MOMBERT, JACOB ISIDOR: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Cassel, Germany, Nov. 6, 1829. In early life he went to England, where he was engaged in business for a number of years, after which he studied both in England and at the universities of Leipsic and Heidelberg. He was ordered deacon in 1856 and in the following year went to Canada, where he was ordained priest. He was then curate of Trinity, Quebec (1857-59), curate (1859-60) and rector (1860-70) of St. James', Lancaster, Pa., and rector of St. John's, Dresden, Germany (1870-76), Christ Church, Jersey City, N. J. (1877-79), and St. John's, Passaic, N. J. (1879-82). In 1882 he retired from active parochial work, and since that time has been engaged in literary pursuits. He has translated F. A. Tholuck's " Commentary on the Psalms " (London 1856) and the commentary on the Catholic Epistles for the American Lange series (New York, 1867), edited William Tyndale's Five Books of Moses (1884), and has written: Faith Victorious: Account of the Venerable Dr. Johann Ebel , Late Archdeacon of the Old Town Church of K6nigsberg ire Prussia (1882); Handbook of the English Versions of the Bible (1883; new ed., 1907); Great
Lives: A Course of History in Biographies (Boston, 1886); History of Charles the Great (New York, 1888); Short History of the Crusades (1894); and Raphael's Sistine Madonna (1895).
MOMERIE, ALFRED WILLIAMS: Church of England; b. in London Mar. 22, 1848; d. there Dec. 6, 1900. He was of Huguenot stock and restored his name from its phonetic form of Mummery. His father was a Congregational minister, who, after sending him to the City of London School, sent him to the University of Edinburgh (M.A., 1875; SC.D., 1876). But to his Scotch training he added English, for he went through another university course in Cambridge (M.A., 1881). Previously be had been admitted to holy orders, in the Church of England, becoming deacon in 1878 and priest in 1879. In 1879 he was elected fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge, and in 1880 professor of logic and mental philosophy at King's College, London. He was curate of Leigh in Lancashire from 1878 to 1880. In 1883 he became morning preacher at the Foundling Hospital in London. His sermons and his teaching attracted great attention, but their outspoken " Broad Churchism " brought him into trouble, and he was forced to retire from his preachership and professorship in 1891. After that he preached at the Portman Rooms, London. In 1896 he married. The number and sale of his publications attest the interest in his teachings. Mention may be made of: Personality the Beginning and End of Metaphysics (London, 1879, 4th ed., 1889); The Basis of Religion (Edinburgh, 1883, 2d ed., 1886), a criticism of J. R. Seeley's Natural Religion; The Religion of the Future, and other Essays (1893); The English Church and the Romish Schism (1896); and Essays on the Bible, ed. J. Nield (1909).
BiBL7oGRAPHY: Alfred Williams Momerie: his Life and Work, written by his Wife, Edinburgh, 1905; DNB, Supplement, iii. 183.
MOWERS, MUMMERS: The contemptuous name, meaning " hypocrites," given to certain strict Calvinists in the two French cantons of Switzerland, Geneva and Vaud, because of their fervent acceptance of the doctrines of the Trinity, the divinity of Christ, and of total depravity, which had been denied by the great majority of the pastors of the State Church, and because of their practise of holding meetings in which these and similar socalled " pietistic " views found expression. In Geneva the party was started in 1813 by Henri Louis Empaytaz, a theological student; in 1820 their most distinguished leader, Rev. Cesar Malan (q.v.), organized them into a church. In 1831 a theological seminary was started, and in 1848 the party declared themselves free altogether of the State Church. In Vaud they ran a similar course. They started about the same time and were ignored by the authorities till, on Dec. 24, 1823, three of the cantonal clergy, who had been prominent members, resigned from the State Church. Four others followed them the next month. The authorities condemned this action and so the meetings held henceforth were subjected to some petty persecution.
BrBwoampHY: G. B., Geschichte der sopenannten Ifomie rs, einer in einigen schweizer-Cantonen arch ausbreitenden .Sects, 2 parts, Basel, 1825. 0
2. Conception of the Moon and Its Functions.
Thus with Terah may be compared Assyr. tarahu "gazelle" (sacred to Ishtar); Nahor is connected with Nannar, the name of a moon-god; Abram recalls aburammu, "exalted father," a frequent title ofthe moon-deity; Sarah ("princess") and Its and Milcah ("queen") are titles of Functions. the moon-goddess; Laban is to be connected with "kbanu," the white one," cf. lebhenah above; while Lamech may be brought into relations with Assyr. Lamgu, a name of Sin. Yet with the Hebrews the moon was sub ordinate and secondary to the sun. Whether this represents the original Semitic conception is uncertain, since it is held, though not demonstrated,that the moon-cult represented an earlier Semitic stage of culture. The age of the worship of Sin is not determined; the Aramean cult at Haran was of great antiquity and persisted into the Roman period. Sahar, the name of a moon-god, is probably to be seen in the Mandeean Sauriel, while the Palmyrene deities Yarhibaal and Aglibaal were moon-deities. The Hebrews were, therefore, in the provenance of the moon-cult, and their conceptions of this body were in general agreement with those of their neighbors. The idea that the moon influ enced the earth and its products was practically universal, and this influence was conceived as either malign or benign. This body was thought to be an agent in the production of crops, perhaps through its supposed function as a creator of dew (W. von Baudissin, Jahve et Moloch, p. 24, Leipsic, 1874; W. H. Roscher, Ueber Selene, pp. 49-99, ib. 1890). The Aryans went further than this and attributed to the moon the growth of animals (Avesta, Mah Yast, Mah Nyayis, SBE, xxiii. 88-91, 355); the Indo-Iranians connected the moon with the primeval bull, itself a symbol of fertility; Pliny (Hist.nat., ii. 221 associated growth with the moon; Macrobius (" On the Dream of Scipio," I., xi. 7) attributes to the moon power over terrestrial objects for increase or decline; while it is a worldwide superstition that a waging moon brings increase of crops, and occasionally even the power of impregnation is attributed to that body. The Old Testament references to this notion are necessarily scanty, yet beyond question Deut. xxxiii. 14, " the precious things put forth by the moon," is to be brought into relationship with this idea. In the Assyrian hymns the moon is called " the mighty bull, with large horns, perfect form, and flowing beard, bright as crystal " (the bull is also a Semitic symbol of fertility); the supposed beard in seals is probably the effect of a necklace with pendants.On the malign side pestilence was associated with the moon (Ps. exgi. 6), while the Greek notion of the lunar origin of epilepsy (cf. the Greek verb seleniazesthai," to be struck with epilepsy," from selene, "moon ") is shown to be held by Jews (Matt. iv. 24, xvii. 15). With this may be connected the name of the Mandwan angel of death,Sauriel, as well as such passages in the Old Testament as Gen. xxxi. 40 and Jer. xxxvi. 30. In theimagery of the Day of Yahweh (q.v.) the moonwas to participate with the other heavenly bodies in the cataclysmic phenomena of that time (Isa. xiii. 10; Ezek. xxxii. 7; Joel ii. 10, iii. 4, 15; Matt. xxiv. 29; Acts ii. 20; Rev. vi. 12); also in the repair and glorifying of all nature (Isa. xxx. 26), though in the new era there will be no need for its light, since God is to be the light of his people (Isa. Ix. 19; cf. Rev. xxi. 23, xxii. 5). Yet its stability is one of the images of eternal duration (Ps. lxxii. 5, 7, bcxRix. 37), and it is also a synonym of beauty (Job xxxi. 26; Cant. vi. 9; Ecclus. i.6).
3. Worship of the Moon
Worship of the moon appears to have been native with the Semites. Wadd in Arabia, Sin and Nannar in Babylonia, Sahar in Mesopotamia (appearing on Aramaic steles at Merab near Aleppo;
cf. C. Clermont-Ganneau, in Bibliotheque de l'ecole des hautes Etudes, fasc. 113, pp. 193-195, 211-215, Paris, 1897) are but a few of the examples which might be cited, the moon being representative of both male and female deities. Apart, however, from the suggestions contained in the tracing of Abraham to centers of moon-worship and in the connections of names in the Abrahamic family with names or titles of moon-deities, there is little or nothing in the early history of the Hebrews to connect them with worship of the moon (cf. Smith, Red. of Sem., 2d ed., p. 135). It was only toward the end of the monarchy, in the period of declension and of eclectic religious practises, that the worship of this body appears among them, when it is registered by the denunciation of the prophets (Jer. viii. 2, xix. 3; Zeph. i. 5), by prohibition through legislation (Dent. iv. 9, xvii.3), by the repressive measures of Josiah (II Kings xxiii. 5), and later by the disavowal of participation in the cult by the righteous sufferer (Job xxxi.26-27). In general the worship of the moon was associated with that of other heavenly bodies, and
the method was by prostration, and by kissing of the hands (Job. xxxi. 26-27), the latter a custom mentioned by Pliny (Hist. nat., XXVIII., ii. 25). In Jer. vii. 18, xliv. 17-19, 25, there is mention of the " queen of heaven " in which a distinct cult is evidently distinguished, and its peculiarities in part given, as in the offering by fire of special cakes in the preparation of which men, women, and children united. The prophet in chap. xliv. represents the
people as arguing for this worship on the experiential ground that its practise was attended with prosperity and the cessation of it was contemporaneous with disaster. It has been the custom since
Jerome to identify this " queen of heaven " with the moon, though from the time of Isaac of Antioch (c. 450) she was also identified with Venus.The concrete deity with whom identification was
made, however, was Ishtar, whose most intimate connection was with Venus and not with the moon (see ASHTORETH, § 5); accordingly later scholars are disposed to see in the cult under question the Ishtar-Venus type and to disconnect it from the
moon. Perhaps the last word has not been said on the subject. As cults passed from the East to the West, Ishtar was associated with the moon, and this association registered itself in the Greek religion
as well as in the Sidonian conception of Astarte as the moon. It is not beside the mark to note that cakes were offered in Athens to Artemis (the moon-
4. The New Moon.
The new-moon festival as an occasion of joyous character seems to belong to the oldest stratum of Hebrew observance. I Sam. xx. 5-6 shows it in connection with clan celebrations, and this implies antiquity. In II Kings iv. 23; Isa. i. 13; Hos. ii.11; and Amos viii. 5 it is placed apparently on an equal footing with the Sabbath, and 4. The New the passage last named involves cessation from work on that day, while it was in popular practise a day of as sembling at the sanctuaries with offerings. It is, therefore, a peculiar phenomenon that JE and D are silent regarding the festival, which reappears in Ezekiel and the priestly legislation. Various explanations have been offered for the silence noted. Dillmann (in his commentary on Exodus-Leviticus, p. 635, Leipsic, 1897) supposes that the observance was so common and such a fixture that provision for it was unnecessary; in that case it is difficult to account for other provisions covering matters known to be no less firmly fixed (cf. Ex. xxi.-xxiii.). Benzinger (EB, iii. 3402) thinks that the increasing importance of the sabbath " forced the new-moon festival into the background "; if this be true, it is difficult to say what brought it into notice in the later codes, though it is not impossible that popular insistence made its demands felt. Wellhausen (Prolegomena, p. 118, Berlin, 1883) makes the ignoring in the JE and D legislation purposive, the intent being to wean the people away from an observance in which the Canaanitic rites were an especial feature. Whatever the reason for this silence, later popularity of the festival is evinced by the fact that the prophets dated their oracles by it (Ezek. xxvi. 1, xxix. 17, xxxi. 1, xxxii. 1; Hag. i. 1), and this further implies actual gatherings of the people at which the prophecies were delivered, while it is known that at this time the people also visited the prophets (II Kings iv. 23). In the newer legislation the day was not one of rest (except the new moon of the seventh month, Lev. xxiii. 24) but of extraordinary sacrifices, surpassing in richness those of the Sabbath. Thus in Ezekiel (xlvi. 4-6) for the new moon there were prescribed a bullock, six lambs, and a ram; for the Sabbath, six lambs and a ram. In Num. xxviii. 9-13 (which prescribes from a national standpoint) for the Sab bath were prescribed two lambs with one-tenth deal of flour for each;, for the new moon, two bullocks with three-tenths deal of flour for each, a ram with two-tenths deal of flour, and seven lambs with one tenth deal for each. To the daily burnt offering there was added a festal offering. For notes of the observance cf. I Chron. xxiii. 31; II Chron. ii. 4, viii. 13, xxxi. 3; Ezra iii. 5; Neh. x. 33, which regard the offerings as fixed and normal. Further, that the new moon was regarded as one of high observance is shown by the directions to blow the trumpets. The new moon of the seventh month has a sabbatical character in that cessation from labor is directed together with assemblage at the sanctuary, and possibly after the exile this took the character of a New Year's festival (Ezra iii. 6; Neh. viii. 1 sqq.). Judith viii. 6 shows the observance still later, while Gal. iv. 10 and Col. ii. 16 indicate that Jewish Christians were inclined to lay stress upon the observance. See FEASTS AND FESTIVALS, I.; SYNAGOGUE, II. GEO. W. GILMORE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. L. Ideler, Handbuch der Chronologie, Berlin, 1831; D. Chwolsohn, Die Ssabier, pp. 399-443, Leipsic, 1856; R. Pietsehmann, Hermes Triemegistos, Leipsic, 1875; F. Baethgen, Beitrage zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, Berlin, 1887; A. Kuenen, De Godsdiewt van Israel, Haarlem, 1889, Eng. transl., The Religion of Israel, London, 1897; P. de Lagarde, in GGA, xxxv (1889), 46; P. Jensen, Die Koemologie der Babylonier, pp. 101-108, Strasburg, 1890; W. H. Roseher, Ueber Selene and Verwandtes, Leipsic, 1890; E. Sachau, in Sitzungaberichte der Berliner Akademie, 1895, pp. 119-122; F. X. Kugler, Die babylonische Mondrechnung, Freiburg, 1900; E. Maass, Die Tagesgotter in Ram and den Provinzen, Berlin, 1902; W. St. C. Boscawen, First of Empires, pp. 31, 80-81, 306, London, 1906; J. G. Frazer, Adonis, Attis, Osiris, pp. 295 sqq., London, 1906 (for ethnic notions regarding the moon); Schrader, KAT, pp. 361-367; Benzinger, Archaolologie, passim; Nowack, Archaologie, ii. 138-144; DB, iii. 433-435, 521-523; EB, iii. 3192-97, 3401-04; JE viii. 678-679, ix. 243-244.
MOORE, CLEMENT CLARKE: Protestant Episcopal; b. in New York July 15, 1779; d. in Newport, R. I., July 10, 1863. He was graduated from Columbia College, 1798; though prepared for the ministry he never took orders, but devoted himself to literature; and from 1821 to 1850 he was professor, first of Hebrew and Greek, then of Oriental and Greek literature, in the General Theological Seminary, New York. The ground on which the seminary now stands was his gift. He was the pioneer in America of Hebrew lexicography, for his Hebrew and Greek Lexicon (2 vols., New York, 1809) was the first Hebrew lexicon published in the United States. He wrote also: Poems (1844);George Castriot, Surnamed Scanderbeg, King of Albania (1850); and the favorite A Visit from St.Nicholas (1848; a story for children in verse), beginning "'Twas the night before Christmas."
MOORE, DUNLOP: Presbyterian; b. at Lurgan (19 m. s.w. of Belfast), County Armagh, Ireland, July 25, 1830; d. at Pittsburg, Pa., Nov. 14, 1905. He was educated at Edinburgh and Belfast, being graduated in 1854. He was next a missionary of the Irish Presbyterian Church in Gujarat, India (1855-67), and to the Viennese Jews (1869-1874). From 1875 to 1891 he was pastor of the
Presbyterian church at New Brighton, Pa., but after the latter year was without charge, engaged in evangelistic and literary work. After a year at Lansdowne, Pa., he made his home in Pittsburg. While in India be aided in preparing the Gujarati translation of the Bible and wrote treatises on Jainism and Mohammedanism in the same language. He likewise edited the Gujarati monthly Jnanadipaka and besides a number of contributions to the
MOORE, EDWARD: Church of England; b. at Cardiff, Wales, Feb. 28, 1835. He was educated at Pembroke College, Cambridge (B.A., 1867), and was ordered deacon in 1859 and ordained priest two years later. From 1858 to 1864 he was fellow and tutor of Queen's College, Oxford, and since the latter year has been principal of St. Edmund Hall, Oxford. He has been honorary fellow of Pembroke College since 1899 and of Queen's College since 1902, as well as canon of Canterbury and librarian of Canterbury Cathedral since 1903. He is best known as a Dante scholar, and has written or edited Introduction to Aristotle's Ethics, i.-iv. (London, 1871); Aristotle's Poetics, with Notes (Oxford, 1875); Time References in the Divina Commedia (London, 1887); Textual Criticism of tie Divina Commedia (Oxford, 1889); Dante and his Early Biographers (London, 1890); Tutte le opere di Dante Alighieri nouvamente rivedute nel testo (Oxford, 1894, 1904); Studies in Dante (3 series, 1896-1903) ; L'Autenticita della Quaestio de aqua et terra (London, 1899); and Gli Accenni al tempo nella Divina Commedia (Florence, 1900).
MOORE, EDWARD CALDWELL: Congregationalist; b. at West Chester, Pa., Sept. 1, 1857. He was graduated from Marietta College, Marietta, O. (A.B., 1877), Union Theological Seminary (1884), and studied at the universities of Berlin, Gottingen, and Giessen (1884-86). He was pastor of the Westminster Presbyterian Church, Yonkers, N. Y. (1886-1889) and of the Central Congregational Church at Providence, R. I. (1889-1902). He was appointed to his present position of Parkman professor of theology at Harvard University in 1902. He was Lowell lecturer in 1903 and chairman of the Board of Preachers of Harvard University in 1905, and has also been a member of the Prudential Committee of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions since 1899, being chairman since 1905. He has written The New Testament in the Christian Church (New York, 1903).
MOORE, GEORGE FOOTE: Congregationalist; b. at West Chester, Pa., Oct. 15, 1851. He was educated at Yale (A.B., 1872) and Union Theological Seminary (1877), after having taught in the Hopkins Grammar School, New Haven, and privately in Columbus, O. (1872-74), and after having been principal of the High School at Lancaster, 0. (1874-1875). He was then pastor of the Presbyterian Church at Bloomingburg, O., in 1877-78, and of the Putnam Presbyterian Church, Zanesville, 0. (1878-1883), and Hitchcock professor of the Hebrew language and literature in Andover Theological Seminary (1883-1902). Since 1902 he has been professor of the history of religion in Harvard University. In theology he belongs to the critical school, and is a member of the Deutsche morgenlandische Gesellschaft and the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, and recording secretary of the American Oriental Society. Besides articles in the Encyclopaedia Biblica, he has written Commentary on Judges (New York, 1895) ; translated and edited Judges for the Polychrome Bile (2 vols., 1898-1900); and assisted in editing Old Testament and Semitic Studies in Memory of William Rainey Harper, 2 vols., Chicago, 1908, to which he also contributed.
MOORE, HENRY: Wesleyan Methodist; b. in Dublin Dec. 21, 1751; d. in London Apr. 27, 1844. In 1780 he became an itinerant on the Londonderry circuit; later as the constant companion of John Wesley in London he did most efficient service. After Wesley's death he figured prominently in the discussions from 1791 to 1797 concerning the permanent ecclesiastical organization of the Methodists, personally favoring the Episcopal form. He was a stanch upholder of the authority of the conference, even though disagreeing with its policy in certain matters. He opposed the movement to found a theological institute for training men for the ministry, and as the last survivor of those ordained by John Wesley he championed the right of the Wesleyan ministers to administer the sacraments. He was active in the itinerant ministry till 1833, when he became a supernumerary. His works of significance are: The Life of the Rev. John Wesley, Including an Account of the Great Revival of Religion of which he was the . . Instrument (in collaboration with T. Coke, London, 1792); Thoughts on the Eternal Sonship of the Second Person of the Holy Trinity. Addressed to the People Called Methodists, . . (Birmingham, 1817); The Life of Mrs. M. Fletcher . . . Compiled from her Journal (2 vols., London, 1817); The Life of the Rev. J. Wesley . . . in which are Included, the Life of his Brother the Rev. C. Wesley, . . and Memoirs of their Family, Comprehending an Account of the Great Revival of Religion in which they were the Chief . . . Instruments (2 vols., 1824-25); Sermons Held on General Occasions . . . With a Brief Memoir (by the Author) of his Life and Christian Experience from his Birth to the First Conference Held after the Death of Mr. Wesley (1830).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mrs. R. Smith, The Life of Rev. H. Moore, ... Including the Autobiography, London, 1844; and the literature under METHODISTS dealing with the early history of that people.
MOORE, JOHN HENRY:Dunker; b. at Salem, Va., Apr. 8, 1846. He was educated in the Illinois public schools, and in 1868 entered the ministry of his denomination, of which he was chosen bishop in 1879. In 1876 he became editor of The Brethren at Work, a Dunker weekly published at Lanark, Ill., but later merged with others and removed to Elgin, Ill., and renamed The Gospel Messenger. Of this he is still editor. In theology he is strongly Puritan, being opposed to war and intemperance in all forms. Like his denomination, he accepts only the New Testament as his creed. He has written:Trine Immersion Traced to the Apostles (Elgin, Ill., 1872); The Perfect Plan of Salvation (1874); and One Baptism (1876).
MOORE, WALTER WILLIAM: Presbyterian (Southern assembly); b. at Charlotte, N. C., June 14, 1857. He was educated at Davidson College, N. C. (A.B., 1878), and Union Theological Seminary, Va. (1881). He was an evangelist in Bun
MOORE, WILLIAM EVES: Presbyterian; b. at Strasburg, Pa., Apr. 1, 1823; d. at Columbus, O., June 5, 1899. He graduated from Yale College, New Haven, Conn., 1847; studied theology under Dr. Lyman H. Atwater at Fairfield, Conn.; became pastor at West Chester, Pa., 1850; and at Columbus, O., 1872. From 1884 he was permanent clerk of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church. He was the author of The New Digest of the Acts and Deliverances of the Presbyterian Church, New School (Philadelphia, 1861); and The Presbyterian Digest, United Church (1873).
MOORHOUSE, JAMES: Church of England, former bishop; b. at Sheffield Nov. 19, 1826. He was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1853), and was ordered deacon in 1853 and ordained priest in the following year. He was curate of St. Neots (1853-55), Sheffield (1855-59), and Hornsey (1859-61), and perpetual curate of St.John's, Fitzroy Square, London (1881-67). From 1867 to 1876 he was vicar and rural dean of Paddington, London, and in 1876 was consecrated bishop of Melbourne, Australia. In 1886 he was translated to the see of Manchester, which he resigned in 1903. He was Hulsean lecturer in 1865 and Warburtonian lecturer in 1874 and chaplain in ordinary to the queen and prebendary of Caddington Major in St. Paul's Cathedral (1874-76). He has written Nature and Revelation (London, 1861); Our Lord Jesus Christ the Subject of Growth in Wisdom (Hulsean lectures; 1866); Jacob (three sermons before the University of Cambridge; 1870); The Expectation of the Christ (1889); The Dangers of the Apostolic Age (Manchester, 1891); The Teaching of Christ (London, 1891); Church Work (1894); and The Roman Claim to Supremacy (Manchester, 1894).
MOORS. See SPAIN.
MORAL THEOLOGY. See THEOLOGY, MORAL.
Moralists, British
I. Introduction. II. Development of the Autonomy of Ethics.
I. Introduction: The British moralists of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries accomplished for ethics what the English deists of the same period accomplished for the science of religion. The deists cut loose from the ideal conception of religion founded on psychology and metaphysics, and established an analysis of religion founded on the psychological study of its phenomena. The British moralists cut loose from a dogmatically founded system of ethics, controlling the State, the Church, and private life, and founded an autonomous system of modern scientific ethics. In neither case were these movements isolated, they were a part of the social phenomena of an age which, among other things, tended to build up independent treatment of the various sciences. Specifically the work of the British moralists may be distinguished as follows. First they gave a scientific form to the practical material furnished them by Christian ethics, to which they stood sometimes in a hostile relation, sometimes enlarging its conceptions, sometimes incorporating with it purely secular interests and aims. Second, in place of deriving morality from dogmatic authoritative teaching and from the supernatural dualistic system of salvation and grace, they introduced the method of psychological analysis.
II. Development of the Autonomy of Ethics:
The first stage of the discussion concerns itself with the ethical ideas of Roman Catholicism. The combination of Christianity with the culture of the ancient world drove into the background the primitive system of Christian ethic, which concerned itself with the end of the world and a life of complete divine indwelling. The great process of amalgamation resulted in the Catholic objectification of Christianity, with the Church conceived as a supernatural institution of grace. Various elements were taken up in the process of combination. Participation in the divine was secured through neo-Platonic theories, by which the interval between the natural and supernatural was bridged. As each of these two spheres had its legitimate existence, a place was made for an ethical system resting largely upon the traditional law of nature as found in the philosophy of the Stoics, while the Aristotelian conception of the State was also wrought into the scheme. The esthetic ethics of antiquity completely disappeared. The law of nature was made identical with the decalogue, hence the sphere of a real political and civil ethics was very limited. Ecclesiastical ethics had the predominance. A different value was given to the morality of the layman from that of the clergy. As time went on, the weak points of this system were criticized and the secular element accentuated, and at the same time direct protests were heard against the prevailing conception of ethics as a system of laws and regulations enforced by the objectively divine institution of the Church.