three years became entirely subordinate, till eventually it almost disappeared. In this transformation from the political to the religious a very deep influence has been exercised by the celebrated novelist Peter Rosegger, who has shown deep interest in the movement, though remaining nominally a Roman Catholic. The secessions have taken place almost entirely from the German‑speaking portions of the population. Those who are most familiar with the Czech portions of Bohemia consider that the conditions exist for an important movement from Rome, but for the present the priests have succeeded in utilizing the strong racial hatred to prevent it by teaching their flocks that Protestantism is a German religion and to become Protestants is to be Germanized. The converts have joined one or other of the two Protestant confessions recognized by the government, the Augsburg or the

¢g	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Los von 8om
Helvetic, mainly the former, or the Old Catholic Church. Up to the end of 1908 over 51,000 had become Protestants and about 16,000 Old Catholics, besides a large cumber that worship in the Protestant churches who are prevented by fear of persecution from publicly enrolling themselves as Protestants. The conversions to Protestantism have during the past few years remained steadily about 4,500 annually, and the movement shows no sign of abating. See AUSTRIA.
In the German Empire (see GERMANY) there has been a growing movement away from Rome for many years while the conversions to Romaniam
		have shown very alight increase. In
	3. Ger‑	the year 1890 3,105 Roman Catholics
many and	became Protestants, in 1895 3,896, in
	France.	1900 6,143, in 1905 9,339; while in the
		same years the conversions to Roman‑
ism were respectively 554, bBB, 701, and 793. In
the seventies the gains and losses of Protestantism
were about equal. Mined marriages, which at one I
time used in Germany and Austria to result al
most invariably in gains to the Church of Rome,
now generally mean gains to Protestantism. The
losses in Germany from this cause alone for recent
years have been estimated by a Roman Catholic
authority as over 100,000, and the entire losses for
the nineteenth century as at least a million. The
revolt from Rome, though different in its nature,
has been no less marked in France. It has there
led to a considerable secession among the ranks of
the priests. In 1895 Andrd Bourrier, an able priest
in the south of France, abandoned the Roman
Church, and became two years later minister of the
Protestant Church of &vres‑Bellevue. He started
a paper, Le Chrdien Frangais, which soon obtained
a large circulation among the French priests, and
through it he became the leader of an extensive revolt of the priests of France, which is one of the most remarkable of recent religious movements. His aim at first was the formation of a National Catholic Church, free from the tyranny and superstitions of Rome. The course of events has convinced him of the futility of hoping for a reformed Roman Catholic Church, and he is now working not for the organization of such a national Church, but for the conversion of Roman Catholics to Protestantism. His paper has at the same time changed its title to Le ChrEtie9a. A somewhat similar work was car ried on by another converted priest, Corneloup, in connection with his paper Le PHtre converti. When the Separation Act was passed (1905) M. Meillon, Corneloup's successor, plunged into an agitation for the formation of " Associations cultuelles " by priests, and the consequent organization of an independent national Church, but the attempt failed. M. Meillon's work has been taken up with more sue. case by M. Revoyre and his paper Le Chrqien Libra. There are no authentic statistics of the seemione from the priesthood, but those who are well informed believe that they amount to over a thousand, perhaps not far short of 1,500. A large pro. Portion of these have become Protestants and BpITIG of them are working as pastors and Evangelists. Many have lapsed from Christian belief, but felt unable to continue preaching a creed they had
ceased to hold, and have turned to civil life. The growth of Protestantism among the French people in numbers and influence has been considerable, but in the absence of religious statistics it can not be accurately estimated. Leading Roman Catholics are not blind to its reality, and have begun to speak in alarm of " the Protestant peril." This new movement from Rome, like that of the sixteenth century, has been closely associated with a fight with the monasteries. This struggle has reached a crisis first in France and has there issued in the dissolution of the greater number of them and the transfer of the education of the people to government schools. The attitude of the Church of Rome toward the monasteries and the schools convinced the leading French statesmen that it was necessary to disestablish .that Church, and an act for that purpose was carried in 1905. It was thought that this act would lead to a secession of those priests and congregations who were restive under the spiritual tyranny of Rome, but the provision that the associations to which the Church property was transferred must be in connection with the general organization of the form of worship they propose to secure, prevented to a large extent the occurrence of a schism. The pope refused to allow the formation of the proposed associations for the management of the churches and other ecclesiastical property. CoWu2nlly the State seized the presbyteries, seminaries, and other buildings, and many of these have been put to i secular uses. The Vatican apparently assumed that the government would also close the churches and thereby cause a reaction on the plea of religious persecution. But the government has not done so, and the priests have been allowed to continue their services„ but the State endowments which were to have continued for four years have ceased on account of the refusal of the Church to accept the act. Some two or three hundred congregations have formed associations and have thereby set the papal decision at defiance. These may form the nucleus of a wider schism on those lines, but the outlook in that direction is not encouraging.
There is not space to follow the movement in
detail t11TOllgh t~) ffignt ROMM V9JjJic coun‑
tries. In Belgium there is a vigorous and growing mission church, almost exclusively 4. Other composed of converts from Roman‑
Countries. ism and their children. In Italy the
	last half‑century has seen a great re
vival of the Waldensian Church and the spreading
of its organization and activities all over the pen
insula, as well as the prosecution of mission work
by different English and American churches. In
Spain there was a promising revolt against the
Church of Rome immediately after the granting of
liberty of worship in 1868, but it was soon arrested
and since then the work of Protestantism has been
the slow and often discouraging gathering of units.
But during the last few years there have been fns ‑
quest manifestatioq p( djgKtW$o~ion with the I~I~ domination, and a growing agitation against
power of the monasteries. Eon Portugal hen begun to move; greater liberty bag been
and a recent decision of the supreme court bay a)_

Los von Rom
Lots, Hebrew Use of
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
44
lowed the unreserved distribution of the Scriptures. The former colonies of Spain and Portugal have been moving more rapidly than their mother countries. Most encouraging mission work has been carried on in the Spanish republics of South and Central America,, especially by the churches of the United States, and the power of Rome in those countries is rapidly decaying. In Brazil, for a long time one of the most hopeless fields, very remarkable progress is being made in recent years. In many respects the Philippines, since they came under the dominion of the United States, have presented the most remarkable revolt from Rome of modern times. Under the leadership of Aglipay an Independent National Philippine Church has been organized, which will probably grow into a vigorous Protestant communion. It claims at present to have the support of about half the population. In Canada and among the French Canadians in the United States the work inaugurated by Chiniquy has been moat successful, and it is calculated that there are now over 30,000 French‑Canadian Protestants in Canada and at least 40,000 in the United States. The exodus from the Church of Rome among the immigrants to the United States and their descendants has been very great, and Roman Catholic authorities estimate that they have lost in this way between twenty and thirty millions. It is known that in England Rome is losing by tens of thousands. The number of English Roman Catholics, when Irish and foreigners are excluded, is very small.
But the hope of a revolt from Rome is probably derived by many more from the progress of Modernism (q.v.) inside that Church than from any other
cause. This movement is wide‑spread 5. Influ‑ and varied in ibB character. It in‑
ence of eludes men like the late Professor
" Modern‑ Schell in Germany, Professors Ehrism." hardt and Wahrmund in Austria,
Murri, Graf, Semeria, Minocchi, and Fogazzaro in Italy, Loisy and Houtin in France, Tyrrell in England, some of them men who recognize the impossibility of reconciling the scholasticism of Aquinas with the philosophical conceptions of the present day, men who desire to reconcile the Church with the democratic spirit of their time, men who desire to bring the Church into living contact with the great social movements of the present day and thereby infuse a Christian spirit into these movements, men who feel compelled to accept the results of modern criticism of the Bible and to hold these independently of the antiquated standpoint of the Vatican, and men who wish to see a more Christian and a less political spirit brought into all the activities of the Church. All such find themselves in irreconcilable conflict with the supreme authorities of their Church. Murri, Minocchi, and Loisy have been excommunicated by the Vatican, and Tyrrell died under the ban of the Church. The future alone can tell the issue of the conflict. It is difficult to see how they can permanently retain their position in a Church whose head is " infallible " and whose decisions are given promptly and unmistakably against them. Also
Bee MODERNISM.	JOHN A. BAIN.
B113LIOGRAPHY: Indispensable are the Berichte caber den Fortgang der Loa von Rom Bexoepung, a aeries of publications edited by P. Briiunlich, Munich, 1899, still in progress, covering the different countries in which the movement exists. Consult also: J. A. Bain, New Reformation. Recent Evangelical Movements in the Roman Catholic Church, 2d ed., Edinburgh, 1909; A. Bourrier, Ceus qui s'en vont, Paris, 1905; H. Wegener, Margendammerung in der Steiermark, MSrs, 1904; A. Houtin, La Criae du derpd, Paris, 1907; A. Briand, La Separation des egliaea et de fetal, ib. 1905; P. Rosegger. Mein Himmelreich, Leipaic, 1907; J. McCabe, Decay of Church oJRome, New York, 1909.

LOSERTH, lo'zart, JOHANN: Austrian Protestant; b. at Fulneck (a village near Neutitschein, 26 m. e.n.e. of Prerau), Moravia, Sept. 1, 1846. Ids was educated at the University of Vienna (Ph.D., 1870), and after being a gymnasial professor in Vienna (187L‑75) was professor. of general history at the newly founded University of Czernowitz until 1893, when he was called to his present position of professor of history at Graz. He has devoted himself especially to the study of early Bohemian history, the Wyclif and Hussite movements, and the history of Anabaptism and the Counter‑Reformation. Among his numerous publications, special mention may be made of the following: Beitrage xur Geschichte der hussitischen Bewegung (5 parts, Vienna, 1877‑94); Huns and Wiclif (Prague, 1884; Eng. transl. by M. J. Evans, Wydif and Hess, London, 1884); Die Stadt Waldshut and die vorderosterreichische Regierung 16Q31626 (Vienna, 1891); Der Anabaptismus in Tirol (1893); Btxlthasar Hubmaier urtd die Anfange der 1=Viedertaufe in M6hren (Briinn, 1893); Studien zur englischen Kirchenpolitik im vierzehnten Jahrhundert (2 parts, Vienna, 1894‑1907); Der Communismus der mahrischen Wiedertaufer im sechzehnten Jahrhundert (1895); Die steirische ReligionsPazifikation (Graz, 1896); Der Sankt Pauler‑Fornxular, Briefs and Urkunden aus d:~r Zeit Konig Wenzels 11., (Prague, 1896); Erzherzog Karl 11. and die Frtzge der Errichtung sires Klosterrates fur Inner6sterreich (Vienna, 1897); Die Reformation and Gegenreformation in den innerosterreichischen Landern im sechzehnten Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1898); Die Salzburger Provinzialsynode von 161,9 (Vienna, 1898); and Geschichte des spateren Mitte7alters, 1197‑1.¢9Q (Munich, 1903). He has likewise edited for the Wycliffe Society Wyclif's De ecclesid (London, 1886); Sermones (4 vo1s., 1887‑90) ; De etteharistia tractatus major (1892); Opus Evangelicum (4 vole., 189rr96); De eivili dominio (4 vole., 1900‑04), De potestate papee (1907); and Dos Archiv des Hawses Stubenberg (Graz, 1908) as well as the collection of acts and correspondence for the history of the Counter‑Reformation in Inner Austria under the Archdukes Karl II. and Ferdinand II. in the Fortes rerum Austriacarum, vole. 1., lviii., lx. (Vienna, 1898‑1907).

LOT: The son of Haran and nephew of Abram. According to the story in Genesis, in his migration from Haran to Canaan and Egypt, Abram was accompanied by Lot (Gen. xii. 4); but afterward Lot separated from Abram (xiii. 1 sqq.), and settled in the plain of Jordan at Sodom, where he was taken captive, but was liberated by Abram (xiv. 1 sqq.). He incurred still more danger in the ce,tastrophe brought by God upon the vale of Siddim

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
46
(xviii.‑xix.). The angels, appointed to investigate the iniquity of the Sodomites, were hospitably received by Lot, who in order to fulfil the duties of hospitality was even ready to sacrifice his own family, while on the other hand the Sodomites, in their lust, trampled under foot the rights of the strangers. So the angels protected the family of the righteous Lot and rescued them from the judgment of Sodom. Lot's sons‑in‑law mocked at the warning and stayed in the city. Lot himself had to be torn away by force (xix. 16 sqq.). Lot was bidden not to look about him, neither to rest till he came to the mountains. But this was beyond his strength, so he begged leave to remain in Zoar, according to Gen. xiii. 10, the southernmost point of the vale of Siddim. Lot's wife could not refrain from looking back, and' by thus transgressing that express prohibition she brought about her own punishment, for she was turned into a pillar of salt. (This detail is consistent with the nature of the Dead Sea, which is so saturated with salt that its vapor deposits a salty crust on surrounding objects.) Hence she stood conspicuous, a pillar of salt on the shore (Luke xvii. 32; cf. Wisdom, x. 7; Josephus, Ant., L, xi. 4).
The judgment is described as a rain of fire and brimstone (cf. Pa. xi. 6; Ezek. xxxviii. 22), in consequence of which the whole region became decolate. That the latter was a historic event is undoubted. It profoundly impressed the surrounding peoples, and was borne in mind, especially in Israel, throughout all ages as a remarkable divine judgment (cf. Dent. xxix. 22; Amos iv. 11; Hos. xi. 8; Isa. i. 9, iii. 9; Jer. xx. 16, xxiii. 14; Zeph. ii. 9). The classic writers also speak of the catastrophe. Strabo, xvi. 2, knows of thirteen cities that were destroyed in that region; whereas he ascribes the origin of the sea to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and hot springs of both asphalt and brimstone. Tacitus, Hist. v. 7, tells of a monstrous fire that swept this district, kindled by lightning. Even the geographical nature of the Dead Sea might vouch for that violent eruption of destructive elements: at a'1 events, to render it more easily conceivable. See PALESTINE. It is consistent with the Biblical narrative, according to which only the valley plain was stricken by the shower, that the surrounding mountain ranges exhibit no traces of volcanic disturbance. The Dead Sea, to be sure, did not owe its original existence to the catastrophe; it was then, however, that the southern tract of the sea subsided. Lot did not stay in Zoar, but went up into the mountains with his two daughters, and lived there in a cave. His daughters thinking they could obtain no husbands in that isolated situation unlawfully contrived to get offspring of their father by stealth: a circumstance recalled by the Hebrews in the names Moab and Amnion (Gen. xix. 3g), However, it might be noted that the story is possibly taken from the genealogical tradition of Moab and Amnion, since in the estimation of primitive antiquity, it was of so high importance for a woman to obtain posterity that in order to achieve this end she would not scruple even at incest, and that in fact people would regard such conduct of the tribal mothers even in a heroic light.
Los von ROM
Lots, Hebrew Use of
As touching the entire scope and content of the
story of Lot, the same is no product of Jewish
fancy, but rather arose from the tradition which
was a common heritage of Abraham's people, and
one very tenacious of local recollections. The
whole tenor of the relation harmonizes with that
patriarchal era when those simpler Semitic pastoral
tribes contrasted to advantage, especially in mat
ters of hospitality, with the inhabitants of the Ca
naanitic towns; and the most devout of them were
supposed to enjoy more immediate conversation with
the deity than was later the case with the people of
God themselves. For description of the region see
MOAB; PALESTINE. 	C. VON ORELLI.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The commentaries on Genesis deal with the
subject, as do some of the works on Old Testament the
ology. Consult: DD, iii. 150‑152; EB, iii. 2824‑25;
JE, viii. 185‑186. The Koran has many passages ',,w°hich
embody traditions, partly of Talmudic Origin, fGp~ IA.

LOTS, HEBREW USE OF.
Urim and Thummim (§ la.. Methods of Employment (§ 2). The Lot in Common Life (§ 3).
	Apart from prophecy, the lot takes the first place
in ancient Israel as a means of seeking counsel of
the deity. In early times there existed various
		methods of casting lots, as by means
r. Urim of wooden staves or arrows (rhaband domancy, Hos. iv. 12; cf. Ezek. xxi.
Thummim. 21), employed also by Babylonians and by Arabs. But this and other methods of questioning the deity (necromancy, the conjuration of spirits, etc.) gradually fell into disrepute as heathenish magic, and the only legitimate form in the religion of Yahweh was that practised by the priest, tile casting of lots by means of the Urim and Thummim (q.v.). The way in which these lots were handled shows that they stood in the closest connection with the priestly Ephod (q.v.). When therefore Saul or David wished to ask counsel of Yahweh through the casting of lots, they said to the priest: " Bring hither the ephod " (I Sam. xiv. 18, Septuagint; A. V. " Bring hither the arkof God"; cf. xxiii.9, xxal.7). From I Sam. xiv. 37 aqq., Septuagint, it appears that the two lots bore the names Urim and Thummim. Saul prays before questioning the oracle: " If the sin is upon me or upon Jonathan, let Urim appear: if it is upon the people, then let Thummim appear " (cf. S. R. Driver, Hebrew Text of . . . Samuel, p. 89, Oxford, 1890). The proper explanation of the words Urim and ThW4" M no
	most probable one is that the		Maim L
		two lots symbolized
	the two divisions of the earth's rotation, light and
	darkness, life and death, yea or no. Urim is light
i	or the full moon or the upperworld; Thummim
(from a word meaning perfection) means sunset or under‑world. Worn upon the breast, on the high priest's vestment, Urim and Thummim may be compared with the Babylonian tablets of fate which were given to Marduk, who wore them upon his breast.
Of what the lots consisted is nowhere stated.
The principal facts concerning their use appear in several accounts in the Old Testament. The questions present a simple alternative which the lot

Lots, Hebrew Use of	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	48
Lourdes
is expected to decide. Sometimes they are simple
questions to which Yahweh is expected to an
				swer yea or no (cf. I Sam, agiii. 9
	3. Methods eqq., xxx. 8; II Sam. ii. 1, v. 19;
		of Em‑	Judges ax. 23). At other times, the lot
	ployment. moat decide between two possibilities;
				if, however, one possibility moat be
determined from among a number, by the exclu
sion of one possibility after another the number is
reduced to two. An example of this is when Saul
wishes to discover among the whole people the
	guilty one. Lots are first cast between the entire
army on one aide and Saul and Jonathan on the
other (I Sam. aiv. 38 aqq.; similarly in I Sam. ax.
20 eqq.; Josh. vii. 16 eqq.). Hence the lots con
sisted of two objects, of some sort (staves, atones,
or similar objects), one of which signified yea and
the other no. In special cases, however, any ap
	propriate significance was attributed to one or the
other. It may possibly be concluded from II Sam.
aiv. 18 eqq. that Urim signified the affirmative,
and Thnmm;m the negative. Inquiry was made
as to the sin of Saul and Jonathan; if Urim came
out, the sin was proved, if Thummim came out, it
	signified a negative answer and therefore that the
sin rued upon the army. From the prophetic
books it has been conjectured that Urim and Thum
mim were two small idols, possibly teraphim, since
	teraphim are often mentioned in connection with
the ephod (Hoe. iii. 4; of. Judges avii. 5); they also
appear alongside of spirits and ghosts as employed
in the consultation of oracles (H Kings asiii. 24).
If Yahweh were angry, he did not reply; when,
from certain happenings during the casting of the
	lots, the priest drew the conclusion that the divin
	ity was not willing to answer, he ceased further
	questioning. By II Sam. v. 23‑24 it is indicated
that the priest, on his own initiative, added cer
tain explanations which he perhaps deduced from
some of the accompanying circumstances.
		It follows from the foregoing that the privilege
	of casting the lots belonged exclusively to the priest,
whose characteristic duties were precisely the
	wearing of the ephod and the casting of the lots.
In Deuteronomy the care of the Urim and Thum
mim is designated se an essential charge of the
	priest (Deut. xsxiii. 8). This possession may have
contributed largely to make the priestly office
	hereditary, the knowledge and ability to handle
the oracle being transmitted from father to son.
		In ancient times, the casting of lots played s
	prominent part in the life of the Israelites. It may
	be safely assumed that often the Israelites. sought
				counsel of the deity is reference to
		3. The	possible eventualities just as they
			Lot in	made use of the service of the seers
		Common (cf. I Sam. is. B sqq.). According to
			Life.	the priestly writer, Joshua was di
				rected to ask an answer from the lots
	by means of the priest (Nom. agvii. 21; cf. Josh.
	la. 8 eqq.). In jurisprudence also the lots played a
	part; in intricate cases they were used to discover
	the guilty (Josh. vii. 18 aqq.; I Sam. aiv. 38 aqq.),
	and decisions in other cases were reached by their
	aid (Esek. ariv. 8; Prov. aviii. 18, zvi. 33; Matt.
	savii. 35). After the time of Solomon, the his‑
torical narratives cease to mention the lots of Urim and Thummim; internal evidence favors the resumption that they lost their importance. The prophets became more and more numerous, and it is to them that, for example, Alias turns with questions that David would have sought to solve by the sacred lots (I Kings aaii. 5). According to Jewish tradition, the Urim and Thummim no longer existed in the second temple. Alongside of the liturgical lots, secular lots (if this expression be permitted) were always in favor; booty taken in war was always divided by means of lots (Joel iii. 3; Nah. iii. 10; Ob. 11). In controversies regarding possession s decision was reached by casting lots (Prow. aviii. 18) and in similar ways (cf. also Zeah. ii. 1). The lots, usually small stones, were shaken is the bosom, ~ that is, in the fold of the dress in front, until one fell out (Prow. avi. 33). At the time of the second temple, the casting of lots was still resorted to; for example, in the selection of the two goats on the Day of . Atonement (Lev. avi. 7‑10), in the division of the days of office among the priests (Luke i. 9; cf. I Chron. aaiv. 5 sqq.), and in apportioning the contribution of wood for the altar (Neh. a. 34). I. B>trrznva»a.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult the literature under IhvnJeaZOx; EPHOn; Uses AND 'lHoannr; the articles under those words in the Bible Dictionaries; also the works mentioned under l,BCHEOL(M:, Brsnrcer., by Nowaok sad Benainger, sod others.
LOT2, late, WILHELM PHILIPP FRIEDRICH FERDINAND: German Lutheran; b. at Cassel Apr. 12, 1853. He was educated at the universities of Leipaic (Ph.D., 1879; lie. theol., 1883) and Gbttingen, and in 1883 became privet‑docent at the former institution. In the same year he went to Erlangen as privet‑docent and tutor, but in 1884 accepted a call to Vienna as associate professor of Old‑Testament exegesis in the Evangelical theological faculty. He was promoted to a full professorship there in 1884, a position which he held until 1897, when he was appointed to his present post of professor of Old‑Testament exegesis at Erlangen. He has written: Die Iraschriftcn Tiglathpilener'a 1. in tranaadiberlem aaayriachem Grundtext mit Ueberaetzung und Ifomme>bEar (Leipaie, 1880); Quaationea de hiatoria sab6ati (1883); Gesch"te and O,$'erebarung im Alten Testament (1891); Die Bundest«le (1901); Dan Alts Testament trnd die Wiaaerrschaft (190b); Die bibliache Urgeac7iichle in ihre7n Verhdltnia zu den Urzeitaagen anderer V blker, zu den iaraelitisclMn Volkserzdhlungen uad zum Ganzert der Heiligen Schrtft (1907); and Heiirdiache Sprachlehre (1908).
LOTZE, let'se, RUDOLF HERMANN: German philosopher; b. at Bautaen (31 m. e.n.e. of Dresden), Saxony, May 21, 1817; d. at Berlin July 1, 1881. He studied philosophy and medicine at the University of Leipaic, taking degrees in both subjects, and became extraordinary professor of philosophy there in 1842. He was called to G8ttingen in 1844, and to Berlin in 1881, but here he was able to lecture only a part of one semester. Lotze was one of the moat influential philosophers of the second half of the nineteenth century, and he has many followers, particularly among theo‑

47	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lots, Hebrew Use of
		Lourdes
logians. This is explained by the fact that in his
speculation ethical and religious needs come into
their full rights. His philosophy represents a re
action against the ideological pantheism of Hegel,
which seemed to sacrifice all individuality and va
riety in existence to a formal and abstract scheme
of development. Lotze characterized his philo
sophical standpoint as teleological idealism, and he
regarded ethics as the starting‑point of metaphys
ics. While enforcing the mechanical view of na
ture, he sought to show that mechanism, the rela
tion of cause and effect, is incomprehensible,
except as the realization of a world of moral ideas.
Thus, each causal series becomes at the same time
a teleological series. Lotze worked out this recon
ciliation of mechanism and teleology by com
bining with the monads of Leibnitz (q.v., § 2) the
absolute substance of Spinoza (q.v.), in which in
dividual things (monads) are grounded, and through
whose all‑inclusive unity interrelation is possible.
Some of Lotze's more important works are: Meta
Phys2:k (Leipsie, 1841); Logik (1843); Mediziniaehe
Psychologie oiler Physiologic der Seete (1852); Mi
	krokosmus. Ideen xur Naturgeachichte and Ge‑ 'I
achichte der Menschheit (3 vole., 1856‑64; Eng.
transl., 2 vole., Edinburgh, 1885), his principal
work;	Geschichte der Aesthetik in Deutschland
(Munich, 1868); and the unfinished System der
Philosophic (vol, i., Logik, Leipsic, 1874; vol. ii.,
Metaphysi,(c, 1879; Eng. transl. of both, 2 parts,
Oxford, 1884). After Lotze's death appeared
Diktats, notes from his lectures on the various
philosophical disciplines (8 parts, Leipsic, 1882‑$4;
	Eng. transl. by G. T. Ladd, Outlines, 6 vole., Boston,
	1884‑1887); also Kleine Schriften (3 vole., Leipsie,
1885‑1894).	HUBERT EvANs.
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: An excellent bibliography, including ref
	erences to material which appeared in periodical litera
	ture, is in J. M, Baldwin, Dictionary oJ!Philoeophy and
	Psychology, III., i. 347‑350. Consult: E. von Hart
	mann, Lotu's Philosophic, Leipeie, 1888; L. $tAhlin,
	Karat, Lobe and Ritachl, ib. 1888, Eng. tranal., Edinburgh,
	1889; G. Vorbrodt, Prineipien der Elhik and der Re
	lipionaphiloaophie Lotus, Dessau, 1891; H. Jones, A
	Critical Account of the Philosophy 0j 1441 WOW, 1686;
	g. C. Ring, An Outline of the Microcoamua of Hermann
	Lotze, Oberlin, 1895; G. T. Ladd, Lotus Influence on
	Theology, in The. New World, iv (1895), 401‑421; A.
	Tienee, LoEze'a Gedanken zu den PrinzipienJragen der
	Ethik, Heidelberg, 1898; W. Wallace, Lectures and Ea
	eaya on Natural Theology and Ethics, Oxford, 1898; G.
	Page, Lotze'a religtoae Weltanschauung, Erlangen, 1599;
	V. F. Moors, Ethical Aspects of Lotu's Metaphysics, New
York, 1901.
	LOUIS IX.: King of France and Roman Catholic
	saint; b. at Poissy (12 m. n.w. of Paris) Apr. 25,
	1215; d. before Tunis Aug. 25, 1270. His father,
	Louis VIII., died when he was only eleven years
	old, and he ascended the throne under the regency
	of his mother, Blanche of Castile (Nov. 16,
	1226). His mother, a pious and very capable
	woman, had him educated by brothers of the Fran
	ciscan and Dominican Orden. During the fir9t
of	of his reign his nobles and later the bishops
	gave him much trouble, but he at last
restored order in his kingdom.
	In fulfilment of a vow made on a bed of sickness
	he undertook a crusade (1248). In August he
	reed for Cyprus, the rendezvous of the crusaders,
with an army of 40,000. The next spring he set sail for Egypt, and landed at Damietta June 4, 1249. He took the town without a blow, then defeated a Mohammedan army and advanced up the Nile to Mansurah, whence he had to retreat, after fighting a battle with the Saracens. The king and his whole army were taken captive, but after tedious negotiations were set free for a large ransom. With the remnant of his army, scarcely 6,000 men, Louis sailed to Acre and stayed in the Holy Land four years, only returning to France when recalled by the death of his mother whom he had left as regent (Nov., 1252). He undertook a pilgrimage to Nazareth in thankfulness for his release from captivity. In 1270 he led another crusade to Tunis, landing in July at the site of Carthage, where a pestilence broke out in his army to which the king himself succumbed. His son Philip III. made peace with the emir and returned to France, carrying the ashes of his father.
Louis was canonized by Boniface VIII., Aug. 11, 1297; his day is Aug. 25. From his earliest childhood he was of a pious disposition and delighted in prayers and penances. Although naturally gentle, Louis was intolerant toward heretics and infidels, and was accustomed to say that the only way to deal with a Jew was to strike him with your sword. He was also superstitious; he brought back from the Holy Land the crown of thorns and a portion of the true cress, for which he built the Sainte‑Chapelle in Paris. The authenticity of the famous Pragmatic Sanction of 1269 (q.v.) has been questioned. In this document he asserts the independence of the Gallican Church against the claims of the pope.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The lives of Louis are very numerous; the
	moat noted is by Le Nain de Tillemont, ed. J. de Gaulle,
	8 vole., Paris, 1848‑51. Others are by A. Mignon, ib.
	1853; J. A. Faure, 2 vole., ib. 1885; F. P. G. Guiaot,
	Great Christians of France. St. Louie and Calvin, London.
	1889; Hermitte, ib. 1876; V. Verlaque, ib. 1885; C. V.
	Langlois, ib. 1888; H. Wallon, 2 vole., ib. 1887; M. f3epet,
	ib. 1898; M. H. F. Delaborde, ib. 1899. Consult further,
	P. Viollet,~ ~Lee~ ‑0~tabliaaementa de S. Louis, 4 vole., ib. 1881‑
J. b1lfEelet, W ippe‑I upuste et S. Louie, ib. n.d.; A. Lecoy de la Marche, S. Louis, son pouverneneeat et as politique, ib. 1887; E. Berger, S. Louis et Innocently., ib. 1893; 8. de Froiesart, S. Louie et lea croiaades, ib.189B; M. Fromman, Land" Ludwig 111. der Fromme, Jena, 1907; and the literature under Cnoeenas.

LOURDES: A city of France in the department of the Hautes‑Pyr6ll6es, situated near the river Gave‑du‑Pau about 22 miles s.e. of Pau. Lourdes was a fortified town as far back as the time of the Caesars and still possesses a ch5teau fort. The inhabitants number about 5,000. During the last half century Lourdes has become famous throughout the Roman Catholic world in consequence of
the aeries of alleged apparitions of the Virgin Mary to Bernadette Soubirous, a child of the town in
1858. The ga l n0 at tilt i11rie was fourteen
Years . of age, is described as being somewhat infirm in health, and inferior both in physical and mental development to the average child of her
age. She belonged to a poor peasant family, and was simple and ignorant, knowing neither how to read nor write, and unable to speak French‑‑her language being the patois of the locality. The

Lourdes	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	48
Love
story of the apparitions, which were seen only by
Bernadette, is se ‑follows: On Thursday, Feb. 11,
1858, in company with her sister Marie and Jeanne
Abadie,, a playmate of about the same age, she
went to gather sticks for fire‑wood along the banks
of the Gave in the suburbs of the town. Arriving
at a mill‑race near a grotto in the mountain side,
the two companions crossed over, and Bernadette,
intending to do the same, remained behind a few
minutes in order to remove her shoes and stock
ings. While thus occupied she was startled by a
noise as of a great wind, though the atmosphere
was at the time quite calm. In a moment her at
tention was drawn to a briar‑bush growing beneath
s kind of natural niche at the opening of the grotto.
The bush seemed agitated; a " golden cloud " ap
peared above it, and above tha cloud in front of
the niche appeared the form of a woman. She was
youthful and beautiful in appearance, robed in
white with a blue sash around her waist. Her feet
were bare but on each was a gold‑colored rosette,
and in her hands was a rosary of white beady
strung on a golden chain. She smiled graciously
and beckoned to Bernadette to approach. The
latter obeyed and at the same time, began instinc
tively to recite her beads. The lady then assumed
an attitude of silent prayer, reciting, however, with
Bernadette the Gloria PaLri at the end of each
decal. In the mean time the other two com
panions had returned. They were naturally sur
prised to find Bernadette on her knees praying in
such a place, and seeing nothing themselves to so
count for her enraptured gaze, they laughed at her
and brought her home. Here the experience was
treated as an illusion and the girl was forbidden to
return to the grotto. On the following Sunday,
however (Feb. 14), she obtained permission to re
visit the place in company with s few children of
her own age. She again saw the same vision and
soon went into an ecstasy from which she was
aroused by a woman living near, who was attracted
to the scene by the other girls who, though seeing
nothing, were amazed and alarmed at the changed
appearance of their companion. After this eape
rienoe she was again restrained from going to the
grotto, but a few ladies of the town moved by
curiosity brought her back on Feb. 18. The mys
terious lady appeared as before, and speaking to
Bernadette asked her to return to the place daily
for a fortnight. She promised to do so, and on
the three following days (Friday, Saturday, and
Sunday) the same experiences were enacted at the
grotty in the presence of an ever‑increasing crowd
of spectators. Nothing was seen by any of them,
but they were all deeply impressed by the ecstatic
expression on the features of the little girl. In
deed, so great had become the crowd of onlookers
that the civil authorities saw fit to interfere, and
the day following a couple of policemen were do
tailed to accompany Bernadette to the grotto,
but on this occasion nothing was seen. The next
day, however, the vision again appeared and also
on the following day (Feb. 24) on which occasion
Bernadette received a command from the lady to
dig a hole in the ground at the entrance of the
grotto. This she did with her hands, and at once
a stream of water appeared (the place had previously been perfectly dry) which gradually increased in volume until it became a settled perennial spring furnishing water in abundance for the piacinas sad taps used by the pilgrims (about 33,000 gallons per day). The apparition was seen again on Feb. 26, and on the 27th, when Bernadette received the command to " go and tell the priests to build a chapel " at the spot. On Sunday, Feb. 28, the experience took place in the presence of more than 2,000 spectators. The phenomenon recurred on the two following days, but on Mar. 3 nothing was seen. Mar. 4 was the last of the fifteen days on which Bernadette had promised to visit the grotto. A multitude of 15,000 expectant persons crowded about the place; the vision came as usual, but nothing extraordinary occurred. Bernadette returned on the following days but nothing appeared until Mar. 25 (feast of the Annunciation), when in answer to Bernadette's request that the mysterious lady tell her name, she received the reply: " I am the Immaculate Conception." Twelve days passed without any further manifestation, but on Apr. 7 the vision was renewed, and still again three months later, July 16. This was the eighteenth and last apparition. From the outset the local ecclesiastical authorities held aloof and showed themselves scarcely less skeptical than the civil functionaries. Bernadette was put through long and trying interrogatory ordeals on the part of both, but~ahe maintained her story even to its details without contradicting herself under severe cross‑examination, and it remained the conviction of her examiners that she was truthful and sincere in relating her experiences. In this connection it is worth noting that she never sought notoriety or any pecuniary advantage as a result of the visions, and besides, it was freely admitted se inconceivable that one so young and so mentally deficient could concoct and successfully carry out a deceptive scheme of such magnitude. Shortly after the events above related she went to live with the Hospital Sisters established in the town, and it was only when she was eighteen years of age that she finished learning how to read and write. She later became a member of the order at the age of twenty‑two and went to live in the convent of Nevers, where she died at the age of thirty‑five. Apart from the apparitions at the grotto she never had any extraordinary psychic experience.
The great sensation produced by the apparitions, and the repeated assertion that miracles were being wrought at the grotto, made it necessary for the local church authorities to make an investigation, and an episcopal commission to that effect was appointed by Mgr. Laurence, bishop of Tarbes, in July, 1858. The inquiry referred not only to the apparitions, but also to the alleged miraculous occurrences, and the results were embodied in a report submitted to Mgr. Laurence four years later. It was favorable throughout to the miraculous and supernatural character of the episodes, and in Jan., 1862, the bishop issued a decision to the effect that: " these apparitions have all the charaeteristics of truth, and that the faithful are justified in believing them to be true. We humbly submit our

49
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
decision to the judgment of the Sovereign Pontiff
who governs the Universal Church." No official
decision in the matter has been rendered by papal
	authority, but the three popes Pius IX., Leo XIII., I
and Pius X. are known to have expressed their per
sonal belief in the reality of the apparitions and sub
sequent miracles. Official approbation has, how
ever, been secured to the extent of allowing the
liturgical office of Our Lady of Lourdes to be in
serted in the breviary for certain localities, while
churches bearing that name have been erected in
many parts of the world. Lourdes soon became a
rendezvous for pilgrims from all parts of the world,
	and in 1872 the national pilgrimages, viz., from the
	different provinces of France, were begun. These
	take place every year about Aug. 15, and on such
	occasions the town often receives at once as many
	as 60,000 pilgrims. The beautiful basilica, which
	stands above the grotto was consecrated in 1376,
	and the Church of the Holy Rosary which stands
	on a lower level directly beneath the basilica, was
	finished in 1901. [Before these churches is a park,
	the broad )pace in the middle of which is the scene of
	the procession of the Blessed Sacrament which takes
	place daily. The sick in all stages of disease are lined
	up on the edge of this space and so are passed by the
	consecrated Host and the attendant clergy and pil
	grims, and then it is that miraculous cures are alleged
to be performed.] 	JAMES F. DRISCOLL.
BIBLIOGRAPHY :* For a description of Lourdes consult: G.
	Mares, Lourdes et sea environs, Bordeaux, 1894. For the
	phenomena from a sympathetic standpoint: G. Bertrin,
Hiatoire critique des Eaenemanta de Lourdes. Apparitions et puWiaaona, Lourdes, 1905, Eng. tranal., Lourdes; A Hiat. of its Apparitions and Cures, New York, 1908; H. Laeeerre, Lea Episodes miraculeuz de Lourdes, Paris, 1888, Eng. tranal., Miraculous Episodes of Lourdes, London, 1884; R. F. Clarks, Lourdes, and its Miracles, London, 1889. The critical or antagonistic pointof view is set forth in E. E. C. A. Zola, Lourdes, Paris, 1884, Eng. tranel., same title, London, 1894; Dozous, La GroUe de Lourdes, Paris, 1874; Juatinue, Lourdes in het Licht der nieuwere toetenaehap, 's Hertogenbosch, 1895; J. B. Eatrade, Lea Apparitions de Lourdes, Lourdes, 1908.
LOVE: That disinterested and unselfish relation between persons, in which the personality of the one is lost in the other, in which each esteems the other better than himself (Phil. ii. 3). It is not only one of the most comprehensive of BiblicalChristian conceptions, having basal signiflCanCe for dogmatics and ethics, but it also occupies a prominent place in the philosophy and literature of all . peoples and times.
When John says, " God is love,, (I John iv. 16), he does not mean to give a metaphysical definition' of the essence of God, but to state God's feelings toward us. At the same time, the woods open a profitable field of speculation in regard to the part love holds in the divine constitution. Augustine first, Richard of St. Victor next, and, after him, others, have endeavored to reconstruct the Trinity by the principle of love. Thus, the Father loves the Son, and the Son loves the Father (rednmctndo); both loves are united in love for an object of common affection (corulilectio), that is, in the Holy
Spirit. But the attempt has been unsuccessful;	Lp~0 C~,~p~R:
Presbyterian; b. at Csr‑
for the Holy. Spirit is a factor, not merely $ p~_ difi' in GI	1
, 818; educated at New
uct, of the divine love; and, besides, in the pro‑ Inn Hall, Oxford, 1635. After taking the master's
Lourdes Love
posed scheme, the persons of the Godhead are not sufficiently distinguished. Yet it is undoubtedly true that love is a large element of the divine essence; and later theologians, as, for instance, Dorner, in discussing the problem of the Trinity, give it much space.
Love is a basal principle in creation, in redemption, and in Christian ethics. God created the world in order that he might have a field for the exercise of his love; not that the world was necessary in any way; but it delighted him to make the world and to fill it with creatures whom he could love; and God so loved the world that he sent his Son to die for it (John iii. 16). The Son, out of his free, divine love, laid down his life for our salvation (Matt. ax. 28). God was in Christ, reconciling the world unto himself (II Cor. v. 19); and this love of God in Christ is the only and exclusive ground of our salvation and of our sanctification (Acts iv. 12). Love is the source and center of the development of the new life in Christ. It is the chief of the Christian virtues. Our Lord set his approval upon the Mosaic summary of the law in the form of love to God and man (Matt. axii. 3740; cf. Dent. vi. 5; Lev. aia. 18), and gave his followers the " new commandment," that they should love one another (John aiii. 34). Paul calls love " the fulfilling of the law" (Rom. x111. 10), and "the end of the commandment " (I Tim. i. 5); Peter exhorts to love as the fruit of holy living (I pet. i. 22; II Pet, i, 7); John ig particularly full open love (I John ii. 5, iv. 7, 8), and James calls love of our neighbors "the royal law" (Jas. ii. 5, 8).
Love manifests itself in the two great directions, toward God and toward our neighbor, or in the contemplative and in the practical form; the former seen in Mary of Bethany, the latter in her sister Martha (Luke x. 38‑42). Our Lord gave his preference to the former. It shows itself in prayer, meditation, worship, and in the communion. The practical form manifests itself in all works of benevolence and beneficence, far and near. It is incumbent upon the Christian to unite the two. The hardest burden our Lord lays upon his disciples is to love their enemies (Matt. v. 44). Among human relationships controlled by love, marriage occupies the first place (Eph. v. 22‑$31) 11 ~
no tewofthp that !be apo$1 who drew such a close
parallel between conjugal love and the "great mystery " of Christ's love for the Church should treat married life so realistically (I Cor, vii.).
True love can exist only between rational bejng8,
To speak of love for animals or of love for a thing,
is to use improper language. Self‑love is also an
inaccurate but indispensable term, What passes for
love in literature and on the stage is too commonly
mere sexual longing. Love for gold (I Tim. vi. 10)
and love for the world (I John 11.15) are Perversions of love, to its destruction.
LOVE, FAMILY OF. See FAMILIttTA
LOVE FEAST. 8ee AoAPE_
KARL BURpER f,

Love	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	60
Lowth
degree he was obliged to leave Oxford for refusing
to subscribe Archbishop Laud's canons. He went
to London, and became domestic chaplain to the
sheriff, and took a bold stand against the errors of
the Book of Common Prayer and the religious
tyranny of the times. He was cast into prison on
account of an aggressive sermon at Newcastle, and
in various ways persecuted in London. At the out
break of the Civil War he was made preacher to
the garrison of Windsor Castle, where he gave great
offense to the prelatical party by his pointed ut
terances. He was one of the first to receive prea
byterial ordination under the new organization in
Jan. 23, 1644, at Aldermanbury; London; and be
came pastor of St. Laurence Jewry in London,
where he was highly esteemed for the eloquence
and vigor of his preaching. He was a strong Pres
byterian, the leader of the younger men of that
party. In this way he became involved in a trear
sonable correspondence with the Presbyterians of
Scotland to restore Charles IL; and, with many
others, was arrested May 7, 1651, and chosen to
make an example of, to check the Presbyterian agi
tation against Cromwell and in favor of Charles II.
He was condemned and beheaded on Tower Hill,
Aug. 22, 1651. This excited the indignation and
wrath of the entire Presbyterian party, which had
petitioned, by ministerial bodies and parishes, in
vain for his pardon. He went to his death as their
hero and martyr. His funeral sermon was preached
by Thomas Manton to an immense sympathizing
audience. His sermons were published, after his
death, under the auspices of the leading Presby
terians of London. The moat important of his
works are: Grace, the Truth and Growth, and differ
ent Degrees thereof (226 pp., London, 1652); Heaven's
Glory, Hell's Terror (350 pp., 1653); Combats between
the Flesh and the Spirit (292 pp., 1654); Treatise of
Effectual Calling (218 pp.,1658); The Natural Man's
Case Stated (Svo, 280 pp., 1658); Select Works (8vo,
Glasgow, 1806‑07, 2 vole.).	C. A. BRIGGS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. Neat, Hist. of the Puritans, ed. J. Toul
	min, 6 vble., Bath, 1793‑97; W. Wilson, Hilt. and An
	tiquitiea of the Dissenting Churches in London, i. 332, iii.
	330, 4 vola., London, 1808‑14; Memoirs of the Life of Am
	broae Barnes, ed. W. A. D. Longetaffe for the $urteea So
	ciety, no. 50, Durham, 1887; W. A. Shaw, H%et. of the
	English Church . . . Iel,O‑1880, ii. 149, 321, 404, London,
	1900; DNB, amiv. 155‑157.
	LOVE, WILLIAM DE LOSS: Congregationalist;
b. at New Haven, Conn., Nov. 29, 1851. He was
graduated from Hamilton College (A.B., 1873),
and Andover Theological Seminary (1878); was
instructor in mathematics and natural science in
the Military Academy at Leicester, Mass., in 1873
1874, and principal of the Broadway Grammar
School, Norwich, Conn., in 1874‑75. After being
pastor of the Evangelical Congregational Church,
Lancaster, Mass., from 1878 to 1881, he traveled
and engaged in commercial pursuits until 1885, be
sides acting as supply for the Second Congrega
tional Church, Keens, N. H., for a year. Since
1885 he has been pastor of the Farmington Avenue
Church, Hartford, Conn. He has written The Fast
and Thanksgiving Days of New England (Boston,
1895) and Samson Occom and the Christian Indians
of New England (1900).
LOW CHURCH. See ENGLAND, CHURCH OF.
LOWDER, CHARLES FUGE: London mission preacher; b. at Bath June 22, 1820; d. at Zell‑amSee (40 m. e.s.w. of Salzburg), Austria, Sept. 9, 1880. He studied at King's College School, London, and at Exeter College, Oxford (B.A., 1843; M.A., 1845), and took orders in 1843. He was curate at Walton, near Glastonbury, 1843‑44, chaplain of the Axbridge workhouse 1844‑45, curate of Tetbury, Gloucestershire, 1845‑‑51, then curate at St. Barnabas' Church, Pimlico, 1851‑58. In 1856 he entered upon his life‑work as head of the mission at St. George's‑in‑the‑East. The scene of his labors was in East London, among the lowest classes. Through his efforts was erected St. Peter's Church, London Docks, which was consecrated in 1866. Lowder became vicar of the new church and remained in this charge till his death. He held Highchurch views, was a strict ritualist, and resembled a Roman Catholic priest in his celibacy and his general mode of life. He published, besides some pamphlets, Ten Years in St. George's Mission (London, 1867); and Twenty‑one Years in St. George's Mission (1877). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Charles Lowder, a Biography, London, 1882; DNB, xxidv. 187.
LOWS, WILLIAM HENRY: Church of England; b. at Whaplode Drove (42 m, s.s.e. of Lincoln), Lincolnshire, Apr. 10, 1848. He was educated at Christ College, Cambridge (B.A., 1871; M.A., 1874). He was Hebrew lecturer in his college (1874‑91), and chaplain there (1874‑‑81). He was curate of Fen Ditton, Cambridgeshire (1873‑75); Milton (188082); Willingham (1886‑90); and vicar of Fen Drayton (189091); and since 1891 at Brisley, Norfolk. He has edited: The Psalms, with Introdvctiorta arid critical Notes (in conjunction with A. C. Jennings; 2 vole., London, 1877); has written: The Hebrew Student's Commentary on Zechariah (1884); the commentaries on Zechariah and Malachi in Ellicott's Bible for English Readers (1884); and A Hebrew Grammar (1887); and translated: Twelve Odes of Hafiz (Cambridge, 1877); and Murttakhab‑i Tawarikh (Calcutta, 1884).

LOWER SAXON CONFEDERATION: A federation of Reformed churches in Lower Saxony which has existed for more than two centuries. It is the one church body in Germany in which the Presbyterian system was fully carried out. In Electoral Hanover, especially in the cities of Cells, Liineburg, Hameln, and Hanover, Huguenot fugitives had been received and had formed congregations, also in the neighboring territories of Schaumburg‑Lippe and Brunswick. On Nov. 13, 1699, it was decided at Hanover to establish a closer union between these scattered members of the Reformed Church. German Reformed bodies in Hanover, Cells, and Bitekeburg joined the confederation. The governments of Brunswick‑Liineburg and Schaumburg‑Lippe gave permission for the establishment of the confederation, granting the union and its congregations self‑government but reserving the so‑called jars circa sacra. The first synod of the United Reformed churches in Lower Saxony was held in July, 1703, at Hameln. The government

51	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Love
Lowth
of Hanover expressly stipulated that the state commissary, who was to be present at every synod, have a seat, but not a vote. There were at first five French and three German congregations of the confederation. In 1708 a German‑Dutch and a Huguenot congregation in Brunswick joined the confederation; in 1711 the German Reformed congregation of Munden (Hanover) was included, followed, in 1753, by the Reformed in Gottingen, and finally, in 1890, by the congregation of Altona. On account of the removal of Huguenots to the large cities, their congregations dwindled and were finally united with the local German congregations. The first to suffer this fate was the congregation at Biickeburg (1755), followed by those of Cells (1805), Brunswick (1811), and Hanover (1812), while the congregation of Hameln was dissolved altogether.
	Since 1812 the confederation has consisted of the
congregations of Brunswick, Buckeburg, Cells,
Hanover, Gottingen, and Munden, with Altona
since 1890. In 1824 the congregations of the king
dom of Hanover were recognized as possessing equal
rights with the Lutheran churches, and as having
the rank of state churches. In 1839 a new agenda
for all congregations of the federation was adopted
which guards the independence of the individual
congregations but vests the ultimate authority in
matters affecting church discipline and doctrine in
a	synod of the whole confederation. The State
adheres to the right of its territorial power; and
the resolutions of the synod must be confirmed by
the State. The election of a minister formerly re
quired the consent of the government, and the gen
eral state laws in Prussia still require that it be
communicated to the provincial president, who
may veto the election within thirty days. In sen
tences of synods in matters of discipline the right
of an appeal de abuse to the government is recog
nized. The presbyteries and synods have remark
ably advanced the life of the Church and of the
educational institutions as well as the material
resources of the communities. From the first the
confederation provided for the surviving members
of the families of their pastors, and at a later time
also of their teachers. The widows' fund, founded in
1706, has a capital that would amount to 60,000
marks for each congregation. The confederation has
sought to live in peace with its Lutheran neighbors.
In the agenda of 1711 the synod adopted the resolu
tion of the Conference of Charenton (1631), according
to which Lutherans are permitted to take part in the
worship of the Reformed Church without sacrificing
their own confession. 	(F. H. BRANDEa.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Huguea, Die Ronjbderalion der rejormierten Kirchen in Niederaachaen, Cells, 1873; the publications of the German Hugenotten‑Verein, particularly the Geschichtabllftter, Magdeburg, 1891 aqq, in which the contributions of Drs. F, Albrecht, F. H. Brandea, H. Tollin and H. Villarat are especially pertinent.

LOW=, lau'ri, SAMUEL THOMPSON: Presbyterian; b, at Pittsburg, Pa., Feb. 8, 1835. He was graduated from Miami University (B.A., 1852) and Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa. (1855); remained for an additional year at Allegheny, after which he spent two semesters at the University of Heidelberg (1856‑57). After being
pastor of the Presbyterian church at Alexandria, Pa., from 1858 to 1863, he spent nine months at Berlin, and then held pastorates in his denomination at Bethany Church, Philadelphia (1865‑69), and Abington, Pa. (1869‑74). From 1874 to 1878 he was professor of New‑Testament literature and exegesis in Western Theological Seminary, after which he returned to the ministry, being pastor of Ewing Church, near Trenton, N. J., in 1879‑‑8b and chaplain of the Presbyterian Hospital in Philadelphia, as well as minister of a mission Sundayschool (now Emmanuel Presbyterian Church) in the same city, in 188689. From 1891 to 1896 he was co‑pastor with T. W. J. Wylie, of the Wylie Memorial Church, Philadelphia. He was also corresponding secretary of the Presbyterian Historical Society from 1893 to 1906, when he retired from active life. In addition to assisting D. Moore in preparing the volume on Isaiah for the American Lange series (New York, 1878) and A. Gosman in preparing Numbers for the same series (1879), he has translated H. Cremer's Ueber den Ztsatand each dem Tode (Giitersloh, 1883) under the title Beyond the Grave (New York, 1885), and written Explanation of the Epistle to the Hebrews (1884) sad The Lord's Supper (1888).

LOWRIE, WALTER: Statesman and missionary secretary; b. near Edinburgh, Scotland, Dec. 10, 1784; d, in New York City Dec. 14, 1868. He was brought to America when eight years of age; studied for the ministry with marked zeal and swift progress, but, being prevented from finishing his studies, went into politics, and in 1811 was chosen to the senate of the State of Pennsylvania; after seven years' service there he was United States senator, Dec. 6, 1819‑Mar. 3, 1825. At the expiration of his term he was made secretary of the senate of the United States, serving till 1836 when he became secretary of the missionary society of the synod of Pittsburg, which became, the year following, the Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church. He was corresponding eeoretary of this organization until his retirement in 1868, shortly before his death, and to his faithful service much of the great success attained by the board must be attributed.

LOWRY, ROBERT: American Baptist; b. in Philadelphia Mar. 12, 1826; d. at Plainfield, N. T., Nov. 23, 1899. He was graduated at Lewisburg University (1854). He was pastor at West Chester, Penn. (1854‑58); in New York (1858‑61); in Brooklyn (1861‑69); at Lewisburg, Penn. (18691875); and at Plainfield, N. J. (1876‑85). He was professor of belles‑lettres in Lewisburg University (1869‑75). He was the editor of several popular hymnals, and also wrote a number of hymns, the beat‑known of which are " Shall we gather at the river," " One more day's work for Jesus," and " Where is my wandering boy to‑night? "
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 8. W. Duffield, English Hymns, p. 479, New York, 1888; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 899‑700.
LOWTH, lauth, ROBERT: Bishop of London; b. at Winchester Nov. 27, 1710; d. in London Nov. 3, 1787. He was a eon of William Lowth (q.v.)

Lowth, William
Lucian the Xastyr
and studied at Winchester and at New College, Oxford (B.A., 1733; M.A., 173?; D.D., 1754). In 1735 he was instituted to the vicarage of Overton, Hampshire, and, in 1741, was appointed to the professorship of poetry at Oxford, which he held till 1750. He became archdeacon of Winchester in 1750, rector of Woodhay, Hampshire, in 1753, prebendary of Durham and rector of Sedgefield in 1755, and bishop of St. David's in 1766. He was translated to the see of Oxford the same year and to the see of London in 1777. In this position he remained till his death, having declined the primacy in 1783. Lowth achieved permanent fame by his lectures on Hebrew poetry, De sacra Itoeai Hebrteorum prtelectiones academieta Oxonii habitta (Oxford, 1753; 3d ed., 1775; ed. J. D. Michaelis, 2 parts, Gottingen, 1770; ed. E. F. C. Roaenmiiller, Leipeic,1815; reprinted, with notes by Rosenmiiller, C. Weiss, K. F. Richter and others, Oxford, 1821; Eng. transl., 2 vole., London, 1787, and frequently); and by his Isaiah, a New Translation, with . .
Notes (London, 1778; 13th ed., 1842; Germ. tranal., 4 vole., Leipaio, 1779‑81). Another important work by Lowth is his Life of William of Wykeham (London, 1758; 3d ed., Oxford, 1777). P. Hall collected and edited, with introductory memoir, his Sermons and Other Remains (London, 1834).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: An anonymous Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Bishop LowEh appeared London, 1787; DNB, :zziv. 214‑218 gives a list of scattered references. Consult further: 8. A. Allibone, Critical Dictionary of English Literature, i. 114D‑1141, Philadelphia, 1891; C. A. Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, pp. 228 eqq. et passim, New York, 1899; J. H. Overton and F. R.elton, The English Church (1714‑1800), pp. 170‑172 et passim, London, 1908.

LOWTH, WILLIAM: English theologian; b. at London Sept. 3, 1660; d. at Buriton (17 m. e.s.e. of Winchester), Hampshire, May 17, 1732. He was educated at the Merchant Taylors' School, London, and at St. John's College, Oxford (B.A. 1679; M.A., 1683; B.D. and D.D., 1688), where he became a fellow. With his Vindication of the Divine Authority and Inspiration of the . . . Old and New Testament (London, 1692), an answer to Le Clerc, he attracted the attention of Peter Mew, bishop of Winchester, who made him his chaplain, gave him a pretend in Winchester Cathedral in 1696, and presented him to the living of Buriton and Petersfield, Hampshire, in 1699. While lees eminent than his son, Robert Lowth, he was probably the profounder scholar of the two. Many scholars were indebted to him for valuable aesiatance. In addition to the work mentioned he published Directions for the Profitable Reading of the Holy Scriptures (London, 1708), a little work that has gone through many editions; and a now superseded commentary on the prophets (1714‑25), which has been frequently reprinted as a continuation of Bishop Patrick's commentary.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. A. Allibone Critical Dictionary of Enplisn Literature, p, 1141, Philadelphia, 1891; DNB, zzriv. 218‑217.

LOYOLA. See IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA.

LOYSON, Iwtl"sen, CHARLES JEAN MARIE AUGUSTIN HYACINTHE (Father Hyacinths): French Independent; b. at OrlSaas Mar. 10, 1827.
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
He was educated privately and at the Seminary of St. Sulpice, Paris, where he studied from 1845 to 1849. He was ordained to the Roman Catholic priesthood in 1851, and was then professor of philosophy at the Seminary of Avignon in 1851‑54, and of dogmatic theology at the Seminary of Nantes in 1854‑56. Already a member of the Sulpicisa order, he was curate of St. Sulpice, Paris, in 18b61857, but, determining to enter the monastic life, he made a six months' novitiate in the Dominican order in 1858. This not being sufficiently severe, he entered the order of Diecaloed Carmelites in 1862, and rapidly attained fame as a preacher. The freedom of his utterances, however, was such as to draw upon him the admonition of the general of his order, and in 1869 he was excommunicated. He then went to the United States, where he was greeted with fervor. By this time his break with the Church had become final, and in 1871 he attended the Old Catholic conference at Munich. In the following year Loyaoa went to Rome, where he established the Eaperartce de Rome, and in the same year still further manifested his antipathy for his former faith by marrying a widow who had long been working against certain distinctive doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church. From 1873 to 1874 he was an Old Catholic pastor at Geneva, but disapproving the rationalistic views of the Old Catholics, he again visited London, only to return before long to Paris, where he sought in vain to have his religious services authorized by the government. In 1877, however, he was permitted to hold private services, and speedily opened a " Catholic Gallirsn Church," which was legalized in 1883. Loyson remained at its head until 1884, since which year he has resided at Geneva, part of the time seeking to found a religious society in which Christians, Jews, and Mohammedans may ell join in worship. Among his numerous writings, special mention may be made of the following: La h'amilk (Paris, 1867); La Societe cite a dam sea rapporta suet le chriatianiame (1867); De la r4forme tx<tholique (1872; Eng. travel. by his wife, Catholic Reform, London, 1874); Liturgic de 1'egliae catholique de Genklle a (usage ties ,fideslea (Neueh$,tel, 1873); Catholicisme et ltrotestantisme (1873; Eng. travel., London, 18?4); Trois twn&ences au Cirque d'hitrer (Paris, 1877); Lea Principea de k reform txitholique (1878; Eng. tranal, by Lady Durand, London, 1879); Liturgic de l'kgliae catholique‑gallicane (1879); La Worm eatholique et l'ggliae arlglica»z (1879; Eng. travel. by Lady Durand, London, 1879); Ni dPricatvz ni ath&a (1890); Mon testament (1893; Eng. travel. by F. Ware, London, 1895); Qui eat le Christ f Pour lea juifa, lea chxEtaena et lea muatslmana (1900); and L'Ath&ame contemporaine (1907).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult the Preface, by F. W. Farrar, to the Eng. travel. of Mon testament, ut sup.

LUARD, HENRY RICHARDS: Church of England; b. in London Aug. 17, 1825; d. at Cambridge May 1, 1891. He was educated at King's College, London and at Trinity College, Cam‑
bridge (B.A., 1847; M.A., 1850; B.D., 1875; D.D., 1878). He became fellow of Trinity College (1849) and was assistant tutor in mathematics there (18b5‑

1865); junior bursar (1853‑81); and regiatrary of the University of Cambridge (1882‑91). He was ordained deacon and priest (1855) and was vicar of Great St. Mary's, Cambridge (1860‑‑87). He wrote: On the Relations between England and Rome during the Earlier Portion of the Reign of Henry 111. (Cambridge, 1877); and edited the Diary of E. Rzed (1851): the Correspondence of Richard Parson (1851); Liwa of Edward the Confessor (1858); Bartholmntei de Cotton Hiatoria Anglicans (1859); Roberti C3rosaeteste Epiatolo; (1881); Annalea mowatici (18849); Matthaei. Pariaienais Chronica majors (1872); and Flares historiarnm (1890); he also prepared a Catalogue of the Manuscripts Preserved in the Library of the University of Cambridge (1858); and Grad ati Cantabrigiertaea (1884).
Biaraooaurar: DNB, zariv. 226‑228.

	LUBBERTUS, SIBRAHDUS: Dutch theologian;
b. at Langwarden in East Friesland, 1558 or 1557;
d. at Franeker (60 m. n.n.e. of Amsterdam) Jan. 11,
1825. He was educated in Bremen, afterward at
Wittenberg, Marburg, and Geneva, where he became
a follower of Beza. In 1577 he was at Basel, then
removed to Neuatadt, at that time the seat of the
Evangelical theological faculty of Heidelberg. In
1583 he was active in visiting the poor in Emden,
in 1584 went to Friesland as a preacher in order to
advance there the cause of the Reformation. In
1585 he became professor at the University of
Franeker, lecturing on dogmatics. He attracted
many students, and as a preacher made a deep im
pression upon his hearers. He took an active part
in the struggle with the Remonstrants, and com
bated Rome and Socinienism. From his innermost
conviction he wets a decided Calvinist, without
sacrificing thereby his independence. He published:
De prineipiis Chriatianortcm dogmatism It3ri aeptem
(Franeker, 1591‑95); De papa Romano libri decem,
scholastics et theologire collali cum diaputationi3ua R.
Bellarmini (1594); De coruriliia 14m: quinque (Geneva,
1801); De eccleaya libri sex (Franeker, 1807); Rely
licatio de.pn:mripiia Chriatianorlem dogmatism (1808);
Replicatio de papa Romano (1809); De Jean Chriato
S'eruatore libri quatuor contra Faustum Socinum
(1611); Epiatolica diaceptatio de fide iuatificante,
rtoatraque coram Deo juattfi.catione (Delft, 1812);
Declaratio reaportsionia D. Voratii (Franeker, 1611);
Commeatarii ad norugtnta novem errorea C Vorstii
(1813); Resportaio ad pietatem Hatgonie flrotii
(1814); Cammentarirta in Cateeheain Palatino
Belgicam (1818). 	S. D. vert V>e>rar.
BIHLIOaS.APHT: E. L. Vriemoet, Athmarurn Friuoarmn libri duo, pp. 1‑19, Leeuwarden, 1768; E. J. H. Tjsden, Dal Qetehrfe Oslfriesland, i. 246‑282. Auriob, 1785; C. SDP, Hot podpelcad ondayoijs in Nederland, i. 136‑143, Leyden. 1873: W. B. 8. Boeke, Friedaade HoopucAoot en hat Rifles Athenaeum to Froneker, ii. 28 34, Leenwarden,
1889.

LUCAS OF TUY (TUDEASIS) : Spanish bishop; b. at Leon (112 m. n. of Salamanca) is the latter part of the twelfth century; d. at Tuy (80 m: n. of Oporto) 1250. After officiating as a canon. in his native city, he went to Tuy as s deacon, and in 1227 made a pilgrimage to Palestine, visiting Gregory IX. and Elise of Cottons, the general of the Franciscans, in the course of his travels. In
RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Lowth. William
Lucian the Xw:tyr
1239 he was consecrated bishop of Tuy, where he spent the remainder of his life. Lucas was the compiler of an exhaustive chronicle of Spain, the first two books containing the history of Isidore with additions, and the last two that of Ildefoneus and Julian, together with a supplement of his own to 1238. He likewise wrote s refutation of the Albigenses and other heretics, consisting chiefly of excerpts from Gregory the Great and Isidore, but important for the history of sects in Spain and southern France. In this work he assailed those who denied the future life and he likewise rejected as heretical representations of God and the Trinity in human form, se well as crucifixes having both feet of Christ pierced with a single nail. It is uncertain whether the book on the miracles of St. Isidore which he mentions in the preface of his polemics is to .be identified with the Vita laidori edited by the Bollandiata (ASB, Apr., i. 330). (R. SCHMID.)
Ba3itoassret: H. Florea, Eepafia saprada, vol. x:oi. 108 eqq., :acv. 383‑384, Madrid, 1754 eqq.; J. A. Fsbrioiue, Bibliotheca Latino medics et inflma a•,tatis, iii. 883, 8 vole., Hamburg, 1734‑48; RL, viii. 192.

LUCIAN THE MARTYR: Presbyter of Antioch; b. probably at Samosata about the middle of the third century; d. at Nicomedia, Bithynia, 312. Of his life few details are known. He was educated at Edeesa, and he may have studied at Ctesarea as well. He finally nettled at Antioch, where he founded a school of exegesis. In the autumn of 311 MA=:msnua became sole emperor and immediately resumed his persecution of the Christians, although in the spring of the same year he had signed the edict of toleration promulgated by his colleague Galerius. Lucian, whose prominence rendered him especially odious to the emperor, was taken from Antioch to Nicomedia, where Masiminus himself was then residing. His profession of faith, though it made an impression on his hearers, was unavailing, and he suffered martyrdom early in the following year, the Church at Antioch celebrating the anniversary of his death on Jan. 7. His corpse was taken by the Christians to the city of Drepanum, which Constantine rebuilt in his honor, though he called it Helenopolia after his mother.
The scantiness of the data concerning Lucian receives, at least a partial explanation from his dootrinal views. Alexander of Alexandria expressly states that Lucian accepted the teachings of Ebioa, Artemas, sad especially his fellow townsman Paul of Samoeata, and consequently withdrew from the Church of Antioch during the bishoprics of Domnus, Timeeus, and Cyrillus. It is probable_ that Lucian left the Church when Paul was deposed about 288, and the two were evidently in sympathy in their Christological views, so that, when Paul died, Lucian became the head of the nationalistic Syrian ecclesiastical party as opposed to the Greco‑Roman faction. On the other hand, the agreement between these two teachers was neither complete nor lasting, and Lucian's doctrine of the antemuadane creation of the Logos and its perfect incarnation in Jesus was s later development of his thought. His chief importance, however, lies in the feat that he was the real founder of Arianism, as was ad‑

Lucian the Xartyr	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	64
Lucian of Ssmoeata
mibted by Arius himself, who was one of his numerous pupils, declared in a letter to Eueebius of Nicomedia, also a scholar of Lucian's school. Although it is clear from the statements of Alexander that Lucian returned to orthodoxy before he died, Epiphaniua says that he was reckoned a martyr by the Arians, and Philoatorgius, who praises him highly, declares that almost all the important Arian and semi‑Arian theologians of the first half of the fourth century were pupils of Lucian. Nevertheless, his theological opponents were not altogether blind to his virtues. Eusebius, who mentions him but twice (Hist. ecd., viii. 13, ix. 8), praises the purity of his life, his knowledge of the Scriptures, and his noble martyrdom; the pseudo‑Athanasius terms him a great and holy ascetic and martyr; Chryaostom delivered a eulogy upon him; and the Church finally recognized the martyrdom of St. Lucian, especially as it was contained in the calendar of Nicomedia, the prototype of all Greek calendars.
	Of the literary activity of Lucian scant remains
survive. Jerome mentions his recession of the manu
scripts of the Bible (his chief work), as do Suidas and
Simeon Metaphraetes, and Jerome also alludes to his
treatises on faith and his letters, to which must be
added his defense preserved by Refines. A fragment
of a letter is contained in the Chronicon Paschale
(p. 277, ed. Ducange), describing the martyrdom
of Bishop Anthimus, Paris, 1648 eqq. Lucian's
apology (Refines, ed. Cacciari, i. 515) reveals the
Chriatological standpoint of its author, postulating
that " there is one God, revealed to us through
Christ and inspired in our hearts by the Holy
Spirit." The importance of Christ is restricted to
his office as a teacher and lawgiver, who gave
mankind an example of patience by his incarnation
and death. Scarcely a trace of Lucian's writings
on faith hex survived, although they may form the
basis of the statement of Epiphanies that Lucian
and his followers affirmed that Christ had only a
human body, but not a human soul, all human emo
tions being ascribed directly to the Logos, so that
the Son was inferior to the Father, evidently a
cardinal doctrine in his system. The creed adopted
by the bishops assembled at Antioch in 341 is as
cribed to Lucian by some writers of the early Church
as well as by‑the semi‑Arias Synods of Seleucia
(359) and Caria (367), but this can at most mean
little more than that part of his doctrines were ac
cepted with many interpolations and additions.
According to Jerome, Lucian's version of the Sep
tuagint was received from Constantinople to An
tioch, but varied widely from the current text. Of
the recession of the New Testament Jerome speaks
in terms of disapproval, and its use was forbidden
by the Decretusn. Gelaaiantcm. It was formerly sup
posed that in his New Testament Lucian adhered
closely to the Peshitto, but it now seems inadvisable
to attempt to trace any family of manuscripts to
his work (see BIBLE Vnitsioxs, A, L, 1, 15). Prac
tically nothing is known concerning Lucian's exe
getical treatises, although it is probable that he
wrote on hermeneutics. 	(A. HwxNecg.)
Brsrtooswrsr: DOB, iii. 748‑749; NPNF, 2 eer., i. 380,
ool. i., note 4; Jerome, De vir. ill., Ixxvii.
LUCIAN OF SAMOSATA.
Lucian's Attitude Toward Christianity (¢ 1). The Peregrinua (¢ 2). Historical Basis of the Peregrinua (¢ 3). Lucian's Knowledge of Christianity (¢ 4).
In the second half of the second century, with the single exception of Celsus, few of the cultivated classes of the Roman Empire paid more than a superficial attention to Christianity. Fronto, the friend of Marcus Aurelius, is said to have written
against it, but nothing is certainly z. Lucian's known of his book. Marcus Aurelius
Attitude himself, Epictetus, Galen, and the ora‑
toward for Aristides mention the Christian re‑
Christianity.ligion only in passing. Nor did the
great satirist Lucian think it necessary to take special notice of it. Only twice‑cursorily in the Alexander and more at length in the Peregrinus Proteus‑‑does he deal with the subject; but the interest of his account for modern times has led to frequent exaggeration of the interest which the topic had for him. His attitude toward Christianity has been represented in every possible light, from a fanatical hatred to a secret friendship. Still, Lucian's description of the Christians in the Peregrines is actually one of the most interesting and instructive accounts of the early Christians which have been preserved from a pagan pen.
The Peregrines is a satire aimed at the Cynics, and more particularly, as Bernays has shown, at the contemporary Cynic philosopher Theagenea. This school, among whom a considerable proportion
of unworthy elements existed, was antis. The pathetic to Lucian. He was specially Peregrines. stirred up to this attack by the ex‑
aggerated admiration of Peregrines expressed by the baser sort of Cynics, as well as by some of a higher class. Lucian had known the man personally; and when Theagenes, his closest associate, began to make a name for himself in Rome, the satirist felt that it was time to take the field. His work, addressed to the Platonist Cronies, gives an account of the life and death of Peregrines, whom he calls, on grounds of personal knowledge, a common criminal. On reaching manhood, Peregrines was, according to him, convicted of adultery and suitably punished in Armenia; then seduced a boy, and saved himself from the vengeance of the parents only by a money payment; and finally, in his birthplace, Parion on the Hellespont, murdered his father to get possession of his inheritance. Suspicion attaching to him he was forced to flee, and after considerable wandering came to Palestine or possibly to Antioch. Here he became acquainted with the Christians, insinuated himself into their fellowship, and became a respected teacher. He was imprisoned as a Chris. tian, but was released by the governor of Syria and returned to Parion, where he was able to meet the
charge of parricide only by surrendering his portion of the inheritance, fifteen talents, to his fellow citizens. He had appeared there in the dress of a Cynic, but on his further journeys he was received and supported by the Christians as one of their
own. Falling into discredit with them (Lucian thinks on account of eating forbidden meats), he

fiff	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lucian the Biartyr
		Lucian of $smosata
resolved to simulate the life of a great ascetic, and after a training in Egypt went to Rome, where he attracted great attention by his cynical freedom of speech, especially by his unmeasured attacks upon the mild and just emperor. The prefect of the city banished hire, which only increased his fame. He went to Greece, and continued his assaults on the social order, choosing the great Olympic gatherings for special manifestations. At the third which he attended, finding his reputation declining, he announced that he would burn himself alive at the next; and this Lucian says he actually did, claiming to have been an eye‑witness of the occurrence as well as part author of the legends which were soon spread abroad in relation to the Cynic's death. He closes by relating some further instances of the baseness of Peregrinus, which he asserts that he witnessed on a voyage from Troae to Syria.
A brief investigation of the historical basis for this story is now in order. There is no reason to doubt the existence of a Cynic philosopher named Peregrinua Proteua. The oldest notice of him is
possibly that of Aulus Gellius~ (xii. 11), 3. Histor‑ who met him at Athens and speaks
ical Basis 'well of him. His remarkable suicide
of the is mentioned by Athenagoras (" ApolPeregrinus. ogy," xxvi.; ANF, ii. 143), Tertullian
(Ad martyraa, iv.; ANF, iii. 695), and Eusebius (Chron. ad ann. 2181; Marcus Aurelius, v.), as well as by Philostratua (Vine sophistarum, IL, i.) and Ammianua Marcellinua (XXIX., i. 39); there is no doubt that it caused a great sensation. A column was erected to him in his birthplace, and was supposed to be the seat of an oracle. Euaebius gives the date of his death as 165 A.D., and there is no reason to question this, or Lucian's statement that it was at the fourth Olympic meeting which he attended. The banishment from Rome would then fall at latest in 152‑153; and the Christian episode between 140 and 150. That Tatian and the later apologists say nothing of his having been a Christian for a time is not surprising, even if they knew it. It is most unlikely that Lucian invented it; but it is, on the other hand, not probable that he got his details at first hand. Zahn's theory that he intended his account of the Cynic's death as a parody of Christian martyrdom will not hold. The whole point of the work, as directed against Cynicism, would be lost; and though Lucian knows that the Christians willingly give up their lives for their faith, so far from using this to explain the act of Peregrines, he contrasts their sincere self‑sacrifice with the mingled fear of death and mania for notoriety which he attributes to Peregrines. Assuming the main facts‑that Peregrinua was for a time a Christian, and as such was imprisoned, but afterward released, and that he later abandoned Christianity, it is worth while to see what Lucian knew of Christianity and what his judgment of it was, taking his sketch as a document belonging to about 170 and relating primarily to Syrian Christianity.
The Christians are, then, a religious association in which a man crucified in Palestine is venerated. He has brought into life " new mysteries," and as the first lawgiver of the sect has convinced his
followers that, when they have renounced the old
gods and begun to worship him and live according
		to his laws, they are to consider them
;. Lucian's selves as brothers. They are per
	Knowledge suaded that they are immortal, where
	of Chris‑ fore they despise death and meet it
	tianity. cheerfully and voluntarily. They con
		sider all temporal goods as of small im
portance and hold them in common. They adhere
closely to each other, and take incredible pains
when any interest of the community is in question,
considering it a general calamity when a brother is
imprisoned. When Peregrinus was in prison,
" very early in the morning aged widows and or
phan children might be seen waiting near the place,
and the leading men among them gained over the
guards that they might pass the night with him.
Many meals were sent in to him, their holy writings
were read . . . even from the cities of the province
of Asia came certain who were sent by the Chris
tians in the name of their communities, to aid, de
fend, or comfort him." Every detail in this ac
count might be paralleled in Christian literature
from the first epistle of Clement to Tertullian, De
jeiunio, and the detail of the envoys from the cities
of Asia Minor is confirmed by the epistles of Igna
tius‑though there is not the slightest evidence of
any direct employment by Lucian of Christian
sources. The fact is simply that Lucian has named
the essential characteristics of the Christian body
as they presented themselves to a clear‑sighted,
disinterested observer, thus strengthening the evi
dence presented by Christian writers. So far from
relying on Christian documents, Lucian does not
seem to know the Christian writers of the second
century; the prisoner in Syria has as little in com
mon with Ignatius as the death of Peregrinus has
with the martyrdom of Polycarp. While one can
not assert positively that Lucian never read a line
of a Christian author, the proof that he did is not
forthcoming. For all this, his knowledge of Chris
tianity is not so " vague and superficial " as Keim
would have us believe. He brings none of the cus
tomary charges against the Christians, not even
that of hostility to the empire. Christianity seems
to be in his eyes a harmless movement. He con
siders it, indeed, without any token of sympathy;
but he, the accomplished mocker, does not mock
at the simplicity of the Christians which the im
postor turns to his account. He finds it of course
absurd that they should adore the crucified " soph
ist "; but their unshaken consciousness of brother
hood under all trials and their contempt for death
are mentioned only se characteristic differentiee.
And it is these very Christians who, outside of the
cultivated city‑dwellers and the Epicureans, are
the only people in the world to detect the hollow
ness of the pretentious of the false prophet Alexan
der of Abonoteichos; in fact, it is against them
that the first denunciation of Alexander is uttered
(Alexander, xxv., xxaviii.). In a word, in the Pero
grinus, where he has poured out the fulness of his
bitterest acorn upon the Cynics, he has contented
himself with drawing an accurate picture of the
Christians. It was not to be expected that he
should set out to glorify them; what is remarkable

Lucidns
Lnokook
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
is that he describes them not as deceivers, as criminals, or as revolutionaries, but merely as enthusiasts, credulous indeed, but capable of self‑sacrifice and deep brotherly love. The single word " sophist " applied to Christ sufficed to stamp the great satirist as a blasphemer in the eyes of later generations, and cause them to neglect the historical value of the evidence which he supplies for the purity and uprightness of the Christian life and ideal as they were seen in his day. (A. Hwx>,twcg.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Perhaps the beet edition of Lucian's works is by T. Hematerhuia and J. F. Reits, 3 vole., Amsterdam, 1743; a convenient one is by W. Dindorf, with Lat. trawl., 3 vole., Paris, 1840; another is by F. Fritsohe, 3 vole., Rostock, 1884‑82; and still another is in the Tauohnita series by C. H. Weise, 4 vole., Leipaic, 1887‑77. There is an Eng. trawl. by 'several hands, with life of Lucian by Dryden, 4 vole., London, 1711; one by T. Franeklin, 4 vole, ib. 1781 (of great merit); and one by H. W. Fowler, 4 vole., ib. 1905. A Fr. trawl. of the works is by L. Humbert, 2 vole., Paris, 1898, and an excellent Germ. trawl. is by Wieland, 8 vole., Leipeic, 1788‑89. Consult: J. Bernays, Lucian and die Kyniker, Berlin, 1879; C. T. Keim, Ceisw, Zurich, 1882; J. M. Cotterill, Perepriwus Protew, Edinburgh, 1879 (claims it is a forgery, perhaps by Henry Stephens the Reformation printer); M. Croiset, Eesai sur la vie et ks auvrea de Lucien, Paris, 1982: w. R. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, u. 812‑822, London, 1890: DCB, iii. 744‑798. The editions and translations have notes and introductions, and often s life of the author.
LUCIDUS, hi'sid‑us: A Gallic priest of the second half of the fifth century. He held decided predestinarian views, going further even than Auguatine and believing that at the fall man had utterly lost the freedom of his will, that God had determined beforehand that some were to be damned and others saved, and hence that Christ did not die for all but only for the elect, and finally that a " vessel unto dishonor " can never become a " vessel unto honor." A synod was summoned in 475 at Arles to condemn his views, and also one at Lyons in 476. Lucidus was compelled to recant chiefly through the influence of Faustus of Riez (q.v.), who, being a friend of Lucidus and also one of the most important members of the synod, had a lengthy correspondence with him on the subject. A letter to Lucidus by Faustus is in DIPL, liii. 683.

LUCIFER (Hebr. Held, "Shining one," R. V. " Day star ") : A term applied by Isaiah to the king of Babylon (Isa. xiv. 12), and not occurring elsewhere in the Bible. By Tertullian, Jerome, and others the name was applied to Satan. and in the Middle Ages it became common in this sense. By Gunkel (Sch6pjtcng and Chaos, pp. 132 aqq., GtSttingen, 1895) the passage in Isaiah is regarded as embodying a reference to a nature myth.

LUCIFER OF CALARIS AND THE LUCIFERIANS: Bishop of Calaria (the modern Cagliari) in Sardinia, and his followers. The dates of Lucifer are uncertain; he died perhaps 371. He first appears in history as the envoy of Pope Tiberius (q.v.) to the Emperor Constantius to urge the calling of a new synod. At the Synod of Milan, 355, he stood with the opposition, held firm with a few others, and, like these, was exiled. For a while he then lived at Germanicia in Commagene; next, at Eleutheropolis in Palestine, and afterward in the Thebaid. During his exile, he wrote some vehe‑
ment polemics (ed. Hartel, in CSEL, vol. xiv., Vienna, 1886) against Emperor Constantius, as a patron of heretics and the enemy of the true faith. These writings may, with some degree of probability, be arranged in the following order: De non conveniendo cum hterdicis, de regtbus apoataCicis, de Afhanaaio 1 and 11., all prior to the autumn of 358; De non Parcendo in Deurn delinquentx'6na, after June, 359; Mariendum ease pro Des Filio, 360 at the earliest, perhaps not until 361. Copious Biblical quotations give these documents no little value as bearing on the text of the Bible before Jerome sad on the history of the canon. But, in other aspects, they are diffuse and repetitious, void of literary originality, and omit giving credit to authors from whom citations are made. Yet Lucifer's writings afford a vivid picture of the narrow yet honest zeal of a man loyal to his convictions.
The death of Conetantiua and the advent of Julian ended Lucifer's exile. In 362 he was at Antioch, trying unsuccessfully to settle the state of confusion there (see MEL)CTIU6 OF ANTIOCH). He combated with especial severity the lenient treatment of ecclesiastics who had become compromised by their defection from the right faith under Conatantius, and insisted that they be stripped of their ecclesiastical offices. When at Naples, he refused church fellowship to Bishop Zoaimus. He retired, eventually, and in sullen temper, to Calaris; where he lived revered, indeed, for his confessional constancy and his austere conversation, but in separation from a Church that he believed to be stained by indulgence of heretical doctrine. He was ever afterward the " Holy Sardinian"; and in 1623 his remains were deposited in the cathedral of Cagliari.
	After his death Sardinia continued the center of
the Luciferian coterie, a sect persistently entan
gling itself in the thought that the Church had be
come a harlot. The Luciferians were not confined
to Sardinia, however. In Spain they reverenced
Bishop Gregory of Elvira (q.v.); at Trevea, their
ideas were advocated by the Presbyter Bonosus;
in Rome itself there was a Luciferian party (not to
be confused with the followers of Ursinus, q.v.),
against which Jerome wrote his Altercatio Lticir
feriani d orthodoxt (MPL, xxiii. 153‑182); and
Hilsrius, the Roman deacon (q.v.), was a Luci
ferian. Epheaius, on a journey to the East (382
or 383), fell in with some Luciferiana at Oxyrhyn
choa (Heptanomos, Egypt), who had for their bishop
a monk Heraclidaa, titular of Eleutheropolis (Pales
tine). And at Eleutheropolia were the two pres
byters, Faustinua and Marcellinus, charged with
holding assemblies for divine worship in the houses
of their associates and opposed by the resident
bishop. They complained against the bishop, and
not in vain, to the Emperor Theodosius (see
FAUBTINUB), since a rescript of 384 forbade the
persecution of those who stood in ecclesiastical
fellowship with the Spaniard Gregory, and the
oriental Heraclidas. By the irony of history, this
imperial edict is the last intelligence concerning
the Luciferiana. 	G. KRiraER.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The four most important treatments of the subject are: G. Krtlger, Lucifer, Bischoj you Cakais,

6"r	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lnoidus
		Lnokook
	and daa Schisms der LuciJerianer, Leipeic, 1888; w, von
	Hartel, in Arehiv JAr 7attiniadee LexikograpAie and Gram
	matik, iii (1888), 1‑b8; L. $eltet, in Bulletin de ZittErature
	ecclEsiattique, 1908, pp. 300‑328 (claims for the Luciferiane
	a great literary activity); and P. Lejay, L'HEritage de
	GrEpoired'Elvire, in Revue BEnfdidine, xxv (1908), 435‑457.
	Consult further: DCB, iii. 749‑751; Ceillier, AuteurasatrEs,
	iv. 239‑271; Hsrnaek, Dogma, vole. iv.‑v. passim; Neander,
Christian Church, ii. 2b8‑2b7, 441‑942, 4b8‑4b8, b59.
LUCIUS, lu'shiua: The name of three popes.
Lucius L: Pope 253‑254.	He was the successor
	of Cornelius, elected probably June 25, 253, and
died Mar. 5 following.	His election took place
	during the persecution which caused the banish
	ment of Cornelius, and he also was banished soon
	after his consecration, but succeeded in gaining
	permission to return. From a letter of Cyprian'a
	(lxviii. 5) it is evident that he took the same position
	as Cornelius in regard to the restoration of the lapsed
after due penance.	His tombstone is still extant in
the cemetery of St. Calixtus.	(N. $oNwEZ'scx.)
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liber pontiJZealia, ed. Mommsen, in MGH,
	Geet. punt. Rom. i (1898), 32; JaV, Repeats, i. 19‑20;
	R. A. Lipeius, Chronolopie der rsmiachen BieehiiJe PP. 123
	eqq., 207 eqq., Kiel, 1889; B. Plating, Lives of the Popes,
i, 50‑b2, London, n, d.; Bower, Popes, i. 29.
Lucius II.: Pope 1144‑1145.	As Gerard, car
	dinal‑priest of Santa Croce, he was active in the
	German controversies under Honorius II. and In
nooent II.	He became pope Mar. 12, 1144, and at
	first had a certain measure of success in suppress
ing the recalcitrant senate.	But in the autumn his
	friendly relations with Roger of Sicily were dis
	turbed; the Romans restored the senate, under the
	leadership of Giordano Pierleoni, who took the title
	of patricitcs and claimed all the regalian rights of the
	Roman Church. Lucius hrd recourse to arms against
the citizens, and died Feb.15,1145. (A. HAUCK.)
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jaffd, Repeats, ii. 7 eqq.; J. M. watterich,
	PonCiJteum Romanorum vita., ii. 278 eqq., Leipeic, 1882;
	W. Giesebreeht, GeechiclUe der deutaehen Kaiaerzeit, iv.
	222 eqq., Brunswick, 1877; F. Gregoroviue, Hiat. of the
	City of Rome, iv. 487‑491, London, 1898; B. Plating,
	Lives of the Popes, ii, 43‑44, ib. n.d.; Bower, Popes, ii.
478‑477; Milman, Latin Christianity, iv. 242‑243.
Lucius III.: Pope 1181‑1185. As	Hubald,
	bishop of Ostia, he was one of the moat influential
cardinals under Alexander III.	He was elected
	pope Sept. i, 1181, and consecrated on the follow
ing Sunday.	His pontificate was an unsuccessful
one.	He was unable to control the Romans, and
	his residence in the city was limited to the period
	from the beginning of Nov., 1181, to the middle of
Mar., 1182.	The rest of the time be spent in vari
	ous places, chiefly at Velletri and Anagni. The
	controversy over the succession to the inheritance
	of the Countess Matilda had been left unsettled by
	the peace of 1177, and the Emperor Frederick pro
	posed in 1182 that the Curia should renounce its
	claim, receiving in exchange two‑tenths of the im
	perial income from Italy, one‑tenth for the pope
and the other tenth for the cardinals.	Lucius con
	sented neither to this proposition nor to another
	compromise suggested by Frederick the neat year;
	nor did a personal discussion between the two po
	tentates at Verona in Oct., 1184, lead to any defi
	nite result. Meantime other causes of disagreement
	appeared, in the pope's refusal to comply with
	Frederick's wishes as to the regulation of German
episcopal elections which had taken place during the schism, and especially as to the contested election to the see of Trevea in 1183. In pursuance of his anti‑imperial policy, he declined finally in 1185 to crown Henry VI, as Frederick's destined successor, and the breach between the empire and the Curia became wider on questions of Italian politics. Lucius died in Verona Oct. 25, 1185, having led up by his negative policy to the new contest between papacy and empire which soon broke out. (A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: JaffE<, Regeata, 11. 335 8qq.; J. )fi. w8tterich, Pontiltcum Romanorum vita, ii. 850, Leipeic, 1882; P. 8cheffer‑Boichoret, Friedrich# 1. lekter Streit mil der Kurie, pp. 20 eqq., Berlin, 1888; W. Gieeebreeht, Geachichte der deutachen Kaiaerzeit, vole. iv.‑vi., Brunswick, 1888; J. Langen, Geachichte der rz;miachen Kirche, iv. 557 eqq., Bonn, 1893; F. Gregorovius, Hiat. of the City of Rome, iv. 809‑612, London, 1898; B. Plating, Lives of the Popes, ii. 58‑80, ib. n. d.; Bower, Popes, ii. 524‑528; Milman, Latin Christianity, iv. 439‑440.
LUCIUS, PAUL ERNST: German Protestant; b. at Ernolaheim (about 12 m. w. of Strasburg) Oct. 16, 1852; d. at Strasburg Nov. 27, 1902. He studied theology at Strasburg, Zurich, Paris, Jena, and Berlin. He was vicar at Seaenheim (1878‑79); at Strasburg (1879‑80); privat‑docent there (18801883); professor extraordinary (1883‑89); and professor (1889‑1902). He wrote: Die Therapettten and Are Stellung in der Geschichte der Aakeae (Strasburg, 1879); Der Esseniamus in seinem Verhiiltrtis zum Jttdenthum (1881); Die Krajtigung des Missionsainnes in der Gemeinde (1885); Zur hussern and innern Mission (1903); and Die Anfdnge des Heiligenkulta in der christlichen Kirche (1904).

LUCgOCg, HERBERT MORTIMER: Church of England; b. at Great Barr (9 m. s.s.w. of Litchfield), Staffordshire, July 11, 1833. He was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge (B.A., 1858; M.A., 1862), and was ordered deacon in 1860 and ordained priest two years later. He was vicar of All Saints', Cambridge, in 1862‑63 and 1865‑75, rector of Gayhurst and Stoke‑Goldington in 18631865, and canon of Ely (of which he had been honorary canon in 1874‑75) in 1875‑92, besides being principal of Ely Theological College in 1876‑87. Since 1892 he has been dean of Lichfield. He was also select preacher at Cambridge in 1885, 1874‑75, 1883‑84, 1892, and 1901, examining chaplain to the bishop of Ely in 1873,87, and proctor for the dean and chapter of Ely in 1892. Theologically he belongs to the Anglo‑Catholic school, and has written: Tables of Stone (sermons; London, 1867); After Death, the Stale of the Faithful Dead and their Relationship to the Living (1879); Studies in the History of the Prayer Book (1881); An Appeal to the Church not to withdraw her Clergy from the Universities (1882); Footprints of the Son of Man as traced by St. Mark (1884); The Bishops in the Tower, a Record of Stirring Events a, feeling the Church and Nonconformists from the Reformation to the Revolution (1886); The Intermediate State between Death and Judgment (1890); The Divine Liturgy, being The Order for Holy Communion, historically, duotrinally, and devotionally set forth (1889); John Wesley's Churchmanahip (1891); Who are Wesley's Heirs f (1892) ; History of the Church in Scotland (1893); History of Marriase, Jewish and Christian,

Luenke	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	58
with especial Reference to its Indissolubility and certain forbidden Degrees (1894); Footprints of the Apostles as traced by St. Luke in the Ads (2 vole., 1897); Four Qualifications for a Good Preacher (1897); The Characteristics of the Four Gospels (1900); Beautiful Life of an Ideal Priest; or, Reminiscences of Thomas Thelluaon Carter (1902); Life and Works of Dr. Johnson (1902); Spiritual Difficulties in the Bile and Prayer Book: Helps to their Solution (1905); and Eucharistic Sacrifece and Intercession for the Departed (1907). He has also edited Bishop J. R. Woodford's Great Commission: Twelve Addressee on the Ordinal (London, 1886) and Sernwna (2 vole., 1887).

LUD, LUDIM. See TABLE OF NATIONe.

LUDLOW, JAMES MEEKER: Presbyterian; b. at Elizabeth, N. J., Mar. 15, 1841. He was educated at Princeton (B.A., 1861), and Princeton Theological Seminary (1864). He was then pastor of the First Presbyterian Church, Albany, N. Y. (1864‑68), Collegiate Reformed Dutch Church, New York City (1868‑77), Westminster Presbyterian Church, Brooklyn, N. Y. (1877,85), and of Munn Av•;nue Presbyterian Church, East Orange, N. J. (1886‑1909). He has written: My Saint John (New York, 1883); Concentric Chart of History (1885); Captain of the Janizaries (1886); A King of Tyre (1891); That Angelic Woman (1893); History of the Crusades (1896); Baritone's Pariah (1897); Deborah (1901); Incentives for Life (1903); Sir Raoul (1905); Jesse ben David (1907); and Judge West's Opinion, Reported by a Neighbor (1908).

LUDOLF, 1U'dolf, HIOB: German Orientalist, founder of the study of the Ethiopic language and literature in Europe; b. at Erfurt June 15, 1624; d. at Frankfort‑on‑the‑Main Apr. 8, 1704. He studied at Erfurt and Leyden, then traveled extensively. In Rome he learned Ethiopic from the Abyssinian Gregorius. He became tutor to the children of the duke of Sage‑Goths in 1652, afterward sulk councilor, in 1675 chamberlain in Altenburg, and in 1691 president of the Collegium Imperials Historicum in Frankfort, where he had settled in 1678. His principal works are: Lexicon Xthiopico‑Latinum (3 parts, London, 1661; 2d ed., Frankfort, 1699); Grammatica linguts Xthiopicas (London, 1661; 2d ed., Frankfort, 1702); Sciagraphia historice Xthiopica: (Jena, 1676); Historic Xthiopica (Frankfort, 1681; Eng. transl., London, 1684; French transl., Paris, 1684), to which he added a Commentaries (1691) and two appendices (1693‑94); Grant.. matica lingu<e Amharices (1698); and Lexicon Amharico‑Latinism (1698). He also published the Ethiopic Psalter, with Latin translation (1701).
BIHLIOp$ApHy; C. Junker, De roils et aeriptia lobi Ludolphi,
Leipeic, 1710: J. Flemming, in Beitrdps sur Aaayriolopie, vole. i.‑ii., ib. 1890‑91.

LUEBECg: One of the three city‑states of the German Empire, comprising the inner city, with suburbs, and several enclaves in the surrounding country; area 115 square miles; population (1905) 108,857 of whom 101,724 were Evangelical Lutherans, 760 Reformed, 2,457 Roman Catholics, 638
Jews, and 231 sectarians (Baptists, Irvingites, Adventists, Mormons, etc.). The Reformation was established in Liibeck by Bugenhagen in 1531, and since that time the city has been Lutheran. Rigorous measures were taken against the Roman Catholics, and against adherents of the Reformed faith, though the former continued to hold religious services, and in 1693 the latter received permission to build a church and, under certain restrictions, hold their own service. Admission to the council was denied to all non‑Lutherans till the beginning of the nineteenth century. The senate issued regulations for the Reformed parish in 1825, and for the Roman Catholics in 1841; and both denominations received full political and civil rights under the constitution of 1848 (revised 1851 and 1875). At present there are fourteen Lutheran parishes and fifteen churches. The present " Constitution of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the State of Lubeck " went into effect in 1895. It vests the church government in the senate, which either exercises its authority directly through its Lutheran members, or delegates it to the ecclesiastical council, which is composed of two Lutheran senators, of whom one is chairman, the senior (chairman) of the clerical ministerium, and four other members, viz., a clergyman and three laymen, who are elected by the senate for a period of six years, the clergyman on the recommendation of the clerical ministerium, the laymen on the recommendation of the synod. In matters affecting ecclesiastical law, church taxes, the liturgy, and the boundaries of parishes, the acts of the ecclesiastical council have to be sanctioned by the synod and confirmed by the senate. The clerical ministerium includes all the clergy who have charges. This body has a word in all matters affecting the doctrine and formularies of the Church. Since 1902, in accordance with an agreement with the consistory of Schleawick‑Holstein, candidates have been examined by the board of examiners in Kiel, those passing becoming eligible for appointment in Liibecli, as well as in Schleawick‑Holstein. The synod consists of forty‑seven members, of whom three are appointed by the eccleaiasical council, the remainder being members of the local parochial boards. Such a board is composed of the local clergy and a number of laymen, who are elected for six years. Each pariah is divided into as many pastoral districts as it has clergy. The finances of the Church are regulated by s law of Jan. 18, 1895. The basis of the general church treasury is a fund of 150,000 marks formed by the surplus of the cloister of St. John, the Hospital of the Holy Ghost, and the Burg Cloister. The interest on this sum is supplemented by a yearly income of 16,000 marks from the cloister of St. John, and by a church tax. Church attendance on the part of adults is not good, and the number of communicants, which seems to be on the decrease, is less than sixteen per cent. of the population. Attendance by children is better. There are now services for children in every Lutheran parish of the city and suburbs. The oldest is that in the Church of St. James, which was established in 1875. The total attendance averages about 2,000. (L. F. RAN%E.)
BIBLIOO$AP$y: Lfib. Verordnunpea and Bekanrdmaehunpen,
ii. 291, iii. 25, 308; Statiat. Mitlheilunpen aua dens deutsche$

59	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lnedalse
evanyedischen Landeskirehen. 1880: W. I)eiae, Geachichte der avanpeliaeh‑reformierten Gemeinde in Ltibeck, Liibeck, 1880; E. Illigene, Geschichte der dfibecdcischen Ruche 1681718SB, Paderborn, 1898; 8. Csrlebaob, Geachichta der Juden in LOberk, Liibeck,1899.
	LUEBECS, BISHOPRIC OF:	An ancient
episcopal see of northern Germany, established
originally at Oldenburg by Otto L, probably in
968, and subject to the metropolitan jurisdiction
of Hamburg. The first bishop, Egward, was con
secrated by Archbishop Adaldag. His diocese in
cluded the whole of the Wendish territory, which
was under Hamburg, or from the bay of Kiel south
east to near the southern boundary of the present
Mecklenburg. The Wendish risings of 990 and
1018 destroyed the work here, and when it was re
vived by Archbishop Adalbert the diocese was re
stricted to eastern Holstein. It was not till the
time of Vicelin (q.v.) that the work was established
on a permanent basis, and in 1158 the see was
transferred to Liibeck by his successor Gerold
(1155‑63). The bishopric never attained great
importance, being overshadowed by the growing
power of the city. 	(A. HAUCx.)
The bishopric was made immediately subject to the empire under Conrad II. of Querfurt (1183‑86). It had secular jurisdiction over a considerable territory; but the episcopal residence was usually at Eutin. The Reformation was first introduced under the influence of King Frederick I. of Denmark in 1524, and definitely established in 1530. It was not yet, however, possible to suppress or wholly to secularize the bishopric, so for a time bishops of Lutheran sympathies were elected. From 1586 the dignity was usually an appanage of the younger sons of the dukes of Holstein until 1706; and by the settlement of 1803 it was constituted a secular principality in favor of Peter Frederick William of Oldenburg and his heirs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are Urkundenburh des Biatume Lii6eck, ed. W. Leverkue, Oldenburg, 1858; Adam, Geata Hammenburgenaia eccdeaim, ed. J. M. Lappenberg, in MGH, Script., vi (1848), 287‑389; Helmold, Chroaica Slavarum, ed. idem, ib. axf (1889), 1‑99; Arnold, Chronica Slavorum, ed, idem, ib. pp. 100‑250; Annalea Lubicenaes, ed. idem, ib, xvi (1859), 411‑429; Series epiacaporum . Lubicenetum, ib. aiii (1881), 347. Consult: Hauck,
KD, vole, iii. iv.; E. A. T. Laepeyres, Die BekshrungNord
AZ6inDiena, Halle, 1884; O. I)ehio, Geachichte des Erebea
tume Hamburg‑Bremen, 2 vole., Berlin, 1878; C. Eubel,
Hierarchic cathodica medii avi, 2 vole., M duster, 1898‑1901.
LUECgE, lake, GOTTFRIED CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH: German Lutheran theologian; b. at Bgeln (18 m. s.w. of Magdeburg) Aug. 24, 1791; d. at GtSttingen Feb. 14, 1855. He was educated at the cathedral school of Magdeburg and at the universities of Halls and Gdttingen. In 1816 he went to Berlin, where the influence of Bunsen and Lachmann won him Schleiermacher's friendship and a position as licentiate and privat‑docent in theology. He gladly took part in the " Evangelical union " which was sealed by the united communion service of Oct. 31, 1817. His publications in this period were Grundrisa der nettteatamentlichen Hermeneutik urul ihrer Geachichte (GSttingen, 1816); Ueber den rteuteatamentlichen Kanon des Eusebius (Berlin, 1817); a new edition of Melanchthon's
" Apology" (1818); and, in collaboration with De Wette, Synopsis evaatgeliorum (1818). In the autumn of 1818 he was called to the chair of theology in the new University of Bonn. Here for eight years he exercised a great and happy influence on the students, at the same time taking an active part in the reorganization of Evangelical church life in Rhenish Prussia. At Bonn he published his principal work, the Kommentar abet die Schriflen des Evangdiaten Johannes (3 vole., 1820‑25; Eng. transl. in part, Edinburgh, 1837). The first volume was hailed as a powerful support to positive theology, and was attacked with equal warmth by the rationalizing party under Paulus of Heidelberg. Toward the end of his stay at Bonn Lucks engaged in another controversy with Ferdinand Delbriick, who urged a return to the standards of the primitive regula fidei and the Apostles' Creed in place of the Scriptural basis of Protestant theology. With his colleagues Sack and Nitzsch, Liicke issued three open letters Ueber daa Ansehen der heiligen,Schr(fl and ihr Verhdltnisa xur Glaubenaregel in der proteatantiachen and in der alien. Kirche (Bonn, 1827), of which the third and longest was all his own. He was also associated with Schleiermacher and De Wette in publishing the Theologische Zeitachr(/'t from 1819 to 1822, and with Gieseler in the shortlived Zeitschrift fur gebildete Christen der eaangeliachen Kirche (1823); and in 1827, together with Nitzsch, Gieseler, Ullmann and Umbreit, he established the still flourishing Theologische Studien arid Kritiken to represent, in a favorite phrase of his, " the alliance of the free scientific spirit with the power of the specifically Christian spirit."
Meantime, in the autumn of 1827, he had migrated to GSttingen to succeed StAudlin, and there he spent the rest of his life, devoting himself rather to New‑Testament exegesis and systematic theology instead of to church history which had been his special work at Bonn. In spite of the anxious days of the revolution of 1831 and the difficulties brought upon the university by the changes made in the constitution of Hanover in 1837 by King Erneat August, he declined calls to Kiel and Halls in 1838, to Jena in 1843, and to Leipsic in 1845. The government rewarded his constancy by the positions of councilor in the consistory at Hanover (1839) and of abbot of Bursfeld (1843). His later years were troubled by increasing theological isolation, as the younger men went off either to the radical camp of Baur and the Tiibingen school, or to the strict Lutheran party of Harlesa, Kahnis, and Thomasiua, with its center at Erlangen and Leipaic. Lucks and his friends attempted to hold a middle course between these two extremes, insisting in the spirit of Schleiermacher on the historical and permanent value of the Reformation confessions of faith, while avoiding any blind aymbololatry and vindicating the clear and practical nature of theology.
Lilcke's Gbttingen period was also one of busy literary activity. He completed his earlier Johannine work by a Verauch einer vollatdndigen Einleitung in die D,$'enbarurtg Johannis and die gesamte apokalyptiache Iritteratur (Bonn, 1832), besides issuing two revised editions of the commentary

Lnedenlaaa	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	80
Luke
	itself (1833‑36, 1840‑58). He contributed a long
	aeries of important articles to periodicals and uni
	versity publications, the most noteworthy of which
was the treatise Ueber daa Alter and den Verfasser,
	die ursprungliche Farm and den wahrere Sinn den
	kirchlichen Friedenaspruches " In necesaariia unitas,
	etc." (Gbttingen, 1860). Of practical importance,
	too, were four addresses delivered before the GtSt
	tinger Miseionsverein between 1840 and 1842,
	which prepared the way for the founding of the
" Seminar fUr inhere Mission," the very name being
	taken from the last of them, though used not quite
in his sense.	(F. SANDER.)
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ltlcke's biography was written by F. San
	der, Hanover‑Linden, 1891. There are notices by J.
	M811er in ZKW, 1865, hoe. 18‑17; by R,edepenning in
	Proteetantiecha Kirchensaitunp, 1865; and by Ehrenfeuch
	ter, in T3R, 1855. Indications of further literature are
given in Hauck‑Herzog, RE, a. 874.
	LUEDEMANN, lil'de‑mtln, HERMANN EARL:
	Swiss Protestant; b. at Kiel Sept. 15, 1842. He
	was educated at the universities of Kiel, Heidel
	berg, and Berlin from 1861 to 1867 (Ph.D., Kiel,
	1870), and in 1872 became privat‑docent at the
	university of his native city (where he also taught
	in a private school). In 1878 he was appointed as
	sociate professor of New‑Testament exegesis at the
	same institution, and since 1884 has been con
	nected with the University of Bern, where he has
	been professor successively of church history (1884
	1891) and of systematic theology, dogmatics, and
	philosophy (since 1891). He is an adherent of the
	liberal school in theology, and has written: Die
	Anthropologie den Apostel Paulus and ihre Stellureg
	innerhalb seiner Heilslehre (Kiel, 1872); Die " Eid
	briichigkeit " urtaerer netikirchlichen (freisannigen)
	Geisllichen (1881); Die natters Enturicldung der
	proteatantiachen Theologie (Bremen, 1884); Reform
	and Tdtuferlum in ihrem Verhliltnis rum chriatlichen
	Prinzt.'p (Bern, 1896); Inditridualit8t and Pers6rh
	lichkeit (1900); Was heiast "bt'blischea Chriatenxum"t
(190b) and Religion urtd Leben (1908).
LUETGERT, liit'gitrt, WILHELM:	German
	Protestant; b. at Heiligengrabe (a village near
	Wittstock, 60 m. n.w, of Berlin), Brandenburg,
	Apr. 9, 1887. He was educated at the universities
	of Greifawald and Berlin from 1886 to 1889, and in
	1892 became privat‑docent for New‑Testament
	exegesis and dogmatic theology at the former in
	stitution, where he was appointed associate pro
	fessor of the same subjects in 1895. In 1901 he
	went in a similar capacity to Halls, where he was
	promoted to his present position of full professor
	in 1902. Besides assisting A. Schlatter since 1904
	in editing the Beitrtige zur Ftirderung der chrdat
	lichen Theologie, he has written Dan Reich Gotten in
	den aynoptiachen Evangelien (Giitersloh, 1895); Die
johanneische Christologie (1899);	Die Liebe im
	Neuen Testament (Leipeic, 1905); Gotten Sohn and
	Gotten Geist, Vorlrage zur Christologie and zur Lehre
vom Geiste Gotten (1905); Im Diertste Gotten. Be_
	trachtungen (Berlin, 1907); Jesus Chriatua fiirwn
aere Zeit (Hamburg, 1907; in collaboration with
several others); Frechet'tapredigt and Sch>varmgeister
in Iforinth, Ein Beilrag zur Charakteriatik der Chria‑
tuspartei, and Die Irrlehrer der Pastoralbrtje, both in the Beitr6ge, ut sup. (1908‑09).
	LUETSEMANN, liit'ke‑man, JOACHIM: German
Lutheran theologian; b. at Demmin (28 m. s. of
Stralsund), Pomerania, Dec. 15, 1608; d. at Wolfen
biittel (8 m. s. of Brunswick) Oct. 18, 1655. Both
his writings and his personality, which combined
deep learning with the efficacious inner conviction of
Pietism, had no alight influence in the same direc
tion as those of Arndt and Johann Milller, while his
controversy with the orthodox Lutherans as to the
humanity of Christ in his death, though without
abiding consequences, attracted much attention at
the time. He was educated at the universities of
Greifewald and Strasburg, afterward traveling
through France and Italy and returning to Rostock
to pursue his studies there. He became a lecturer
in the philosophical faculty there in 1638, and five
years later professor of metaphysics and physics.
He had already become known as a preacher, and
contributed much to the activity of religious life
in Rostock. His work there was interrupted by a
controversy in which he became engaged with the
strict orthodox party in Mecklenburg, whom the
duke favored. He put forth in what seemed to
them a dangerous form a proposition already enun
ciated in the Middle Ages. To the concept of hu
manity, he said, there belongs besides the existence
of soul and body the form of their joint existence,
their unity; and with the dissolution of thin unity
in death the manhood of Christ was dissolved. The
assertion of its permanence must take away some
thing from the reality of the death of Christ, and
thus from the reality of redemption. He attempted
to save the belief in the divine‑human character of
Christ by the theory that the divinity was united
not only with the soul but with the body; and
when the soul left the body, the Godhead did not
leave it, but the true, essential, eternal life still
dwelt in the dead body. A vehement strife broke
out over this apparent departure from the ortho
dox doctrine. Liitkemann defended himself in his
Disset'faEfo phyeico‑lheologica de taro homine. The
orthodox teaching seemed to imply that the body
of Christ, as a necessary concomitant with the soul
to the unity of human nature, was incorruptible.
Two court preachers at Weimar, Collar and Bar
tholomii, now expressed a doubt of this, and de
fended Liitkemann's view from this standpoint. The
Rostock theologian Cothmann appeared as a violent
opponent of Liitkemann, and used his influence with
the duke to have him silenced both as a professor and
as a preacher. In spite of the support of clergy and
people, he was obliged to leave Rostock. Duke Au
gust of Brunswick, however, offered him the position
of general superintendent and court preacher, and
there he spent his remaining years, drawing up the ex
cellent school ordinance of 1651 and the church order
of 1657. He wrote a number of philosophical works
and one of the most popular books among the disci
ples of Arndt was his Vorschmack der gottlichen Gate
(Wolfenbiittel, 1643). 	(W. DILTHEY.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A Life by Philipp Rethmeyer is prefixed to
his Vorachnsack in the later editions, e.g., Brunswick, 1740. Consult also: F. A. Tholuck, Akademische Leben, ii,
109, Hamburg, 1854.

81	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lie
I. The Man. Early References to Him (¢ 1). Traditions of His Authorship (; 2). Characteristics se a Historian (§ 3).
LUKE.
II. His Writings. Types of Modern Criticism G 1). The Preface to the Gospel (§ 2). The Character of the Gospel (¢ 3). Bearing upon Authorship (¢ 4).
I. The Mao: The name appears three times in the New Testament as that of a man who belongs to the Pauline circle (Col. iv. 14; II Tim. iv. 11; Philemon 24), in the first case as that of " the beloved physician," in the last as a " fellow worker." Col. iv. 11 characterizes certain fellow
:. Early workers as " of the circumcision " but
References does not include Luke among them, to Him. hence it may be concluded that Luke was not of Jewish blood and also not a Jewish proselyte. But it dote not follow that he was personally known in Colosse, although known by reputation. It appears also that he was with Paul during the first imprisonment, helped him in his labors and perhaps as a physician was especially valuable in Paul's activity. So it appears from II Tim. that Luke was with the apostle in his eeoand imprisonment as his only companion, and conjecture sees in this a reference to Luke's medical services, especially in view of the absence of Crescens, Tychicus, and Titus (II Tim. iv. 10). This exhausts all that the New Testament expressly says of Luke. The Lucius of Rom. xvi. 21 (a Jew) and of Acts xiii. 1 have nothing to do with the subject of this article. Formerly the " brother " of II Cor. viii. 18, or of 22, was identified with Luke, but this has not the foundation of tradition in its favor, only of traditional exegesis from before the time of Origen, sad the identification is insecure. Testimony external to the New Testament derives Luke from Antioch (Euaebius, Hist. eccl., III., iv. 7; A. Mai, Patrum nova bt'bliotheca, Rome, 1844‑71, iv. 270; F. A. W. Sputa, Brief den Julius Africanus, Halls, 1877, pp. 69, 111). For this the singular reading of codex D in Acts xi. 28 (which describes the prophecy of Agabua as being delivered "while we were gathered together ") can not be the basis, though the tradition may embody the facts. But many other traditions regarding the region of Luke's labors and the place of his literary activity have not in their favor the same degree of probability as inheres in that relating to the place of his nativity. Indeed, some of them palpably sties from misunderstanding of the New Testament, and others are purely conjectural and without solid foundation ‑‑‑e.g., that which connects Luke with the disciples at Emmaus, and that which makes of him an artist with the pencil as well as with the pen.
	With the	name of Luke three writings of the
New Testament have been connected, the third
Gospel, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Epistle to
		the Hebrews, though Luke's connection
_. Tradi‑ with the last is put forth as a mere dons of His hypothesis and requires no considers, Authorship. tion. The tradition of his relation to the third Gospel goes back to a time earlier than Origen, and Paul's expression " my gospel" has been construed as a reference to that book. Ireneeua, the Muratorian Canon, Clement of
Character of the Ante of the Apostles (¢ b). Historical Difficulties of Acts :o (; 8). The Author's Methods (§ 7). Remaining Problems (¢ 8).
Alexandria, and Tertullian express what was evidently the opinion of their day, that Luke was the author of the third Gospel. And practically the same testimony assigns a Lucan origin to the Acts of the Apostles, while earlier hints to the same purport are discovered in the works of Marcion and Justin Martyr. It is now generally held that soeentially the present Gospel of Luke lay before Marcion when the latter compiled his Gospel, while the reverse proposition, that Marcion's composition underlay Luke's, is universally given up. Until recent times there was no trace of a tradition adverse to Lucan authorship, while the title to the Gospel as given in the manuscripts testifies to the antiquity of the belief that Luke wrote this Gospel. Of course, modern criticism as well as Marraonitic rejected Lucsn authorship, as did the encratitic Severians, the Ebionites, and the Manicheane, not on literary but on doctrinal grounds.
Acceptance of this tradition immediately results in a large increase of knowledge concerning the person and the fortunes of Luke. It must be recognized that he had more to do with the work of
Paul than appears from the latter's
3. Charac‑ epistles. Part of the narrative of the teristics Acts of the Apostles is in the first pnr‑
as a son. If Luke is the author of the narHistorian. rative of Paul's journeys in that book,
the "we" passages testify that he was an eye‑witness of the events, and this fits in well with the references in the epistles. And the oceurrence of " we " in codes D of the clause noted above (§ 1) in a passage earlier than is found in the common text (Acts xi. 28) has caused Blare to suspect a double recension of the Acts by Luke's own hand. Neither Weirs' explanation (T U, avii. 111, 1899) nor that of Ramsay (St. Paul the Tmveller, New York, 1896, pp. 27, 210), which assume a correction of the original text arising in different ways, seems to have much probability in its favor. If Blass' supposition of a double text, both from the hand of Luke, be not accepted, the "we" must be original to the text. In that case the tradition of the Antiochian origin of Luke receives confirmation, and Luke must have been an associate of Paul in his early activities before either Timothy or Titus were connected with him. Moreover, Luke appears not only as a friend and close companion of Paul, as his personal medical attendant, but as a man well and broadly educated and with wide interests, possessing powers of keen observation and the ability to describe simply but vividly what he saw. If in spite of the modern adverse criticism tradition be accepted, Luke becomes a source of the first importance for the origins of Christianity and of the Christian Church.
II. His Writings: Doubts of Lucan authorship have been raised rather with regard to the Acts than the Gospel. In any case, the facts reported

Luke
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
in the Gospel go farther back‑the author does not claim to be an eye‑witness or a sharer in the events.
Still, suspicion regarding the Gospel :. Types of inevitably followed that regarding the
Modern Acts. The hypothesis that the two
Criticism. books are from different authors is
very seldom put forth and even then in a very guarded manner, while it is easily refuted by the many‑sided similarities which are found in the books. Modern New‑Testament criticism takes two principal directions in its discussion of the Lucan writings. In one case it asserts that they are " tendency writings," taking a part in the assumed burning contest between Pauliniam and Judaism and endeavoring to furnish a middle ground upon which both could unite, blending the dogmstica, ethics, and practicality of Judaism with Pauline universalism. Thin makes the writings a peace proposal from a Pauline Christian. Of course, various forms of this hypothesis have been put forth. The other direction of modern criticism proceeds from a literary basis, and supposes that the books embody the editing of earlier sources, which expressed various tendencies and were of different origin and value, by a man who was not near enough to the facts to have complete mastery of them. Indeed, it is asserted that the interests of a later time than the authorship of Luke would admit appear in incidental details, that the report often shows that the time of Jesus and his apostles was already long past, while there is silence as to matters of importance which would not be expected from a man in the position of Luke. The question is, whether the objections are so grounded as to demand the rejection of a strong and conaentient tradition, or whether, either by means of a more correct exposition or by a more exact appreciation of the intentions and situation of the traditional author, the possibility of the Lucan authorship may be more conclusively established. In order to gain securer results, an attempt must be made to delineate as a whole the historical and literary processes of apostolic times in order satisfactorily to examine the critical hypotheses with reference to their probability or possibility‑an attempt which is excluded by the purposes of this article, which can give merely the indications.
The starting‑point of any discussion is, of course, the Gospel, to which there is a preface. A prior question is whether this preface belongs only to the Gospel or also to the Acts. Although the question has been answered both ways, prima facie the preface belongs to the Gospel only.
a. The It indicates that the Gospel is written Preface to for a man of high position who has
the Gospel some certain knowledge of Christian_
ity without necessarily being more than a catechumen, if even that. The Evangelist implies that Theophilus was not averse to such knowledge but was ready to receive further information. This knowledge was not to be of the dogmatic order, but rather historical and " accurate " (Luke i. 3), and by " accurate " was meant not simply " in chronological order " but rather the narration of events in their many‑sided relationships. So far, there is nothing antagonistic to Luc,, authorship.
And no objection to such authorship is to be seen in the reference to previous writers of Gospel history in Luke i. 1, since enough material is known to justify the expression " many." The very growth of such a literature would emphasise for Luke its necessity not only for believing Christians to whom the oral importation of the news was becoming increasingly rare, nor only for Jews and Jewish Christians to whom the Messianic consciousness of Jesus was of importance, but also for the heathen to whom Theophilus had belonged. It is continually becoming more completely established that the second Gospel, essentially in its present form, lay before the author of the third and was used by him. But comparison of the two Gospels shows marked differences in plan and conception. Thus Mark sets the story of Jesus in two great groups of events‑Jesus' work in Galilee and the events between his departure from Galilee and Easter morning; Luke uses the same two groups but prefixes to the first the Gospel of the Infancy, inserts between them the account of the journey given in Luke ix. 51‑xviu. 14, and adds to the second his account of the resurrection. Moreover, while Luke follows Mark in the main in the order of the events in the two groups, he effects transpositions and makes noteworthy omissions. Further, outside of the three great additions already indicated, the third Gospel makes single additions, such as the sermon on the mount, the story of Zaccheus, and very many others. All this indicates a special plan subordinated to a purpose different from that which the author of the second Gospel had before him and suited to a man whose antecedents were heathen, as were those of Theophilus.
But does this purpose, expressed in the preface, and its execution in the Gospel, agree with what is known of Luke? A difficulty raised here is that a man who stood as near to the events as did Luke, and had such opportunities to meet 3. The eye‑witnesses, in his departures from
Character the narrative of Mark took so little the of the direction of the Fourth Gospel. This Gospel troubles little one who deals with the historicity of the Fourth Gospel, but the difficulty increases the more one deals with that historicity, and threatens to become fatal to the claim of Lucsn authorship if, as many suppose, a long period of historical study (Luke i. 3) is involved. It may be conceded that the Lucan narrative contains parts tinged with Johannine coloring. But when the omission is noted of events given in the Fourth Gospel which are essential to the narrative of one who proposes to " trace the course of all things accurately from the first" (Luke i. 3), when it is remembered that the occurrences of John i.iv., the visits to the feasts in Jerusalem of John v., vii., and x., and the Lazarus episode do not ‑appear in the Lucan narrative, the authorship by the apostolic companion Luke seems impossible. For many of those events are not of a nature that permits their omission by one who proposes to give a rdsum6 of the life of Jesus. Upon close observation the case seems otherwise. Luke did not know the Johannine material, but he considered that Mark really preserved the historical scheme in its priaci‑

63	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Luke
pal outlines. His historical investigations therefore were limited in extent and need have lasted scarcely a, year. Indeed, the enaerroble of the Lucas Gospel is rather that of a narrative produced under the influence of the Marten Gospel with the many additions, already noted, of events which seemed fully guaranteed, and which appeared, in accordance with the writer's scheme, to demand a place in the story. It presents also such omissions and transpositions as were necessary, in the plan conceived, to produce in new form a well‑ordered history of the life of Jesus, such as would be adapted to the situation of the reader for whom it was ostensibly designed. So far as the preface is concerned, therefore, the Gospel might have proceeded from the pen of the historic Luke.
Or does the pretended circumstance that the Gospel contains vague recollections or statements in conflict with certified fact compel one to suppose that the author or editor of sources lived at a later period? It may be admitted that in this or that one may think of legendary recasting ;. Bearing or adornment. Such material many Upon find in the Gospel of the Infancy and
Author‑ in other details. But these are practiship. tally paralleled in the Gospels of Mark and Matthew, which are rightly regarded as belonging to apostolic times, and failure has met the attempts to set the point at which these elements enter. So far as disagreement with other reports is concerned, it has first to be discovered which reports are correct, whether indeed reconciliation is not possible. Here is to be noted the relationship of Luke's history of the glorification of Jesus to I Cor. xv. b eqq., since the narrative of Luke has so little in common with the enumeration of Paul, though even here there are points which agree, and explanation of Lucas omissions is easy. On the whole, the Gospel would thus occupy an excellent position were it not that the Acts of the Apostles seems, under the methods of criticism, to draw it into the vortex of unreliability.
The Acts of the Apostles appears as a continuation of the Gospel. The occasion calling it forth moat have been something different from that which educed the Gospel, whether Theophiius had become a Christian or not. Christian‑
g. Charac‑ ity might have seemed to some an un‑
ter of the justified break with the past, an filly
Acts of the ordered revolutionary movement des‑
	Apostlea.	tined to fail. The Acts sets forth the
		development of the later from the
primitive apostolic Christianity, its extension into
the world of the heathen, especially by the instru
mentality of Paul, whose figure in noon introduced
into the picture. The purpose of the book seems
to agree with that expressed in the preface to the
Gospel. The old view that there is a paralleling
of the fortunes of Peter and Paul, and the other ex
position that the purposes of these two are harmo
nized, are no longer maintained. That Paul could
in his epistles speak otherwise than he does in the
speeches of the Acts goes without saying, whether
the speeches reported in the Acts be actual reports
or assumed addresses made up after the pattern
of Greek historiography. There is no a priori. rea‑
son why Peter should not early have found the way toward universalism, and it would be difficult to show that Paul could not have made use is the synagogues of the privileges of a born Jew (I Cor. ix. 19 aqq.).
The difficulty really lies where Luke has to do with Pauline accounts. The locus clasaicus is Acts xv. 1 eqq., compared with Gal. ii. 1 eqq. Earlier and later attempts .to harmonize these passages upon the basis of another journey to Jerusalem moat be rejected. The most frequent
6. Histori‑ method of lightening the difficulty is cal Diffi‑ to show that according to Luke's ieculties of port the decree was applicable to the Acts xv. original community, that it was not an ordinance for converts from heathenism to which they were bound for the sake of salvation, that in general it involved nothing new so far as the general duty of Christians was concerned, and that therefore it was not necessary for Paul to mention it either to the Galatians or, indeed, later to make it a matter of injunction. Thin does not do away with the necessity for further attempts at enlightenment, and in view of the feat that the issuance of the decree can not be doubted while only the question of the occasion is in dispute, and further, since it is given by an author whose intention to be trustworthy appears from Luke i. 3, it is a duty not only of barmonistie interest but of historical exposition to attempt the solution of the problem. A beginning is to be made with a question of textual criticism. The olt oi* of Gal. ii. b has usually been regarded as relating the sentence to the circumcision of Titus. But in fact it may have been that this construction of the sentence influenced the introduction of those two words and that they are to be stricken out (so Ambroeiaster, Tertullian, Viotorinus, Ireaseus, Pelagius, and the codices D, d, and e). Verse 5 then may refer to the recognition on the part of Paul and Barnabas of the decree known to the Galatians. Paul is dealing with the calumnies uttered against him to the effect that he was a time.eerver (Gal. i. 10). He relates, therefore, the history of the events in his life which led up to the decree, states his independence as an apostle, tells of his exposition of his teaching before the authorities in Jerusalem, arms that he had sot yielded to the subjection of the "false brethren" (Gal. ii. 4) so far as Titus was concerned though he had yielded a point elsewhere; while so far as the meeting with Peter in Antioch was concerned, Peter had received the blame. When compared with Acts xv. this narrative seemed to be obscure, sad relief was sought by the addition of the ols o'vaii in question in order to reconcile Paul and Luke. Paul was able to give adhesion to the decree so far as he did in permitting it to be sent to his congregations, indeed in personally imparting it to them (Acts avi. 4), but he did not obligate himself to apply it to his mission field, though he was not personally opposed to it. While James could not disavow his own proposal (Acts axi. 2b), he could recognize that Paul was not bound to advance the matter and might have been ready to protect Paul in the tatter's position. Finally Luke may have had an interest in informing Theophilus,

Lake
Lolly
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
who had perhaps already learned something of the affair, of the entire development.
If the course of this explanation should prove correct, it may be supposed that in other matters the author was well oriented, that in more or less weighty affairs his observation had been true and
that his version is correct. He handles y. The the history rather in the way of adAuthor's doting significant events than of a
Methods. complete narration. With regard to
the sections in which the first person is used, it is now seldom affirmed that they proceed from a man who falsely claims to have been present, and it is generally assumed that an eye‑witness stands behind those sections. But it is sometimes held that the eye‑witness is a different person from the author of the book, though against this is the lack of linguistic differences in the two portions of the text. Moreover, the time indications of the " we " sections agree well with those of the Pauline epistles concerning the .companionship of Luke and Paul. If all the indications be taken together, the pronouncement of historians like Curtius and Ranks, of philologists like Bless and Vogel, and archeologists like Ramsay, as well as of a host of theologians, to the effect that the authorship by Luke of the Acts of the Apostles is best supported is not easily to be combated.
Some other questions remain for consideration. One is that of sources. A starting‑point like that given for the Gospel in the parallel accounts is not furnished for Acts, and consequently no sure results are attained. The relation of Acts to the
Pauline epistles is also debated, one 8. Remain‑ affirming the frequent use of them, ing another asserting that they were inPtoblems. accessible to the author. It can not
be definitely proved that literary dependence existed between the two sets of writings. A difficult question is that of the date, which can not be fixed at the conclusion of Paul's two years at Rome (Bless). The dependence of the Gospel upon Mark, which was not written before the death of Peter, gives the superior date. Krenkel in 1894 attempted to show literary dependence upon Josephus; in that case the earlier date would be 7580 A.D. Tradition is silent as to the place of writing, though in Rome both writings were known at an early date. In the matter of the diffusion of these writings before the name of Luke was attached to them, the testimony of Clement of Rome (as implied by his citation of passages) is not easy to contest, and the same may be said of citations in Hernias, Barnabas Ignatius, the Didache, Polycarp, and Papias. With respect to the text it may be said that in no other book of the New Testament is the text in so bad a condition as in Acts. It is due to Bless that a new stadium has been reached in its treatment. This scholar observes that in a number of manuscripts circulated in the East of which D is the example among the uncials, one form of text is current which is no less original than that of the received text, and that of the two forma of text thus existent one is that of the original first draft while the other is the result of a revision by Luke's own hand. Bless in 1900
maintained that neither of these forms of the text is the original, but that both are the editions of a prior form (TSK, 1900, pp. 11, 19). That the hypothesis of the use of sources will be fully disproved in case of the establishment of this view is to be regarded as doubtful. (PAUL EWALD.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the personality of Luke, consult the introductions prefixed to the commentaries and the pertinent sections in the works on Biblical introduction; also A. Harnack, Lukas der Arzt, Leipaic, 1908, Eng, tranal.. Edinburgh, 1907; W. M. Ramsay, Luke the Physician and Other Studies, New York, 1907; DB, iii. I61‑182; EB, iii. 2830‑33.
On matters of criticism consult the works cited under BIBLICAL INTRODBCrION IL, particularly Zahn, and under PAUL. Special treatises on authorship, credibility, and the like are: H. H. Evans, St. Paul the Author of the Third Gospel, London, 1884‑86; J. Friedrich, Daa Lukaeevanpelium and die Apostelgeschichte 1Verke deaaelben Verjaaaera, Halls 1890; A. C. Hervey, Authenticity of Luke, London, 1892; F. H. Chase, Credibility of the Acts, iii. 1901. On origins and sources consult: E. Zeller, Die Apostelgeschichte each ihrem Inhalt and . ... Uraprunp, Stuttgart, 1854, Eng. travel., with Overbeck's Introduction to Acts, 2 vols., London, 1875; H. J. Litzinger, Die Entatehunp den Lukaaeuanpeliuma and der Apoatelpeachichte, Essen, 1883; F. Spitta, Die Apoatelpeachichte, Are Quellen and deren peschichtlichen alert, Halls, 1891; J. Jiingat, Die Quellen der Apoatelpeachichte, Goths, 1895; B. Weiss, Die Quellen den Lukaeeaangeliuma, Stuttgart, 1907; J. Horner, Gospels of Matthew and Luke: a Vindication of their Agreement and Accuracy, Pittsburg, 1908; A. Harnaek, Beitrtipe zur Einleitung in daa N. T., III., Die Apoetelgoschichk, Leipaic, 1908, Eng. travel., New Testament Studies. III., The Acts, London, 1908. Other problems are discussed in: F. Schleiermacher, Ueber die Schriften den Lukas, Berlin, 1817, Eng. traasl., London, 1825; M. Schneckenburger, Ueber den Zweck der Apoatelpeschichte, Bern, 1841; J. R. Oertel, Paulus in der Apoatelpeachichte, Halls, 1868 (on the historicity); W. Stewart, The Plan of Luke's Gospel, Glasgow, 1873; W. M. Sanday, The Gospels in the Second Century, chap. viii., London, 1876; W. K. Hobart, The Medical Language of Luke, ib. 1882; A. Kloatermann, Problems in Apoateltexte, Goths, 1883; P. Ewald, Daa Hauptproblem der Evanpelienfrape, Leipaie, 1890; J. M. Stiffer, Introduction.to the Study of Acts, New York, 1892; W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire New York, 1893; idem, St. Paul the Traveller, ib. 1896; M. Krenkel, Jcaephua and Lukas Leipeio 1894; J. Weiss, Ueber die Abeicht and den literdtriaehen Charakter der Apostelpeachichte, Marburg, 1897 (makes Acts an apologetic work addressed to the heathen world); DB, i. 25‑35, iii. 162173; EB, i. 37‑57, ii. 1761‑1898.
For the Gospel the beat commentary in English is A Plummer, Edinburgh, 1897, which eentswne a goed list of the earlier literature. Other commentaries are: C. W. Stein, Halls, 1830; J. Ford, London, 1851; J. H. Schol‑
ten, Het pauliniach evanpel%e Leyden, 1870; M. Vernet, Paris, 1870; H. Cowie% New York, 1881; W. H. Van Doren, 2vols., ib.1881; P.Schanz, Tiibingen, 1883; T. Lindsay, 2 vole., Edinburgh, 1887; F. Godet, 3 vole., Neuchhtel, 1875, Eag, tranal, of earlier edition, Edinburgh, 1875; C. Robinson, New York 1889; H. D. M. Spence, in Pulpit Commentary. London, 1889; H. Burton, ib. 1890; F. W. Farrar, in Cambridge Bible, Cambridge, 1890; A. MaoIaren, New York, 1894 J. C. Ryle, 2vols., London, 1896; P. Girodon Penis, 1903; J. M. S. Baljoa,Uttecht 1908.
Commentaries on the Acts are: F. Blass, GtSttingen, 1895, and an edition of the text, Leipsic, 1897; F. Rendall, London, 1897 (the two works just mentioned are the beat); P. J. Gloag, 2 vole., Edinburgh, 1870 (ultraconservative); J. S. Howson, Companions of St. Paul, London, 1871; J. R. Lumby, in Cambridge Bible, Cam‑
bridge, 1879 H. B. Hackett, Philadelphia, 1882 (long regarded as the beat); C. F. NSegea, Leipaic, 1882; A. C. Hervey, in Pulpit Commentary, 2 vole., London, 1884; T. M. Lindsay, Edinburgh, 1885 (very helpful); D. Thomas, London, 1889; W. Arnot, The Church in the House, New Yok 1891 G. T. Stokes, in Expositor's
Bible, 2 vole., London, 1891; J. M. Stiffer, ib. 1894; B. B. Loomis, Studio in the Acts, New York, 1896; J. Beleer,

RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Luke
Lolly
Beilrttpe aw Erkl.Srurp der APoateIpeachichte, Freiburg, 1897 (takes especial note of codes D); J. ICnabenbauer, Paris, 1899 (in Latin); R. B. Rackham, London, 1901; W. Robertson, Studies it the Acts, Edinburgh, 1901; A. Schlatter, Stuttgart, 1902.

LUKE OF PRAGUE: Bohemian bishop; b. probably at Prague about 1460; d. at Jungbunzlau (30 m. n.e. of Prague) Dec. 11, 1528. He studied at the University of Prague (B.A. about 1480). In 1480 he joined the Moravian Brethren (see BOHEMIAN BRETHREN, IL) and soon became one of their leaders. In 1491 the Brethren sent him to the East to discover if there were not some body of Christians there with whom the Brethren might make an alliance. In 1497 he was sent on a similar errand to the Waldensians and he also had dealings with Luther (q.v.), which, however, came to naught. In 1500 he was elected bishop of the Brethren. He was a voluminous writer in the departments of apologetics, hymnology, exegesis, and catechetics, more than eighty different works being ascribed to him.
BIBLIOGRAPHY'. Consult the literature under BOHEMIAN
BRETHREN.

LULLUS OF MAINZ: German ecclesiastic; b. in England about 705; d. at the monastery of Hersfeld (32 m. s.e. of Cassel) Oct. 16, 786. The son of well‑to‑do people in England, he was educated at the monastery of Malmesbury and subsequently at Nhutscelle [a monastery in Southamptonshire] while Boniface was teaching there. After a pilgrimage to Rome he followed Boniface to Germany, where he was consecrated deacon about 745. His relations with Boniface were very intimate, and the latter employed him repeatedly on important missions. In his old age Boniface made Lullus his associate and consecrated him bishop (752), to become at his death his successor at Mainz, although the dignity of archbishop was not conferred till later. Lullus was a stanch defender of the rights of the episcopate and endeavored to maintain episcopal supervision over monasteries and convents. In this way he became implicated in a controversy with Sturm, also a disciple of Boniface, abbot of Fulda, who maintained the independence of the monasteries. Thus the two great tendencies, the episcopal and the monastic, which were united in Boniface, were segregated in his disciples. Lullus assumed the control of the monastery of Fulda, and it was probably owing to his influence that Sturm was banished in 763 by King Pippin. Two years later Sturm was pardoned and in 767 assumed again the direction of the monastery. Thereupon Lullus founded in 768 or 769 his own monastery of Hersfeld which developed into a rival to Fulda. Sturm died in 779. Probably in the same year Lullus was made archbishop in connection with the renewal of the metropolitan constitution by Charlemagne. His influence as archbishop can not be compared with that of Boniface, and his relations with Charlemagne were not always peaceful. Under Lullus Cologne severed its relations with Mainz and developed its own archbishopric. He always maintained his connection with his native country, maintained strict canonical discipline and had the confidence of the higher clergy. It is VIL‑5
not improbable that Lullus founded also the mon
astery of Bleidenatadt. 	(A. HAUCg.)
BrHr.roaSI,pHy: The Epiatot<a of Lullue, ed. E. Diimmler, are in MGH, Epdat., iii (1891), 207 eqq., and also in P. Jaff6, BRG, vol. iii. The Vita by Lambert of Hersfeld, ed. Holder‑Egger with preface, is in MGH, Script., xv. 1 (1887), 132‑148 (contains only chaps. i.‑axii., the other five chapters are in the Opera of Lambert issued by the same editor, pp. 30740, Hanover, 1894). Consult: ASM, iii. 2, pp. 392‑401; C. Will, Repeater zurGeachichte der Mairzer ErzbiachGfe, i., pp. xiv., xv., 34‑45, Innsbruck, 1877; F. Falk, in Der Kathdik, ii (1879), 882‑887; A. G$pfert, Lullua der Nachfoiger des Borafacius im Mainzer Erziristhum, Leipeic, 1881; H. Hahn, Borijaa and Lul, ib. 1883; Holder‑Egger, in NA, ix. 285‑320, aia. 509; Hauck, KD, vole. i.‑ii.; Rettberg, KD, i. 573 eqq.
LULLY, RAYMOND.

I. Life.	Scientific (§ 3).
II. Works.	Polemic (§ 4).
	Poetical (§ 1).	Dogmatic (§ 5).
	Methodical (§ 2).	Ascetic ($ 8).
		III. Posthumous Fortunes.
Raymond Lully (Ram6n Lull, Ruymundua LttZlus) was born on Majorca (Balearic Islands) c.1232; d. at sea near Cabrera, another of the Balearic Islands, June 30, 1316. As poet, philosopher, theologian, missionary, and martyr, he was one of the most remarkable personages of the Middle Ages for a combination of the mgt varied mental qualities, for adventurous and many‑sided activity, and for the influence which he exercised not only on his own countrymen and contemporaries but on distant generations. His importance in the history of theology is due to the fact that, like his contemporary and fellow Franciscan Roger Bacon, he followed the path pointed out by St. Francis, that leading to the knowledge of God by study of the life of his creatures, in the direction of a scientifically organized natural theology; and also to the manner in which his fiery propagandist zeal anticipated the work done by his countryman Ignatius of Loyola 250 years later.
I. Life: Singularly little, however, is known with certainty about his life. Outside of the scanty biographical indications found in his works, the best source is the life by an anonymous disciple written in 1312. He came of a rich and noble family, and lived until he was thirty at the court of King James of Aragon, where he was grand seneschal. This period of his life was careless and worldly; he spent his time in the pursuit of pleasure and knightly exercises, including the practise of poetry in the manner of the courtly troubadours of the time. Suddenly convinced of the vanity of earthly pleasures, he turned to heavenly things and resolved to devote his life to the cause of Christ. He distributed most of his property among the poor, made pilgrimages to Compostela and other shrines, and returned to his native island with the intention of missionary labors among the mainly Mohammedan population of that and the neighboring lands. He learned Arabic from a Moorish slave, who made an attempt on his life. About the same time, certainly before 1275, he met the aged Dominican scholar Raymond of Pennaforte (q.v.), to whom he unfolded his plan of seeking knowledge at the University of Paris, but was dissuaded. He then withdrew to a hermitage he made for him‑

Lully	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	88
self on his property in Majorca, broke off intercourse with his family, and gave himself up to meditation and study. He seems to have entered the third order of St. Francis; at least he brought thirteen young Franciscans as the first students to the college opened at Miramar in Majorca (Nov., 1276) for the study of the Arabic and Chaldean tongues, the direction of which he undertook with the sanction of Pope John XXI. He was also occupied at this time with the composition of his ambitious Ars magna. About 1285 he thought the time had come to carry out his extensive missionary plans, and went to Rome to obtain the sanction of Honorius IV. for his project of erecting missionary institutes in all countries of Christendom. But Honorius was dead when he reached Rome, and Nicholas IV. seemed little inclined to favor his views. He went to Paris, where he is said to have lectured on his philosophic method (1287‑89), then to Montpellier, where he continued his lectures and studies. After about two years there and one at Genoa, he set sail from the latter port in the autumn of 1291 to attempt a missionary campaign in Africa, landed at Bugia in Tunis, preached against Islam, and challenged the fanatical Mohammedan scholars to a public disputation. His words made some impression, and the king, feeling that the Mohammedan supremacy was threatened, condemned him to death, which was commuted to banishment by the intercession of a learned man. He remained in concealment on a ship in the harbor for some time, seeking an opportunity to penetrate once more into the country, but finally lost hope and returned to Italy. He spent about a year (1292‑93) in Naples, completing his Tabula generalis and writing his DisPutatio quinque sapientum. His hopes revived with the election of Pope Celestine V., whose pontificate, however, was too short to accomplish anything, while his successor Boniface VIII. had other things to think about. After a sojourn of two years in Rome, during which he composed his poem DesconorE and his treatise Arbor acienti.ce, he went back to Genoa (1296), and then, after a short visit in Majorca, to Paris (1298‑99). About 1300‑01 is the most probable date for his visit to the Levant in pursuance of his plans for the conversion of the Mohammedans. The years 1302‑05, full of literary activity, were spent between Genoa, Majorca, Montpellier, and Paris. In 1305 or 1306 he made a second attempt on North Africa, this time with the special design of opposing the Averroists. He ventured to appear once more in Bugia, passing through many perils and spending 81X m011t116 1T1 rigorous captivity, only to be banished once more. On the return journey he was shipwrecked near Pisa and lost all his possessions, including his books. He now went to Avignon to see the new pope, Clement V., but again met with discouragement, and lectured once more in Paris (1309‑11). In the latter year he appeared at the Synod of Vienne and addressed the assembled bishops several times, urging the condemnation of Averroism, the union of the spiritual orders of knighthood into one, the conquest of the Holy Land, and especially the erection of missionary colleges and chairs for instruc‑
tion in the oriental languages. The last proposal was the only one adopted; professorships of oriental languages were created at Avignon, Paris, Bologna, Oxford, and Salamanca. From Vienne he seems to have gone first to Majorca, then to have been in Paris and Montpellier again, and to have sailed in the winter of 1314 from Messina for his last African missionary journey. After a short stay in Tunis, he returned to Bugia, where he lay concealed for a time with Christian merchants. Presently, however, he emerged into public notice with fresh fiery attacks on Islam. The Mohammedan population rose against him, drove him out of the city with sticks and atones, and left him half dead on the shore, where he was picked up by two Christian ship captains, but died the next day on the way to Majorca.
The dominant thought of all his later life and literary remains is the idea of Christian missionary enterprise, of which, in the modern sense, he may almost be called the pioneer. To proclaim in the very home of Islam, in the speech of the oriental peoples, the Gospel of Christ; to provide a new and simple scientific method, adapted to all subjects and capacities, for meeting both non‑Christian and heretical opponents of the truth; to set before Christian people in the vernacular and in popular form the ideal of the Christian life, the fervor of mystical love of God, and finally to seal this testimony by the sacrifice of his life‑such was the purpose and the achievement of nearly fifty years of his life.
B. Works: Of several hundred works left by him only a comparatively small part is printed; many manuscripts are extant in Spanish, French, and German libraries. It may be sufficient here, without going into the minute classification sometimes attempted, to give some account of the more important divisions of his work.
Among his fellow countrymen he is still considdered primarily as a poet. His Obras ranadas (ed. Rosello, Palms, 1859) count among the most valuable products of the medieval na‑
r. Poetical. tional literature of Spain, belonging to the Catalan‑Proveneal branch. The beat known is El Desconort, composed of sixty‑nine twelve‑line stanzas in the form of a dialogue between the author and a pious hermit who tries to console him for the discouragement described above.
Outside of Spain, he owes his fame principally to his scientific method (Ars magna or generalia or univeraalia), which has been as much overesti‑
mated by a distinct Lullist gehool as
s. Meth‑ underestimated by others. Its esodical. sense consists in the arrangement of a
number of partly formal, partly material concepts, which are designated by letters, in various circles or other mathematical figures, in such a way that by turning the circles or drawing connecting lines all possible combinations may readily be perceived. The concepts are not explained or made the basis of deductions, but are merely schematized. Mechanical as the whole process seems, it met a want of the age; and there were not only a number of enthusiastic Lullists in

87	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lnliy
the thirteenth century who lauded him under the title of Doctor illuminatus, but later philosophers and theologians such as Agrippa of Nettesheim, Giordano Bruno, and Kircher were much interested in his system, which seemed to offer an easy road to the coordination of all sciences in one master science. However external and arbitrary the method may appear, it must not be forgotten that the whole scholastic method, built up on the traditional logic and metaphysic of Aristotle, was open to the same objection. Ritter points to the technical logical symbols attributed to Raymond's countryman Petrus Hispanus (d. 1297) as a possible model for the system; but it is more probable that he followed Jewish or Arabic predecessors; he himself uses Kabbala as an alternative title for his art, explaining it as " the reception of truth divinely revealed."
He attempted to employ this method for the solution of various problems in the individual sciences‑not merely logic and meta‑
3. Scien‑ physic, grammar and rhetoric, but also
	tific.	geometry and arithmetic, physics and
		chemistry, anthropology, medicine and
surgery, law, politics, and even military tactics.
As with Roger Bacon, a remarkable tendency is
apparent to the use of observation of nature and
the attainment of real encyclopedic knowledge, in
contrast with scholastic formalism.
His apologetic and polemical works are directed against two classes of adversaries, the " ignorant " who reject learning as dangerous to
4. Polem‑ faith, and the " unbelieving " who re‑
	icai.	ject the Christian doctrine as opposed
		to reason. He attacks specially the
Averroistic view; then rather widely prevalent even
in Christian circles, of the " double truth," accord
ing to which a man might believe as a catholic
Christian what according to the laws of reason was
impossible. A whole series of treatises is directed
against Averroes. He considers faith and knowl
edge as inseparably connected, and the attempt to
separate them as the greatest hindrance to the
spread of Christianity, so dangerous to souls that
he invokes the aid of the secular power against it.
Some of the treatises against Mohammedanism are
written in Arabic, such as the Alchindi and Teliph
written at Miramar between 1275 and 1285. Lully
is particularly fond of the dialogue form, which he
uses with some skill. Noteworthy among the dia
logues intended to serve his missionary aims is the
Liber de quinqux sapientibus, in which a Roman, a
Greek, a Nestorian, and a Jacobite Christian dis
pute among themselves and with a Saracen, and
a special attempt is made by the first‑named (Ld
tinus, i.e., Raymond himself) to instruct the Sara
cen in the errors of Islam. Another of somewhat
similar form is the Liber de gentili et tribes sapien
tibus, in which the interlocutors are a pagan philos
opher, a Jew, a Christian, and a Saracen. The Dis
putatio Raymundi Christians et Hamar Sarraceni
(1307) is an extended defense of the doctrines of
the Trinity and the incarnation against the Mo
hammedan philosopher Hamar.
Under the head of specifically dogmatic writings the first place is taken by expositions of the exist‑
ence and nature of God, especially of the Trinity. Others deal with the creation and fall of man
and the doctrine of the atonement, g. Dog‑ which Raymond conceives, in a way matic. reminding the reader of Anselm, as an infinite satisfaction offered by the God‑Man for an infinite debt. In matters of ecclesiastical discipline he had a keen insight into the conditions of his time, and hit some of their most salient defects, as in his expressions on the value of pilgrimages and the excessive veneration of crosses and pictures, or in his portraiture of the various classes and orders in Christendom, their duties, virtues, and vices.
Of special interest are the works written for practical edification, such as the Liber mills proverbiorum ad communem, vitam, the Liber de orationi‑
bus, and the Liber de contemplationibus 6. Ascetic. in Deum; several treatises on devotion to the Virgin; and a number still unprinted, such as De centum aignis Dei, De septem sacramentis, and De septem donis Spiritus Sancti. A remarkable work is the religious romance Blanr querns (or Bracherna), written in glorification of Christianity and especially of monasticism; the hero is conducted through a great variety of situations, being successively a married man; a hermit, a monk, an abbot, a bishop, archbishop, cardinal, and pope, finally laying aside the tiara to end his days according to the ideal of Franciscan sanctity in mystical union with God and seraphic love.
III. Posthumous Fortunes: The Roman Catholic Church long wavered between honoring Raymond as a saint or condemning him as a heretic. The Dominican Nicolaus Eymericus, inquisitor of Aragon in the fourteenth century, brought charges against his works before Gregory XI., who forbade the reading of some of them, and subsequently (1376) condemned a hundred propositions extracted from them, apparently as leading to a rationalistic rebellion against church authority. The authenticity of this bull was early contested by the adherents of Raymond, while the Dominicans supported the attack on him. Paul IV. placed the writings condemned by Gregory XI. on the Index (1559), but they were removed in 1563 at the Council of Trent on petition of the Spanish bishops. The controversy still went on; some works by Raymond's disciples, especially pertaining to alchemy, were prohibited, and Benedict XIV. expressly affirmed the authenticity of the bull of Gregory XI. though without renewing the condemnation‑and Salzinger's edition of the works of the " Doctor illuminates et martyr Raymundus Lullus " appeared without objection in his pontificate. Pies IX. authorized in 1847 an office of " the blessed Raymundus Lullus " for Majorca and conceded to the Franciscan order in 1857 the annual celebration of his feast‑day on Nov. 27; but under the same pope in 1857 the officially authorized AnaLecta juris pontificii (IL, 2480) upheld the authenticity of the bull of Gregory XI. (O. ZtScxLEat.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The only edition of the works of Lully ap
	proaching completeness is that by I. Salzinger, 10 vols.,
	Mainz, 1721‑48, of which vols. vii.‑viii. did not appear.
	The earliest life, by an unnamed contemporary, which,
	however, only came down to the year 1312, is in Latin

~T~.r ~a~ ssioa	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	88
transl. in ASB, June, v. 88188, and in Hiatoire litl€rasre
do la Franca, axis.. PD. 4‑48. with further discussion, pp.
4788; it is also to be found in $slainger's edition of the
works, ut sup., vol, i. Later accounts ate: N. Antonio,
Bibliothua Hiapauica roatua ii. 122‑123, Madrid 1788;
H. Low, De roils Raymuud% LuRi, Halle, 1830; Delecluze, in
Revue des deux mondea, Nov. 15, 1840 (an excellent account
of the life); A. Hellferieh Raymond Lull and die An
JBnge der cataloniache» Litderafur. Berlin 1858: W. Bram
baeh, Des Raymond Lulls Lebea and Werke, Carlaruhe,
1893: M. Andre, Le Bieaheureum R. Luke, Paris, 1900;
8. M. Zwamer, Raymund Lull, First MieaLOnarp to the
Moslems, New York, 1902; W. T. A. Barber, Raymond
Lull, the Illuminated Doctor, London, 1903; G. F. Maelear,
Apostles of Med%eeard Europe, pp. 289‑288, ib., 1908; Ne
ander, Christian Church, iv. 81‑71 et passim; KL, s. 747‑
753: Encyclopedia Britanniar, xv. 83‑84.
For consideration of his works consult: A. R. Pasqual, Vsndicue Lulliarue, 4 vole., Avignon, 1778; X. Rouseelot' ‑0tudea our la philosophic done le moyen dpe, iii. 78141, Paris, 1842; K. Prantl, (leachichta der Logik, iii. 145177, Leipsio, 1887; J. R. de Luanco, Ramon .Lull coteaiderad comp alquimiato, Barcelona, 1870 F de P Canalejae, Los Door%naa dal Ramon Lull, Madrid, 1872; J. B. Haureau, Hiatoire de la acolaeEique, vol. ii.. Paris, 1880; F. H. Reusch, Der Index der roerboteuen B2lcher, i. 28‑33, Bonn, 1883; O. Keieher, Raymundue Luilua and seine Stellunp zur arabiachen Philosophic, Munster, 1909.

LUMBER RIVER MISSION. See MI$cEIaeNEOU$ RELIOIOU$ BODIES, 14.
LUNA, PEDRO DE. See BENEDICT XIII.
LUND, ARCHBISHOPRIC OF: A former metropolitan see in Denmark (now in Sweden), founded about the middle of the eleventh century, and raised to metropolitan dignity probably in 1103‑04, replacing the former jurisdiction of the archbishops of Hamburg‑Bremen. This transfer was not recognized by Innocent II. and was long contested by the Germans; it was confirmed, however, by Adrian IV., with the addition of the title of primate of Denmark and Sweden. The last Roman Catholic archbishop was imprisoned in 1536, to be released only on condition of withdrawing his opposition to the change of religion, and in 1537 the first Lutheran bishop took possession of the see. In 1660 it was transferred to Copenhagen.
131BLIOGRAPHY: The occupants of the see are named, with their terms of office, in Gams, Series episcoporum, p. 330. Consult further: Ads poutiftcum Dan%ca . . . 1318‑1638, Copenhagen, 1904: KL, viii. 29fr300.

LUPUS, lupus, SERVATUS: French Benedictine; b. probably in the archdiocese of Sens c. 814; d. at Ferrii3rea (23 m. s.w. of Sens) 862. He was a scion of a distinguished family and received his education in the monastery of Ferricres from Abbot Aldric, later archbishop of Sens. Dissatisfied with instruction there, however, he went to Fulda and studied under Rabanus Maurus, remaining there from 830 to 836 and forming close friendships not only with his teacher but also with other German scholars, especially with the famous Einhard, the author of the biography of Charlemagne. He returned to Ferri6rea in 836, but in the following year accompanied his abbot, Odo, to Germany. His activity as a teacher at FerrWea, of which traces are still extant in his pupils' notes of his lectures quickly made him famous, and in 838 he enjoyed the favor of the Emperor Louis the Pious and the Empress Judith. In the civil wars which followed the death of the emperor, Lupus
took the side of Charles the Bald, who made him abbot of Ferrii'rea (842) in place of Odo, the latter having been a partizan of Lothair, the rival of Charles. In the troublous times which followed his appointment he proved his fidelity to his king, whom he accompanied on his unlucky expedition against Aquitaine. He was taken prisoner in the defeat of the Franks on June 14, 844, but returned to his monastery on July 5. The ware had brought the cloister into dire poverty and in 846 he was obliged to beg for money. Ascribing the misfortunes of Ferri6res to Charles' alienation of the cell of St. Judocus, which he had enfeoffed to a temporal dignitary, Lupus finally succeeded in regaining it in the latter part of 848. In the following year he was sent by Charles on a mission to Rome, where for the first time he came into direct contact with the controversy between Gottschalk and Hincmar. Lupus, as a firm adherent of Augustine, favored the former, and both orally and in his De tribus qucestionxrus opposed the doctrine of the freedom of the will and defended the teaching of election, although be did not press it to the extent of predestination to condemnation. On the other hand, he carefully refrained from any personal appeal on behalf of the imprisoned Gottschalk and remained on friendly terms with Hincmar. After 850 his letters coptain scarcely any allusions to the controversy. He was now busily employed in restoring his cloister and was steadily increasing in favor with the king. He remained at the court for months both as a diplomat and scholar and as a boon companion. His fidelity to his monarch was unshaken even after the disasters of 858, when Charles lost his throne to Louis the German and retired to Burgundy. There he was followed by Lupus and Hincma,r, but the excitement and the privations shattered the abbot's health and brought on a fatal illness.
	The writings of Lupus, in addition to the work
already noted, which is one of the best theological
contributions of the time, include the Vita Wig
berti and the Vita Maximini. The theory that he
was the author of the pseudo‑Isidorian Decretals
is unsupported by evidence. On the other hand,
he edited the canons of the Synod of Verneuil (843),
which were directed primarily against the misuse
of ecclesiastical property by princes. His most
important writings were his letters, which are char
acterized by personal charm and at the same time
form valuable historical documents, especially as
he corresponded with almost alt the important
men of the period, including kings, popes, and
ecclesiastics. 	(R. SCHMID.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Opera of Lupus, including his Epis
	tolo;, ed. E. Baluse, appeared at Paris, 1884, Antwerp
	1710, and in MPL, eaiz. A very excellent issue of his
	Epietola, ed. Deedevisea du Desert, appeared Paris, 1888.
	Consult: F. 8protte, Biographic des Abtea Sernatua Lupus
	non FemaPrea, Regensburg, 1880; Hiato%re 1%tt€ra%ra de la
	France, v. 255 eqq.; G. Phillips, Vermiachte 3chriften,
	i. 198 eqq.. Vienna, 1858; B. Nicolas, ‑0tudea our lea letlrea
	de SerroahLoup, Paris 1882; E. Ebert, Allpemeine (io‑
achichte der Ldtteratur des Mitte7aitere, ii. 203‑209, Leipaie
1880; Girt', in etudes d'hietoire du molten 8ge dedikea is
a. Mtnwd. Paris. 1898: Haack, AD. ii 809 aqq. et pas. aim; KL, viii. 300‑304.
L17THARDT, lut'htlrt, CHRISTOPH ERNST:
German Lutheran theologian; b. at Maroldsweisach

69	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lumber River Miedoa
		Luther, Martin
(55 m. n.n.w. of Nuremberg) Mar. 22, 1823; d. at
Leipsic Sept. 21, 1902. He studied theology at
Erlangen and Berlin (1841‑45) and was teacher in
the Munich gymnasium (1847‑51). He was privat
docent at Erlangen (1851‑54), extraordinary pro
fessor at Marburg (1854‑56), and ordinary profes
sor of systematic theology and New‑Testament
exegesis at Leipaic (1856‑1902). He became consti
tutorial councilor (1865) and privy ecclesiastical
councilor (1887). Luthardt was a voluminous writer
of the Erlangen school of theologians, one of the
attractions of the University of Leipsic, an eloquent
preacher, and an ecclesiastical statesman.
	Among his works may be mentioned: Daa johanneiache
Evanpelium each aelner Eigenthfimlichkeit peachiZdert and
erkllirt (2 vole., Nuremberg, 1852‑53, Eng. transl. by C. R.
Gregory, 3 vole., Edinburgh, 188b‑78); Die Lehre van den
letzten Dingen (Leipeic, 1861); Die Lehre vom freien Willen
and aein Verhttltnias zur Grade (1883); Apolagetiache Vor
trllpe itber die Grundwahrheitan des Chriatenthuma(1865: Eng.
Early Life and Religious Training (¢ 1).
Initial Changes of View (¢ 2).
The Doctrine of Grace (¢ 3).
The Ninety‑five Theses (¢ 4).
Denial of the Power of the Pope (¢ b).
Development of Views on Euchar
	ist, Priesthood, Church, and works
	(¢ 6).
Appeal to the Laity for Reform (¢ 7).
Doctrine of the Sacraments (¢ 8).
At the Diet of Worms (¢ 9).
In Hiding at the Wartburg (¢ 10).
Opposition to Extreme Radicalism
	(¢ 11).
transl.. Apologetic Lectures on the Fundamental Truths of Christianity, Edinburgh, 1865) Compendium der Dopmatik (1885); Die Ethik Lathers in ihren Grundzagen (1887); ApoloDetiache Vortrage fiber die HeilavHIhrheiten lea Christenthuma (1867; Eng. trans]., Apologetic Lectures on the Saving Truths of Christianity, Edinburgh, 1868); Die Ethik Ariatoteles im Unterachied von der Moral lea Chriatenihuma (186x); Vortr6pe fiber die Moral lea Chriatenthuma (1873; Eng, trans]., Apologetic Lectures on the Moral Truths of Christianity, Edinburgh, 1873); Der johanrudache Uraprunp lea vierten Evanyeliuma (1874; Erg. transl. by C. R. Gregory, St. John the Author of the Fourth Gospel, Edinburgh, 1875); Die modernen Weldanachauungen and ihre praktiache» Ifoneequenun (1880): Licht and Leben (1885); Die anti)ce Ethik in ihrer peschirhh lichen Entv»ekelung ale Einleitunp in die Geachichte der chriah lichen Moral dargeatellt (1887); Geachichte der chriatlichen Ethik (1888‑93; Erg. tranel., History q/ Christian Ethics, Edinburgh, 1889); Die vier Evangelien (1899); Die ehriaUielw Glaubenalehre (1898); and ICompendium der theolopiachers Efhik (1898). He was editor of the Allgemeine evanpeliache lu• theraniaclae Rirdunzeitung.
Bisrroonwrav: J. Kunse, ChriatopA Ernst Luthardt, Leipsic,
	1903; F. J. Winter, Die Thedopie des D. Luthardt, ib.,1883.
LUTHER,
MARTIN.
Correspondence with Other Sectaries and Break with Erasmus (¢ 12).
Polemics Against Carlstadt and Miinster
(¢ 13).
Transformations in Liturgy and Church Government (¢ 14).
Eucharistic Views and Controversies
(§ 15).
The Diet of Augsburg and the Question of Civil Resistance (¢ 18).
The Authority of Church Councils Denied (¢ 17).
Attacks on Zwingli, and Recognition of the Bohemian Brethren (¢ 18).
Martin Luther, the German Reformer, was born at Eisleben (23 m. w. of Halls) Nov. 10, 1483, and died there Feb. 18, 1546. His father, Hans, was a miner, formerly living at Mohra, while his mother, Margarete (rrke Ziegler), came from a family of the middle class. At the age of six months, Luther was taken by his parents to Manefeld, and was there brought up in an atmosphere of strictness and probity. His father's financial condition
z. Early gradually improving, Luther was sent
Life and to the Latin school, first at Mansfeld,
Religious	then at Magdeburg (probably to an
	Training.	institution conducted by Brethren of
		the Common Life) in 1497, and finally,
in 1498, at Eisenach, where his mother had rela
tives. There, with other poor students, he was
obliged to sing in the streets begging for bread.
and there he gained the sympathy of Ursula, the
wife of Kunz Cotta. From Eisenach he went, in
1501, to the U>ziversity of Erfurt, where his prin
cipal teachers were the nominalists Trntvetter and
Arnoldi, and where he was a friend of at least some
of the young humanistic " poet " circle. He re
ceived his bachelor's degree in 1502 and the mas
ter's degree three years later; and was destined by
his relatives for a legal career.
Brought up in the strict religious atmosphere of
the Roman Catholic Church, but without any knowledge of the Bible, Luther was terrified by thoughts of the wrath of God, intensified by the sudden death of a friend. He resolved to become a monk, and on July 17, 1505, entered the Augus‑
Luther as a Preacher and Exegete (¢ 19).
Theory of Confession and the Law (¢ 20).
Establishment of Consistoriee and the Marriage of Philip of Hesse (¢ 21).
Renewed Eucharistic Controversies (¢ 22).
The Death of Luther (¢ 23).
Summary of Luther's Doctrinal Development (¢ 24),
Theory of the Church and the World (¢ 25).
The Style of Luther (¢ 28).
The Personal Life of Luther (¢ 27).
His Hymns (¢ 28).
tinier monastery at Erfurt, to the grief of his father, and without a clear comprehension of his act. In 1507 he was ordained to the priesthood, but his theological studies brought him no inward peace, and he eagerly followed the advice of an old master of studies in the monastery, who urged him to center his hopes in the article of the forgiveness of sins. He was also aided by the instruction of Johann von Staupitz, the vicar of the order, but the decisive change was brought about by his study of the Scriptures. In 1508, at the suggestion of Johann von Staupitz, the Elector Frederick appointed Luther professor of philosophy at Wittenberg, where he received the degree of baccalaureua ad bxblia in the following year. He was then recalled for some unknown reason to Erfurt, but in 1511 (or possibly in 1510) went to Rome in the interests of his order. Returning to Wittenberg, he received the doctorate of theology on Oct. 18, 1512, and three years later was appointed Augustinian vicar for Meissen and Thuringia, being also active as a preacher both in his own monastery and in Wittenberg.
Even at this time his radical change of views had become evident. Turning from philosophy, he sought the kernel of the trust of salvation in the
Bible, especially in the Epistle to the s. Initial Romans and in the Psalms, which he Changes interpreted entirely from the New of View. Testament. He next lectured on Ga.
latiana, Hebrews, Titus, and Judges, his lectures being partly published and partly preserved in manuscript. Of the Fathers, Augustine

Luther, 7eartia	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	70
had the profoundest influence on him, though he grasped more deeply than his teacher the meaning of the faith which is the direct road to the righteousness of God. Among medieval teachers he was most impressed by Bernard of Clairvaua, while in 1516 he came under the influence of the mysticism of Tauler.
Although still devoted to the Roman Catholic Church, Luther had now reached essentially the conclusions which were to lead him to combat her claims. Resting salvation entirely on the grace of God, he held that all the good works of the natural man are sin, and that divine grace
3. The comes solely through the eternal eleoDoctrine tion and predestination of God. Lu‑
	of Grace.	they also held with Paul that man is
		purified by faith inwrought by the
divine spirit and word of grace, and that the spirit of
God then works inward righteousness in them that
believe. Nevertheless, those who are thus regenerate
still sin constantly and are without honor or merit,
persisting only through pardoning grace and through
faith before God. Like the mystics, Luther's con
cept of the plan of salvation is based on the rela
tion of the individual to God and Christ in faith.
Faith is identical with entire devotion, renuncia
tion of all self‑righteousness, and surrender of all
self‑will. Both faith and hope are directed only to
Christ, who alone fulfilled the law and bore our
sins; while man is justified solely by the imputa
tion of God. While inward righteousness is in
cluded in justification, it follows the forgiveness of
sins which forms a part of faith. From faith Lu
ther also derives love, and the strength, impulse,
and delight to do good. Christ, who dwells in
man through faith, himself does all and conquers
all; but the deeds of the just are not for his own
righteousness, but for the service of God and man.
All this grace is bestowed by the Word, in which
dwells Christ, the bread of life; and this bread of
life is given outwardly in preaching and the Eucha
rist, and inwardly by " God's own teaching." That
the current ecclesiastical views were opposed to
those which formed the center of his belief and life
was still unknown to Luther. In contradistinc
tion to the prevailing custom, he held that the
bishops should regard preaching as their prime
duty, and that sermons should be free from false
legends and the opinions of men, nor should the
subjects longer be restricted to character and
works, but should be devoted especially to faith
and justice. Nevertheless, Luther entertained no
doubt of the authority of the visible Church, and
obedience to her was to him identical with obedi
ence to Christ. The sources for his views at this
period are his lectures on the Psalms, Latin ser
mons beginning with 1515, a preface to Tauler's
Deutsche Theologie (1516), a German exegesis of
the seven penitential Psalms, theses in Bernhardis
of Feldkirchen and Giinther's Disputation (1516
1517), sermons on the Decalogue (Latin ed., 1518),
and a German exegesis of the Lord's Prayer (1517),
besides the letters of these years.
The sale of indulgences by Johann Tetzel near Wittenberg incited Luther to a polemic attitude, yet not, in his opinion, against the Church, but for
her honor. He began by assailing the misuse of indulgences, while his dogmatic views concerning
them gradually developed out of the 4. The cardinal principles of his belief. On
Ninety‑five Oct. 31, 1517, he nailed his ninetyTheses. five theses on the castle church at
Wittenberg, though he had no intention of making a decisive attack nor did he wish them to be generally circulated. The content of the theses was in accord with his sermons: penance was repentance, not priestly confession and satisfaction; mortification of the flesh, implying punishment until entrance into the kingdom of heaven, must coexist with inward repentance; this punishment only is remitted by papal indulgence, which can not remove the actual guilt of the smallest sin, being able to grant remission only in virtue of the proclamation and confirmation of divine pardon; the merit of Christ and the saints work grace to the inner and death to the outer man without the cooperation of the pope; the true " treasure of the Church " is the Gospel of the grace of God, though God subjects those whom he forgives to the priests as his representatives. Luther accordingly restricted indulgences to the penalties and works prescribed by the Church, and herein he purposed to express the true intention of the pope, who could scarcely know how they were misused.
Luther's theses spread throughout Germany in two weeks, gaining an unanticipated notoriety. He was egged on still further by his opponents, Tetzel, Silvester Prierias (the papal " master of the palace," q.v.), Johann Eck (prochancellor of In‑
golstadt and his chief adversary; q.v.), g. Denial and Hoogstraten, to all of whom he
of the replied individually, though his moat
Power important work on the questions iaof the volved in the controversy was his
	Pope.	Reaolutionea diaputationum de indul
		getttiarurn virEute (1518). Meanwhile
he took part in an Augustinian convention at Hei
delberg, where he presented theses on the slavery
of man to sin and on divine grace. In the course
of the controversy on indulgences the question
arose of the absolute power of the pope, since the
doctrine of the " treasure of the Church" was
based on a bull of Clement VI. Luther saw him
self branded as a heretic, and the pope, who had
determined to'suppreea his views, summoned him
to Rome. Yielding, however, to the unwillingness
of the Elector Frederick to part with his theologian,
the pope did not press the matter, and the cardinal
legate Cajetan was deputed to receive Luther's sub
mission at Augsburg (Oct., 1518). The latter,
while professing his implicit obedience to the
Church, boldly denied the absolute power of the
pope, and appealed first " from the pope not well
informed to the pope who should be better in
formed " and then (Nov. 28) to a general council.
Luther now declared that the papacy formed no
part of the original and immutable essence of the
Church, and he even began to think that Anti
christ ruled the Curia. He had already asserted
at least the potential fallibility of a council repre
senting the Church, and, denying the church doc
trine of excommunication, he was led by his con‑

?1	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lather, >'e<artin
oept of the way of salvation to the new tenet that the Church it the congregation of the faithful. Still wishing to remain on friendly terms with the elector, the pope made a last effort to reach a peaceable conclusion with Luther. A conference with the papal chamberlain B. von Miltitz at Altenburg in Jan., 1519, led Luther to agree to remain silent so long as his opponents should, to write a horrible letter to the pope, and to prepare s work to testify his honor of the Roman Church. The letter was written, but was not sent, since it contained no retraction; while in a German treatise later prepared, Luther, while recognizing purgatory, indulgences, and the invocation of the saints, denied all effect of indulgences on purgatory. When, moreover, Eck challenged Luther's colleague Carlstadt to a disputation at Leipsic, Luther joined in the debate (June 27‑July 18, 1519), denying the divine right of the papacy, and holding that the " power of the keys " had been given to the Church (i.e., to the congregation of the faithful), affirming besides that belief in the preeminence of the Roman Church was not essential to salvation and maintaining the validity of the Greek Church.
There war no longer hope of peace. His writings were now circulated moat widely, reaching France, England, and Italy as early as 1619, and students thronged to Wittenberg to hear Luther, who had been joined by Melanchthon in 1518, and
who now published his shorter comb. Develop‑ mentary on Galatians and his Opera‑
meat of bones in Paalanoa, while at the came Views on time he received deputations from Eucharist, Italy and from the Utraquints of BoPriesthood, hernia. There controversies necesChurch, and easily led Luther to develop his duo‑
	Works.	trines further, and in his Sermon von
		dem hochzvvrdigen Sakrament den Leich
nams Christi (1519) he set forth the significance of
the Eucharist (see Loxn'$ SUPPER, IL, 2, § 5, IV.,
1, §§ 1‑2), interpreting the transubstantiation of
the bread as the transformation of the faithful into
the spiritual body of Christ, i.e., into fellowship with
Christ and the Taints. The basal concept of the
Eucharist, moreover, according to him, it the for
giveness of sins; and his entire theory is closely
connected with his mystic view of the all‑embracing
participation in salvation shared by the believer with
Christ and his Church. At the same time, he ad
vocated that a council be called to restore commu
nion in both kinds, and denied the doctrine of seven
sacraments (letter of Dec. 18, 1519). He likewise
stripped the priesthood of all meaning other than
the general priesthood taught in the Bible, and
cast doubt on the entire doctrine of purgatory.
The Lutheran concept of the Church (see Cauacx,
THE CHRISTIAN, IV., § 2), wholly based on imme
diate relation to the Christ who gives himself in
preaching and the sacraments, war already de
veloped in his Yon dem Paloattum zu Rom, a reply
to the attack of the Franciscan Alveld at Leipsic
(June, 1520); while in his Sermon van guxen Weaken,
delivered in the spring of 1520, he controverted the
Roman Catholic doctrine of good works and works
of supererogation, holding that the works of the
believer are truly good in any secular calling ordered of God.
From the time of his disputation at Leipaic, Luther came into relations with the humanists, particularly with Melanchthon, Reuchlin, Erasmus, and Crotur. The last was intimately associated with Ulrich von Hutten (q.v.), who
Appeal in his turn influenced Franz von Sickto the , ingen (q.v.), so that, when it became
Laity for doubtful whether it would be safe for
	Reform.	Luther to remain in Saxony if the ban
		which threatened should be pro
nounoed against him, both Franz von Sickingen
and Silvester of Schauenburg invited him to their
fortresses and their protection. Under these cir
cumstances, complicated by the crisis then con
fronting the German nobles, Luther issued his An
den christlichen Add deutscher Nation (Aug., 1520),
committing to the laity, as spiritual priests, the
reformation required by God but declined by the
pope and the clergy. The subjects proposed for
amelioration were not points of doctrine, but eccle
siastical abuser: diminution of the number of car
dinals and the demands of the papal court; the
abolition of annat$ (see TAxATiorr, EccLEsin$
TICAL); recognition of secular government; renun
ciation of claims to temporal power on the part of
the pope; abolition of the interdict, abuses con
nected with the ban, harmful pilgrimages, the mis
demeanors of the mendicant orders, many holidays
which led only to disorder; the suppression of nun
neries, beggary, and luxury; the reform of the uni
versities; abrogation of the celibacy of the clergy;
and reunion with the Bohemians; besides demand
ing a general reform of public morality and deny
ing transubstantiation in favor of the doctrine of
the true presence of the natural body of Christ in
the natural bread.
	The climax of Luther's doctrinal polemics war
reached in his De captivitate Babyloniaca, espe
		cially in regard to the sacraments. As
8. Doctrine concerned the Eucharist, he denied
of the transubstantiation, the sacrificial char‑
Sacraments. acter of the mars, and the withholding of the cup. In regard to baptism, he taught that it brought justification only when conjoined with belief, but that it contained the foundation of salvation even for those who might later fall. As for penance, its essence consists in the words of promise given to belief. Only there three can be regarded as sacraments, in virtue of the promises attached to them; and strictly speaking baptism and the Eucharist alone are sacraments, as being a " sign divinely instituted." The sacrament of unction was discarded by Luther with his doubts of the authenticity of the Epistle of James. In like manner, the acme of Luther's doctrine of salvation and the Christian life was attained in his Yon der Freiheit sires Christenrnenschen. Here he required complete union with Christ by means of the Word through faith, entire freedom of the Christian as a priest and king set above all outward things, and perfect love of one's neighbor. The three works may be considered the chief writings of Luther on the Reformation. [For their English translation by Buckheim and Wace nee below.]

Luther, 'we in	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	72
In Oct., 1520, at the instance of Miltitz, Luther sent his De libertale Chrisliani to the pope, adding the significant phrase: " I submit to no laws of interpreting the word of God." Meanwhile it had been rumored in August that Eck lad arrived at Meissen with a papal ban, which was actually pronounced there on Sept. 21. This last effort of Luther's for peace was followed on Dec. 12 by his burning of the bull, which was to take effect on the expiration of 120 days, and the papal decretals at Wittenberg, a proceeding defended in his Warum des Papstes and seiner Jiinger Bucher verbrannt Bind and his Assertio omnium articulorum. The execution of the ban, however, was prevented by the pope's relations with the elector and by the new emperor, who, in view of the papal attitude toward him and the feeling of the Diet, found it inadvisable to lend his aid to measures against the Reformer.
The final judgment of the Roman Catholic Church had been pronounced on Luther in the ban, but the papal legate, Aleander, was obliged to acquiesce in the desire of the Diet to summon
g. At the Luther under a safe‑conduct to Worms.
	Diet of	Luther quietly awaited the result, oo
	Worms.	cupied with polemics against Eraser
		and the Dominican Ambrosiua Cath
arinua, and with work on a postilla. Entering
Worms on Apr. 16, he was brought before the Diet
on the following day and asked simply whether he
acknowledged his writings, which were laid before
him and read by title, and whether he retracted
their contents or persisted in them, all debate on
the truth of their statements being excluded by the
emperor's agreement with Aleander. Luther re
quested a day for consideration, and on the even
ing of Apr. 18 replied to the question of Johann
von Eck, the official of the elector of Trevea, who
asked whether he defended all his writings or
would retract some, by distinguishing three divi
sions of them: those on faith and life, recognized
as harmless and even useful by his opponents;
against papal institutions and claims injurious to
body and soul, of which he would retract none;
and polemics against protagonists of that falsehood
and tyranny, where again he would make no retrac
tion of matter. His demand that he be refuted by
arguments from the Bible was met by referring him
to the decisions of the Church, particularly at the
Council of Constants, on similar heresies. The de
bate which followed resulted in a stormy adjourn
ment, though not before Luther had declared:
" Unless I shall be convinced by the testimonies of
the Scriptures or by clear reason, . . . I neither
can nor will make any retraction, since it is neither
safe nor honorable to act against conscience; God
help mel Amenl " (other versions vary slightly,
having, " I can naught elsel Here I standl God
help me I "; " Here I stand! I can naught else 1
God help me I"; and "God come to my help l
Amen 1 Here I am 1 "). The archbishop of Trevea
still sought to change Luther's views, but in vain,
since he persisted in the tenet, condemned by the
Council, that " the Church universal is the num
ber of the elect." On May 25 he was declared an
outlaw, and, leaving Worms on the following day,
he was seized, with his own connivance, by the Elector Frederick and taken to the Wartburg, where he remained in hiding under the name of Junker Georg.
With Luther's residence in the Wartburg began the constructive period of his career as a reformer; while at the same time the struggle was inaugurated against those who, claiming to proceed from the same Evangelical basis, were deemed by him to
swing to the opposite extreme and to io. In hinder, if not prevent, all constructive Hiding measures. In his " desert " or " Patat the moa " (as he called it in his letters)
Wartburg. of the Wartburg, moreover, he began
his translation of the Bible, of which the New Testament was printed in Sept., 1522 (see BIBLE VER$ION$, B, VIL, § 3). Here, too, besides other pamphlets, he prepared the first portion of his German postilla and his Von der Beichte, in which he denied compulsory confession, although he admitted the wholesomeness of voluntary private confessions. He also wrote a polemic against Archbishop Albrecht, which forced him to desist from reopening the sale of indulgences; while in his attack on Jacobus Latomus (q.v.) he set forth his views on the relation of grad and the law, as well as on the nature of the grace communicated by Christ. Here he distinguished the objective grace of God to the sinner, who, believing, is justified by God because of the justice of Christ, from the saving grace dwelling within sinful man; while at the same time he emphasized the insufficiency of this " beginning of justification," as well as the persistence of sin after baptism and the sin still inherent in every good work.
Meanwhile some of the Saxon clergy, notably Bernhardi of Feldkirchen, had renounced the vow of celibacy, while others, including Melanchthon,
had assailed the validity of monastic ii. Opposi‑ vows. Luther in his De votia monaa‑. lion to tieia, though more cautious, concurred,
Extreme on the ground that the vows were gen‑
Radicalism. erally taken " with the intention of
salvation or seeking justification." With the approval of Luther in his De dbrogandca missd pri2rata, but against the firm opposition of the prior, the Wittenberg Auguatinians began changes in worship and did away with the mesa. Their violence and intolerance, however, were displeasing to Luther, and early in December he spent a few days among them. Returning to the Wartburg, he wrote his Eine treue Vermahnung . . . vor Aujruhr and Empbrureg; but in Wittenberg Carlstadt and the ex‑Augustinian Zwilling demanded the abolition of the private mass, communion in both kinds, the removal of pictures from churches, and the abrogation of the magistracy [i.e., the noninterference of the civil ruler in ecclesiastical matters.‑a. a. N.]. About Christmas Anabaptists from Zwickau added to the anarchy. Thoroughly opposed to such radical views and fearful of their results, Luther entered Wittenberg Mar. 7, sad the Zwickau prophets left the city. The canon of the mass, giving it its sacrificial character, was now omitted, but the cup was at first given only to those of the laity who desired it. Since confession had

78	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Luther, Kartia
been abolished, communicants were now required to declare their intention, and to seek consolation, under acknowledgment of their faith and longing for grace, in Christian confession. This new form of service was set forth by Luther in his Formula missa' et communionis (1523), and in 1524 the first Wittenberg hymnal appeared with four of his own hymns. Since, however, his writings were forbidden by Duke George of Saxony, Luther declared, in his Ueber die weltliche Gewnlt, wie weft man ihr Gehoraam echuldig eei, that the civil authority could enact no laws for the soul, herein denying to a Roman Catholic government what he permitted an Evangelical.
Luther watchfully followed the effect of his preaching, commending the town of Leisnig when it introduced a new agenda in 1523, honoring the memory of two martyrs in Brussels (1523) and of Henry of ZUtphen (1524, see Mor.LEx), and counseling those of like views in Riga, Revel, Dorpat, and elsewhere. At this same period
:a. Corre‑ he entered into correspondence with spondence the Bohemian Brethren, and in this with Other connection he wrote the Vom Anbeten Sectaries, des Sakramenta (1523), in which he and Break maintained the natural presence and with actual physical participation. In 1522 Erasmus. Luther wrote the Bohemian Estates to continue firm against the pope, and in the following year he sent, through the Bohemian Gallus Cahera, his De instituendia ministria to Prague, defending the right of a congregation to provide themselves with new ministers of the Word if their clergy withheld the Gospel from them, his argument being based upon the theory of the universal priesthood. Soon, however, the Bohemians, headed by Cahera himself, sought reconciliation with the pope, and Luther is not known to have had further dealings with them. At the same time he answered the criticisms of Henry VIII, of England on his De captivitate Babylareiea in his Contra Henricum regem, a work of characteristic coarseness, for which he apologized in 1525 humbly, but in vain. The moat important event in Luther's war with the Roman Catholic Church at this period was his break with Erasmus, who was followed by a large body of humanists in his return to the Church. Erasmus had long been offended by Luther's harshness and coarseness, while the latter charged his former friend with timidity and lack of recognition of the grace of God, which alone brought salvation. In 1524 Erasmus published his De libero arbitrio, to which Luther replied in 1525 with his De servo arbitrio. Here he identified foreknowledge and predestination, and distinguished between God as preached and God himself. Though the lost perish through the unconditioned will of God, this is right because God wills it, the reason, into which man may not inquire, being one of the mysteries of the divine majesty. Free will can, accordingly, be predicated only of God, never of man, whose duty it is simply to trust to the Word, accepting the inconceivable as such until the Son of Man shall reveal it.
It now became Luther's task to war on the spirit of false freedom which had arisen within his own
followers. Carlstadt denied the presence of the body of Christ in the Eucharist, while, on the basis of the Old Testament, he forbade pictures, but permitted polygamy. Others, likewise
13. Polem‑ claiming the Old Testament as their ics against support, sought to secure the restorer Carlstadt tion of the Mosaic year of jubilee; and while Munster, the leader of the Zwick‑
	Milnster.	au fanatics, who had become pastor
		at Allstedt in 1523, plotted a revolu
tion to establish a kingdom of his " saints." Lu
ther attacked the entire tendency in his Wider die
himmlischen Propheten (1525), in which he declared
that the Mosaic law had been abrogated by Christ,
who was the end of the law, the only law of the
Christian being that written in the heart of every
man. Nevertheless, the revolution, really caused
by the political, economic, and social conditions of
the peasants, was still threatening, especially as
they hoped to find in the new religious movement
a confirmation of the rights and freedom which
they claimed. Luther therefore sought to show
them that Christian freedom might coexist with
earthly bondage, and that they moat got attack
their temporal superiors. On the other hand, he
sharply criticized the princes and nobles; but when
the Peasants' War actually broke out, he urged its
merciless suppression, though he advocated clem
ency after the victory had been won (cf. his Er
mahnung zum Frieden; Wider die mWderiwhen Rot
ten; S'endbrixf von dam harten Biiehlein; ate.).
During this time of conflict, Luther, learning of at
tempts on his life and already feeling himself old
and near death, married the ex‑nun Katharina von
Bore (q.v.) on June 13, 1525. His motive was not
love, but defiance of his opponents, and at the
same time to testify his esteem of the married state
and to obey his father's desire for posterity.
Luther marked a further step in his revision of the liturgy by his Deutsche Masse in 1526, making provision for week‑day services and for catechetica,l instruction. He strongly objected, however, to making a new law of the forms, and
14. Trans‑ urged the retention of other good litformations orgies. The gradual transformation in Liturgy of the administration of baptism was sad Church accomplished in the Taufbiichlein Govern‑ (1523, 1527); and in May, 1525, the meat first Evangelical ordination took place at Wittenberg. Luther had long since rejected the Roman Catholic sacrament of ordination, and had replaced it by a simple calling to the service of preaching and the administration of the sacraments. The laying‑on of hands with prayer in a solemn congregational service was considered a fitting human rite. Conditions now seemed to Luther to require the introduction of a higher official authority. As early as 1525 he had complained of the state of affairs, and be held that the secular authorities should take part in the administration of the Church, as in making appointments to ecclesiastical office and in directing visitations. Nevertheless, the discharge of these functions did not appertain to the secular authorities as such, and Luther would gladly have vested them in an Evangelical episcopate, had he known of any persona

Luther, Martin	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	74
suited for that office. He even declared in 1542
that the Evangelical princes themselves " must be
necessity‑bishops," and even went so far as to
meditate (letter of Mar. 29, 1527) a " congregation
of Christians " with full ecclesiastical powers, but
determined to be guided by the course of events
and to wait until parishes and schools were pro
vided with the proper persons. Since, however,
the result of the Saxon visitation gave no encourage
ment to this project, it was deemed far more im
portant first to win non‑Christians to the faith
through the Gospel, preserving the external form
of the Church as it was at the beginning of the
Reformation. The visitation accordingly took place
in 1527‑29, Luther writing the preface to Melanch
thon's Unterricht der Visitataren an die Pfarrherrn,
and himself acting as a visitor in one of the dis
tricts after Oct., 1528, while, as a result of his ob
servations, he wrote both his catechisms in 1529.
At the same time he took the keenest interest in
education, conferring with Georg Spalatin (q.v.)
in 1524 on plans for a school system, and declared
that it was the duty of the civil authorities to pro
vide schools and to see that parents sent their chil
dren to them. He also advocated the establishment
of elementary schools for the instruction of girls.
	In the mean time the nature of the Eucharist
had become a theme on which Luther found him
self obliged to state his doctrines both fully and
polemically. Rejecting transubstantiation, he
nevertheless maintained the actual presence of the
		body of Christ, while Zwingli, Leo
	15. Eucha‑ Jud, and GJcolampadius, on the other
ristic Views hand, rejected this doctrine, interpre
	and Con‑ ting the " is " of the words of institu
	troversies. tion as " signifies." Luther was sorely
		disturbed by this doctrine, which he
regarded as closely akin to the teachings of Carl
stadt and the " fanatics " in general. In the contro
versy which ensued, Luther replied to Q;colampa
dius in the preface to the Syngramma Sueancum,
and also set forth his views in his Sermon von den
Sakramenten . . . Wider die Schwitrmgeister and
Dass dress Worte . . . noch festatehen (spring, 1527),
while he sought to give a final and most thorough
statement in his Vom Abendmahl Christi Bekennt
nis (1528). In view of the perils to Protestantism
in the measures of the Diet of Speyer (q.v.) in
1529 and the coalition of the emperor with France
and the pope, the Landgrave Philip desired a union
of all the adherents of the Reformation, but Lu
ther declared himself opposed to any alliance which
might aid heresy. He accepted, however, the land
grave's invitation to a conference at Marburg (Oct.
1‑3, 1529; see MARBURG, CONFERENCE OF) t0 Settle
the matters in controversy, and there opposed
aJcolampadius, while Melanchthon was the antag
onist of Zwingli. Although he found an unex
pected harmony in other respects, no agreement
could be reached regarding the Eucharist; and he
therefore refused to call them brethren, even while
he wished them peace and love. [It was Luther's
conviction that God had blinded Zwingli's eyes so
that he could not see the true doctrine of the Lord's
Supper. He denounced Zwingli and his followers
at this time as " fanatics," " patricides," " matri‑
cides," " fratricides," " devils," " knaves," " heretics," " rioters," " hypocrites," and the like. A. a. N.] The princes themselves then made subscription to the Schwabach Articles, upheld by Luther, a condition of alliance with them. Luther's reason for his Eucharistic doctrine was not a mere literal interpretation of the words of institution, but rather thankfulness for such an individual sealing and giving of the forgiveness won by the death of this body in the administering of the very same body, doubts as to the possibility of such a presence being silenced by remembering the absolute unity of the divine with the human in Christ. While Christ's presence is " repletive " (filling all places at once), his omnipresence in the Eucharist is especially " definitive " (unbound by space). On the other hand, Luther taught with equal clearness that participation in itself is of no avail without faith. [He insisted that the impious and even beasts in partaking of the consecrated elements partake of the body and blood of Christ, but the unworthy partake unto damnation. A. a. N.] While, moreover, he combated the view that the Eucharist is a mere memorial, he fully recognized the commemorative element in it. As regards the effect of the Sacrament on the faithful, he laid special stress on the words " given for you," and hence on the atonement and forgiveness through the death of Christ.
Under the same perilous conditions which had made desirable an alliance of all adherents of the Reformation, the estates convened with the emperor at Augsburg in 1530, when the relation of the empire to Protestantism was defi6. The finitely to be determined. Luther, deDiet of spised by emperor and empire, re‑
Augsburg mained at Coburg, but the confession and the there presented by Meht,nchthon was Question essentially based upon his labors. The of Civil latter, while refraining from an au‑
Resistance. thoritative attitude, was little pleased by the smooth and cautious procedure of Melanchthon, and saw no chance of harmony of doctrine except in abolishment of the papacy, although he hoped for official toleration of both religions in the empire. While the recess of the diet gave the Protestants only a short time to make their submission, the emperor, urged on by threatened war with the Turks and by the Schmalkald League of the Protestant princes and cities, made further attempts to secure harmony, which led to the Religious Peace of Nuremberg in 1532 (q.v.), to last until a general council should be called to make a final decision. Since the Diet of Speyer (1529) the question had become vital whether, in case the emperor refused peace, the princes were justified in, or even bound to, armed resistance. Until now Luther had held that even wrongful acts of the emperor in no way released his subjects from obedience, and had been unfavorable to offensive and defensive alliances between Evangelical princes, preserving this attitude even in regard to the Schmalkald League. His position was somewhat modified, however, by the opinions of the jurists that in cases of public and notorious injustice the existing imperial laws (" the emperor himself in his laws ") warranted such resistance. Accepting this,

"r6	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Luther, Martin
he nevertheless referred judgment on the present conditions to the jurists, and not to the theologians. In his Warnung an die lieben Deutsehen (1531), nevertheless, he openly advocated resistance in a righteous cause, while in letters written in 1539 he went back still further to the general requirements of natural law.
The pope declaring himself ready to call a council, peaceable negotiations were renewed with the Roman Catholic Church, and in Nov., 1535, the
papal nuncio Vergerius conferred with
r7. The Luther in Wittenberg. While Luther Authority had no faith in the pope's sincerity, he of Church agreed to attend the council, wherever Councils it might be held, although it was conDenied. vened expressly for the extirpation of Lutheran heresy. At the instance of the elector, he prepared articles for the council in which he bitterly attacked Roman Catholic dogmas and the Roman Catholic Church, and termed the pope antichrist. The diet at Schmalkald (Feb., 1537) declined to take part in the council, and in 1539 Luther developed his views on councils in general in his Von den Concilien and Kirchen. Here he declared that not only could no reformation be hoped for from the pope and a papal council, but even the early councils and Fathers could not be regarded as the source for a reform. The entire system of Christian belief was to be derived, not from the Fathers and the councils, but from the Bible, the one task even of the four chief councils being simply and solely the defense of clear fundamental doctrines of the Scriptures. He therefore denied the right of any council which, he declared, should include laymen, to posit new articles of belief, to command new good works, or to require ceremonies; and he restricted their functions to juristic pronouncement of judgment according to the Bible in cases of peril to the faith. In this same treatise he reiterated his view that the Church consists solely of the congregation of the faithful, and is recognizable by the use of the means of grace and the power of the keys, as well as by prayer, the bearing of the cross, and uprightness of life, in that her members are sanctified by the Holy Spirit.
In the mean time, efforts had been made to unite the Protestants upon the doctrine of the Eucharist, and Butzer (q.v.) had conferred with Luther
on the matter at Coburg as early as 18. Attacks 1530. Luther himself could yield on Zwingli, nothing, for he could not see why, if and Recog‑ his opponents really acknowledged nition of the the true presence of the body of Christ,
	Bohemian	they would not grant external partici
	Brethren.	pation in the case of the unworthy.
		He accordingly expressed the utmost
disapproval of Zwingli and warned against any ac
ceptance of his teaching. Since, however, he found
the other Southern Germans unexpectedly yielding,
he reached a formal agreement with them at Wit
tenberg in 1536, wherein they renounced Zwingli's
teachings and recognized the true presence. On
the other hand, since he did not, evidently through
some uncertainty regarding the question, demand
recognition of the reception of the elements by the
actually " impious," he left a loophole for Butzer's opinion that only Christians who, even though unworthy, believed the words of institution, received, but not those who " mocked at all and believed naught." In 1537 he wrote a friendly letter to the burgomaster of Basel and to the Swiss cities, who could not, however, be won over, and in the following year he informed Bullinger that since the Marburg conference he had considered Zwingli personally an " excellent man." Luther's desire for all possible union with those of kindred views was shown still more clearly by his recognition of the Bohemian Brethren (q.v., IL). In 1533 and again five years later he had written the prefaces to the apology and confession which they had presented to the Margrave George of Brandenburg and King Ferdinand, even though in their new apology their theory of justification and of the Eucharist was not in agreement with his own.
However much Luther took part in visitations and the like, his chief activity within his Church
consisted not so much in external orig. Luther ganization as in preaching, exegesis, as a spiritual counsel, and the preparation Preacher of treatises on the truths of salvation.
	and	As a preacher he now labored at the
Exegete. city church together with his friend
Bugenhagen, and also visited the sick and performed other duties of private pastoral care. During the years following his return from the Wartburg, he delivered exegetical sermons on I and II Peter and Jude (1522‑24), as well as on Genesis and Exodus (1523‑27), besides preaching on the pericopes. In 1524‑25 he had lectured on Deuteronomy, and in 1524‑26 he delivered lectures on the minor prophets, Ecclesiastes, and Isaiah. In 1526 he published his exegeses of Jonah and Habakkuk, and that of Zechariah in the following year. Among his other lectures the most important were those on Galatians (1531‑35; the chief presentation of his doctrine of salvation) and on Genesis (1536‑45); of his sermons the most noteworthy, besides those on the pericopes, were delivered on Matthew and John. His postilla, the second half not edited by himself, was completed in 1527; while the sermons which Luther, prevented by ill health from delivering publicly, preached to his children and household in 1532 formed the basis of his Hauaposlille. The translation of the Bible was completed in 1534, although he made emendations until 1545.
Within his own church questions repeatedly arose which led Luther to more explicit statements on weighty points of doctrine. While he had re‑
jected Roman Catholic auricular conio. Theory fession, he laid great stress on Evanof Confes‑ gelical private confession, not because
sion and of any power of the confessor, but be‑
the Law. cause of the words of promise with
which forgiveness is declared, provided that the penitent is filled with faith. Although the words of forgiveness should be proclaimed in every sermon„he held private confession conducive to the ascertainment of the penitent's spiritual state but declaration of forgiveness could be withheld only in case of manifest un‑

Luther, martin	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	76
belief and impenitence. In 1533, and again in 1536, Luther approved the retention of public general absolution together with private confession at Nuremberg, and even drew up a formula for such absolution. Nevertheless, holding that absolution was not conditioned by priestly judgment (though it was an objective and effectual conferring of forgiveness), he later declared that it might be conferred by one layman on another in virtue of the " power of the keys." On the other hand, in 1538 he stated that those capable of instructing themselves need not make a formal confession before receiving the Eucharist. In 1537 a controversy broke out with Johann Agricola on the nature of the law (see AGRICOLA, JoxANrr; and ArrmtrtomiArnsns). Sharply opposed by Luther in theses of 1537‑38 and the Wider die Antinorreer (1539), Agricola held that the Mosaic law had been abrogated, and that repentance should be preached only on the basis of the Gospel (the word of grace in Christ), not because of the law. Luther, on the contrary, maintained that the word of salvation could not awaken faith in the sinful heart unless it had first been broken by the law and its resultant terrors of conscience. This is, indeed, not true repentance, but is a preparation for it; and stress was also laid by Luther on the fact that wherever in the New Testament sin, wrath, and judgment are revealed, the law, and not the Gospel, prevails.
The most important part in Church organization yet in store for Luther was the establishment of coneistories. These were especially needed for the regulation of marriage. Luther, pro‑
z:. Estab‑ ceding on his theory of the relation lishment of of the secular to the Mosaic law, and Consistories regarding marriage as a secular, though and the holy estate, relegated it to the State;
	Marriage	and held that the clergy were con
	of Philip	cerned with it in so far as, from its
	of Hesse.	very nature, it led to questions of con
		science more than any other secular
state (see MARRIAGE, L, 16, II. 2, § 5). The first
consistory was established at Wittenberg in 1539
with Luther's approval. The chief importance of
the consiatory for the organization and life of the
Church, however, came from the fact that the duty
entrusted to it was discipline. This, it was thought,
would lead to the introduction of the public ban,
with its civic consequences, but when opposition
was raised in Wittenberg in 1539 on the matter,
Luther set forth very clearly the ban he would be
willing to establish‑one based on Matt. aviii. 15
sqq. There is no record, however, that such a
plan, so eminently in accord with the Evangelical
concept of the Church, was anywhere carried out;
nor had Luther himself much hope of the consis
tories' actual disciplinary powers. The end of Lu
ther's life was now approaching, and he had already
received warning in a sharp attack of calculus at
Schmalkald in 1537. Beneath his external bra
very, he felt himself aging, and while full of grati
tude for the grace of the Gospel, he felt the world
an alien to it in precept and practise, and looked
forward to a time of distress and judgment for the
Church. He was pained most of all by the attitude
of the masses and of the nobility toward the Gospel,
illustrated by the marital relations of Philip of Hesse. The latter, though married, was enamored of a girl of the nobility, and asserted that he was compelled by most urgent reasons of conscience to search for another wife. He conceived the idea of a double marriage, and as early as 1526 asked Luther's opinion on it, renewing his inquiries moat urgently through Butzer after 1539. Though Luther held that monogamy was the original institution of God, he nevertheless granted the possibility of cases in which a dispensation was admissible, even among Christians, especially as such a double marriage was preferable to an illegal divorce. This dispensation, however, could be given only as confessional advice, and could not alter the law, which recognized only a single wife; and it must, therefore, remain absolutely secret to avoid scandal. While sharply admonishing Philip of his sins and his duty, Luther and Melanchthon granted that his was a case for a dispensation, and~the wedding took place on Mar. 3, 1540. Luther insisted that the affair be kept secret, and that the new wife be represented to the emperor as a mistress, knowing that he could not justify his attitude to the world, though he thought he might to God.
The impossibility of peaceable relations with the Roman Catholic Church was felt still more keenly by Luther in these last years when new attempts at reconciliation were made. He was obliged to deliberate with his colleagues in Jan., 1540, with only the passing hope that the em‑
zz. Re‑ peror might convene a national counnewed cil, for there was no remedy unless Eucharistic doctrines contrary to Scripture should
Contro‑	first be openly renounced. He so‑
	versies.	cordingly felt little sympathy with the
		Regensburg Conference in 1541 (q.v.),
headed by Melanehthon and Cruciger, condemning
their attitude toward both the Eucharist and the
doctrine of justification. When, however, the em
peror sought to reopen negotiations in 1545, Luther
subscribed to Melanchthon's proposal to reunite
with the episcopate, but his diatribes against the
Roman Catholic Church were even more bitter than
ever, as is amply illustrated by his Wider das PapsG
tum zu Rom, which appeared in the year before his
death. He gave a very real ground of offense,
moreover, to his opponents, when in 1542, despite
the protests of the chapter, he made Nikolaus von
Amsdorf bishop of Nuremberg, an act which he
defended in his Exempel einen rechten christlichen
Bischof zu weihen, wherein he sought to establish
from the Evangelical point of view the validity of
the consecration which he had performed. With
the growth of dissension between the two Saxon
houses after 1542 came a break in the unity of the
Evangelicals. Luther had never ceased warning
against the doctrines of Zwingli, and he now found
his suspicions increased by the fact that Zurich
refused to give up these tenets. He formally re
nounced fellowship with the preachers of Zurich,
but deemed that the heresy had entered Germany
through the Cologne scheme of reformation drawn
up' by Butzer and Melanchthon, who made recep
tion of the Eucharist simply a heavenly work and
a matter of faith. Aroused to fresh elucidations,

77
finally, by Schwenekfeld (q.v.), he published, toward the end of 1544, his Kurze Bekenntnis des Sacraments, containing no new doctrinal development, but savage criticisms of those who disagreed with him, renewed in the following year in his attacks on the theologians of Louvain, where he declared "the Zwinglians and all blasphemers of the Sacrament" to be heretics and cut off from the Christian Church. He had likewise protested against the Eucharistic doctrine of the Bohemian Brethren in 1541, being auspicious of their views, but in the following year he received Augusta in friendly fashion in Wittenberg and gave him the hand of fellowship for his coreligionista. A still more striking proof of his recognition of unity of spirit despite difference of opinion is seen in his attitude toward Melanchthon, against whose synergistic passages in the later editions of his Loci Luther could never be persuaded to polemize. As early as 1537 Melanchthon was charged with Zwinglian views on the Eucharist, but Luther, though finding much suspicious in his writings, nevertheless desired " to share his heart with him." He also gave high tribute to the Loci and the entire theological activity of his colleague in the preface to the first volume of his Latin works (1545); but Melanchthon is said to have foretold in his illness (1537) that after his death there would be no peace among the theologians associated with himself.
More and more pronounced became Luther's conviction that bitter trials were to come on Germany,
whether from the Turks or from inz3. The ternecine strife. While the whole
Death of world seemed to him to be in the state
Luther. it had been in before the flood or the
Babylonian exile or the destruction of Jerusalem, he was especially shocked by the immorality in Wittenberg, so that he threatened in 1545 that he would never revisit it. But he felt his death approaching. In 1544 he declined to prepare a church discipline on the plea of old age and exhaustion, and when, in 1545, he completed his lectures on Genesis, he expressed his longing to die. On Jan. 23, 1546, he went from Wittenberg to Eisleben to settle a mining dispute between the counts of Mansfeld, and was successful. But amid his preoccupations his health had been neglected; a fontanel which he had long had in his thigh had cicatrized; and he had caught a severe cold on his journey. On the evening of Feb. 17 he felt a heavy pressure on his chest, and on the following morning he died, still declaring his adherence to the faith he had preached. His corpse was solemnly buried in the castle church at Wittenberg, where it was rediscovered on the morning of Sunday, Feb. 14, 1892, by two men who had taken part in the restoration of the church ordered by William L, thus disposing of the story that during the Schmalkald War the corpse had been exhumed and buried in a neighboring field.
Surveying the entire course of Luther's life and activity, and especially the development of his theories and teachings, their important and positive content is seen clearly formulated when he entered upon his struggle in 151?; while their logical results, particularly as opposed to the Roman Catho‑
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Luther, martin
lie Church and the papal claims, were fully evolved at the time of his return from the Wartburg. The Peasants' War, often termed the great s¢. Sum‑ incentive to his subsequent career, was mare of really important only as accentuating Luther's his boldness in the practical task of Doctrinal reformation. After that, modifications Develop‑ in his doctrine entered only in so far meat. as he emphasized one or another factor, as circumstances required. His basal principle was ever " justification by faith in Christ," as set forth especially by Paul and experienced by himself. Curious as it may seem, however, he never understood the Pauline doctrine of justification as a declaration or assumption of righteousness in man; but he took it rather as an inward process, in the believer, of becoming justified. The first step is the forgiveness of sins by grace alone, after which justification and the imputation of righteousness proceed from the Spirit which is given to those thus forgiven. It is clear, moreover, from his controversy with Agricola, that from the first Luther held that the rousing of conscience by the mandatory and punitive word of God was a necessary preliminary to belief. A further characteristic of his views on the divine influence on faith and the divine part in those who were justified through faith was the realism with which he asserted the actual and full presence of God in the Holy Ghost. In regard to God, he held that be could never be known from human speculation or from a merely natural revelation, but that man may rise to him from his perfect self‑manifestation in Christ, even while refraining, in trusting faith, from penetrating into what is here concealed. In his concept of the historic Christ, it is noteworthy that he insisted on the moat intimate identification of the divine and human, instead of contenting himself with a mere coexistence of the two natures.
Luther's doctrine of the Church, or congregation, of Christ and the means of grace conferred by it, was of the highest importance in his activity as a reformer. This was, in his opinion,
sg. Theory the congregation of the faithful, who of the become sanctified by the means of Church grace and must exercise them conand the tinually in the name of God. As reWorld. garda the moral statue of the Christian in this world, proceeding from faith and the Holy Ghost, Luther held that he already shared in heavenly blessings and was exalted above the world, serving God and himself in the temporal ordinances and estates ordered of God, and partaking thankfully of the earthly blessings vouchsafed him. While he took a warm interest in the problems of secular, civil, and social life, he was a reformer here only in so far as he urged that they be considered according to the importance God had given them and with the proper attitude of mind. If, finally, the inquiry be made whence Luther gained the entire basis of his belief and doctrine, the answer moat be that he ever defended the supreme authority of the Bible against the claims of the Roman Catholic Church. This faith is also based on the inner witness which the spirit of God bears to the believer in the right use of the

Lather, Martin
Lutherans
Scriptures, not merely as regards its authority, but also its content, so that he considered himself permitted to distinguish the higher character and value of individual books included in the Bible, and to make a further distinction between statements referring to divine revelation and those alluding to secular affairs.
The style of Luther was naturally strong, simple, and clear; and, despite its depth and keenness, it
wan as free from excess of feeling of 26. The fantasy as from dialectic subtlety.
Style of But, as he himself said, he must always
Luther. storm and fight. His basal concept
of salvation ever occupied the foreground and center of his writings, even in the exegesis of taste where, strictly speaking, it scarcely applied. On the other hand, historical and linguistic accuracy were frequently imperfectly considered. The force of allegorical interpretation he denied, yet employed it as suggestive and enlightening. In his sermons, neat to the requirement that Christ should be their theme, he sought intelligibility for the masses. They lack technical form, but combine exegesis and application, strictly following the thought and exhortation to be developed, though lacking an explicit theme.
In conformity with his recognition of the free a,otivity of man in secular affairs, Luther possessed a lively interest in such matters. He highly valued
all noble arts and sciences, and he had aq. The a keen appreciation of proverbs, fables,
Personal and the like. His married life was
Life of marked by nothing noteworthy, yet it
Luther. wan true, happy, and patient, as is
	clearly shown by his letters and table
talk. He was generous with his modest wealth,
and among his friends his conversation was brisk
and natural, though frequently far too coarse for
a refined ear. In food he was extremely temper
ate, despite his corpulency, and he often fasted for
several days in succession. His inner life was one
of humble struggle, amid the strongest temptations
(due, in great part, to the bodily infirmities from
which he frequently suffered), for his own salva
tion, a phenomenon the more remarkable in view
of his unswerving conviction of the truth of his be
lief and his resolute attitude in the face of external
dangers. He never formed far‑reaching plane for
the future, feeling that speedy death awaited him.
Throughout his life he seemed to feel the impulse
of a higher power constraining him to toil and fight;
and in his obedience to the call he knew neither
fear nor anxiety, but calmly awaited the results
from on high. 	(Jortus KtSaTLIN t.)
For his contributions to hymnody Martin Luther deserves and receives the thanks of the Christian world. His activity in this direction included not only the writing of hymns but the compilation of hymnals, of which nine are on record, issued be‑
tween 1524 and 1545, five of these be2& His ing revisions of his GeiBtliehe Lieder.
Hymns. These hymnals always contained a
large proportion of his own compositions; thus the Etlich chriatlich Lider Lobgeaang uf6 Psalm (Wittenberg, 1524) contained eight hymns of which four were his own, the Geiatliche Lieder of
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
78
Wittenberg, 1543, contained sixty‑one hymns, of which lie composed thirty‑five. His own hymns were not all new, some of them being translations from the Latin, some revisions of pre‑Reformation German hymns, while others were versions of Psalms or paraphrases of other portions of Scripture. In all Luther left thirty‑eight hymns, the most celebrated of which is his "battle hymn," Ein' feats Burg ist unaer Gott, known best to those who worship in English in the version of Rev. F. H. Hedge, " A mighty fortress is our God," though the translation by Thomas Carlyle, "A safe stronghold our God is still," is justly celebrated on account of its strength and fidelity to the original. Other hymns which have passed into common use in English are Nun freut each dieben Christengerrtein, many times translated, but known beat in the version of Mrs. Charles, " Dear Christian people, all rejoice "; and Gelobet aeist du JeBU Christ, anonymously translated into " All praise to thee, eternal Lord." More than all other work of Luther, excepting only his translation of the Bible, his hymns have become the household possession of the German people, while his great battle hymn was sung by Gustavus Adolphus before the battles of Leipaic and Liitzen, and by others in times almost as critical.

Ba3Lroaasrsr: The Works of Luther have appeared in seven major editions: (1) the Wittenberg edition, 19 vole., 1b39‑b8; (2) the Jens edition 13 vole., lbbb‑58, with two supplementary vola., Eisleben, 1b84‑8b; (3) the Altenburg edition, 10 vole., 1881‑84, with additional volume, Halls, 1702; (4) the Leipeio edition, 23 vole., 1729 10; (b) the Walah edition, 24 vole.. Halls, 174017b3; (6) the Erlangen‑Frankfort edition, 103 vole., 18281898; and the Weimar edition, begun in 1883. of which 35 vole. are issued (1908). Notes upon these editions will be found in Hsuok‑Heraog, RE, u. 720‑721. A standard edition of the Works in English is in course of publication by the Lutherans is All Lands Co., Minneapolis, 1904 eqq. The principal collection of the " Letters is still that of W. M. L. de Wette sad J. K. 8eidemsnn, 8 vole., Berlin, 1826‑b0, though other collections are by C. A. H. Burkhardt, Leipsic, 1888; and D. C. A. Raw, Leipeic, 1878 (cf. G. Veesenmeyer, Litterargeechichte der Briefsammlunpsn . . . von Dr. Martin Lathe''. Berlin, 1821). Note should be made also of The Letters qt Martin Lather. Seceded and tranaiatsd by Margaret .1. Currie, London and New York, 1908. The beet edition of the Tieehreden, " Table Talk," is by C. E. FSrstemann and H. E. Bmdseil, 4 vole., Berlin, 1844 F8. Of the Table Talk there are many English tranelatione, e.g., by Capt. Henrie Bell, London, 1862, republished, Lewes, 1818; by W. Hsalitt, London, 1848; and the Centenary edition, ib. 1883. The Latin form, Colloquia. ed. H. E. Bindaeil, 3 vole., Detmar.1883‑88. Luther's Dichtungen were collected by K. GSdeke, Leipei0, 1883; and by G. 8chleuener, Wittenberg, 1892. Among selections from his works mention may be made of E. Leasing's Martin Luther ale deutacher %laaaiker, Hamburg. 1908 (from Luther's poetical and popular prose writings); and R. Neubauer's Martin Luther: sine AuewahZ aua aeinen SchriJten in alter 3chriJt)'orm. Here. 1908.
Lives written by contemporaries were: by Melsnchthon, in his preface to vol. ii. of the Latin Works in the Wittenberg edition; by M. Rataeberger, first published by C. G. Neudeoker, Jens, 1860; and by J. Matheeius, ed. G. Ltleehe in the Works of Matheeius, vol. iii., Prague, 1898. The beat life, made from the sources, is J. K6etlin, Martin Luther, rein Leban and seine &rhriften, 8th ed, by G. Kawerau, 2 vole., Berlin, 1903: and the moot accessible for English readers is H. E. Jacobs, Martin Luther, the Hero of the Reformation, New York, 1898. Among the immense literature upon Luther the following lives may be mentioned: M. Mic6elet, 2 vole., Paris, 1835, Eng. travel., London, 1848; M. Meurer, 3 vole., Dresden, 18431846: K. JOrgene, 3 vole.. Leipeic. 1846‑47: H. Lang. Berlin, 1870; G. A. Hoff, Paris. 1873; K. J. Ledderhoee.

79	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lather, Martin
Lntherane
Csrlaruhe, 1883; W. Rein, Leipsic, 1883. EnB. travel
New York, 1883; G. G. Evers, 6 vole., Maine, 1883‑91;
T. Kolde, Goths, 1884‑‑93; J. von Dorneth, 3 vole.,
Hanover, 1888‑89; P. Bayne, 2 vole., London, 1887;
C. Mifller, Munich, 1892; G. Freitag, Leipsic, 1901;
M. Rsde, 3 vole., Ttibingen, 1901; G. Buchwald, Leipsic,
1902; T. M. Lindsay, Luther and the German Reforma
tion, New York, 1903; A. Hausrath, 2 vole., Berlin, 1905;
J. Dose, Diieaeldorf, 1908; J. L. Nuelson, Cincinnati,
1908; and P. Bess, Urtaere relip£daeu Erzieher, vol. ii.,
Leipaio, 1908.
On various phases of Luther's activity consult: W. Baste, Dr. Martin Lathers Glauberealelare, Halls, 1845; E. Jones, Die Kanzelberedeamkeit Lathers, Berlin, 1852; C. H. Weisee, Die Chriatolopie Lathers, Leipsic, 1852; T. $srnaek, Lathers Theolopie, 2 vole., Erlangen, 18821888; C. E. Luthardt, Die Ethik Lathers, Leipsic, 1875; H, C. MBnekeberg, Lathers Lehre van der Kirche, Hamburg, 1878; H. Haring, Din Myatik Lathers. Leipsic, 1879; 8. Lommatzeeh, Lathers Lehre, Berlin, 1879; Danneil, Lathers GeiaUiche Lieder, Frankfort, 1883; F. W. F. Kattenbuaeh, Lathers Stallunp zu don 6kumeniacheu Splrabolen, Giessen, 1883; T. Kolde, Luther auf dam Reichstag ru
I. State Churches in Europe.
Name and History (§ 1).
Creed and Theology (¢ 2).
Relation to the Reformed Church (¢ 3).
Ritual and Worship (¢ 4).
Government (¢ 5).
II. Separate Lutherans. 1. in Prussia.
Scheibel at Breslau (11).
Movement Elsewhere Before 1840 (¢ 2).
Accession of Frederick William TV. (¢ 3).
Schism of 1880 (¢ 4). 2. Elsewhere. .
LUTHERANS.
Churches in Ream (§ 1). Churches in Hanover and Baden (¢ 2)• Churches in Saxony (f 3). III. Lutherans in America.
1. Early Settlements. Dutch Lutherans (¢ 1). Swedish Lutherans (¢ 2). German Lutherans (¢ 3).
2. Organization Under MOhlenberg. Preliminary Labors (¢ 1). Character of the Organisation (¢ 2).
3. Period of Deterioration, 1787‑1820. Effects of Rationalism (¢ 1). Change in Language (¢ 2).
	L State Churches in Europe: The Lutheran
Church in Europe is the oldest and probably the
largest of the Evangelical denominations which
sprang from the Reformation of the sixteenth cen
tury. It was named after the great leader, first,
in derision, by Roman Catholics, then by the fol
		lowers of Luther, though he protested
	z. Name against a sectarian use of his name.
	and Its usual title is " Evangelical Lu
	History. theran Church." In Prussia and other
		countries of Germany where the union
between Lutherans and Reformed has been intro
duced (since 1817), the name " Lutheran " has been
abandoned as a church title for " Evangelical " or
"Evangelical United." This Church has its home
in Germany, where it outnumbers all other Protes
tant denominations, and in Scandinavia (Den
mark, Sweden, Norway), where it is the established
or national Church. It extends to the Baltic prov
inces of Russia, and follows the German emigration
and the German language to other countries, espe
cially to the United States, where it is now one of
the strongest denominations (see below, 111.). The
total membership, including all branches, is esti
mated at about sixty millions. Its history may be
divided into five periods: (1) The pentecostal or
formative period of the Reformation, from the
promulgation of Luther's ninety‑five theses in 1517
to the publication of the " Book of Concord " in
1580. (2) The period of polemical orthodoxy, in
which the doctrinal system of the church was
Worms, Halls, 1883; A. W. Dieckhoff, Lathers Lehre in ihrar ereteu Gestalt. Rostock, 1887; G. 8chleuener, Luther ale Dic>tter, Wittenberg, 1892; E. 'Wagner, Luther ale Pddopep, Langensalza, 1892; E. $chkfer, Luther ale Kirchenhiatorsker, GOtetsloh, 1897; P. Frotacher, Luther and die Bauern, Leipsic, 1899; J. KSStlin, Lathers Theolopde, 2 vole., Stuttgart, 1901. For his share in Philip of Hesse's bigamous marriage, see W. W. Rockwell, Die Doppelehc den landprafen Philipp von Hessen, Marburg, 1903, end literature under Patttr OF HESSE. In English the best book on Luther's hymns is The Hymns of Martin Luther set to their Original Melodies, with an English Version, ed. L. W. Bacon and N. H. Allen, New York, 1883 (contains Luther's four prefaces to his hymn‑books and versions of all the hymns; of. Julian, Hymnology, pp. 703‑704 and references there to other pages where the hymns are annotated). On Luther as s translator of the Bible see BIBLE VERSIONS, B, VII., $ 3. For further discussions consult the works on the church history of the period, especially Schaff, Christian Church, vol. vi (where a good list of sources is given), end, in general, the literature under Rt.rotteceTION. A valuable review of recent Luther‑literature is in Theolopiache Rundechau, Oct. and Dec., 1908.
4. The General Synod. Organization and Purpose (¢ 1). Dissentient Movements (¢ 2).
5. Confessional Lutherans in the West. The Synod of Missouri (¢ 1).
The Buffalo Synod (¢ 2).
The Iowa Synod (¢ 3).
The Joint Synod of Ohio (¢ 4).
The Synodical Conference (¢ 5).
8. The Scandinavian Lutherans. The Swedes. Augustans, Synod ($ 1). The Norwegians (¢ 2). Other Scandinavians G 3).
7. The Lutherans in the South.
8. The General Council.
scholastically defined and analyzed in opposition to Romanism, Calvinism, and the milder and more liberal Melanchthonian type of Lutheranism (as represented by Calixtus), 1580‑1689. (3) The period of Pietism (Spener, d. 1705; and Franeke, d. 1727), or a revival of practical piety in conflict with dead orthodoxy, from 1689 (when Francke began his Collegia philobfblica in Halls) to the middle of the eighteenth century. The Pietistic movement is analogous to the Methodist revival in the Church of England, but kept within the limits of the Lutheran state churches and did not result in secession. (4) The period of rationalism, which gradually invaded the universities, pulpits, and highest judicatories, and effected a complete revolution in theology and church life to such an extent that the few Moravian communities were for some time almost the only places of refuge for genuine piety in Germany. (5) The period of revival of Evangelical theology and religion at the‑third centennial celebration of the Reformation, and the publication of Claus Harm's ninety‑five theses against the rationalistic apostasy (1817). In the same year Prussia took the lead in the union movement which brought the Lutheran and Reformed confessions under one system of government, but called forth the " Old Lutheran " reaction and secession (see UNION, ECCLESIASTICAL). Since then there has been a constant conflict between Evangelical and rationalistic tendencies in the Lutheran and the United Evangelical Churches of Germany.

Lutherans	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	80
The Lutheran Church acknowledges the three ecumenical creeds (the Apostles', the Nicene, and the Athanasian), which it holds in common with other orthodox churches, and, besides, six specific confessions which separate it from other churches.
These are: (1) The Augsburg Confess. Creed lion (see AO(iBBUR(3 CONFEBBION AND
	and	ITS Aroroox), drawn up by Melanch
Theology. thon and presented to the Augsburg
Diet in 1530, afterward altered by the author in the tenth article, on the Lord's Supper, 1540. This is the fundamental and most widely accepted confession of this church; some branches accept no other as binding. (2) The Apology of the Augsburg Confession, also by Melanchthon (1530). (3) and (4) Two catechisms of Luther (1529), a Larger and a Smaller (see CATECHISMS; LUTHER'S TWO CATECHISMS); the latter, for children and catechumens, is, next to Luther's German Version of the Bible (see BIBLE VER9ION9, B, VIL, § 3), his most useful and best‑known work. (5) The Schmalkald Articles (q.v.) by Luther (1529; strongly antipapal). (6) The Formula of Concord (q.v.), prepared by six Lutheran divines for the settlement of the Melanchthonian or synergistic controversy (see SYNERGISM), the CryptoCalvinistic controversy (see PHILIPPIBT$), and other doctrinal disputes which agitated the Lutheran Church after the death of Luther and Melanchthon. These nine symbolical books, including the three ecumenical creeds, were officially published by order of Elector Augustus of Saxony, in Latin and German, under the title Concordia (Leipsic and Dresden, 1580; best editions, outside the editio princeps, by J. G. Walch, Jena, 1750, and J. F. Miiller, 6th ed., 1886; best 'Eng. transl. by H. E. Jacobs, The Book of Concord, Philadelphia, 1893).
Two tendencies have always been in evidence in the Lutheran Church in its relation to the Reformed or Calvinistic Churches‑one rigid and exclusive, which is represented by the Formula. of Concord, the Lutheran scholastics of the seventeenth cen‑
tury, and the " New Lutheran " school 3. Relation in Germany; the other moderate and to the conciliatory, represented by the alReformed tered Augsburg Confession of 1540, by
Church. Melanchthon in his later period after
the death of Luther, Calixtus, John Arndt, Spener, Francke, Mosheim, the Swabian Lutherans, and those moderate Lutheran divines who sympathize with the Union and regard the differences between the two confessions as unessential and insufficient to justify separation and exclusion from communion at the Lord's table. The Lutheran Church is, next to the Church of England, the most conservative of the Protestant denominations, and retains many usages and ceremonies of the Middle Ages which the more radical zeal of Zwingli, Calvin, and Knox threw overboard as unscriptural corruptions. The strict Lutheran creed differs from the Reformed or Calvinistic in four points (as detailed in the semi‑symbolical Saxon Visitation Articles of 1592), viz.: (1) Baptismal regeneration, and the ordinary necessity of baptism for salvation. (2) The real presence of Christ's
body and blood " in, with, and under " the bread and wine during the sacramental fruition, usually called by English writers Consubstantiation (q.v.), in distinction from the Roman Catholic Transubstantiation (q.v.); but the term is not used in the Lutheran symbols and is rejected by the Lutheran divines, as well as the term " Impanation " (q.v.). Body and blood are not mixed with nor locally included in, but sacramentally and mysteriously united with, the elements. (3) The Communicatio Iddoneatuyn (q.v.) in the doctrine of Christ's person, whereby the attributes of the divine nature are attributed to his human nature, so that Ubiquity (q.v.), or conditional omnipresence, is ascribed to the body of Christ, enabling it to be really and truly, though not locally and carnally, present wherever the communion is celebrated. (4) The universal vocation of all men to salvation, with the possibility of a total and final fall from grace; yet the Formula of Concord teaches at the same time (with Luther, De servo orbitrio) the total depravity and slavery of the human will, and an unconditional predestination of the elect to everlasting life. It is therefore a great mistake to identify the Lutheran system with the later Arminian theory. Melanchthon'a synergism may be said to have anticipated Arminianism, but it was condemned by the Formula of Concord.
The foundation of the ritual of the Lutheran Church was laid in Luther's work Von ordenung gottea dienat ynn der genuytte (Wittenberg, 1523), and his Latin and German missals (1523, 1528). It was his intention to retain all that was good in
the service of the Roman Catholic q. Ritual Church, while discarding all unevanand gelical doctrines and practises. Thus,
Worship. in his Latin and German litanies,
which were in use in 1529 at Wittenberg, he made certain corrections and additions. The Lutheran Church uses a liturgy. The first complete form, or Agenda, was that of the Duchy of Prussia, 1525 (see AGENDA for a history of Lutheran liturgy). There is no authoritative form for the whole Church. A movement was set on foot in 1817 by Frederick William III. of Prussia to introduce a uniform Agenda; but it created intense excitement and caused the Old‑Lutheran secession (see below, IL). The various states of Germany have their own forms, which differ, however, only in minor particulars. Luther introduped the use of the vernacular into the public services, restored preaching to its proper place, acid insisted upon the participation of the congregation in the services, declaring " common prayer exceedingly useful and healthful." He rejected auricular confession as practised and required in the Roman Catholic Church, but advocated private and voluntary confession. This practise has been mostly given up. The rite of exorcism, which the Reformed Churches abandoned, was retained and recommended by Luther and Melanchthon. Hesshusius, in 1583, was the first to propose its omission, and it has since fallen into disuse in the Lutheran Church. The popular use of hymns was introduced by Luther, who was himself an enthusiastic singer, and by his own hymns became the

81	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lutherans
father of German hymnody (tee HYMNOLOGY, VI., §1; LUTHER, § 28). Congregational singing continues to form one of the principal features in the public services. The great festivals of the Church, such as Christmas, Easter, Pentecost, the Days of the Twelve Apostles, are observed with religious services, and the Reformation is commemorated on Oct. 31. Pictures are admitted into the churches.
The doctrinal development of the Lutheran Church was matured much earlier than its organization and polity. Luther was not an organizer. The necessity of organization, however, was deeply felt; and in 1529 a visitation of the churches of
Saxony was prosecuted, and auperinS. Govern‑ tendenta were appointed for the overment. sight of the congregations and schools.
The Order of Discipline of the Church in Saxony became the model for other books of discipline. The priesthood of all believers is a fundamental doctrine, and the parity of the clergy is recognized. In Sweden, when the whole country passed over to the Lutheran communion, the Roman Catholic bishops and archbishops retained their titles. The validity of the Swedish orders, from the standpoint of the Church of England, is s matter of dispute. The Danish Church likewise retsina the title " bishop," but no claim is made to apostolic succession. The first bishops under the new Danish regime were called superintendents (1538), and were consecrated by Bugenhagen. In Germany, church government is executed by conaistories (composed of ministers and laymen) and superintendents. These officers are appointed by the government, examine candidates for the ministry, appoint and remove pastors, fix salaries, and perform other duties. In Germany, as in Denmark and Sweden, the Lutheran Church is under the governmental patronage of the various states; the support of the congregations and the construction of church edifices are provided for out of the national revenues. The supreme consistory of Prussia since 1852 has been composed in part of Lutheran and in part of Reformed
members. 	PHILIP SCHAFFt.
[For further information regarding the Lutheran Church in Germany the reader is referred to the biographies .of the German Reformers, to the articles on the separate states of the German Empire (Anhalt, Baden, Bavaria, Brunswick, Alsace Lorraine, Hesse, Mecklenburg‑Schwerin, Mecklenburg‑Strelitz, Oldenburg, Prussia, Saxe‑Altenburg, Saxe‑Coburg‑Gotha, Saxe‑Meiningen, Saxe‑WeimarEisenach, Saxony, and WVrttemberg); see also DENMARK; GERMANY; NORWAY; and SWEDEN. SUCH articles &8 AQENDA; AUGSBURG CONFESSION AND/ITS APOLOGY; CHURCH GOVERNMENT; FORMULA OF CONCORD; PHILIPPIBTB; PROTESTANTISM; Bad UNION, ECCLESIASTICAL will be found abounding in information in regard to origins, development, doctrine, polity, and the like.)
1L Separate Lutherans.‑1. In prnasia : The Lutheran free churches in Germany do not recognize the position of the secular ruler as supreme head of the Church, and have organized independent congregations without the aid of the State. Originating primarily in hostility to the introdueVIL‑‑6
tion of the Union (q.v.) between the Lutheran and Reformed Churches, they do not, however, reject the State Church altogether.
The oldest and largest free church in Germany is the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Prussia, also known as Old Lutherans. It origina^
1. eoheibel ted from the opposition to the Union, at Breslan. which was introduced into Prussia is 181? and gradually carried through by 1830 (see L, § 1, above). Johann Gottfried Scheibel,.sesistant preacher at St. Elisabeth's in Breslau, was the leader of the opposition. He attacked the Union in his writings, from the pulpit, and at synods, and pleaded in vain to be permitted to explain to the king his scruples of conscience in a personal interview. Refusing to sign a statement of the Breslau clergy which recommended the amalgamation of the Lutherans and Reformed into one church, Scheibel was suspended from office for fourteen days. Several hundred members of Scheibel's congregation appeared before Scheibel, declaring that they would remain faithful to the Church of their fathers. The new congregation regarded itself se the continuation of the Lutheran Church hitherto legally soknowledged in'Prussi$, and asked the king to grant them a constitution. The authorities, however, saw in the new congregation only revolutionaries and dissenters, and their petitions long remained unanswered. Since Scheibel was strictly forbidden to officiate, the members of his congregation received the sacraments from Berger in Hermannsdorf, two miles from Breslau, who still used the old Lutheran agenda. When this too was forbidden, the heads of the families themselves baptized their children, and the Lord's Supper was distributed by lay elders, because of a total lack of Lutheran clergymen. In a ministerial order, dated June 13, 1831, Scheibel was required to use the new agenda, and the formation of a special Lutheran church was refused.
Meanwhile Baron von gottwitz had pleaded for the Lutherans before the king in Berlin. The king tried to remove their scruples against the agenda by the concession of the Lutheran formula of distribution, but he refused the formation of a dissenting church on the ground that with it the purity of the Lutheran Church within the Union was openly denied. In 1832, after being deposed from his offices in the church and the university, Scheibel left Breslau and settled in Dresden that he might advance the cause of the Lutheran Church by writing, unhindered by Prussian censorship. The former members of his congregation held meet, ings conducted by laymen, or turned to the few pastors in Silesia who had not yet adopted the new agenda.
In the neighborhood of ZUllichau, Juliusburg, and Strehlen the Separate Lutheran movement began, without special interference by the
2. move. clergy, in lay circles holding services
mgt El.e. and prayehmeetinge. On Apt. 4,1834,
where be. three pastors, four theological candi‑
tore 1840. dates, and thirty‑nine laymen united in a synod at Breslau and solemnly protested against the violation of the rights granted to the Lutheran Church in Prussia. A petition sent

Lutherans
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
by them to the authorities in Berlin was flatly refused, and the cabinet orders of Mar. 9 and 10, 1834, in which the State had prepared for the struggle, were now executed. The first was directed against " conventicles," and the second against the " unauthorized administration of spiritual official acts "; while the third referred to the obligation of all Evangelical parents to send their children to Evangelical schools. The church services of the Lutherans were suppressed, the official seta of their clergy were declared invalid, and no child was permitted to leave school before he had been confirmed by a clergyman of the Evangelical State Church. These and other oppressive measures only spread the movement. In 1835 another synod was formed at Breslau, but all clergymen participating in it were imprisoned. Some congregations even found themselves compelled to emigrate; a part of them went to Australia under the leadership of their pastors Navel and Fritzsche and formed the nucleus of the Lutheran Church of Australia; others followed Grabau to North America where they entered the Buffalo Synod (see below, IIL, 5, § 2). The king was deeply grieved at the outcome of his measures, yet he could not make up his mind to annul them and grant the Lutheran congregations their right of existence.
It was only after Frederick William IV. had ascended the throne in 1840 that conditions became more favorable for the Old Lutherans. One of the new ruler's first measures was to release the imprisoned Lutheran ministers, and at the request of the government, after some preliminary negotiations, the Lutherans presented a memorial on the
conditions under which the Evangel8, AO,,, ical Lutheran Church was to be so‑
sioa of knowledged as legal by the Prussian Frederick State. Before an answer had arrived,
William however, the first public Old‑Lutheran
General Synod met on Sept. 15, 1841. It established a comprehensive church order which is still in force in all essentials. The governmeht of all churches was entrusted to a board of clergy and laity. A General Synod, meeting every four years, was to form the supreme court of appeal, to which the ecclesiastical board was also responsible. In 1841 the first attempt was made at a synodical constitution of the Lutheran Church upon German soil, and thin organization found a certain measure of recognition by the State in the so‑called general concession of July 23, 1845. The dissenting congregations were freed from taxes payable to the State Church, and the official acts of their clergy were recognized by the State, but their places of worship were not recognized as churches. In a special concession of Aug. 7, 1847, the board in Breslau was also officially recognized, and twenty‑one congregations in the provinces of Silesia, Brandenburg, Pomerania, Prussia, Posen, and Saxony were granted corporate rights. At the meeting of the General Synod in 1860 the total number of 18,644 members in 1845 had increased to 55,017 in sixty‑two parochial districts, with sixty‑three ministers, thirty‑four Lutheran schools, and forty‑four teachers.
At the same synod a discord arose which shook
the Lutheran Church in Prussia to its depths and led to a fatal schism, the question concerning the
importance of church government.
4. Schism Several ministers were not willing to
of 1880. recognize church government as an
organic part of the Church. The General Synod of 1860 did not fully decide the question, but referred it to a committee for further investigation. Diedrich, the schismatic Old‑Lutheran pastor at Jabel, with his congregatibn soon renounced the supervision of the ecclesiastical board. A conference in Berlin in Oct., 1861, tried in vain to remove the difficulties in the doctrine of church government. A number of preachers aided with Diedrich and accused the ecclesiastical board of false doctrine. The rupture became irremediable when, on July 21, 1864, these preachers under the leadership of Diedrich organized a special body, the Immanuel Synod (see below). In a " Public declaration concerning the disputed doctrines of the Church, the church government and the church orders," issued in 1864, the ecclesiastical board stated that the external institutional aide of the Church could not be separated from its essence and conception, although the church government with regard to its special formation is baged upon human right. In recent times the Lutheran Church, subject to the ecclesiastical board in Breslau, has recovered from the shock of the schism caused by the separation of the Immanuel Synod. In 1883 there was established a theological seminary. The Church possesses also its own institution for deaconesaea, a pension fund for old pastors, for the widows of pastors, and 140 churches. It numbers about 51,600 members in sixty‑four parishes with seventy‑five ministers. The Evangelical Lutheran Immanuel Synod was formed in 1864 at Magdoburg, by Ehlers, Diedrich, and other preachers in consequence of the disputes on church government that had arisen within the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Prussia. Its leading idea is that the pastors as the sole incumbents of the spiritual office are bound to care for the church orders, and that the laity can freely take part in synods, with no restriction in number; the synod has properly no power of discipline over the ministers. The general concession of the State did not apply to the congregations of the Immanuel Synod, because they no longer were under the board of dissenting Lutherans recognized by the special concession of 1847. Consequently they had no corporate rights, and the official seta of their pastors had no validity before the State, but the civil law of 1874 removed the latter disability. The synod numbers about 5,300 persons, with thirteen ministers.
2. Elsewhere: The Independent Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Hessian lands originated in the opposition of the strictly Lutheran clergy to the new united church constitution introduced into the grand duchy of Hesse‑Darmstadt Jan: 6,
1874. It is true, the Union had been 1. Churches practically introduced into several
in Hesse. parts of the country since 1822, but
the pastors of a stricter confessional tendency had united since 1851 for the defense of their old rights. A synodical institution pub‑

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
fished in 1870 tried to unite all congregations without regard to confession. Seven protesting Lutheran ministers were deposed from office (June 25, 1875). Consequently they separated from the State Church and formed five congregations. In 1877 they formed a synod. In 1878 their number was augmented by confederation with a part of the dissenters in Lower Hesse, the so‑called "Homberg Konvent." In 1880 both church bodies united with the Lutheran Free Church in Hanover, and by a complete union of the congregations of HeaseDarmatadt with those of the Homberg Konvent into one church body there came into being the Independent Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Hessian lands which comprises now about 1,800 members with ten parishes and ten ministers. An ordinance for the organization of a common consietory for the Lutheran, Reformed, and Union Churches in the district of Cassel on June 13, 1868, called forth the protest of many clergymen. When it was actually established in 1873, forty‑two Reformed preachers of Lower Hesse under the leadership of Vihnar and Hoffmann as well as one Lutheran preacher is Upper Hesse refused to be subject to the new consistory, and adhered to the old Hessian church order. The consistory applied the severest measures, fines, suspension, and deposition, against the dissenting pastors. A few only being supported by their congregations, they were forced to emigrate. Those remaining in Hesse were forbidden to officiate until a decree of the higher tribunal in 1876 declared the deposed preachers laymen as regards the State, and thus protected their official acts against the decrees of punishment of the penal code. The Nonconformist Church of Lower Hesse comprises now about 2,400 members.
The Evangelical Lutheran Free Church in Hanover had its origin in the ecclesiastical struggles due to the annexation of the kingdom of Hanover and the danger of the Prussian Union. 2. Churches In spite of the promise of King Willies Hanover ram to maintain the existing order, the and Baden. Union made great progress. Open hostilities broke out on the occasion of the change in the wording of the marriage contract in connection with the introduction of the civil status law. in 1876. A number of clergymen under the leadership of Harms in Hermannsburg refused to use the new wording, seeing in it a denial of what he conceived to be the Christian nature of marriage. In 1878 they separated from the State Church and founded the Evangelical Lutheran Free Church in Hanover. It is governed on the basis of the Luneburg church order by a board composed of clergy and laity. There are at present eight parishes with about 3,050 members and ten ministers. The Hermannsburg Free Church originated from a split in the Evangelical Lutheran Free Church in Hanover. It numbers about 2,800 members and two ministers. In the grand duchy of Baden the confessional union of the Lutheran and Reformed Churches was executed in 1821 without opposition. Only the awakening faith in Germany and the Lutheran movement instigated by LShe in Bavaria created in Baden also a desire for a clear and un‑
Latherans
ambiguous confession of the Lutheran Church. Karl
Eichhorn, a preacher in Nuesloch, started a Luther
an movement which led to the formation of small
Lutheran congregations which soon petitioned for
recognition, but were flatly refused. Eichhorn was
repeatedly thrown into prison and finally banished
into a remote place, but the Lutheran movement
increased from year to year, and at last, in 1856,
toleration was granted to its adherents. The con
gregations in Baden number about 1,330 members.
	The Evangelical Lutheran Free Church in Sax
ony and other states has an entirely different char
acter from that of the other Lutheran free church
in Germany. While the others were called forth
		more or leas by the opposition against
8.Ohnrchesthe Union, this Fry Church was
	is Saxony. formed in the midst of Lutheran ter
		ritories, partly even of such as had
separated already from the State Church on so
count of the Union. It stands in connection with
the Missouri Synod in America (see below, IL, 5,
§ 1), and declares all other Lutheran state and free
churches unfaithful to the confession. The occa
sion for the formation of the Free Church in Sax
ony was the change into a mere vow of the oath
of religion binding upon Lutherans. Many pro
tested against this change, seeing in It a concession
to infidelity. On the recommendation of Walther,
I~ the leading spirit of the Missouri Synod, an asso
ciation of strict Lutherans called Ruland from
America to Saxony, who in the most violent man
ner criticized the defects of the Saxon State Church
and made separation from it as well as from all
other State Churches a duty of conscience. On
	Nov. 6, 1876, all dissenting congregations in Saa
	ony united to form the Evangelical Lutheran Free
Church in Saxony and other states. The addition
	" and other states " shows that this Fry Church
intends to gather around its banner the strict Lu
therans from all Lutheran churches in Germany.
At the end of 1901 it numbered about 2,230 mem
	bers and seven pastors in Saxony, and 1,350 mem
bers with eight pastors outside of Saxony. Be
sides these free churches in Germany there are also
congregations that arose frequently only from local
conflicts with the State Church. The common aim
of all free churches to found the church on Holy
Scripture and the Lutheran confession alone can
easily be justified; for this was the aim of the
Reformation and is in harmony with the early
Christian Church. The form of royal supremacy
over the Protestant Church seems to be irrecon
cilable with the modern State, but it is also feared
that the Lutheran ChtirCh; UIlIPg It Were a State
Church, might lose its hold upon the people, but
the development of the Lutheran Church in
North America shows that this is not necessarily
the case. 	(G. FaoeOes.)
III. Lutherans in America:‑1. Early Settlements ; According to the testimony of the Jesuit Isaac Jogues in the year 1643 Lutherans were living in Manhattan (New Amsterdam‑New York) along with Calvinists, Puritans and Ansbaptista. The recognized religion of the colony of New Netherlands was the strict Calvinism of the Synod of Dort, and the Lutherans were treated

Lutheran,	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	84
harshly, 'especially by Peter Stuyveeant, the general director. Their children had to be brought to Calvin‑
ietic preachers for baptism, and they 1. Dutch were forced to accept the doctrines of Lutherans. the Synod of Dort. The Lutherans were
fined and imprisoned even for . holding informal services for the reading of the Word of God. They applied to the directors of the Dutch West India Company in Holland for better treatment and to the Lutheran oonaiatory in Amsterdam for a faithful Lutheran pastor. The Rev. John Ernest Goetwater arrived on June 8, 1857, in America., but through the influence of the Calvinistic preachers Megalopolenais and Drisius was forbidden to exercise his ministry and forced to return to Europe. When New Amsterdam was captured by the British in 1664 the Lutherans secured freedom in matters of worship and discipline. In the year 1889 Jacob Fabriciua had been sent over from Holland, but his ministry in New York was a disappointment. He was succeeded by Bernhard Anton Arensius (1671‑91) who also served the Lutherans at Albany. As no additional preachers could be obtained from Amsterdam, the New York Lutherans (1701) applied to the Lutheran Swedes on the Delaware, who sent Andreas Rudman (July, 1702). He recommended as his successor Justus Falekner (born 1872 in Saxony) who was ordained for the Lutheran ministry by Rudman, Bjoerk, and Sandal in the Swedish Church at Philadelphia in Nov., 1703‑‑a German, ordained by Swedes to serve a Dutch congregation in Americal His parish included the territory from New York to Albany on both aides of the Hudson and on Long Island. After his death, 1723, the Lutheran Connietory of Amsterdam at the request of the New York congregation sent as his successor in 1725 Wilhelm Chriatoph Berkenmeyee (born 1688 in Liineburg, died 1751) a man of great energy and the strictest adherence to the Lutheran Confessions. Under, his pastorate and that of his successor Michael Knoll the transition was made in the Lutheran congregations in New York from the Dutch to the German and English languages.
Through William Usselina of Antwerp the Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus had been sufficiently interested in the New World to grant a charter to the " South Company " in Stockholm (June 14, 1628) which, in addition to its work of colonization,
	was, from the very beginning, to un
	Jd. 8wed1 h dertake the propagation of the Gospel
Lutherans. on this Western Continent. After the
death of the king his great chancellor Osenatierna continued to work for the realization of the plan. Peter Minuit, general director of New Netherlands, joined in the Swedish enterprise and sailed two Swedish vessels into the Delaware river (1838) where Fort Christina was built and an extensive territory was purchased from the Iroquois Indiana. Reorua Torkillua was the first Lutheran pastor in New Sweden (died 1643). He was euoneeded by John Campanius, who had arrived with Governor Johan Priatz. He consecrated the first Lutheran church in the new world, on the island of Tinicum, near Philadelphia. He also translated Luther's Smaller Catechism into the language of
the Indiana. He returned to Sweden in May, 1848, where he died in 1883. When the Dutch took possession of New Swedes, the adherents of the Augaburg Confession obtained the guaranty of their religious liberties (1655). This was also secured to them when the British occupied New Sweden (1674). During the last quarter ~of the seventeenth century the Swedish Lutherans on the Delaware were much neglected, until King Charles IX. sent them such pastors as Rudman, Erik Bjoerk, and Jonas Auren. These were followed by other godly men, such as Karl Magnus Wrangel, whose name occurs again in the history of the German Lutherans, and Israel Acrelius, author of the History of New Suxdxn. (English by Dr. W. M. Reynolds, Philadelphia, 1874). All these pastors sent over from Sweden were salaried by the king and, as a rule, returned to their native church after a few years of American service. The last among them, Nils Collie, arrived in America in 1771. Under him the union with the Swedish mother church was formally dissolved. He took Episcopal ministers for his assistants and thus opened the way for the use by these Swedish Lutheran Churches of the English language and their transition into the communion of the Protestant Episcopal Church. He died in 1831.
William Penn had visited Germany in 1671 and 1677 with a view to obtaining rattlers for his young American colony, Pennsylvania. It was not the interest of trade and commerce, as in the case of the Dutch, nor the colonial policy of far‑seeing statesmen, as in the case of the Swedes, that brought the German immigration to America,
8. German but foremost the desire of unlimited Lutherans. freedom of worship, and the insecurity of life and property under the constant raids of their French neighbors from which particularly the Palatinate had to suffer. The first German colony, under the leadership of Frank Paatorius, arrived in 1883 and founded Germantown, now a part of Philadelphia. These first immigrants, however, consisted mostly of eeparatiatic elements. There was one isolated German Lutheran congregation in New Hanover, some thirty‑five miles from Philadelphia, whose origin can be traced as far back as 1703. With the beginning of the eighteenth century the German immigration assumed larger dimensions. Lutherans and Reformed crossed the ocean in considerable numbers, and there are now more regularity and vitality in the newly established Lutheran congregations. A number of Lutheran immigrants under Pastor Joshua Kocherthal (d. 1719) from Landau (Palatinate) arrived in 1709 in New York and settled on the Hudson above West Point. There they founded the town of Newburg, for which they had received a grant of 2,200 acres of land, 500 of which were to be devoted to church purposes. During the summer of 1709 Kocherthal returned to England to obtain additional favors. and privileges for his colonists. Of the thousands of German emigrants from the Palatinate, Alsace, and W iirttemberg, that had been kept by the British government on "Black Heath," about 3,000 were brought to America in 1710, where they settled on both shores of the Hudson river at the

86	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lutherans
foot of the Catskill Mountains. In 1712 hundreds of them wandered northward to the Schoharie, where they were kindly received by the Indiana. Eleven years afterward a considerable number of these colonists turned southward along the Susquehanna river to found new homes in Pennsylvania. Kocherthal'n successors in the service of the German congregations in the State of New York were Justus Falckner, Wilhelm Chrietoph Berkenmeyer, and Michael Knoll, who at the same time ministered to the Dutch Lutherans. Isolated groups of German Lutherans with modest beginnings of congregational organization are found in the eighteenth century along the whole Atlantic coast as far as Georgia, in New Jersey, Virginia, North and South Carolina. Moat prominent among them was the colony of Lutheran Salzburgera in Georgia, near Savannah. A number of the Salzburg Lutherans who were expelled by Archbishop Firmian, in 1731, had been recommended to the English court and were offered moat favorable terms by the British government. They embarked at Rotterdam in the fall of 1733, with two pastors, John Martin Boltzius and Israel Christian Gronau. Governor Oglethorpe gave them a hearty welcome and they established the colony of Ebenezer, about twenty‑five miles inland from Savannah. Wesley and Whitefield took a kindly interest in those immigrants and gave them material support. In eastern Pennsylvania up to the middle of the eighteenth century some 30,000 German Lutherans had settled, for whose spiritual wants there was, at first, no adequate provision. Much disorder and offense was caused by unworthy subjects who assumed the office of the ministry without proper call and qualification. In order to secure faithful ministers three congregations, New Hanover, New Providence (Trappe), and Philadelphia united in an application to Friedrich Michael Ziegenhagen, court preacher at St. James' Chapel, London, and Gotthilf August Franeke in Halls. Negotiations were carried on in an extended correspondence, from 1734 to 1739. In the year 1741 Count Ludwig Zinzendorf arrived and, under the name of Herr von Thuernatein, offered his services to the Lutherans in Pennsylvania as " Evangelical‑Lutheran inspector and pastor." He secured a call from a number of German Lutherans in Philadelphia, to whom he preached his famous " Pennsylvania discourses." John Christopher Pyrhieus, whom he had appointed as a substitute in his place, was violently expelled by the Lutherans in 1742. In the fall of the same year there appeared Valentin Kraft, formerly pastors in Zweibruecken, Palatinate, a man of questionable character, whore activity among the German Lutherans helped to increase the general confusion.
B.Orgsniastion reader Xuhlenberg: Henry Melchior MUhlenberg (q.v.) was encouraged by Dr. Franeke in Halls to accept the call to Pennsylvania, Sept. 6,1741. In April, 1742, he arrived in London where the formal vocation from the three Pennsylvania congregations was handed to him by Frederick Michael Ziegenhagen. Living London on June il he arrived in Charleston, S. C., Sept. 23, 1742, as he had been commissioned to visit the Salzburg colonies in Georgia. He reached Philadelphia Nov. 25, and at once proceeded to New Hanover
and New Providence. In Philadelphia he preached his first sermon Dec. 5, and three weeks afterward
was formally recognized as the rights. Pre‑ ful Pastor of the Lutheran congrega‑
liminary tics. Heat once curbed the pretenLabors. aloes of Valentin Kraft and also
succeeded in maintaining in a dignified manner his position against Count Zinzendorf, who attempted to call him to account in the presence of the officers of the Lutheran Church of Philadelphia. The magistrate of the city ordered Zinzendorf to give up the records and communion vessels of the Lutherans, and the count left the city and the country Jan. 1, 1743. Now Miihlenberg's work of church‑organization began under many difficulties. The three congregations from whom he had a direct call were thirty‑five miles apart, and to nerve them regularly with the means of grace involved many hardships and dangers. An soon as the influence of his work of organization became known, his services in removing difficulties and restoring order were asked by other congregations, each as Tulpehocken, Germantown, Lancaster, and York. In the spring of 1743 the cornerstone of St. Michael's Church in Philadelphia, and that of the Augustus Church (Trappe) were laid. The latter church is still standing and clone to its walls Miihlenberg is buried. Until the time of the revolutionary war the directors of the Franeke institutions at Halls, together with Dr. Ziegenhagen in London, had full control of the congregations organized by Miihlenberg and his colaborera who were tent after him from Halls. Regular reports were rent over to Halls and were published under the title " Halls Reports of the United German Evangelical Lutheran Congregations in North America, particularly Pennsylvania " (1744‑87, new ed., with valuable historical annotations and additions, ed. Drs. W. J. Mann, B. M. Schmucker, and W. Germane, Allentown, Pa., 1888). The most important step taken by Miihlenberg for the permanent organization of the Lutheran Church on this continent was the founding of the Synod of Pennsylvania, Aug. 28, 1748. There were present on this occasion the Swedish Provost Sandin and Pastors Hartwig of New York, Miihlenberg, Brunnholtz, Handschuh, and Kurz, who was ordained at this first meeting.
The character of this first synodical organization was, .however, in the beginning rather loose and informal. No regular constitution was adopted, not even a formal election of a presiding officer. As a
matter of course the position of leadet8. Charac‑ ship was accorded to Miihlenberg. ter of the The Collegium pastorum received the
Criranisa‑ reports and requests of the lay delegates tics. and acted on them. The latter had
no vote, which was accorded to them only in the year 1792. The relation between the ministers and the lay element was one of patriarchal or apostolic simplicity. The unselfish devotion and faithfulness, the pastoral wisdom and experience of the leading men above all, of Milhlenberg himself, secured the full confidence of the congregations, without any fear of hierarchical presumptions or aggressions on the part of the ministers. The

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Lutherans
doctrinal and confessional position of those fathers was unequivocally that of the historical standards of the Lutheran Church. The liturgy, adopted at the first meeting of the synod, which was made obligatory for all pastors and congregations, was based on the Saxon and North German orders with which Muhlenberg had been familiar in Germany, each as those of Luneburg 1564, Calenberg 1569, Saxony 1712, and Brandenburg‑Magdeburg 1739. From 1748 to 1786 this first Pennsylvania agenda existed only in manuscript form. From 1754 to 1760 no regular meetings were held and the young synod seemed to be threatened with extinction. But in 1760, particularly through the influence of the Swedish Provost Karl Magnus Wrangel, the intimate friend of Miihlenberg, the body was revived and from that time on there is no break in its regular meetings. The constitution of the Evangelical Lutheran Miniaterium of North America gradually took shape and was entered in the minute book in the year 1781. In those years Miihlenberg also prepared the first constitution for the mother congregation in Philadelphia (St. Michael's) which was formally adopted in 1762 and became the model for most of the Lutheran congregations in the East, giving the administration of congregational affairs into the hands of the church council, consisting of pastors, elders, and deacons. In 1766 Miihlenberg encouraged the Philadelphia congregation to undertake the erection of a new church, Zion's, which was completed in 1769, and, with its 2,500 sittings, was considered the largest and moat beautiful sanctuary in North America. In this building Congress held its memorial service for George Washington. Before the death of Miihlenberg the second Lutheran Synod in America, the Ministerium of New York, was founded by his son, Frederick August Conrad Miihlenberg, pastor of the German Lutheran Christ Church in New York City (1773). Miihlenberg'a son‑in‑law, the scholarly John Christopher Kunze (q.v.), took a leading position in this body, over which he presided from 1785 till his death in 1807.
8. Period of Deterioration, 1787‑1820: The prevailing rationalism of the close of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century did not affect the Lutheran Church of North America quite as strongly as it did the churches of England
and Germany. With few exceptions
1. Effects the Lutheran pastors in America adof Ration‑ hered to the confession of Christ, the alism. Son of God, and the Word of the Cross.
The traveling preachers of the mother synod did active missionary work in the West and Southwest, organizing congregations and conferences which formed the nucleus for new synods in Virginia, Ohio, Tennessee, North Carolina, Maryland, and western Pennsylvania. Among the tracts and religious literature which they distributed the Augsburg Confession had a prominent place. The parish schools were numerous and in flourishing condition. In the year 1820 not less than 206 parochial schools are reported by eighty‑four congregations of the Pennsylvania Ministerium. Nevertheless, there were unmistakable signs that the strict confeaeionalism of the early Lutherans was
beginning to weaken and to yield to indifferentism and subjectivism. The altered constitution of the Pennsylvania Miniaterium of 1792 made no reference to the confessional standards, though the pastors continued to pledge their adherence to the symbolical books at their ordination. After Kunze's death Frederick Henry Quitmann became the leader of the New York Miniaterium. He was a pupil of Semler, a decided adherent of the common rationalism, and it was through his influence that the old Lutheran Catechisms, Hymn‑books, and Agenda gave way to modern publications, which were to have " due regard to the needs of the rising generation." The same tendency manifested itself in Pennsylvania, where the Hymnbook of 1817 ( Des Geniei.:nachaftliche Gesangliuch) for the use of Lutheran and Reformed Churches, and the Agenda of 1818 represented a complete falling away not only from the historical, conservative order of service, but also from positive Lutheran doctrine, in the orders for baptism, communion, and ordination. In 1797 the New York Miniaterium resolved that, on account of the close relation between the Lutheran and Protestant Episcopal Church and their ' similarity of doctrine, it would never recognize an English Lutheran church in a locality where the services of the Episcopal church could be attended by the Lutherans. This resolution, which was, however, cancelled after seven years, revealed the strong antagonism of the Germans to the English language.
The conflicts arising in this period through the transition from the use of German to that of English greatly retarded the progress and healthy development of the Lutheran Church. In New York the English became the official language of the minieterium in the year 1807 and held that position until 1866, when at the formation of the General Council, the English element ee‑
2. Change ceded and the German took the lead. In Lan. In Philadelphia the language contro‑
gnase. versy led to a split in the mother congregation. The English element, under the leadership of Peter Miihlenberg, had demanded the appointment of a third pastor who should officiate in the English language. This request being refused, St. John's Church was organized in 1806 as the first English Lutheran congregation. The Ministerium of Pennsylvania, the decision of which had been asked in the language controversy, resolved in 1805 forever to remain a German‑speaking body. But it recommended the formation of English congregations and provided for their admission into the synod on condition that they accept its constitution. In other towns of Pennsylvania the language difficulty adjusted itself in a more peaceful manner. The German congregations first became German‑English, with two j pastors for the two languages. Gradually the English gained the ascendency and dismissed the German element with sufficient financial assistance, so that new German churches could be built. By this peaceable process of transition the descendants of the old Lutheran families were retained in the church of their fathers, in the English language, while in Philadelphia multitudes were lost to the

87
RELIGIOUS
English denominations of another faith. The national and linguistic feeling was stronger with the Germans than their ecclesiastical and Lutheran consciousness. They felt themselves nearer to the Reformed Germans than to the English‑speaking Lutherans, and the venerable Charles Frederick Schaeffer (q.v.) of New York voiced the general sentiment when he said, in a letter addressed to the Pennsylvania Synod in 1819, that " as the Lutherans and Reformed in Germany had been brought together in one united church, so the true Germans in America should, in this respect, follow the example of the Germans in Germany."
4. The General Synod: At this critical period in the history of the Lutheran Church in America the first steps were taken toward the formation of a Lutheran General Synod, in order to stop the threatening disintegration, to unite more firmly the scattered members of the Lutheran
1. Organ‑ Church on this continent, and to secure ization and for her a recognized position. The
	Purpose.	mother synod of Pennsylvania took
		the initiative at its convention in Har
risburg, 1818. An organization was effected in
Hagerstown, Pa., in 1820, and in the following year
the first regular convention was held in Frederick,
Md., the Synods of Pennsylvania, North Carolina,
and Maryland=Virginia being represented. New
York sent no delegates until 1837. Ohio and Ten
nessee stood aloof. Pennsylvania withdrew again
in 1823, yielding to the unreasonable anxiety of
some of its country congregations who feared the
danger of hierarchical oppression on the part of the
general body. Thus, for eight years the General
Synod consisted of the small synods of North Caro
lina, Maryland‑Virginia, and West Pennsylvania.
The Hartwick Synod, in the State of New York,
entered in 1831, the synod of South Carolina in
1835; New York in 1837. At all times the Gen
eral Synod represented only a minority of Lu
therans in America. For a considerable period
the mother synod of Pennsylvania alone outnum
bered the general body. The General Synod un
doubtedly was a courageous and determined at
tempt to perpetuate the Lutheran Church and to
give her a standing and recognition in America,
such as she had not enjoyed before. It succeeded
in organizing the educational and missionary work
of the church. The establishment of the theolog
ical seminary in Gettysburg, the sending of a dele
gation to Germany to rouse the sympathies of the
fatherland and to collect contributions for the Lu
theran Church in America, the formation of the
Parental Educational Society, the Central Mission
ary Society, and the Foreign Missionary Society
were measures of the highest importance, looking
to the vital interests of the Lutheran Church in her
new western home. There was, from the begin
ning, an element that sought to remain in contact
with the faith of the fathers and the historical Lu
theran Church and manifested a certain conscious
ness and appreciation of the peculiar gifts and
responsibilities of the Lutheran Church and an
endeavor to assert and preserve her individual
character. But then these was, on the other side,
a broad and powerful current of unionism and in‑
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Lutherans
differentiem which declared, in an official commu‑
nication to the Evangelical Church in Germany (1845) : " In most of our church principles we stand on common ground with the Union Church of Germany. The distinctive doctrines which separate the Lutheran and the Reformed Churches we do not consider essential. The tendency of the socalled old Lutheran party seems to us to be behind the time. Luther's peculiar views concerning the presence of the Lord's body in the communion have long been abandoned by the majority of our ministers." While in the Pennsylvania Synod, during the thirty years of its separation from the General Synod, a more conservative and churchly spirit had gradually gained the ascendancy, it nevertheless maintained friendly relations with the General Synod. On several occasions approaches were
made by prominent men of the General Synod
toward the restoration. of the union. The Penn
sylvania Liturgy and Hymn‑Book were adopted by
the General Synod. And the Pennsylvania Synod
endowed a professorship in Pennsylvania College,
Gettysburg, belonging to the General Synod. Thus
the way was prepared for the formal return of the
mother synod to the General Synod, which took
place in 1853. The step was taken in the hope of
strengthening the conservative element in the Gen
eral Synod and with the reservation, that " should
at any time the General Synod violate its constitu
tion and require of our synod, or of any synod, as a
condition of admission to or continuation of mem
bership, assent to anything conflicting with the
old and long‑established faith of the Evangelical
Lutheran Church, then our delegates are hereby
required to protest against such action, to with
draw from its sessions, and to report to this body."
	In order to define more clearly the position of
American Lutheranism, which was claimed to be
the position of the General Synod in its majority,
Samuel Simon Schmucker published in 1855 the
Lutheran Manual, an American recension of the
		Augsburg Confession, the " Definite
2. Dissen‑ Platform," in which the seven articles
bent Move. on abuses are entirely omitted, and of
	manta. the twenty‑one doctrinal articles twelve
		are more or less altered, particularly
those treating of the sacraments. The effect of
this publication was a disappointment to the au
thor and his party. It opened' the eyes even of the
indifferent and undecided ones and caused them to
reflect. On all aides strong protests arose against
this attack on the venerable Augustana. Only a
few Western synods adopted the " Definite plat
form." While, even then, an open rupture was
for the time avoided, the " Definite Platform " cer
tainly hastened the crisis in the General Synod.
During the Civil War the Southern churches had
withdrawn and established the General Synod of
the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Confed
erate States of America, j1863). The second, far
more important rupture dates from the conven‑
tion of the General Synod in York, Pa., 1864. The
Franckean Synod, New York State, applied for ad
mission into the General Synod. It had never
formally adopted the Augsburg Confession, and
had been declared Sabellian and Pelagian by the

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Lutherans
civil coilrta. It was received into the General Synod by a vote of ninety‑seven to forty. The Pennsylvania delegation protested and withdrew. A number of delegates from other synods joined in the protest of the Pennsylvanians. To avoid the threatening rupture the doctrinal basis of the General Synod was amends so as to recognize the Augsburg Confession as a correct exhibition of the fundamental doctrines of the divine Word, and of the faith of the Church founded upon that Word. But the important question, which doctrines were to be considered as fundamental, remained open, most of the American Lutherans considering the distinctive doctrines that separated Lutherans and Reformed as non‑fundamental. The action at York was answered by the Pennsylvania Minieterium in the establishment of her own theological seminary at Philadelphia, in July, 1864 (first faculty: Drs. C. F. Schaeffer, W. J. Mann, C. P. Krauth, C. W. Schaeffer, G. F. Krotel; present faculty: A. Spaeth, H. E. Jacobs, J. Fry, G. F. Spieker). The Pennsylvania Miniaterium, still considering itself a member of the General Synod, appointed delegates to represent it at the next convention of the General Synod in Fort Wayne, 1886. Here the final crisis occurred through the action of the presiding officer, S. S. Sprecher, who refused to accept the credentials of the Pennsylvania delegates when the roll of the synods was called, declaring that synod to be " out of practical union with the General Synod." Nothing was left to the delegation but to withdraw again and to report to their ministerium, which now formally severed its connection with the General Synod and issued a fraternal letter, inviting all Evangelical Lutheran Synods in the United States and Canada to unite in the formation of a new general body, " first and supremely for the maintenance of unity in the true faith of the Gospel, and in the uncorrupted Sacraments, as the Word of God teaches and our Church confesses them; and furthermore for the preservation of her genuine spirit and worship, and for the development of her practical life in all its forma." In response to this fraternal address the " heading Convention " was held, in Dec., 1868, at which Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, Pittsburg, Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Canada, the Norwegian Synod, and the Sweden were represented. The " Fundamental Articles of Faith and Church Polity," drawn up by Charles Porterfield Krauth, were discussed and unanimously adopted. The organization of " The General Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in North America " was resolved.
At present the following synods belong to the General Synod: Maryland, West Pennsylvania, Hartwiok. East Ohio, Frenclcean (N. Y.). Allegheny (Pa.), East Pennsylvania, Miami (Ohio), Wittenberg (Ohio), Olive Branch (Ind., Ky., Teen.). Northern Illinois, Central Pennsylvania, Iowa, Northern Indiana, Pittsburg (W. Pa.), Susquehanna (N. E. Pa.), Kansas, Nebraska, New York and New Jersey, Wartburg (German, West and South), California. Rocky Mountain (Colorado, New Mexico, Wyoming). Nebraska (German), Central Illinois, Southern Illinois, numbering s total of 1,322 ministers, 1,734 congregations. 288.489 communicants. The General Synod has b theological seminaries with 22 professors and 103 students. It has foreign mission stations in the Telugu land, East India, and in Liberia, Fast Africa, with 80 missionaries, 550 native helpers,
34,053 native Christians, 10,500 pupils in mission schools, and 3,900 candidates for baptism.
6. Confessional Lutherans is the West: About s quarter of a century before the revival of confessional Lutheranism in the General Synod led to disruption and to the organization of the General Council, Lutheran immigrants from Saxony, Prussia, and Bavaria, who had left the fatherland on account of their faith, undertook the foundation of strictly Lutheran bodies, which, though frequently engaged in sharp controversies, were remarkably successful in gathering the large Lutheran population of the West into strong ecclesiastical organizations.
In the month of Nov., 1838, hundreds of earnest Lutherans, under the leadership of Martin Stephen, pastor of the Bohemian Church at Dresden, resolved to emigrate to America.' The hopeless condition of their home church, the opposition to the
Lutheran confession, and the preva‑
1. The lance of rationalism, drove those peo‑
Synod of plc out of their native land where they
Missouri. despaired of seeing their ideal of the
Church realized. Stephen was distinguished by his remarkable eloquence in the pulpit, his knowledge of men, and his pastoral ability in dealing with souls in a state of despondency under severe spiritual trials. Though he had had difficulties with the ecclesiastical authorities in Saaony, no charges had affected his character. His adherents had absolute confidence in him and trusted him not only with their spiritual guidance but even with the administration of their worldly possessions. They numbered altogether about 700 persons, among them several faithful pastors of the Lutheran Church in Saxony, like O. H. Walther, C. F. W. Walther, E. G. W. Keyl, and G. H. Locher. One of the vessels on which the immigrants embarked was lost at sea with all on board. The others landed in Jan., 1839, at New Orleans and settled in St. Louie and in Parry Co., Mo. Soon after their arrival Stephen was found to be unworthy, guilty of defalcation and gross immorality. They cast him off, and Carl Ferdinand Wilhelm Walther (q.v.) became their principal leader. When the catastrophe of Stephen's exposure overwhelmed the Saxon immigrants, and they themselves .were in doubt, whether they still were a Christian Church and their pastors real officers of the. church by divine right, it was Walther who brought light and encouragement to the downcast little band. He founded the semimonthly Dar Lutheraner and later on the theological monthly Lehre and Wehre. By means of these publications he gathered a number of like‑minded men, and prepared the way for the organization of the synod of Missouri, which met for the first time in Chicago, Ill., Apr. 26, 1847. In the same year the educational institution founded by W. Loehe in Fort Wayne, Ind., was transferred to the synod of Missouri, and the theological seminary of the Saxon immigrants in Parry Co. was moved to St. Louis, where Walther became the head of the faculty. From the very beginning the synod of Missouri placed itself on the foundation of the Lutheran confessions as contained in the Book of Concord of 1580, rejecting all kinds

89
of unionism and syncretism with those of another faith. Continued doctrinal discussions at synods, conferences, and congregational meetings, regular visitations of the churches, and the faithful training of the children in their parochial schools were the means of not only holding the synod itself firmly together in one spirit, but also of enlarging it rapidly in every direction. Special emphasis was laid on the rights of the congregation, and all "High‑church" ideas concerning the ministry were repudiated. The authority of the synod in its relation to the congregations is advisory in character. The right of vote at synodical meetings is confined to the delegates of congregations and to those pastors who actually serve congregations in full connection with the synod. All other pastors, teachers, and professors are only advisory members. The wisdom and consistency of Walther's management proved a powerful attraction, which succeeded in overcoming and assimilating even antagonistic elements. At its second convention the synod numbered fifty‑five ministers, among them many who had enjoyed a thorough theological training at. German universities, who knew how to adapt themselves admirably to their new American environments, and who worked together with the greatest personal devotion and self‑denial. In 1909 the synod of Missouri extended from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico and Brazil. Including the English Synod (1888) and the Slovak Synod (1902) it numbered 2,086 ministers, 2,584 congregations, 498,409 communicants. It had two theological seminaries with 12 professors and 396 students.
The Missouri Synod in Brazil.‑In the year 1899 Pastor Brutschin of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, applied to the synod of Missouri with the request that pastors be sent to that territory. The General Committee for Home Missions of the Missouri Synod sent C. J. Broilers to examine the field in 1900. He was followed by,other pastors in 1901 who took up the work in the interest of the Missouri Synod in the district of San Lorenzo. In the year 1902 W. Mahler, henceforth the leader of the Missouri pastors in Brazil, established himself in Porto Allegre. In 1903 the publication of a periodical in the interest of the Missouri Synod was undertaken and an institution founded for the training of pastors and teachers, which, after a temporary interruption, was reopened at Porto Allegre in 19_07. In 1904 the synod of Brazil was organized as a sepa_ rate district of the Missouri Synod. It numbers at present 20 pastors, ministering to 8,251souls, including 3,943 communicants, and 1,234 voting members. In Europe (Germany and Denmark) the Missouri Synod numbers 29 pastors, in Australia, in two districts, 38 pastors, in New Zealand 3 pastors.
Following the Saxon emigrants, in 1839 another band of German Lutherans left their home on socount of their faith and started for America. Their leader was Johann Andreas August
	8. The	Grabau, bore 1804 near Magdeburg,
		Pastor of St. And rew'sChurchatErfurt.
		He had been repeatedly imprisoned on
		account of his opposition to the Prus
sian Union and to the introduction of the king's
Agenda. About 1,000 adherents followed him, the
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Lutherans
moat of them from Erfurt, Magdeburg, and the surrounding country. The greater number settled in Buffalo, N. Y., but some went as far west as Wisconsin. In the year 1845 Grabau with his friends, P. v. Rohr, L. Krause, and Kindermann, founded the " Synod of Lutherans immigrated from Prussia;' afterward called the Buffalo Synod. Its theological seminary was connected with the MartinLuther‑0ollegium in Buffalo. In distinction from the Saxon Lutherans Grabau entertained highchurchly ideals of the office of the ministry and ordination, making the reality and efficacy of the means of grace dependent on the office, and depriving the congregation of its right to discipline and excommunicate its members. Even in the management of the temporal affairs of the congregation the members were bound to strict obedience toward their pastors. Walther and his friends were convinced that in these views the hierarchical tendencies of Stephen were revived, from whose bondage they bad just escaped. A violent controversy ensued between the " Prussians " and the " Saxons." After a colloquy held in 1888 eleven pastors of the Buffalo Synod joined the Missouri Synod. The small remnant again broke into two sections, one of which ceased to exist in 1877. At the present time the Buffalo Synod numbers 30 pastors, 41 congregations, and 5,556.communicants. It has a theological seminary in Buffalo with five teachers and eleven students. In recent times there has been brought about an amicable understanding between the Buffalo Synod and the Ministerium of New York. Several conferences have been held with satisfactory results, both synods recognizing each other and admitting their members to pulpit and altar fellowship.
In the year 1841 the Rev. Frederik Wyneken, pastor of the Lutheran congregations in and nor Fort Wayne, Ind., sent forth a touching appeal to the mother church in Germany, appealing in behalf of the Lutherans in the western States of North America for help in supplying them with the means of grace. The venerable W.
S. The Loehe, pastor in Neuendetteleau, $a‑
Iowa	varia, and founder of the deaconess
	aV‑0d•	institution in that village, was deeply
		moved with sympathy for his breth
ren in the faith in America. He established a mis
sionary institute and began the publication of a
paper (Kirdaliche Mitteilungen arcs and fiber Nord
America) through which he awakened and nour
ished an active interest in the condition of the
Lutherans in America. The first two missionaries
sent by him attached themselves to the synod of
Ohio and to the Michigan Synod. But in 1845 they
and their sympathizers left the synod of Ohio and
established the theological seminary at Fort Wayne
under the presidency of Wilhelm Sihler. This step
was taken because they were not satisfied with the
confessional position of their synod in respect to
the unionistic tendencies of the time. The insti
tution at Fort Wayne was opened in 1848 with eiz
teen pupils, most of whom had received their pre
paratory training at Neuendettelsau. The ground
and the buildings were acquired chiefly through
contributions coming from Loehe and his friends.

Lutherans	THE NEW SC$AFF‑HERZOG	90
Loehe himself advised his friends to associate themselves with the Saxon Lutherans. Several conferences were held at St. Louie and Fort Wayne, and the parties united in the formation of the synod of Missouri in which the emissaries of Loehe outnumbered the " Saxons." Soon, however, serious differences arose between Loehe and the leaders of the Missouri Synod, particularly on the doctrines concerning the Church and the ministry. To avoid e threatening rupture Wyneken and Walther were sent to Germany to confer personally with Loehe, but no agreement was reached. Consequently the adherents of Loehe, G. M. Grossmann and J. Deindoerfer, to avoid friction with the Missouri Synod, went further west, to carry on the American Mission work of Loehe beyond the Mississippi. To‑ i gether with S. Fritschel and M. Schueller they founded the synod of Iowa at Dubuque, Ia., Aug. 24, 1854. This synod means to represent a strictly confessional yet ecumenical Lutheranism. Accepting the symbolical books without reservation it distinguishes between what is confessed in the symbols as a direct doctrine of faith, and what those standards contain in their exegetical, historical, and explanatory material. From the very beginning there was a conflict between the synods of Missouri and Iowa. No agreement was reached in the conference at Milwaukee, 1867. The points of difference are essentially the following: (1) Concerning the office of the ministry, Missouri holds that the spiritual priesthood of believers involves the ministry of the Word, while the congregation, possessing the priesthood and all ecclesiastical authority, transfers to the individual the authority of exercising the rights of the spiritual priesthood publicly, in behalf of the congregation. Iowa draws the distinction between the spiritual priesthood and the office of the Word as a special vocation, and holds that the Missouri doctrine on this particular point was not fixed in the confessions of the Church, and therefore, even if correct, should not divide the Church. (2) Concerning the authority of the confessions both agree that all dootrines of faith in the confessions are binding. But Iowa limits those doctrines to such articles as are taught ex professo, without accepting their theological exposition as binding in every case. (3) Concerning " open questions " Iowa teaches that there are points on which different opinions may be held without disturbing church fellowship, such as the doctrines concerning Antichrist and the conversion of Israel. Missouri at first maintained that nothing that was taught in the Scriptures could be considered an open question in this sense. But later on, when difficulties arose in the Missouri Synod itself concerning the subject of usury, it was publicly declared that there was, indeed, a difference between articles of faith and other Scripture doctrines which moat not necessarily be considered as such. (4) Concerning Antichrist and all eschatological doctrines Missouri insists that all prophecies of things preceding the last day are actually fulfilled, including the prophecy concerning Antichrist, whose fulfilment is found in the pope. Iowa, while admitting the antichristian character of popery, holds that it should not be condemned as
unlutheran to expect some future culmination of the prophecy concerning Antichrist in a person that is yet to appear. (5) Concerning chiliaam (see MILLENNIUM, MILLENAR.IANIaM) both agree t0 80cept the seventeenth article of the Augaburg Confession and reject any doctrine of the millennium which would rob the spiritual kingdom of Christ of its character as a kingdom of grace and of the cross. But the doctrine of a first resurrection, though not taught by the Iowa Synod as such, is not considered a fundamental error, as Missouri considers it. From the beginning there have been pleasant and kindly relations between the Iowa Synod and the General Council, though the former never entered into organic connection with the latter. At moat of the conventions of the General Council the Iowa Synod was represented by delegates. It took an active part in the preparation of the General Council's church‑book and uses it in all its congregations. The Iowa Synoli numbers 487 ministers, 927 congregations, 99,895 communicants, scattered over nineteen States and British Columbia. It has a theological seminary in Dubuque, Ia., with 4 teachers and 45 students.
In the year 1805 for the first time traveling preachers of the Pennsylvania Ministerium reached the State of Ohio, where they founded a conference in connection with the mother synod. The or‑
ganization of the synod dates from the
4. The year 1818 and its present name, Joint Joint9ynod Synod of Ohio, from the year 1833.
of Ohio. Though a number of ministers, like
Dr. Sihler and the missionaries sent by Loehe, lead left the synod because they were not satisfied with its confessional position, the synod developed more and more in a decidedly Lutheran direction and in 1847 adopted all the symbolical books as the basis of its confession. Conferences held between Missouri and Ohio led to a gradual approach between the two bodies, and in the year 1872 the Joint Synod of Ohio united with the Missouri Synod and other western bodies in the formation of the synodical conference. But the controversy on predestination led to the withdrawal of the synod of Ohio in 1881. There followed an approach between Ohio and Iowa which culminated in a mutual recognition. The synod at present numbers 556 ministers. 733 congregations, 110; 877 communicants. There are two theological seminaries, in Columbus and St. Paul, with 9 teachers and 101 students.
The Synodical Conference, at present the strongest in the Lutheran Church in America, was founded in the year 1872 on the basis of the Concordia of 1580. It embraced the following synods: Missouri, Ohio, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, .Michigan, and the Norwegian Synod, and numbers at present
3,444 ministers, 3,101 congregations,
8. The and 643,599 communicants. The synod Synodical of Wisconsin was founded by Rev. J. Conference. Miih(hAuaer, formerly in Rochester,
N. Y., and afterward in Milwaukee (1848‑68). This synod at first belonged to the General Council, but left it in 1872 to join the synodical conference. It numbers 242 pastors, 350 congregations, 100,000 communicants, with a theo‑

91	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lutherans
logical seminary at Wauwatosa, near Milwaukee (3 professors, 32 students). The synod of Minnesota was the fruit of the missionary labors of Father C. F. Heyer (1793‑1873), born at Hebnstiidt, Germany, for many years an active missionary among the Telugus in India, died as chaplain of the theological seminary in Philadelphia. The synod was founded in 1860 at West St. Paul. It numbers 86 pastors, 123 congregations, 35 685 communicants. In 1867 it joined the General Council but left it in 1871 and afterward connected itself with the synodical conference. The synod of Michigan was the outcome of the missionary labors of the Rev. F. Schmid, Ann Arbor, Mich. It was founded in 1860, joined the General Council in 1867, and afterward went over to the synodical conference, in which it is now represented by 14 pastors, 22 congregations, 4,225 communicants. These three synods, of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan united in the synod of the Northwest, in 1892, with their common seminary in Milwaukee. But the original Michigan Synod, dissatisfied with this step, left the synodical conference in 1896, and is, since that time, without connection with a general body. It numbers 37 pastors, 54 congregations, 7,933 communicants. Another, more serious rupture took place in the synodical conference in consequence of the predestinarian controversy. Since 1868 there has appeared, a tendency of the Missouri leaders to condemn as Pelagian and synergistic the so‑caned Intuitu,fidei. doctrine of the old Lutheran dogmaticiana, and to teach an absolute, unconditional, particular decree of God, by which a certain limited number of men were elected to salvation. Professor Asperheim, in the seminary of the Norwegian Synod, raised a voice of warning and was forced to resign his professorship and to leave his synod. Professor F. A. Schmidt, formerly one of the champions of Missouri, protested. against the teaching of Walther, the great leader of the Missouri Synod. The Professors of the Ohio synod sided with him. A colloquy, lasting five days, held in Milwaukee, had no favorable result, and in 1881 the Ohio Synod left the synodical conference. The Norwegian Synod to which Dr. F. A. Schmidt belonged was divided into two parties, and, in order to avoid a rupture in its own midst in 1884, it also left the synodical conference. ,
8. The Scandinavian Lutherans: About the middle of the.nineteenth century a new tide of Swedish immigration set in. Rev. Lars P. Esbjoern organized the first Lutheran congregations at Andover, Galesburg, Moline (Ill.), and New Sweden (Iowa). In 1851 he joined the synod of northern Illinois, belonging to the General Synod. Faithful pastors were called over from the
1. Swedes. mother country, like T. N. Hasael‑
6uguatana quiet (afterward professor of the the.
	8ynod.	ological seminary of the Augustana
		Synod), Erla Carlson, Jonas Swens
son. and young men like E. Norelius were ordained
for the ministry. In 1860 the Scandinavians with
drew from the General Synod and organized the
Scandinavian Evangelical Lutheran Augustana Synod of North America." In 1870 the Swedes and Norwegians separated peacefully. The Swedish
Augustana Synod joined the General Council at
the time of its organization and has ever since
formed one of the most prominent bodies in this
connection. In the seventies the Auguatana Synod
had to contend against the influence of the " Mis
sion Friends " (Waldenstroemians). Their college
and seminary were moved to Rock Island. Other
preparatory institutions are the Gustavus Adol
phus College at St. Peters, Minn., Bethany College
at Lindsborg, Kansas, and the Lutheran Academy
at Wahoo, Neb. The Auguetana Synod is in real
ity the Swedish General Synod of North America,
extending over the whole Union from the Atlantic
to the Pacific. It numbers 574 pastors, 1,052 con
gregations, 154,390 communicants, and has seven
orphans' homes, two deaconess homes, three hos
pitals, and several immigrant and seamen's missions.
	A small colony of Norwegian immigrants settled
at Rochester, N. Y., in 1825 and nine years after
ward moved to Illinois. The first step toward a
church organization was the founding of (1) the
Evangelical Lutheran Church of North America,
		Hauge Synod, through the influence
	2. The of Elling Eielsen (1804‑$3), originally
Norwegians. a lay preacher and adherent of Hauge,
		of Pietistic tendency. Several seces
sions took place and in 1876 there was a reorgan
ization under the name: " The Norwegian Evan
gelical Lutheran HaUge Synod," with 122 pastors,
290 congregations, 21,181 communicants. Eielaen
with a few adherents kept aloof, and there is at
the present time still a separate Eielsen Synod with
6 pastors, 26 congregations, 1,200 communicants.
(2) The Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran Synod of
North America was founded in 1853 by the more
conservative elements, under the leadership of C.
L. Clauasen, A. C. Preus, H. A. Preua, U. V. Koren,
J. A. Ottesen, and P. L. Larsen, in sympathy with
the Missouri Synod, in whose theological seminary
at St. Louis they were represented by professors of
their own (Larsen, Preus, F. A. Schmidt). After
ward the synod established its own seminary in
Madison, Wis. The Predestinarian controversy,
as above stated, led to the withdrawal of this Nor
wegian Synod from the synodical conference, and
finally to a separation in the synod itself (1887).
It numbers at present 350 pastors, 1,050 congrega
tions, 87,000 communicants with a theological sem
inary at St. Paul, Minn., and a college at Decorah,
Ia. (3) The initiative toward the founding of the
United Norwegian Lutheran Church in North
America was taken by the anti‑Missourian party
in the Norwegian Synod, who sought to unite the
Hauge Synod, the Norwegian AugUStana Synod,
and the Norwegian‑Danish Conference. The Hauge
Synod did not join in this movement, but the others
united in 1890 at Minneapolis. The united synod
numbers 480 pastors, 1,335 congregations, 154,055
communicants, with a theological seminary at St.
Paul, Minn., and colleges at Canton, S. D., Moor
head, Minn., and Northfield, Minn., and two or
phans' homes two deaconess motherhouses, and
seven hospitals. (4) The Norwegian Lutheran
Free Church was founded in 1893 by G. Sverdrup
and Sven Oftedahl, formerly members of the Nor
wegian‑Danish Conference, sad reports 148 pas‑

Lutherans	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	92
tore, 340 congregations, 42,738 communicants, with a theological seminary at Minneapolis, Minn., and a college, an orphans' home, and a deaconess mother‑house.
(1) The Danish Evangelical Lutheran Church in North America, formerly the Church Mission Society, was founded in 1872, and numbers 61 pastors, 117 congregations, 11,737 communicants, with a theological seminary at Des Moines, 1&. (2) The United Danish Evangelical Lutheran
8. Other Church in America was founded in 6oandina‑ 1896 in Minneapolis, and has 106 pae‑
	•	torn, 202 congregations, 9,261 com
		municants, a college and theological
seminary at Blair, Neb., and another college at
Hutchison, Minn. The Icelandic immigration in
North America dates from the year 1870. The first
congregation was organized by Rev. Paul Thorlack
eohn in 1875. The synod of Icelanders was founded
in 1885 under the presidency of Rev. Bjernaeon in
Winnipeg. Delegates from that body were in at
tendance at the convention of the General Council
in Chicago, 1899. The synod numbers 9 pastors,
43 congregations, 4,451 communicants. The Fin
nish immigration is of quite recent date. The.
Suomi Synod was organized in 1889 and numbers
24 pastors, 110 congregations, 13,201 communicants,
with a theological seminary in Hancock, Mich.
7. Lutherans is the South: Lutheran Congrogationa were first organized in the South at Woodstock, Winchester, and New Market, Va., Salisbury and Concord, N. C., Orangeburg, Lexington, Newberry, and Charleston, S. C., and in the Salzburg colonies of Georgia. At the time of the Civil War the Southern General Synod seceded from the General Synod, consisting of the synods of Virginia, Southwestern Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. The Apostolic and Nicene Creeds, together with the Augsburg Confession, as setting forth the fundamental doctrines of the Word of God, constituted the confessional basis, with the distinct understanding that there should be liberty of private judgment with reference to some articles of the Auguatana. With the gradual development of a stricter confessional position this reservation disappeared. In 1886 a new general body was formed, called The United Synod in the South, accepting essentially the same doctrinal and confessional position as the General Council. It includes the following synods: North Carolina (organized 1803), Tennessee (1820), South Carolina (1824), Virginia (1829), Southwest Virginia (1842), Mississippi (1855), Georgia (1860), and the Holston Synod in Tennessee (1861). The United Synod numbers 235 pastors, 458 congregations, 47,514 communicants. It has s theological seminary at Mount Pleasant, Charleston, S. C., and colleges at Hic'.cory, N. C., and Newberry, S. C.
8. The General Council: The history of the origin of this body has been told in 4 above. Its first convention was held in Fort Wayne, Ind., Nov., 1867. Its doctrinal basis is stated in the fonder mental articles of faith and Church polity as follows: " We accept and acknowledge the doctrines of the unaltered Augsburg Confession in its original sense se throughout in conformity with the pure truth of
which God's Word is the only rule. The other Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, inasmuch as they set forth none other than its system of doctrine and articles of faith, are of necessity pure and Scriptural and are, with the unaltered Augsburg Confession, in the perfect harmony of one and the same Scriptural faith." At the first convention of the General Council the Joint Synod of Ohio, which had not adopted the constitution and was not ready to enter into organic union with the General Council, laid before that body four questions on its relation to chiliaem, altar and pulpit fellowship, and secret societies. Similar questions, except that on chiliasm, were also presented by the Iowa Synod. The discussion of these four points and the successive declarations on the same, at Pittsburg (1868), Lancaster, O. (1870), Akron, O. (1871), and Galesburg (1875), showed a steady growth in the fuller appreciation of the confessional principle underlying those points and a determination to carry the principle into practical execution. This position has been reached in spite of the hasty withdrawal of the very synods which from the beginning appeared as the champions of the confessional principle, viz., Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, and Michigan. Much care was bestowed by the General Council on the production of sound books of worship for the use of its members in the family, the school, and the church. In this field it has been most successful. The German and English official literature published by authority of the General Council may justly be called a model of its kind. It is based upon the most careful and comprehensive studies in liturgies and hymnology, and in its preparation the best and most reliable sources have been used. It is pure in doctrine and complete in the material which it contains. More than any other Lutheran general body of this country the General Council represents the peculiar mixture, in the American Lutheran Church, of German, Scandinavian, and English‑speaking elements, and that critical period of transition from the church of the immigrant to that of the native English‑speaking American population. Its great task is to transfer into the sphere of the English tongue a genuine Lutheranism, sound in doctrine, government, and form of worship.
The Lutherans in the South initiated the important movement toward the Common Service for all English‑speaking Lutherans in the United States. The General Council, in 1878, declared itself ready to cooperate in this matter on condition that the pure Lutheran Agenda of the sixteenth century should be recognized as the norm and standard for this work. This rule having been adopted by the United Synod of the South and the General Synod, the work on the Common Service was actually begun in 1884 and the orders for the main service, matins, and vespers were finished in 1888 and adopted by the three general bodies and the English Synod of Missouri. The English version of the Augsburg Confession was revised on the basis of Taverner's translation of 1536, and a new trance lation of Luther's Small Catechism was prepared for all English‑speaking Lutherans.

93	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Lnthm
The Genera] Council, according to the latest statistics, embraces the following synods: The Minieterium of Pennsylvania (organised 1748), with 388 ministers. 554 congregations, 145,215 aommuniasnta; the Miniaterium of New York (1773), 150 ministers, 149 congregations, 86.000 communicants; Pittsburg Synod (184b), 138 ministers, 190 congregations, 31,392 communicants; English District, Synod of Ohio (1857), 49 ministers. 82 congregations. 14,245 communicants; Auguetana Synod, Swedish (1880), 574 minietere, 1,052 congregations, 154,390 Communicants; Canada Synod (1881), 38 ministers, 78 congregations, 12,098 communicants: Chicago Synod (1871), 40 ministers, 58 congregations, 5,981 communicants; English Synod of the North West (1891), 29 ministers. 34 congregatidne, 5,060 aommunicante; Manitoba Synod (1897), 18 ministers, 51 ooagtegatione, 4,000 communicants; Pacific Synod (1901), 13 ministers, 20 congregations, 1,313 communicants; New York and New England Synod (1902), 52 ministers, 56 congregations, 15,192 communicants; Nova Scotia Synod (1903), 8 ministers, 25 congregations, 2,545 communicants. Total: 1,497 ministers, 2,347 congregations, 458,429 communicants, with three theological seminaries, at Philadelphia, Rock Island, and Chicago, numbering lb professors and 183 students; 7 colleges with 127 teachers and 2,107 students; 8 academies with 49 teachers and 902 students; 3 deaconess institutions, 12 orphans' homes, 8 asylums for the aged and infirm, 5 seamen's missions.
In addition to the synods that have thus far been treated, the following independent synods are to be mentioned: The Texas Synod, consisting of those members of the original Texas Synod who refused to unite with the Iowa Synod in 1895, numbering 15 ministers, 23 congregations, 2,200 communicants. Immanuel Synod, German, organized 1886, numbering 17 pastors, 11 congregations, 3,250 communicants.
The grand total of the Lutheran Church in North America shows: 8,052 !ninistera, 13,142 congregar lions, 2,012,536 communicants, with 24 theological seminaries, 96 professors, and 1,137 students; 39 colleges with 433 teachers and 7,535 students, 49 orphans' homes, 24 homes and asylums for the aged, 28 hospitals, 9 deaconess motherhoueea. Of these there are in Canada 92,550 Lutherans (in Ontario 48,100, in Manitoba 16,550, in the Northwest Territories 12,100), where since 1891 they have increased 44.5 per cent.
The number of Lutherans in Central and South America is estimated at about half a million, in the Danish West Indies they are in connection with the State Church of Denmark, in South America they are partly supported by the Lutherische Gotteskasten in Germany, and partly under the supervision of the Prussian State Church and assisted
by it. 	ADOLPH SPAETB.
The Lutheran Church, while largely augmenting its strength for many years by immigration, has not been indifferent to the demands of missionary effort in the United .States. As usual, this effort began in sporadic forms. As early as 1838 Rev. Ezra Keller, sent out by the Ministerium of Pennsylvania, had explored the territory now comprised in West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, and Illinois, laying foundations for the present churches of that region. In 1837, Rev. Carl Friedrich Heyer reported to the General Synod that he had explored the entire Mississippi Valley and found places for, at least, fifty missionary pastors. But it was not until 1845 that the Home Missionary Society of the General Synod was organised. In the early fifties missionary aid was given to the
Indians in Michigan, and to a number of missionary
points in Wisconsin and Canada. The New York
Minieterium sent strong help to the establishment
of the Mother Churches in Buffalo, Rochester, Utica,
Syracuse, Lyons, and others in that State. The
Ohio Synod was all missionary territory, and twenty
pastors in this synod ministered to not less than
195 congregations. Between 1857 and 1859 the
General Synod was supporting sixty‑seven mission
aries, while the district synods of New York and
Allegheny had their independent work, rivaling
that of the general body. Progress in Minnesota,
under the aged Father Heyer, was particularly en
couraging. In recent years the Pennsylvania and
New York Synods have cooperated in the support
of an immigrant mission at the port of New York
and in the founding of an Emigrant House for the
care of incoming Germans. The Lutheran Church
at the present time is receiving and expending for
home missions from three‑quarters of a million to a
million dollars a year. 	J. B. CrsRS.
BIHLIOGHAPH:: Some of the principal literature is named in the text; that sited under the articles in this work to which emu‑reference is made in the text is, much of it, pertinent, e.g., under AGENDA; AUGSBURG CONFERMN AND 118 APOLOGT: FOH1(DLA op WNOORD; LDTHEH; MELANCIiTHON; and PHnrrrrsTe; for bibliographies d. J. G. Morris, BiDliofhaca Lutherans, Philadelphia, 1878; H. E. Jacobs, in American Church History aeries, iv. pp. ix.‑xvi., New York, 1893. For statistics cf: Xirchdiches Jahrbuck (published at GOtereloh), the Lutheran Church Annual, and Lutheran Year Book (annual). On the doctrines, besides the work of Jacob on the Book of Concord, cf.‑. Schaff, Creeds, i. 220‑253, ii. I‑189; C. P. Hraut6, The Conservative Reformation and its Theology, Philadelphia, 1871; A. L. Richter, Die evanpeliechen Xirchenordnunpen den IB. Jahrhunderts, Leiyeie, 1871; idem, Lshrlrudv den . . . Xirehenrechfa, ib. 1874; $. A. HGhnan (ed.), Lectures on the Augsburg Confession, Philadelphia. 1888; H. Schmid, The Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, Philadelphia, 1889: The Distinctive Doctrines and Usage of the General Bodies of as Evangelical Lutheran Church in as United States, Philadelphia, 1893; $. Fritschel, Die UnferaeheidunpslaMen der Synaden van Iowa and Missouri, Waverly, 1893; The Lutheran Church, her Communion and her Service, Philadelphia, 1908 (two sermons given as authoritative expositions of the doctrinal standpoint); L. Criatisoi, Luther d Is lutheraniame, Paris. 1908.
For the history of Lutherans consult: Nachrichten van
den verain>oten dautechan ev: lufbaiuhen Gmraeindsn in Nord
Amerika, abeondsrtirh in Penruylroanien. MU einer Vor
rede van D. Johann Ludewiq Sc1W ss, 2 vole., Halle, 1760
1787, republication with notes begun by W. J. Mann, B.
M. $chmucker, and W. Germans, Allentown, Ps., 1888,
Eng. trans]. begun by C. W. Schaeffer, Part L, Reading,
Pa.. 1882 (left incomplete): E. L. Haseliue, History o,/'
as American Lutheran Church, 1886‑184.5, Zsneaville,
Ohio, 1848; P. A. Stroebel, History of Me Sa(z6wpera,
Baltimore, 188b: Clay, Annals of as Swedes on as Dela
ware, Philadelphia, 1858; D. H. Focht. The Churches Be
hoeen the Mountains, Baltimore, 1882; C. W. Schaeffer,
Early History of the Lutheran Church in America, Phila
delphia, 1888; W. B. Sprague, Annals of the American
Pulpit, vol. ix., New York, 1889; G. D. Bernhelm, His.
gory of Me German Settlements sect of as Lutheran Church
in North and South Carolina, Philadelphia, 1872; $ehir
mer, Historical Sketches of as Evangelical Lutheran synod
q/ South Carolina Charleston 1875; J. G. Morris, Fifty
Yore in as Lutheran Ministry, Baltimore, 1878; W. Sih
ler, LebenslauJ, $t. Louie, 1880 (autobiography); W. J.
Mann, Life and Times of Henry Melchior M
Philadelphia, 1881: So6ierenbeok Lebsrubeuhr van lutkeriaehen Predipern in Ameriko, Selinsgrove, Ps., 1881‑83; Amerikaniselve Beleuehtunp,. Philadelphia 1882; C. Hoodetetter, GakhirAte der Missouri Synods. Dresden, 1886: A. Spaeth, The General Council, Philadelphia, 18Bb; idem. Chas. Porterfield XrautA, Memoir, V.I. i.. New York,

Luther's Two Catechisms	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	94
Lutz, Samuel
1898; idem, Dr. W. J. Mann, Bin deufaeh‑amer%kaniacher
Theolope, Reading, 1903; B. M. 8chmucker, The Organ
ization of the Congregation in the Early Lutheran Churches
in America. Philadelphia, 1887; Andersen, Den evanp.
lutherake Kirke's Hiatorie, New York, 1888; J. Nicmn.
Geachichte des Miniateriuma von New York, Reading, 1888;
F. C. Guenther, F. W. Walther, Lebenebild, 6t. Louie,
1890; 8. Henkel, Hiat, of the Evangelical Lutheran Ten
nessee Synod, New Market, 1890; D. L. Roth, Acadis and
the Acadiana, Philadelphia, 1890; H. E. Jacobs, The Lu
theran Movement in England and its Literary Monuments,
Philadelphia, 1890; idem, in American Church History
Series, vol. iv., New York, 1893, Germ. travel. with im
portant additions by G. Fritachel, Giiteraloh, 1898; E. J.
Wolf, The Lutherans in America, New York, 1889, the
same in German with important additions by J. Nicum,
New York, 1891; A. L. Graebner, Geachichte der lutheri
achen Kirche in America, 8t. Louie, 1892 (reaching to the
year 1820); J. Nicum, in Proceedings of American Society
of Church History, New York, 1892; J. N. Lenker. Lu
therans in All Lands, Milwaukee, 1894; J. F. 6achee, The
German Pietiata of Provincial Pennsylvania, 188k‑1708,
Philadelphia, 1895; A. Spaeth, H. E. Jacoba; and G. F.
t3pieker, Documentary History of the Minieterium of Penn
sylvania, Containing the Proceedings of the Convention
17/,8‑18E1, New York, 1895‑1899; J. Deindorfer, Geschichte
der evangeliach‑luUvsriachen Synods Iowa, Chicago, 1897;
H. E. Jacobs and J. A. W. Haas, The Lutheran Cyclopedia.
New York, 1899; Proceedings of the First Free Lutheran
Diet, 1878, Proceedings of the Second Free Lutheran Diet,
1879, General Conference of Lutherans, ed. H. E. Jacobs,
Philadelphia, 1899; F. Nippold, Handbuch der neueaten
Kirchengeachichte, b vole., Berlin, 1901; G. H. Gerberding,
The Lutheran Pastor, Chicago, 1903; T, w3cchmauk, A His
tory of the Lutheran Church in Pennsylvania, IB38‑180,
vol. i.. Philadelphia. 1903.

LUTHER'S TWO CATECHISMS: Even while a Roman Catholic priest, Luther had repeatedly treated in his sermons the main divisions of the catechism. Some of the sermons which he preached on the Commandments and the Lord's Prayer in 1516 and 1517 have been preserved. More important, however, as a preparation was his work in the confessional, where he learned to know the detrimental influence of the formal lists of sins which were considered useful, and to appreciate in contrast the unparalleled excellence of the ten commandments, of which, as well as of the Apostles' Creed and the Lord's Prayer, he early began to write short expositions: in 1518 Kurze Auslegteng der zehn Gebote Gottes, ihrer Erfullung and Uebertretung, in 1519 Kurze Ureterweisung wie man beiclaten soil, and in the same year several expositions of the Lord's Prayer and one on the Apostles' Creed; then in 1520 he combined these treatises under the title Kurze Form der zehn Gebote, des Glaubens, ties Vaterunaera. Here is found the first combined treatment of these three articles, and therefore the most important work of preparation for the catechisms. In 1522 Luther edited the Betbitehlein. All these writings were intended primarily to be used in preparation for confession, but he had the instruction of youth also in his mind.
When, after Luther's return from the Wartburg, Evangelical principles were introduced at Wittenberg, especial attention was paid to the religious instruction of children. In the spring of 1521 Johann Agricola was appointed catechist at the principal church, and gave regular instruction in religion to the children. The custom of preaching
"regular sermons on the catechism began about this time. After the abolition of compulsory confes‑
sion Luther announced in 1523 that every person intending to partake of the Lord's Supper should give notice to the pastor and submit to an examination. To facilitate the preparation for such an examination, he arranged short questions on the Lord's Supper; but soon he conceived the idea of writing a small book that should serve for the instruction of youth, form the basis for sermons on the catechism, and make possible a more comprehensive preparation for the Lord's Supper. The Kirtderfragen of the Bohemian Brethren, with which Luther became acquainted at least as early as 1523, may have suggested the idea of such a manual. Nicolaus Hausmann, preacher at Zwickau, to whom Luther announced his intention, confirmed him in it. In a letter to Hausmann (1525) Luther states that Jonas and Agricola had been commissioned to prepare a catechism; but their work does not seem to have progressed rapidly, and when Agricola removed to Eisleben, Luther himself took charge of the matter. Before it was finished, there appeared in 1525 a book in Low German entitled Eyn Bokeachen vor de leyen trade kinder, which in the same year was translated into High German. It is not known to what extent Luther was concerned in the publication of this book, but there is no doubt that it originated under his influence, since it appeared at a time when he had already conceived the idea of adding the two sacraments to the original three articles discussed in his Kurze Form of 1520. In 1526 Luther seems to have already sanctioned its official use in the Church. As the Biic)tr
i‑lein fur Laien forms the basis for the text of the catechisms, so do Luther's catechetical sermons of 1528 for their interpretation in his more comprehensive work, called the larger catechism; for the larger catechism is nothing but an interpretation of the smaller ones on the basis of sermons which he preached in 1528 at Brunswick in the absence of Bugenhagen, and was necessitated chiefly by the ignorance of preachers revealed to him at the visitations of 1528 and 1529.
While Luther was working in 1529 on his larger catechism, the idea of issuing a smaller catechism, as an epitome of the larger, occurred to him, and he published it before the latter in two series in the form of tables, according to a wide‑‑spread custom of the time. The fnbuke have not been preserved, but their contents are pretty well known. The first table was in circulation as early as Jan. 20, 1529, and was a real children's catechism, including the Ten Commandments, the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, and some other prayers. The second table, which appeared in the middle of March, treated of the sacraments of baptism and of the Lord's Supper, and was intended chiefly for adults. This distinction between the catechism proper. and the doctrine of the sacraments was clearly expressed by Luther in his catechetical sermons of 1528, then in the larger catechism, and again in 1530. Only by degrees did it disappear and the sacraments come to be considered an inseparable part of the catechism. The tabuke were first put into book form in a Low German translation. (Hamburg, 1529). The larger catechism appeared in the same month of Apr., 1529, and retained in the main its original form in the numer‑

ea
ous later editions, of which a second followed in the same year and a third in 1530. Like the tabula, the larger catechism was translated into Low German (1b29) and in the same year twice into Latin. By May 18, 1529, Luther's own smaller catechism was published in book form, and soon went into a second edition. No copies of the original Wittenberg printings of either edition are extant, but there are three reprints, evidently independent, two made at Erfurt and one at Marburg. According to these the title of the first editions in book form was Der kleine Catechiamua far die gemeine Pfarherr and Prediger. Mart. Luther. Besides the material of the tabula they contained a preface, morning and evening prayers, and devotional exercises for the family, and a marriage service. The third edition was out by June 13, 1529, under the title Enchiridion. Dar kleine Catechiamus far die gemeine Pfarherr and Prediger, gemehret and gebeaaert. Of the editions which appeared prior to Luther's death, those of 1531, 1535, 1536, 1537, 1539, and 1542 are known. Two Latin translations (with some alterations) appeared in 1529, both at Wittenberg. One of these, Simplicissima et breviesima catechismi expoaitio, appeared as an appendix to the Enchiridion piarram Precationum, the Latin translation of the Betbilchlei7d. Its author is not known. The other translation, Parvus Catechismua pro pueris in schola, was made by J. Sauermann and was incorporated into the " Book of Concord." A third Latin translation originated with Justus Jonag and is contained in his Latin translation of the Nuremberg KirederPredigten of 1539. A Greek translation by Johann Mylius was printed at Basel in 1558 at the instigation of Michael Neander, who republished it in 1564 together with Sauermann's translation. In 1572 J. Clajua composed his German‑Latin‑Greek‑Hebrew polyglot. For the translations into modern languages and the position of Luther's smaller catechism in the history of catechisms, see CATECHIaMa.
The excellent points of the smaller catechism have been stated as follows: (1) The smaller catechism does not attempt to give a complete system of doctrine‑it is not a manual of dogmatics for children; (2) it avoids carefully the scholastic language of the theologians; (3) it avoids all polemics; (4) it does away with the traditional division of the Apostles' Creed into twelve articles, and makes it an exposition of the God of revelation as showing himself in his works and blessing the Christian life. It was soon forgotten that the larger catechism was the authoritative exposition of the smaller. In 1750 Johann Georg Watch pointed out in the introduction to his edition of the symbolical books that the catxchism must be explained by Luther himself. This principle has been observed in the modern works of A. Nebe,
Dar kleine KateeTtismus attsgelegt dua Lathers Wer
ken (Stuttgart, 1891); Th. Hardeland, Der kteine
Katechisrnua nadt Lathers Schriftert atisgelegt (Gtit
tingen, 1889); idem., Die katechetiache Behandlung
des kleinerc Katechiamua Lathers in Unterredungen
(Berlin, 1899).	(FEFtnnvexn Cpggg.)
Bmrloaal,PBy: Besides the lives of Luther by g8etlin,
	Kolde, anal others, consult:	J. C. W. AugaeEi, yerauch
ItELIGIOUB ENCYCLOPEDIA
Lather's Two Cateehiruonr Lutz, Samuel
einer Ifaatoriaeh‑kritiachen Eitaieitunp in die beyden Hauph KaEeehiemen der soangeliachen H£rcha, Elberfeld, 1824; (3. VeesenmeYer. Nachvon einigen eaangeliachen mtec>btischan SchriJten, Ulm. 1830; K. F. T. Schneider, D. Martin Lathers kleiner Kateehiamus, Berlin, 1853; T. Harnack, Dar kleine Katechiamus . . Lathers in seiner Urpsatalt, Stuttgart, 1856; C. M6nekeberg Die crate Auspabe roan Lathers kleinem Raterhismue, Hamburg, 1888; E. CBpfert. Whrterbuch sum kleisus Ratechismns . . . Lathers, Leipsie, 1889; A. Ebeling, Guthara kleinsr ICatechismus, Hanover, 1890; F. Fricke, Lathers k7aisur Ratoclsiemue in seiner Eiraoirkung auJ die kaEeuSetiache Literatur des Reformationajahrhundarts, Gottingen, 1898; F. Cohre, Die euanpeliaehen Xateehiemua‑yarauche roar Lathers EnrJsiridion, Berlin, 1900; H. E. Jacobs, Martin Luther, pp. 274 eqq., New York, 1898; Luther's Small Catechism Developed and Explained, . . . Published 6g the General Synod . . . , Philadelphia (curt).

LUTZ, lute, JOIiARN. LUDWIG SAMUEL: Swiss theologian; b. at Bern Oct. 2, 1785; d. there Sept. 21, 1844. He was educated at Bern, Tiibingen, and GSttingen, and in 1812 was appointed professor at the gymnasium and rector of the Litterarachule of his native city. The lack of harmony between his views and those of the citizens of Bern, as well as his share in certain movements for social and political reform which rendered the municipal authorities auspicious of him, led him to leave the school for the pulpit in 1824. He served as pastor first in Wynau and later in Bern, where in 1833 he was appointed professor of Old‑and New‑Testament exegesis. In addition to his academic duties, he was for many years a member of the department of education and of the Evangelical Church committee, and also dean of the theological faculty and the chapter of Bern, and president of the synod and of the Protestant charitable association. In his lifetime he published little except a few occasional and academic addresses, but after his death his pupil, R. Riietachi, edited a volume of his lectures under the title Btblische DogmtttiTc (Pforzheim, 1847) and A. Lutz published a second entitled Bxblisehe Hermeneutik (1849). (E. GtYn>;;Rt.)
B133LIOGRAPHY: F. Lute, Der Gotteepe7ehrk J. L. S. Lute, Bern, 1883 (by his son); the (ieddchtnisrede was bY Bag. geeen, ib. 1844; C. B. Hundeehegen, .•. Professor Dufs in Barn; sin theolopischee Charakterbild,ib. 1844: Burner Taechen6ueh, 1866, pp. 229‑240; E. Mifl<er, Die Rod, echule Bern 183;‑84, ib. 1884.
LUTZ (LUCIUS), SAMUEL: Swiss Pietist; b. at Bern Aug. 10, 1674; d. at Diesabach (neat Thun, 16 m. s.s.e. of Bern) May 28, 1750. He received a thorough classical training from his father, who was pastor at Biglen, but a strong tendency toward mysticism developed early in his life and led him to abandon his original studies. He studied at the University of Bern,. where he came under the influence of the strongly orthodox Rudolf Rudolf, although his personal religious trend was little in accord with the scholastic theology, of his time. Scarcely had the Swiss theologians attempted to reaffirm the orthodoxy of Dart a9 gOntfggted with its modifications by the Saumur school, before a system of Pietism closely allied with that of Germany, though marked by Anabaptist and other eeparatiatic tendencies, began to develop in Switzerland, especially in Bern. After a brief hesitation the government of Bern, which was not inclined to toleration, assumed a position of extreme

Lnt:
Lydins
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
hostility toward the movement, and brought legal penalties to bear upon the Pietiata. Among ‑the adherents of Pietism Lutz was especially mentioned. He was a cloy friend of Samuel g8nig, who had been banished for his views four years previously, and it was but natural that he should be placed under surveillance and receive his ordination comparatively late. It was not until 1703 that he was appointed to the obscure pastorate of Yverdun, where he labored twenty‑three years, winning the affection and esteem of both the French and German inhabitants of the place. His Pietism nullified the official call to BSthen, Pfalz‑Zweibriicken, BVdingen, and Zerbet, and he likewise declined a professorship at Lausanne. In 1728, however, he 'I accepted a call to the pastorate of Ameoldingen I and twelve years later went in a similar capacity to ', Dieaebach, where he spent the remainder of his life.
Although not altogether free from a certain selfcomplacency, Lutz strove with patience, energy, and skill against the formalism prevailing in theological and religious life. His attitude at Yverdun at first excited considerable opposition in the canton of Vaud, especially on account of his admonitions to repentance and conversion, but the government paid scant attention to the complaints lodged against him and even tacitly ignored his reluctance to take the oath rigidly exacted from other pastors. On the other hand, Lutz himself grew more moderate in course of tune, nor was he a reformer of the visible Church, being devoted only to the epiritualitiee of the kingdom of God. In his desire to proclaim his doctrines as widely as possible, he preached in no less than 108 pulpits both in Switzerland and abroad, until it became necessary to direct him to restrict his activity to his own congregation. He attributed special importance to catechetical instruction, and had a daily hour for prayer in his church. He was likewise closely associated with circles of like sympathies in Zurich, Basel, Schaffhausen, St. Gall, and Grieone, in addition to conducting a correspondence with such men as Zinzendorf, DenhBfen, and Heinrich Ernst of Stollberg‑Wernigerode, who brought him into contact with Christian VI.
	Lute also exercised a powerful influence by his
writings, which began to appear in quick succession
after 1721. Of these thirty‑Six are enumerated
without exhausting the lief. The most important
were republished in two collections, Wohlriedt
t:ttder Stresses von aeh3nen und gesundert Himmela
iilumtn (2 vole., Basel, 1738‑37) and Ein raelter
Stresses (1758). All his works are ascetic in tend
ency, partly treatises on the spiritual life, partly
detailed considerations of individual truths, and
partly sermons of almost interminable length. His
basal postulate was that each visible object bears
the stamp of a heavenly and spiritual essence, so
that ail things earthly must be interpreted by the
celestial. According to s credible tradition, the
Lutheranizing and mildly antinomistic sect of Heim
betg Brethren, who are now centered around Sasses
and Adelboden, were first inspired by the teachings
of Lute. 	(E. Gftzatt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. $. Hrgenbrbh, History of We Church in 6w 184 arid 18171 Cenlwier, Lecture 8, 2 vole., New York,
1889; E. Blaeeob, (iexlW 3vte der tehwsiaitd‑rsformiwten
%irchen, ii. 47 eqq.. Bern. 1899: W. Hadorn. (3tacdiehtt
do Pieknnw in den etAwtisitc7rrtfortAierfen Kirdua, pp.
282 eqq.. Conetsnae, 1901.

	LUBEIMURG: A grand duchy of Europe with
a capital of the same name, bounded by the Rhine
province of Prussia on the noetheaet and east, Lor•
raise on the south, France on the southwest, and
Belgium on the west; its area is 998 square miles,
and its population (1900) 238,543, of whom 29,549
are foreigners. Of the entire population 233,073
are Roman Catholics, 2,289 Protestants, and 1,201
Jews. The country was an apostolic vicariate
1840‑70, and in 1870 was raised to a bishopric by
Pins IX., though the vicar had been since 1883
bishop in partibus infidelium. In 1873 the episco
pal office was duly ratified by legislative act and
an episcopal living was established, controlling
13 deaneries, 255 parishes, 83 chaplaincies, and 82
vicarages. In 1845 a seminary for priests was es
tablished. The Protestant population of the cap
ital is due chiefly to the fact that Prussian troops
were garrisoned there 18i5‑68, some of whom re
mained, there after the duchy became independent.
Not until the former grand duke (d. 1908) came to
the throne (1890) did the Protestant Church receive
either recognition or support from the state. It
was then furnished with a coneistory, the control
of affairs pertaining to administration and govern
ment being vested in six members of coneietory,
whose head is the pastor. Vacancies are filled by
cooptation. 	W. GfYrz.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: N. von Werveke, BeitMpt sur l3eaehiehte det Luxem6urper Landes, 3 parts. Luxemburg, 1888‑87; F.
Bonnardot, Let Archiroea de 1'itat do Luxemburg, ib. 1890; T. H. Pesamore, In Further Ardenne, Loon, 1908.
LUZ: The name of two cities. (1) The early Canaanitic name for Bethel (Gen. aaviii. 19, agav. 8; Josh. xviii. 13; but cf. Josh. zvi. 2). (2) A city founded, according to Judges i. 28, in " the land of the Hittites " by the survivors of the ancient city when it was taken by the Hebrews. The 1oration is unknown.

LYCAOIYIA, lic"a‑8'nf‑a: A region of Asia Minor mentioned in the Bible only in Acts aiv. in connection with the journeys of Paul. Normally bounded north by Galatia, east by Cappadocia, south by Cilicia, and west by Phrygia, its boundaries fluctuated greatly during the Roman period, its territories being in part included within those of the neighboring provinces. See Acts Mtrtolt IN THz APOSTOLIC TIME, VII.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: w. M. Ramsay. Historical Geography of Asia Miner, passim, London. 1890; idem, The Church in the Roman Empire. pp. 4$ eqq. et peesim, New York, 1893: idem, St. Paid the Traveller and the Roman Citisrn, pp. 110‑111, ib. 1898.
LYCIA. See ASIA MINOR, VIII.

LYDDA, LOD: A city of Ephraim, situated in the plain of Sharon, 10 m. se. of Joppa on the road to Jerusalem, identified with the Arab village of Ludd. It is mentioned in the Old Testament as Lod in I Churn. viii. 12; Ezra ii. 33; Neh. vii. 37, xi. 35, and as Lydda in I Maw. xi. 34. In the New Testament it appears only Acts ix. 32‑38 as

9?
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
visited by Peter, who healed there the paralytic Eneas. After the fall of Jerusalem it was famous as a seat of rabbinic learning, Rabbi Eliezer and Rabbi Akiba being reckoned among its scholars. In the second century its name was changed to Dioapolis, though the older name persisted. In the third century it became the seat of a bishop, but the bishopric seems to have lapsed in the math century. Legend makes it the birthplace of St. George, whose head is said to have been buried there, and a church, built on the spot, was destroyed by the Mohammedans, rebuilt by the Crusaders, and again destroyed by Saladin in 1191.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of as Holy Land, pp. 180 eqq.. London, 1897; Robinson, Researches, ii. 244‑248; $ehOrer, aeeehichte, i. 184‑186, ii. 181‑188 et passim. Eng. transl., L, i. 190, 191, 245‑248, IL, i. 157‑159 et passim.
LYDIUS, lid'i‑as: The name of a Dutch family which produced several Reformed theologians in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
1. Martin Lydius : Professor of theology at Franeker; b. at Lubeck (to which his parents had fled from Deventer, seeking refuge from the Spaniards) in 1539 or 1540; d. at Franeker June 27, 1601. About 1560 he entered the University of Tiibingen, but in 1565 migrated to Heidelberg, where he became a teacher in the Collegium Sapientiae in 1566 or 1567. On the death of the Elector Frederick III. (1576), Lydius, after a brief residence in Frankfort, became a pastor in Antwerp, whence he was called in 1579 to Amsterdam. In 1585 he accepted a call to the newly founded University of Franeker and became its first rector in 1586. He sought to avoid religious controversy, yet his part in the struggle between the infralapsariana and the supralapsariana led him to contribute toward the rise of Arminianiam, for when, in 1589, an infralapsarian treatise was submitted to him for his opinion, he referred it to the young Amsterdam Preacher Jacobus Arminius (q.v.). The result for Arminius was a complete reversal of his views on predestination. When, however, Arminius was accused of Pelagianism in 1592, Lydius sought to mediate in the controversy. Besides letters to Beza, Ursinua, Arminius, Lipsius, Joseph Scaliger, J. G. Vosaiua, and others, also several orations and poems, he wrote Apologia pro Erasmo (edited by his son and included in the Leyden edition of Erasmus, x. 1759‑80), but no theological works,
2. Balthasar Lydius: Elder son of Martin Lydius; b. at Umatadt (a suburb of Darmstadt) in 1576 or 1577; d. at Dort Jan. 20, 1629. Educated at Leyden, he was chosen assistant pastor at Dort in 1602, and became full pastor in 1604, retaining this positidn until his death. Though irenic in temperament like his father, he became a bitter opponent of the Remonatranta, especially at the Synod of Dort, which he both opened (Nov. 13, 1618) and closed (May 29, 1619), and of whose protocol he was one of the editors. He made a reputation by his Waldensia, id est ognstwm vcclesice (2 vole., Rotterdam and Dort, 1616‑17), which, however, though still of value, is both in‑ i complete and incorrect, and is little more than a collection of documents on the Taborites and BoVIL‑7
Lutz
Lydius
hemian Brethren. He also wrote, among other works, Dry historiache Tradaetgerea (Amsterdam, 1610), on the Church from the apostles to the Reformation, on the various names of the Waldenses, and on the faith of the Waldenses. As an archeologist he wrote Super loco Mosis de cruentato aportaarum linteo et aliis virginitatis aignia and De Lyncuro lapide (nos. 5 and 16 of J. Beverwyck's Epistolicee qumationes cum doctorum responaia, Rotterdam, 1644), and assisted in the preparation of Mellinus' Groot‑Martelaarsboek (Dort, 1619).
3, Johannes Lydius: Younger son of Martin Lydius; b. at Frankfort in 1577; d. at Cnldewater (12 m. s.w. of Utrecht) in 1643, where he had been pastor since 1602, after a year's pastorate at Aarla,nderveen. Like his brother, he was an opponent of Arminianiam, but his literary activity was restricted to editing G. du Pr6au's Narratio con.. ciliorum omnium ecclesim Chrestianee (Leyden, 1610); R. Barnes' and J. Balsa' Vitce Pontifictcm (1610); and the works of Nicholas de Cl6manges (2 vole., 1613) and J. Wessel (1617).
4. Jacob Lydius: Third son of Baltha,sar Lydius; b. at Dort about 1610; d. there in 1679. Educated at Leyden, he was pastor at Bleskensgraaf from 1633 to 1637, after which he was pastor at Dort until his death, except in 1643‑45, when he was chaplain of the English embassy of the States General. This period resulted in his Hiatorie der beroerten van Enyelandt, aangaende de veelderley secten, die aldaer in de Kercke Jesu Christi zijn ontstaen (Dort, 1647). His exegetical learning was evinced by his Flom‑ aparsio ad hiatoriam pa, sionia Jesu Christi (Dort, 1672), and his patristic studies by his Agonistica sacra, sine ayntagma vacum et phrasium agonisticarum qua in sancta Scriptura, imprimis vero in epiatolis sancti Pauli apostoli, occurrunt (Rotterdam, 1657). High praise was given his Cmyla dominica litteratorum (Dort, 1669). S. van Til edited his posthumous Syntagma sacrum de re malitari, nee non. de iureiurando (1698). As a poet he wrote Vrolieke wren des doodle oJte der tvijaen vermaek (Dort, 1640), while his Belgicum gloriosum (1668; Dutch transl. by himself, 1668) was an ostensible ground for the declaration of war against Holland by Charles II. in 1672. His greatest fame, however, was gained by his anonymous Den Roomschen Uylen^apiegel (Amsterdam, 1671), a savage but witty satire on the Roman Catholic Chunk, In the ensuing controversy between him and the Jesuit Cornelis Hazart of Antwerp, he wrote, besides other polemics, Anttverpschen uyl in doodanoot (1671); Het overlijdxn van, den Antyerp8chen uyl (1671); Ladst olyasel van den A.ntwerpseherl uyl in doodtareoot; and the posthumous Laetsten duywls. dreck, oJte ongehoorde grouwelen van paepsche leeraera sneer eeutve (port, 1687), all works of importance for a knowledge of the relations between the Reformed and the, Roman Catholics in Holland in the seventeenth century. (S. D. Very Vieps.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. L. Vriemoet, At3enaru,n Frieiaonrum libri. PP 20‑2H Leeuwarden. 1758: G. D. J. 8chotel,
ICerkelijk Dordrechl, i. 257_284 391‑423 Ut,e~t, 1841;
s. Giaeiue, aodyeleerd Nederland, ii. 4i4‑421. a .•ole.,
e Hertogenboseh.1851‑58; H. C. Rogge. in Kalender „earl
Protutaaten in Nederland, j1857 pp. 228 eqq.: C. BepP. Hd
aadyelepdondaryis ixNdaland i.126‑135, Leydea, 1873.

Lynch
yte
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
	LYNCH, THOMAS TOSS: English Independent;
b. at Dunmow (32 m. n.e. of London), Ewes, July
5, 1818; d. in London May 9, 1871. He was edu
cated at Islington, London, and attended High
bury College for a short time. He was pastor of
the Independent Church at Highgate (1847‑49);
of a church in Mortimer Streets which afterward
moved to Grafton Street (1849‑52); and of one in
Gower Street, afterward Mornington Church (1860
1871). Lynch had little success as a preacher, but
as a hymn‑writer he obtained great celebrity. His
hymns, however, have been considered to betray
too ardent a love of nature to be entirely suited to
use in Christian worship. The beat‑known is " Gra
cious Spirit, dwell with me." He first came into
prominence through the publication of The Rivu
let: a Corttn'btttion to Sacred Song (London, 1855),
which gave rise at the time to a fierce controversy
because of the charge that it was pantheistic in
tone. His chief opponents were James Grant and
Dr. John Campbell; his chief supporters, Newman
Hall and Thomas Binney. Lynch was his own beat
defender, writing under the nom de plume of "Silent
Long." Among his other writings are Memorials
of Theophilus Trinal (largely autobiographical,
1850); Essays on some of the forma of Literature
(1853); Lectures in Aid of Self‑Improvement Improvement (1854);
The Mornington Lecture (1870); and Sermons for
my Curates (1871).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His Memoirs, ed. W. White, appeared London, 1874, and a small Critical and Descriptive Notice of
. T. T. Lynch was published London, 1874. Consult: 6. W. Duffield, English Hymns, p.191, New York, 1886; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 70b‑708; DNB, zasv. 338‑339.

LYIYE, JOSEPH LEYCESTER (called Father Ignatius): Anglican monk: b. in London Nov. 23, 1837; d. at Camberley (31 m. s.w. of London) Oct. 16, 1908. He was educated at Trinity College, Glenalmond, and was ordered deacon in 1860. He was then curate of St. Peter's, Plymouth, in 1880‑62, and in 18623 was St. George's missioner under Father Lowder. In 1863 he entered upon the monastic life, and resided successively in the monasteries at Claydon (Suffolk), Norwich, and Laleham (Chertsey), for seven years. In 1870 he purchased an estate near Abergavenny, Monmouthshire, where he established Llanthony Abbey, of which he was chosen superior. In this abbey he introduced the Benedictine rule and the Scrum Missal. Refusing to leave off the monastic habit even while being ordained to the priesthood, he remained a deacon until 1898, when he accepted advancement from the schismatic Bishop Villatte. Later recognizing the error of his action, which was commonly considered a desertion of Anglican orders, he did not attempt to exercise the priestly office, but remained in simple lay communion with the Church of England. He was particularly successful as a miesioner, and in 1890‑91 visited the United States and Canada in this capacity. In later years, however, he declined to preach in churches on account of his firm opposition to rationalism and higher criticism, he himself being a vigorous champion of orthodoxy. In addition to many sermons and pamphlets in defense of his position, in which he was frequently assailed, he wrote All for Jesus (London, 1867);
The Holy Isle: a Legend of Bardaey Abbey (1870); Leonard Morns, or, The Benedictine Novice (1870); Brother Placidus, and why he became a Monk: A Tale for the young Men of the Times (Brighton, 1870); Our Glorious Reformation (London, 1884); and Mission Sermons and Orations (1887).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Father Michael, O. 9. B., Father Ignatius do America, London, 1893; Baroness de Bertouch, Life of Father Ignatius, O. S. B., Monk of Llantlwny, ib. 1904.

LYON, DAVID GORDON: Baptist; b. at Benton, Ala., May 24, 1852. He was educated at Howard College, Marion, Ala. (A.B., 1875), Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, Louisville, By. (1876‑79), and the University of Leipaic (Ph.D., 1882). Since 1882 he has been Hollis professor of divinity in Harvard University, and has also been curator of the Harvard Semitic Museum since its foundation in 1890. In 1906‑07 he was director of the American School for Oriental Study and Research in Palestine. In theology he is a progressive conservative. Besides a number of briefer contributions, he has written Die Keilachrif ttezte Sargon'a, Konigs von Asayrien (722‑706 v. Chr.), reach den Originalert neu heratcagegeben, itberaetzt and erklart (Leipsic, 1883) and An Assyrian Manual for the Use of Beginners in the Study of the‑Assyrian Language (Chicago, 1886).

LYON, MARY: American educator; b. at Buckland, Maw., Feb. 28, 1797; d. at South Hadley, Mass., Mar. 5, 1849. She was educated at several academies, notably at Ashfield and Byfield, and later at Amherst College. She taught at the Adams Female Seminary at Londonderry, N. H. (1824‑28), and at Miss Grant's school in Ipswich (1828‑34). In 1834 she left teaching to raise funds for building a female academy, which was finally opined at South Hadley on Nov. 8, 1837. Of this school, called the Mount Holyoke Seminary (now College), she was principal until her death. Under her care the school was, as it still is, a nursery of missionaries and it still keeps its reputation for piety and efficiency.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Hitchcock, Power of Christian Benevolanes Illustrated in the Life and Labors of Mary Lyon, Northampton, 1851, new ed., New York, 1855; F. Fieke, Recollections of Mary Lyon, Boston, 1888; Mary Lyon, in Old South Leafiela, no. 145, ib. 1904.

LYONS, ARCHBISHOPRIC OF: An ancient metropolitan see in France. The town, which became a Roman colony in 43 B.c., acquired considerable importance under the Empire; in it Atlgustue spent three years; here Claudius was born; and when the town was rebuilt after a conflagration, Nero gave it precedence over all the other Roman towns of Gaul. Christianity was probably introduced within the first century. As at Marseilles, the earliest Christians were of Greek origin. The first bishop is supposed to have been Pothinus or Photinus, sent by Polycarp from Smyrna between 140 and 150. With many of his flock, he suffered martyrdom in 177, and was succeeded by Irenaeus (q.v.). A long line of devoted bishops followed. Lupus (d. c. 542) is usually reckoned as the first archbishop, with four auffragan sees, Autun, Langres, Macon, and Chfllons‑to which in the middle

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
of the eighteenth century were added the newly founded sees of Dijon and Saint‑Claude. After the Revolution Chblona and Macon were suppressed, and Grenoble was taken from the province of Vienna, which metropolitan see was then united with Lyons. After the surrounding territory became part of the Frankish kingdom in 532, the temporal sovereignty of Lyons was exercised by the archbishops, and this continued practically the case while it was nominally a part of the Empire, from 1032 to 1312. Philip the Fair erected a county of Lyons, but left it attached to the archiepiscopal see; the secular jurisdiction was not assumed by the king until 1583.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The occupants of the see are given in order in Gams, Series e7riacoporum, pp. bf19‑572, supplement, p: 38. Consult: J. Perrier, Hist, des archeveaues de Lyon, Lone‑le‑saunier, 1887; Cartulaire des fiefs do Z'6pliaa de Lyon, i173‑161, Lyons, 1893; J. B. Martin, OMtuaira de l'bpLiae primatiale de Lyon, ib. 1902; idem, Concika et bullaire du dioe2ae de Lyon, des oripirua h . . . 1312, ib. 190b; Martyrolope de la saints 9DZiae de Lyon, Paris, 1902.

LYONS, COUNCILS OF. For the council of 1245, see INNOCENT IV.; for that of 1274, see GREGORY X.
LYRA, li"ra', RICOLAUS DE (IYICOLAUS LYRAMUS) : French exegete; b. at Lyre (a small village in the diocese of Evreux) c. 1270; d. at Paris Oct. 23, 1340. In 1292 he entered the Franciscan order at Verneuil, and later went to Paris, where he spent the remainder of his life as a teacher at the Sorbonne. Them are the only certain details of his life, and are given on his epitaph in the Minorite monastery at Paris. Other sources, however, add that in 1325 he was appointed provincial of his order for Burgundy according to the provisions of the will of Jeanne, queen of Philip the Tall. The statement that he taught in Oxford is baseless, as is the tradition that he was of Jewish descent. He doubtless acquired his knowledge of Hebrew in Paris, where oriental studies in the interest of polemics against Judaism and Mohammedaniam were not unknown. Immediately after entering the monastery he began his commentary on the Bible; in 1322 he was working on Genesis, and in 1326 on Isaiah. The work reached a temporary conclusion in 1330, but was not published until after his death, when it received additions from other hands, particularly the prefaces to the individual books and the general introduction De lilmis carwrticis et ‑on canonicis. His Postilla; include fifty books of running commentary on the entire Bible, including the Apocrypha, which, however, are treated as non‑canonical. Then follow thirty‑five books of moralia, and the whole 1s preceded by three prologues. The first of these is a conventional eulogy of the Scriptures and a recommendation of their study. The second is devoted to method and is based on the theory of the double meaning of the text, one literal and the other mystical. The third prologue develops the mystical meaning in three categories and the whole is summed up in the passage:
	•' The fact dwells in literal meaning. allegorical is thy belief:
	tell. The moral defuuth thins lotions, thins end anagogo doth
	The characteristic feature of Nicolsus is his so
briety as an exegete and his ability to restrict him
self to the literal sense of the Bible, avoiding the
peril of allegorical interpretation as well as mystic
and dogmatic excursus. It is.noteworthy in this
connection that the Jewish exegete whom he al
most transcribed was Rashi, who had introduced
an anti‑allegorizing epoch into Jewish hermeneu
tics. Of Greek Nicolaus shows little knowledge,
but he had a source for Aramaic and Arabic in the
Pttgio f dei of Raymond Martin. In addition to
the Church Fathers, he made much use of Thomas
Aquinas. His Poatilla; enjoyed extraordinary pop
	ularity in the Middle Ages, and were repeatedly
edited, generally with the adverse criticisms of
	Paul of Burgos and the rejoinders of Mattheeus
	D6ring, a German Minorite. Luther in his inter
	pretation of Genesis consulted Nicolaus in almost
	every sentence and owed to him his rabbinical
	knowledge, while Melanchthon, Urbanus Rhegius,
	and other Reformers were also acquainted with his
	work. From this feet originated the well‑known
	doggerel of Peter of Pflug, Si Lyre neon Zyrasset,
	Ltctherus port saltaaset, or, according to another ver
	sion, Si Lyra non lyrasaet, memo doetorum in Bi6
	liam saltasaet, "If Lyra had not played the lyre,
	Luther (or, those learned in the Bible) would not
	have danced." The remaining works of Lyra are of
	little interest. He proved his right to be considered a
	scholastic by his commentaries on Peter Lombard
	and the Qtco<Zlibeta, and wrote three books against
	the Jews. His alleged authorship of the treatises De
	idoneo rninistrante. and Corttemplatio de vita et gestis
aartcti FrarEC7;sci is doubtful. 	(R. SCHMID.)
BIHLIOaRAPHY: For a bibliography of the early editions consult J. Le Long, Bibliotheca saga, ed. A. G. Meath, IL, iii. 359 eqq., and cf. J. F. T. Graesaa, TrEeora des liurea rarea et prbcaeux, 8 vole., Dresden, 18b9‑89. Consult: s. Davidson, sacr«t Hermeneutica, Edinburgh, 1843;
Siegfried, in Archiro Ji1r Erjorechunp des A. T., vol. i., 1887; idem in ZWT 1894 L. Diestel, Ouchichte du A. T. in
der chriatlichen Kirc7u, pp. 195 eqq., Jena, 1888: F. w. Farrar, Hilt. of Irterpretatioa, pp. 27¢278, New York,
1888; Masehkowalci, in ZATW, 1891.
LYSANIAS. See ABILENE.
LYTE, HENRY FRANCIS: British hymn‑writer; b. at Ednam (3 m. n.n.e. of Kelso), Roxburghahire, Scotland, June 1, 1793; d. at Nice, France, Nov. 20, 1847. He was educated in Ireland, first at the royal school of Enniskillen, then at Trinity College, Dublin, where he was graduated in 1814. He took orders in 1815, and, after holding curacies at Taghmon (near Wexford), Marzion (Cornwall), and Lymington (Hampshire)
entered upon the pepetj]al CUpQey ef Lower Bri."_

ham, Devonshire, in 1823. This appointment he
held till his death. Lyte's hyenas were published
and partly in Poems, chiefly Iteligiotsls (London, 1833),
	partly in The Spirit of the Paalrny (1834).
	Many of them are in common use. His " Abide
	with me, fast falls the eventide " is generally re
	garded as one of the few fine hymns in the lan
	guage. Other well‑known hymns by Lyte are,
heavenly 	courts above," "Far from my
» tc
Y home ,
God of mercy, God of grace,'.
" Praise, my soul the 8 ing of heaven," and `° Jesus,

L~yttelton
	oAll Xieaion	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	100
I my cross have taken." Lyte also published Tales in Verse (London, 1826), and an appreciative Memoir of Henry Vaughan, prefixed to Vaughan's Sacred Poems (London, 1847). His daughter edited his Remains (1850), which consists of poems, sermons, and letters. The poems in this volume were reprinted in Lyte's Miscellaneous Poems (1868).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the Memoir in the Remains, consult: J. Miller, Singers and Songs of the Church, pp. 431433, London, 1889; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 708‑707.

LYTTELTON, GEORGE, first .BAROft LYTTELTON: English author and statesman; b. at Hagley (6 m. n.e. of Kidderminster), Worcestershire, Jan. 17, 1709; d. there Aug. 22, 1773. He studied at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, but took no degree. He entered parliament in 1735 as member for Okehampton, Devonshire, and continued to represent this borough till 1756, when he was elevated to the peerage. He was lord commissioner of the treasury 1744‑54, and chancellor of the exchequer 175rr56. Though he was a good debater, he became prominent in parliament chiefly because of his influential political connection. With Lord Cobham, his uncle, William Pitt, a relation by affinity, and the Grenvilles, his first cousins, Lyttelton formed the powerful political clique
MAAS, Inds, ANTHONY JOHN: American Jesuit; b. at Bainkhausen, a village of Westphalia, Germany, Aug. 23, 1858. He was educated at the gymnasium of Arnsberg from 1874 to 1877, when lie entered the Society of Jesus. He then left Germany for the United States, and after studying at Manresa, N. Y., from 1877 to 1880, studied philosophy at Woodstock College, Woodstock, Md., until 1883. He was then professor of classics at Frederick, Md., for a year, after which he returned to Woodstock and studied theology until 1888. Except for the year 1893‑94, spent in ~Manresa, Spain, he bas been connected with Woodstock College since 1885, where he has been professor of Hebrew since 1885, librarian since 1888, professor of Scripture since 1891, prefect of studies since 1897 and president since 1907. In addition to numerous minor contributions, he has written: Life of Jesus Christ according to the Gospel History (St. Louis, 1891); Day in the Temple (ib., 1892); Christ in Type and Prophecy (2 vole., New York, 1893‑96); and Commentary on the Gospel of St. Matthew (Boston, 1898), and has prepared the fourth edition of Z. Zitelli Natali's Enchiridio7z ad sacrarum diaciPlirtarum cultores occomodtttum (Baltimore, 1892).

MABILLON, and"bi"ly8n, JEAN: French Roman Catholic; b. at St. Pierremont in Champagne Nov. 23, 1632; d. in Paris Dec. 27, 1707. He entered the Congregation of St. Maur in 1853, and was professed in the following year. After some years spent in different houses of the order, he was at Saint‑Denis in 1663, and the neat year at the ab‑
known at first as the " Cobhamitea," then, after Lord Cobham's death, as the " Grenville Cousins." He was a liberal patron of literature and enjoyed the friendship of Pope, Thomson, Shenstone, Fielding, and others. His principal works are, Observations on .the Conversion and Apostleship of St. Paul (London, 1747; new ed., 1879), which Dr. Johnson characterized as " a treatise to which infidelity bas never bin able to fabricate a special answer "; Dialogues of the Dead (1760; 4th ed., enlarged, 1765; new ed., 1889); and The History of the Life of Henry 11. (4 vole., .1767; 3d ed., 6 vole., 1769‑73), a work of much careful research, which bas, however, been superseded. His verse, which is inferior to his prose, was chiefly included in Poems (Glasgow, 1773), and,in his Poetical Works (London, 1785). His nephew, G. E. Ayscough, collected his Works (London, 1774; 3d. ed., 3 vole., 1776), including both verse and prose. Sir Robert Phillimore edited his Memoirs and Correspondence (2 vole., 1845).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: An excellent list of authorities is given at the end of the sketch in DNB xxxiv. 389‑374, sad a Life is found in A. Chalmers, Works o,/ the English Poets, vol. ziv., London, 1810. Consult also: E. 8. Creaey, Memoirs of Celebrated Etoniane, ib. 1878; and the works on the history of the times. ,
hey of Saint‑Germain‑des‑Pros in Paris, the literary headquarters of the congregation, where he assisted D'Achery (see AcHERT, JEAN LUC D') in the compilation of the last six volumes of the Spicilegium. In 1667 appeared two folio volumes of the works of St. Bernard,. edited from the oldest and best manuscripts, the beginning and the model of the editions of the Fathers which the congregation was to issue thenceforth in rapid succession. Mabillon's moat important life‑work, however, was the history of the Benedictine order, for which D'Achery had collected a mesa of materials. In 1668 appeared the first volume of the Acta eanctorum ordinia sancti Benedidi, relating to the sixth century. After thirtyfour years of work, nine folio volumes bad appeared, bringing the work down to 1100, and the material for a tenth was in shape. On this foundation Mabillon began to work at his most mature production, the Annales ordinia sandi Benedidi, (6 vole., Paris, 1703‑39), of which four volumes had been published before his death; the fifth was published by R. Maasuet (1713), and the sixth, to the year 1137, by E. Martkne (1739). He won perhaps even greater fame in another department of scholarship, owing to a controversy with the Jesuits, brought on by a dissertation of the Bollandist Papebroch in the second volume of the Acts sarectorum for April (1675). Papebroch set down most of the early documents conveying monastic privileges, and especially the Merovingian archives of SaintDenie, as forgeries. The Benedictines, in whose possession most of these were, regarded this se an attack on themselves, and Mabillon answered it in

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
his De re diplomatica (1681), which is still a classic in this department, and as to Merovingian paleography has never been surpassed. In 1682 Colbert, to whom it was dedicated, sent Mabillon to Burgundy to make a study of the archives there which concerned the royal house; and he made further journeys of the ,sort, to Germany in 1683, to Italy in 168b‑86, publishing some of his results in the Velera analeda (4 vole., 1675,85) and in Mtcaesum Italicum (2 vole., Paris, 1687‑89). He took part in the controversy as to the authorship of the Imitatio Christi between the Benedictines and the Auguatinians (see KEMP1a, THOMAS a, IIL), in his Animadveraiones in vindicias KemPenaea (an answer to a book published by the Augustinian Teatelette) deciding for the mythical Italian Benedictine abbot John Gersen. Against the Trappist De Ranck (see TRerrlsTS), who had declared that scholarship was a hindrance to monastic perfection, Mar billon maintained, in his TrtaiM des etudes monastiques (1691) that learning was necessary to monastic clergy and no violation of the rule of St. Benedict. Other important works of his are the De iiturgita Gallicarta (1685); the edifying little book La Mort eWtienne (1702), and the Disaertatio de prams euclutr<:atico, azyrrto et Jermentato (1674), the last of which is printed with other smaller treatises and a number of letters in the Ouvrages posthttmes de Mabillort et de Ruirtart (3 vole., Paris, 1724). Another portion of his extensive correspondence is contained in Valery's Correapondance inkdite de Malrillmt et de MmetJaucon aver 1'Italie (3 vole.; Paris, 1846); and a complete edition of his letters is in preparation. (G. LAQSMexrZt.)
BIHLIOaHAPHY: T. Ruinsrt, AbrEpE de la vie do . . . J. Matatlon, Paris, 1709; C. de Malan, Riot, de Mabillon et de la eonprEpation de 3t.‑Maur, ib. 1843; H. Jadart, Dons Joan itfabillon, Reims, 1879; E. de Brogue, Mabillon d la soedEtE de d'abbays de St.liermain‑das‑Prta, 2 vole., ib. 1888; 6. BLumer, J. Mabilton, Augsburg, 1892; Lichtenbereer, ESR, viii. b20‑b21.

WALL MISSION (Mission populaire 5vangelique): A French undenominational, evangelistic mission founded in Paris in 1872 by Robert Whitaker McAll (q.v.). The immediate impulse to this act was the remark of a French working man that the French common people, though opposed to an imposed religion of forms and ceremonies, were ready to hear, if some one would teach them a religion of freedom and earnestness. The mission is addressed, not to Roman Catholics, but to free‑thinkers, whether atheists or well disposed to religion, but it is conscientiously opposed to the Church of Rome. Some converts from Roman Catholicism have been made, but the majority of the converts are from the ever‑increasing clean in France which has broken with all religion.
The opening, Jan. 17, 1872, of a small shop as an evangelistic hall in Belleville, the communistic quarter of Paris; was the pioneer act of modern city missions in any country. French Protestant pastors and church officers welcomed it and freely lent their aid; the government, still guarding itself sedulously against the dangers inherent in meetings of working men, was quick to perceive that the Mission attx ouvriers, as it was at first called, tended
muu vv uauy uue genume‑
nessV of the fifty homilies ascribed to him. The ApoPhthegmata edited with the homilies may also be genuine, but the seven so‑called Opuscula dscetica edited under his name by P. Possinua (Paris, 1683) are merely later compilations from the homilies, made by Simeon the Logothete, who is probably identical with Simeon Metaphrastes (d. 950). Macarius likewise seems to have been the author, of several minor writings, including an EPistola ad filios Dei, and a number of other letters and prayers. The teachings of Macarius are characterized by a mystical and spiritual mode of thought which has endeared him to Christian mwt;,.„ r,f s» a,*oo
Lytteltoa
1!e<sAll Mission
to order; and authorized MeAll to open as many halls se he would. In 1888 the work attained its largest number of halls, 130; forty‑two being in Paris and its environs, and the others in thirtythree departments, Algeria, Tunis, and Corsica. In 1908 there were but fifty‑eight halls, a number of those formerly worked by the mission having been taken over by Protestant churches, and others closed in the interest of better methods. The work is thus far more extensive than in the days of more mission halls, in part owing to boat work and itineracy, in part to larger and more varied use of the belle.
Sunday‑schools were introduced into the mission
in Jan., 1873, and immediately afterward McAli took advantage of the Thursday half‑holiday to open
supplementary schools for religious instruction, an example followed by the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches. The first adult Bible class in France was established in a McAll hall. The Christian Endeavor movement was introduced into France by C. E. Greig, then in charge of work among the young in the mission halls, and, after McAll's retirement, the director of the mission. The Christian Endeavor Society is of inestimable value in regions where there are no Protestant churches with which the converts may unite.
Although the one purpose of the mission is evangelization, many agencies contribute to this end. The halls are centers of temperance and dispensary work, mothers' meetings, fraternal societies, lending libraries, Bible and tract distribution, and an extensive domestic visitation. The first industrial school in France was established in a McAll hall in 1874. The first social settlement in France was founded in 1899 in connection with the work of the mission in Roubaix, and several others have since been opened elsewhere.
In 1878, 1889, and 1900 the McAll Mission, in cooperation with the British and Foreign Bible Society, and the French and the London Tract Societies, carried on evangelistic work in conneotics with the expositions of these years, with continuous religious meetings and an extensive sale and distribution of religious literature.
In 1882, desiring to put the work upon a permanent basis, McAll formed s Board (Comity de direction) of French, English, and American residents of 'Paris. At that time the name of the work was changed from Mission attx ouvriera de Paris, which it had hitherto borne, to its present name, Mission Popttlaire grxingaique de France. The board, however, wishing to associate the founder's name with the work, voted to add the sub‑title " The McAll Mission." The president of the board was a prominent business man of Paris, Louis Saalter.
In 1885‑88, the London Seaman's Mission lined one of its boats to McAll for work in the coast cities, several permanent stations being the outcome. One of these boats, going up the seine to Paris, aroused an immense interest there. Subsequently two chapel boats, Le Ban Measager and La Bon‑ Notcvelle, were built for service in the inland waterways of France, and have carried the gospel to many sequestered villages, in some of which permanent work has been established. In
a germ. uenei. m ` vole. appeared at Sulabaoh, 1899;
fifty Homilice were edited by J. G. Pritius, Leipeig 1598;
ana H. J. Floes issued Epistola•, homiliarum loci, pracca,
Cologne, 1850, and Zwei Fragments den healipsn Makarius,
Bonn 1888. Consult: J. Stoffele, Die mystiache Theologie
Makariua den AepyPtera and die Alteeten Ansgtte chttatlicher
:Kyatik, Bonn, 1908; B. Lindner, 3ymbolos historios the
olopicw mystscas• de Macario Leipaie, 1848; T. FSreter,
in Jahrbfdchsr J>Zr deutsche ?7uolopie, 1873, pp. 439‑501;
R. LBbe, in Kirchlichaa Jahrbuch far .Sacks: AZtanburp,
1900, pp. 37‑38
2. The Repula monaatioa ascribed to Mscariue, a homily, and three apothegms are in A Gsllsndi Bibliofheoa veterum patncm, vol. vii., 14 vole., Venice, 1785‑81. Consult: Floes, ut sup.; O. ZSekler, Aekeas and MthKAtum, pp. 228‑227, 247, 335, 375 Frankfort, 1897; O. Bardenhewer, Patrolopie, pp. 232‑233, Freiburg, 1901.

MoAll Mission	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	10$
7iaoArthnr
numerous cases they have been the means of re
calling to their ancestral faith the scattered de
scendants of Huguenots, for generations destitute
of religious privileges.
	The McAll Mission neither invests money in
buildings nor founds churches. Its halls are hired
shops, its converts are sent to join the nearest
church, in many cases forming the major part of
the new accessions. Certain of the converts, mainly
Roman Catholics of advanced age, prefer to remain
in their own communion, though regularly attend
ing the mission meetings. Exceptions to the rule
not to establish churches have been found neces
sary in Corsica, and in certain parts of France
where no Protestant church existed; but in these
cases the converts themselves have supplied the
funds for building.
	The mission is supported by voluntary contribu
tions from Great Britain, America, Protestant
Europe, the descendants of Huguenots in South
Africa, and an ever‑increasing amount from the
Protestants of France. In 1883 the American
McAll Association, numbering in 1906 sixty‑one
auxiliaries, was formed to collect funds for the
mission, and similar associations have since been
formed in England, Scotland, Ireland, and Canada.
	The economy with which this mission is worked
is without precedent, due in part to the large pro
portion of unsalaried workers, and in part to the
marvelous genius of its founder for organization.
At no time has the average expenses of the halls
exceeded a thousand dollars a year, including rent,
salaries, running expenses, the due proportion of
administrative expenses, and of the extensive itin.
crating and boat work.
	Not being an effort to convert Roman Catholics,
and polemics being rigidly excluded from the halls,
the mission has been wonderfully exempt from op
position. Through all the evidences of animosity
to religion manifested in the French Parliament in
recent years no opposition to the mission has found
expression. In the early days some atheists of the
Belleville quarter made an attack upon it. They
were frankly' answered and became stanch sup
porters of the work. In 1898‑99, during the viru.
lent anti‑Protestant campaign, the mission re
ceived some small share of abuse, but it was so
strongly entrenched in public confidence that the
attack fell powerless.
	On Jan.17,1892, the twentieth anniversary of the
mission was celebrated with signal evidences of the
gratitude of the community and the appreciation of
the State. Shortly after, McAll resigned the direction
of the mission into the hands of his colleague, C. E.
Greig, and removed to England. So well had. he
established the mission that its success has continued
to increase and its importance to be recognised.
In 1905 the Board of Direction gave to Greig a col
league, S. de Greasier Latour, a young man of noble
Huguenot extraction, and created the office of
Foreign Corresponding Secretary for America, to
which they called Henri Merle d'Aubignd, son of the
historian of the Reformation, and for years a worker
in the mission. LOUI6E SEYMOUR HOUGHTON.
Brstroarurxx: H. Boner, The White Fieidt of prance; or
	the Story of Mr. M'All's Mission, New York, 1879; idem,
Life and Work of Rev. Q. Theophilw Dodds . in Con‑
nection with the MaA R Mission, ib. 1884; Cry front the
Land of Calvin and Voltaire; Records of the hfcAR Mia
eion, ib. 1887; Mrs. L. 8. Houghton, Cruise of as" Mys‑
tery " in MeAl1 Mission Work, ib. 1891.

McALL, ROBERT WHITASER: English Congregationalist, and the founder of the McAll Mission (q.v.); b. at Macclesfield (17 m. s, of Manchester), Cheshire, Dec. 17, 1821; d. in Paris May 11, 1893. He was the son of a Congregational minister, but at first proposed to take up the profession of architecture. Almost at the outset of a promising career, however, he felt himself drawn to the ministry, as his father had wished; and after completing his studies at the Free College of Theology at Whalley Range, near Manchester (1844‑48), he was called to the pastorate of the Congregational church at Sunderland. Subsequently he held charges at Leicester, Birmingham, Manchester, and Hadleigh, his sermons everywhere being marked by their simplicity, force, and elegance. While at Leicester, he became distinguished as a street preacher, and in all his pastorates he did extensive work in the villages, where he was eminently suocesaful in enlisting the services of young men. In Aug., 1871, while on a ten days' visit to France with his wife, he heard, at Paris, the words of ‑a working man which determined his future career. Convinced that there was an opportunity for evangelistic work in France among those who had abandoned religious faith, McAll, having consulted prominent French Protestant pastors, and having secured the consent and cooperation of his church at Hadleigh, returned to Paris, where, with the permission of the Government, he began evangelistic work in the communistic quarter of Belleville (Jan. 17, 1872). The work was at first carried on by the private means of McAll and his wife; but within a year interest was aroused in the undertaking, and contributions came in generously. In 1882, wishing to put the mission on a permanent foundation, McAll formed a board of directors, who in turn made him honorary director for life. This office he cosigned in 1892 and returned to England to raise the funds which were urgently needed to carry on the work. Early in the following spring, becoming seriously ill, he went once more to Paris, where he died, and was buried with military honors. His wife, who died at Paris May 6, 1906, gave her last years to the mission with a devotion equal to that of her husband. McAll was the author of ninety‑seven published works, chiefly tracts, many of which were written in French; and he also wrote or translated fifty hymns for the Cantiquea populairea, the hymnal used in the McAll missions and by many other French Protestants. Louls>a SEYMOUR HOUGHTON.
BrariloanlPBy: R. W. McA71, Founder of the MBAR Mie
	eion Paris: a Fragment by himself, a Souvenir by his
	Wide, London, 1898; and literature under MCALL Mreexox.

MACARIIIS, ma‑cA'ri‑us: A name of frequent occurrence in the history of the early Church (cf. the DCB, s.v., and Stadler and Heim, Heiliyenlezacon, iv. 2‑10, where more than forty of the name are mentioned). The most noteworthy are:
1. Macarius The Egyptian, called also The Elder or The Great: Head of the monks of the Scetic

108	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xosn xiasioa
XaoArEhnr
desert; b. in Upper Egypt about 300; d. in the Soetic desert, 391. He was won to the religious life at an early age by St. Anthony and when thirty years old became a monk. Ten years later he was ordained priest, and for the remainder of his life presided over the monastic community in the Scetic desert, except for a brief period during which he was banished, with other adherents of the Nicene Creed, to an island in the Nile by the Emperor Valens. The day appointed for his feast in the Eastern Church is Jan. 19, while the Western Church celebrates it four days earlier. Certain monasteries of the Libyan desert still bear the name of Macarius, and the neighborhood is called the Desert of Macsrius and seems to be identical with the ancient Scetic district. The ruins of numerous monasteries in this region almost confirm the local tradition that the cloisters of Macarius were equal in number to the days of the year. Although Gennadius recognizes as the only work of Macarius a letter addressed to the younger monks, there seems to be no reason to deny the genuineness of the fifty homilies ascribed to him. The Apophthegmata edited with the homilies may also be genuine, but the seven so‑called Optcacula ascetics edited under his name by P. Possinus (Paris, 1883) are merely later compilations from the homilies, made by Simeon the Logothete, who is probably identical with Simeon Metsphrastes (d. 950). Macarius likewise seems to have been the author of several minor writings, including an Epistold ad filios Doi, and a number of other letters and prayers. The teachings of Macarius are characterized by a mystical and spiritual mode of thought which has endeared him to Christian mystics of all ages, although, on the other hand, in his anthropology and soteriology he frequently approximates the standpoint of St. Augustine. Certain passages of his homilies assert the entire depravity of man, while others postulate free will, even after the fall of Adam, and presuppose a tendency toward virtue, or, in semi‑Pelagian fashion, ascribe to man the power to attain a degree of readiness to receive salvation.
2. Macarius The Younger, or Macarius of Alexandria: A somewhat younger contemporary of the preceding, was a monk in the Nitric desert, where he died c. 406. He was an extreme ascetic, and numerous miracles were ascribed to him. He presided over the 5,000 Nitric monks with the same success as had the elder Macarius in the Scetic desert. According to oriental tradition, he died on Jan. 2, but he is also commemorated on the same days as Macarius the Egyptian, with whom he is often confused. In addition to a monastic rule and three brief apothegms, a homily " On the End of the Souls of the Righteous and of Sinners " is ascribed to him, although excellent Vienna manuscripts assign the latter to a monk named Alexander. Palladius and Sozomen also mention a Macariua the Younger of Lower Egypt, who lived in a cell for more than twenty three years to atone for a murder which he had committed.
3. Macarius Magnes: Probably to be identified with the bishop of Magnesia who, at the Synod of the Oak in 403, brought charges against Heraclides, bishop of Ephesus, the friend of Chrysostom
(see CxxysosToas, § 4). He seems to have been the author of an apology against a Neo‑Platonic philosopher of the early part of the fourth century, contained in a manuscript of the fifteenth century discovered at Athens in 1867 and edited by C. Blondel (Paris, 1876). This work agrees in its dogmatics with Gregory of Nyasa, and is valuable on account of the numerous excerpts from the writings of the opponent of Macarius. These fragments are apparently drawn from the lost "Words against the Christians" of Porphyry or from the "Truth‑Loving Words" of Hierocles. Like Macarius the Younger, this Macarius is frequently confused with Macarlua the Egyptian.
	4. Macarius of Jerusalem: A bishop who took
part in the Council of Nic:ea and also received
a	long letter from Constantine the Great with
reference to the building of the Church of the
Redeemer at Jerusalem. Of his life no details
are known. 	(O. ZlSc>it>sat.)
Bxarxoaxurxx: 1. The Opera ate is MPL, 3codv. 408‑822; a Germ. travel. in 2 vole. appeared at $ulabsch, 1839; fifty Homilies were edited by J. G. Pritiue, Leipeic, 1598: and H. J. Floss issued EPietolw, homiliarum loci, prccee, Cologne, 1859, and Zvxi Fragments dee hsuLigea Makmsue, Bonn, 1888. Consult: J. $toffela, Die mystische Theo7opie Makariue des Aepypters and die tUteeten Anstuu cAristtacher Myatik, Bonn, 1908; B. Lindner, 3ymbolm hiatoria! theoloyicon mystics': de Macario, Leipaia, 1848; T. Forster, in Jahrbidcher f4r deutsche Tluolopie, 1873. pp. 439‑591; R. Lobe, in Kirchliclus Jahrbuch J4r .Sacht. Alkaburp, 1900. PP. 37‑38.
2. The i2egula mottaetica ascribed to Macariue, a homily, and three apothegxne ass in A. Gsllsndi, Bibliof7teca veterum patream, vol. vii, 14 vole., Venice, 1785‑81 Consult: Floss, ut sup.; O. Zbekler, Askaea and MOnehtum, pp. 228‑227, 247, 335, 375, Frankfort, 1897; O. Batdenhewer, Patrolopie, pp. 232‑233, Freiburg, 1901.
3. C. Blondel, Macarii Magnetic qua tuperseant, Paris, 1878; L. $ehalkhausser, Zu den 3clariJten du Moaarius .Von Magnesia, in TU, 1907: L. Duchesne, De Macario Magnets, Paris, 1877; W. Moller, in TLZ, 1877, no. 19; T. Zahn, in ZK(J, iii. 450‑459; C. J. Naumann, 3criPtorum Gr‑orum . . . quo auperauat, faeo. iii., Lefpeio, 1880; O. Bardenhewer, ut sup., pp. 331332.
MACARTHUR, JAMES: Church of England, bishop of Southampton; b. at Dawaholme, Dumbartonshire, June 6, 1848. He was educated at the University of Glasgow (M.A., 1868), and after being called to the Scottish Bar in 1871 and to the Inner Temple in 1874, entered Cuddesdon Theological College, where he studied in 1877‑78, being ordered deacon in 1878 and ordained priest in the following year. He was successively curate of St. Mary's, Redcliff, Bristol, in 187880, rector of Lamplugh, Cumberland, in 1880,87, and vicar of St. Mary's, Tothill Fields, Westminster, in 1887‑92 and of All Saints', South Acton, Middlesex, in 18921893. He was also rural dean of Ealing in 18941898, sad in the latter year was consecrated bishop of Bombay, a diocese which he retained until 1903. He was acting metropolitan of India in 1902, and in the following year was translated to his present see of Southampton (suffragan to the bishop of Winchester). In addition to charges, addresses, and sermons, he has written Christianity and ht. dian Nationality (London, 1903).

MACARTHUR, ROBERT STUART: Baptist; b. at Dalesville, P. Q., July 31, 1841. He was educated at the University of Rochester (A.B., 1867)

McAuley	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	104
aC'Ctabe
and Rochester Theological Seminary, from which
he was graduated in 1870. Since the latter year he
hen been pastor of Calvary Baptist Church, New
York City. He was for many years a correspond
ent of The Chicago Standard, and was long con
nected editorially with The Christian Inquirer and
The Baptist Quarterly Review. In addition to com
piling a number of hymnals, of which the moat im
portant is the Calvary Selection of Hymns and
Spiritual Songs (in collaboration with C. S. Robin
son; New York, 1879) and Laudea Domini (in
collaboration with C. S. Robinson; 1889), he has
written Calvary, Pulpit (New York, 1890); Divine
Balustrades (Chicago, 1892); Quick Truths in Quaint
Tents (2 series, 1895‑1907); The Attractive Christ,
and other Sermons (Philadelphia, 1898); Current
Questions for Thinking Men (1898); Bile Difficul
ties and their Alleviaxive Interpretations (New York,
1899); Celestial Lamp (Philadelphia, 1899); Old
Book and Old Faith (New York, 1899); Round the
World (Philadelphia, 1899); The Land and the Book
(1900); The Questions of the Centuries (Cleveland,
1905) ; Advent, Christmas, New Year, Easter, and
Other Sermons (1908); and The Christian Reign, and
Other Sermons (1909).
	XcAULEY, CATHARINE ELIZABETH: Founder
of the Sisters of Mercy; b. at Gormanatown House,
near Dublin, Ireland, Sept. 29, 1787; d. at Dublin
Nov.11,1841. She was born in the Roman Catholic
faith, but, having been left an orphan, wee brought
up in a Protestant family. At the age of eighteen
she was adopted by Mr. and Mrs. Callahan of Coo
lock House (north of Dublin), whom she converted to
Roman Catholicism, and on the death of Mr. Cal
lahan in 1822 she inherited his fortune. She now
erected in Lower Baggot Street, Dublin, the House
of our Bleared Lady of Mercy, which was completed
in 1827. She sad two companions then underwent
the novitiate in the Presentation convent of George's
Hill, Dublin. They returned to Baggot Street in
Dec., 1830, and in Jan., 1831, gave the religious
dress to six sisters who had been in charge during
their absence. Thus was founded the order of
Sisters of Mercy (see MERCY, SISTERS OF).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Life of Catharine McAuley, New York,
	1888; Dublin Review, March, 1847, pp. 1‑25; DNB,
	mtiv. 420‑421.
	McAULEY, JEREMIAH: Methodist missionary;
b. in Kerry, Ireland, about 1839; d. in New York
Sept. 18, 1884. He had no schooling and when he
was thirteen years old emigrated to America. There
he assisted his sister's husband in his business in
New York, but soon, falling in with evil compan
ions, he left his home and became a river thief.
When only nineteen years old he was arrested for
highway robbery and although innocent of the
charge was convicted and sentenced to fifteen years'
imprisonment at Sing Sing (Jan., 1857). While in
prison he was converted, largely through the me
dium of Orville Gardner, a fellow convict, and he
himself converted many others in the prison.
Governor Din, after proof was laid before him of
McAuley's innocence of the charge against him,
pardoned him (Mar. 8, 1884). On leaving prison
17e had no friends to help him lead an honest life, .
and relapsed into his old ways. In 1872 he found Christian friends who assisted him, and in October of that year he.opened at 318 Water Street a " Helping Hand for Men," where he did a great amount of good and saved many a man from evil courses. 1n 1878 the old building was replaced by a better one, and the mission was incorporated as the MoAuley Water Street Mission. In 1882 he began another mission on Thirty‑second Street, near Sixth Avenue, where he labored until his death. Himself an ex‑convict, he knew the hardships and temptations of such men and therefore could aid and save them far better than many a man who had not had his experience.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: R.. M. OHord, Jerry McAuley, his Life and Work, New York, 1885; H. Campbell, The Problem of the Poor; Record of quiet Work in unquiet Places, ib. 1882; Jerry McAuley, an Apostle to the Lost, 5th ed., ib., 1908 (by a number of writers).
McBEE, SILAS: Protestant Episcopal layman; b. at Lincolnton, N. C., Nov. 14, 1853. He was educated at the University of the South, Sewanee, Tenn., from which he was graduated in 1878. Since 1898 he has been editor of The Churchman (New York). He is a member of the board of managers of the Prayer Book Society in America, and in theology describes himself as " a Catholic (iii its real and not sectarian sense) Churchman."
MACBRIDE, JOHN DAVID: English Orientalist; b. at Plympton (5 m. n.n.e. of Plymouth), Devonshire, June 28, 1778; d. at Oxford Jan. 24, 1868. He studied at Exeter College, Oxford (B.A., 1?99; M.A., 1802), where he received a fellowship in 1800. In 1813 he was appointed principal of Magdalen Hall and lord almoner's reader in Arabic. These positions he held till his death. Though he was a layman, he frequently lectured on theology. His principal work was The Mohammedan Religion Explained (London, 1857). He also published Leotares Explanatory of the Diatessaron (2 vole., Oxford, 1835); Diatessaron, or the History of our Lord Jesus Christ compiled from the Four Gospels (1837); Lectures on the Articles of the United Church of England and Ireland (1853); The Syrian Church in India (1858); and Lectures on the Acts of the Apostlea and on the Epistles (1858).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: DNB, xcxiv. 429‑430.
XcBURAEY, ROBERT ROSS: General secretary of the New York City Young Men's Christian Association; b. at Castleblayney (12 m. a.e. of Monaghan), County Monaghan, Ireland, Mar. 31, 1837; d. at Clifton Springs, N. Y., Dec. 27, 1898. He was the son of a physician of repute. When seventeen he came to New York, where he learned the hatter's trade. Eight years later he became "librarian" of the New York Y. M. C. A., then occupying rooms on the second floor at 859 Broadway. Here he was associated with a group of young men who later became leading business men in the city, and togather they were instrumental in building up the organisation till in Dec., 1869, its first building, at Twenty‑third Street and Fourth Avenue, coating with site =487,000, was completed and occupied. The following figures briefly contrast the work at the time he took charge of it and near the end of

10<S	RELIGIOUS ETXCYCLOPEDIA	MeAuley
		M'Cabe
his secretaryship: In 1862: 150 members, two
small rented rooms, and an annual expenditure of
$1,700; in 1897: 7,309 membership, work con
ducted at fifteen points, nine buildings valued at
E2,000,000, annual budget $175,000.
	McBurney was for thirty years a member of
the Y. M. C. A, International Committee; and as
its corresponding member he in 1866 called the first
New York State convention which he for three years
served as president. He was seven times a dele
gate to the triennial World's Conference, held in
Europe; in 1871 he was one of the founders and till
his death was a leader of the Association of General
Secretaries of North America. He was active out
side of the association; he was a lifelong member
and for many years an official of St. Paul's Metho
dist Episcopal Church; from 1867 an active mem
ber of the executive committee of the Evangelical
Alliance. Besides these activities, he was an ac
tive participant and director in many enterprises
and institutions directed to philanthropic and re
ligious ends. He was not a college graduate, but
he read widely and carefully. He was a close
student of the Bible and a successful teacher. He
traveled extensively in America, visited Europe
many times, and made a tour of Egypt and the Holy
Land. He was distinguished for his sturdy Scotch
character, strong common sense, energy, tact, and
executive ability, with an integrity and conscien
tiousness that were never questioned. He was
above all a lover of young men and his largo
hearted and practical sympathy never failed. Per
haps no other man in his generation touched and
helped so many young men. RICHARD C. MoxsE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. L. Doggett, Life of Robert R. McBurney,
	Cleveland, O., 1902.
	McCABE, CHARLES CARDWELL: Methodist
Episcopal bishop, better known as Chaplain Mo
Cabs; b. at Athens, O., Oct. 11, 1836; d. in New
York City Dec. 19, 1906. He entered Ohio Wes
leyan University, Delaware, O., in 1854, but did
not complete the course, which he frequently in
terrupted to do evangelistic work. His health gave
way and on his recovery he taught the high school
at Ironton, O., 1858‑60. He joined the Ohio con
ference and was ordained deacon Sept. 23, 1$60,
and appointed to Putnam, since incorporated into
the city of Zanesville, O. He pleaded the Union
cause so vigorously and successfully that it was
largely owing to him that the 122d regiment of
Ohio Volunteers was raised. He was ordained
elder at Zanesville Sept. 7, 1862, and appointed
chaplain of the regiment on Oct. 8, 1862. He
proved himself efficient; indeed has been styled
" the most popular and distinguished chaplain "
in the volunteer army. He was during the rest of
his life called " chaplain," whatever other desig
nation his office entitled him to. On June 16,
1863, he was captured on the field of battle at
Gettysburg, Pa., and sent by Major General J. A.
Early to Libby Prison, Richmond. He did much
to relieve the tedium of confinement, showed him
self indefatigable in getting up entertainments, a
son of consolation to the downcast, and ardent in
impressing religious truth upon his associates. But
on Sept. 25 he came down with typhoid fever and was very ill. In October he was exchanged and allowed to leave the prison. He resigned his chapla,incy, Jan. 8, 1864, received his commission as a delegate of the United States Christian Commission (Mar. 29; 1864) and was one of its most active members. " Whether pleading for money throughout the North or singing (he had a remarkable gift of song) and preaching to the soldiers in Southern camps, he was equally happy and successful." At the close of the war he was appointed (Sept., 1865) to Spencer Chapel in Portsmouth, O., and had a series of revivals until he left it to be centenary agent of Ohio Wesleyan University in 1866. He exhibited great ability as a money‑raiser and was continuously employed by his denomination for this purpose. In 1868 he was elected financial agent of the Church Extension Society, in 1872 the title was dropped and he was elected assistant corresponding secretary. In 1884 he was elected secretary of the missionary society of his church. He stirred great enthusiasm by proposing that the society should raise a million dollars for missions, foreign and domestic, in 1885: Unsuccessful in the first effort, although nearly $96,000 advance had been made, he renewed the effort and reached his point in 1887. In 1896 he was elected s bishop. To this office he brought his great popularity and tireless energy, his spiritual enthusiasm and Evangelical fervor. He did noteworthy service in Mexico and South America, in 1899‑1902. In Dec., 1902, he was elected chancellor of the American University. But under this accumulation of duties and under the strain of trying to finance his gigantic schemes he sank and died of apoplexy. He was able to raise large sums by his lecture, frequently repeated and yet never wholly repeated, " The Bright Side of Life in Libby Prison."
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. M. Bristol, The Life of Chaplain McCabe, New York, 1908 (it contains a summary of the famous lecture).
M'CABE, JOSEPH: English ex‑Franciscan; b. at Macclesfield (15 m. s.e. of Manchester), Cheshire, Nov. 11, 1867. He was educated at St. Francis' College, Manchester (1883‑84), Holy Trinity, Killarney (1884‑85), St. Anthony's, London (188rr91), and the University of Louvain (1893‑94). In 1891 he was ordained to the Roman Catholic priesthood and appointed professor of scholastic philosophy at St. Anthony's College, London, where he taught in 1891‑93 and 1894‑95. In 1895‑96 he was rector of St. Bernardine's College, Buckingham, but in the latter year abandoned the Church on account of his adoption of agnostic views, and since that time has been a private secretary, lecturer, journalist, and author. Besides translating E. Hasckel's Riddle of the Universe (London, 1900); Wonders of Life (1904); Evolution of Man (1905); and Last Words on Evolution (1906); F. K. C. Buchner's Last Words on Materialism (1901); and W. BSlsche's Haeckel (1906), he has written From Rmne to Rationalism (London, 1896); Modern Rationalism(1897); Twelve Years in a Monastery (1897); Life in a modern Monastery (1898); Can we Disarms (1899); The Religion of the Twentieth Century (1899); Peter AbB.

Maccabees
McClure	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	108
lard (1901); Saint Augustine and his Age (1902); Haeckel'$ Critics answered (1905); Religion of Woman (1905); The Origin of Life (1906); Secular Education (1906); Tolleyrand (1906); The Bible in Europe; an Inquiry into the Contribution of the Christian Religion to Civilisation (1907); Life and Letters of George Jacob Holyoake (2 vole., 1908); and The Decay of the Church of Rome (1909).

MACCABEES. See HAaMONEAx$.

MACCABEES, BOOBS OF: See APOCRYPHA, A, IV., 9‑11.

MACCABEES, FESTIVAL OF THE: The celebration on Aug. 1 of the martyrdom of the seven brothers and of their mother under Antiochua Epiphanes (cf. II Mace. vii.). The festival dates from the fourteenth century.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Waee, The Apocrypha, ii. 689 eqq., in
" Speakers Commentary," London, 1888.

111acCARTHY, WELBORE: Church of England, bishop of Grantham; b. at Cork, Ireland, Apr. 11, 1840. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and St. Aidan's Theological College, Birkenhead, and was ordered deacon in 1867 and ordained priest in the following year. He was successively curate of Preston‑Patrick, Westmoreland (1867‑68), Ulvereton (1868‑71), Christ Church, Battersea (1871‑72), and Balham, Surrey (1872‑73). He then went to India, where he was chaplain at Jhansi, Northwestern Provinces (1874‑75), Rangoon, Burma (18751877), St. Paul's Cathedral, Calcutta (1877‑82 and 1889‑98), Mussooree (1882‑84), Meerut (1884,85), Shahjahanpur (18857; all three in the Northwestern Provinces), and Lucknow (1888,89). He was likewise commissary to the bishop of Calcutta in 1879,82 and 1891‑98, as well as acting archdeacon of Calcutta in 1891‑92 and archdeacon in 1892‑98. Returning to England in 1898, he was rector of Aahwell in 1898‑1901 and vicar of Gainaborough in 1901‑05, besides being assistant chaplain of St. George's, Cannes, France, in 1900‑05, and rural dean of Corringham and prebendary of Lincoln in 1901‑1905. In* 1905 he became vicar of Grantham, and in the same year was consecrated bishop of Grantham (suffragan to the bishop of Lincoln).

McCAUL, ALEXANDER: Church of England; b. at Dublin, Ireland, May 16, 1799; d. at London Nov. 13, 1863. He studied at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1819), and in 1821 went to Warsaw, Poland, as a missionary of the London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews. At the close of 1822 he returned to England, took orders and became curate of Huntley, near Gloucester, but on his marriage in 1823 he returned to Warsaw, where he lived as head of the Jewish mission and English chaplain till 1830. Settling in London he continued to cooperate with the London Society, which in 1840 made him principal of the Hebrew college in London. In 1841 he was given the professorship of Hebrew and rabbinical literature m King's College, London, to which the chair of divinity, was added in 1846. He became rector of St. James's in 1843, prebendary of ,$t. Paul's in I
1845, and rector of the parish of St. Magnus, St. Margaret, and St. Michael on Fish Street Hill, in 1850. On the revival of Convocation in 1852 he was elected proctor for the London clergy, whom he represented till his death. He published a large number of single sermons and pamphlets, but his principal works are two aeries of Warburtonian lectures: Lectures on the Prophecies (London, 1846) and The MessiahshiP of Jesus (1852). He wrote also Rationalism and the Divine Interpretation of Scripture (1850); Notes on the First Chapter of Genesis (1861); Testimonies to the Divine Authority of the Holy Scriptures (1862), and An Examination of Bishop Colenao'a Difficulties with Regard to the Pentateuch (2 parts, 1863‑‑64).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. B. MCC8UI, A Memorial Sketch of . Alexander MeCaul, Oxford, 1883; DNB, xxzv. 1‑2.

McCHEYNE, mak‑shGn, ROBERT MURRAY: Church of Scotland; b. at Edinburgh May 21, 1813; d. at Dundee Mar. 25, 1843. He studied at the University of Edinburgh, where he distinguished himself by his poetical talent, being awarded a prize by Professor John Wilson (" Christopher North ") for a poem on The Cmenanters. In 1831 he took up the study of theology, at the Divinity Hall of the university under Thomas Chalmers and David Welsh, and on Nov. 7, 1835, he began his ministerial labors at Larbert, near Falkirk, as assistant to John Bonar. On Nov. 24, 1836, he was ordained to the pastorate of St. Peter's Church, Dundee, which he held till his death. In 1839 he was a member of the committee sent to Palestine by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland to collect information respecting the Jews. On his return he entered upon a successful evangelistic campaign, first at Dundee, then at other places in Scotland and northern England. In the controversy that finally led to the disruption of the Scottish Church he took very decided ground on the non‑intrusion side. McCheyne was a fine example of the true Gospel preacher. Long after his death he was constantly referred to as " the saintly MeCheyne." His principal works are, Narrative of a Mission of Inquiry to the Jews . . . in 1889 (in collaboration with A. A. Bonar; Edinburgh, 1842); Expositions of the Epistles to the Seven Churches of Asia (Dundee, 1843); The Eternal Inheritance . . . two Discourses (1843); Memoirs and Remains (ed. A. A. Bonar, Edinburgh, 1843, and often; new ed., 1897); and Additional Remains, Sermons, and Lectures (1844). The Remains, which have done much to perpetuate McCheyne's memory, consist of sermons, fugitive pieces, and hymns, including the popular " When this passing world is done."
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The principal work is the Memoir and Remains by A. A. Bonar, ut sup., abridged ed., Edinburgh, 1885. Consult further the short Life by J. L. Watson, London, 1881; DNB, xxxv. 3.
MACCHI, ma"chl, LUIGI: Cardinal; b. at Viterbo (42 m. n.n.w, of Rome), Italy, Mar. 3, 1832; d. at Rome Mar. 29, 1907. He was ordained to the priesthood in 1859, and was soon appointed privy chamberlain by Pius IX. After being made domestic prelate, vice‑president of the hospice for the poor in the Bathe of Diocletian, and an incumbent of other offices, he was appointed, in 1875,

Maccabees
107	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
McClure
mceatro di camera, an office in which he was confirmed by Leo XIII. In 1886 he became major domo and prefect of the apostolic palaces, and in the former capacity successfully carried out the jubilee of the Pope's ordination to the priesthood. In 1889 he was created cardinal‑deacon of Santa Maria in Aquiro, and after 1896 was ca,rdina,l‑deacon of Santa Maria in Via Later. Although not a bishop, the cardinal was made abbot in commendam of San Benedetto di Subiaco in 1890, and was secretary of the Congregation of Briefs and great chancellor of all papal orders of knights, as well as a member of the congregations of the Council, Rites, Ceremonies, and Indulgences.

McCLELLAIY, JOHN BROWN: Church of England; b. in Glasgow, Scotland, Mar. 7, 1838. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1858; M.A., 1861). He was fellow of his college (1859‑81). Ordained deacon in 1860, and priest in 1861, he was vicar of Bottisham, Cambridgeshire (1861‑,80); and rural dean of first division of Camp's deanery (1871‑77). In 1880 he was appointed principal of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, Gloucestershire. He is the author of: Fourth Nicene Canon and the Election and Consecration of Bishops (London, 1870); and The New Testament: A New Translation (only one vol. published; 1875).

McCLINTOCg, JOHN: Methodist Episcopalian; b. in Philadelphia Oct. 27, 1814; d. at Madison, N. J., Mar. 4, 1870. He was graduated from the University of Pennsylvania in 1835 and was received as a traveling preacher in the New Jersey Annual Conference the same year. From 1836 to 1843 he taught in Dickinson College, Carlisle, Penn., holding the chair of mathematics 1836‑40, and that of Greek and Latin 18408. He was then editor of The Methodist Quarterly Review 1848‑56. In 1857 he went to England as a delegate to the Wesleyan Methodist Conference. He was pastor of St. Paul's Methodist Church, New York, 18570, and pastor of the American Chapel, Paris, 1860‑64. During the Civil War in America his pen was constantly active in the interest of the Union cause. In 1864 he was recalled to St. Paul's, but ill health forced him to resign a year later. From 1867 till his death he was president of the newly established Drew ,Theological Seminary, Madison, N. J. He was an eloquent and impressive preacher and one of the best scholars that his denomination has produced. In addition to a popular series of Greek and Latin teat‑books and numerous articles in periodicals, he published Analysis of Watson's Theological Institutes (New York, 1842; a translation of. Neander's Life of Christ (1847); Sketches of Eminent Methodist Ministers (1852); The Temporal Power of the Pope (1853); and a translation of Bungener's History of the Council of Trent (1855). His most important work, however, was the Cycloptadia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature (10 vo1s. and Supplement 2 vole., New York, 1867‑87). In collaboration with James Strong he began to collect materials for this work as early ere 1853, but lived to see only three volumes through the press. After his death there appeared Living Words (1870), a
volume of sermons; and Lectures on Theological Encyclopcedia and Methodology (1873).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. R. Crooks, Lifer and Letters of Rev. John McClintock, New York, 187.
McCLOSBEY, JOHN: American cardinal; b. in Brooklyn Mar. 20, 1810; d. in New York Oct. 10, 1885. He studied at Mount St. Mary's College, Emmitsburg, Md., was ordained priest is 1834, and then pursued postgraduate studies in theology at the Roman College. Returning to America in 1837 he was assigned for pariah duty to St. Joseph's Church, New York City. When St. John's College, Fordham, was opened in 1841 he was appointed its first president, but the year following he returned to his parish work at St. Joseph's. In 1844 he was appointed coadjutor to Bishop Hughes of the diocese of New York, being made titular bishop of Axiere, in partitua infidelium. He was consecrated Mar. 10, and though assisting the bishop in his episcopal functions, he retained his position as pastor of St. Joseph's parish. In, 1847 he was transferred from New York to become the first bishop of the newly erected diocese of Albany, and this post he filled during the ensuing seventeen years. The new diocese included nearly all of the northern and eastern portions of the state of New York, and throughout this vast territory Roman Catholics were relatively few and without resources; there were in all only about forty churches and many of these were without priests. During his administration conditions were greatly improved and much was done by way of organization and development. Thus in Albany he built the fine cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, which was dedicated in 1852; new parishes were established in great numbers throughout the diocese; many schools and homes were erected, and in 1864 St. Joseph's Provincial Seminary for the training of ecclesiastical students was opened in Troy. In May of the same year he was appointed to succeed Archbishop Hughes in the metropolitan see of New York. In this capacity he attended the Vatican Council in 1870, and was a member of the committee on ecclesiastical discipline. In 1875 he was made cardinal by Pius IX. with the title of Sancta Maria supra Minervam. On the death of Pius IX. in 1878 he left for Rome. in order to attend the conclave in which Leo XIII. was elected, but arrived too late to take part in the proceedings. He had a distinguished career as s churchman, having taken an important part in the remarkable development of the Roman Catholic Church in New York during that period. He was a prelate of more than ordinary scholarship, and though mild and gentle in character, he possessed the firmness necessary to the leader, together with great executive ability JAMEa F. DRISCOLL.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. G. Sheer, Hiat. of the Catholic Church
within the Limits of the United States, vol. iv., passim, New York, 1892; Lives of the Clergy of New York and Brooklyn, ib. 1874.
McCLURE, JAMES GORE KING: Presbyterian; b. at Albany, N. Y., Nov. 24, 1848. He was educated at Yale (A.B., 1870) and Princeton Theological Seminary, from which. he was graduated in 1873. He was ordained to the Presbyte‑

~oCr~e °at	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	108
rian ministry in 1874, and from that year until 1879 was pastor at New Scotland, N. Yi, after which he traveled in Europe for two years. He was then pastor at Lake Forest, Ill., until 1905, and also president of Lake Forest University from 1897 until his resignation in 1901. Since 1905 he has been president of McCormick Theological Seminary. He was also president of the College Board of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America in 1903‑04. He has written: Posax'bilities (Chicago, 1896); The Man mho Wanted to Help (1897); The Great Appeal (1898); Environment (1899); For Hearts that Hope (1900); A mighty Means of Llsefxdness (1901); Luring /'or the Best (1903); The Growing Pastor (1904); Loyalty the Soul of Religion (190b); and Supreme Things (sermons; 1908).

McCLYMOfIT, JAMES ALEXANDER: Church of Scotland; b. at Girvan (17 m. s.w. of Ayr), Ayrshire, May 26, 1848. He was educated at the universities of Edinburgh (M.A., 1867; B.D., 1870) and Tubingen, and was assistant in Dundee Pariah Church from 1871 to 1874. Since the latter year he has been minister of Holburn Parish, Aberdeen, as well as chaplain to the Gordon Highlanders. He was examiner in Hebrew in Aberdeen University in 1894 and in Hebrew and Biblical criticism in 1906‑08, and is also convener of the Business Committee of the Aberdeen Synod and a member of the General Committee of the Church of Scotland. In theology he describes himself as an " Evangelical Broad Churchman." Besides his work as joint editor (with A. H. Charteris) of the Guild Text‑Books (Edinburgh, 1890 sqq.) and the Guild Library (London, 1895 sqq.), he has translated J. T. Beck's Pastorallehren des Neuen Testamentes (Giltersloh, 1880) under the title Pastoral Theology of the New Testament (in collaboration with T. Nicol; Edinburgh, 1885); and has written The New Testament and its Writers (1892); St. John's Gospel in The Century Bible (1901); and Greece (London, 1906).

McC00g, HENRY CHRISTOPHER: Presbyterian; b. at New Lisbon, O., July 3, 1837. He was educated at Jefferson College (B.A., 1859) and at the Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa. (1859‑61). He was first lieutenant, and afterward chaplain, in the Forty‑first Regiment Illinois Volunteers. He has held pastorates at Clinton, Ill. (1861‑63) ; St. Louis, Mo. (1863‑69) ; and at Philadelphia, Pa. (1869‑1902; since 1903, pastor emeritus). He has written: Object and Outline Teaching: Guide Book for Sunday School Workers (St. Louis, 1871); Teacher's Commentary on Gospel Narrative of Last Year of our Lord's Ministry (Philadelphia, 1871); was a contributor to the Tercentenary Book (of the Heidelberg Catechism; 1863); Natural History of the Agricultural Ant of Texas (1879); Honey Ants of the Garden of the Gods and the Occident Ants of the American Plains (1881); Tenants of an Old Farm: Leaves from the NoteBook of a ‑Naturalist (New York, 1885 [1884]); Women Friends of Jesus (1886 [1885]); Gospel in Nature (Philadelphia, 1886); American Spiders, and their Spinning Work (3 vole., 1890‑93); Old Farm Fairies (1895); the Latimers: Tale of the Western
Insurrection of 1794 (1898 [189?]); Martial Graves of our Fallen Heroes in Santiago de Cuba (1899); The Senator: a Threnody (1905); Nature's Craftsmen: Popular Studies of Ants and other Insects (New York, 1907); and Ant Communities (1909).
na<ccoRDUcg, JOHN NEWTON: Protestant Episcopal bishop coadjutor of western Michigan; b. at Richmond, Va., Feb. 1, 1863. He was educated at Randolph‑Macon College, Va. (A.B., 1883) and Johns Hopkins University (1886,88). From 1883 to 1893 he was a Methodist Episcopal minister, but entering the Protestant Episcopal Church he was rector successively of St. Paul's, Suffolk, Va., 1893 to 1895, of St. Luke's, Atlanta, Ga., 1895, and of St. Mark's, Grand Rapids, Mich., 1898. In 1906 he was consecrated bishop coadjutor of western Michigan. He has written: Distinctive Marks of the Episcopal Church (Milwaukee, 1902); The Litany and the Life (1904); and Pain and Sympathy (1907).
McCOSH, JAMES: Presbyterian divine and educator; b. at Carekeoch (36 m. s.s.w. of Glasgow), a farm in the parish of Straiton, Ayrshire, Scotland, Apr. 1, 1811; d, at Princeton, N. J., Nov. 16, 1894. He was destined at an early age for the ministry by his father, who put him under the tuition of a pious man, one Quentin Smith. In 1824 he entered the University of Glasgow, and in 1829 he removed to the University of Edinburgh (M.A., 1834), where he studied divinity under Chalmers. $e was licensed by the presbytery of Ayr in 1834 and was settled first in Arbroath, a pariah of sailors and artizans, but in 1838 he was appointed pastor at Brechin, Forfarahire. At the disruption of 1843 he entered the Free Church and became superintendent of a mountainous district in Forfarshire. In 1850 he was called to Queen's College, Belfast, as professor of logic and metaphysics. There he not only devoted himself to the duties of his chair, but also interested himself in Evangelical work in Smithfield, establishing a church and founding schools. He took great interest in Irish affairs and was a firm advocate of the national system of schools. He desired the abolition of the Regium Donum, yet he suggested a suatentation fund, as he had done before in Scotland. In the summer of 1858 he traveled in Germany; and in 1866 he made a journey to the United States, investigating chiefly the system of education in use here. In May, 1868, he was elected president o£ the College of New Jersey, Princeton, which position he retained until his resignation in 1888. MeCosh was one of Princeton's most influential presidents; he introduced, but with more restrictions than at Harvard and. at Yale, the elective system. He was a firm, although kind, disciplinarian. After his resignation he still showed interest in the college, continuing his lectures there on philosophy for two years. As a philosopher McCosh takes a high rank; he was a firm believer in realism and strongly opposed both to idealism and to materialism. He always strove to keep abreast of the times, from the start giving his assent to the doctrine of evolution and showing how it could be reconciled with the Gospel teachings, in which he was always a firm believer. Of his voluminous

109	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	XoCl	at
		Xacr3Tm°
works the more important are: The Method of Divine
Government, Physical and Moral (Edinburgh, 1850); ,
Typical Forma and Special Ends in Creation (1856),
in collaboration with G. Dickie; The Intuitions of
the Mind, Inductively Investigated (London, 1860);
The Supernatural in. Relation to the Natural (Cam
bridge, 1862); A Defense of Fundamental Truth;
being an Examination of Mr. J. S. Mill's Philoso
phy (London, 1866); .The Laws of Discursive
Thought (1870); Christianity and Positivism (New
York, 1871); The Scottish Philosophy, Biograph
ical, Expository, Critical (London, 1874); The Emo
tions (1880); Psychology: the Cognitive Powers
(1886); Psychology: the Motive Powers, Emotions,
Conscience, Will (1887); The Realistic Philosophy
Defended (1887); The Religious Aspect of Evolu
tion (1888); Gospel Sermons (1888); The First
seed Fundamental Truths (1889): and Our Moral
Nature (1892).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Life of James McCosA, a Record chiefly
	Aulobiopraphieal, ed. W. M. Sloane, New York, 1898 (con
	tains s list, by J. H. Duller, of the published writings of
	Dr. MoCoah).
	MACCOmus, ma‑Wvi‑us, JOHANNES (Jan
Makowsky): Polish Reformed theologian; b. at
Lobzenic, Poland, 1588; d. at Franeker, Holland,
June 24, 1644. After visiting various universities
as the tutor of young Polish nobles, and holding
disputations with Jesuits and Socinians, he entered
the University of Franeker in 1613. There he be
came privat‑docent in 1614 and professor of theol
ogy is 1615 Theologically he was a rigid Calvin
ist of the extreme supralapea,rian school, and theses
of a corresponding character, defended in 1616 by
one of his pupils, involved him in a controversy
with his colleague Sibrandus Lubbertua (q.v.) which
was settled only by the Synod of Dort in 1619.
The synod, while neither approving nor condemning
his aupralapsarisniam, acquitted Maccovius of the
charges of heresy brought against him, but advised
him to be more cautious and peaceable. Never
theless, he became involved in another controversy
at Dort with his subsequent colleague William Ames
(q.v.) by asserting that all things that moat be be
lieved are not necessarily true, that no impulse
toward regeneration and effecting it exists in the
unregenerate, and that Christ is the object of faith
because of whom, but not in whom, man must be
lieve. Maccovius' theory of Scripture was very
free, and he distinguished sharply between scholar
ship and beliefs essential to salvation. His fame
attracted many students to Franeker. His chief
works are: Collegia theologica (Amsterdam, 1623);
and the posthumous Maccoviua rediarivus sine man
uacripta eius typia ezacn:pta (Franeker, .1847) and
Loci communes (1650).	(S. D. vwrr VEEN.)
Baitoassrai: A. Huyper, Jr., Johanna Macooniw, Ley
	den, 1899; E. L. Briemoet, Athenaeum Frisiacarum IiGri,
	pp. lb1‑180, Leeuwarden. 1758; J. Herings Ex, in dr
	ehisf moor Kerketijke Otschiedenie, 1831, iii. b03‑b84; W.
	B. 8. Boeh, Frieslanda 1Joopssdwot en keg Mike Atho
	norum to Fmnekar, ii 90‑94, Leeuwarden, 1889.
	MacCRACBER, HENRY MITCHELL: Presby
terian; b, at Oxford, O., Sept. 28, 1840. He was
educated at Miami University, Oxford, O. (A.B.,
1857), United Presbyterian Theological Seminary,
Xenia, O. (1880‑82), Princeton Theological Seminary (from which he was graduated in 1863), sad the universities of Tubingen and'Berlin (18678). In 1857‑b8 he was a teacher of classics in Grove Academy, Cedarville, O., and in 18580 was superintendent of the Union Schools of South Charleston, O., after which be was pastor of the Westminster Presbyterian Church, Columbus, O. (1863‑67), and the First Presbyterian Church, Toledo, O. (1868,81). He was then chancellor of Western University, Pittsburg, Pa., for three years (18811884), and from 1884 to 1891 was professor of philosophy and vice‑chancellor of New York University, and from 1891 to 1910 chancellor of the same institution. He was a deputy to the General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland in 1867 and to the General Assembly of the Irish Presbyterian Church in the same year and in 1884. He has edited, translated, and enlarged F. Piper's Evangelischer Calereder (Berlin, 1875) under the title Lives of the Leaders of our Church Universal (Philadelphia, 1880).
McCRIE, THOMAS: The name of two prominent Scotch Presbyterians.
1. The biographer of John Knox; b. at Dun (36 m. e.a.e. of Edinburgh), Berwickshire, Nov., 1772; d. at Edinburgh Aug. 5, 1835. After teaching for a time in the neighboring elementary schools he studied at the University of Edinburgh (17881791), but did not graduate. In 1791 he opened an " anti‑burgher " school at Brechin, where he resided for three years, except during the few weeks which were annually required for attendance at the theological seminary of the General Associate Synod (anti‑burgher) at Whitburn. He was licensed in 1795 by the associate presbytery of Kelso, and in 1796 he was ordained pastor of the Potterrow Church, Edinburgh. In 1806, owing to differences about the province of civil magistrates in religious affairs, a schism occurred in the anti‑burgher denomination, and McCrie and three other ministers withdrew from the General Associate Synod and on Aug. 28, 1806, organized the Constitutional Associate Presbytery, which in 1827 was merged in the Synod of Original Secedera. At the end of a lawsuit McCrie was ejected from the Potterrow Church in 1809. His congregation then built him the bleat Richmond Street Church, where he continued his ministrations till his death. During the years 1816‑18 he filled the chair of divinity in the theological seminary of his denomination. MoCries works grew chiefly out of investigations which the controversies of the time led him to make into the early history of the Church of Scotland. His mgt important work is his Life of John Knox (2 vole., Edinburgh, 1812; 2d ed., enlarged, 1813), which not only placed McCrie in the front rank of the authors of his day, but also produced a great change of popular sentiment in regard to Knox. It was distinguished by original, painstaking research, independence of judgment, judicial fairness of mind, and singular clearness of style; and its effect on the general estimate of Knox among men was not unlike that produced, in the succeeding generation, in reference to Cromwell, by the publication of Carlyle's monograph. There is reason to

Xsoedonins
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	110
believe that the impulse given by it to the study of the history of the Scottish Reformation, and the principles involved in the subsequent conflicts of the Scottish Church, did much to bring about that movement which resulted in the disruption of 1843. Other works are, The Life of Andrew Melville (2 vole., 1819); History of the Progress and Suppression of the Reformation in Italy (1827); and History of the Progress and Suppression of the Reformation in Spain (1829). Posthumous were, Sermons (1836) and Miscellaneous Writings, Chiefly Historical (1841). His son, Thomas MeCrie, edited his Works (4 vole., 1855‑57).
B:HUOaaerar: A Memoir, by his eon, was prefixed to the Works, ut sup., and s Life of Thomas McCrie, D.D., by the same, appeared Edinburgh, 1840; DNB, azv. 1314. There is also s Memoir of Dr. McCrie by A. Crichton in the letter's ed. of MeCrie'e Life o1 John Knox, Edinburgh, 1840.
2. Son and biographer of the preceding; b. at Edinburgh Nov. 7, 1797; d. there May 9, 1875. He studied at the University of Edinburgh, entered the ministry of the Original Secession Church in 1820, and, after holding pastorates at Crieff and Clola, succeeded his father in 1836 as minister of the West Richmond Street Church, Edinburgh. The same year he was given the chair of divinity at the Original Secession Hall. In 1852 he joined the Free Church of Scotland, at the union with it of the larger part of the Original Secession Church. He took a prominent part in the deliberations necessary for effecting this union and in 1856 was moderator of the Free Church assembly. In 1866 he became professor of church history sad systematic theology in the Presbyterian College, London. His principal works are, Life of Thomas McCrie (Edinburgh, 1840); Sketches of Scottish Church History (1841); Lectures on Christian Baptism (1850); Memoirs of Sir Andrew Agnew (1850); and Annals of English Prealrytxry, from the Earliest Period to the Present Time (London, 1872).
BraicoossrHy: DNB, xcav. 14.

M'CURDY, JAMES FREDERICK: Presbyterian; b. at Chatham, New Brunswick, Feb. 18, 1847. He was educated at the University of New Brunswick (A.B., 1866), and after being principal of Aestigouche County Grammar School, Dalhousie, New Brunswick, in 1867‑88, entered Princeton Theological Seminary, from which he was graduated in 1871 and where he studied two additional years (1871‑72). He was then assistant professor of Oriental languages in the same institution from 1873 to 1882, after which he studied at the universities of Gottingen and Leipsio until 1884. He was lecturer at Princeton Theological Seminary on the Stone foundation in 1885‑86, and in. the latter year was appointed lecturer on Oriental literature in University College, Toronto, where he was promoted to his present position of professor of the same subject in 1888. In addition to numerous contributions to The Jewish Encyclopedia, Hastings Dictionary of the Bible, and the Standard Bile Dictionary, to theological periodicals, and besides preparing the sections on the Psalms, Hoses, and Haggai for the American edition of J. P. Lange's commentary on the Bible (New York, 1872‑76) he
has written: Aryo‑Semitic Speech: A Study in Linguistic Archeology (Andover, 1881); History, Prophecy, and the Monuments (3 vole., London, 18941901); and Life of D. J. Macdonnell (Toronto, 1897).

MACDONALD, DUNCAN BLACK: Presbyterian; b. at Glasgow, Scotland, Apr. 9, 1&33. He was educated at the university of his native city (M.A., 1885; B.D., 1888), where he was later scholar and fellow, and then studied Semitica at the University of Berlin (189U‑91, 1893). Since 1892 he has been professor of Semitic languages in Hartford Theological Seminary. He was Haskell lecturer in comparative religion in the University of Chicago in 1905‑06. He is editor of the Mohammedan section of J. Hastings' Encyclopcedia of Religion and Ethics, and is editor of the concordance of the Peshitta being prepared under the auspices of Hartford Theological Seminary. He has written: Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence, and Constitutional Theory (New York, 1903); and Religious Attitude and Life in Islam (Chicago, 1909; Haskell lectures).

MACDONALD, FREDERIC WILLIAM: English Methodist; b. at Leeds Feb. 25, 1842. He was educated at Owens College, Manchester (B.A., 1862), and after being a Wesleyan minister from 1862 to 1881, was professor of systematic theology in Handsworth College, Birmingham, from 1881 to 1891. From the latter year until 1905 he was secretary of the Wesleyan Missionary Society, of which he has since been honorary secretary, and in 18991900 was likewise president of the Wesleyan Methodist Conference. He was also joint editor of the London Quarterly Review from 1871 to 1875, and in 1880 represented the British Methodist Conference at the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church of America,. He has written: Life of Fletcher of Madeley (London, 1885); Life of William, Money Punshon (1887); Latin Hymns in the Wesleyan Hymn‑Book (1900); and In a Nook with a Book (1907).

McDOWELL, WILLIAM FRASER: Methodist Episcopal bishop; b. at Millersburg, O., Feb. 4 1858. He was educated at Ohio Wesleyan University (A.B., 1879) and Boston University (S.T.B., 1882), and from 1882 to 1890 held successive pastorates at Lodi, O. (1882‑83), Oberlin, O. (1883188b), and Tiffin, O. (1885‑90), after which he was chancellor of the University of Denver for nine years (1890‑99). From 1899 to 1904 he was corresponding secretary of the Board of Education of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and in 1904 was elected bishop of his denomination. He was a member of the Colorado State Board of Charities and Corrections in 1894‑99 and president of the Religious Education Society in 1905‑06, while since 1899 he has bin a member of the International Committee of the Young Men's Christian Association.

MACDUFF, JOHN ROSS: Church of Scotland; b. at Bonhard in the parish of Scone, Perthshire, May 23, 1818; d. at Chislehuret (10 m. s.e. of London), Kent, England, Apr. 30, 1895. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh, end wee

111	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xocrie
		Maoedonius
pastor successively of Kettins, Forfarshire (1843
11349), of St. Madoea, Perthshire (1849‑55), and of
Sandyford parish, Glasgow (1855‑70). In 1870 he
retired to Chislehurst and devoted himself to the
composition of religious literature. His publica
tions were very numerous. They are mostly small
devotional manuals, characterized by a devout and
practical imagination, and have been read by thou
sands in his own country and in America. Possibly
of these the two most famous volumes are The
Morning and Night Watches (in one vol., London,
323d thousand in 1904); and The Mind and Wards
of Jesus (in one vol., 341st thousand). He wrote
also verse, of which he issued a collected edition,
Matin and Vesper Bells (2 vole., 1898). Two of his
hymns have found their way into hymn‑books,
	Christ is coming," and " Everlasting Arms of
love." His autobiography, Reminiscences of a
Long Life, by the Author of Morning and Night
Watches, appeared 1896.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult, besides the Reminiacenaea, ut. cup,
	edited by his daughter, 8. W. Duffield, English Hymns,
	pp. 88‑87, New York, 1888; Julian, Hymnology, p. 708.
	MACEDONIA IN THE APOSTOLIC AGE: After
the battle of Pydna (188 B.C.) Macedonia passed
under Roman dominion and was divided into four
districts. In 146 B.C. it became a province, and
under Augustus it passed to the senate; under
Tiberius and Claudius it was an imperial charge
and was united with Aehaia; but after 44 B.C. it
belonged again to the Senate. In the third and
fourth centuries it was again divided into four
provinces. Ptolema'us (iii. 13) thus describes its
extent: " On the east the river Nestus formed the
boundary toward Thracia, so that Philippi politic
ally belonged to Macedonia. [This agrees with
Acts xvi. 9, where the ` man of Macedonia' ap
peared to Paul asking him to come over into Mace
donia, who went by way of Samothrace directly to
Neapolis‑Philippi, passing around Thrace.] On
the north, Macedonia bordered on Dahnatia‑Illyri
cum; in the west, on the Adriatic Sea. The south
ern boundary is uncertain." As in other provinces,
there was also a provincial council for Macedonia
which probably met in Thessalonica, which was
called the " first [city] of Macedonia." The prin
cipal cities were connected by the Via Egnatia, a
fine military road, which Paul used from Neapolia
to Thessalonica,. From Neapolis, opposite to the
island of Thasos, the road led to Philippi, a city
founded by Philip of Macedonia. Octavianua
planted a Roman colony there (cf. Acts xvi. 12)
which was considerably enlarged after the battle
at Actium. The population was almost entirely
Roman, as the many Latin inscriptions prove.
The masters of the prophesying slaves (Acts xvi.
16‑21) were Romans. The officers also were Ro
mans (praetors, not politarchs). The number of
Jews in Philippi seems to have been not very large,
for Paul intended to stay there only a few days,
and a congregation seems not to have existed at
all. Acts xvi. 13 says nothing of a synagogue (as
in xvii. 1), it mentions only a praying‑place for
women outside of the gate by the river. The next
two stations on the Via Egnatia, at which Paul
only touched, were Amphipolis and Apollonia.
Then comes Theasalonica, formerly called Thermae. According to Philip it was a free city, the capital of the province. In the time of Strabo it was very populous. It had its politarchs (Acts xvii. 6), though their number is uncertain, also a council (demos, Acts xvii. 5). The politarchs had police jurisdiction and were responsible to the provincial authorities for order and quiet in the city (xvii. 6 aqq). That Paul selected this important commercial city as a missionary field is in accord with his custom; in the Acts a further motive was the fact that a synagogue of the Jews was there. This " would mean that the Jews of the entire district, including those of Amphipolis and Apollonia, centered their worship at Thessalonica" (Zahn). Thus is explained also why the apostle passed by Amphipolis and Apollonia. The influence of the Jews in Theasalonica must have been very great; it was felt even at Berea, the first city to go over to the Romans after the battle of Pydna. This last was one of the moat populous cities of Macedonia. (J. WEISS.)
BIBLiOaRAPHY: J. Marquardt, Rsmiache StaaWvenualtunp, i. 318‑321, Leipeie, 1881; W. M. Leaks, Travels in Northern Green, vol. iii., London, 1835; T. A. Desdevizea‑duDezert, G€opmphie ancienne de to Mac€doine, Paris, 1863; L. Heuzey, Mission arrh6olnpique de Mac6dodne, Paris, 1878; B. Nieae, Geschichte der griechiachen and makedonischen Staaten aeit der Schlacht bei Chaeronea, 3 parts, Gotha, 1893‑1903; W. M. Ramsay, Church in the Roman Empire, pp. 149,151,156,158, 180, London, 1893; idem, St. Paul the Traveller and Roman Citizen, chaps. ix.‑x., ib. 1897.

MACEDONIUS, mss"e‑do'ni‑us, AND THE
MACEDONIAN SECT.
Early Accounts ($ 1). Apparent Facts in Life of Macedoniua ($ 2). Critical Account of His Life (§ 3). The Beet (§ 4).
Toward the end of the fourth century the name of Macedonius, bishop of Constantinople, became accepted as that of a hereaiarch. Jerome, writing in that city about 380, mentions him as intruded into the see by the Arian party, and says that the Macedonian heresy takes its name from him. About
the same time Damasus, in his twenty1;. Early four anathemas against various hereAccounts. tics, pronounced one against " the
Macedonians, who, coming out of the Arian stock, changed their name but not their perfidy "; and in 383 and 384 Theodosius enforced repressive measures not only against Eunomians and Ariana but also against Macedonians. From this time his name was known in the West as that of a heresiarch. Rufinus relates (c. 402) that the Ariana split about 361 into three groups, Arians proper, Eunomiana, and Macedonians, and Augustine about the same time enumerates the eastern heretics similarly, and afterward (428) places the Macedonians, " whom the Greeks call also Pneumatomachi," in his list of heretics. The term Macedonians must have been common in Constantinople about 380‑384; but it is not met in the older eastern literature‑neither in Athanasius, nor in Basil, nor in the list of heretics given by Epipbanius; nor is it used by the council of 381 in the canon (i.) which condemns the "SemiAriana or Pneumatomachi." Canon vii., which deals with the reception into the Church of " Mace‑

Maoedonine	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	112
MeQarvey
donians," is some eighty years later than the council. Theodoret mentions briefly that after his deposition Macedonius became "the leader of a heresy of his own"; but otherwise he names him only in quoting the anathemas of Damaeus. The historians Socrates and Sozomen, writing in Constantinople, are the first to make frequent mention of him and his party, and it is through them that the Macedonians became a well‑known group of heretics in the East. The definite name of Macedonians can not be shown to have been used in the East before 380.
These and other similar facts can be explained only by saying that Maoedonius had an importance rather for Constantinopolitan than for general church history. The circumstances of his life are not easy to trace accurately; but a glance at the indications given will be useful. According to Socrates
and Sozomen, on the death of Alexanz. Apparent der of Constantinople (c. 340), MaceFacta in Life donius was put up by the Arian party of Macedo‑ as their candidate in apposition to the
	niua	properly elected and orthodox Paul,
		whom the Emperor Constantius set
aside through a synod and replaced by Euaebius of
Nicomedia. After Eusebius' death there was an
other contest between the same two candidates.
Once more Constantius, at the cost of much popu
lar disorder, expelled Paul, and tacitly allowed
Macedonius to take possession of the see. Paul
went to Rome and Julius awarded him his see,
which he claimed in person, while the Ariana, gath
ered at Antioch, protested against the interference
of Julius in eastern matters. Constantius had Paul
seized and banished to Thessalonica, and Macedo
nius was forcibly installed, after a riot in which many
lives were lost. Constana took up the cause of Paul,
but without success until, after the Council of Sar
dica (347) had declared in favor of Paul, Athana
sius, and Marcellus, he induced his brother by actual
threats of war to restore them. When, however,
Constana died in 350, Constantius reversed his
action, and Paul was banished to Cucusus and
strangled there. Macedonius, now in undisturbed
possession, persecuted the orthodox party, but ulti
mately fell into disgrace with Constantius and was
deposed at a synod in Constantinople (360), after
which he broke away from the Acacians and founded
a sect of his own.
A thorough examination, however, of these statements shows that they are not reliable in several particulars; and a more trustworthy account may be made up from the acts of the Council of Sardica and the statements of Athanasius (Historic Arianorum, vii., and Apologia de fogs, iii.), and of Jerome
From these sources it appears that 3. Critical Paul had been banished to Pontus by
Account of Constantine, and that he had already
His Life. been bishop of Constantinople for some
time before Eusebius was set up (at latest in 338), and that Macedonius, who had once accused him in the presence of Athanasius, was then his presbyter. When Eusebius set his mind on winning the bishopric, the old charges were revived; Constantius banished him in chains to Singara in Mesopotamia, then to Emesa, and finally to
Cucusus, where his persecutors put him to death with the help of the Prefect Philippus. The letter of the Council of Sardica does not mention him, naming only Athanasiua, Marcellus, and Asclepas. The eastern bishops there asserted that he had assented to the condemnation of Athanasius; that he was himself condemned long before 342; that in 342 he went into exile; and that it was Maximin of Trevea who entered into communion with him and effected his restoration. Paul was, according to all the indications here given, not at Sardica, nor at the time bishop of Constantinople, but apparently in exile. The most probable conclusion from the Whole difficult matter is that Paul died at the earliest in 351. In any case Macedoniua was in sole possession of the see of Constantinople from 342 or 343. It is impossible to decide how much truth there is in the accounts by Socrates and Sozomen of his fierce persecution of the orthodox, though it is credible that he filled as many sees as he could reach with his partizans. 'The statement of Socrates and Sozomen that he adhered to the Acacian or court party until 360 is certainly wrong; Philostorgiua relates that Basil of Ancyra won him to his aide, Sabinus of Heraclea reckons him among the Homoiouaiane, Epiphaniua calls him a partizan of Basil, and the letter addressed to him in 358 by George of Laodicea proves that he was all along on the Homoiousian aide. With this party he supported Basil in Seleucia against the Acacians, and as a member of it he was deposed at the synod of 360. That his death followed soon afterward is a natural inference from the fact that he is not mentioned in connection with the actions of his party after 364. Thus he would scarcely have had time to found a separate sect after his deposition; and his views on the doctrine of the Holy Spirit were not peculiar to him, but were shared by all the Homoiousiana. Nor was this question much debated in Constantinople and Asia Minor before 367.
The development of the " Macedonian " sect, held to be heretical on this point, began in Alexandria. During his third exile (356‑362) Athanasius
hard of people who regarded the Holy 4. The Ghost as a creature, and in four letters
	Sect.	to Bishop Serapion of Thmuis defended
		the hamoouaia of the Spirit as the only
true doctrine. To him, after his long residence in
the West (where since Tertullian this doctrine had
been firmly established) it could present no difficul
ties, and fell in easily with his general doctrine of
the Trinity. But the case was different with the
Homoiousians and with the so‑called " young Ni
cene " party, brought up in Origenistic traditions.
Hence it was possible for Gregory Nazianzen to say
about 381: " Of the wise amongst us, some hold the
Holy Spirit to be a power (energeia), others a crea
ture, others for God, and still others are unwilling
to decide, out of reverence (as they say) for the
Scriptures, which do not speak plainly on the mat
ter." The question how it came to an open breach
between the supporters of the various views is im
possible to answer with certainty; the decisive ele
ments were probably the authority of Athanasius,
the requirement of the Synod of Alexandria that
the homoousia of the Holy Spirit should be acknowl‑

113	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	XaceQoains
		MaCJ•arvey
edged, and the prompt response of Meletius of An
tioch. The breach between Basil of Ciesarea and
Eustathius in 373 seems to have marked a turning
point in the controversy. The Pneumatomachi
were regarded as semi‑Ariana, and condemned as
such in 381, although it is doubtful whether any of
them were heterodox in their Christology. Greg
ory Nazianzen, preaching in Constantinople on the
Pentecost of that year, speaks of them as " sound
in regard to the Son," and efforts were made to
win them in a brotherly spirit by reminding them
of their acceptance of the Nicene Creed‑which, it
must be remembered, did not attempt to define the
doctrine of the Holy Spirit. Refusing to treat and
leaving the council to the number of thirty‑six,
they were condemned as heretics, and, after fruit
less negotiations in 383, became subject to the
edicts of Theodosius. But Macedonius had noth
ing to do with the development after 360. That
the Pneumatomachi in Constantinople were named
after him about 380‑387 was due to the fact that
his disciples there, holding aloof from the dominant
Homoians, were not strong enough after his death
to set up a bishop of their own, and were thus still
called after the man whose deposition had inaugu
rated their separation from the Homoiana. In a
word, it has seldom been the ill fortune of a man
to win the name of a heresiarch on such alight
grounds as have sufficed in the case of Macedonius.
According to Socrates, none of the separatist groups
were persecuted or disturbed in their worship except
the Eunomiana, and Neatorius was the first, at Con
atantinople and Cyzicus, to take away the churches
of the " Macedonians " and thus force some of them
back into the orthodox fold. The rent probably died
out by degrees. See ARIANISM.	(F. Loolrs.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources are indicated in the text. Con
	sult further: the Opera of Demesne in MPL, xiii. 109
	442; J. Vogt, Bibliotheca hiatoricm harreaiolopicaa, i. 1, pp.
	185‑199, Hamburg, 1723; F. Loofa, Euatathiua von So
	boats, Halle, 1898; J. Gummerus, Die homtiuaianiahe
	Partei bia sum Tode des Konetantiua, Leipeic, 1900; Nean
	der, Christian Church, v. 188: Moeller, Christian Church,
	i. 39?‑393; Schaff, Christian Church, iii. 839‑840, 864.
	MacEWEft, ALEXANDER ROBERTSON: United
Free Church of Scotland; b. at Edinburgh May 14,
1851. He studied at Glasgow (1866‑70), Balliol
College, Oxford (B.A., 1874), Gottingen, and the
United Presbyterian Hall, Glasgow (1877‑80). In
1874‑75 he was deputy professor of Greek, and from
1875 to 1877 assistant professor of Latin in the
University of Glasgow, where he was also classical
examiner for degrees in 1881‑84. He was pastor
of the United Presbyterian Church at Moffat (1880
1886), of Anderaton Church, Glasgow (1886,89),
and of Claremont Church, in the same city (1889
1901). Since 1901 he has been professor of church
history in New College, Edinburgh. He is secre
tary of the Christian Unity Society for Scotland.
In theology he describes himself as liberal and
Evangelical, and as belonging to the historical
school, as well as a " resolute advocate of central
and unifying beliefs," although non‑controversial
and declining to be ranked with any party. He
has edited John Ker's Lectures on Preaching (Lon
don, 1886), and has written: Life of Alexander Mac
Ewen, D.D., his father (Glasgow, 1875); Origin of
		VIL‑8
Roman Satiric Poetry (Oxford, 1876); St. Jerome (London, 1878); The Eastern Church in Greece (1890); Life and Letters of Principal Cairns (1894); and The Erakines, Ebenezer and Ralph (Edinburgh, 1900).

McFADYEIY, JOHN EDGAR: Presbyterian; b. at Glasgow, Scotland, July 17, 1870. He was educated at the universities of Glasgow (M.A., 1890), Oxford (B.A., 1895), and Marburg, and at the Free Church College, Glasgow, and was successively Snell exhibitioner, Oxford (1890‑93) and George A. Clark fellow, Glasgow (1893‑97). Since 1898 he has been professor of Old‑Testament literature and exegesis at Knox College, Toronto. In theology he is "a believer in reverent but fearless investigation." He has written: The Messages of the Prophetic and Priestly Historians (New York, 1900); The Divine Pursuit (Chicago, 1900); In the Hour of Silence (1902); Old Testament Criticism area the Christian Church (New York, 1903); The Messages of the Psalmists (1904); Introduction to the Old Testament (1905); The Prayers of the Bible (1906) ; Ten Studies in the Psalms (1907); and The City with Foundations (1909).

McFARLAND, JOHN THOMAS: Methodist Episcopalian; b. at Mt. Vernon, Ind., Jan. 2, 1851. He was educated at Iowa Wesleyan University, Simpson College, Indianola, Ia. (A.B., 1873), and the School of Theology, Boston University (B.D., 1878). His principal pastorates, since be entered the ministry in 1873, have been at the First Methodist Episcopal Church, Peoria, Ill. (1880‑82), Grace Methodist Episcopal Church, Jacksonville, Ill. (1891‑96), New York Avenue Methodist Episcopal Church, Brooklyn, N. Y. (1897‑99), and First Methodist Episcopal Church, Topeka, Han. (18991905). He was vice‑president of Iowa Wesleyan University from 1882 to 1884, and president from 1884 to 1891, and since 1894 has been secretary of the Sunday‑school Union and editor of the Sundayschool literature for his denomination.

McGARVEY, JOHN WILLIAM: Disciple; b. at Hopkinsville, Ky., Mar. 1, 1829. He was educated at Bethany College, Bethany, W. Va. (A.B., 1850), and after conducting a private school for boys from 1850 to 1852 and being the head of a boarding‑school from 1856 to 1858, besides holding pastorates at Fayette, Mo., Dover, Mo., and Lexington, Ky., was appointed professor of sacred history at the College of the Bible, Lexington, in 1865, a position which he still retains. Since 1895 he has also been president of the same institution. He was president of the Kentucky Christian Missionary Society for nearly forty years and of the Christian Education Society for over thirty, and has been editor of the department of Biblical criticism in The Christian Standard (Cincinnati) since 1893. In theology he is strongly conservative on questions connected with Biblical criticism. He has written: Commentary on the Arts of the Apostles (Cincinnati, O., 1863); Commentary on Matthew and Mark (1867); Lands of the Bible (1881); Text arid Canon of the New Testament (1886); Credibility arid Inspiration of the New Testament (1891); MeGarvey'a

Mackenzie	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	114
Sermons (1894); Jesus and Jonah (1897); and The Authorship of Deuteronomy (1902).

McGARVEY, WILLIAM: Roman Catholic; b. at Philadelphia Aug. 14, 1861. He was educated by private tutors and at the General Theological Seminary, from which he was graduated in 1886. He was ordained to the priesthood of the Protestant Episcopal Church (1886); was curate of the Church of the Evangelists, Philadelphia (1886‑96); rector of St. Elizabeth's, Philadelphia (1896‑1908); but in 1908, together with his assistant clergy, embraced Roman Catholicism, the immediate cause of his conversion being his fear that a so‑called " open pulpit " would be permitted in the Episcopal Church. While in his former communion he was superior of the Congregation of the Companions of the Saviour and chaplain general of the Sisters of Saint Mary in the United States. He has written: The Ceremonies of a Low Celebration (Milwaukee, 1891); Liturgite Americance (Philadelphia, 1895); The Doctrine of the Church of England on the Real Presence (Milwaukee, 1900); and Ceremonies of the Mass (in collaboration with C. P. A. Burnett; New York, 1905).

MeGIFFERT, ARTHUR CUSHMAN: Congregationalist; b. at Sauquoit, N. Y., Mar. 4, 1861. He was educated at Western Reserve College (A.B., 1882), Union Theological Seminary (from which he was graduated in 1885), and France, Italy, and Germany (Ph.D., Marburg, 1888). Returning to the United States in 1888, he was appointed instructor in church history in Lane Theological Seminary, a position which he held until 1890, when he was promoted to a full professorship of the same subject. Three years later (1893), he was appointed to his present position of professor of church history in Union Theological Seminary, New York. In theology he belongs to the critical school, and has written, in addition to translating the " Ecclesiastical History " of Eusebius (New Fork, 1890), Dialogue between a Christian and a Jew entitled 6vrtpoRil lIaviaKOV Kai obiAwvog 'Iovdafov rpos /c6vax6v rsva (New York, 1888); A History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age (1897); The Apostles' Creed (1902); and The Christian Point of View (in collaboration with F. Brown and G. W. Knox; 1902).
McGREADY, JAMES: Presbyterian; b. in western Pennsylvania about 1758 or 1760; d. at Henderson, Ky., Feb., 1817. He was educated for the ministry at a school in Cannonsburg, Pa., and was licensed to preach on Aug. 13, 1788. His first parish was in Orange County, N. C., but in 1796 he moved to Logan County, Ky., where, beginning in 1797, he took a prominent part in the great revival, holding the first camp‑meetings there in July, 1800. It was partly due to his influence in ordaining young men who were without a classical education that the Cumberland Presbyterian Church seceded from the main body (see PRESBYTERIANS). McGready, who had really never seceded, was speedily reconciled to his church, having been prohibited from preaching for only a year or two, and was sent in 1811 as a missionary to found churches in southern Indiana. His sermons were edited by J. Smith (vol. i., Louisville,
1831; vol. ii., Nashville, 1833). See REVIVAI$ of RELIGION, IIL, 2, § 2.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. H. Gillett, Hi8t. of the Presbyterian Church, U. 3. A., passim, Philadelphia, 1884; R. V. Foster, in American Church History Series, xi. 280, 261, 288, 272, New York, 1894.

MACHERUS: A fortress in Peraea, nine miles east of the northern end of the Dead Sea, identified with the modern Mkawr. It was built by Alexander Jannaeus, destroyed by Gabinius, rebuilt by Herod the Great. Josephus points it out as the place in which the beheading of John the Baptist took place.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: Joaephus, War, L, v. 8, TL, xviii. 6, VII., vi. 1‑2, 4; Ant., XIV., v. 4, XVIIL, v. 1‑2; Pliny, Hiat. not., v. 16, 72. Consult: G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, pp. b69‑570, London, 1897; Schiirer, Geschtchte, i. 438‑441 et passim, Eng. transl., I„ ii. 250‑251 et passim.
MACHPELAH: The name of the cave, or of the place near Hebron where the cave was situated, which Abraham bought of Ephron the Hittite for a family sepulcher. The name occurs only Gen. xxiii. 9, 17, 19, xxv. 9, xlix. 30, 1. 13; and according to these passages and their context Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebekah, Jacob and Leah were buried there. The place which holds what is traditionally regarded as the cave is surrounded by a wall 194 feet long and fifty‑eight feet high, constructed of huge stones, and reminding one, both in design and workmanship, of the foundation of the temple in Jerusalem. Within this enclosure is a Mohammedan mosque; and strangers, that is, non‑Mohammedans, are rigidly excluded from the building. In 1862 the Prince of Wales, accompanied by Dean Stanley, visited Hebron; and, on special orders from Constantinople, the mosque was opened to them. In 1882 the same courtesy was extended during a visit paid by Princes Albert Victor and George of Wales, accompanied by Canon Dalton, Sir Charles Wilson, and Capt. Conder.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: An indispensable account, historical in method and summarizing the accounts of travelers from the fourth century on, as well as giving exact references to collections and sources, is found in DB, iii. 197‑202. Consult further: W. M. Thomson, The Land and the Book, ii. 381‑388, 586, New York, 1859; A. P. Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, i. 535 eqq., ib. 1863; J. Ferguason, Holy Sepulchre and the Temple, London, 1885; C. Ritter, Comparative Geography of Palestine, iii. 30rr323, Edinburgh, 1866; P. Schaff, Through Bible Lands, pp. 212 sqq., New York, 1878; PEF, Memoirs, Survey of Western Palestine, iii. 305, London, 1883.
McILVAINE, CHARLES PETTIT: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Burlington, N. J., June 18, 1799; d. at Florence, Italy, Mar. 14, 1873. He graduated at Princeton in 1816, then spent two years in the Princeton Theological Seminary. He was minister of Christ Church, Georgetown, D.C., 1820‑25, chaplain to the United States senate 1822 and 1824, professor of ethics and chaplain in the United States Military Academy, West Point, 18251827, pastor of St. Ann's Church, Brooklyn, 18271832, professor of the evidences of revealed religion and sacred antiquities in New York University 1831‑32, and bishop of the diocese of Ohio 18321873. He was also president of Kenyon College,

115	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	MoGlarvey
Mackenzie
Gambier, O., 1832‑40, and the head of the theological seminary of his diocese. During the Civil War he was a member of the sanitary commission, and in 1861, in company with Archbishop Hughes and Thurlow Weed, he went to England on a semiofficial mission in connection with the Trent affair. He was a pronounced " Evangelical," and for years he was regarded as the leader of the Low‑church party in the Protestant Episcopal Church. His principal works are, The Evidences of Christianity (New York, 1832), lectures delivered at New York University; Oxford Divinity compared with that of the Romish and Anglican Churches (Philadelphia, 1841), which was regarded as a good refutation of the Oxford school; The Holy Catholic Church (1844); and The Truth and the Life (New York, 1855), twenty‑two sermons.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Carne, Memorials of Rev. C. P. Mcllvaine, New York, 1881; W. 8. Perry, The Episcopate in America, p. &5, ib. 1895.
MACK, ALEXANDER. See DUNgERB, L, §§ 1‑2.
MACKAY, ALEXANDER MURDOCH: Missionary to Uganda; b, at Rhymie (31 m. n.w. of Aberdeen) Oct. 13, 1849; d. at Uganda Feb. 4, 1890. He studied at the Free Church Training School for Teachers at Edinburgh, at Edinburgh University, and in Berlin. He displayed a great aptitude for mechanics, and spent several years as a draftsman in Germany. In 1875 he offered his services as a missionary to the Church Missionary Society, was accepted, reached Zanzibar on his way to his field May 30, 1876, and Uganda in Nov., 1878. There, largely through his knowledge of practical mechanics, he enjoyed the protection of Mutesa; but when Mwanga came to the throne in 1884, Mackay's position becape difficult because of the king's opposition, arid there was little change when Kiwewa succeeded to the throne in 1888. Mackay still held on, however, and it is largely due to his courage, energy, and devotion that the mission in Uganda is in its present flourishing condition (see AFRICA, IL, Uganda). He fell a victim to malarial fever, and succumbed after four days of illness, having spent fourteen years in Africa, without once having visited his native country.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Alexander M. Mackay, Pioneer Missionary of the Church Missionary Society in Uganda; by his Sinter, new ed., London, 1899; Alexander Mackay, Missionary Hero of Uganda, ib. 1893.

MACKAY‑SMITH, ALEXANDER:. Protestant Episcopal bishop‑coadjutor of Pennsylvania; b. at New Haven, Conn., June 2, 1850. He was educated at Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. (A.B., 1872), and received his theological training partly in the General Theological Seminary and partly in England and Germany. He was ordered deacon in 1876 and advanced to the priesthood in the following year. After being successively curate of Grace Church, Boston (1877‑80), and St. Thomas's, New York City (1880‑86), he was first archdeacon of New York from 1887 to 1893, and from the latter year to 1902 was rector of St. John's, Washington, D. C. In 1902 he was consecrated bishopcoadjutor of Pennsylvania, after having declined the coadjutor‑bishopric of Kansas.
McKENZIE, ALEXANDER: Congregationalist; b, at New Bedford, Mass., Dec. 14, 1830. He wag educated at Phillips Academy, Andover, Harvard College (A.B., 1859), and Andover Theological Seminary, graduating in 1861. Ordained in 1861, he became pastor of the South Church in Augusta, Me., in 1861, and of the First Church in Cambridge, Mass., in 1867. In 1882 he acted as lecturer on theology of the New Testament in Andover Theological Seminary and in Harvard Divinity School. He wrote: Two Boys (Boston, 1870); History of First Church in Cambridge (1873); Cambridge Sermons (1883); Some Things Abroad (1887); Christ Himself (1891); A Door Opened (1898); Divine Force in Life of the World (1899); and Getting One's Bearing (New York, 1903).
MACKENZIE, CHARLES FREDERICK: Bishop of Central Africa; b. at Portmore (5 m. n. of Peebles), Peeblesshire, Scotland, Apr. 10, 1825; d. on the island of Malo (at the confluence of the Shire and Ruo rivers; 415 m. w.s.w. of Mozambique), British Central Africa, Jan. 31, 1862. He was educated at Cambridge (B.A., 1848; M.A., 1851), and became fellow of Caius College and curate of Haslingfield, Cambridgeshire, in 1851. In 1855 he accompanied J. W. Colenso, bishop of Natal, to Africa. He officiated as priest among the English settlers, first at Durban, and afterward at a post on the Umhlali river. In 1859 he returned to England, but in 1860 he sailed for Cape Town as head of the Universities' Mission to Central Africa. There he was consecrated bishop of Central Africa Jan. 1, 1861. He settled at Magomero, in the Manganja territory, and labored there for almost a year. While hurrying to meet Livingstone he fell ill of a fever and died.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Goodwin, Memoir of Bishop Mackenzie, London, 1865; Francis Awdry, An Elder Sister: a short Sketch of Annie Mackenzie and her Brother, the Missionary Bishop, London, 1878; DNB, xxxv. 138‑138.
MACKENZIE, JOHN KENNETH: Medical missionary; b. at Yarmouth, Eng., Aug. 25, 1850; d. at Tien‑tsin, China, Apr. 1, 1888. His education was in a Bristol private school, his conversion took place in one of the Moody and Sankey meetings held in Bristol in 1867, where he had held a clerkship for a couple of years. He then joined the Presbyterian Church. Determining to become a medical missionary he studied at Bristol and London from 1870 to 1874 and went to China under appointment of the London Missionary Society. He opened the medical station at Hankow in 1875 and stayed there till 1879, when from motives of health he moved to Tien‑tsin where he conducted the hospital till his death. He was a man of unusual gifts and by his professional skill, his ability to win the confidence of the Chinese, and his devoted life ranks with the best of the missionaries, although his career was so short.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mrs. Mary Isabella Bryson, John Kenneth
Mackenzie, Medical Missionary in China, London, 1891.

MACKENZIE, WILLIAM DOUGLAS: Congregationalist; b. at Fauresmith (80 m. s.e. of Kimberley), Orange Free Colony, South Africa, July 16, 1859. He was educated at the University of Edin‑

Xo$ibbia Maclay
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
burgh (M.A., 1881), the Congregational Theological Hall, Edinburgh, and the universities of Gottingen and Marburg (1881,82). He then entered the ministry of his denomination, and held successive pastorates at Montrose, Kincardineshire (18821889), and Morningside, Edinburgh (1889‑95). From 1895 to 1903 he was professor of systematic theology in Chicago Theological Seminary, and since 1904 has been professor of the same subject and president of Hartford Theological Seminary. He has written: The Ethics of Gambling (London, 1893); The Revelation of the Christ (1893); Christianity and the Progress of Man (Chicago, 1897); South Africa: Its History, Heroes, and Wars (1900); and John Mackenzie, South African Missionary and Statesman (biography of his father; New York, 1902).

McKIBBIN, WILLIAM: Presbyterian; b. at Pittsburg, Pa., May 24, 1850. He was educated at Princeton College (A.B., 1869), and after studying law at Philadelphia, entered Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa., from which he was graduated in 1873. He then held successive pastorates at the Seventh Presbyterian Church, Pittsburg (1873‑74), Central Presbyterian Church, St. Paul, Minn. (1874‑79), Second Presbyterian Church, Pittaburg (188088), and First Presbyterian Church, Walnut Hills, Cincinnati, O. (1888‑1904). Since 1904 he has been president and professor of systematic theology in Lane Theological Seminary, Cincinnati.

MACKIE, GEORGE MONRO: Scotch Presbyterian; b. at Banchory (15 m. s.w. of Aberdeen), Kincardineshire, Oct. 27, 1853. He was educated at the University of Aberdeen and the Divinity Hall of Edinburgh University, and since 1880 has been minister of the Anglo‑American congregation and missionary of the Church of Scotland Jewish Mission at Beirut, Syria. In addition to his missionary and pastoral work, he has devoted himself to the study of oriental life as illustrative of the Bible, and in theology holds " that a man becomes a Christian by giving himself to Christ as a dwelling‑place for His Spirit; that this indwelling will show itself in likeness to Christ personally, and socially in kindness to all in whom the same Spirit is already dwelling or desiring to dwell; and that in the statesmanship of the Gospel, while all past and present forms of church membership and government have rendered in their day most important service, they are quite unable to produce that conception of a great citizenship that is necessary for a kingdom that is destined to conquer the world for Christ." He has written Bible Manners and Customs (Edinburgh, 1898).

McKIM, JOHN: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Tokyo, Japan; b. at Pittsfield, Mass., July 17, 1852. He was educated at Griswold College, Davenport, Ia. (A.B., 1876), and Nashotah House, Nashotah, Wis., from which he was graduated in 1879. He was ordered deacon in 1878 and advanced to the priesthood in the following year. After working for a brief time in the diocese of Chicago, he went to Japan se a missionary (1880), where in thirteen years he was able to report seventeen stations and substations, with headquarters
at Osaka. In 1893 he was consecrated missionary bishop of Tokyo.

McSIM, RANDOLPH HARRISON: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Baltimore, Md., Apr. 15, 1842. He was educated at the University of Virginia (A.B., 1861), and served in the Confederate Army throughout the Civil War. He was ordered deacon in 1864 and ordained priest in 1866, after having been curate of Emanuel Church, Baltimore, in 1865‑66. He then held successive rectorates at St. John's, Portsmouth, Va. (1866‑67), Christ Church, Alexandria, Va. (1867‑75), Holy Trinity, New York City (1875‑$6), and Trinity, New Orleans, La. (188688). Since 1889 he has been rector of the Church of the Epiphany, Washington, D. C. He was likewise president of the House of Clerical and Lay Deputies from 1904 to 1907, and has written: A Vindication of Protestant Principles (New York, 1879); The Nature of the Christian Ministry (1880); Future Punishment (1883); Bread in the Desert, and other Sermons (1887); Christ and Modern History (1893); Leo XIII. at the Bar of History (Washington, D. C., 1897); Present Day Problems of Christian Thought (New York, 1900); The Gospel in the Christian Year (1902); The Confederate Soldier, his Motives and Aims (Washington, 1904); and The Problem of the Pentateuch (New York, 1906).

McBINNEY, ALEXANDER HARRIS: Presbyterian; b. in New York City July 28, 1858. He was educated at the College of the City of New York (A.B., 1881), Union Theological Seminary (from which he was graduated in 1886), and New York University (Ph.D., 1891). He taught school in 1881‑,83, and has held successive pastorates at Romeyn Chapel, New York City (1886), and Olivet Memorial Church in the same city (1887‑99). From 1899 to 1903 he was superintendent of Interdenominational Sunday school Work in New York State, and in 1904 was associate editor of the Westminster Lesson Helps, while since 1905 he has been assistant pastor of the First Presbyterian Church, Newark, N. J. In theology he describes his position as that of one " always working toward the beat." He has written: The Bible School Manual (New York, 1898); Bile School Pedagogy (1900); The Child for Christ (Chicago, 1902); After the Primary, What? (1904); and The Pastor and Teacher Training (Nashville, 1905).

MACKINTOS$ CHARLES HENRY: Plymouth Brother; b. in County Wicklow, Ireland, in 1820; d. at Cheltenham (7 m. n.e. of Gloucester) Nov. 2, 1896. He was schoolmaster at Westport, County Mayo, Ireland, for a few years. But for the greater part of his life he devoted himself to evangelism and pastoral ministry as well as to religious journalism, as editor of the monthly periodical Things New and Old; and to religious literature. He was the author of the Notes by C. H. M, on all the books of the Pentateuch, which enjoyed great popularity, being sold in enormous quantity, especially in the United States‑ so that the initials "C. H. M." under which they were issued were very familiar while probably the name they stood for was

117	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	1~o83bbin
		Maclay
not. Mr. Gladstone commended his English style;
Spurgeon, while dissenting from their "Darbyism,"
commended the Notes, especially the volume on
Exodus.	Enwexn E. WH1TP'IELD.
	MACg1YIGHT, JAMES: Scotch divine and
Biblical scholar; b. at Irvine (10 m. n. of Ayr),
Ayrshire, Sept. 17, 1721; d. at Edinburgh Jan. 13,
1800. He was educated at the universities of Glas
gow and Leyden; preached for a short time at
Gorbals, Renfrewahire; was then assistant minis
ter at Kilwinning, Ayrshire; pastor at Maybole,
1753‑69; at Jedburgh, 1769‑72; and of Lady
Yester's Church, Edinburgh, from 1772 till his
death. His fame rests chiefly upon his Harmony
of the Gospels, in which the Natural Order of each is
Preserved, with a Paraphrase arid Notes (2 vole.,
London, 1756; 7th ed., 1822; Latin transl., 3 vole.,
Bremen, 1772‑79), a work which for over half a
century remained the standard. The notes are
very copious and make of the work practically a
complete life of Christ so far as the knowledge of
the period permitted. He also wrote: The Truth of
Gospel History (1763; on the evidences for the
Gospels); and A New Literal Translation from the
Original Greek of all the Apostolical Epistles, with a
Commentary and Notes (4 vole., 1795; subsequent
editions varying in the number of volumes, those
subsequent to 1806 prefaced by a La/'e by his son;
7th ed., 1843). The last‑named work was printed
both with and without the Greek text.
B113LIOGRAPHY: Besides the Life by his son, ut sup., con
	sult: 8. A. Al&bone, ,Critical Dictionary of English Litsm
	ture, ii. 1188‑89, Philadelphia, 1891 (cites several varying
	opinions of Macknight's work); DNB, zxxv. 184‑18b.
	MACLAGAR, WILLIAM DALRYMPLE: Church
of England, former archbishop of York, primate of
England, and metropolitan; b. at Edinburgh June
18, 1826. He received his early education is his
native city, and from 1847 to 1852 served in the
Indian army, retiring with the rank of lieutenant.
He then entered Peterhouae, Cambridge (B.A.,
1856), and was ordered deacon in 1856 and or
dained priest in the following year. He was cur
ate of St. Saviour, Paddington, London (18b6‑‑58),
and St. Stephen's, Marylebone, London (18580),
after which he was secretary of the London Dioc
esan Church Building Society for five years (1860
1865). He was then curate in charge of Enfield
(18659), rector of Newington (1869‑75), and
vicar of Kensington (1875‑78), as well as honorary
chaplain in ordinary to the queen (1877‑78) and
prebendary of Reculverland in St. Paul's Cathedral
(1878). In 1878 he was consecrated bishop of
Lichfield, and was translated in 1891 to the arch
diocese of York, from which post he resigned in
1908. In addition to editing, in collaboration with
A. Weir, The Church and the Age, Essays on the Prin
ciples and Present Position of the Anglican Church
(London, 1870), he has written Pastoral Letters and
Synodal Charges (1892).
	McLAREN, ALEXANDER: English Baptist; b.
in Glasgow Feb. 11, 1826. He was educated at
Stepney (now Regent's Park) College, London,
and from 1846 to 1858 was minister of Portland
Chapel, Southampton. He then served as pastor, later as pastor emeritus, of Union Chapel, Manchester, and in 1909 retired and moved to Scotland. He has written: Sermons Preached ire Manchester (3 series; London, 1864‑73); Week‑Day Evening Addreasea (1877); The Life of David as Reftected in his Psalms (1880); The Secret of Power, and other Sermons (1882); A Year's Ministry (1884); Epistles of St. Paul to the Colossians and Philemon (1887); Modern Miracles: Manifestation of God's Love and Power (1888); The Unchanging Christ, and her Sermons (1889); Holy of Holier (sermons on the Gospel of John; 1890); God of the Amen, and other Sermons (1891); Gospel of St. Luke (1892); Gospel of Matthew (2 vole., 1892); Gospel of John (1893; in 3 vole., 1907); Gospel of Mark (1893); The Wearied Christ, and other Sermons (1893); Acts of the Apostles (1894; in 2 vole., 1907); Christ's Musts, and other Sermons (1894); The Beatitudes, and other Senrwna (1896); Triumphant Certainties and other Sermons (1896); The Victor's Crown (sermons; 1897); Leaves from the Tree of Life (1899); A Rosary of Christian Graces (1899); After the Resurrection (1902); Last Sheaves (sermons; 1903); The Book of Genesis (1904); Books of Isaiah and Jeremiah (2 vole., 1905‑06); The Books of Deuteronomy, Joshua, rhcdgea, Ruth and 1 Samuel (1906); The Books of Exodus, Letiticus, and Numbers (1906); The Second Book of Samuel and the Books of Kings to 11 Kings vii. (1907); Pulpit Prayers (1907); and Expositions of Holy Scripture (6 vole., 1908); and other volumes, including Psalms in The Expositor's Bible (3 vole., London, 1893‑94) and Pulpit Prayers (1909).
MACLAY, ROBERT SAMUEL: Methodist Episcopalian; b. at Concord, Pa., Feb. 7, 1824. He was educated at Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa. (A.B., 1845). In 1847 he went to China as a missionary, and was stationed first at Foochow, whence be was transferred to Japan in 1872. In both these countries he took an active part in translating the New Testament, besides being secretary and treasurer in both missions. He was one of the founders of the Anglo‑Chinese College at Foochow in 1881 and of the Anglo‑Japanese College at Tokyo in 1883, and also established the Philander Smith Biblical Institute in the latter city in 1882. In 1884 he began mission work in Korea by permission of the king. He was likewise president of the AngloJapanese College from 1883 to 1887 and dean of the Philander Smith Biblical Institute from 1884 to 1887, as well as delegate from Japan to both the Ecumenical Methodist Conference at London in 1881 and the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church at New York in 1888. From 1888 to his retirement from active life in 1893 he was dean of the Maclay College of Theology, San Fernando, Cal. Besides contributing the sections on the Japanese mission of his denomination to J. M. Reid's Missions and Missionary Societies of the Methodist Episcopal Church (2 vole., New York, 1879) and on Shintoism to the same theologian's Doomed Religions (1882), be has written: Life among the Chinese (New York, 1861) and Dictionary of the Chinese Language i» the Dialed of Foochow (in collaboration with C. C. Baldwin; Foochow, 1871).

M'Neill
MacLean	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	118
MACLEAN, ARTHUR JOHN: Church of England; bishop of Moray, Rose, and Caithness; b. at Bath, England, July 6, 1858. He was educated at King's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1880; M.A., 1883), and was ordered deacon in 1882 and ordained priest in the following year. After being missionary chaplain of Cumbrae Cathedral in 18821883, he was priest in charge of St. Columba, Portree, with Stornoway and Caroy, in 1882‑88. He then went to the Orient as head of the archbishop's Assyrian (East Syrian) mission, where he remained until 1891, being at the same time honorary canon of Cumbrw from 1883 to 1892. Returning to England, he was successively rector of Portree from 1891 to 1897, and of St. John the Evangelist, Selkirk, from 1897 to 1903, and Pantonian professor and principal of the Theological College of the Episcopal Church in Scotland from 1903 to 1905. He was likewise dean of Argyll and the Isles in 18921897 and canon of Cumbrae during the same period, besides being canon of St. Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh, in 1903‑05, being honorary canon of the same cathedral since the latter year. In 1904 he was consecrated bishop of Moray, Ross, and Caithness. Besides editing East Syrian Lectionary (London, 1889); Old and New Syriac Grammars (in vernacular Syriac; 1890); East Syrian Liturgies (2 parts, 1890‑92); and Modern Syriac and English Verb Vocabulary (1891), and in addition to translating East Syrian Daily Offices (London, 1894); The Testament of Our Lord (in collaboration with J. Cooper; 1902); and East Syrian Epiphany Rites (in F. C. Conybeare's Rituale Armenorum, 1905), he has written: The Catholicos of the East and his People (in collaboration with W. H. Browne; London, 1892); Grammar of the Dialects of Vernacular Syriac as spoken by the Eastern Syrians of Kurdistan, North‑West Persia, and the Plain of Mosul (Cambridge, 1895); Dictionary of the Dialects of Vernacular Syriac as spoken by the Eastern Syrians of Kurdistan, North‑West Persia, and the Plain of Mosul (Oxford, 1901); and Recent Discoveries illustrating Early Christian Life and Worship (London, 1904).

MACLEAR, GEORGE FREDERICK: Church of England; b. at Bedford Feb. 3, 1833; d. at Canterbury Oct. 19, 1902. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1855; M.A., 1860; B.D., 1867; D.D., 1872). He was ordained deacon in 1856 and priest in 1857. He was assistant minister of Curzon Chapel, Mayfair, and of St. Mark, Notting Hill; and from 1865 to 1870 assistant preacher at the Temple Church (all three churches in London). He was head master of King's College School from 1866 to 1880; and Boyle lecturer in 1879‑80. In 1880 he became warden of St. Augustine's College, Canterbury, and in 1885 honorary canon of Canterbury cathedral. His works include: A Class‑Book of Old Testament History (Cambridge, 1862); A Class‑Book of New Testament History (1862); A Class‑Book of the Catechism of the Church of England (1868); Apostles of Mediwval Europe (London, 1868); Conversion of the Celts, of the English, of the Northmen (London, 1878) and of the Slavs (1879); Evidential Value of the Holy Eucharist (1883); An Introduction to the
Creeds (1889); The Village Church and what it Teaches (1893); and (together with W. W. Williams) An Introduction to the Articles of the Church of England (1895). He also edited in the Cambridge Bible for Schools, Joshua (1880) and Mark (1879); and in the Cambridge Greek Testament far Schools, Mark (1883).

MACLEOD, DONALD: Church of Scotland; b. at Campsie (15 m. s.w. of Stirling), Stirlingahire, Mar. 18, 1831. He was educated at the University of Glasgow (B.A., 1850), after which he spent two years in travel. In 1858 he was ordained minister of Louder, and four years later was called to the parish of Linlithgow. Since 1869 he has been minister of Park Parish, Glasgow. He was appointed one of the chaplains in ordinary to the queen in 1872 and to the king in 1901; and was convener of the Home Mission Committee of the Church of Scotland from 1888 to 1900 and moderator of the Church of Scotland in 1895‑96. In theology he terms himself a " conservative Broad churchman." Besides his activity as editor of Good Words from 1872 to 1905, he has written Memoir of Norman Macleod (London, 1874); The Reformation, 1669 to 167.E A.D. (1881); Sunday Home Service (1885); The Parochial System (1886); Christ and Society (1892); and The Doctrine and Validity of the Ministry and Sacraments of the National Church of Scotland (Baird lecture; Edinburgh, 1903).

	MACLEOD, NORMAN: Church of Scotland;
b. at Campbeltown (38 m. w. by s. of Ayr), Argyll
shire, June 3, 1812; d. in Glasgow June 16, 1872.
In his Reminiscences of a Highland Parish (London,
1867) will be found an animated account of the old
		Highland family‑especially as repre
	Early rented by his grandfather, the patri
	Life. archal minister of Morven‑from which
		he was proud to be descended, as well
as graphic descriptions of the wild scenery, and free,
out‑of‑door life, in the midst of which some of the
happiest days of a happy boyhood were spent. It
was, however, chiefly with the town of Campbel
town and its seafaring associations that the boy
was familiar. On his impressible and sympathetic
nature all the circumstances of those early years
appear to have exercised a lasting influence. He
entered the University of Glasgow, after an irregu
lar classical training, in 1827, where he shone more
in the students' social and political meetings than
in the classrooms. Of general literature, however,
he appears to have read much in those days, his
favorite author in poetry being Wordsworth. In
1831 he removed to the University of Edinburgh,
that he might take his theological course under Dr.
Thomas Chalmers, then professor of divinity in that
university. Before receiving license in 1837, he
spent three years in the family of a Yorkshire gen
tleman, Mr. Preston of Moreby, as tutor to his son,
during most of the time residing at Weimar, or
elsewhere on the continent of Europe. This first
of many visits abroad had an important influence
on the development of the young man's character.
" His views were widened, his opinions matured,
his human sympathies vastly enriched; and, while

119	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	XseLsan
all that was of the essence of his early faith had become doubly precious, he had gained increased catholicity of sentiment, along with knowledge of the world " (Memoir, vol. i., p. 49).
Macleod's first charge, to which he was ordained in 1838, was Loudoun, in Ayrshire, a parish partly agricultural, but with a considerable weaving population. There he gave himself with all the ardor of his nature and the enthusiasm of youth to his parochial duties, especially among the working classes. His Cracks about the Kirk far Kintra Folk,
published in 1843 shortly before the Ministry. disruption, had a large circulation and
exerted considerable influence. In Dec., 1843, he was translated to Dalkeith. During his ministry there he became one of the founders of the Evangelical Alliance in 1847, and also editor of the Edinburgh Christian Magazine. In 1851 he was appointed to the large and important parish of the Barony, Glasgow, embracing at that time 87,000 souls, and here he showed preeminently his gifts as a parish minister, above all his powers of organization, his large‑hearted sympathy with all classes of his parishioners, and his eloquence as a preacher. One of his special aims in the Barony was to reclaim the non‑churchgoing population; for which purpose, among other schemes, he introduced with success Sunday services open exclusively to working people in their working clothes. He also founded the first congregational penny savings‑bank in Glasgow, and established places of resort for working men, to counteract the temptations of the publiohouse. In 1857 he was appointed one of her majesty's chaplains, and he enjoyed in an eminent degree the royal favor and confidence (cf. Journal of our Life in the Highlands by Queen Victoria, London, 1868, pp. 147, sqq.).
Dr. Macleod took an active part in the general work of the Church. In 1845 he was one of a deputation to visit the Scottish churches in Canada. In 1864 he became chairman of the Foreign Mission Committee of his church, and in this capacity paid a visit to India as a deputy from the church in 1867. His last great public effort was a memorable speech in the General Assembly of 1872, when he resigned this position. In 1865 he became involved in a controversy regarding the Sabbath; while strenuously upholding the religious observance of the Lord's day, he refused to base that observance on the perpetual obligation of the Fourth Commandment. In 1869 he was elected moderator of the General Assembly. Two memorial windows were placed by Queen Victoria in Crathie Church, Aberdeenshire, where he had often conducted service; in one of these he is described as " a man eminent in the Church, honored in the State, and in many lands greatly beloved." He married Catherine Ann Mackintosh Aug. 11, 1851.
In 1860 Dr. Macleod undertook the editorship of Good Words, one of the ablest and most successful of the religious magazines of the day. Some of the
more popular of his contributions to Writings. general literature were written about
the same time, many of them originally appearing in Good Words. They include: The Earned Student (Edinburgh, 1854), a memoir of
his wife's brother, John Mackintosh of Geddes; The Gold Thread (1861); The Old Lieutenant and his Son (1862); Wee Davie (London, 1864); Eastward (London, 1866); Simple Truth Spoken to Working People (1867); The Starling (2 vols., 1867); Peeps at the Far East (1871); Character Sketches (1872); The Temptation of our Lord (1873).
W. LEEt, revised by HENRY COWAN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Donald Macleod (his brother), Memoir o1 Norman Macleod, London, 1878; A. Strahan, Norman Macleod, ib. 1872; Stanley, in Good Words, 1872; Jean L. Watson, Life of Norman Macleod, ib. 1881; R. Flint, in Scottish Divines (St. Giles Lectures), London, 1883; A. H. Japp, Good Men and True, ib. 1890; J. Wellwood, Norman Macleod, Edinburgh, 1897; John N. Macleod, Memorials of Rev. Norman Macleod, ib. 1898; DNB, xzxv. 217‑218.

MACMILLAN, HUGH: United Free Church of Scotland; b. at Aberfeldy (22 m. n.w. of Perth) Sept. 17, 1833; d. in Edinburgh May 24, 1903. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh and was minister at Kirkmichael (1859‑64), Glasgow (1864‑78), and Greenock (1878‑98). He made his reputation by his first two books, Footnotes from the Page of Nature, or First Forms of Vegetation (Cambridge, 1861), and Bible Teachings in Nature (London, 1866), of which 30,000 copies had been sold in Great Britain up to 1907, and which had been translated into French, German, Italian, Danish, and Norwegian,, and reprinted and widely sold in America. In these two books he first revealed his ability to interest persons in his favorite theme, the intimate relations between the natural and the spiritual. This was the theme of many subsequent volumes, some of which were travels and many of which were collections of sermons and essays. Of these may be mentioned: Holidays in High Lands, or Rambles and Incidents in Search of Alpine Plants (1869); The Sabbath of the Fields (1876); Two Worlds are Ours (1880); Roman Mosaics (1888); Gleanings in Holy Fields (1899); his book of verse, The Christmas Rose (1901); his two volumes of collected addresses to children; The Gate Beautiful (1891), and The Corn of Heaven (1901); posthumous were Rothiemurchua (1907), and The Isles and the Gospel (1907, with a prefatory memoir by George A. Macmillan).

M'NEILL, JOHN: Mission Preacher; b. at Houston (11 m. w, of Glasgow), Renfrewshire, July 7, 1854. He received his early education in the Free Church schools at Houston and Inverkip, after which he was in the railway service from 1869 to 1877. In the latter year he resolved to prepare for the ministry, and studied successively at Edinburgh University (1877‑80), Glasgow University (1880‑$1), and Free Church Divinity Hall, Glasgow (1881‑‑85). In 1886 he was ordained to the ministry and became pastor of M'Crie‑Roxburgh Free Church, Edinburgh, where he remained until 1889, when he went to London as minister of Regent Square Presbyterian Church. In 1892 he left the regular ministry to become a mission preacher, and in this capacity traveled throughout Great Britain, in addition to visiting India, South Africa, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, the United Staten, and Canada. In 1908 he became pastor of Christ Church (Congregational), London. He has written: Sermons (3

Xsoon
21adagstoar, Missions is
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
vole., London, 1890‑91); The Brazen Serpent, and other Addresses (1893); and The Lord our Shepherd, and other Addresses (1898).

MACON (MATISCO): A city of Burgundy, in which three synods were held. One, in 581, at which twenty‑one bishops were present, issued nineteen canons, of which the seventh threatens with excommunication any civil judge who dares to proteed against a clerk, except in criminal cams, while canons 13‑16 are aimed at the Jews. Another, in 585, at which forty‑three bishops were present in person, and twenty were represented by deputies, issued twenty canons, of which the eighth forbade any one who had sought refuge in the sanctuary to be touched without the consent of the priest; while the ninth and tenth forbade the civil power to procued against a bishop, except through his metropolitan, or against a priest or deacon, except through his bishop. The third was held between 617 and 627, and decided against an attempt to do away with the rule of St. Columban. The acts and canons are not extant.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hefele ConciZienprarhichte, iii. 36‑41, 74,
Eng. tranal., iv. 402‑409, 444.

MACRIftA, ma‑cri'na: The name of two female saints of the early Church.
1. Macrina the Elder: Grandmother of Basil the Great and Gregory of Nyasa; d. at Neoemsarea c. 340. Of her life little is known. She seems to have married into a rich and distinguished family of Pontus, and Basil assumes (Epist. cciv.) that she was remembered in Neocaesarea for more than a generation after her death. He says that she told him stories of Gregory Thaumaturgus, and influenced his life by her teaching in his childhood. Gregory mentions (Vita Macrince junioris, MPG, xlvi. 961‑980) that she suffered persecution, togather with her husband, for her faith; and Gregory Nazianzen in his panegyric on Basil. (Oratio sliii.; MPG, sxcvi. 501) states that they took refuge in the forest of Pontus and remained there considerable time. Neither the date nor the duration of this voluntary exile is certain, since the statements of Gregory Nazianzen that it lasted seven years and took place during the reign of Maximinus (who ruled only from 311 to 313) do not agree with each other. Her day is Jan. 14.
2. Macrina the Younger: Granddaughter of the preceding and the sister of Basil the Great and Gregory of Nyasa; b. in Pontua c. 329; d. at a family estate on the Iris in the same province in the latter part of 379. She was the oldest of ten children and was betrothed at the age of twelve to a young jurist of distinguished family. He died, however, before the marriage, and Macrina seems to have seized this pretext to adopt a life of celibacy and asceticism. After the death of her father, Basilius, she remained with her mother Emmelia until Basil returned from his studies about 358, when she, together with her mother and her servants and slaves (now ranked as her sisters), retired to the banks of the Iris to lead the life of a nun. To her brothers, particularly the youngest, Peter, who afterward became bishop of Sebaste, this place was a school of earnest Christianity, end it was also
visited by Gregory Nazianzen and Eustathius of Sebaste. When Emmelia died shortly before 370, Macrina became the head of the community. Her brother Gregory was present at her death and has preserved the memories of the scene both in his Vita Macrinte and in his treatise On the Soul and the Resurrection. Her day is July 1®. (F. Loops.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 1. The sources are indicated in the tent. Consult: ASS, Jan., i. 952‑3; DCB, iii. 779; and the literature under BASIL, SAINT; and GREnORy Or NYaaA. 2. The life is moat accessible in ASS, July, iv. b89‑804; DCB, iii., 779‑781; and ut sup. under 1.

McTYE1RE, HOLLAND NIMMONS: American Methodist Episcopal (South) bishop; b. in Barnwell Co., S. C., July 28, 1824; d. at Nashville, Tenn., Feb. 15, 1889. He was educated at RandolphMacon College, Va. (A.B., 1844) and entered the Methodist ministry in 1845. He was pastor at Williamsburg, Va., Mobile and Demopolis, Ala., Columbus, Miss., New Orleans, La., and Montgomery, Ala. (at the last‑named place during the Civil War). He was elected bishop in 1866, and made president of Vanderbilt University in 1873. He became editor of the Christian Advocate (New Orleans) in 1851, and of the Christian Advocate (Nashvilla) in 1858. He wrote: A Catechism on Church Government (Nashville, 1869); A Catechism an Bible History (1869); Manual of the Discipline (1870); History of Methodism (1884); and Passing through the Gates (1889).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 0. P. Fitzgerald, Holland N. McTyeire, Nashville, 1898.

McVICBAR, WILLIAM NEILSON: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Rhode Island; b. in New York City Oct. 19, 1843. He was educated at Columbia College (A.B., 1865), the Philadelphia Divinity School (1865‑66), and the General Theological Seminary, from which he was graduated in 1868. He was ordered deacon in 1867, and, after being curate of St. George's, New York City, for a year, was advanced to the priesthood in 1868. From the latter year until 1875 he was rector of Holy Trinity, New York City, after which he was rector of Holy Trinity, Philadelphia, until 1897, declining both the rectorship of St. Paul's, Boston, and a tutorahip in Columbia. In 1898 he was consecrated bishop coadjutor of Rhode Island, and in 1903, on the death of Bishop Thomas M. Clark, became bishop of the same diocese. He was a deputy to the General Convention from 1883 to 1895, and was also president of the Southwest Convocation, a manager of the General Missionary Society, and a member of the Diocesan Board of Missions and of other diocesan bodies.

MADAGASCAR, MISSIONS IN: While having
all the evil traits of a heathen people, including in
fanticide, polygamy, and the slave‑trade, the Mala
		gasy believed in a supreme being called
	Prior to Zangahara, whom they greatly feared
	:8r8. and reverenced. At death, good men
		go to be happy forever with Zanga
hara, while bad men go to be tormented by the evil
lord, Anggatyr. From 1540 to 1640 numerous
colonies were founded by the Dutch and English se
well as by the Portuguese, all accompanied by

RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Macon
Xadagssoar, Missions is
slavery, all preaching Christianity, and all resulting in failure and repeated massacres in retaliation for ill‑treatment. From 1642 to 1686 several French companies also made efforts to colonize the island, enslave and Christianize the Malagasy, but these also failed, and for a time the island was left to become a rendezvous for pirates and buccaneers. In 1754 a further attempt at colonization was made by France, which was broken up by a general massacre. During the next half century occasional French trading‑posts were established, which met with little success. The Malagasy were not attracted by the rapacity, licentiousness, and cruelty of the exponents of the new religion, and during 160 years but one convert is mentioned. Not until the accession of Radama I. in 1808 were there any successful relations with the outside world. In 1818 Radama entered into a treaty with England, in which, for certain considerations, he agreed to abolish the slave‑trade, while England was to reduce the Malagasy language to writing, and establish schools. This treaty was ratified in 1820, and Madagascar was open for Christian effort.
With the ratification of the treaty assured, in 1818 the London Missionary Society sent the Rev.
Thomas Bevan and David Jones with r8r8 to their families as their first missionaries
	1835‑	in Madagascar. They opened a station
		at Andovoranto, on the east coast; but
within two months all of them, except Mr. Jones,
died of the fever, and he was obliged to flee for his
life. Returning in 1820 with Mr. Haatie, the gov
ernment agent, with the consent of King Radama,
he located in Antananarivo, the capital, where the
first school was opened in Dec., 1820. A large force
of missionaries was sent out, the Malagasy language
was reduced to writing, and the beginnings of a
literature were made; more schools were opened,
and the work was developed and made rapid prog
ress along educational, industrial, and evangelistic
lines. Before 1828 more than one hundred schools
had been established, and nearly 5,000 pupils had
received the rudiments of education. Preaching
services were held regularly is the capital and the
surrounding villages, and a beginning was made
in the Vonizongo district, a day's journey west
ward. In Jan., 1828, the Gospel of Luke was
printed in the Malagasy language, and other Scrip
tures were being translated as rapidly as possible.
The outlook was most promising, when in July of
this year Radama died, and was succeeded by one
of his twelve wives, Ranavalona L, an utter heathen
and of a turbulent disposition. A reign of terror
ensued. The British resident was ordered to leave
the country, and for several years a desultory war
fare was maintained with the French. Expecting
opposition, the missionaries worked at high pres
sure; in 1831 the first native churches were formed,
and within a few months there were nearly 2,000
members; by 1833 the translation and printing of
the New Testament was completed, and that of the
Old Testament was pushed as rapidly as possible.
But a crisis was approaching. In 1834 the queen
forbade any but the government employees to learn
to read or write. In Jan., 1835, formal accusations
were made against all Christians, and the following
month the missionaries were notified that Christian worship and teaching were banned. All natives were commanded to renounce Christianity, and the missionaries were ordered to leave the island.
In spite of this edict, David Johns and Edward Baker succeeded in remaining till 1836, finishing the translating and printing of the entire
From r835 Bible and also of the Pilgrim's Progto :883. rese. This year over a thousand people were massacred. The persecution continued till 1842; there was then a lull till 1849, when it broke out afresh and over 2,000 were tortured or slain outright. This continued with a short intermission in 1852, till the welcome death of the bloody queen in 1861. She was succeeded by her son Rakoto as Radama II. His first official act was to proclaim freedom of worship to all; Christians in captivity were released, the banished recalled, and the missionaries invited to return and continue their work. By 1862 three clergymen, a physician, a teacher, and a printer were busily gathering up the lines laid down in 1836; at this time there were some twenty‑five congregations with about 900 communicants and 7,000 adherents. Religious freedom continued during his short rule and that of his successor, Queen Rosar herina; and with the accession and conversion of Queen Ranavalona II. in 1868, there was a great revival especially in the central province of Imerina, from which it spread southward to the province of Betsileo. In 1869 the idols were publicly burned, and steps were taken toward building up a Christian civilization. Up to this time the London Missionary Society had been alone in Madagascar, but during the next decade several other organizations entered the field, the first being the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in 1864, followed by the Norwegian Mission Society of Norway (Det Norske Missions Selskab) in 1866, the Friends of England and America, in 1867, the Church Missionary Society in 1868, and a number of Roman Catholic priests from France. The work developed rapidly. Memorial churches were erected on the four sites where many martyrs fell, schools were multiplied. By 1870 there were 250,000 converts and at least 1,500; 000 people desiring Christian instruction. Missionaries and teachers were sent by the queen to the still heathen tribes. Then followed a period of harvesting as well as seed‑sowing.
In 1883 France demanded a protectorate over northwestern Madagascar. On being refused war was declared, which resulted in a French protectorate for the entire island, with an
Since 1883. influx of Roman Catholic priests who at once began an active propaganda against the Protestants. In 1892 the Norwegian Lutheran Church of America established a mission, followed three years later by the Lutheran Free Church. New openings came among the Sakalavas and several smaller tribes, while there were extended revivals in the principal towns of Imerma and Betaileo, and Madagascar was making progress toward a Christian civilization when in 1895 France annexed the island, and two years later the queen was deposed. At this time there was a total of 75 Protestant missionaries representing 7 societies,

Madagascar Missions in	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	122
Magdeburg benturtee
over 1,000 native pastors, 97,800 communicants,
393,099 adherents, and 126,000 pupils in the schools.
There were 7 hospitals and 10 dispensaries. The
number of Roman Catholic Malagasy was estimated
at 60,500. Bitter opposition to the English Prot
estant missions followed. Church buildings were
confiscated, and ruin threatened their schools
through the enforced use of the French language.
At this crisis, the Evangelical Society of Paris took
over some 1,200 schools and 62,000 pupils, and
much of the work of the London Missionary Soci
ety in the two provinces of Imerina and Betsileo,
and finally succeeded in obtaining for the non
French Evangelical societies a reasonable amount
of religious liberty. The work of the Friends suf
fered but little from French control, and that of
the Norwegians hardly at all. For several years
there was friction through the Jesuits trying to gain
possession of the Protestant mission properties,
but this was stopped by the government. In 1905
and again in 1907 new laws were enacted aiming at
the absolute suppression of mission schools, and
ordering that no private school be located in build
ings used for religious purposes, thus closing 270
of the 300 educational institutions of the Paris So
ciety, and affecting the other missions in like de
gree. Later the Y. M. C. A. was closed; family
prayers were prohibited if any but members of the
immediate family were present; an address could
not be made or a prayer offered at a public funeral;
Evangelists were forbidden to continue their work;
and many of the churches were closed. The
Paris Society, representing all the Protestant
bodies in Madagascar, entered a formal complaint
with the secretary of the French colonies, and the
governor‑general was called to France to explain
his actions, but the situation in 1908 was rapidly
becoming worse.
	There were, in 1907, 51 Roman Catholic misaiona
riea with 348 stations and outstations, and 79,000
communicants and adherents. Five Protestant socie
ties had 227 missionaries and 5,816 native helpers,
1,852 stations and outstations, 355,717 adherents,
1,951 schools and colleges with 92,126 pupils, 9 hospi
tals and dispensaries, 7 orphanages and 4leper settle
ments. Many schools have been closed since these
statistics were obtained. THEODORA CROSBY BLISS.
BIHLIO(SRAPHP: W. Ellis, Hiat, of Madagascar, . . Prop
	resa of the Christian Mission, 2 vole., London, 1838; idem,
	Three Visits to Madagascar, ib 1880 idem, Madagascar
	Revisited, ib. 1867; idem, The Martyr Church, ib. 1870;
	J. Sibree, Madagascar aced its People, ib. 1870; idem, The
	Great African Island, ib. 1879; idem, Madagascar before
	the Conquest, ib. 1898; idem, Madagascar Mission, ib.,
	1907; De Is Vaisaibre, Hiat, de Madagascar, sea habitants
	et sea mieaionnairea, Paris, 1884; G. Shaw, Madagascar of
	To‑day, London, 1886; W. E. Cousins, Madagascar of To
	day, ib. 1895; J. J. K. Fletcher, Sign of the Cross in Mada
	gascar, ib. 1901; C. Keller, Madagascar, Mauritius and
	Other African Islands, ib. 1901; A. Froideraux, Lee Laza
	ristea h Madagascar au 17. aikcle, Paris, 1902; p. van
	Gennep, Taboo et Tot€miame h Madagascar, Paris, 1904;
	T. T. Matthews, Thirty Years in Madagascar, London,
	1904; )3. O. Dwight, Blue Book of Missions for 1807, pp.
	23‑24, New York, 1907.
	MADHAVACHARYA: Hindu Philosopher. See
INDIA, L, 2, § 2.
	MADRIGAL. See Mi7slc, SACRED, II, 2, § 3.
MADSEN, PEDER: Danish theologian; b. in Vinding parish near Holstebro (160 m. n.w. of Copenhagen), Denmark, Aug. 28, 1843. He studied at Viborg and was graduated from the University of Copenhagen, 1868; taught in private schools, 1868‑72; spent two years in travel and study; was called to teach dogmatics and exegesis at the University of Copenhagen, 1874; was appointed professor of theology, 1875; was rector 1889‑90 and 1903‑04; and became bishop of Zealand 1909. He cooperated in working out a new series of Pericopes (q.v.), 1879‑51, and assisted in reconstructing the liturgical parts of the church hymnal; represented the theological faculty on the church council, 18841886; is on the committee directing Danish missions in America, assists in directing home missions, and is active in Sunday‑school work. He has also been for many years president of the Bethesda conventions which are doing for Denmark what the Eisenach Conference (q.v.) does for Germany. He is a member of the body which is considering new lines of polity for the Church in Denmark.
He gained his doctorate with the thesis De kristnes aandelige Preesteddmme (1879). Other works are his university programs: Det kirkelige Embeds (1890); Embedet og Menighedtms Samvirken i det kirkelige Arbejde (1894); .and Ordinatit»xens Betydning indenfor den loth. Kirkeafdeling (1904), supporting the Lutheran traditional view of ministry and congregation. He had defended the same view in Borrtholmerne eller den saakaldte lvtherske Missionsforenirtg (1886). JOHN 0. EvjFN.

MAGARITA, MAGARITES: A name given by some writers of the Middle Ages to apostates from the Christian religion, particularly those who went over to Mohammedanism. The derivation of the term is unknown. Cf. Du Cange, s.v.

MAGDALENE, ORDERS OF ST. MARY: Several orders established at various times and in different places for the reformation of fallen women. The oldest community of penitents under the patronage of St. Mary Magdalene was probably that established at Metz, which traces its history, doubtless with some exaggeration, back to 1005, while a similar institution is said to have been founded at Trevea about 1148. In the early part of the thirteenth century several convents of magdalens were established, influenced in great part by the revival inaugurated by St. Francis, the most noteworthy being those at Goslar about 1215, and at Worms and Strasburg between 1220 and 1230. Bulls confirming the privileges of such orders were issued by Gregory IX. and Innocent IV. between 1227 and 1251. The inmates followed the Augustinian rule and were supervised by provosts appointed by the general provost of the entire order. About the middle of the thirteenth century, convents of magdalens existed at Erfurt, Prenzlau, Malchow,Vienna, Regensburg, and elsewhere, attaching themselves now to one of the great orders and again to another. Refuges for fallen women were established at Marseilles in 1272, at Naples in 1324, and at Prague about 1372. One was founded at Paris in 1492, at Rome by Leo X. in 1520,

123	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	~Ma~a.gasoa,r, l~itsuraioina in
		agdebnrg Cenes
at Seville in 1550, and at. Rouen and Bordeaux
in 1618.
	At first the discipline in the convents for magda
	lens was extremely severe, but gradually it grew
	lax, especially through the admission of those for
whom the order was not originally intended, until
in 1637‑40 a reformation was enforced at Paris,
	Marseilles, Bordeaux, Rouen, and elsewhere by St.
	Vincent de Paul. According to the new rule, which
was officially approved in 1640, the order was to be
	divided into three grades. The first of these was
	the Congregation of St. Mary Magdalene with strict
vows, which were assumed after a novitiate of two
years, and required fasting throughout Advent,
	and on all Fridays, as well as frequent retreats, and
	other acts of penance. The second grade of the
	order was the Congregation of St. Martha, which
	required no vows and permitted those who were
	truly penitent and reformed to reenter the world
	and marry. The third grade was the Congregation
	of St. Lazarus, which forcibly detained those who
were entrusted to its care for reformation.
	Numerous other Roman Catholic orders of more
	recent times have devoted themselves to the rescue
	of fallen women, noteworthy. among them being the
	Order of Our Lady of Refuge, founded at Nancy by
	Elisabeth de la Croix (d. 1649), the Sisters of St.
	Joseph, established in 1821, and the Order of the
	Good Shepherd, founded at Angers in 1828. The
	first impulse toward similar work in Evangelical
	circles was given by the work of Theodor Fliedner
	(q.v.; see also DEACONE69, IIL, 2, a, § 2) at Kaisers
	werth beginning with 1833, and his example has
since found numerous followers. (O. ZtScxr.Eat.)
MAGDEBURG, ARCHBISHOPRIC	OF: A
	former archbishopric, named from an ancient city
	of Germany, situated on the Elbe, 88 m. w.s.w. of
	Berlin. The town was an important commercial
	center as early as the reign of Charlemagne, and its
	oldest church is supposed to date from this period.
	In the tenth century, when the city belonged to
	the diocese of Halberstadt, it contained a parish
	church, and on Sept. 21, 937, Otho I. founded there
	a Benedictine monastery, which he endowed richly.
	Later he conceived the plan of transferring the
	episcopal palace from Halberstadt to Magdeburg,
	incorporating the monastery with it, and trans
	forming the bishopric into an archbishopric for the
	Wends. In 955 he assured himself of the papal
	sanction through Abbot Hadamar of Fulda, but
	his plans failed on account of the opposition of
	Archbishop William of Mainz, who refused to re
	linquish Halberstadt and proposed to separate
	Magdeburg from the diocese of Halberstadt and
	create of it a new bishopric among the Wends.
	This plan was carried out. In the Roman synod
	of Feb. 12, 962, Magdeburg was made an archbish
	opric with jurisdiction over all future Wendish di
	oceses, according to the emperor's wish. The final
	negotiations took place at Ravenna in Oct., 968,
	when Archbishop Hatto IL, who had succeeded
	William seven months previously at Mainz, agreed
	to the creation of the new archbishopric. Otho
	appointed Adalbert, abbot of Weiasenburg in Al
	sace, the first archbishop. The archdiocese of
Magdeburg comprised the dioceses which already existed in Brandenburg and Havelberg, as well as the new bishoprics of Merseburg, Meissen, and Zeitz, thus stretching from the Saale and Elbe in the west to the Oder in the east. (A. Hwucg.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY'. Sources are the Geata archiepiscaporum Mapdeburgenaium, and the Catalogi, ed. W. 8chum, in MGH, Script, xiv (1883). 381 aqq., 484‑488; Annales Magdeburpenais, ed. G. H. Pertz, ib., xvi (1859), 105‑198; G. A. von Mtilverstedt, ReOesta arcAiepiscopatus Magdeburpenaie, 4 vole., Magdeburg, 1878‑99; and Die Mapdeb. 3ch6ppenchronik, ed. W. Janieke, in Chroniken der deutschen Stttdte, vol. vii., Leipaic, 1889; Gams, Series episcoporum, p. 288. Consult: F. W. Hoffmann, Geschichte der Stall Magdeburg, 2 vole., Magdeburg, 1885‑86; W. Kawerau, Aua Mapdeburpa Verpangenheit, Halls, 1888; K. Uhlirz, Oeschichte lea Erzbistums Magdeburg, Magdeburg, 1887; C. Eubel, Hierarchic catholica medii a'uii, 2 vole., Miinater, 1898‑1901; Hauck, KD, vole. iii.‑iv.
MAGDEBURG CENTURIES: The first attempt to write the history of the Church from the Evangelical point of view. The plan of this work was conceived by Matthias Flaciua (q.v.). He projected a church history from the original sources showing that the Church of Christ since the time of the apostles had deviated from the right course, a documentary history of anti‑Christianity in the church of Christ from its beginnings to its highest development up to the restoration of true religion in its purity by Luther. From 1553 Flacius gave his efforts to the securing of patrons to aid the work financially, whom he found among German noblemen and wealthy citizens, in Augsburg, Niiremberg, and elsewhere, and in obtaining collaborators. The active interest and assistance manifested by the Imperial Councilor Niedbruck, curator of the Royal Library in Vienna, proved especially valuable. Libraries had to be searched for sources and documents; for this purpose Flacius himself undertook journeys in Germany, and his assistant Marcus Wagner of Friemar near Goths with great success traveled through Denmark, Scotland, Austria, Bavaria, and other territories, while many manuscripts and books were purchased or donated by patrons. In Magdeburg Flacius, Johann Wigand, and Matthiius Judex stood at the head of the project and worked out the details of the plan. The Councilor Ebeling Alemann, and the physician, Martin Copus, were treasurers; assistants were trained in furnishing the necessary excerpts, which two learned masters put into shape. From Jena Flacius directed the entire work. Thus there appeared in Basel, 1559‑74, the Eccleaiasticd histtmia . secundum singulas certturicts . . . Per aliquot studiosos et pios viros in urbe Magdeburgica, hence called the Magdeburg Centuries. Centuries seven to thirteen were elaborated especially by Wigand in Wismar. Wigand and subsequently Stangewald afterward worked on the three following centuries without completing them (the sixteenth century, compiled by Wigand, is in Wolfenbiittel in manuscript form); attempts made by several persons in the eighteenth century to bring the work down to date were also without result. The " Centuries " mark immense progress in ecclesiastical historiography, not only by the tracing of the sources and the completeness with which the material was collected, but also because there is ap‑

Xasee	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	124
Xavic
plied in them the pragmatic method of historical
development. The anti‑Roman interest sharp
ened the vision and helped the authors of the work
to critical achievements that marked a new epoch.
While the division into centuries was an obstacle
to a good grouping of the material, and the one
sided polemical anti‑Roman interest formed a bar
rier to an unprejudiced appreciation of the develop
ment of church history; nevertheless, there was
achieved the utmost that was possible within the
limits of the sharply defined dogmatic standpoint,
and the work furnished the weapons which Protes
tantism needed in its struggle. The work, pestilenr
tisaimum opus, as it was called by the Roman op
ponents, made a very strong impression upon the
Roman Church. Canisius urged the most learned
theologians to attack it, and many pens were set
in motion until in Cmsar Baroniua (q.v.) there was
found an able opponent who drew his material from
the Roman sources themselves. (G. KAwERAU.)
BxaLxoaaArny: F. C. Baur, Die Epochcn der kirchtichen
	Geachichtaachreibunp, pp. 39 eqq., Tiibingen, 1862; B. ter
	Haar, De Hiatoriopraphie der Kerkpeschiedenia, pp 121
	eqq., Utrecht, 1870‑73; A. Jundt, Lea Centuries de Mapde
	bourg, Paris, 1883; 9ehaumkell, Beitrap zur Entatehunpa
	peachichte der Mapd. Centuries, Ludwigaburg,1898; Schaff,
	Christian Church, i. 37‑38.
	MAGEE, WILLIAM; Archbishop of Dublin;
b. at Enniskillen (70 m. s.w, of Belfast), County
Fermanagh, Mar. 18, 1766; d. at Stillorgan (5 m.
s.e. of Dublin) Aug. 18, 1831. He was educated at
Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1785), and became
fellow in 1788, and senior fellow and professor of
mathematics in 1800. Ordained deacon in 1790,
he became dean of Cork in 1813, bishop of Raphoe
in 1819, and archbishop of Dublin in 1822. He
was a determined opponent of the Roman Catholics
but still more of the Unitarians, against whom he
wrote several pamphlets. He wrote among other
works: Discourses on the Scriptural Doctrines of
Atonement and Sacrifice (London, 1801). His works
were collected in two volumes (London, 1842).
BIHLIOaIiAP87: Consult, besides the Memoir by A. H.
	Kennet', prefixed to his collected Works, ut sup., DNB,
	axxv. 313‑315, where further literature is given.
	MAGEE, WILLIAM CONNOR: Archbishop of
York; b. at Cork Dec. 17, 1821; d. in London May
5, 1891. He was a grandson of William Magee
(q.v.). He was educated at Trinity College, Dub
lin (B.A., 1842; M.A. and B.D., 1854; D.D., 1860).
He became curate of St. Thomas', Dublin, in 1844;
of St. Saviour's, Bath, in 1848; minister of the Octa
gon Chapel, Bath, in 1850; perpetual curate of
Quebec Chapel in 1859; rector of Enniskillen in
1860; dean of Cork in 1864; dean of the Chapel
Royal, Dublin, in 1866; bishop of Peterborough in
1868; and archbishop of York in 1891. He was
Donellan lecturer at Dublin in 1865‑66. He was
the author of: Sermons Delivered al St. Saviour's
Church, Bath (Bath, 1852); Sermons at the Octagon
Chapel, Bath (Bath, 1854); The Gospel and the Age
(London, 1884); The Atonement (188?); Growth in
Grace (1891); Christ the Light of all Scripture (1892);
and Speeches and Addresses (1892).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. C. MaeDonnell, The Life and Correspond
ence of William Connor Magee, 2 vole., London, 1898;
	idem, in DNB, xxxv. 313‑318,
MAGIC.
Definition and Scope (§ 1).	7n Greece (§ 9).
Place in Religion (¢ 2).	In Rome (§ 10).
In Babylonia (13).
In Egypt (§ 4).
Magic and the Early Church
	($ 11).
Among the Hebrews ($ b).	Medieval Magic (§ 12).
In India (§ 8).	Black Magic (§ 13).
In Persia (§ 7).	White Magic (§ 14).
Among Teutons and Celts	Magic sad Modern Occultism
	(4 8).		(§ 16).
Magic is the alleged art of producing supernatural results by means of occult agencies, although in the widest sense of the term it includes Divination (q.v.), and thus coincides with occultism. In the present article, however, the discussion of magic is restricted to the causation of supernatural phenomena by mystic conjurations or incantations which may be either benevolent or malevolent. In this form magic coincides in great part with Witchcraft (q.v.), although it is distinguished, on the one hand, by a more scientific method, and, on the
other, by asocial trend which aims at a z. Definition unification of magic operations by oc‑
	tlnd Scope.	cult traditions. Magic is divided, ac
		cording to the means employed, into
demonistic (operating with the aid of spirits), relig
ious (regulated by the priesthood and the cult),
and natural (working simply through hidden powers
of nature), while with regard to its beneficent or
maleficent intent it is termed " white " and " black "
magic respectively.
Magic is an element of the empirical religion of all times and peoples, and belongs, like asceticism, sacrifice, and purification, to the constantly recurring and ineradicable factors of the social life of mankind (see COMPARATIVE RELIGION, VI., 1, a, § 5). Among many wild tribes religion seems to consist almost entirely of magic, although the theory that all religion is a development of witchcraft and magic is open to grave objections. The question may even be raised whether magic is not a phase of religious degeneration rather than evolution. The view prevailing in many circles that the religious conditions of modern savages constitutes the norm for reconstructing the religion of primitive man fails to recognize that the evidence in the life of ancient and of modern peoples shows a slow process of religious decay. It must be noted, furthermore, that savages are not found to advance from fetishism or animism (see COMPARATIVE RELlalorr) to a higher stage of religious life, nor are
magic and witchcraft (q.v.) the most a. Place in primitive forma of the religion of the
Religion, civilized nations of antiquity. Neither
in Egypt nor in Babylonia does religious development reveal polydemonistic magic as the source of their mythology and their cult, however early magic rites and formulas were used among both nations. Magic is, then, essentially a symptom of religious decay and belongs to the latest period of religious evolution. In cases where it appears at a relatively early stage in.a given people, it is seldom developed by the people in question, but is usually of foreign origin, being imported from degenerate neighboring tribes!

* ^F‑or the presentation of another view of ethnic magic, 88e WaLPAHATIVE RELIGION, VI„ 1. 8, § 5.

126	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
The Babylonians are usually regarded as the nation among whom magic, in the strict sense of the term, first appeared, although it moat be borne in mind that Babylonian here connotes Sumerian, and that the Babylonian Semites first became acquainted with magic through their Sumerian neighbors. The Medea and Persians were strongly opposed to magic and sturdily resisted the priests of magic coming from Babylonia, India, and Egypt.
Neither the Medea nor the Persians
3. In can be regarded as the authors of the Babylonia. magic art which later spread from the Orient to Greece and Rome, but the real source of magic was the proto‑Babylonian priesthood of the region of the lower Euphrates, whose incantations, written in Sumerian, are doubtless the oldest documents of their class. The Sumerisns seem to have been a " Turanian " people who left their original home in Central Asia and became fused with the Aryan stock south of the Caspian, especially with the Medea, and also with the Semites of the Euphrates valley (see BwsxLONIw, V., §§ 1‑2). This worship of the elements and their spirits to which the peoples of central sad northern Asia were devoted thus penetrated into the southwestern part of the continent. In the older magic texts, preserved in numerous clay tablets in the library of Aeshurbanipal (see A88YRIw, VI., 3, § 14), witchcraft is essentially a system of incantation to avert the power of evil demons, while various gods, especially Es, Marduk, Gibil‑Nuaku, and Sin, are invoked as protectors. The entire object was the averting of physical ills and the exorcism of disease‑demons, thus presenting numerous parallels with the arts of shamanistic medicine men. It was only this older Babylonian magic, which was still influenced by Sumerian traditions, that was medical, for after the consolidation of the Babylonian kingdom in the second millennium B.c., divination superseded all other forms of magic in Babylonia while astrology spread from Chaldea throughout the west and made the terms Chaldean and astrologer almost synonymous.
In Egypt, which, like Babylonia, was one of the earliest homes of Oriental magic, witchcraft never became overlaid with divination, but always re‑
mained essentially a system of mad‑
	;. In	ical exorcism, practised by priestly
	Egypt	medical magicians, and based on sym
		pathetic cures, the conjuration of hos
tile powers of nature, and the banishment of sick
ness by amulets and the like. The magic papyri
of the New Kingdom contain incantations against
crocodiles and other noxious creatures, especially
serpents, as well as against all sorts of demons,
against the evil eye, and against sickness of every
kind, and many of their mystic words of power are
Assyro‑Babylonian in origin.
The ancient Hebrews, surrounded and influenced by two neighboring peoples which were adepts in magic art, also showed a strong tendency to witchcraft, as is clear from the rigid but ineffectual prohibitions in the legal code (Ex. xxii. 18; Deut. xviii. 10‑11; comp. II Kings xxi. 6; Iso. viii. 19, 20, Ivii. 3; Micah v. il). Both the divination of the Babylonians and the medical exorcisms of
the Egyptians seem to have exercised a strong influence on Israel, and the later development of pre‑
Christian Judaism favored an increased g. Among devotion to these forbidden arts. the Hebrews. This is shown by many of the Apoc‑
rypha and Peeudepigrapha of the Old Testament, especially Tobit iii., vi.; Enoch hzix., the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, the late Jewish Testament of Solomon and various other Solomonic legends and incantations connected with the tradition of the queen of Sheba based on I Kings x. i‑10.
Throughout the Aryan and non‑Aryan peoples which surrounded the Semites of southwestern Asia magic is seen to appear at a relatively early period, although it did not exist in the very beginning. Nor did it disappear with development of civilization and learning, but, on the contrary, increased in extent and refinement. So it was among the Hindus (see BsaHnswrnsM), whose earliest phase of religion, as represented in the Rag Veda, was a
simple nature worship free from magic 6. In India. accretion, while the rise of the Brah‑
manic priesthood produced an extreme formalism with a tendency to exercise power over the gods by means of a correct performance of the prescribed offerings, prayers, and invocations. The Atharva Veda contains a vast number of examples of formulas to be employed in such acts of magic, and the Sutras, or compendiums of ritual for the Brahmanic sacrifice, mark a still further advance in religious formalism. Even the Buddhistic reform was unable to suppress the witchcraft underlying Hinduism, and it was in Buddhism that the popular belief in a cult of magic appropriate to the spirits of earth, trues, mountains, fields, and houses found its most luxuriant development. If this be true of Hindu Buddhism it is still more characteristic of the Mongolian and Tatar neighbors of India, especially the Chinese and the shamanistic tribes of central and northern Asia. In modern China (q.v.) Buddhist bonzes vie with Taoist priests in the practise of magic and divination.
In Persia (see ZOROASTER, ZOROASTRIANISM), in like manner, magic forced itself upon a Mazdaism which was originally free from witchcraft. The Avesta bitterly opposed the magic arts of the " wizards " who derived their skill either from " Turan " or from Babylon, but toward the end of the Acheemenian period, as well as under the Arsacids, magic began to play so prominent a part in the popular religion of the Persians that the name
Magian became a designation for the y. In Persia. priesthood of Persia. Even the efforts
of the Sassanians to restore the ancient pre‑Magian faith had only temporary success. As far as this later Persian or Parthian magianism was predominantly astrological or mantic in character, it must be regarded as borrowed from Babylonia, but its magic elements in the narrower sense of the term, such se conjuration and amuleLa, doubtless came from the " Turanian " or Scythian peoples in the north.
Among the ancient Teutons a cult of the divinity of the fields and forte connected with the practise of magic was an important feature of religion at a

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	128
very early period, although it reached its zenith only to be crushed by Christianity. Among the
Celts, in like manner, religion was & Among strongly infused with magic elements
Teutons which had reached a degree of refineand Celts. went and complexity unknown to
the popular Teutonic witchcraft. This was due in great part to the organized priesthood of the Druids (q.v.), who were especially skilled in medical magic.
In Greece magic was an important religious factor even in the Homeric and early post‑Homeric periods, as is clear from the story of Media in Argonautic legend, Circe in the Odyssey, the magic goddess Hecate, Hermes the protecting herald of the gods and giver of dreams, and all other patron deities. That these ancient Hellenic traditions of magic were native in origin and not borrowed from
the East is shown by abundant eviy. In dente, especially that which alludes
	Greece.	either to Thrace or Thessaly as the
		early home of witchcraft. Yet at an
early time foreign magic found its way into Greece
both from Egypt and Babylonia or Persia. Nor
did the refinement of Greek civilization prevent the
warmest welcome and the moat varied imitations
of the magic arts of oriental " barbarians." The
medical magic of Egypt found no bar to its en
trance, and neither the rationalism of the followers
of Hippocrates nor the mockeries of Lucian could
shake the pseudo‑philosophy of the wizards of the
Nile who flocked to Greece in increasing numbers.
Equally successful was the divination of Persia
and Babylon. All forma of prophecy, by astrology,
the raising of the dead, psychomancy, invocation
of the gods, clidomancy, hydromancy, lecanomancy,
and anthropomancy, were in constant use; while
the defense of " Persian " magicians as priestly sages
by Aristotle, Dio Chrysoatom, Apuleius, and Celsus
shows the esteem and influence enjoyed by these
adepts of eastern occult art among the Greeks during
the dynasty of the Diadochi and the Roman period.
Rome also possessed its magic and divination, which in their beginnings reached back to the regal epoch and were domiciled among the tribes living on the banks of the Tiber. The Etruscans introduced the cult of the Dii Averrecm"i. and all forms of auguries into Rome, although other neighboring peoples, such as the Marsi, likewise contributed
their quota. The introduction of :o. In eastern magic was bitterly opposed by Rome legislation as early as the reigns of Augustus, Tiberius, and Claudius, while Caracalla condemned magicians to be burned alive or thrown to the beasts. Nevertheless the occult wisdom of the East was irresistible, and the diatribes of Pliny and Tacitus proved unavailing. Even the emperors favored magic; Nero accepted invitations to magic feasts, and Otho was a pronpunced patron of magic, while Vespasian, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius were at least tolerant toward it and Alexander Severus gave it official subvention. In the reign of the latter and his immediate predecessors magic reached its climax in Rome, and not till the triumph of Christianity was it checked, and even then not extirpated.
The early Church was at times not unfavorable to magic. Thus Origen, in his commentary on Genesis (cited in Eusebius, Prceparatio Evangelica, book VI., chap. xi., Eng. transl., i. 280 aqq., Oxford, 1903), drew a distinction between divine and demonic astrology, and in his polemic against Celsus ascribed a' certain reality and justification to the power of those who healed through magic. It was especially the Christian Alexandrians who expressed such views, following, on the one hand, such Hellenistic predecessors as Philo, and, on the other,
such neo‑Platonic philosophers as
ii. Magic Iamblichua and Synesius, one of the and the earliest sources of this nature being Early the philastrological dialogue known as
	Church.	Hermippua (Anonymi Christians Her
		mippus de astrologic dialogus, ed. W.
Knoll and P. Viereck, Leipsic,1895), which probably
dates from the fifth or sixth century. The New
Testament, however, except for the reference to
the " wise men from the East," which was regarded
as the fulfilment of Messianic prophecy (Ps. Lzaii.
10, 15; Isa. Ix. 1 sqq.), was unfavorable to magic.
Thus the Samaritan Simon is characterized as a
false prophet, as is the Jew Bar‑Jesus, who is termed
a "child of the devil" (Acts viii. 9‑11, xiii. 6‑11).
The tractate of " The Two Ways " at the beginning
of the Didache (q.v.) and at the close of the epistle
of Barnabas contains an explicit warning against
magic, which is ranked with witchcraft, idolatry,
drunkenness, impurity, and infanticide. After the
middle of the second century the Gnostics were con
demned by the Church Fathers as the representa
tives of accursed magic arts, and Irenaeus traced all
heretical Gnosticism back to Simon Magus. The
same charge of magic was made against Menan
der, the Carpocratians, the Marcosiana, the Elke
saites, the Ophitea, and heretics of every descrip
tion. Side by side with this gnostic magic ran the
ancient pagan belief in the power of witchcraft.
After the beginning of the fourth century influen
tial heads of the neo‑Platonic school sought to ex
tend both theurgic and mantic magic, and the op
posing measures of such Christian emperors as
Constantine, Valentinian L, Valens, and Theo
dosius I. had but temporary efficacy. Even during
the centuries of the barbarian ware the aid of Tus
can magicians was repeatedly sought, despite the
fulminations of Church Fathers like Ephraem Sy
rus, Isaac of Antioch, Chrysostom, Augustine,
Gregory the Great, and Isidore of Seville.
Throughout the Middle Ages the conflict continued. In the East collections of oracles and Apocrypha ascribed to Zoroaster, Daniel, Methodius, Leo the Wise, and other famous names were multiplied and formed the basis of commentaries of Psellus the Younger, Roger Bacon, and Albertua Magnus, and also of such protagonists of the Renaissance as Pletho sad Ficinus. The Cabala added
its quota to occultism, furnishing the
a. Medi‑ magic pentagram, the Shem ha‑Mephooval Magic. rash, and the Agla. Innumerable so‑
clesiastical prohibitions failed to crush magic, though the early disapproval of witchcraft as a foolish superstition gradually developed, after the period of the crusades, into attacks upon a

127	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	acsr:io
arses belief in witches and the devil. With his adoption of the later view Thomas Aquinas propared the way for the bull issued against witches by Innocent VIII. in 1484 and for the Omnipoteruia of Gregory XV. in 1623, which condemned magic resulting in death to punishment by the secular arm and requited minor magic injuries with imprisonment for life. The freedom of thought and dootrine prevailing from the time of the Reformation gradually destroyed belief in devils and demons, while it developed medicine and surgery from the magic art of healing and the doctrines of Paracelsus, sad evolved astronomy from astrology, and chemistry and physics from alchemy and the hermetic art.
The term " black magic " has been applied, especially by the humanists and during the period of the Reformation, to the practise of these occult sciences which profess to invoke the aid of evil spirits or to make a compact with the devil. The
Reformers, Luther, Melanchthon,. Car
:3. Black merarius, and Bullinger, all expressed
	Magic.	their belief in the black art, while at
		the same period many asserted that
they had formed compacts with the devil and had
thus acquired supernatural power. With the de
cay of the belief in witches after the eighteenth
century, however, the idea that superhuman power
might thus be gained gradually disappeared, al
though certain Roman Catholic theologians, such
as Oswald and Heinrich, still adhere to the
older view.
The name " white magic," on the other hand, was given to the occult arts practised, especially in the sixteenth century, by various scholars, by which they professed to .produce supernatural results either by the aid of good spirits or by peculiar gifts and powers of the human soul. The acme of this form of magic was reached by the De trcculta phi losoPhia of Agrippa von Nettesheim (Cologne, 1510),
which distinguished between " natu‑
:4. White ral magic," " celestial magio" (tietrol‑
	Magic,	ogy and the casting of nativities), and
		" religious magic " (meditation and
purification of the heart). Through " natural
magic," which is based on a knowledge of the
" quintessence," or all‑pervading cosmic spirit, the
human soul may gain the " hidden powers " by
which it can often control nature, and rule the
souls of the departed. Proceeding from the same
theory of the " quintessence " or " macrocosm,"
Paraoelsus made the concept of the mystic sym
pathy of all things the basis of his art of healing.
Increasing rationalism and the advance of science,
however, has caused the meaning of the term " white
magic " to degenerate until it now connotes little
more than legerdemain.
The adherents of modern occultism protest strongly against the interpretation of all phenomena of magic by .rationalism, although they do not wish to be considered representatives of common superstition, since they regard the secret doctrines which they profess and practise as equal in dignity to other sciences of the present day. In their judgment a large residue of mysterious facts and phenomena do not fall within the scope of ordinary
investigations of nature, but are to be reserved
for the future science of the spirit. The en
deavor to realise such a higher magic or occultism
		must be admitted to be legitimate,
	r5. Magic but as yet there is no uniformity re
and Modern garding principles or method, sad even
	Occultism. the name is not decided. Two tenden
		cies may be distinguished, one extend
ing into the obscure realm of the future life and
the world of spirits (see PSYCHICAL REBgARCH
AND IMMORTALITY), and the other restricted to the
sphere of the human soul. Leaving out of consid
eration the former class, there remains a long list
of names and methods for the purely anthropolog
ical system of occultism, which has variously been
termed	" animal magnetism," " mesmerism,"
" electrobiologp," " somnambulism," " psychic
power," " psychism," " transcendental physics,"
" practical magic," " occultism," " cryptic science,"
" frontier science," and even " cryptology," " so
rology," " adelology," and " horology." Among
the various subdivisions of natural magic mention
may also be made of hypnotism and miad
reading. 		(O. ZScsr.>sat.)
Branroaswraz‑: For primitive magic special attention is
	called to the literature given under CoMPwswTrva Ra
	r.rarox, particularly to the works of Chantepie de la 8sus
	eaye, Tylor, Brinton, Frazer, Jevone, Manahsrdt, Bor
	chart, Haddon, Lenormant, King, Davies, Budge, Skeat,
	and Lang, which together comprise s literature on the
	subject. Most of the works on the religions of Assyria,
	Babylonia and Egypt (see bibliographies under those
	articles), and India (see bibliography under Bawaawx
	rarr; Hrxaurex) deal adequately with magic is those
	countries. Note also the works named under Zoaoweraa,
	ZOBOABTnrANra1L Much material will also be found in
	the Hibbert Lectures (q.v.), and especially in the Annual
	Reports of the American Bureau of Ethnology. Consult
	further: P. Scholz, Die GStssndisnst and Zauberwesea bei
	den alleA Hebrtier» and deren NachbarvGlksrn, Regene
	burg, 1877; J. Lippert, Die Religionen der europBischart
	Xutturrobiker in ihrem peaekichEticAert Uraprunp, Berlin,
	1881; J. Rkville, Die Religion in Rom untar den Bsoerern,
	Leipeio, 1888; V. von Strauss, Dar alt?lpyptiadte Gdtter
	plaube, 2 vole., Heidelberg, 1889; B. du Prel, Bludien
	Ober Gedeimwiasenachaften, 2 vole., Leipeio, 1890; idem.
	Die Maple ale NatururiaeereackaJt, Jews, 1899; J. 8epp,
	Die Religion der o,Ztert DeuGe>te» and ihr Fortbeetand bin
	our Gapenwart, Munich, 1890; R. timend, dlUeetamenE
	lichs Relipionapeaehiahte, Freiburg, 1893; F, T. Elworthy,
	The Evil Eye, an Account of this Ancient and Widespread
	superstition, London, 1895; )~'.. Rsc1ae, Le Mapieme. Paris,
	1895; H. Zimmern, BsidBpe our Kenatnia der boby(p131dC1i
	aseWiachen Religion, Leipsio, 1898‑1901; W. Kroll, An
	tilcar Aberpiaube, Hamburg, 1897: Uriarte. Die Map is du
	19. Jahrhundarte, Berlin, 1897; W. J. Flags, Yoga; or
	Transformation: comparatiroe Statement of as various ro
	TiQiow Dogmas concerning the Soul . . . and of Maple,
	New York, 1898; W. Celsad, AltindiaeAes Zauberritual,
	Amsterdam, 1900; C. Grrfneieen, Der Ahnenkult and die
	Urrdiflion laraels, Halls, 1900; R. C. Thompson, Reports
	of the Magicians and Astrologers of Nineveh and Babylon,
	2 vole., London, 1900; idem, The Devils and Evil Spirits
	of Babylonia, London, 1903; idam, Semitic Magic, its
	Origin and Development, London, 1908; A. J. Evens, The
	Mycenean Tree and . Pillar Cult, London, 1901; d. Op•
	fart, SeeluAundart drei and fUnJaip. Eine babylonischs
	nwpischs Quadrattafel, Strasburg, 1902; J. Rune", Becher
	waArsapunp bet den Babylonisrn rwc7t moei ReilaehriJF
	art sue der Hammurabi‑Zeit, Leipeie, 1903; F. L. Griffith
	and H. Thompson, The Demotic Magical Papyrus of,Lon
	don and Leiden, 2 vole., London, 1904‑05; , V. Henry. La
	Maple dana 1'Inde antique, Paris, 1904: A. Boiesier, Chair
	de textee relative h 14 divination aseyro‑ba6ylanienne, Go
	nave, 1905; W. L. Hare, Babylonian Religion, ChaWaan
	maple, London, 1906; K. L. Parker, The Eualtlayi'Tribe,
	London, 1905; A. Wiedemann, Maple urd Zauberei im

M eter	8aori Palatif
	John Pentland
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ins
alien Aepypteu, Leipeic, 1905• A. C Haddon, Magic and Fetishism, London, 1906; Mary Hamilton, Incubation, London, 1908; W. Boueset, What is Religion, pp. 45‑47, New York, 1907; A. Bros, La Religion des peuplea non cdv3liala, chap. iii., Paris, 1907; E. Douttk, Maple et religion dana l'Afrlque du Nord, Paris, 1908; T. Scherman, Griechische Zauberpapyri, Leipsic, 1909. For later and modern magic consult: J. Braid, Magic, Witchcraft, Animal Magnetism, Hypnotism and Electrobiology, London, 1852; J. Burkchardt, Die Kultur der Renaissance in ltalien, vol. ii., Basel, 1860, Eng. tranal., Civilization of . the Renaissance in Italy, 2 vols., London, 1878; C: Pazig, Treatyae of Magic Incantations, Edinburgh, 1886; A. Dieterich, Abraxaa; Studien zur Religionageacharhte des aputeren Altertums, Leipsic, 1891; C. Kiesewetter Geachichfe des neuren Occultiamua, 2 vols., Leipaic, 1891‑94; F. Hartmann, Magic, White and Black, London, 1893; A. Thompson, Magic and Mystery, London, 1894; 8. L. M. Mathere, The Book of the Sacred Magic of Abra‑Melin the Merge, London, 1898; A. E. Waits, The Book of Black Magic and of Pacts, Edinburgh, 1898; H. Weinel, Die Wirkungen des Geiatea and der Geiater im nachapoatoliachen Zeitalter bra auf Irenceus, Freiburg, 1899; F. L. Gardner. Catalogue raiaonnk of Works on the Occult Sciences, London, 1903; F. Hartmann, Die weiaee and achwarzs Magic oiler daa Geaetz des Geiatea in der Natur, Leipsic, 1903; J. KSrmann‑Alaech, Schwarze and weieae Magic. Aepyptiache Myatarien, Hexenweaen, Faust's Hollenfahrt, Hollenzwang. Indiache Wonder. Die Fakirs, Leipaic, 1904; F. Unger, Die achwarte Magic, ihre Meister and ihre Offer, Cothen, 1904; L. Thorndike, Place of Magic in the intellectual History of Europe, New York, 1905; H. R. Evans, The Old and New Magic, Introduction by P. Carus, Chicago, 1906; F. C. Conybesre, Myth, Magic, and Morale, London, 1909. A copious magazine literature on magic is indicated in Richardson, Encyclopaxlia, p. 869. See also FansaieM; SurExeTTxioN. The reader will find the best materials for original study in books of travel among primitive peoples.
MAGISTER SACRI PALATII (" Master of the Sacred Palace ") : An official of the papal court, who unites the functions of chief chaplain and theological adviser of the pope. The first incumbent of this office is said to have been St. Dominic, and it is still filled invariably by a Dominican. Perceiving that the retainers of the cardinals and other dignitaries used to while away their time in idle amusements during the attendance of their masters on the pope, St. Dominic is said to have urged the pope to appoint some one to instruct them during these intervals in the Bible and in Christian doctrine. The saint himself was commissioned to do this, and met with such success that about 1218 Honorius III., according to tradition, established the office of Master of the Sacred Palace. The legendary character of this tradition, however, is evident from the fact that the first incumbent whose existence can be indubitably established was Bartholomaeus de Brigantiis, who filled the office about 1236 under Gregory IX. Gradually other duties were added to homiletic instruction, and, in collaboration with the cardinal‑vicar, the Master of the Sacred Palace exercised a censorship over all books, while he also controlled the import and export, as well as the purchase and sale, of books in Rome, besides attending the sessions of the Congregation of the Index. These multifarious duties rendered the office of Master of the Sacred Palace very important. Its incumbent was a member both of the Holy Office and of the Congregation of Rites. In the course of time many of the duties and privileges of this official of the Sacred Palace became obsolete. The office has been filled by many Dominicans of distinction, such as Albertus Magnus
(supposed to have held this position in 1255‑56) and Thomas Aquinas (12628). (O. ZlScsr.Eat.)
Btsi.toaRArav: Fontana, Syllabus magiatrorum aacrfi palatii apoatolici., Rome, 1863; J. Qudtif and J. chard, Scriptorea ordinia prodicatorum, vol. ii., p. xxi., Paris, 1721; J. Catalani, De mapiatro aacri yalatid apoatolicd, Rome, 1751; F. A. Zaccaria, La Come di Rome, vol. ii., ib. 1774; G. Phillips, Kirchenrecht, vi. 548, Regensburg, 1857; F. H. Reuech, Der Index der verbotenen Bfirher, passim, Bonn, 1883; H. DeniHe, in ALKG, ii (1888), 187‑248; KL, viii. 183‑185.

MAGIYIFICAT: The common liturgical designation of the hymn of praise in Luke i. 46‑55; so called from its initial word in the Latin. It is more formally called the Canticle of the Blessed Virgin, in accordance with the tradition which refers it to the lips of the Lord's mother, in verse 48. This tradition is based on all the Greek and the majority of the Latin manuscripts, and on countless ancient witnesses: notably Irenaeus (Hear. III., x. 2) and Tertullian (De anima, xxvi.), who confirm the tray ditionsl reading of verse 46. The authority for this designation has been recently questioned by G. Morin in his edition of the treatise De psalmodies bono, ascribed to Nicetas, bishop of Remeaiana in Dacia, about the close of the fourth century, which in two passages assumes Elisabeth to be the singer (for critical discussion see Revue B&kddidirte, xiv [1897], 385‑397). Both on thin ground and on the ground of the other evidences for the reading " Elisabeth " in verse 46, as well as on internal evidence, Fr. Jacob challenges the received interpretation; while, independently of Morin and Jacob, it has been decisively contested by A. Harnack. On the other hand, the traditional view is supported by A. Durand, against Jacob and by O. Bardenhewer against Harnack. The controversy can not be here discussed in detail.
The use of the Magnificat in public worship dates back to the early Christian centuries. In the Eastern Church, it constitutes an element of the morning prayers. Between each verse is a response addressed to the Virgin. While it is being sung the deacon incenses the altar.
In the Western Church, the Magrtif cat certainly appears before 600, in the second Gallican liturgy, while Bingham (Origirtes, XV., ii. § 7) refers its introduction to Caesariua of Arles (d. in 542). Since the time of Gregory the Great or St. Benedict it has been assigned to the vesper service, which, as an " evening sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving," culminates in the Magnifuat, corresponding to the Benedict2ta at lauds. While the Song of Zacharias proclaims the coming redemption, the Magnificat, at evening, celebrates the fulfilment of the promise. The Glorea patri, subjoined to the hymn, generalizes Mary's thanksgiving into the Church's. At the same time it receives a coloring appropriate to the special manifestation of salvation commemorated by the particular day or season, through the antiphon, which is sung entire both before and after it on all but the lowest class of festivals (see ANTIPHON).
With the vesper service the Evangelical Church also retained the Magnified, " forasmuch as it is an excellent hymn of praise " (Kirchertordnung of Brunswick‑Liineburg, 1544). Along with the Latin

129	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Xaeister 8aori Palatii
		Mahaft, John Pentland
version of the Magnifical, assigned to the choir, or
instead of it, the German version was early used,
in accordance with the Evangelical principle of
having the congregation take part in divine wor
ship. For instance, the Wittenberg Order of 1533
prescribes that " before a particular feast, and after
the (afternoon) sermon, they shall sing the German
Magnificat, as usual, with a German versicle, in
the midst of the Church, with the people." In
short, their first practise was to sing the plain Ger
man version, adhering exactly to the Latin melody;
afterward, the metrical Mageiftcut, paraphrased
into the form of a German hymn: or both together,
sometimes in the guise that each verse of the Latin,
or German and Latin, Magniftcat would serve as
" text," to be followed by a German hymn strophe
by way of " elucidation."
	As concerning the liturgically musical presenta
tion of the Magnificdt, the Roman Catholic cus
tom is to sing it, whatever the psalm tone em
ployed, somewhat higher and slower, in its quality
of ‑a New Testament canticle, with a festival in
tonation for each verse. The Evangelical Church
in Germany adheres to this custom as regards the
Latin Magniftcat; whereas, for the German version,
it is usual to select the ninth psalm tone (tones
peregrines). The Magnifical was made a favorite
theme for artistic elaboration, and masters in every
style of church music have applied their skill to it.
In the Evangelical Church, also, the Magnifu;at is
an attractive focus for the development and ex
pansion of musical art.‑ Out of the practise of
playing organ interludes between the verses, there
grew up a special department of organ literature
(see ORGAN). The structure of the text itself be
comes an important factor in the development of
Evangelical church music, and exhibits all forms
and styles of the same, from the closed choral
motet (as with Dietrich, Hassler, Vulpius, Frank,
Cruger, etc.); or, in case of the metrical Magnifuat,
from the polyphonic choral hymn, down to the
highly elaborate cantata, comprising all modes of
church music in one complicated artistic creation,
such as Johann Sebastian Bach's quintet Magnifir
C6t. See CHURCH MUSIC. (H. A. KSSTLIN f .)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Jacob, in Revue d'hiatoire et de Littera
	ture religieuae, ii (1897), 424‑432; A. Durand, in Revue
	biblaque, vii (1898), 74‑77; A. Harnack, in SBA, xxvi
	(1900), 538‑558; O. Bardenhewer, BibLiache Studien, vi
	(1901), parts 1‑2; H. A. KSatlin, in Zeitaehrift fur die
	NeuteatametttLiehe Wiseeaechaft, 1902, pp. 139 eqq.; Julian,
	Hprnnolopy, p. 711. Consult also: B. Thalhofer, Hand
	bueh der katholischen Liturgik, ii. 478, Freiburg, 1883‑90;
	S. Kiimmerle, Encyklopttdie der evangeliachen Kirchere
	musik, ii. 124‑127, 180‑186, Giitersloh. 1890; G. Riet
	echel, Lehrbuch der Liturpik, pp. 345, 443, Berlin, 1899.
	MAGNUS: The name applied to a saint remark
able for his early missionary labors among the Swan.
bians. The narrative of his life, however, by a
process of incorporation not uncommon in medieval
literature of the kind, is made up by the fusion of
incidents belonging to two distinct persons, one
in the seventh and the other in the eighth century
‑the former connected with St. Gall, the latter
with the monastery of Fiissen on the Lech, although
he also probably came originally from St. Gall.
Msginold and Theodo accompanied the Irish monk
		VIL‑9
to the wilderness on the Steinach in 613; after his death they remained there, and Maginold is said to have lived until about the middle of the seventh century. The Fiissen legend speaks of a monk Magnus, from his name presumably of Romaic origin, not Teutonic, like Maginold, as a contemporary of Wichbert, the first demonstrable bishop of Augsburg, toward the middle of the eighth century.. Wishing to convert a last pagan corner of his diocese, he sent to St. Gall for monks; and Magnus, with Theodo or Dieto (an analogy with the older legend), went forth to help him, the former working in the valley of the Lech and founding the monastery of Fussen, where he died about the middle of the eighth century. When about 851 Bishop Lanto of Augsburg translated his relics, a life was made up, based on tradition, but tradition a century old, and attributed to the contemporary Dieto, here called Theodore. In the last decade of the ninth century the abbot‑bishop Solomon III. erected the church St. Magnus at St. Gall, and obtained relics of the patron from Fiissen, together with the life, which then at St. Gall was fused with the story of the local Maginold. (G. MEYER VON KNONAU.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The literature is indicated in Pottheat, Weqweiaer, p. 1444. The Vita mentioned in the text is with other material in ASB, Sept., ii. 700‑?81, ef. ABM, ii., pp. 505‑510. Consult: Rettberg, XD, ii. 148‑151; Friedrich, KD, ii. 654‑658.
MAGOG. See Goo AND MAGOG; and TABLE OF THE NATIONS.
MAGUIRE, JOHN ALOYSILTS: Roman Catholic archbishop of Glasgow; b. at Glasgow Sept. 8, 1851. He was educated at St. Aloysius' College, Glasgow, Stonyhurst College, the University of Glasgow, and the College of the Propaganda, Rome, until 1875, and after being an assistant at the St. Andrew's Cathedral at Glasgow, from 1875 to 1879, was appointed secretary of the diocese, a position which he held four years. He was incumbent of Partick in 1883, but in the following year became canon of the cathedral of Glasgow, vicar‑general in 1885, and provost of the chapter in 1893. In 1894 he was consecrated titular bishop of Troomada) and appointed to assist the archbishop of Glasgow, whom he succeeded in the archiepiscopal office in 1902.

MAHAFFY, JOHN PENTLAND: Church of Ireland; b. near Vevey (11 m. e.s.e. of Lausanne), Switzerland, Feb. 26, 1839. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1859; M.A., 1863), and was ordered deacon in 1864 and ordained priest two years later. He was elected fellow of his college in 1884, where he has been senior fellow and registrar since 1899, as well as a member of the University COUri011 since 1902. He was also preceptor of Trinity College in 1867 and chaplain to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in 1880. He was assistant regius professor of Greek at Trinity College in 1864‑65, 1867‑68, 1870‑74, 1877, and 1896, assistant in Archbishop King's divinity lectures in 1870‑79, junior dean in 1869, junior proctor in 1871 Donellan lecturer in 1876, and examiner repeatedly in various subjects, besides being evening preacher in 1865‑67 and university preacher in

biahan	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	130
Maimonidea
1868‑70: From 1869 to 1900 he was professor of
ancient history at Trinity College, and was also
High Sheriff of County Monaghan in 1901 and a
commissioner for intermediate education. In the
ology he is a Broad Churchman. Among his numer
ous publications, chiefly on classical subjects, special
mention may be made of the following: Twelve.
Lectures on Primitive Civilization (London, 1869);
Prolegomena to Ancient History (1871); Greek Social
Life from Homer to Menander (1874); Greek Antiq
uities (1876); A History of Classical Greek Litera
ture (1880); The Decay of Modern Preaching (1882);
The Story of Alexander's Empire (in collaboration
with A. Gilman; 1887); Greek Life and Thought from
Alexander to the Roman Conquest (1887); Greek Pic
tures drawn with Pen and Pencil (1890); The Greek
World under Roman Sway (1890); The Empire of the
Ptolemies (1895); The Silver Age of the Greek World;
and What have the Greeks Done (1909); and con
tributed vol. iv. to Petrie's History of Egypt; in
addition to numerous editions of classical, historical,
and philosophical works and The Petrie Papyri De
ciphered and Explained (3 vole., Dublin, 1892‑1905).
	MAHAN, ASA: American Congregationalist
educator; b. at Vernon, N. Y.; Nov. 9, 1800; d.
at Eastbourne (65 m. s. of London), England, Apr.
4,	1889. He was graduated at Hamilton College,
Clinton, N. Y., in 1824, and at Andover Theolog
ical Seminary in 1827. He was pastor at Pitts
ford, N. Y. (1829‑31); Cincinnati, O. (1831‑35);
Jackson, Mich. (1855‑57); and Adrian, Mich.
(1857‑60). He was president of Oberlin College
(1835‑50), Cleveland University (1850‑54), and
Adrian College, Mich. (1860‑71). In 1871 he re
tired to Eastbourne, England, to devote himself to
literary work. His works include: Scripture Doc
trine of Christian Perfection (Boston, 1839); Sys
tem of Intellectual Philosophy (New York, 1845);
Doctrine of the Will (Oberlin, 1846); The True Be
liever (New York, 1847); System of Moral Philoso
phy (Oberlin, 1848); Election, and the Influence of
the Holy Spirit (London, 1850); Modern Mysteries
Explained and Exposed (Boston, 1855); The Sci
ence of Logic (New York, 1856); Science of Natural
Theology (Boston, 1867); Theism and Antitheiam
(Cleveland, 1872); Phenomena of Spiritualism Sci
entifically Explained and Exposed (1875); Misun
derstood Texts of Scripture Explained and Eluci
dated (1876); Critical History of the Late American
War (1877); System of Mental Philosophy (Chicago,
1882); Autobiography; Intellectual, Moral, and
Spiritual (London, 1882); and Critical History of
Philosophy (2 vole., New York, 1883).
	>l3AHDI, mal'd%: The title given by Moham
medans to the person who according to their ex
pectation is to exercise functions not unlike those
attributed to the Jewish Messiah. He is to com
plete the work of Mohammed, convert or destroy
the infidels, inaugurate the reign of justice and
truth upon earth, and lead the faithful to Paradise.
The word means " directed," hence, " orle fit to
guide others." The Mohammedan world is divided
between those who believe that Mahdi has already
come but is concealed until the time of his final
manifestation (Shiahsr see MOHAMMED, MoaeX‑
MEDANISM), and those who still await his appearance (Sunnis). As in the case of the cognate Jewish belief, from which in part it sprang, the possession of the idea has led to many attempts to realize it. These attempts have been made both by impostors and by those who were self‑deluded. One of these was the famous veiled prophet al‑Mokanna, Hakim ibn Allah, who conducted a revolt against Mohammed ben Mansur (c. 780 A.D.), while this Mohammed himself assumed the tale of Mahdi; another was Ubayd Allah al‑Mahdi in North Africa, 909‑934, founder of the Fatimid dynasty; almost as celebrated was Ibn Tumart, the founder of the Muwahhid Berber dynasty, also in North Africa. A recent example is Mohammed Ahmed (1843‑85), " the mad mullah," whose revolt in the region south of Egypt caused so great fear of a holy war, and to whose capture of Khartum the death of General Cordon was due. The head of the brotherhood of al‑Sanusi also claims to be the Mahdi. CEO. W. GILMORE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Moller, Beitrtipe zur MahdilvJi.re des lalama, Heidelberg, 1901; J. Darmeateter, The Mahdi, Past and Present, New York, 1885; D. B. Macdonald, Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence, and Constitutional Theory, pp. 244‑249 et passim, New York, 1903.
MAI, md'3 or mai, ANGELO: Roman Catholic scholar; b. near Bergamo, Italy, Mar. 7; 1782; d. near Albano Sept. 9, 1854. He entered the Jesuit order in 1799, and taught in their college at Naples from 1804. At Orvieto, in the intervals of priestly duties, he applied himself to paleography, and especially to the deciphering of palimpsests. His activity as an editor of ancient works dates from 1813, when he went to Milan as keeper of the Ambroaian Library; his field comprised both classical and ecclesiastical authors. In 1819 Pius VII. appointed him prefect of the Vatican library; and he was made a cardinal in 1838. The writings he edited are mainly embraced in four general colleotions: Veterum seriptorum nova collectio (10 vole., Rome, 1825‑38); Classici, auctores (10 vole., 18281838); Spicilegium Romanum (10 vo1s., 1839‑44); Sanctorum strum nova btTiliotheca (6 vole., 18441871); and the posthumous Appendix ad opera edits ab Angelo Mai (1879).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: AL, viii. 483‑488 (appreciative).
MAIMBOUItG, man"bur', LOUIS: French Jesuit and ecclesiastical historian; b. at Nancy in 1610; d. in Paris Aug. 13, 1686. In his sixteenth year he entered the Society of Jesus, and after completing his theological studies in Rome was made professor at the Jesuit college in Rouen. Although he had no high oratorical gifts, he acquired considerable renown as a preacher; but it is as a historian that his name survives. Here again his equipment was quite ordinary; his works, tedious by their length, full of inaccuracies, and totally lacking in impartiality, served him as weapons to strike at those from whom he differed or as means to win favor for himself. His most valuable service to posterity consists in his having, by his Histoire du Luth,6ranisme (Paris, 1680), called forth the remarkable work of Seckendorf. In his Histoire de l'Arianisme (1682) he indirectly attacks and ca, lumniatea the Jansenists of Port Royal; in the Histoire de t'he3rdaCe des Iconoclasles (1674) he seeks to

131	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Mahaa
		ZfeCaimonideo
win the favor of Louis XIV. by upholding his rights
	against the Roman see, and then attempts to soothe
Innocent XII. by his Histoire du schisms den Greca
	(2 Vols., 1680); but soon after he took such a
	strong stand in favor of Louis XIV. against the
pope that he was obliged to leave the order. The
	king named him historiographer, and used his prac
	tised pen against the Huguenots in the Hisloire du
	Calvirtisme (1682). His collected historical wri
	tings (14 vole., 1686‑87) include histories of the
	League (Eng. transl. by Dryden, History of the
	League, London, 1684), the Crusades (Eng. transl.,
	1686), the Wycliflites, Gregory the Great, and Leo
	the Great.
			(C. PFENDER.)
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Ellies Dupin, Bibliothbque den auteura
		ecc(kaiaatiquea, Paris, 1689‑1711; P. Basle, Dictionary
		Historical and Critical, iv. 63‑88, London, 1737; idem,
		Critique p6nCrale de Z'hiatoire du calviniame de M. Maim
		bourp, 2 vole., Amsterdam, 1714; F. H. lieusch, Index
		der verbotenen Biicher, pp. 583‑882, Bonn, 1885; Liehten
		berger, ESR, viii. b54‑5b8.
		MAIMONIDES, mni‑men'idr3z or ‑dfz, MOSES
	(Grecized from Maimuni), also celled Rambam (form
	ed acrostically from Rabbi Moses ben Maimun),
	and by the Arabians Abu Amraa Muse Obeidallah
	alkortobi: Jewish rabbi and philosopher; b. at
	Cordova Mar. 30, 1135; d. at Old Cairo, Egypt,
	Dec. 13, 1204. He received his early education in
	the house of his father, and was instructed in nat
	ural science and philosophy by Mohammedan
	teachers. When in 1148 the Almohade Abdel
	muman took Cordova and interdicted Judaism,
	his father fled, and finally settled in 1159 at Fez
	with his family, where they lived as Mohamme
	dans. The first work of young Maimuni was a jus
	tification of this position. In the Iggereth ha
	shemadh, written in Arabic about 1162, he showed
	that Mohammedanism required neither idolatry,
	murder, nor unchastity, but simply acknowledgment
	of Mohammed as prophet, a mere formality, by
	which one may avoid martyrdom, though it is best
	to seek a country where one can live according to
	his religion. [Rome good authorities doubt the
	genuineness of this work.] In April, 1165, Maimuni's
	family left Morocco and after a short residence in
	Palestine settled at Old Cairo. There Maimuni spent
	the remainder of his life. For a time he practised
	medicine, at the same time preparing his commen
	tary on the Mishna which he completed in 1168.
	Two years later the government appointed him head
	of all Jewish congregations in Egypt, and ten years
	later, about 1180, he completed his legal code, the
	Miahneh Torah, which soon spread his fame abroad.
	In 1190 he published his religio‑philosophical work,
	Moreh Nebhukhim, and soon afterward his treatise
	on the resurrection of the dead; both works were
	in Arabic. He was buried at Tiberias in Palestine.
	Maimuni's importance rests on his writings. The
	first important work was his " ° Commentary on the
	Mishna." Before him, aside from the two Tal
	muds, only glossatory expositions of the Mishna
	existed. He assumed the task of classifying and
	explaining the matter contained and implied in
	that work. In elaborate introductions he dis
	coursed on the nature of prophecy, interjecting re
	marks on the natural sciences and philosophy. In
	the special introduction to the chapter called He‑
lek in the treatise Sanhedrin, he for the first time defined and formally laid down thirteen articles of the Jewish creed, which in an abbreviated form were received into the Jewish ritual. These articles state: (1) That there is one God, creator of all things; (2) that he is One in the sense that no other shares his divinity (a disavowal of the doctrine of the Trinity); (3) he is incorporeal and formless; (4) he is eternal; (5) he alone is to be worshiped and without any mediator (against Christianity); (6) he ordained prophecy; (7) Moses was the greatest prophet, to whom revelation was delivered in a most complete manner (against Islam); (8) law and tradition are the complete expression of the revelation of God; (9) neither can ever be changed (against Christianity and Islam); (10) God is omniscient; (11) he rewards and punishes the acts of men; (12) Messiah is still to be expected (against Christians and unbelieving Jews); (13) the dead shall rise again. A truly monumental work was his Miahneh Torah, i.e., " Deuteronomy," also called Yadit ha.,Hozakah, i.e., "The Mighty Hand," or simply Yadh. It is a cyclopedia comprising every department of Biblical and Jewish literature. [Portions of this work have been translated into English by Bernard: Main Principle of the Creed and Ethics of the Jews, Cambridge, 1832.] As an appendix to the Yadh be published the " Book . of Laws " on the [613] precepts. His third and most important work was the " Guide for the Perplexed," Arabic DalZlat elhairin [translated into Hebrew under the title Marsh NebuJcim], consisting of three parts. The fiCSt pact 18 devoted to the explanation of all expressions which are employed in the Bible in connection with deity. The second part develops his theory of creation, and shows Gen. i. iv. to be in accord with his cosmology; it deals also with prophecy. The third part deals with the first vision of the prophet Ezekiel, the relation of God to the world, treats of the opposition of good and evil in the world, of God's providence and omniscience, all with the purpose of encouraging the more intelligent to a thorough investigation of the Old Testament. This work contributed more than any other to the progress of rational reformatory efforts in Judaism. Being translated into Latin a short time after its composition, it influenced Christian scholasticism. But it must be stated in praise of the latter that it never explained away the contents of revelation in favor of " reason " to the
game degree as did the Jewish scholasticism which
preceded it, whose most prominent representative
was Maimuni. The anathemas of French rabbis
against the study of the " Guide " and its burning
by the .Inquisition on the basis of its condemnation
in 1233 were indeed foolish and without effect, but
not without occasion in the rationalizing notions of
the author. 	(G. De1.MwN.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The editions of the works of Maimonides are numerous, mostly published in parts which deal with sections of his productions. The editio prineepa of the Miahnrh Torah is without place and date; numerous editions followed, e.g., 8oncino, 1490; Constantinople, 1590; 4 vole., Amsterdam, 1702; Hebrew and Eng, H. H. Bernard, Cambridge, 1832; Hebrew and German, Vienna, 1889; Eng by J. w. Peppercorns, London, 1838, 1883. His " Guide for the Perplexed " appeared firet without pleas or date (before 1480); then in Hebrew, Venice, 1551; Berlin, 1791; in Latin, Paris, 1520; Basil, 1829;

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	182
xajai
	in Arabic sad French, 3 vole., Paris, 1858‑88; in German,
	Krotoachin, 1839; Italian, Livorno, 1879‑81; English,
	3 vole., London, 1885 and 1904. The Commentary on
	the Miahna was first published Naples, 1492, and is accea
	aible in the Latin travel. of $urenhuaius, in his Miahna,
	Amsterdam, 1898‑1703. Great activity has been mani
	fested in recent years in publishing the works of Maimoni
	dea. This activity can be traced and the places and dates
	of publication learned by combining Hauck‑Herzog, RE,
	sii. 80, with the SehlapwarhKatalop (described in this work,
	vol. i., p. xiij.; the SchlapworbKatalop was brought down
	to 1907 in 1909) under " Maimonides "; cf. also Baldwin,
	Dictionary, vol. iii., part i., p. 358. For the life and work
	of Maimonides consult: T. Grossman, Maimonidea, Vienna,
	1892; Maimonidea, in Jewish Worthies Series, London,
	1903; P. Beer, Leben and Wirken des Rabbi Moses ben Mai
	mon, Prague, 1834; $. B. Scheyer, Daa paychologischa Sys
	tem des Maimonidea, Frankfort, 1845; A. Beniseh, Two
	Writings on the Life and Writings of Maimonaatea, London,
	1$47• A. Geiger, Moses ban Maimon Rosenberg, 1850;
	M.' J5e1, Die Relipionaphiioaophie des Moses ban Maimon
	ides, Breslau, 1859; $. Rubin, Spinoza and Ma%monidea,
	Vienna, 1888; M. Eisler, Vorleaungen fiber die jfidiachea
	PhiloaopAen des MiUelatlera, Vienna, 1870; D. Rosin, Die
	Ethik des Maimonidea, Breslau, 1878; D. Kaufmann, Ge
	achachte der Attributenlehre, pp. 383 eqq., Goths, 1877;
	J. H. Weiss, Rabbi Moses ban Maimon, Vienna, 1881; W.
	Becher, Die Bibeiexepeee Mow Maimunis, Strasburg.
	1897; L. Diinner, Die Itlteate astrono‑miache Schrift des
	Maimonidea, WUrzburg, 1902; J. Misnz, Rabbi Moses ben
	Maimon. 3ein Leben and seine Werke, part i., Mains,
	1902; and W. Becher, M. Brann, D. Simonson, and J.
	Guttmann, Moaea ban Ma%moa. Seen Lebea, seine Werke,
	and vein Einfiusa. Zur Erinnerunp an dam 700. Todeatag,
	Leipaic, 1908. An excellent article, with supplementary lit
	erature, is found in JE, ix. 73‑88. A considerable amount
	of periodical literature, some of it important, is indicated
in Richardson, Encyclopaedia, p. 870, 1907.
	MAINS, GEORGE PRESTON: Methodist Epis
	copalian; b. at Newport, N. Y., Aug. ?, 1844. He
was educated at Wesleyan University, Middletown,
	Conn. (A.B., 1870), after having served under Ad
	miral Porter in the North Atlantic Squadron in
	1864‑65. He was admitted to the New York East
	Conference of his denomination in 1870, and his
	pastorates were as follows: Hamden Plains, Conn.
	(1869‑?1), Ansonia, Conn. (1871‑73), Chapel Street
	Church, New Haven, Conn. (1873‑76), First Church,
	New Britain, Conn. (1876‑79), First Church, Bris
	tol, Conn. (1879,80), Grate Church, Brooklyn,
	N. Y. (1880,83), First Church, Waterbury, Conn.
	(1883‑84), New York Avenue Church, Brooklyn,
	N. Y. (1887‑92), and First Church, Mt. Vernon,
N. Y. (1896‑97).	He was likewise presiding
	elder of the New York District in 1884‑87, as
	well as superintendent of Seney Hospital, Brook
	lyn, N. Y., in 1885‑87 and of the Brooklyn
Church Society in 1892‑96.	Since 1897 he has
	been publishing agent of the Methodist Book Con
cern, New York City.
	MAINZ, mainta: A city of Germany, 20 m. w.s.w.
	of Frankfort, formerly the seat of an archbishopric
	and once the moat important ecclesiastical center
	of Germany. The beginning of the Christian
	Church there is involved in obscurity, although the
	statement of Irenaeus ( Hcer. L, x. 2) that Christian
	communities existed in Germany in his time renders
	it probable that Christians then lived in Mainz. Old
	Christian inscriptions from the city are almost en
	tirely lacking, but Amxnianus Marcellinus (xxvii.
	10) states that in 368 a large portion of the popu
	lation was Christian. According to Jerome (Epist.
	ex7tiii. 16), thousands were killed in the church
when Mainz was taken by the Germans in the early part of the fifth century, yet the effects of this disaster were only transitory, and ancient churches were still standing about the middle of the century, the Christian community having become Teutonized in the mean time.
	Although the bishopric of Mainz certainly existed
as early as 550, Christianity scarcely flourished
there, for the local church was involved in the de
cay of the Frankish Church in the closing years of
the Merovingians. The revival first began when
Boniface became bishop in 745 or 746, and it was
then that the bishopric commenced to extend.
Originally it seems to have embraced only the
Frankish territories on the Rhine and Main, for
bishoprics were erected in Buraburg and. Erfurt in
741, although they seem to have lapsed after the
death of their first bishops and then formed part
of the bishopric of Mainz. The diocese thus be
came larger than any other in Germany, stretching
from Donneraberg in the south to the Harz in the
north, and from the upper portion of the Saale in
the east beyond the Nahe in the west. Between
780 and 782 the successor of Boniface, Lullus (see
LULLUa OF MAINZ), was raised to the rank of an
archbishop and Mainz became the metropolitan city.
The province later comprised the Frankish bishop
rics of Wiirzburg, Eichat5tt, Worms, and Speyer;
the Swabian bishoprics of Augsburg, Constance,
Strasburg, and Chur; the Saxon bishoprics of Pad
erborn, Hildesheim, Halberstadt, and Verden; and
the bishoprics of Bamberg, Prague, and Ohniitz.
In 1047, however, Bamberg was detached from
Mainz and made immediately subject to the holy
see; and after the elevation of Prague into an arch
bishopric in 1343 the Czech sees were taken from
Mainz. 	(A. HAUCg.)
From the episcopate of Christian I. (1165‑83), who had been chancellor to Frederick Barbarossa before his consecration, this office became permanently connected with the see of Mainz; and when the electoral system had its first beginning in 1125, largely at the suggestion of Adalbert I. (1109‑37), it was natural that he should be one of the electors. When the number was later fixed at seven, of whom three were ecclesiastics (the archbishops of Mainz, Cologne, and Trevea), the archbishop of Mainz, who in any case took precedence over the other princes of the empire, ranked as the first. In the period of the Reformation, the fifty‑sixth and fiftyseventh archbishops, Albert II. of Brandenburg (1514‑45) and Sebastian von Heuaenstamm (15451555) governed with wisdom and moderation, and checked the spread of Protestantism without recourse to violence. The see maintained its dignity down to the French Revolution, at which period the archbishop had an income of 1,400,000 gulden, and was both temporal and spiritual ruler of a population of 400,000. The territory of the see was incorporated with the dominions of the French Republic in 1797; and by the Peace of Luneville (1801) a settlement was made which, when the last archbishop, Frederick Charles Joseph, Baron von Erthal (1774‑1802), died, allowed his coadjutor Dalberg to retain, with the title of arch‑chancellor, the principalities of Aschaffenburg and Regensburg

133	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
and the county of Wetzlar, the see being transferred to Regensburg. After the Concordat of 1801 had gone into effect, Napoleon arranged for the elevation of Mainz once more to the position of a bishopric, and the cathedral, which had been almost ruined in the wars, was finally restored. The territory of the ancient see was incorporated in 1814 with the grand duchy of Hesse‑Darmstadt. The diocese was vacant from 1818 to 1830, when, on the creation of the ecclesiastical province of the Upper Rhine, it was placed under the metropolitan jurisdiction of the archbishop of Freiburg.
BxHraoaHArar: J. F. BShmer, Repeats archiepiaeoporum Mapuntinenaium, ed. C. Will, 2 vole., Innsbruck, 1877‑86; G. C. Joannis, Rensm Moguntiacarum iibri. 3 vole.. Frankfort, 1722‑27; V. F. de Gudenus, Codes diplomaticua anecdotoru,m rea Moguntirws iRuatrantium, 5 vole., G5ttingen, 1743‑58; 8. A. Wiirdtwein, Dioeceaie Mopuntina in arrhidiaconatue diviaa, 4 vole., Mannheim, 1769; Monuments Moguntina, ed. P. Jaffe, Berlin, 1868; C. G. Bockenheimer, Die Mainxer Biach6Je des 18. Jahrhunderts, Mains, 1888; J. Jaeger, Beitrtige our Geachichte des Erzetifta Mainz, Oanabriick, 1894; J. Schmidt, Die kathdiache Reatauralion in den Kurnminzer Hernachaften, Erlangen, 1902; J. Simon, Stand and Herkurft der BiaehdJe der Mainzer Kirchenproainz im Mittelalter, Weimar, 1908; and literature under BoNxsecE, $AxNT; Lvrxoe os MAxNZ; RAHANxJB MAO$U8.
MAIR, mar, WILLIAM: Church of Scotland; b. at Savoch, Scotland, Apr. 1, 1830. He was educated at the University of Aberdeen (M.A., 1849), and was minister successively at Lochgelly (1861‑64), and Ardoch (1864‑69). From 1869 until his retirement from active life in 1903, he was minister of Earlaton. Since the latter year he has resided in Edinburgh. He was likewise moderator of the Church of Scotland in 1897, and has written, in addition to numerous briefer contributions, A Digest of Laws and Decisions, Ecclesiastical and Civil, relating to the Constitution, Practice, and Affairs of the Church of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1887); The Truth about the Church of Scotland (1891); Speaking (1900); Churches and the Law (1904); and The Scottish Churches (1907).

MAISTRE, m6tr, JOSEPH MARIE, COMTE DE: French Roman Catholic diplomat; b. at Chamb6ry (55 m. e. of Lyons) Apr. 1, 1754; d. at Turin Feb. 26, 1821. He was educated by the Jesuits and afterward studied law in Turin. In 1788 he became a member of the Piedmonteae senate, but when the French troops invaded the country in 1792 he took refuge in Lausanne, where he stayed until he was summoned to Turin by Charles Emmanuel II. In 1798, when the French took Turin, he had to retreat to Venice, but in 1799 the king called him to Sardinia as grand chancellor. From 1803 till 1817 he was ambassador of the king of Sardinia at St. Petersburg. He then returned to Turin and became regent of grand chancery and minister of state for Victor Emmanuel I, Maistre was the leader of the Ultramontanista and a steadfast opponent of Gallicanism. In his works, especially in his Du papa, he maintained the doctrines of the infallibility of the pope, and of his supreme temporal power, and that the Reformation was the cause of all the evils that had overtaken France. He was also a vigorous advocate of legitimacy.
Among his numerous works may be named: Corn. siderations sur la France (Paris, 1796); Du papa (2 vole., Lyons, 1819; new ed., Tours, 1891; Eng. transl., The Pope, London, 1850); Les soirees de Saint‑Pttersbourg, ou entretiens sur le gouvernemertE temporal de la Providence, suivies dun traits sur lea sacrifices (2 vole., Paris, 1821; new ed., 1888); and Examen de la philosophic de Bacon (2 vole., Paris, 1836). His (Euvrea (7 vole., Brussels, 1838) have appeared in a new edition, including posthumous works and inedited correspondence, with a biographical preface by R. de Maiatre (14 vole., Lyons, 1884‑87).
BIHLIOa8AP8'.Y: Accounts of the life have been written by: R. de Chantelauze, Paris, 1859; J. C. Glaser, Berlin, 18&5; L. I. Moreau, Paris, 1879; A. de Margerie, ib. 1882; F. Deacostea, ib, 1893; and G. Cogordan, ib. 1894. Consult further: Mme. C. T, Woillez, Le OEnie de De Maiatre, Paris, 1861; R. de Sezeval, Joseph de Maiatre, ass dEtraoteura, ib. 1885; M. F. A, de Leseure, Le Comte Joseph de Maiatre et sa lamille, ib. 1892; F. Paulhan, Joseph de Maiatre et ea philoeophie, ib. 1893; and works on the history of modern philosophy.
MAITLAND, SAMUEL ROFFEY: Church of England; b. in London Jan. 7, 1792; d, at Gloucester Jan. 19, 1866. He studied at St. John's and Trinity colleges, Cambridge, and was called to the bar in 1816, but was ordained deacon in 1821 and appointed curate of St. Edmund, Norwich. In May, 1823, he became perpetual curate of Christ Church, Gloucester, but resigned in 1827. In 1838 he was appointed librarian and keeper of the manuscripts at Lambeth Palace, which position he retained until 1848, when he retired to Gloucester. Among other works he wrote: An Enquiry into the Grounds on which the Prophetic Period of Daniel and St. John has been Supposed to Consist of 1,60 Years (London, 1828); Eruvin, or Miscellaneous Essays on Subjects Connected with the Nature, History, and Destiny of Man (1831); Fads and Documents Illustrative of the History, Doctrines, and Riles of the Ancient Albigenses and Waldenses (1832); The Dark Ages (1844); An Index of such. English Books, Printed before the Year MDC, as are now in the Archiepiscopal Library at Lambeth (1845); Essays on Subjects Connected with the Reformation in England (1849); and Illustrations and Enquiries Relating to Mesmerism (1849); and translated The Holy War of St. Bernard (Gloucester, 1827).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: An appreciative Memoir is in DNB, :oav. 371‑373, where references to other literature is given.
MAJAL, MATHIEU: French pastor of "the Desert," known as Ddaubas from his birthplace, D6aubas, near Vernouz (50 m. s. of Lyons), Department of Ardeiche; b. 1720; assented at Montpellier Feb. 2, 1746. As pastor of Vivarais he sat in the " national synod " of French Protestants which met in Bas Languedoc Aug. 18, 1744, and
which gave offense to the court at Vefoww lid
led to P1gOPOUS measures. Majal was arrested Dec. 12, 1745, and taken to Vernoux, where his arrival
occasioned a riot and several persons were killed (the " massacre of Vernoua "). On his trial at Montpellier he strenuously denied all treasonable acts or designs and convinced the court of his innocence, but was condemned by order of the king and shot. A ballad of the peasants

Major	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	184
Makemie
of Vivarais relates the trial and death of the
young pastor.
Baraoaserax: D. Benoit, Une victims de 1'intolerance au
	XVllle ailcte, Toulouse, 1879; Charles Coquerel, Histoire
	des 8pliaea du desert, i. 287 aqq., 387 aqq., Paris, 1841.
	MAJOR (MAIER), GEORG: Lutheran theo
logian; b. at Nuremberg Apr. 25, 1502; d. at Wit
tenberg Nov. 28, 1574. At the age of nine he was
sent to Wittenberg, and in 1521 entered the univer
sity there. When Cruciger returned to Witten
berg in 1529, Major was appointed rector of the
Johannisachule in Magdeburg, but in 1537 he be
came court preacher at Wittenberg and was or
dained by Luther. In 1545 he was made professor
in the theological faculty, in which his authority
increased to such an extent that in the following
year the elector sent him to the Conference of Re
genaburg (see REGENSBURG, CONFERENCE OF), where
he was soon captivated by the personality of But
ter. Like Melanchthon, he fled before the disas
trous close of the Schmalkald war, and found
refuge in Magdeburg. In the summer of 1547 he
returned to Wittenberg, and in the same year
became cathedral superintendent at Merseburg,
although he resumed his activity at the university in
the following year. In the negotiations of the In
terim he took the part of Melanchthon in first op
posing it and then making concessions. This atti
tude incurred the enmity of the opponents of the
Interim, especially after he cancelled a number of
passages in the second edition of his PsalEerium in
which he had violently attacked the position of
Prince Maurice of Saxony, whom he now requested
to prohibit all polemical treatises proceeding from
Magdeburg, while he condemned the preachers of
Torgau who were imprisoned in Wittenberg on so
count of their opposition to the Interim. He was
even accused of accepting bribes from Maurice. In
1552 Count Hans Georg, who favored the Interim,
appointed him superintendent of Eialeben, on the
recommendation of Melchior Kling. The orthodox
clergy of Grafschaft Mansfeld, however, immedi
ately suspected him of being an interimist and
adiaphorist, and he tried to defend his position in
public, but his apology resulted in the so‑called
Majoristic Controversy (q.v.). At Christmas, 1552,
Count Albrecht expelled him without trial and he
fled to Wittenberg, where he resumed his activity as
professor and member of the consiatory. Thence
forth he was an important and active member in
the circle of the Wittenberg Philippists. From
1558 to 1574 he was dean of the theological faculty
and repeatedly held the rectorate of the university.
He lived long enough to experience the first over
throw of Crypto‑Calvinism (see PAILIPPIBT$) in
electoral Saxony, and Paul Crell, his son‑in‑law,
signed for him at Torgau in May, 1574, the articles
which repudiated Calvinism and acknowledged the
unity of Luther and Melanchthon. Among his
writings, special mention may be made of the fol
lowing: A text edition of Justini ex Trogo Pampejo
historic (Hagenau, 1526); an edition of Luther's
smaller catechism in Latin and Low German (Mag
deburg, 1531); Sententice veterum poetarum (1534);
Qumationes rhetoricee (1535); Vita Patrum (Witten
berg, 1544); Psaltenum Davidis juxta tranala‑
tionem veterem repurgatum (1547); De origins et
auetoritate verbi Dei (1550);	Commonefactio ad
ecclesiam catholicam, orthodoxam, de fugieradis . . .
blasphemiis Samosatenicis (1569); as well as com
mentaries on the Pauline epistles and homilies on
the pericopes. 	(G. KAWERAU.)
BIBLIOaBAPHY: Major's Opera appeared in 3 vole., Wittenberg, 1589‑70, though the edition is incomplete. Some letters of his are in CR, vols. ii, vi, vii., and x.; in J. Voigt, Briefwedsaed der beriihmteaten Oekhrten der . .
Reformation, pp. 424 eqq., KSnigaberg, 1841; and in A. Schumacher, (ietehnter Msnner Briefs an die Konige in Dltntternark, 1688‑IB88, ii. 99‑247, 3 vole., Leipeic, 17b81759. A worthy biography is yet to be written. Consult bibliography under Mwaosrsmio CONTROVERSY.

MAJOR, JOHN: Scotch Roman Catholic historian and scholastic divine; b. at Gleghornie (22 m. n.e. of Edinburgh) in 1469; d. at St. Andrews (32 m. n.n.e. of Edinburgh) 1550. He studied at the universities of Cambridge and Paris (M.A., of Paris, 1496; D.D., 1505), became a regent of the latter university in 1496, also a fellow and teacher in arts and philosophy; accepted the position of principal regent and professor of philosophy and divinity at the University of Glasgow, 1518; returned to the University of Paris, 1525; went to St. Andrews in 1531, and was made provolt of St. Salvator's College in the university there, 1533, holding the position till his death. In theology Major was in essentials a stanch Roman Catholic, denouncing sternly the Hussite, Wyclifite, and Lutheran movements, but also opposing the luxurious living and tendency to expensive and grandiose architecture manifested by the monastic orders; intellectually he was a schoolman, opposed to the newer spirit then entering the universities. One of his titles to fame is the part he had in the education of John Knox (q.v.). The work by which he is now best known is Historic Majoris Britannice, tam Anglice quam Sconce (Paris, 1521, republished, Edinburgh, 1740; Eng. transl. in the Scottish History Society's Publications, vol. x., Edinburgh, 1892, containing also a life of Major, an estimate of his character and writings, and a collection of his prefaces). Other works were a new edition of H. Pardo's Medulla dyalectiees (Paris, 1505); a volume on logic (1508); commentaries on the " Sentences " of Lombard (1509‑17; new ed., 3 parts, 1510‑28); and a commentary on the Gospels (1529). BIHLIOaaAPHT: Besides the life in the Eng. tranal. of his " History," ut sup., consult: P. H. Brown, George Buchanan, Edinburgh, 1890: idem, John Knox, i 13, 14, 20‑28, bo‑52, et passim, London, 1895; T. G. Law, in Scottish Review, July, 1892; DNB, axxv. 388‑388.

MAJORISTIC CONTROVERSY: A Lutheran controversy of the sixteenth century regarding the doctrine of justification by faith. The sixth article of the Augsburg Confession, like Melanchthon, maintained the necessity of good works as the necessary outcome of faith, not with the intention of attributing any merits to good works in themselves, but only to emphasize the necessary connection between faith and works. In his report on the Conference of Regensburg (see REGENSBURG, CONFERENCE OF), Major had unmistakably taught the doctrine of faith and grace and had sharply attacked the view which maintained that the justi‑

1815	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
fled fulfil the law through works. The Leipsic Interim, it is true, repudiated any merits of good works for justification, yet it advocated the necessity of works in virtue of the divine commandment, not for their intrinsic value, but for the sake of Christ's merit and promise. When Major was about to enter upon his activity at Eisleben, Amsdorf (q.v.) published his treatise Dana Dr. Pommer und Dr. Major Aergernis and Verwirrung angerichtet (1551), in which he accused the latter of teaching the necessity of good works for salvation, and Major replied with his pamphlet Auf des ehrwiirdigen Hewn N. van Amsdorf's Schrift Anxwart (Wittenberg, 1552), affirming his full belief in Bola fide, although at the same time he defended the thesis that good works are necessary for salvation, for as none are saved by evil works, none are saved without good works. Thereupon Amsdorf, Flacius, and Callus, each in a special treatise, roused the whole Lutheran . Church. The clergy of Mansfeld, who had received Major with suspicion at Eisleben, requested him to give an account of his teachings; and after Count Albrecht had expelled him from the city without a trial, he published a sermon on Paul's conversion (Leipaic, 1553), in which he argued that faith can not exist without works, just as the sun can not exist without splendor. Works, according to him, are not required as meritorious, but as a token of obedience, and are not needed to gain salvation, but to retain it. Where they are not present, it is a sure sign that faith is dead. This explanation, however, failed to satisfy his opponents. Amadorf still maintained that Major was a Roman Catholic, in that he taught the necessity of merit and the cooperation of faith and works in the attainment of righteousness and salvation, while Flaciua pointed out that it would be impossible, according to Major's view, to convert the dying or save children. Callus more pertinently attacked the sentence that salvation must be retained by good works, and showed how liable to misunderstanding these words were, although he did not acknowledge that the object of his critique was not a false doctrine, but only the awkward expression of a correct thought. The Manafeld theologians, on the other hand, conceded in their Bedenken (Magdeburg, 1553) that there was nothing offensive in Major's doctrine, and contented themselves with the statement that, for various reasons, his phraseology should be avoided. In his further publications Major sought t0 guard his view against misinterpretations, but was unwilling to surrender the wording of his disputed sentence. The controversy still raged, however, and in 1562 he finally decided to sacrifice the misinterpreted passage, although he could not refrain from giving vent to his anger at Flacius and his adherents, and thus exposed himself to renewed attacks. The only theologian of reputation who defended Major was Justus Menius (q.v.), who was accused by Amsdorf, Schnepf, and Stolz of being an adherent of Major, while John Frederic forbade him to teach. He fled to Wittenberg, where he discussed the matter with Melanchthon, but soon returned to Goths after the court had assured him of his safety. His treatise Yon der Bereitung zum seligen Sterben (1556)
offered, however, a new opportunity for attack, since he maintained that the beginning of the new life as wrought by the Holy Spirit in the faithful was " necessary for salvation," and that salvation could be lost by sin, unless preserved in a pious heart, a good conscience, and a true faith. Thereupon Flacius accused Menius of renewing the heresy of Major. Menius was suspended from office, summoned to Eisenach, and tried by Victorin Strigel, whereupon Amsdorf and his adherents drew up seven theses and insisted upon the signature of Meniua. To their surprise he signed them without hesitation, declaring that his teachings had always conformed to them. The adherents of Flacius looked upon this act as a recantation, but they actually obtained nothing but a strict censorship which was soon to involve them in their turn, while the final decision wad merely that Major and Meniua had confused faith and works. Amsdorf, however, who had maintained as early as 1554 that good works are not necessary for salvation, now went so far as to declare that good works are injurious to salvation, but Menius escaped these unfortunate dissensions by resigning his offices in Thuringia.
Melanchthon had at first held aloof from these controversies, but after Major had been publicly accused by the theologians of Weimar in their fatal protest at Worms in 1557, he declared that Major's words had been evoked by the Antinomians, who considered justification by faith compatible with a sinful life; while he also believed that men like Amsdorf should be restrained by the thesis that new obedience is necessary according to the divine order and the sequence of cause and effect. The controversy of Major was revived in the March of Brandenburg from 1558 to 1563 between J. Agricola and A. Musculus as opposed to Provost Buchholzer in Berlin and Professor Abdias Prwtorius in Frankfort‑on‑the‑Oder. It ended with the defeat of the adherents of Melanchthon. The theses of both Major and Amsdorf are rejected in the fourth article of the Formula of Concord, which upholds the necessity of good works in so far as faith is never alone. Works belong to faith as heat and light to fire, and are, therefore, not injurious, but are proofs of eternal life in the faithful. (G. KAwERAV.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Sehliiaselburg, Catalopua hereticorum, book vii., Frankfort, 1599; C. A. Balig, Hiatorie der aupa‑
burgiachen Confession, i. 837 sqq., iii. 38 sqq., Halle, 1730;
G. J. Planck, GeachvChte der EQ(dU% , . . Uffilrl qp0.
ieatantiacken Lehrbegrijja, iv. 469 sqq., Leipsie. 1798;
W. 1'reger, M. Flaciua, i, 356 sqq., Erlangen, 1859; F. H. R. Frank, Theologie der Concordienformet ii. 148 sqq., 4 vols., Erlangen, 1858‑85; G. L. Schmidt, Justus Meniua,
ii. 184 sqq., Goths, 1887; J. C. L. Gieseler, Church History, ed. H. B. Smith, iv. 438, New York, 1888; G. Wolf,
Zur Geachichte der deatachen Proteatanten 1666‑68, Berlin,
1888; Kurtz, Church History, ii. 352, New York, 1894;
F. Loofa, Dogmengeachichte, pp. 898 sqq., Haile, 1908;
Moeller, Christian Church, vol. iii, passim.

MAgEMIE, md'k6‑mf, FRANCIS: American Presbyterian; b. at Rathmelton (32 m. n.e. of Donegal), Ireland, 1658; d. in Accomac Co., Va., in the summer of 1708. He was educated at Glasgow University and was ordained as a missionary to America by the presbytery of Laggan, Ireland, in 1682. He itinerated in Maryland, Virginia, and

Malachi	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	136
Xalalas
Barbados, and is said to have founded the church
at Snow Hill, Md. In 1704 he went to England to
secure aid for the Presbyterian Church in America,
and on his return in 1706 he helped to organize at
Philadelphia the first presbytery in America. In
1707 he was arrested at Newtown, L. L, for preach
ing without a license and had to pay heavy costs
besides being confined in jail for several weeks.
He wrote a catechism which was attacked by G.
Keith, when he wrote a spirited reply praised by
I. Mather. He has been regarded as the founder,
of Presbyterianism in America, but there are rec
ords of at least two other ministers before him.
BiBLIOGRAPHY: C. A. Briggs, American Presbyterianism,
	New York, 1885; W. B. Sprague, Annals of the American
	Pulpit, iii. 1‑4, ib. 1858; G. P. Hays, Presbyterians, pp.
	83, 74‑78, ib. 1892; R. E. Thompson, American Church
	History Series, vol. vi., ib. 1895; J. H. Patton, Popular
	Hint. of the Presbyterian Church, U. 3. A., ib. 1900; C. L.
	Thompson, The Presbyterians, ib. 1903; DNB, xuv. 390
	391.
	MALACHI, mal'a‑cal, BOOB OF: The book
which, in the English Version, closes the Old Tes
tament. It is debated whether Malachi is a per
sonal name, or merely official (" my messenger "),
or used symbolically. Against the supposition
that it is a personal name Hengstenberg uses the
			following arguments: (1) the super
		The	scription gives no information respect
		Title.	ing his antecedents; (2) the oldest
			Jewish tradition appears to know
nothing about him; (3) it is derived from iii. 1, and
is impossible as a personal name since to a prophet
it could not be given by men, but by God alone.
Hengstenberg, therefore, considers the name as
either ideal, or an official title. The first of these
arguments was by Hengstenberg himself regarded
as not cogent in view of the meager knowledge pos
sessed concerning other prophets. The second can
not be accepted, since the translators of the Sep
tuagint rendered the word " my messenger " in iii.
1, but put Malachias (as a personal name) in the
title. As to the third, the.name may be abbrevi
ated from a form Malachiah, " Messenger of Yah
weh," which would satisfy the form in the Greek,
and meet the objection of Hengstenberg.
	The date of the prophecy is disputed. Recently
Stade, Cornill and Kautzsch have argued for a date
prior to the time of Ezra, although the entire point
of view of the book, resting upon the institution of
the law, implies that Ezra had already come. Stade's
argument, based upon the fact that Malachi makes
			no reference to Ezra's measures against
		The	mixed marriages, to a publication of
		Date.	the law, while it regards the priests as
			Levitea, loses force inasmuch as the
same features are found in Neh. xiii., which deals
with events later than Ezra's measures. The book
can belong neither before Ezra nor under his leader
ship, since in that case mention of it would have
been made in the book of Ezra, se is seen by the ref
erence to Haggai and Zechariah in Ezra v. 1, vi. 14;
and the absence of mention in Nehemiah is against
the activity of the prophet during Nehemiah's gov
ernorship.	Nagelsbach, KtThler, Orelli, and Reuss
rightly place the book in the period between the
two visits of Nehemiah, the ground being the refer‑
ence to the " governor " in Mal. i. 8, who, however, can not be Nehemiah (of. Neh. v. 8, 10, 14‑18) and suits best the governor of the time between Nehemiah's visits. The content of the book agrees with this period, since reference is made to three points, marriage with foreign women, observance of the Sabbath, and maintenance of the temple services through stated offerings (cf. Neh. x. 28 sqq.). Neh, sill, has Neh. x. in view, and Malachi agrees in standpoint with Neh. xiii. At the coming of Ezra the temple service was a charge on the state treasury; Later under Nehemiah the Jews undertook to support the temple by their own contributions as a fulfilment of the law (Neh. x. 33), but became lax in performance after Nehemiah's departure. Out of this arose the reproaches which appear both in Malachi and in the book of Nehemiah, which therefore fix the date.
	The prophet takes in at a glance past, present,
and future. Starting with the past, he sets plainly
before his hearers the love which led Yahweh to
		choose Jacob while he rejected Esau.
The Con‑ In contrast to this love of long standtents. ing, the prophet sets the present conduct of the people. People and priest sin in that they bring diseased offerings, reduce the temple revenues, and disgrace the divine name by mixed marriages. For these things comes the judgment, which is to be ushered in by a great messenger, whom Yahweh calls emphatically " my messenger," but who, in turn, is only the forerunner of a still greater, the angel of the covenant, with whom Yahweh himself will appear, and this messenger, as the counterpart of Moses, will reveal the new law to God's people. The prophet determines yet more closely the time of the coming of the forerunner, when he says that he is the prophet Elijah, who will come to convert young and old. Then the Lord will return to his temple, and the great and terrible day of judgment will begin. But the judgment has two sides, the destruction of the ungodly, and the refining and purification of the righteous. While Malachi's minatory sermon seems to lay stress upon mere externals, upon the outward observance of the law, in reality he cites the cases of disobedience merely se examples in order to exhort the people to such conduct as befits those in the presence of the day of final reckoning. Israel's duty‑this is his exhortation‑is in general and in particular conscientiously to obey the law. Malachi has, upon the basis of passages like i. 11, iii. 3, been charged with laying undue emphasis upon sacrifice and thus with being in sharp contrast with the earlier prophets. But alongside of these passages should be placed i. 10, which (like Isa. i. 10 sqq.) shows that not sacrifice in itself but as an evidence of righteous intention is what the prophet has in mind. (W. Volcst.)
BIHL7o6AAPHT: The earlier commentaries are obsolete.
	Modern commentaries are by G. A. Smith, The Book of
	the Twelve, London, 1898: L. Reinke, Giessen, 1858; A.
	K&hler, Erlangen, 1885: C. F. Keil, Eng. transl., Edin
	burgh, 1888; W. Drake, in Bible Commentary, London,
	1878; T. T. Perowne, in Cambridge Bible, Cambridge,
	1890; C. von Orelli, Twelve Minor Prophets, New York,
	1893; W. Nowack, GSttingen, 1903; E. B. Pussy, Minor
	Prophets, latest ed., London, 1907: O. leopescul, Cserno
	wita, 1908. Consult also: E. W. Hengetenberg, Beitrdpe

137	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
		s
tur Einteilunp in daa AZte Testament, 3 vole., Berlin 18311839: W. B&hme, inZATW, vii (1887), 210 eqq.; F. W. Farrar, The Minor Prophets, London, 1890; J. Wellhausen, Kleine Propheten, Berlin, 1898; C. C. Torrey, in JBL, avii. 1. 1898 (important); works cited under BIBLICAL IxTnonucriox; MESSIAH; also DB, iii. 218‑222; EB, iii. 29072910; JE, viii. 27b‑278.
MALACHY, mal'a‑ki, 0')IIORGt1IR, SAINT: Archbishop of Armagh; b. at Armagh, Ireland, between 1093 and 1095; d. at Clairvauz (33 m. s.e. of Troyes), France, Nov. 2 or 3, 1148. He came of a noble family, and received the usual education at the hands of Irish monks and clergy, after which he attached himself to the recluse Iomhar, who lived in a cell adjoining the church of Armagh. Iomhar (d, in Rome, 1134) was a strong supporter of the Roman tendency, and won his disciple for the came cause. Malachy was ordained priest about 1119, to be chosen a bishop shortly afterward and assigned to the district of Armagh. Determined to introduce Roman customs as far as possible, he felt the need of knowing them more thoroughly and of forming closer relations with like‑minded prelates in the south of Ireland, so he spent some time with Bishop Malchus at Lismore in Munster. In 1124 he was chosen bishop of Connor in Ulster; but the see was laid waste two years later by one of the northern chieftains, and he and his clergy were driven out. He found a refuge at Ibrach in Kerry, where he founded a monastery; but in 1129 he was recalled to Armagh by the choice of Bishop Celsus on his dying bed as his successor. This was an uncanonical coup d'dat on the part of Celsus, who was an adherent of the Roman party, and the conservative party refused to recognize Malachy and set up a claimant of their own who gained possession of the see. In 1132 the papal legate Gilbert and Malchus of Lismore took a second revolutionary step by solemnly creating Malachy archbishop of Armagh, and urged him to go and assert his rights. The rival prelate, however, retained his footing in the city until his death in 1134. His successor was driven out by violence, and a compromise finally reached with him by a money payment. In 1136 Malachy appointed the monk Gelasius as his successor at Armagh and took himself the bishopric of Down in Ulster. He could now set to work at his plans for reorganizing the Irish Church, and in 1139 he went to Rome to ask that the gallium be given to two Irish archbishops, another to be named for Cashel in the south. Inno. cent II. made him papal legate for Ireland and sanctioned the erection of the archbishopric of Cashel, but refused to grant the pallia until they should be requested by the unanimous voice of a general Irish council. Malachy returned in 1140, passing by Clairvaux to consult with St. Bernard as to the introduction of Cistercian monks into Ireland, and renouncing only at the papal com, wand his desire to take the cowl himself in the famous abbey. He busied himself in the duties of his station, and won universal reverence by his saintly humility and asceticism, earning also the reputation of a miracle worker. In 1148 he succeeded in inducing a council at Innispatrick to ask for the pallis again, and so to win formal papal sanction for the reorganization of the Irish Church.
He started on this mission, but fell ill at Clairvaua, and died a fortnight later, St. Bernard preaching the sermon at his funeral in the abbey church.
	Malachy's importance in Irish ecclesiastical his
tory is analogous to that of Boniface in the Ger
man. The result of his work was indeed a loss of
independence for his people, but it was more than
compensated by the gain in order, discipline, and
higher culture. His life was written before 1152
by his admiring friend Bernard, and is one of the
most finished works of the greatest of medieval
stylists. It doubtless contributed to his canon
ization, which was pronounced by Clement III. in
1190. The works attributed to him by later wri
ters are almost certainly not his; some of them
may belong to an Irish Franciscan of the same
name who was at Oxford about 1390. The famous
prophecy bearing his name, which consists of 141
mottos for all the popes from Celestine II. to
the end of time, was first published by the
Benedictine Wion in 1595, and is now thought to
have been written by a partizan of Cardinal Si
moncelli to support his candidacy in the conclave
of 1590. 	(H. BZSHMElt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. O'Hanlon, Life of $t. Madacky O'Mor
	pair, Dublin, 1859; A. Bellesheim, Qeechichte der katAola‑
ashen Rirche in IrZand, vol. i., Mains, 1890; KL, viii. 639‑b42. On the prophecy consult: C. F. Menestrier, Refutation des prophetiea . . . our lee elections des gapes, Paris, 1689; J. J. I. von D611inger, Fables Respecting the Popes, New York, 1872; The Marquis of Bute, in Dublin Review, Oct., 1885.
MALALAS, JOHN: Greek chronographer; lived at Antioch in the first half of the sixth century. He is presumably identical with a Johannes Rhetor whose work Evagrius (q.v.) used as one of his sources; he was probably a Syrian of Greek training and by profession an advocate (mala4=rhetar). Under his name the Greek text of a general Chronicle (Chronographia) has been transmitted (ed. L. Dindorf in CSHB, Bonn, 1831; reprinted MPG, gevii. 9‑970) which reaches, in its present form, to 563, but was originally, perhaps, continued as far as 573. Whether the wOTkl 111 1t8 Whole eg• tent of eighteen books, is by but one author, is fairly open to question. Books i.‑xvii. and the early portion of xviii. appear to have been written prior to 540; whereas the greater part of book xviii., wherein Constantinople, not Antioch, is the center of the situation, was not closed till after the death of Justinian, and was then consolidated with the other books. The dogmatic character is not uniform, the original Monophysite treatment bearing the appearance of having been revised by an orthodox editor. Book xviii. certainly emanates from an orthodox writer. The last four books, which narrate the events from Emperor Anastasius down, are important as a source for ecclesiastical history, in spite of the puerility of conception and the narrow horizon. Being in high favor as a book for the
people, the Chronicle Wo Rpeat@dly tran0eri6d
and copied, but ultimately it was superseded by later annalists (Theophanes, Georgics Monachus, Zonaras), and has thus been preserved in only one manuscript, while even this is an abridged revision (Codex Baroccianus of the twelfth oentury in the Bodleian library at Oxford; cf. J. B.

Malan	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	138
Malay Archipelago
Burg in Byzantinische Zeitschrift, vi., 1897, pp.
219‑230).	G. KRt1VEH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Krumbacher, (ieschichte, pp. 325‑334 (con
	tains a very full and adequate list of the earlier litera
	ture); E. Patzig, in Byaantinieche Zeitechrift, vii (1898),
	I11‑128; C. E. Gleye, in the same, viii (1899), 312‑327;
	J. Iiaury, in the same, is (1900), 337‑358; DCB, iii.
	787‑788; AL, viii. 544‑645.
	MALAN, mfi"lffn', C19SAR HENRI ABRAHAM:
Swiss Reformed preacher; b. at Geneva July 7,
178?; d. there May 18, 1864. He descended from
a family which settled in the twelfth century at
M6rindol in Dauphin. Expelled from France by
the annulment of the edict of Nantes, Peter Malan,
grandfather of CAsar, settled in 1722 at Geneva.
At an early age C6sar showed a strong inclination
for study. The example of his parents fostered
this, and be developed a strong feeling for art and
a vivid sense of the beautiful in nature. At the
age of seventeen he served a short time as appren
tice in a business house and the following year re
turned to Geneva, where he began his theological
studies. The theological instruction which he re
ceived there was not congenial, since the Bible was
almost entirely neglected; however, he passed his
examinations successfully. In 1809 he received a
position as teacher in the fifth class of the Latin
school in Geneva, where he soon proved himself
to be an excellent pedagogue. In 1810 he was or
dained, and in 1811 he married the daughter of a
merchant who had settled in Geneva; his wife be
came an important aid in the development of his
faith. Some genuinely Evangelical sermons which
he heard, conversations with genuine believers and
the influence of a society called " friends," modeled
after the congregation of Brethren, were the means
of leading him to the truth. His new faith as
sumed that decided character and determined form
which never left him, by which his standpoint in
theology became essentially dogmatic. While it
is true that his inability to appreciate fully the
ideas of others was in some respects an element of
weakness, such a man was needed at a time when
the fundamental principles of Christianity were
controverted. The conversion of Malan may be
dated from 1816. It was strengthened and con
firmed in the following year by a visit of the Hal
danes (see HALDANE, ROBERT and JAMEa Al.>Exnrr
nER) in Geneva. The fearless promulgation of
Christian truth on the part of Malan gave great
offense to the clergy of Geneva. In 1817 he was
forbidden to preach in town and country. An
order had been issued by a union of clergymen in
which the preaching of the following themes was
prohibited: (1) Union of both natures in the per
son of Jesus Christ; (2) hereditary sin; (3) the man
ner in which grace works its effects; (4) predestina
tion. Malan refused at first to submit, but at the
close of the year, after some confused explanations
and somewhat uncertain promises had been given
him, he yielded and was allowed to preach. Malan,
however, was not able to suppress his personal con
victions and soon was definitely excluded from all
pulpits of the canton. He still kept his position as
teacher of the Latin school where his instruction
was greatly appreciated. But after he tried to in
troduce here also his own Christian principles, he
was threatened with removal unless he changed his method, and was finally deposed. As he was not willing to stop preaching, he began to hold meetings at his residence, and, as the number of his hearers increased, he built a chapel on his premises at his own expense. The building of the chapel was looked upon as an act of insubordination, and Malan was deprived of the right to exercise his ministerial functions. He wrote to the council of state that he intended to leave the Protestant church of the canton as she then existed, whereupon he was dismissed as preacher on the eighteenth of Sept., 1828. But these violent measures did not induce Malan to cause a split in the church. He ceased to administer the Lord's Supper in his own church and participated in the celebration in the national church, where he also had his children baptized. Similarly, he did not join the newly established Church du Bourg de four because he was averse to its principle of separation. Nevertheless, his spiritual activity increased from day to day. His chapel grew into a church. His dootrinal differences with the Church du Bourg de four became more pronounced in the course of time and led in 1830 to a rupture in consequence of which a third of the members of his congregation left him. But his activity was in no way restricted by this event. He became a missionary. Without leaving Geneva permanently, he frequently undertook extensive travels to different countries where numerous friends awaited him. His fame spread especially in England and Scotland, and he found there an enthusiastic reception in his six visits, 18263. He was endowed with peculiar gifts as an itinerant preacher and often preached daily for several weeks. He traveled also through France, Belgium, Holland, some parts of Switzerland and Germany, and through the valleys of the Waldenses in Piedmont, preaching everywhere. In his conversations, as well as in his sermons, he manifested the dogmatic character of his mind. In his method he conceded perhaps too prominent a place to reason; salvation was with him almost a logical conclusion. He clung to the harshest formulas of Calvinism, and yet loved souls so fervently that his benevolence often conquered the people who were at first repelled by his theology. He preached predestination without glossing even the most repulsive features, without shrinking from the consequences, but still with the simplicity of a child and the joy of a conqueror. His severance from the state church caused him great pain, and he was willing to reenter it whenever the free preaching of the Gospel should be permitted. Several attempts were made by him to be received again into fellowship, but without avail. He succeeded, however, in becoming a member of the Scottish Church. It is only just to ascribe to him since 1830 a beneficent and lasting influence upon the religious movement in the countries where French is used and even in Holland. It was chiefly through him that the religious awakening of that period was not lost in mere sentimentality. Of his works may be mentioned a polemical treatise, Jesus Christus ist der eurige im Fleisch geoffenbarte Gott (1831), Malan's reply to a treatise of Professor Chenevi6re, who had openly

denied the divinity of Jesus Christ. Another po
lemical treatise, Pourrai‑je entrer jamais daps
l'eylise romainef (Paris, 1837), was directed against
Abby Baudry. Other works of Malan are, Cluatre
vingt fours d'un missionaire (Geneva, 1842); Le
veritable ami des erkjants (4th ed. in 4 vole., Geneva,
1844); rtes‑vows heureux, mais pdeinemeni heureuxi'
Sincerer aveux de quelqum arms (Geneva, 1851);
Vingt tableaux auisaea, loos eaquisaes d'aprrss nature
(Geneva, 1854). Malan wrote also a large number
of religious tracts which had great popularity, a
very considerable number of them being translated,
as were many of his stories and sermons, into Eng
lish. He composed more than a thousand hymns,
some of which have become the common property
of all Christian churches. 	(E. BAxDEt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Malan (his son), La Vie et lea travaux de Ceaar Malan, Geneva, 1889, Eng. tranal.. The Life, Labours, and Writings of Cwaar Maian London, 1889; iYistoire veritable lea mBmiera de Geu2ve, Paris, 1824; The Late Rev. Dr. Cesar Maian of Geneva, London, 18&4.

MALAN, SOLOMON QESAR: Orientalist; b. at Geneva Apr. 22, 1812; d. at Bournemouth (24 m. w.s.w. of Southampton), England, Nov. 25, 1894. He was of an old Waldensian family, and the son of C6sar Henri Abraham Malan (q.v.). He was educated at St. Edmund Hall, Oxford (B.A., 1837; M.A., 1843), and was ordered deacon in 1838 and ordained priest in 1843. From 1838 to 1840 he was classical lecturer at Bishop's College, Calcutta. He was then curate of Alverstoke, Hampshire (1843‑44); Croweombe, Somersetehire (1844‑45); vicar of Broadwindsor, Dorsetshire (1845‑85); rural dean (1846‑53); and prebendary of Salisbury cathedral (1870‑75). Mala,n was a good linguist, being acquainted with twenty‑five to thirty languages. He made two or three journeys to the East after his return from India, one in particular to Nineveh, passing through the Caucasus and preaching in Georgian at Kutais. Among his numerous works may be mentioned: Outline of Bishop's College arid of its Missions (London; 1843); Plain Exposition of the Apostles' Creed (1847); Systematic Catalogue of the Eggs of British Birds (1848); Vindication of the Authorised Version of the English Bible (1856); Aphorisms on Drawing (1856); Magdata: a Day by the Sea of Galilee (1857); Bethany: a Pilgrimage (1857); Coasts of Tyre and Sidon (1858); Letters to a Young Missionary (1858); On Ritualism (1867); Outline of the English Jewish Church (1867); Holy Sacrament of the Lord's Supper, According to Scripture, Grammar, and the Faith (1868); Parables of Jesus Christ, Explained t0 Co9b?it1`y ChUf21t (2 VOL4., 1872); Miracles of Our Lord, Explained to Country Children (1881); and Original Not, on the Book of Proverbs (3'voLs. 1889‑93). He also translated many works, chiefly religious, from the Russian, Welsh, Armenian, Arabic, Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, Georgian, Chinese, Japanese and other languages; among them: the San Taxe King (from the Chinese; 1856); the Gospel according to St. John (from the eleven oldest versions; 1862); History of the Georgian Church (from the Russian; 1866); Life and Times of St. Gregory the Illuminator (from the Armenian; 1868); Conflicts of the Holy Apostles (from the Armenian; 1871); Misamo, the Japanese air,
RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Malay Archipelago
(from the Japanese; 1871); History of the Copts, and of their Church (from the Arabic; 1873); and The Book of Adam and Eve (from the Ethiopic; 1882).
B7HLIoanePHr: A biography was written by his son, A. N.
	Malan, London, 1897, and a notice by Macdonnell ap
	peared in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1898;
	cf. DNB, Supplement, vol. UL 133‑134r
MALAY ARCHIPELAGO: A chain of four large and numerous small volcanic islands, lying to the southeast of Asia, extending from the Malay Peninsula to New Guinea, also known as the Dutch East Indies. They are divided into the Larger Sunda Islands‑‑Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes; the Lesser Sunda Islands‑Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sumba, Sawu, Timor, etc.; and the Moluccas‑Buru, Ambon, Ceram, Alma,heira, Ternate, the Sangi, and the Talaut Islands, etc.; area, 943,000 square miles; population (estimated), 32,435,000. The Philippine Islands (q.v.) are sometimes included in the group. An area of about 84,000 miles on North Borneo is under British control, while Portugal has 7,500 square miles of territory on East Timor; the rest of the archipelago is under Dutch control. The majority of the inhabitants are Malays, divided into the savage and semi‑civilized tribes. There are over half a million Chinese, 60,000 Dutch, and about 3,000 Europeans and other foreigners.
A Hindu invasion antedating the Christian era was followed first by a Buddhist and later by a Brahmin wave, each leaving its impress on the natives. A Mohammedan invasion in the twelfth century resulted in a wide‑spread Mohammedanism, and Arab influence was paramount till the coming of the Dutch in 1521. In 1602 the Dutch East India Company established itself in the archipelago and at once began the work of civilizing and Christianizing the people, which was demanded by its charter. The Malay language was reduced to writing, and numerous schools were established; by 1688 the New Testament was given to the people, and in 1733 the Old Testament was also completed. But the work of these missionaries of the company was largely perfunctory; any person so desiring was baptized and ranked thereafter as a Christian, though heathen in habit. The company dissolved in 1795, and no further Protestant mission work was attempted till 1812, when the Netherlands Society sent its first missionaries. They were followed by the English Baptists (1820), the Amer‑
ican Board (1834)1 the Netheclagd§ MegapWt Mill
Sion Union (1847), the Java Committee (1855), the Ermelo Missions Society (1856), the Netherlands
Missions Union (1858), the Missions of the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands (1859), the Utrecht Missionary Society (1859), and the Netherlands Lutheran Church (1882). Other societies
are the Rhenish Society (1835), the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (1837), the Neukirchen Missions Institute (1882), and the Methodist Episcopal Society (1889).
However, the results of missionary work were meager, largely owing to the attitude of the gov ernment toward Mohammedanism, which flourished under Dutch rule, and to the fact that the missions

Malay Archipelago	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	140
acaalet
were uniformly poorly manned, with the exception
of those of the Rhenish Society. There was a lack
of aggressive work, and heathen remained heathen
or became Mohammedan. Even the Christian
communities that resulted from the early missions
were neglected. Dutch missionaries were scat
tered throughout the archipelago, their most suc
cessful work being in the Minshassa district of
Celebes, which is practically Christianized. The
Rhenish Society has worked among the Dyaka of
Borneo, the Bataka of Sumatra, and on the smaller
islands of Nias and Mentawei. The Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel occupies British Borneo,
with stations in North Borneo, Sarawak, and La,
buan, and the Methodist Episcopal Society (LT. S. A.)
has a small work in Java, Sumatra, and Borneo.
The English Baptists and the American Board both
attempted to establish missions in Sumatra early
in the nineteenth century, but the English mission
aries abandoned the field, and the Americans were
massacred by the natives. The moat successful
work of the Dutch societies in the Celebes, Moluo
cas, and adjacent isles was taken over by the
Colonial State Church in 1865, but their " missions
helpers " were restricted to work among the nom
inal Christians, and did nothing for the heathen
multitudes. In 1888 the secretary of state for the
Netherlands Colonies notified the Protestant Neth
erlands societies that " the government would value
it highly if they would increase their staff of mis
sionaries so as to counteract the growing influence
of Islam." Nothing came of it, and the Dutch
mission force still remained inadequate at the be
ginning of the present century, and the Dutch gov
ernment continued to obstruct the work of Chris
tians while giving free scope to the Mohammedans.
At that time there were about 345,000 Protestant
and 30,000 Roman Catholic Christians. Of late
years the attitude of the government has been more
friendly, the spread of Mohammedanism has had
a decided check, and there has been progress all
along the line. There are 11 Protestant societies,
working in 521 stations and outstations; 269 mis
sionaries and 592 native helpers; 492 schools, with
23,168 scholars; 3 hospitals and dispensaries;
148,708 professed Christians. The Roman Catho
lics have 38 stations and outstations, 50 priests, 29
schools and 6 orphanages; and 50,000 communi
cants and adherents. Their missionaries are under
the apostolic vicar of Batavia, and come from the
Foreign Missionary Society of Paris. They are
working in both British Borneo and throughout
the Dutch possessions, making special efforts
in the islands where the Protestants are doing
least. Their work is noteworthy for the large
number of orphanages. The work throughout
the archipelago is noted for the number of con
verts from the Mohammedans. The number of
converts during the last twenty‑five years is esti
mated at 20,000.	THEODORA CROSBY Buss.
BIHLIOGRAPHT: For description of the people consult: A. C.
	Haddon, Headhunters, Black, White, and Brown, London,
	1901; W. 13. Furness, Homo‑Life of Borneo Head‑Hunters,
	Philadelphia, 1902; H. Breitenstein, tl Jahre in . . . Bor
	neo, Java, Sumatra, 2 vole., Leipeie, 1899‑1900. For mis
	sions consult: H. Needham, "Ood First "; or, Heater
	Needham's Work in Sumatra. London, 1899; H. Dijkatra,
Hot enaugeZie in o»ze OoaE, 2 vols., Leyden, 1900‑01; $. Cooloma. De Zendingaeeuw voor Nederlandach Ooahlndie, Utrecht, 1901.

MALCOM, HOWARD: American Baptist; b. in Philadelphia Jan. 19, 1799; d. there Mar. 25, 1879. He was educated at Dickinson College, Pa., and Princeton Theological Seminary. Ordained in 1820, he was pastor at Hudson, N. Y. ('1820‑26), Boston (1827‑35), and Philadelphia (1849‑51). He was president of Georgetown (Ky.) College (184019), University of Lewisburg (18511857), and Hahnemann Medical College (1874‑79). He was general secretary of the American Sunday School Union (1828‑27); from 1835 to 1838, as deputy of the Baptist Missionary Society, he traveled in India, Burma, Siam, China, and Africa. He wrote: A Bible Dictionary (Boston, 1828); Travels in Southeastern Asia (2 vole., 1839); and Index to Religious Literature (Boston, 1868).

MALDOftATUS, mal"do‑ad'tas, JOHANNES (JUAN MALDONADO): Roman Catholic exegete; b. at Las Caws de la Reins (a village in the Spanish province of Estremadura) 1534; d. at Rome Jan. 5, 1583. He was educated at Salamanca; where he attained such distinction that on the completion of his studies in 1556 he was appointed professor, giving instruction for a short time in philosophy, and then accepting the chair of theology. He was prominently successful, but his very fame alarmed him, lest he should thus be won from the life of renunciation of the world on which he had long since determined. In 1562 accordingly he resigned his professorship and went to Italy, where on Aug. 10 he was received into the order of Jesus as a novice, and at the expiration of a year was ordained priest and appointed to a chair in the Collegium Romanum. In. 1563 he was sent by the general to Paris, where he was made professor in the College of Clermont, although the hostility manifested toward the Jesuits prevented him from beginning his lectures until the following year. He lectured at first on philosophy and attracted large audiences, but in Oct., 1565, he was appointed professor of theology, the Jesuits wishing to counteract the Gallicanism of the Sorbonne and disapproving of its too moderate opposition to Calvinism. Here again his popularity was phenomenal, but in 1570 his activity in Paris ceased for a time when he and nine companions were sent by the general of the order to Poitiers to establish a house for the instruction and conversion of young Calvinists. He met with little success, however, and on Oct. 10 resumed his lectures at Paris, interrupting his, activity only by a missionary trip of a few weeks to Sedan and Lorraine. Until Aug., 1576, he taught with ever‑increasing prestige, although he was confronted with the growing jealousy of the Sorbonne. He was accused of having influenced the dying Montbrun, president of St. Andr6, to make a will in favor of the Jesuits, but was speedily acquitted, only to have a more serious charge brought against him on account of doubts concerning the Immaculate Conception. Herein he was in accord with the Council of Trent, but the Sorbonne, which had so‑

RELIGIOUS
cepted the dogma in 1497 in harmony with a de
cree of the Council of .Basel, was impatient of such
deviation from its views, and accused him of heresy
in 1574. The archbishop of Paris, Pierre de Gondy,
	acquitted Maldonatus of the charge, whereupon the
Sorbonne again accused him of heresy for having
	expressed the opinion, in a lecture delivered six
years before, that no soul would be required to re
main in purgatory more than ten years in all, whereas
the usual view postulated seven years of expiation
for each sin unatoned for during life.	Twisting
	this mere opinion into a categorical statement,
	the Sorbonne lodged charges against Maldonatua
	before parliament, and the debate dragged wearily
	on until Pope Gregory XIII., at the request of both
	parties, interfered and declared Maldonatua orthodox
	in his teachings. The latter accordingly resumed
	his lectures, which he had declined to deliver
	during the trial, on May 6, 1576, but his reluct
	ance to remain longer in Paris, combined with
	the pope's desire to reconcile the Sorbonne and
	Clermont, resulted in his transfer to the College of
	Bourgea, where he found a little leisure to devote
	to literary work. In the latter part of 1578 he
	was appointed visitor of his order in the province
	of France, and in this capacity devoted much en
	ergy to the development of the University of Pont
	h‑Mousaon, which had been founded by Cardinal
	Guise in 1573 and placid under Jesuit control.
	Exhausted by his duties, he retired for a brief rest
	to Bourgea, but on Aug. 1, 1580, Everard Mercurian,
	the fourth general of the order, died, and Maldona
	tus was sent to Rome as the deputy of the province
	of France to attend the election fixed for Apr.,
	1581. He accordingly hastened to Italy, was in
	vited to preside at the election, and in this capacity
	proclaimed his compatriot, Aquaviva, the fifth gen
	eral of the Jesuits. His new superior detained him
	in Rome at the Collegium Romanum to give him
	leisure and materials for the completion of his com
	mentary on the Bible, and at the same time the
	pope appointed him a member of the committee for
	the revision of the Pentateuch, but he did not live
	to complete the latter task. The works of Mal
	donatus are as follows: Commentarii in quatluor
	Evangelia (2 vole., Pont‑i;,.Mousson, 1596‑97; new
	ed. by F. Sausen, 5 vole., Mainz, 1840, abridged by
	K. Martin in two vole., Mainz, 1850; Eng. traasl.
	of the commentary on Matthew by G. J. Davie,
	2 vole., London, 1888‑89); Comment4rii ire pro_
	phetas q‑uattttor Jeremiam, Baruch, Ezechielem et
	Ddnielem (Tours, 1G11); and Traclatus de cteri‑.
	moniis missm (beat edited by P. Zaccaria, Btblio
thecd Ritualis, iii., Rome, 1781).	His Opera
	varua thedogica were edited by two doctors of
	the Sorbonne, Dubois and Faure (3 vola., Paris,
1677). 	(W. J. MANOOLDt.)
Brsrrooaera:: J. M. Prat. Maldoreat et l'univeraiti de Paris au xvi. aikte Paris, 1856 (somewhat one‑aided); R. Simon, Ifiatoire crit%que des princspaus comura du N. T., DP. 818‑832, Rotterdam 1893 ; L. E. Du pin, Nouvelle bytliolhdque des autcwa eeclesiaCti~ gvi. IZJ
Bayle Dictio	a44~ Amster‑
dam 1710 P.	. A~ gull anal Critical
iv. 78‑82, London, 1737	e, in TQ$, 1855 PP. 121
	849.: A sad A, e Backer, BibliotALque des wins de
	891cUsqq.~ Li teed. C Bommarvogel, v. 403 eqq . Paris,
b47‑551.	. E'8B, vi;;, bgg~pl; gL, viii.
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Malay Archipelago Mallet
MALEBRANCHE, mal"branch', NICOLAS: French philosopher; b. in Paris Aug. 6, 1638; d. there Oct. 13, 1715. He studied theology at the Sorbonne, then at the age of twenty‑two entered the Congregation of the Oratory, and spent the rest of his life in seclusion. The reading of Descartes' Traits de l'hamme led him to devote himself exclusively to philosophy, in the history of which he appears as the most prominent disciple of Descartes, at some points developing and carrying farther the ideas of his master. 'He is the father of Occasionaliam. This depends upon the Cartesian distinction between spirit and matter, soul and body. The relation between these two opposites, which Descartes left unexplained or only vaguely explained, Malebrsnche made the subject of his deepest meditation. Hence resulted his peculiar doctrine, that events taking place in the one sphere occasioned God to effect corresponding readjustments in the other, so that nothing could be truly understood unless " seen in God." The principal representation of his system is found in his first work, De la recherche de la verith (Paris, 1674; two Erg. translations appeared in the same year, each in two vole., Oxford and London, 1694); but further developments are found in his qp1f~Pr, ‑Baliona ehreEienrces (1677), De ha nature et de la grdce (1680; Eng. transl., 1695), Meditationa chrEtienrtes et mrstaphysiquea (1683), Traifk de morale (2 vole., 1694; Eng. tranal., London, 1699), and especially in his Entretiens sur la mEtaphysique et sur la religion (2 vole., 1688). His De la nature et de la gr8ce deprived him of the favor of Bossuet, and implicated him in a long and bitter controversy with Antoine Arnauld. His doctrines were often said to incline toward Spinoziam, but on this point he found a warm defender in Leibnitz. While his metaphysics have now only very little interest, the noble piety of his works still impresses and the elegance of the representation exercises its charm. His works, first published in Paris, 1712, were again edited by Genoude and Lourdoueix (2 vole., Paris, 1837); also by J. Simon (1842, new ed.i 1858 ~ ~~ 4 vols.,1871, incomplete).
BrsuooxAra:: A. JoIY. Tmitd de morale de Mate6rancha, Paris, 1882; idem, Malebranehe ib. 1901; J. P. Damiron, Eesai cur 1'hist. de la philosophic, pp 352‑396, ib. 1848; E. A. BIemPigaoa, dude cur Malebraruhe, ib. 1882; F. Bower, Modern Phsioaophy, PP. 7,3‑88, New York, 1877; P. Ands?, De la vie de . . Makbmnclea Paris, 1886; A. Farny etude cur la ‑m7e de MaIebranche Chaux de Fonde, 1886; E. Caird Essays on Literature and Philosophy, 2 vole., New York 1892; end, in general, works on the history of modern philosophy.
MALLET, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG: German pulpit‑orator; b. at Braunfels (37 m. e.n.e. of Coblenz) Aug. 4, 1793; d. at Bremen May 5, 1865. He was educated in the universities of Herborn and Tiibingen, and during his student days served in
the Napoleonic ware of 1814‑15. In Dec., 1815, he became assistant 1n
SG, EAR11A oburejl,
Bremen, and succeeded the aged pastor, Bueh, two Years later. In 1827 he was chosen third pastor at the large church of St. Stephen in Bremen, where he officiated for the remainder of his life, becoming first pastor after the deaths of his superiors, Miiller and Pletzer.

XalmesbmT	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	142
	Mallet was preeminently a preacher of simplicity
and orthodoxy, as may be seen from the collection
of his sermons and addresses ed•ted by his son at
Bremen in 1867. He was also active as an editor,
and in 1832 founded at Bremen the Bremen Kirchen
bote, which ran until 1847, when it was replaced by
the Brewer Schliissel (1848‑50) and the Brewer Post
(1856‑60). He polemized against the Roman
Catholics and against rationalism, to both of which
he was bitterly opposed. In this spirit he wrote
Ueber den Heiligenr urtd Bilderdienat in den romi
schen Kirche (Bremen, 1842), Zeugniase (2 parts,
1845), Gestkndnias (1345), and Memoiren sense
Weltmannea (1847). From 1848 to 1852 he was
involved in a controversy with the pantheistic pas
tor, Rodolf Dulon, against whom he wrote several
pamphlets and who was finally dismissed from his
position. Mallet's activity in all movements for
Christian union and missions was untiring. In
1819 he assisted in the establishment of the first
Bremen missionary society, and in 1834 in the
foundation of the first young men's association
and a society for the dissemination of Christian
tracts, while in 1844 he devoted much of his energy
to the furtherance of the Gustav‑Adolf‑Verein.
His principal writings, in addition to those already
mentioned, are: Die Weisen ants dew 141orgenlande
(Bremen, 1852); Passions‑ und F'estpredigten
(Frankfort, 1859); Altea and Neuea (Bremen, 1864);
and the posthumous Netcea and Alter; edited by his
son (Bremen, 1868).	(J F. IHEN j'.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. A. Wilkens, Friedrich Mallet ~ • sine Biographic, Bremen, 1872 (a model biography); H. Hupfeld, Friedrich Ludwig Mallet, ib. 1885; W. H. Meurer, Zur Erinnerun9 an Friedrich Ludwig Mallet, ib. 1872.
MALMESBU1tY, WILLIAM OF. See WILLIAM.

MALTA, KNIGHTS OF. See JOHN, SAINT, KNIQHTB OF.

MALVEI9DA, TOMAS: Spanish Dominion; b. at Xativa (43 m. s.s.w. of Valencia) 1566; d. at Valencia May 7, 1628. He devoted his chief efforts to the text of the Bible, although he also wrote on dogmatics and church history. In 1600 he submitted to Cardinal Baronius a list of passages in the Annales ecclesiastici, and the Roman Martyrology which he deemed incorrect, and the cardinal thereupon summoned him to Rome, where the general of his order entrusted him with the correction of the Dominican breviary, missal, and martyrology, his work appearing in 1603. At the direction of the Congregation of the Index, Malvenda revised the Bi6liotheca. patrum of Margarin de la Bigne (9 vole., Paris, 1575‑76), and in 1607 published at Rome his critical notes on this work. About the same time he began his Annales ordinis fratrum prcedicatortcm, but carried it only through thirty years (ed. D. Gravina, 2 vola., Naples, 1627). In 1610 Malvenda was recalled to Spain and appointed by the grand inquisitor on a committee to prepare a Spanish Index lZrorum prohibitoretm. His chief . work, however, was his commentary on the Bible, together with a new translation from the Hebrew, as far as Ezek. avi. (5 vole.; Lyons, 1650). Among his numerous other writings special mention may be made of his Ltbri reovem
de Antichristo (Rome, 1804) and his De paradiso
voluptatis (1605).
(O. ZtScsnz,at.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. QuEtif and J. ,~L' Chard, $cr6ptorsa ordinis prosdicatorum, ii. 454‑455, Paris, 1721; L. E. Du Pin, Nouvelle bibliotUque des auteura ecelbaiaa:iques, xvii. 8893, 35 vole., Paris, 1898‑1711; H. Hunter, Nomenclafor litermsua theolagias recentioria, i. 312‑314, Innsbruck, 1892; F. H. Reuseh, Der Index den verbWenen Bticher, i. 554‑555, Bonn, 1883; KL, viii. 582.
MAMACHI, ma‑ma'chf, TOMMASO MARIA:
Italian Roman Catholic; b. in the island of Chios Dec. 3, 1713; d. at Corneto, near Montefiascone (50 m. n.n.w. of Rome), June 7, 1792. He was taken to Italy by his parents at an early age and was educated in the cloister of St. Mark at Florence by the Dominicans, of whose order he afterward became a member. In 1736 he was ordained priest and was made by Benedict XIV. a doctor of divinity and a member of the Congregation of the Index. Under Pius VI. he became master of the holy pal. ace and in 1779 secretary of the Index. Among his works may be named: De rations tempontm Athanasacanorum, deque aliquot aynodia iv. aeculo celebrates, epiatoke iv (Rome, 1748), directed against G. D. Manse; Originum et areliquitatum Chriatianarum Zibri xz (four books only were published; 6 vole., 1749‑55; new ed., 8 vole., 1839‑51); De' costume de' primitive Cristiani lt'bri tre (3 vole., Venice, 1757; new ed., 2 vole., Florence, 1853; Germ, transl., 3 vole., Augsburg, 1796); Del diritto libero dells sheers di acquistare a di posaedere beni temporali (3 vole., Rome, 1769‑70); and De rations regendce Christiana reipublicee, degas legitima Romani ponlificis auctoritate (3 vole., Rome, 17781778), directed against J. N. von Hontheim (q.v.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Hunter, Nomenclator literariua, iii. 412413, Innsbruck, 1888; KL, viii. b83‑b84; Lichtenberger, EBR, viii. 822‑823.
MAMERTUS. See CLAUDIANU6 MAMERTU9.

MAMMON: Aramaic for "wealth" or "gain." It is a word of uncertain etymology, and is found in the Aramaic (" what one has saved "), in Syriac, and in Carthaginian and Phenician (lucrum, " wealth "), possibly in the Arabic (" a deposit "). The Targum of Onkelos renders by it the Hebrew for "ransom" (Ex. xxi. 30; Num. xxxv. 31), also the word " gain " (Gen. axxvii. 26; Ex. xviii. 21). Accordingly in Matt. vi. 24 and Luke avi. 9, 11, 13, the word must mean " possession," " wealth," or "money." The meaning was not necessarily sinister; the accompanying adjectival expression gives it that sense in the Targum on I Sam. viii. 3; Ira. xxxiii. 15; Ezek. xxii. 27; Hos. v. 11; Prov. xv. 27; Hab. ii. 9; and Ezek. xxii. 13. In Luke xvi. 9 sqq. the meaning is not that money sinfully sogained is best spent in alms (Holtzmann), but that the earthly possessions of the children of the kingdom of God are called " unrighteous " because net properly held by them, since their rightful possession is the kingdom of God. The good which is foreign [to one's nature] he is to bestow in order to obtain that possession which is really his own. There is known no god or demon " ma,mon " as Weirs (on Luke xvi. 9) supposed. (G. DALMAN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The commentaries on the passages cited, particularly that of Plummer on Luke ivi. 9‑13 (New

York, 1898); the lexicons (Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek) on the word; DB, iii. 224; EB, iii. 2912‑15; JE, viii.
278 (elaborate).
MAMRE. See JUDEA, IL, 1, § 5.

MAN. I. Origin of Man.
II. Unity of the Human Race. III. Antiquity of Man.
While in man the natural realm finds the culmination of its development, there develops in him at the same time a new realm, the kingdom of the spirit. The noblest philosophical thinkers, ancient and modern, as well as the Scripture, corroborate this view of the twofold nature of man. They place man in close connection with the preceding works of creation, and at the same time represent him as the product of a new creative thought and act (Gen. i. 26, ii. 7).
I. Origin of Man: Man was created in God's image. The consensus gentium bears testimony to the truth of this Biblical sentence. According to most pagan myths of creation, the human race was created by the gods or the deity. Some anthropologists like to base their theories upon legends in natural religions (India, Tibet, etc.), which trace the original man back to the ape; but other legends as numerous and as old as those (ancient Mexico, West Africa, South Arabia, Indo‑China) consider apes as degenerated and fallen descendants of men. More important are the traditions of the civilized nations of antiquity, which almost unanimously agree that man is the creature of God. Of these may be mentioned the Chinese tradition about Fo‑hi or Pao‑hi, the Babylonian, with its many points of agreement with the Biblical account the Egyptian Book of the Dead, with its praise of the " Divine Architect, who made the world to be the home of man, the image of the Creator "; Hesiod's and Ovid's poems.
It is only since the middle of the eighteenth century that the materialistic philosophy of men like Lamettrie, Holbach, Helvetiua (qq.v.) degraded man to a mere animal, or even a machine. In recent times many anthropologists have adopted the same view. Carolus Linnaeus (1707‑1778) classified man with the ape as the highest representative of the vertebrates, but pronounced him to have been " created with an immortal soul, after the divine image," and called him " the only one among the creatures blessed with a rational soul for the praise of God " (Systems Nature, 6th ed., 1748). J. F. Blumenbach (1752‑1840), the real founder of anthropology as a science, never doubted that man was distinguished from the whole animal world by his upright walk, perfectly developed hands, protruding chin, and articulate speech. Other investigators, basing their theories on the study of embryology, paleontology, and experiments in breeding animals and plants, have come to the conclusion that man is the result of a process of development, some primeval type of ape being his immediate ancestor (see EVOLUTION). This view has been advanced especially by Charles Darwin, Thomas H. Huxley, John Lubbock , E. B. Tylor, and in Germany by Ernst Haeckel, Oakar Schmidt, H. Schaaffhausen, p. Caspari, and others.
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Xalmesbury Man
This theory, however, is only a hypothesis the scientific untenableneas of which is evident from the following facts: (1) There are anatomical differences between man and even the moat developed apes (gorilla, chimpanzee, etc.), so important that the assumption of their common origin is subject to the greatest difficulties. According to the investigations of &by, Bischoff, R. Owen, and others, the capacity of the lowest human skull (the natives of New Holland) is seventy‑five cubic inches; while the largest capacity of the gorilla is thirty‑four cubic inches. The average weight of the brain of a European is fifty‑seven ounces; that of the negro, from thirty‑eight to fifty‑one ounces; but that of the gorilla from seventeen to nineteen ounces. (2) No validity can be attached to the embryological proof, consisting in the supposed identity of the fetal phases of the development of man with those of the higher mammals, especially the apes. The enact repetition of lower animal forms of existence in the steps of the development of the embryo does not take place in reality, as Haeckel has asserted. His, Goette, $olliker, and other authorities on the doctrine of evolution decidedly disagree with Haeckel in many details. (3) The proof from paleontology is also full of gaps and deficiencies. The assumed human apes (pithecanthropt) have so far been found neither in a living nor in a fossil condition. Neither the Neanderthal skull, nor the Engis skull, nor the Cro‑Magnon skull, nor any other human remains excavated in a fossil condition show an essential approach to the type of the ape. (4) The doctrine of descent assumes far the sake of certain analogies genealogical relations of affinity and ‑ehliages of organisms in great numbers, but not one case of a definite and permanent change of an organic species into another has 'been accurately observed. It assumes a process of natural selection such as a gardener or a breeder pursues; but as far as empirical knowledge goes, the character of the individual vegetable and animal species has never changed. In order to substantiate its view, its advocates postulate millions of years; but whether the epochs of geological formation really require such an immense amount of time as Darwin needed for his hypothesis is still doubted by geologists. Geology, too, shows that the specific groups of organic beings were distinct from the very beginning. The truth of the Biblical words that " God created everything after its kind," is confirmed as
Much ay the natural lit of the pffthi world as Ly
the facts of the former ages of geology. (5) The Darwinian hypothesis of descent does not give due consideration to the great difference between man and animal in a psychological respect. Man represents an entirely new phase of existence, being distinguished from the preceding organisms by his freedom, self‑consciousness, and endowment of
speech. Conservative investigators like Agaasiz, Rudolf Wagner, Wigand, and Dubois‑Iteymond
have always ridiculed the hypothesis that considers the higher nature of man the product of a purely natural development. In the same way, men like A. de Quatrefagea and the French physiologists following him, E. Bouchut, Tandon, and others, and

Manchester	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	144
rent German critics of Darwin like Hans Driesch, Haack% and Gustav Wolff acknowledge the radical distinction between man and animal; and Wallace, who with Darwin 'is the author of the theory of natural selection, holds that in the case of man, the natural selection was the work of God.
II. Unity of the Human Race: The fact that the human race descended from one pair (Gen. i. 27) is confirmed by numerous traditions of paganism. It is true, however, that there appeared also polygeniam or sutochthonism, the theory of eponymous ancestors (see EPONYM), which was represented especially by the Greeks and revived in the period of the Renaissance. Blumenbach opposed polygenism in his work, De generic hurnani vorietate nativa (Gbttingen, 1795); similarly Prichard, John Herschel, the two Humboldts, and others. Since the appearance of Darwin's doctrine of evolution the theory of monogenism has been adopted more generally. Several of the moat important ethnologists, Oskar Peschel, T. Waitz, A. de Quatrefages, Keane, adhere to the theory of the unity of the human race, or at least to its origin from a common hearth, if not from one single pair. In favor of Biblical monogeniam may be advanced: (1) The different races of men do not lose their power of procreation by intermarriage. Blumenbach, Buffon, Johann Miiller, Waitz, Quatrefages, and others have emphasized this fact as decisive for the unity of the race. (2) Among all human races, the skeleton, the period of pregnancy, and the average duration of life are the same. (3) Apparent divergencies of the races in the formation of the skull, the quality of akin, hair, etc., may be explained by climatic conditions. (4) Linguistic objections against monogeniam do not stand upon a solid basis, since in the course of hundreds and thousands of years languages are subject to considerable changes. (5) Archeology and the science of religions furnish important material for the. proof of the original unity of the human race. The wide circulation of certain religious traditions in primitive history, especially of the legends of the flood, can hardly be explained otherwise than by the assumption of primitive relations of affinity. Moreover, the legends of the, American people pointing to repeated immigrations of their ancestors from Eastern Asia contradict the assumptions of American autochthoniam or activism, as it was represented by George Squier, H. Bancroft, Lorenz Diefenbach, J. G. MUller, and others. (6) The different races of humanity reveal a thoroughgoing uniformity and spiritual relationship also in a psychological and ethical respect. Even the moat barbarous tribes are capable of participating in the higher spiritual interests of humanity. The idea of the impotence of the Christian religion as a civilizing power over against the stupid resistance of lower races (cf. De Gobinesu, Easai suf l'ireegaliM den races humainea, Paris, 1853) has been amply refuted by the activity of Christian missionaries among the savages of all parts of the world.
IB. Antiquity of Man: The usual system of Biblical chronology makes the period from Adam to Christ cover 4,000 years (see TIZ®, BIBLICAL RECKONING
OF). Such a short period seems to be inconsistent with the alleged unity of the race, but the effects of sin must not be left out of account in determining this question. There is much in the chronological tables of the Old Testament to make any calculation based upon them of questionable accuracy. There is at any rate some truth in the words of Chalmers, that " the sacred writings do not fin the antiquity of the globe," and those of Le Air and De Sacy, " There is no Biblical chronology." It is quite possible that the lists of the patriarchs in Gen. v. and xi. are incomplete. The Bible, in fact, seems to allow for a longer duration o£ the human race by several thousands of years than the usually accepted chronology makes out. The records of Egyptian history seem to make an extension of the chronology necessary (see EGYPT). The primitive history of Babylonia may be traced back even further than that of Egypt. From recent discoveries in Babylonia (q.v., III., ~ 6), especially those of Hilprecht (since 1893) it seems to be sufficiently evident that South Babylonia possessed a royal dynasty already before Sargon, so that it may be safely assumed that the beginnings of Babylonian culture date back at least 5,000 years (see BABYLONIA, V., § 1, VI., 1‑2). Of leas value are the arguments based upon geological calculations according to which the age of man is measured by ten thousands of years. There is as yet no reliable geological chronometer, but it is proved by recent discoveries in caves that man must have lived at the close of the great ice period, that is, during the great geological deluge; but when this period began and when it ended, remains still a matter of uncertainty. Quatrefagea justly criticizes the lavish extravagance with which many Darwinians Calculate time. Even Lyell wen obliged, in the later edition of his Geological Eviderecea of the Antiquity of Man (London, 1863), to modify his earlier statements.. E. B. Tylor, it is true, in his Anthropology (London, 1881) holds that some dozens of 6eaturies within the period of historical time are not sufficient to explain the gradual development of the distinctions of the human race, but, on the other hand, he declares the oldest human remains from the earliest stone period as " lying back out of the range of chronology."
From the very beginning the spirit of man has been the principal factor of .his being. It is his true Ego. Judged according to its original conception and its higher divine destiny, humanity is a thoroughly good and noble principle; but by the invasion of sin into the development of the race its innate nobility has degenerated. Without redeeming help from above, without the intervention of the incarnate, Son of God, a return to the normal and original condition would be impossible. While humanity is still far removed from the full realization of its ideal in an ethical and religious respect, faith in the final victory of the good in humanity over the evil moat not be given up, as little as the striving after the highest development of culture must cease. The realm of Christ and the realm of true humanity form concentric circles; the ideal of humanity is very little distinguished from the Christian ideal of life. The trae aim of humanity

146
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
is rightly understood only by those of its apostles
who see in the pioneers of foreign and home
missions of Christianity their self‑evident allies,
and in the holy spirit of Christ the perfec
tion toward which all spiritual life of humanity
moat tend. 	(O. Zbc>i1.Eat.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the Biblical doctrine of man consult the works in and under the article BIBLICAL THEOLOGY, especially the treatises by H. Schultz, and W. Beyechlag. For the tres;tment in systematic theology cpneult the sec. tion on Anthropology in the works cited under DOaE(w, DoaacwaZCa. Further works in the same line are: M. Hopkins, Outline Study of Man, New York, 1878; idem, Scriptural Idea of Man, ib. 1883; J. Laidtaw, Bible Doctrsue of Man, Edinburgh, 1879; and Bishop Butler's famous Sermons, new ed., Edinburgh, 1888.
From the scientific standpoint the reader is referred to the article EVOLUTION and the literature under it, particularly the works of Darwin, Huxley, Fiake, Mivart, Wallace, Romanes, 1.e Come, Weiemann, CIO% MeCoah, Dodson, Calderwood, Haeckel. Consult further: the Duke of Argyll, Primeval Man, London, 1889; L. Figuier, Primitive Man, ib. 1870; C. Lyell, Antiquity of Man, ib. 1873; H. Spencer, Descriptive Sociology, 8 vole., ib. 18731882; J. F. McLennan, Studies %n Ancient History, ib. 1888; A. Quatrefagea. The Human species, ib. 1888; J. Lubbock, The Origin of Civilisation and Primitive Condition of Man, ib. 1881; C. F. Keary, The Dawn of History. ib. 1888; H. Lotae, Microcoamue, books iv. aqq., Edinburgh, 1888; E. Clodd, Ch%tdhood of the World, London, 1889; G. F. Wright, Ice‑Age of America and its Bearinpa on the Antiquity of Man, New York, 1889; 0. Ziemaeen, Makrokoam><a; Grundideer< zur Sch6pfungspesehichte and su einer harmorsiache>a Weltanschauung, Goths, 1893; A. H. Keane, Ethnology, Cambridge, 1898; B: Plats, Der Meaech, Leipeic, 1898; C. Gutberlet, Der Me»ech, U, sprung and E><taoicklung, Paderborn, 1903; E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, new ed., London, 1903; A. H. Wallace Man's Place in Nature, New York, 1903; L. H. Morgan: Ancient Society, reprint, New York, 1907.
MANASSEH, ma‑nas'e: Thirteenth king of Judah, eon and successor of Heztkiah. His dates, according to the old chronology, are 696‑641 a.c., according to Kamphausen, 685‑641, according to R. Kittel (Geschichte Ilea Volkes Israel, ii. 516 sqq., Goths, 1909), 697 or 686‑641. In order to understand the reign of Manasseh, it is necessary to bear in mind the events which took place toward the end of Hezekiah's reign‑the inroad of &nnacherib into Judah and the rescue which followed, a result of which was a revival of faith in Yahweh. With the enthronement of Manasseh came a revulsion and a reversal of the religious tendencies, restoration of the sanctuaries closed by Hezekiah and of the heathenish or semi‑heathenish rites formerly practised, particularly that of child‑sacrifice. This was accompanied by a persecution of the religion of the prophets who had led in Hezekiah's reform. Manaseeh was swayed more by the sentiments of the masses of the people than by the little circle of earnest followers of the Yahweh cult. Undoubtedly the chief occasion of this change was the political situation. Assyria had reached the height of its power, and the vigorous Esarhaddon sat on the throne and conducted victorious campaigns in the Syrian region and against the Phenicians, the Arabs, and the Egyptians. He was followed by his equally able son Aashurbanlpal, Who P,StBblished the Assyrian power in those districts on a still firmer basis. Manasseh, therefore, abandoned the pro‑Egyptian policy of his father and threw himself, politically and religiously, into the arms of Assyria, in spite of the predictions of the coming VIL‑10
Canchester
fall of that empire. The apparent success of the
gods of Assyria influenced the religious situation,
and the anti‑Yahwiatic acts of Manasseh were
probably met by the resistance of the faithful,
which resulted in the persecution of the latter.
The Chronicler (II Chron. xsxiii. 1‑20) reports that
Manasseh was taken prisoner and carried bound to
Babylon and afterward restored to his kingdom.
This statement hag b22n muth questioned, since ii
did not seem probable that as an Assyrian prisoner
Manasseh would be carried to Babylon [McCurdy,
His", Prophecy and the Monuments, vol. ii.,
changes " Babylon " to " Nineveh 'I; but this is
answered by the fact that in his later years Aashur
banipal often dwelt at Babylon. The Chronicler
also mentions that Manasseh added to the defenses
of Jerusalem. 	(R. KITTEL.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources are TI Kings xxi. 1‑18 (of which verses b and 7‑lb are by a later hand), and II Chron. xxxiii. 1‑20. Consult the pertinent sections in the literature under ARAB; ISRAEL, especially R. Kittel, ut sup.; and Kittel's commentary on Kings and Chronicles, G&ttingen 1900; the articles in the Bible Dictionaries, and S. R. Driver, in D. G. Hogarth, Authority and Archeology, pp. 114‑118, London, 1899.
MANASSEH BEN ISRAEL: Jewish theologian and patriot; b. at La Rochelle (78 In. s. of Nantes), France, in 1604; d. at Middelburg (47 m. s.w. of Rotterdam), Holland, Nov. 20, 1657. He received his education at Amsterdam, where he became a noted pulpit orator. He is best known for his service to his people by securing for them through personal intercession with Cromwell permission to nettle under protection in England, erect a synagogue in London, and purchase ground there for a cemetery. His principal work was El Concilitulor (part 1, Frankfort, 1632, parts 2‑4, Amsterdam, 1641‑51), an attempt to reconcile all passages in the Old Testament which seem to conflict.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: JR, viii. 282‑284; DNB, zxxvi. 13‑14.
MANASSEH, PRAYER OF. See APOCRYPHA, A, IV., 4.

MANCHESTER, CHARLES: Church of God; b. at Burritt, Ill., Dec. 28, 1858. He was educated at Park College, Mo. (A.B.,1883), and Oberlin Theological Seminary (B.D., 1886). Having lien ordained a minister in his denomination as early as 1879 be held pastorates at Mt. Carroll, Ill. (18861888), Decatur, Ill. (1888‑$9), and Milmine and Lodge, Ill. (1889‑90), while from 1890 to 1896 he was preacher in a church at Barkleyville, Pa., and also principal of the academy in the same place. He was then connected with Findlay College, Findlay, O., from 1896 to 1904, being successively pro. fesaor of Greek and philosophy (1896‑1901), and
professor of philosophy and theology (1901‑04), in addition to being acting president of the same institution from 1396 to 1900, and president from that year t019(h4, N11Og IOU be bas (fin pastor of a church of his denomination at Wooster, O. He
was secretary of the Board of Missions of the General Eldership of the Church of God from 1893 to
1901, and was editor of the Missionary Signal, which he founded, from 1893 to 1896 and of the Findlay College News from 1897 to 1904.

Mendseens	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	148
Origin and Names (§ 1). Recent Reports. The System Outlined (§ 2). The Earliest Theogony and Cosmogony (§ 3). Later Theogony and Cosmogony (§ 1). Mandaean Cosmology (¢ b). Chronology and Eschatology ($ 8).
The many Gnostic sects against which the Church Fathers strove left little literature to survive till the present. The Mandieans, who still are found in scanty numbers in Persia and the region of southern Babylonia, are an exception; and their rich literature is very suggestive of the varied sources of Gnostic systems. This sect, belonging to ophitic Gnosticism, to form its system combined elements from Judaism, early Chris‑
x. Origin tisnity, and Saseanian Parseeism with
sad an original Babylonian and early Names. Aramaic basis of religion. Connection is to be found also with the heretical sect of disciples of John the Baptist, and derivation is allowed by the Mandxans themselves from the Sabians of pre‑Mohammedan Arabia (Koran, ii. 59. v. 73, xxii. 17). Indeed, " Sabian " is an Arabized word meaning " baptist." In their principal sacred work, the Ginza or the Sidra Rabba (" Great Book "), the Mandaeans call themselves Nasorayya, the " Nazarenes." In the same source the name Mondayya is also employed, from the word madda.`, " knowledge," with which is combined hayya, " life," in the sense of gnosis or knowledge of life (see GNOSTICISM). Theodore bar Choni gives them other names, as Mashkenayye, from Mashkena, the Mandaean word for church; Dosti, from Persian dolt, " friend "; and AdonEeans, from their assumed founder, Ado, who was perhaps a reformer or leader of a party. Theodore makes Ado come from Adiabene to the district of Maishan (Mesene) on the lower Euphrates and Tigris, where he lived as a mendicant (perhaps like the Brahmanic bhikshu or fakir), surrounded by disciples. Ado is then said to have heard of a man named Papa on the upper course of the river Ulai (the modern Karun), of whom he sought shelter. There he settled by the wayside to beg from travelers. Theodore gives also the names of Ado's father, mother, and brothers, which names all have significance in the Mandaean religion. On account of the honor which they pay to John the Baptist, the Mandaeans bear also the name Christians of St. John, though there is little in their life and nothing in their dogma which merits the name Christian, their doctrine of redemption going back to the god Marduk (see BABYLONIA, VIL, 2, § 10).
The first knowledge of this sect in modern times was brought to Europe by the Carmelite missionary Ignatius a Jesu, who in the middle of the seventeenth century lived many years in
s. Recent Basra and converted some of the
Reports. adherents to Christianity (see bibliog‑
	The	raphy below for his book). He re
System garded them as descendants of disci‑
	Outlined.	plea of John the Baptist, who had fled
		thither from persecution, being led to
this view by the honors paid by them to the Bap
tist, their many legends of him, and their practise
MANDEANS.
System of Ceremonial (¢ 7). The Clergy (§ 8). Last Rites; the Soul's Hap 0 9). Present Conditions; the Language (10). Sources of Mandzean Doctrines (§ 11). Babylonian and Manichean Ideas, Borrowed (§ 12).
of baptizing only in rivers. He gave their number as from 20,000 to 25,000 families, scattered through Babylonia, Persia, Goa, Ceylon, and India, in the latter country reckoning to them the Thomas‑Christians (Nestorians). Further information came through Abraham Ecchellensie (q.v.), the missionary Angelus a Sancto Josepho, Pietro dells Valle, Jean Thwenot, Carsten Niebuhr, and others. The reports of these writers have considerable value, dealing as they do with a time when the sect was relatively large. The sources of first importance for knowledge of the Mandwans are their own writings, especially the Ginza, which are, however, only fragments of a once large religious literature. The older parts of the Ginza date back to the early Mohammedan period, 700‑900 A.D. Besides the great collections of the sect, there are many tracts for priests and for laity, dealing with sickness and demoniacal possession, often employed as amulets and worn on the breast. The present Mandiean religion has, under Mohammedan influence, taken on a monotheistic form. But study of the Ginza shows that this is the result of development; the early form was polytheistic (cf. W. Brandt, Die manddische Religion, Leipaic, 1889) and dealt with theogony and cosmogony; this was succeeded by a combination of Jewish‑Christian sources under Indian influence. The next stage appears to have been under the ascendancy of Persian thought, especially in its eschatology, followed by a period of confusion, which in turn gave way to a monotheistic type of theology with a " Great King of Light " as the chief deity, from which the step to Allaha as God was easy.
The earliest priestly form of the religion dealt, as did the systems of Phenicia and Babylonia, with the origins of gods and of the world. There stand out in this two forms, now distinct, now united, the " Great Fruit " (cf. Hebr. periy), Pira Rabba, and Mans Rabba, " Great Spirit."
Pira Rabba is the All, the comprehensive basis of things, bounded only by itself, from which all things came. It is the " golden egg "
3. The of the Brahmanic cosmogony which, Earliest at first a unit in which rests Brahma
Theogony or Purushs, divides into heaven and and earth. It is regarded as an independCosmogony. ent and spontaneous deity and as creator. This is a conception not peculiar to India and the Mandaeans. With Pira Rabba is closely connected Ayar Ziwa Rabba, " Great Lustrous Ether " (cf. Syr. o'ar, Gk. d'er), or Yora Rabba, ` Great Brilliance," from which last sprang the " Great Jordan" or stream of heaven. In Pira Ayar appears as a personal spirit Mans. Rabba de el~ara, " Great Spirit of Excellence," usually called in the system Mans, Rabba (ut sup.). While the origin and meaning of this last term are not clear, derivations are given from the Indo‑Persian man,

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
147
" thought," and Arabic mas'na, " mind," " meaning." It probably corresponds to the Indian atman, " principle of life or individuality." With it, as female potency, Demutha, " image," is joined, and a triad of Pira‑Ayar, Mane Rabba, and Demutha is formed. Thus far no visible world or life existed, only the transcendental. Hence there appears Ijayye Kadmaye, " First Life," formed from Mans Rabba; and in Mandaean prayers he is always the first invoked. From him proceeded the countless emanations of gods, eons, and angels, whose task it was to create the visible world. (This theogony is not the only one present in the system, since other parts speak of a Nitufta, " Material of Life," corresponding to Hayye Kadmaye; another name given is Nebat, " sprout," who creates 800 eons and other beings.) From Man& Rabba proteed in fantastic completeness other Manes, called also Piras, more commonly Uthriyye (LTthras), " dominions " or " powers." From " First Life " emanated Hayye Tinyaniyye, " Second Life," called also Yoshamin (cf. Hebr. sJedmayim, " heavens "), who evoked Uthras, erected dwellings, and called a " Jordan " into existence. Three of these Uthras desired to enter upon the work of creation, to which Second Life agreed, but First Life was averse and called into existence Keba.r Rabba or Manda de hayye, " Spirit of Life," which personifies knowledge of life. This last creation becomes the center of Mandxan theology and its preexistent Christ, with which Hibil Ziwa, the power acting as redeemer in the world of fact, was identified. Yet this redemption and this " Christ " are not at all parallel to the conceptions carried by the same names in the Christian system. Manda de hayye is to be derived from Marduk, and his work may be equated with Marduk'a in vanquishing the monster Tiamat. Many epithets applied to Marduk are applied also to Manda de hayye, such as " beloved son," " good shepherd," " word of life "; and, like Marduk, Manda de hayye became potent in creation, acting in opposition to the presumptuous Uthras and Second Life. Before this, however, he had to make a " descent into hell," during which he came into conflict with the powers of darkness, including one Ru)aa (Heb. rush, the " Spirit of God " of Gen. i. 2, converted by the Mandaeana in their anti‑Christian bias into a chief devil), conquered them and appointed as their punishment that their food should be fire and their drink foul water. He Created Gabriel, who was to be the demiurge (known also as Petahil, who appears elsewhere as an emanation of "Second Life "). The seven planets and the twelve signs of the zodiac are created, land, water, and the firmament follow in order, then the first man, in whose creation Hibil, Sitil, and Anos (cf. the Biblical Abel, Seth, and Enos), " brothers " of Manda de hayye, cooperate, after which they marry Adam to Eve. The " seven " (planets) attempt to lead the pair into sin, but are provented by the creators of man; vain attempts are also made to destroy man. Yet the evil spirits maintain their hold on the world, the " twelve " (zodiacal signs) divide the world‑age among themselves, and the " Seven " found false
religions and call into existence beasts of prey and other evil beings.
When the religion began to develop toward monotheism (ut sup., § 2, end), the divine figures took another form. Pira, Ayar, Yora, and Mana
disappear, and instead of them the 4. Later " great king of light " reigns alone.
Theogony The portrayal of the world of light,
	and	in which this being sits enthroned,
Cosmogony. agrees with the Manichean picture of
the " kings of the paradise of light." The address to him at the beginning of the Ginza is noteworthy: " Praised, blessed, glorified, celebrated and highly honored be thou, O god of truth, whose might is great, who bast no bounds, who art pure glory and sheer light which nothin8 dims
a gracious, approachable and spiritual existence [art thou], a kind deliverer of all who are faithful, supporting and upholding all good in strength and wisdom." The bridge to the creation of the visible world is found, according to this phase of Mandaean thought, in the unfolding of the light‑god in his shining ether. From this early epitome of light go forth the numerous eons (`Uthre, " splendors "), Second Life, sometimes called Yoshamin (" Yahweh of the heavens "), then Manda de hayye, the life‑spirit, mediator and savior of Manda?an theology, the first man. Second Life seeks to gain supremacy over First Life, fails, and is exiled from the world of pure ether into that of dimmer light. Then there issue a series of emanations, the first of whom are Hibil, Sitil and Anos (ut sup.). The
last is John the Baptist. These appear both H8
brothers and as eons of Manda de bayye, and also in other relationships. Of these I‑libel, or Hibil Ziwa, is the most celebrated. He receives the same titles as Manda, has the same activity, and indeed is merged as though he were the same being. From Second Life also emanate sons, the last one named variously Third Life and Abathur, the " Ancient One," also called Father of Uthra. He sits at the outermost bound of the world of light, where is the great gate which leads to the middle and lower regions; there he weighs the deeds of the departed who come to him, returning to the lower regions those spirits whose deeds prove too light, while to the others Abathur opens the way to the higher regions of light. In the beginning there was under Abathur an immense void, and at the bottom the troubled black W414rl (~ ~~ l~b~ jllto
this and saw bis image reflected, Petahil (the material nature of the deep of Chaos) came into existence as his son to become the demiurge of the Manda:ans, equivalent to the Yaldabaoth (" Chaosson ") of the Ophitea. He was commanded by his father to create the earth and man. Some passages make him do this alone, others assign to him de‑
mons as his helpers, especially the seven spirits of the Planets. From this point confusion exists as to the sequence of events. Here begin " the entanglements of Mandaean theology " (A. J. H. W.

Brandt, ut, sup., pp, 4g‑55). The course of action follows in part the usual Semitic Cosmogony‑
, erects the heaven, reduces the diffused,
floating matter into form as the earth and fixes it in position, and creates the bodies of Adam and

Nandeeans	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	148
Eve, but can not give them life, which was accomplished by Hibil, Sitil, and Anon, who obtained life from Mans, Rabba. Petahil, because of his failure, was by his father Abathur excluded from the world of light until the judgment day, when he will be raised by Hibil, be baptized and made king of the Uthrae, and receive worship.
The underworld, described in the Ginza, consists of four entrances and three hells. Each of the entrances is governed by a king and queen. The
kingdom of darkness is divided into 5. Man‑ three stories, each ruled by an old deean king. These kings, named from above Cosmology. downward, are S'dum, the "Warrior,"
Giv, the " Great," and Krun or Karkum, the oldest and mightiest, most often called the " Great Mountain of Flesh." The entrances to hell contain filthy, slimy water; in hell there is no water, and in the lowest hell (Krun's) there are only ashes, dust, and vacancy. In these regions fire continually burns, but, though it consumes, it gives no light. From these kings Hibil Ziwa took away all power by descending, clothed with the might of the god of light, Mans, Rabba, into the lowest hell and wresting from Krun the knowledge of the secret name of darkness (see NenE). Above the entrances to hell is the dwelling‑place of Rubs, a mighty she‑devil, mother of Kin, queen of the fourth entrance. She was brought out from the underworld by Hibil and prevented from returning thither. The conception of Rubs. finely illustrates Mands'an hostility to Christianity, since she is the Syriac ruha dekudeaha, " the Holy Ghost " (cf. Gen. i. 2). She corresponds to the Manichean Hawwa (Eve). She is the mother of Ur, Fire, the moat fearful of all devils, corresponding to the original devil of the Manicheans. Ur attempted to take by storm the world of light, but was by Hibil cast back into the " black waters," chained there, and surrounded by seven iron and seven golden walls. While Petahil was engaged in the work of creation, Rubs, bore to her son Ur first seven sons, then twelve, and finally five more, all of whom Petahil set in the heavens, the seven as the planets, the twelve as the zodiacal signs, while what the five were is as yet undetermined. The planets are the sun, Venus, Mercury, the moon, Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars, and the names given td the last five are the old Babylonian names. These planets were set in the seven heavens; the sun is the ruler and is in the middle (fourth) heaven. They were intended by the creator to be helpers of man, but instead they sought to do him harm. They are the sources of evil. They have their stations to which they return after completing their heavenly journeys, and these stations are fined on anvils which rest upon the belly of the conquered Ur. Heaven is by the Mandaeans regarded as created out of the purest, clearest water, but so solidified that even the diamond will not cut it. On this water the planets and other stars sail; these are all, like evil demons, dark by nature, but are illuminated by radiant crosses carried by angels. The clearness of the firmament enables man to look through all seven heavens to the polar star, the central sun about which the other bodies revolve, and to which Man‑
daeana turn their face at prayer. The earth they regard as a circle, inclining somewhat to the south, and surrounded on three sides by the sea. On the north is a great mountain of turquoise, the reflection of which causes the sky, to appear blue. Bohind this mountain is the world of the blessed, s kind of lower paradise, where the Egyptians reside who did not perish with Pharaoh in the Red Sea. They are regarded as the ancestors of the Mandaeana, since Pharaoh had been high priest and king of the Mandeeans. Both worlds are surrounded by the Yamma rabba d'suf, the outer sea.
The period of duration of the earth is fixed at 480,000 years, divided into seven epochs, each of which is governed by a planet. According to the Ginza, the human race has been three
6. Chro‑ times destroyed by water, fire, sword,
nology and pestilence, only one couple reand Eacha‑ maining alive after each time. At the
	tology.	time of Noah, the world was 466,000
		yearn old. After him rose many false
prophets. The first prophet was Abraham, who
came 6,000 years after Noah, when the sun ruled
the world. Then came Moses, in whose time the
Egyptians had the true religion. After him came
Solomon, to whom the demons yielded obedience.
The third false prophet is Yishu Meaiba (i.e., Jesus
the Messiah), the planet Mercury, a sorcerer. Forty
two years before him lived, under King Pontius
Pilate, the only true prophet, Yahya, or Yuhana
bar Zikaryl (i.e., John, son of Zacharias; Luke i.
13), whose mother was Enishbai (Elizabeth);
Yahya, being deceived by the Messiah, baptized
him. He is an incarnation of Hibil, who had
preached repentance in the time of Noah. As a
contemporary of the Messiah and John the Baptist
lived Anon Uthra, a younger brother of Hibil, who
had descended from heaven, was baptised by John,
wrought miracles, healed the sick, raised the dead,
was the cause of the crucifixion of the false Messiah,
proclaimed the true religion, and, before his return
to the world of lights, sent 360 prophets into the
world to proclaim his teaching. Jerusalem, which
was once built at the command of Adunay (Adona,i),
was destroyed by Anon, while the Jews were dis
persed into all the world, having killed John the
Baptist. Two hundred and forty years after the
appearance of the Messiah, 60,000 Mandaeans came
out of the world of Pharaoh. Their high priest set
tled in Damascus, and their sacred writings are
concealed there in the cupola of the mosque of the
Omayyade. The last of the false prophets was
Mohammed, called " the Perverter." After 4,000
or 5,000 dears, mankind will again be destroyed by
a terrific storm; but the earth will be again re
peopled by a man and a woman from the upper
world, where descendants will dwell on earth for
50,000 years in piety and virtue. Then will Ur
destroy the earth and the other middle worlds,
after which, bursting asunder, he will fall into the
abyss of darkness, to be annihilated there with all
worlds and powers of darkness. Then the universe
will become a realm of light, enduring forever.
The weekly holy day of the Mandseans is Sunday, which is celebrated by abstention from work and by divine service, with reading of the scriptures by

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
the priest.	Modern travelers record the use of
Thursday also as holy and as sacred to Hibil Ziwa
	The Ginza does not enjoin other sacred
	7. System seasons, but it seems clear that cer
		of Cere‑ tam festivals have been long in use.
		monial. New Year's Day is mentioned in the
		Ginza as a time to abstain from ablu
tions in running water, probably on the ground that
on that day the angel who protects the waters is
engaged in celebrating a festival and consequently
the evil powers find their opportunity for assailing
men; Mandmans are therefore on that day not to
leave the house and especially not to approach
water. Yet scholars testify to the celebration of
a New Year's festival, called Nauruz rabba, be,
ginning on the first day of the first winter month
and continuing six days, or seven, if with them be
reckoned the last day of the old year. On the first
day of the year the priests and scholars forecast the
prospects of that year. From the eighteenth to the
twenty‑second of the fourth month is celebrated
	the feast of the ascension of Hibil Ziwa from the
	regions of darkness to his own realm of light. The
	five days intercalated between the eighth and ninth
	months of the year are a great festival of baptism
	during which all Mancheans must bathe three times
	daily, before meals, and dress wholly in white. The
	first day of the eleventh month is a feast in honor
	of the 360 Uthras. The first day of the fifth month
	is employed to cornmmorate the Egyptians who
	perished in the Red Sea. The last day of the old
	year is preparatory to the New Year's festival. The
	MandEean year is solar, divided into twelve months
	of thirty days each, with five days intercalated be
	tween the eighth and ninth months. The year is
	further divided into seasons of three months each,
	beginning with winter. The week has seven days,
	named after the planets. In the matter of the
	time for prayer there is some contradiction; one
	Passage seems to require it three times a day and
	twice in the night, another seems to forb‑ld it dur
	ing the darkness. Prohibition Of fasting appear,
	as a mark Of Opposition to Christianity, though a
	pretense of fasting is said now to be made because
	of fear of the Mohammedans. Yet spiritual fasts
	are enjoined in keeping the member, and organs
	of the body from sinning; moreover, there are times
	when the priests abstain from flesh. Mandieans
	MAY Dot eat of the blood of animals, Of anything
	that is Pregnant, or of that which stiff has life or
	which a beast of prey has pulled down. What has
	been killed with iron, cleansed, and purified is edi
	ble, provided it has not been prepared by others
	than the faithful. There is no distinction made be
	tween what in the natural world is clean and un
clean, since " all things which Petahil has made
were made for Adam." Of Mandioan sacraments
the chief is baptism with which is bound up com‑
muniOn. Unbapt I
ized children are not reckoned as belonging to the Mandmn community, Baptism must be Performed in running later and not in Pools Or tanks, and is by complete and trine immersiOD‑ The baptism
number of cases;	Of adults is required in a great
	when demanded by an act of
consecration or of 'in, 11 Sunday and festivals, on
return from a foreign land' after contact with a,
corpse, after being bitte
	e, after being	n by a snake or a wild ani
m	or w
al, s or whheen a ceremony has been omitted. In the corpse,
Eucharist are used two elements, corresponding to
corpse, after being bitte
r
O.t and ne
	t	Eucharist
	thee Host and wine of Catholic ceremonial. Its pur‑
p;
ose is to consecrate the participant by imparting
N P ‑ ngth. rrerequisities an baptism, good
,ial Ntrp
	, L
special stien rth
repute, and adherence to the Mandsean faith. It is received at the festivals. The bread is prepared from fine white flour by priests, without salt or leaven, divided into small portions, and baked in a new oven. It is kept in the priest's house, and is received directly into the mouth from the priest's fingers. Another usage connected with baptism and with Sunday observance is the giving of the hand, called by the Mandaeans kusta (" fidelity "), which may be understood from a corresponding Manichean custom to signify mutual support. As a provision against sudden death, unprovided with the common consecration, there is a sort of mesa for the soul by the bishop, by which the beneficiary is obligated to an ascetic life. The church building proper of the Mandieans is for the priests and their
helpers only; the laity remain at the entraneo. I!
is small, holding only a very few persons, has only two windows, and the door is always at the south, so that the entrant may look at the North Star. It contains no altar and no ornament, but has a few shelves in the corners for vessels. It is always near running water. At the consecration of a church a dove is sacrificed‑a trams of the old Ishtar worship. The injunction to marry and peoplc the earth is stringent, and condemnation of Christian asceticism severe.
The Mandeean ministry has three grades. The first is that of Shkanda, deacon. The candidate must be without physical blemish, and is generally taken from the family of a priest or a bishop. He undergoes a preliminary training of twelve years under priests, accompanying them on their jour‑
neys, and at the age of nineteen ii wa;ned and
begins to assist the priest or bishop in & The the services. After a year in this Clergy, grade, he is admitted to the second grade that of Tarrrcida, priest or presbyter, being ordained by a bishop and two priests or by four priests empowered by the bishop, but only on condition that the candidate is approved by the community. The period of probation involves a trial lasting over at least sixty‑two days, and may through inadvertence or accident in the conduct of the trial be prolonged for several months. A part of the ceremony is bathing three times daily in a river in full clothing, the wet robes being changed only after the candidate has completed a ritual of prayer. The ordination is terminated by baptism, in which the candidate's wifo liq,mal
participate, if they are sill jiving, and a feast in
which presents are given to the poor, The highest grade is Ganxivrd, '° treasurer," or bishop. The candidate, who is chosen from among the presbyters, must show his ability to explain difficult pas.
sages in the Mandaean scriptures. Still another grade 's''ep°rted by Petermann , that of Risk camp, " head of the people," a rank corresponding to that of patriarch or pope. This grade, according to the
Mandarans, has been filled only twice, ones before

Mandeeane
Xande	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	150
John the Baptist by Pharaoh, and once since, by a certain Adam abu al‑farash, both of whom were not of this world but came from the upper world. Women are admitted to the clergy. They enter the diaconate as virgins and become presbyters only after marriage with one of the higher orders. The official dress of the clergy is white throughout, consisting of breeches, tunic, girdle, stole, and turban, and on the little finger of the right hand the priest wears a gilt and the bishop a golden ring, on which is inscribed chum Yawar ziwar, " name of Yawar Ziwa," i.e., of Hibil Ziwa. In exercising their ministerial functions the clergy go barefooted.
Man consists of three parts, the body, the animal soul, and the heavenly soul. On the approach of death a Mandwan is attended by a deacon and two or more nurses, is bathed with warm and then with cold water, and then clothed in the funeral robes consisting of seven pieces. The body is laid
out with the head to the south so that g. Last the eyes are directed to the polar star,
Rites; the and the grave is dug so that the body Soul's Hap. maintains the same position, and
prayers are offered at the interment. The soul of the dead passes out of the earth‑region into the sphere of light, and according to some passages of the scriptures is accompanied by an Uthra, who comes for that purpose from the kingdom of light, finally passing a stream which constitutes the last hindrance to its approach to the " house of life." At the door of this house sits Abathur with his scales to weigh the deeds of the departed; after passing this ordeal, the soul is received and clothed in garments of light. Those whose deeds do not permit their reception are remitted to the lower regions, there to receive punishment of stripes without end. The end of the world is called " the day of the end " and " the second death," and is brought about by the serpent Leviathan which destroys all' not belonging to the world of light and the earth itself. Mandaeans are not willing to disclose their beliefs to strangers for fear of arousing the fanaticism of the Mohammedans. Part of the knowledge gained came through the son of a priest who became a convert to Roman Catholicism and communicated information to M. N. SiouBi, the French consul in Mosul 1A74‑75.
While in the seventeenth century the numbers of the Manda?ans were given at about 20,000 families, at present there is only a small remnant of about 1,500 persons, living south of Bagdad along the Tigris and Euphrates and in Khuzistan, ply‑
ing the trades of goldsmiths, blackio. Present smiths, builders, and carpenters. They Conditions; are not to be confused with the Moths hammedan sect of Nosairiyah in
Language. Lebanon. Externally the Manda;ana
do not distinguish themselves from Mohammedans. Since the. latter arrogate to themselves white clothing, which the Ginza regards as holy, Manda'ans usually wear brown raiment or brown with white stripes. Mandsaana speak Arabic or Persian, but the language of their scriptures is an Aramaic dialect of great value for the student of language and is related lexically and grammatically to that of the Babylonian Talmud and to the Na‑
bataean tongue. It was probably the native tongue of Mani, and the Ginza doubtless contains long passages from the Manichean writings (see Mnivi, MnxicaF,ANs, § 13). Nevertheless, the pronunciation as at present employed by Mandaeans has not been correctly transmitted. The vocabulary is Aramaic in groundwork, with loan words from Jewish, Syrian‑Christian, and especially Persian sources, while the later writings are mixed with Arabic. The alphabet, which probably arose in Babylonia and combines the early Aramaic and Palmyrene ele‑
elements, has twenty‑two letters.
	The origins of Mandeean doctrine, it moat firmly
be maintained, are to be sought in the religion of
Babylonia; and Babylonia itself was the place
where it arose. A Jewish or Christian source in
Palestine is out of the question. Mandaeana are
not the descendants of the disciples of John the
Baptist, although he and the Jordan are so fre
		quently mentioned in their writings.
x z. Sources The tradition of the people themselves
of Man‑ that they arose in Galilee, were persedaeaa toted in Jerusalem and driven thence
	Doctrines.	by the caliphs is historically worth
		less. They are to be compared with
such sects as the Hemerobaptiats of the Church
Fathers (Eusebius, Hiat. eccl., IV., xxii. 6; NPNF,
2 ser., i. 199; Epiphanius, Her. xvii.; " Clementine
Recognitions," i. 54: " Some even of the disciples
of John, who seem to be great ones, have separated
themselves from the people and proclaimed their
own master as the Christ "; ANF, viii. 92). The
reputed founder and other Biblical characters and
coloring have come into the religion through the
syncretistic process. To connect them with these
early sects is no more right than to associate them
with the Nazaraioi, of Epiphanius (Hcer. xviii.).
The mistake arose in the misapprehension of mis
sionaries of the seventeenth century, who mistook
them for a kind of Christians on account of their
practise of baptism and related them with the Bap
tist and with Galilee. It is true that during the
second and third centuries the religion passed
through a period of sympathetic feeling for Chris
tianity and was influenced by its ritual. Thus
Biblical reminiscences and nomenclature, from
Adam to John and Jesus, including even the ter
minology of parts of the Jewish ritual, went to the
bviiding of the Mandwan scriptures and teaching.
But the antiehriatian bias appears in making Moses
a false prophet, Jesus the evil planet Mercury, and
the Holy Ghost the most devilish evil spirit, as well
as in the polemics against Christian monasticism
and other Christian institutions. Still more ob
servable is the antijudaic bias, especially in the
utter abhorrence of circumcision. While the con
stant use of the name " Jordan " might seem to
imply derivation of the sect from people who once
dwelt on that river, the usage is to be compared
with that in Hippolytus (Her. v. 2; ANF, v. b2),
where the "great Jordan" is employed in the
Naassene system to express the idea of the great
sanctifying element of life in the world of light.
Thus the name of the Biblical Jordan was employed
in the earliest Gnostic systems, and notably in that
of the Peratse (who were in the Euphrates region),