THE NEW
SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
Editor‑in‑Chirf
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
Editor‑in‑Chief
of
Supplementary Volumes
LEFFERTS A. LOETSCHER, Ph.D., D.D.
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF CHURCH HISTORY
PRINCETON THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
BAKER BOOK HOUSE

GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN

THE NEW
SCHAFF‑HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA
or
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
EDITED BY
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
(Editor‑in‑ Chief )
WITH THE ASSISTANCE of
CHARLES COLEBROOK SHERMAN

GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE., M.A.
(daeociate Editors)
AND THE FOLLOWING DEPARTMENT KDITON•
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D.
(Department of Symemamc 77uoloyy)
HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D.
(Department of Minor Denominations)
JAM FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.
(Department of Luuryicr and Reiigiosu Orders)
JAKE FREDERIC McCUBDY, PH.D., LL.D.
(Department of the Old Teerament)

HENRY SYLVESTER NABH, D.D.
(Department of the New Testament)

ALBERT HENRY NEWNAN, D.D., LLD.
(Department of Church History)
FRANK HORACE YIZETELLY, F.B.A.
(Department of P"mnciation and 7ooyraphY)
VOLUME V
GOAR ‑ INNOCENT
BAKER BOOK HOUSE
GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN
1953

EXCLUSIVE AMERICAN PUBLICATION RIGHTS
SECURED BY BAKER BOOK HOUSE FROM FUNK AND WAGNALLS
	PHOTOLITHOPRINTED BY CUSHING ‑ MALLOY, INC.
ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
		1953

EDITORS
SAMUEL XACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
(EDITOR‑IN‑CHIEF.)
Professor of Church History, New York University.
ASSOCIATE EDITORS

CHARLES COLE33ROOK SHERMAN	GFEORG~E WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.
	Editor in Biblical Criticism and Theology on "The New	New York, Formerly Professor of Biblical History and
	International Encyclopedia," New York.	Lecturer on Comparative Religion, Bangor Theological
		Seminary.
DEPARTMENT EDITORS, VOLUME V
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D.
(Department of Systematic Theology.)
Professor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological
Seminary.
HENRY BINGE CARROLL, LL.D.
(Department of Minor Denominations.)
Secretary of Executive Committee of the Western Section for the Fourth Ecumenical Methodist Conference.
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.
(Department of Liturgics and Religious Orders.)
President of St. Joseph's Seminary, Yonkers, N. Y.
JAMES FREDERICK. MCCURDY, Ph.D.,
	LL.D.
(Department of the Old Testament.)
Professor of Oriental Languages, University College,
Toronto.
HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.
(Department of the New Testament.)
Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New
Testament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass.

ALBERT	HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D.
	(Department of Church History.)
Professor of Church History, Baylor Theological Seminary
	(Baylor University), Waco, Tex.
FRANK HORACE VIZETELLY, F.S.A.
	(Department of	Pronunciation and Typography.)
Managing Editor of the STANDARD DICTIONARY, etc.,
		New York City.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME Y
JUSTIN EDWARDS ABBOT, D.D.,
Missionary in Bombay, India.
ERNST CHRISTIAN ACHELIB, Th.D.,
Professor of Practical Theology, University of Marburg.
WILHELM ALTMANN, Ph.D.,
Director of the Deutsche Musiksammlung, Berlin.
FRANKLIN CARL ARNOLD,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Breslau.

JOHANNES BACHMANN (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Rostock.

HERMANN GE03ELG JULIUS BECK,
Consiatorial Councilor and First Preacher, Baireuth.

CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECg
WITH, D.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological
Seminary.

IZA33X • BENEATH, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Konigsberg.
IMDIANUEL GUSTAV ADOLF BEN
ZIN(iER, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
German Orientalist and Vice‑Consul for Holland in
Jerusalem.

CARL ALBRECHT BERNOULLI, Th.Lic.,
Professor in Berlin.
CARL BERTHEAU, Th.D.,
Pastor of St. Michael's, Hamburg.

BERNHARD BESS, Th.Lic.,
Librarian, University of Halle.
WILLIBALD BEYBCHLAQ (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Halle.
TEEBOD03ELA CROSBY BLISS,
Writer on Missions.
EMIL BLOESCH (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology. Bern.
HEINRICH BOEHMER, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Professor of Church History, University of Bonn.

CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME V
GOTTLIEB NATHANAEL BON
WETSOH, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Gottingen.
FRIEDRICH BOSSE, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Auxiliary Librarian, University Library, Marburg.
GUSTAV BOSSERT, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Retired Pastor, Stuttgart.
JOHANNES F'RIEDRIOH THEODOR
BRIEGER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Leipsic.
CHARLES AUGUSTUS BRIGGS, D.D.,
Litt.D.,
Professor of Theological Encyclopsjdia and Symbolics,
Union Theological Seminary, New York.
ARTHUR YON BROECKER, Th.D.,
Chief Pastor of Jacobiklrche, Hamburg.
CARL VON BUCHRQCHKR (t), Th.D.,
Late Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Munich.
FRANTS PEDER WILLIAM BUHL,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Oriental Languages, University of Copenhagen.
KARL BURGER (t), Th.D.,
Late Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Munich.
H933MICH CARL CARSTENS (t),
Late Provost in Tondern, Prussia.
WALTER CASPARI, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
University Preacher and Professor of Practical Theology,
University of Erlangen.
JOHAN ANTERS OEDEBBERG, Th.D.,
Provost in St. Michel, Finland.
JAOAUES EUGUE CHOISY, Th.D.,
Pastor in Geneva.
JOHN WILLIAM CLARK,
Corresponding and Executive Secretary of the National
Indian Association.
JOSEPH BOURNE CLARKE, D.D.,
Editorial Secretary of the Congregational Home Mis
sionary Society, New York.
OTTO CONSTANTIN CLEMEN,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Gymaseial Professor at Zwickau.
FERDINAND COHRS, Th.Lic.,
Consistorial Councilor, Weld, Germany.
HENRY COWAN, D.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Aberdeen,
Scotland.
EDWARD TANJORE CORWIN, D.D.,
Church Historian, North Branch, New Jersey.
AUGUST HERMANN CREMES (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Systematic Theology, University of
Greifawald.
GUSTAF HERMAN DALMAN,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, Univereity of
Leipeic, and President of the German Evangelical
Archeological. Institute, Jerusalem.
EDWIN CHARLES DARGAN, D.D., LL.D.,
Pastor of the First Baptist Church, Macon. Georgia.
JOHN D. DAVIS, Ph.D., D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Oriental and Old Testament Literature,
Princeton Theological Seminary.
GUSTAV ADOLF DEISSMANN, Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Berlin.
SAMUEL MARTIN DEUTSCH, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Berlin.
FRANZ WILHELM DIBELIUS,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Supreme Oonsietorial Councilor, City Superintendent, and
Pastor of the Kreuakirche, Dresden.

ERNST VON DOBSCHUETZ, Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of
Strasburg.
PAUL GOTTFRIED DBEWS, Th.D.,
Professor of Practical Theology, University of Halle.
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.,
President of St. Joseph's Seminary, Yonkers, New York.
EX31L EGLI (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, University of Zurich.
JOHANNES ERDMANN,
Pastor at Skurz, Province of West Prussia.
LUDWIG ALPR30M ERICHSON (t),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Preacher at St. Thomas', Strasburg, Germany.
HUBERT EVANS, Ph.D.,
Member of the Editorial Staff of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica Company, New York.
PAUL FEINE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of
Berlin.
CHRISTIAN THEODOR FICKER, Ph.D.,
Emeritus Pastor at Eythra, near Leipsic.

DAVID HAY FLEXING, LL.D.,
Honorary Secretary of the Scottish Historical Society,
Edinburgh.
FRIEDRICH FLOERING, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Consistorial Councilor, Darmstadt.
RUDOLF FOSS (t),
Late Councilor in Groeslichterfelde, Germany.
FRANK HUGH FOSTER, Ph.D., D.D.,
Professor of History, Olivet College, Michigan.
GUSTAV WILHELM FRANK (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Dogmatics, Symbolics and Christian
Ethics, University of Vienna.
HERMAN FRANKFURTH, Ph.D.,
Teacher at the Sophien‑Realgymnasium, Berlin.
ALBERT FREYSTEDT (t), Th.Lic.,
Late Pastor in Cologne.
EMIL ALBERT FRIEDBERG,
Th.D., Dr. Jnr.,
Professor of Ecclesiastical, Public, and German Law,
University of Leipsic.
WILHELM FUNKE (t),
Late Pastor at Gehrden, near Hanover.
JOHANNES ABRAHAM GERTH VAN
WIJK (t), Th.D.,
Late Reformed Church Clergyman at The Hague, Holland.
GE03ELGE WILLLA M GILMORE, M.A.,
Former Professor of Biblical History and Lecturer on
Comparative Religion, Bangor Theological Seminary.
WILHELM GOETZ, Ph.D.,
Honorary Professor of Geography, Technical High School,
and Professor, Military Academy, Munich.

CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME V
CASPAR BEN* GREGORY Ph.D., Th.D.,
D.D., LL.D., Dr.~ur.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of
Leipsic.
PAUL GRVENME%G, Th.Lic.,
Pastor in Strasburg.
GEORG GRUETZMACHER, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Extraordinary Professor of Church History, University
of Heidelberg.
PAULUS GUEDER (t),
late Pastor at Biglen, Switzerland.
HERMANN (?LITHE, Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Wpsic.
MARL HAC$ENSCHXIDT, Th.D.,
Pastor in Strasburg.
ADOLF HAANACH, M.D., Ph.D.,
Th.D., Dr. Jur.,
General Director of the Royal Library, Berlin.
THOMAS SAMUEL HASTINGS, D.D.,
LL.D., L.H.D.,
Emeritus Professor of Pastoral Theology, Union Theo
logical Seminary, New York.
ALBERT HAUCK, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History University of Wpsic Editor
in‑Chief of the Hauck‑herzog $eolencyklopete.
HERMAN HAUPT, Ph.D.,
Professor and Director of the University Library, Giessen.
JOHANNES HAQSSLEITER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of the New Testament, University of Greifewald.
AUGUST WILHELM HEGLER (t),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, University of Ttabingen.
ERNST HENKE (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Marburg.
LUDWIG THEODOR EDGAR HENNECBE,
Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Pastor in Betheln, Hanover.
WILHELM HERMANN, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Dr.Jur.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Marburg.
JOHANN JAKOB HERZOG (t),
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Reformed Theology, University of
Erlangen.
PAUL DIETHELM HESS,
Pastor at Witikon near Zurich.
JOHANNES HESSE,
Former Editor of the Evanpeliachea Miaaiona‑Maygain and
President of the Publishing Society at Calve,
Wtirttemberg.
PAUL HINSCHIQS (t), Th.D., Dr.Jur.,
Iate Professor of Ecclesiastical Law, University of Berlin.
FERDINAND HOERSCHELMANN (t),
Th.D.,
Late Professor of Practical Theology, University of Dorpat.
EARL HOLL, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Berlin.
WILHELM HOLLENBERG (t), Ph.D.,
Late Gymnasial Director, Bonn.
ALFRED JEBEMIA8, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Privet‑docent, University of Leipsic.
ADOLF HERMANN HEINRICH KAMP
HAUSEN (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of
Bonn.
FBRDINAMD FRIEDRICH WILHELX
BATTENBUSOH, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics, University of Halls.
PETER GUSTAV HAWERAQ, Th.D.,
Conaistorial Councilor, Professor of Practical Theology and
University Preacher, University of Breslau.
OTTO SIRN, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics, University of JApsic.
RUDOLF BITTEL, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, Unij arsity of Leipsio.
HUGO WILHELX PAUL KLEINERT,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and Practical Theol
ogy, University of Berlin.
RUDOLF $OEGEL (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Court Preacher, Berlin.
JULIUS HOESTLIN (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Dr.Jur.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Halls.
CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH ADOLF
SOLB, Th.D.,
Prelate and Court Preacher, Ludwlgsburg,
THEODOR FRIEDRICH HERMANN
SOLDE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Erlangen.
WILHELM LUDWIG KRAFFT (t),
Late Professor at Bonn.
HERMANN GUSTAV EDUARD
KRUEGER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Giessen.
ROBERT BQEBEL (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of New Testament Exegesis and Pastoral
Theology, University of Tubingen.
ALBERT B: UHNERT,
Superintendent in Cottbus, Prussia.
JOHANNES WILHELM BQNZE,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic and Practical Theology, University;f Greifswald.

EZ<GELAOHENMANN,
City Pastor in Leonberg, Wdrrttemberg.
MORITZ LAUTERBURG, Th.D., Th.Lic.,
Professor of Practical Theology, University of Bern.
KARL FRIEDRICH LMD31RHOSE (t),
late Dekan in Neckarau, Mannheim.
LUDWIG LEMME, Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Heidelberg.
EDUARD LEMPP, Ph.D.,
Superintendent of the Royal Orphan Asylum, Stuttgart.
BRUNO LINDNER, Ph.D.,
Professor of Aryan Languages, University of Wpeic.
GEORG LOESCHE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History~ Evangelical Theological
Faculty, Vienna.
FRIEDRICH ARMIN LOOPS, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Halle.
JOHANN LOSERTH, Ph.D.,
Professor of History, University of Gras,

WILHELM PHILIPP FRIEDRICH FERDINAND LOTZ, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of
Erlangen.
WILHELM JULIUS MANGOLD (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Bonn.
KONRAD VON MAURER (t), LL.D.,
Late Professor of Law, University of Munich.
PAUL MEHLHORN, Th.D.,
Pastor of the Reformed Church, Lefpsic.
JAMES FREDERICK McCURDY,
Ph.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Oriental Languages, University College,
Toronto.
OTTO MEJER (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late President of the Consistory, Hanover.
PHILIPP MEYER, Th.D.,
Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Hanover.
CARL THEODOR MIRBT, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Marburg.
ALEXANDER FERRIER MITCHELL (t),
D.D.,
Late Professor, University of St. Andrews, Scotland.
EUGEN MOGK, Ph.D.,
Extraordinary Professor of Northern Germanic Languages
and Literatures, University of Leipsic.
IVA Ag MOLENAAR,
Pastor in Zaandam, North Holland.
HERMANN MOSAPP, Ph.D.,
Councilor for Schools, Stuttgart.
ERNST FRIEDRICH KARL MUELLER,
Th.D.,
Professor of Reformed Theology, University of Erlangen.
GEORG MUELLER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Inspector of Schools, Leipsic.
HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.,
Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New
Testament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass.
IWAX NAUMANN, Ph.D.,
Gymnasial Teacher, Berlin.
CHRISTOF EBERHARD NESTLE,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor in the Theological Seminary, Maulbronn,
Wfrttemberg.
KARL JOHANNES NEUMANN, Ph.D.,
Professor of Ancient History, University of Strasburg.
ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN,
D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Church History Baylor Theological Seminary
(Baylor University), Waco, Texas.
FREDERICK CHRISTIAN NIELSEN (t),
D.D.,
Late Bishop of Aarhus, Denmark.
TH03EL GEORG BERNHARD ODLAND (t),
Late Pastor in Copenhagen.
CONRAD VON ORELLI, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and History of
Religion, University of Basel.
EDWARDS AXASA PARK (t), D.D.,
Late Professor in Andover Theological Seminary.
FRANCIS LANDEY PATTON,
D.D., LL.D.,
President of Princeton Theological Seminary.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME V
CARL PFENDER,
Pastor of St. Paul's Evangelical Lutheran Church, Parts.
WILHELM PREGER (t),
Late Professor, University of Munich.
HERMANN RAHLENBECB,
Pastor in Cologne.
EDUARD REUSS (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Strasburg.
SOLOMAN B.$VASZ,
Senior of the Reformed Church, Kaschau, Hungary.
GEORG CHRIBTIAW RIETSCHEL, Th.D.,
Professor of Practical Theology and University Preacher,
University of Leipsic.
RUDOLF ROCHOLL (t), Th.D.,
Late Ecclesiastical Councilor, Dasseldorf.
ROBERT WILLLAM ROGERS,
M.A., Ph.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, Drew
Theological Seminary, Madison, New Jersey.
HENDRIX CORNELIS ROGGE (t), Ph.D.,
Late Professor of History, University of Harlem.
ARNOLD RUEGFG,
Pastor at Birmensdorf and Lecturer at the University of
Zurich.
GEORG WILHELX RUNZE,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Extraordinary Professor of Religious Philosophy and
Systematic Theology, University of Berlin.
THEODOR SCHAEFER, Th.D.,
Head of the Deaconess Institute, Altona.

DAVID SCHLEY SCHAFF, D.D.,
Professor of Church History, Western Theological Seminary,
Pittsurg, Pa.
	PHILIP	SCHAFF (t), D.D., LL.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, Union Theological
		Seminary, New York.
REINHOLD SCHMID, Th.Lic.,
Pastor in Oberholzheim, Wiirttemberg.
ALBERT SCHNEIDER (t),
Late Professor of Roman Law, University of Zurich.
LUDVIG SCHROEDER (t),
Late Professor, University of Copenhagen.
JOHANN FRIEDRICH BITTER VON
SCHULTE, Dr.Jur.,
Professor of Law, University of Bonn.
VICTOR SCHULTZE, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History and Christian Archeology,
University of Greifswald.
HANS SCHULZ, Ph.D.,
Gymnasial Professor, Steglitz, near Berlin.
LUDWIG THEODOR SCHULZE,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Rostock.
ALEXANDER SCHWEIZER (t), D.D.,
Late Professor in Zurich.
EMIL SECKEL, Dr.Jur.,
Professor of Law, University of Berlin.
REINHOLD SEEBERGI, Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Berlin.
CHRISTIAAN SEPP (t), Th.D.,
Late Mennonite Preacher, Leyden.

CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME V
ISAAC SHARP LESS, LLM.,
President of Haverford College, Haverford, Pa.
FRIEDRICH ANTON EVIL SIEFFERT,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics and New Testament Exegesis,
University of Bonn.
GEORG EDUARD SIEVERS, Ph.D.,
Professor of German Literature, University of Leipsic.
ERNEST GOTTLIEB SIEMER, Ph.D.,
Professor of Latin, New York University.

JOHANN LEONHARD SONNER (t),
Th.Lic.,
Late Dean at Neustadt‑an‑der‑Aisch, Bavaria.
RUDOLF STAEHELIN (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, University of Basel.

GE03ELG STEINDORFF, Ph.D.,
Professor of Egyptology, University of Leipsic.
GEORG EDUARD STEITZ (t), Th.D.,
Late Pastor, Frankfort‑on‑the‑Main.
WILLIAM CURTIS STILES, IBM.,
Member of the Editorial Staff of The Homiletic Review.
HERMANN LEBERECHT STRACK,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Extraordinary Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and
Semitic Languages, University of Berlin.
PHILIPP STRAUCH, Ph.D.,
Professor of Germanic Languages, University of Halle.
FRIEDRICH TEUTSCH (t), Th.D.,
Late Consistorial Councilor, Hermannstadt, Germany.
KARL THIEVE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics, University of Leipsic.
ERNST PETER WIT LX TROELTSCH,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Heidelberg.
PAUL TSCHACKERT, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Gdttingen.
JOHANN GERHARD WILHELM
UHLHORN (t), Th.D.,
Late Abbot of Lokkum, Germany.
HEINRICH ULNANN, Ph.D.,
Professor of History, University of Greifswald.
KONRAD VARRENTRAPP, Ph.D.,
Professor of History, University of Marburg.
SIETRE DOUWES VAN VEEN, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History and Christian Archeology,
University of Utrecht.
WILHELN VOLCK (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of
Rostock.
WILHELM NARKUS WALTHER, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Rostock.
BENJAMIN BRECKINRIDGE WAR
FIELD, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Didactic and Polemic Theology, Princeton
Theological Seminary.
FRIEDRICH WILHELN HERMANN
WASSERSCHLEBEN (t),
Late Professor of Theology, University of Giessen.
JOHANNES WEISS, ThM.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of
Heidelberg.
CARL HEINRICH VON WEIZSAECKER
(t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Tilbingen.
AUGUST WILHELM WERNER, Th.D.,
Pastor Primarius, Guben, Prussia.
FRIEDRICH LUDWIG LEONHARD
WIEGAND, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Greifswald.
PAUL WOLFF (t),
late Pastor at Friedersdorf, Brandenburg, and Editor of
the Evongeliache %irchznzeitunp.
THEOD03EL ZAHN, Th.D., Litt.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis and Introduction,
University of Erlangen.
RUDOLF ZEHNPFVND, Ph.D.,
Minister in Oranienbaum.
WILHELM ZIMMERMAN, PhM.,
Gymnasial Professor in Darmstadt.
OTTO ZOECKLER (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History and Apologetics, Uni
versity of Greifwald.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑yOLS. I‑Y
The following list of books is supplementary to the bibliographies given at the end of the articles
contained in volumes I.‑V., and brings the literature down to September, 1909. In this list each vocab‑
ulary entry is printed in capital letters.
ADLER , H.: 8. Adler, Anglo‑Jeurd.h Memories, and Other Sermons, London, 1909.
AxARNA TABLETS: F. M. Bahl, Die S	der
	Amarnabrisfe mit besmiderer	~
	igung der Karwaniamen, Leipsic, 1909.
ANDREws, E. G.: F. J. McConnell Edward Gayer Andrems, a Bishop in the ldethodist Epiacopal Church, New York, 1909.
APOCRYPHA: Ecdesiaetwus: The Greek Text of Codex 243. Ed. with a textual Commentary and Prolegomena by J. H. A. Hart, London, 1909.
The Goa~el of Barnabas, ed. and tranel . . . by L. and Laura Ragg, Oxford, 1909.
APOLOGETICS: W. Baldenaperger, Urduistliche Apologia, Strasburg, 1909
J. C. Rickett, Origins and Faith. An Essay of Reconciliation, London, 1909.
H. E. Sampson, Propreseive Creation. A Reconciliation of Religion with Science, 2 vole., ib. 1909.
R. M. Wenl , Modern Thought and the Crisis in Belief, ~. 1909.
AUGUsTmE: J. Mausbach, Die Ethik des heiligen Augustinus, 2 vole., Freibu.:g, 1909.
BABYLONIA: A. Ungnad, Altbabylonische Privaturkunden aus Dilba:, Leipsic, 1909.
BAENTsCH, B.: David and rein Zeitalter, Leipsic, 1907.
BEER,	G.: Saul, David, Salomo, Tiibingen, 1906;
	Schabbath, ib. 1908.
BEHAIBM: H. Dreyfus, The Universal Religion: Behaiam, its Rue and Social Import, London, 1909.
E. Hammond, The Splendor of God; being Extrada from the sacred Writings of the Bahais, New York, 1909.
BIBLE	VERSIONS: F. Eichler, Die Deutsche BZel des Erasmus Stratter in der UniversddteBxbliothek zu Graz. Eine Untersuchung our Geschichte des Buchwesens in xv. Jahrhundent ~~* ic, 1908.
The did ~ tament in Greek According to the Text of Codex Vatican=, Supplemented from Other Uncial MSS., etc., ed. A. E. Brooke and N. McLean, vol. i., part 2, Exodus and LoTriticus, Cambridge, 1909.
G. Henalow, The Vulgate, London, 1909
S. McComb, The Making of the English Bible: with an introductory Essay on the Influence of the English Bible on English Literature, New York 1909.
M. B. 'Riddle, The Story of the Revised New Testament, American Standard Edition. [Philadelphia, 1908.]
BIBLICAL CRITICISM: T. Whittaker , The Origins of
	Christian %ty With an Outline of Van
	Manen'a talyt;ia of the Pauline Literature
	and an Appendix on Galatians, London, 1909.
BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION: W. Wrede, Origin of the New Testament, London, 1909.
BoNIFACB, SAINT: G. Sehnarer, Banifatius Die Bekehnung der deutachen zum Chriatentum, Mainz, 1909.
BUDDHISM: L. de La Vall6e Poussin, Bouddhiame. Opinions sur d'hist. de la dogmatique, Paris, 1909.
V. A. Smith, Asoka, the Buddhist Emperor of India, New York, 1909.
CABALA: S. L. M. Mathers, %abbalah Unveiled, 3d ed., London, 1907.
CALviN, J.: A. Lang, Johannes Calvin. Ein Lebenabild zu aeinem .1,00 Geburtstag am 10 Juli, 1909, Leipsic, 1909.
Johannes Calvins Lebenewerk in seinem Brie Eine Auswahl von Briefen Calving in
aeher Uebersetzung, 2 vols., Tiibingen, 1909.
CAMPANELLA, T.: J. Kvacala, Thomas Campanella, ein Reformer ausgehenden Renaissance, Berlin, 1909.
CANON oh THE BIBLE: Jugie, Histoare du canon de l'Aneien Testament dons l'6glise grecque et l'tglise rusael Paris, 1909.
CARMEL: E. von Miilinen, Beitrage zur Kenntnis des Karmels, Leipsic, 1908.
CENSORSHIP, ETC.‑ T. S. Betten, The Roman Index of Forbidden Books, St. Louis, 1909.
CHURCH HISTORY: C. Bigg, The Origins of Christianity, ed. T. B. Strong, New York, 1909.
L. Duchesne, Early History of the Christian Church. From its Foundation to the End of the Third Century, London, 1909.
CHURCH AND STATE: S. Z. Batten, The Christian State: the State, Democracy and Christianity, Philadelphia, 1909.
CLEmENT or ALEXANDRIA: J. Gabrielson, Ueber die Quellen des Clemens Alexandrinus, part 2, Zur genaueren Praffung der Favorinushypothese, Leipsie, 1909.
ConIPARATIvE RELIGION: Add to the bibliography W. Mundt, Vdlkerpsychologie, Leipsie, 1904 s19.
K. H. E. de Jong, Dos antike Mysterienwesen in rel eschichtlicher ethnologischer and psycho .=' cc Beleuchtu , Leyden, 1909.
J. Toutain, Iftudes de m		et d'histoire
	des religions a	s, Paris 1909.
J. H. Leuba, Paye~ologieal (~rign and Nature of Religion, London, 1909.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑VOLUMES I‑V
D. A. Bertholet, The Transmigration of Souls, ib. 1909.
W. St. C. Tisdall, Mythic Chriats and the True: a Criticism of some modern Theories, ib. 1909.
CONWAY, M. D.: Addresses and Reprints 1860‑1907, Boston, 1909.
DANTE A.: Inferno, ed. C. H. Grandgent, Boston, 199. The Convivo, London and New York, 1909.
DEACONEss: E. F. von der Goltz Der Diend der Frauen in der chriWichen lfChe, Potsdam, 1905.
DOBseHVETz, E. vow: Christusbs7der (in TU, 1899); Der g .=Is Stand der neuteatamentlichen ese, Tu~ingen, 1906, Eng. transl., London, 1909.
DOGMA, DoaMATics: F. Schaeder, Theozentriache Theologie, Leipsic, 1909.

EcsHARDT, M.: Meister Eckhardt's Sermons, Eng. trand., by C. Field, London, 1909.
EGYPT: Texts Relating to St. Mena of E and Canons of Nicacea, in a Nubian , ed. E. A. W. Budge, London, 1909.
EGYPT ExPLoRATioN FUND: The Oxyrrhynchus Papyri, part vi., ed. B. P. Grenfell an A. S. Hunt, London, 1908.
ENGLAND, CHURCH OF: W. H. Hutton, History of the Church, 161,8‑1816, London, 1908.
C. Bullock, The Story of England's Church, London, 1909.
ERAsmus: J. Lindeboom, Eramua, Onderzoek nwr zz ne theologie en zijn godadiendig gemoedsliestaan, Leyden, 1909.
ETHics: M. Cronin, The Science of Ethics. Vol. i., General Ethics, London, 1909.
EUCHARIST: D. Stone, A History of the Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist, 2 vols., Dondon, 1909.
E. T. Green, The Eucharist, ib., 1908.
FRANcis OF Assisi: H. Holzapfel, Handbuch der Geschichte des Franziskanerordens, Freiburg, 1909.
GERHARDT, P.: R. Eckart, Paul Gerhardt. Urkunden and Aktenstiicke zu seinem Leben and Kampfen, Gliickstadt, 1909.

GOD:	W. N. Clarke, The Christian Doctrine of God,
	New York, 1909.
A. Daniels, Quellenbeitrdge and Untersuchungen zur Geschzchte der Gottesbeweise in 13. Jahrhundert, Munster, 1909.
GOOD WORKS: O. Bensow, Glaube, Liebe, and g‑ute Werke, Giitersloh, 1906.
GosPELs: D. J. Chapman, Notes on the Early History of the Vulgate Gospels, New York, 1908
J. Frey, Die 1~robleme der Leidengeschichte Jesu. Beitrage zur Kridik der Evangelien, part 1, Leipsic, 1907.
A. Harnack, New Testameid Studies: 11, The Sayings of Jesus, the second Source of St. Matthew and St. Luke, New York, 1908.
H. B. Sharman, The Teachings of Jesus about the Future, according to the Synoptic Gospels, Chicago, 1909.
B. Weiss, Die Quellen der syttoptischen UeberlieTeerung, Leipsic, 1908
F. . Worsley, The Fourth Gospel and the Synoptists, Edinburgh, 1909.
GREGORY NAZIANZEN: Gregoire de Narianw. Discoure funebres en Monneur de son frbre Cesaire et de Basile de Cdsaree. Texte grec, tradudion rangaise, introduction et index par F. B , Paris, 1908.
GREGORY OF NYSSA: Gregoire de Nysse, Discours catkhdtique, Texts grec, tradudion fran~aise, introduction et index par L. M6ridzer, Paris, 1908.
GREvnqo, K. M. N. J.: Johann Eck als junger Gelehrterr Munster, 1906; Johann Ecks Pfarrbuch, ib. 1908.
HABAKKUK: B. Duhm, Das Buch Habakkuk, Tubingen, 1906.
F. Nicolardot, Le Composition du livre d'Habacuc, Paris, 1909.
HALL, C. C.: Sermons, New York, 1909; Christ and the Eastern Soul (Barrow Lectures, 1906‑07), Chicago, 1909; The Silver Cup‑ simple Messages to Children from one mho loved them, Boston, 1909.
HANNINGTON, J.: W. G Berry, Bisho Hannington. The Life and Adventures ofia missionary Hero, London, 1908.
HARms, C.: F. ZIppe1, Klaus Harms and die Homilie, Giitersloh, 1908.
HEBREW LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE: J. Meinhold, Die Weisheit leraels in Spruch, Sage and Dichtung, Leipsic, 1908.
HEGEL, G. W. F.: B. Croce, Lebendiges and Totes in Hegels Philosophie, mit einer Hegel‑Bibliographie, Heidelberg, 1909.
HEHN, J. F.: Siebenzahl and Sabbat bed den Babyloniern and im Altern Testament, Leipsic, 1907.
HELLENIBM: J. Kaerst, Geschichte deg hellenistischen Zeitauers, 3 vo1s., Leipsic, 1901‑09.
HELLENIsTIc GREEK: W. H. P. Hatch, in JBL, xxvii (1908), 134‑146.
HEMPHILL, S.: History of the Revised Version of the New Testament, London, 1906.
HExATEUCH: A. F. Puukko, Daa Deuteronomium, Leipsic, 1909.
J. Winter and A. Wiinsche, Mechilta. Ein tannaitischer Midrasch zu Exodus. Beitrage von L. Blau, Leipsic, 1909.
HIBBERT LEcTuREs: W. James, A Pluralistic Universe. Hibbert Lectures at Manchester College on the Present Situation in Philosophy, London, 1909.
HIGH	PLACES: G. Dahnan, Petra and seine Fels
	heilxgtamer, Leipsic, 1908.
G. L. Robinson, H h Places of Petra, in Biblical World, xxxi 1908).
HILAmus: H. Lindemann, Des heiligen Hilarius von Poitiers Liber mysteriorum, Munster, 1905.
M. Schiktanz, Die Hilarius Fragments, Breslau, 1905.
HINDUISM: E. B. Havel], Benares, the Sacred City:
Sketches of Hindu Life and Religion, Boston, 1908.
HOBBEs, T.: A. E. Taylor, Thomas Hobbes, Edinburgh, 1908.
HOENNIcKE, G.: Die neutestamentliche Weissagung, Gross‑Lichterfelde, 1907; Das Judenchruetentum in 1. and Q. Jahrhundert, Berlin, 1908.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑VOLUMES I‑V
HOLLAND,. H. S.: Optimism of Butler's Analogy, London, 1908.
HOLTZMANN, O. K. A.: Christus, Leipsic, 1907.
HOLY	SEPULCHER: A. Heisenberg, Die Grabes
	kirche in Jerusalem, Leipsic, 1908.
HOLY SPIRIT: J. Arnal, La Notion de d'esprit, vol. i., Paris, 1908.
J. G. H. Barry, Meditations on the O,ffice and Work of the Holy Spirit, Milwaukee, 1909.
HOLY WATER: H. Theiler, Holy Water and its Signifwancefor Catholics, New York, 1909.
HOMILETICS: J. Edwards, A Primer of Homiletics, Cincinnati, 1908.
F. Niebergall, Wie predigen wir deco modernen Menschen ? part 1, Untersuchung Off Motive and Quietive, Tdbingen, 1909.
HoNORIus I.: A considerable literature is indicated in the British Museum Catalogue under "Gratry, A. J. A."
HORTON, R. F.: The Triumphant Life, New York, 1909.
How, W. W.: F. D. How, William Walsham How, First Bishop of Wakefield, London, 1909.

HUOUENOTs: J. W. Thompson, The Wars of Religion in France: the Huguenot Catherine de Medici and Philip the Second, 1609‑76, New York, 1909.
HUNGARY: W. B. F. Bovill, Hungary and the Hungarians, New York, 1908.
HUss, J.: Luetzow, The Life and Times of Master John Huss, London, 1909.
HUTTON, W. H.: The Age of Revolution: . . History of the Church 1648‑1816, London, 1908.
HYMNOLOGY: J. Donahoe, Early Christian Hymns, London, 1909.
IDEALISM: H. Jones, Idealism as a Practical Creed, Glasgow, 1909.
W. Kmgsland, Scientific Idealism, or Matter and Force and their Relation to Life and Consciousness, London, 1909.
M. A. Leblond, L'Id6al du xix. si&le, Paris, 1908.
IGNATIUS OF ANTIOCH: H. de Genouillac, Llglise chraienne au temps de Saint Ignace d'Antioche, Paris, 1907.
IGNATIUS OF LoyoLA: W. Walker, Greatest Men of the Christian Church, Chicago, 1908.
IMMORTALITY: C. F. Burney, Israel's Hope of Immortality, New York, 1909.
H. Frank, Modern Light on Immortality, Boston, 1909.
E. E. Holmes, Immortality, London, 1909.
J. Thompson, The Doctrine of Immortality. Its Essence relatively and Present Day Aspects, London, 1909.
P. Torge, Seelenglaube and Unsterblichkeits‑
hof fnung inn Alten Testament, Leipsic, 1909.
INDIA: W. VT., Atkinson, The Inner Teachings of the Philosophies and Religions of India, Chicago, 1909.
J. Richter, A History of Missions in India, New York, 1909.
J. Warneck, Die Religion. der Batak. Ein Paradigma fur animistische Religionen des Indi‑
M schen A hipels, Leipsic, 1909.
Wiut~c
nitz, Geschachte der indischen Litteratur, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1908.
INGRAM, A. F. W.: Lave of the Trinity, London, 1908; Joy in God, ib. 1909.

ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA
BUTLER: J. G.: d. in Washington, D. C., Aug. 2, 1909.
CHARTERIS, A. H.: d. in Edinburgh Apr. 24, 1908.
DRISCOLL, J. F.: Last line should read, "was editor of The New York Review 1905‑08."
DUCEY, T. J.: d. in St. James, L. I., N. Y., Aug. 22, 1909.
DUN%ERs: In 1908 the general conference of the Dunker Church changed its name to Church of the Brethren.
HOLINESS CHURCHES. See MISCELLANEOUS RELIOIoUs BODIES.
HUNT, J.: d. at Otford (19 m. s.w. of London) Apr. 12, 1907.
INDEPENDENT CONGREGATIONS. See MISCELLANEOUS RELIGIOUS BODIES.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations in common use or self‑evident are not included here. For additional information concerning the works listed, see vol. i., pp. viii.‑xx., and the appropriate articles in the body of the work.
ALKG .........
ADB . . . . . . . . . j Allgemeei‑ deut°che Bphie, Leipsic.
		1875 sqg, vol. 53, 1907
	Adv 	adversus. against'
		. . . . . . . . . I American Journal of Philology, Balti
	AJP	more, 1880 sqq.
	AJT	..	American Journal of Theology, Chicago,
			1897 sqq.
			Archiv fir katholischea Kirrhenreeht,
	AKR .	...	Innsbruck, 1857‑61, Mainz, 1872 sqq.
			Archiv fur Littemtur‑ and Kirchenpe‑
			echichte lea Mitteialters, Freiburg, 1885
			sqq.
Am. . . . . . . . . . . . .American
			Abhandlungen der Manchener Akademk
	AMA 	. . . . . . . .	Munich, 1763 sqq.
			Ante‑Nicene Fathers American edition
	ANF .	by A. Cleveland Gloxe, 8 vole. and in
		dex, Buffalo, 1887; vol. ix., ad. Allan
		Menzies, New York, 1897
	Apoc .		Apocrypha, apocryphal
	APol .	...	...		Apologia, Apology
	Arab 			Arabic
Aram. . . . . . . . . . . Aramaic
art.. . . . . . . . . . . . .article
Art. Schmal . . . . . $chmalkald Articles
ASB .. . . . . . . . . . Ad sanctorum, ed. J. Bolland and others,
				Antwerp, 1643aq q.
				Acts sanctorum ordanie S. Benedicti, ed.
	ASM				J. Mabillon, 9 vols., Paris, 1668‑1701
Assyr . . . . . . . . . . . Assyrian
A. T . . . . . . . . . . . . Altes Testament, " Old Testament "
	An gs~. Con .			Augsburg Confession
A. V . . . . . . . . . . . . Authorized Version (of the English Bible)
	AZ .				Allgenneine Zeltunp, Augsburg, Tiibingen,
				$tuttgart, and Tubingen, 1798 sqq.
				J. M. Baldwin, DictlonarV o Philosophy
				and Paychojnop&, 3 vole. m New York,
• . .1901‑‑05
Benzinger,	I. Bensinger, Hebraische Archdolopie, 2d
	Archdologie	ed., Freiburg, 1907
Bertholdt,	L. Bertholdt, Hisdorisch‑Krltische Ein‑
	Einleilung .	is'"ng • . ales Alters oral Neuen Tee
		tamenta, 6 vole„ Erlangen, 1812‑19
BFB$ .. . . . . . . . . .British and Foreign Bible Society
. . J. Bingham, Orlgines ecclasiaaticie, 10
Bingham, . . . .	vole., London, 1708‑22; new ed., Ox‑
		ford, 1855
		M. Bouquet, Recueil des historiene des
		Gaulet et de la France, continued by
		various hands, 23 vols., Paris, 1738‑7f
		Archibald Bower, History of the P
		. . to 1768, continued by S. H,
		3 vole., Philadelphia, 1845‑47
		. . ~ Baptist Quarterly Review, Philadelphia,
		1867 sqq .
		See Jaffd
		Canticles, Song of Solomon
	cap .		caput, chapter '
Ceillier, Auteurs R. Ceillier Wiatoire des auteurs sacra et
	aacr~a .		ecc, 16 vole, in 17, Paris,
		1858‑69
Chron . . . . . . . . . . .Chronicon, " Chronicle "
	I Chron .		I Chronicles
II Chron . . . . . . . . II Chronicles
	CIG .		Corpus i"acriPtionum Gracarum, Berlin,

CIL . . . . . . . . . . . Corpus 'qn°cripti°num Latinarum, Berlin, 1863 sqq.
cis. . . . . . , . . . . Corpus inec'septionum Semiticarum, Paris,
			1881 eqq,
	cod 	............		codex
	cod. D		codex Berm
	cod. Theod		codez Theodosianue
	Col 	...	...	.....		Epistle to the Colossians
cal., cola, . . . . . . . . column, columns
	Conf .				Confessiones, Confessions "
	I Cor .				....	First Epistle to the Corinthians
	II Cor .		$econd Epistle to the Corinthians
	COT 	See Schrader
CQR .. . . . . . . . . The Church Quarterly Review, London, 1875 sqq.
Baldwin' ....
Dictionary.
Bouquet, Recueil
Bower, Popes...
Cant.........
Corpua refotmatorum, begun at Hare,
	CR . 	11334 vol. laxxix	Berhn and Leipsia,
		tM 1 =
	M	. on A History of the Pa~ac~
Creighton, ~ 	from flee Great Schism to the Sa
Papacy . . . . . . ~ Rome, new ed., 8 vole., New York an
		London, 1897
	CSEL .	;C°rpus scj°Tt°'um ecckeiaeticoncm Lati
		norum, Vienna, 1867 sqq.
	CSHB	...	~ Corpus 8emPtoru'n hisdordm Bywntincs, 49
			vole. Bonn, 1828‑‑78
Carrier, Religious C. W. wrier, History of Religious Orders,
Orders . . . . . . . New York 1896
D .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deuteronomist
DACL . . . . . . . . . I F. Cabrol, Dictionnaire d'archEologie chrdtienree et de liturgie, Paris, 1903 sqq.
Dan. . . . . . . . . . . . . Daniel
		J. Hastings, Dictionary ~ the Bible, 4
		vole. and extra vol., dinburgh and
		New York, 1898‑1904
		W. Smith and $. Cheetham, Dictionary
		of Antiquities, 2 vole., London,
		~W Smith 8 , ~ tioe n
		Christian Biography, 1877‑87
		J. Hastings, J. A. $elbie, and J. C. Lambert,
		A Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels. 2
		vole., Edinburgh and New York, 1308
		1 1908.
	Dent 	Deuteronomy
De vir, ill . . . . . . . . De virda illuatribns
	DGQ .	See Wattenbach
		L. Stephen and $. Lee, Dictionary of
	DNB 	National Biography, 63 vole. a do
		( supplement 3 vole., London 1885‑1901
Driver, Introduo‑~ $. R. Driver, Introduction to tie Literature
		the Old Testament, 5th ed., New
	Lion	1894
		ark,
. . . . Elohiat
T. K. Cheyne and J. $. Black, Encydopcedia Biblica, 4 vole., London and New York, 1899‑1903
.. .Ecclesia, ' Curch . ecclesiaeticua, •• ecclesiastical '
	Ecclesiastes
. . Ecclesiasticua
. . edition; ediddt, " edited by
. .Epistle to the Epheeiana
Eccles .. . . . . . . .
Eeelus . . . . . . . .
Epist . . . . . . . . . . . Epaatola, Epiatolo;, Epistle," " Epistles "
Ersch and Gru‑ J• $. Ereoh and J. G. Gruber, Allpe»seine
	ber Ene9/kio‑~ EncykloPddie der I7issenachaften and
p6~ie ..... . . . Kilnate, Leipeic 1818 eq,q.
E, V . . . . . . . . . . . .English versions (of the Bible)
Ex .. . . . . . . . . . . . . Exodus
	Ezek		Ezekiel
~sac . . . . . . . . . . . . . aecicultaa rench

~riedrieh,.KD..'I ~ F edrich, Kirclungeachichte Deutachianda 2 vole., Bamberg, 1867‑89
Fritasche, Eze‑ O• FW'ritzache and C. L. W. Grimm,
	getiachsa Hand‑ ~ Kurzgefaaatea exegeEiachea Handbuch zu
	buck 	den AP°cryPhen des Alien Testaments,
		B parts Leipaic, 1851‑80
Gal . . . . . . . . . . . . . Epistle to the Galatians
Gams, Series ~ P• B, Game, Series epiacoporum eccles%ea
episcoporum . .	Calholi‑, Regensburg, 1873, and sup
	plement, 1886
Gee and Hardy, ~ H. Gee	oGee and f	oHistory,
Documents . . . London, 1896
	Gen .		Geneais
	Germ 	German
GGA . . . . . . . . . , j1Gottingiache Gelehtte Anzeigen, G&ttingen, 1824 sqq.
Gibbon, Decline~ E• Gibbon, History of as Decline and
	oral Fall 	Fall of Me Roman Empire, ed. J. B.
		Bury, 7 vola London, 1898‑1900
	Gk .		Grenk, Grecize6
		C, Gross The Sources and Literature of
Gross, Sources..9rgliA History , , , to 1/,86, London,

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.
	Hab .	Habakkuk
Had an and
	Stubbe, Coun
	atb ..........
Harduin, Con‑' .
cilia...
. . . . . .
Harnaok, Dogma
Harnack, Litters‑,
JafiA, Repasfa.
JAOB .......
JBL .........
JE.........
'A. W. Hsddsn and W. Stubbs, Couneila and Ecclesiastical Documents Relating to Great Britain and Ireland, 3 vole., Oxford, 18‑78
' Refers to patriatio works on heresies or
I	heretics, Tertullian a De prm~x.phone,
I	the Pros Aaireaeis of Irenasus, the
	Panarion of Epiphsnius, etc.
Hag	H 	i
I~J.uin Coneiliorum ootledio Mi. maxima, 12 vole., Paris, 1715
A. Harnsck, Hislory of Dogma . . . from the Sd German edition, 7 vole., Boston. 189b‑1900
`A. Harnack, Oeschichte do aZkArietiirhen Litteratur bia Euaabiua, 2 vole. is 3, Leipsic, 1893‑1904
. • ~ A. Hauck, %irchenpeerhichfe Dautach‑
Hauok, RD .		lands, Vol. i„ Leipei0. 1904; Vol. ii.,
		1900; Vol. iii., 1908; Vol. iv., 1903
	~Reakneyklop4die juo‑proteetantische Thp
Hauck‑Haraog,		oEopie and Kirdu founded by J. J.
RE... .. .. .. . Herzog ~3d ed. bY A. Hauck, 	peio,
Heb .. . . . . . . . . . . . Epistle to the Hebrews
Hebr . . . . . . . . . . . . Hebrew
Hefele Concilien‑ C• J. van Hefele Concilia»purhiehte continued b J. $ergenr6ther, vole. L‑vi., peac~ichte. • . . . ~ viii .‑iz ~reiburgr 1883‑93
Heimbucher Or‑ M.		Heimbuaher. Dre Orden and Konpro
	den and tCon‑	gationen der koMoliachan %irchs. 2d ed.
	prepatiorun. . . 		vole.. Paderborn, 1907
HelYot. Ordru P. HelYOt, Hietoire des ordru monaa‑
monaatiques.. . Paris ' 1714‑igieu19,x new edxh8ret 31s‑42 vote,
Hendereon, Doo‑ E. F• hiendereonr Select X' iatorxal Docuumenta . . . . . ~ manta of the Mufdle Apes, London, 1892
lust .. . . . . . . . . . . . History, histoire, historic
Hiat. ecc1. . . . . . . I H
	History
Ham . . . . . . . . . . . . Homilia, homiliai, •' homily, homilies "
Hos .. . . . . . . . . . . . Hoaea
Jaffd, BRa...
. . . Italian
...JshvieE (Yshwiet)
. . . Journal As,atique Paris, 1822 eqq~
P. Jaffd, •BibZiatheoa rerun l3ermanicarom, 8 vole., Berlin, 1884‑73
• P. Jaff6, Repesta	m Romariorum
	ad	annum 11 • , Berlin, 1881;
	9.d ed.. Leipsio, 1881‑88
Journal the American Oriental Society,
•	New Haven 1849 eqq.
• Journal of Bit1ica1 Literature and Ezsgssia, first sDPeered se Journal of the Bocidy of Biblical Literature and Exopuu' , Middletown, 1882‑88, then BoetoJ180eEq.
The swish neyc7opedia, 12 vole., New
' ' •	York, 1901‑08
	JE .. . . . . 	. . . ~ The combined narrative of the Jahviet
		(Yshwiet) and Elohist
	Jer .		Jeremiah
		Flaviue Joeephue, " Antiquitiee of the
JoeePhue. Ant . . Jews "
Joseph ue, Apso~n • Flaviue Joeephue, " Against Apion "
Joeephus, 	e. . . Life of Flavors Josephue
Joaephne. War. ..Flaviue Joeephue, The Jewish War "
	Josh 	Joshua
JPT . . . . . . . . . . ~ JaArbuchar far prokafantische Thaolapie,
			Leipeic, 1875 eqq.
	JQR 	. 	. .; The Ja~oiah Quarterly Reviata, London,
			1888 eqq.
	JRAB. 	. 	.; J°urn°L of the Royal Asiatic 3oceaty, Lon
			don, 1834 eqq.
	JTB 		lJournal of Theological Studies, London,
			1899 eqq.
Julian, Hynt‑	J. Julian. A Dictionary of Hymnology,
	nolopy . . . . . . .	revised edition, London, 1907.
	Jaarboeken moor Wefanse7wppalm‑ke Theo‑
	JWT .	~mcht 184b eqq.
	RAT 	See er
	KB 	See Schrader
	KD 	See Friedrich, Hauck, Rettbe
		Wetur and Wslle'a %ir~ 2d
	KL . . . 	. . . . . . . ed., by J, Hergenrbther and F. Kaulen,
		12 vole., Freiburg, 1882‑1903
		(G. Kroger, History of Early Christian
Kroger. History j Literature in the First Three Centuries,
		New York, 1897
Srvmbacher,	K• Krumbeahet, (leachichts der bymn‑
	OeacAidRe .	i~Litteratur, 2d ad., Munich,
	P. 1.sbbe., Bacrorum coneiliorum nova et
Labbe, Concilia amviiaasma colledio, 31 vole., Florence
		an Venice, 17b9‑98
Lam . . . _ . . . . . . . . Lamentations
"'J E~ ~ .		Ire
	land	of
	Hssl 	lire, 182	4 vole.9
	Lat		Latin, Latinised
	Leg .		Leoee, Leyum
	Lev .		Levitaoue
Lichtenberger, ~F. Lichtenberger, Encltelopbdie des sci
	EBR . . .. . .. . °n°°s ''°L• 13 vole.. Paris, 1877‑
Lorena, DQQ . . ~ O•1 Lorenz, kn in 3fitteia7t er, ,3de d..Berlin, 1887
	LXX 	The Beptusgint
	I Mace 	I Mscesbees
	iI mace 	II Maccabees
Mai, Nova coL JA. Mai, Bcriptorum vaferum nova ool‑
	taaio . . . . . .	Te~io, 10 vole. Rome, 1826‑38
Mat . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maladu
Mann. Popes ..• R. C. M	Lives of the Popes in the
	Early Efdpee London, 1902 eqq.
G. i). Manei, 3arictarum concliiorum Manzi, Concilia. tollecfio nova, 31 vole.. Florence erect
		'Venice, 1728
	matt 	Matthew
Monuments (iarmaniar historian, ed. G. H.
	Pens and others, Hanover and Ber
	tin, 1828 eqq. The following abbrevia^
	tione are used for the eeoEione and
	subsections of this work: Ant., Anliqui
	fatee,	Antiquities; Auet. ant.. duo
	tares antiquisaimi, "Oldest Writers '
	Chron. men., Chronica minoro, 1 eeeer
	Chronicles • Dip.. IJiplomala, Di
	Plomaet Documents : Eput.. Epw
	tolo<,	Letters"; Goal. pant., Ram.,
	Gaeta pontijlcum Romarwram, ' Deeds
	of the Popes of Rome"; Leg., Lepee,
	' Laws • Lib. de Lice, Libslli de lite
	inter ropnum et aaeeridotium saculorum
	xi. et xii. conacripti, ' Books concerning
MliH . . . . . . . . .the Strife between the Civil and Eode‑
eiaetical Authorities in the Eleventh
and Twelfth Centuries		Nec., Ns
crolopia Qer»ianias,	I~eorology of
~y , P061. Lal.		ami Car.,
Poets Latir» aroi Carolini, '• Latin
Poets of the Caroline Time "• PoeL
Lat. med. a7ri. Poets Latini medii avi,
	Latin Poets of the Middle ~ •
Script., Ber:ptore.. wri,
ters crept. rer. Germ.. Bcriplores rerum (ierman4earu Writers on German Subieete~: serap1. rer. Lanpob.. Bcriptorea
		rsrum Lardimrum et Italioanam,
		Writers on Lombard and Italian
		Subjects ": Script. rer. eroroinpicarMumer, ovBcrip
		toros rerum M ' Writera
		on Movingian Subjects "
	Mic 	Micah
		H. H, Mil‑an, History of Latin CAris‑
Milman, Latin ~ fianity~ Includi that of the Popes to
	Christianity . .	Nicholas ~	8 vole., London,
		1880‑81
C. Mirb6, Quelkn sur Oeaehseh<e des Papeh Mirbt, QueLlen. • I lame and des rthnierhsn Katholieiemus,
TBbingen, 1901
MPG . . . . . . . . .. J. P. Mi ~n a Petrologic tarsus camplebu,
eeriss~a!ca 182 vole., Paris, 18
MPL . . . . . . . . . . ~ J. P. Mign e, Aatrolopice tarsus oompIetw,
series Latina, 221 vole., Paris, 1844‑84
MS.. MSS... .....ManueariDt. Manuscripts
Muratori, Scrip‑ I L. A. Muratori, Rerum Italioarum aeriptoree . . . . . . . . . latex. 28 vole.. 172361
			. . ~ Nauea Archie der Gessuschajt far titters
	NA 	.....	dsuGrAa Oeachiehts&unde. over.
			1878 eqq.
Nah . . . . . . . . . . . . Nshum
n.d. . . . : . . . .. . . .no date of publication
Neander Chrss‑IA' Neander, (3aneral History qj the Christian Glhwch.. ~n Religion and ChurcA, 8 Vale., sad
			index, Boston, 1872‑81
	Neh .			Nehemiah
N i o e r o n , Mol ‑I A. P. Niaeron, bf Emoirea pour servir b moues .. . . . . . l'hietoiro des Aommes illwtrea . . . , 43
vole., Paris, 1729‑4b
NRZ . . . . . . . . . ~ N°u° kirchliche Zeitaehsift, Leipeio, 1890
eqq~
Nowaok, Arch&. W. Nowaek, ZeArbuch der hsbrdisclbn olopie .. .. . .. . ArehBolopis. 2 vole., Freiburg, 1894
n.p. .. . . ... .. .. no place of publication
			The Nicene and PoshNiane Fathers, let
	NPNF . . 	. . . . .	series, 14 vole., New York, 1887‑92; 2d
			aeries, 14 vole., New York, 1890‑1900
			New Testament, Nooum Tsstamentum,
			Nouveau Testament, Neu*& Testament
	Num . . . . . . . . . . . 	Numbers
	Ob		Obsdiah

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
	Ordo Sandi Benedid4 "Order of St.
O. S. B.. . . . . . . . Benedict ..
	O. T		Old Testament
	OTJC .		See Smith
	P		Priestly document
		L. Pastor, The COMMA'* tPopes It=
	Pastor, PMT		flee Close of A,a, 8 v=
		London,1891‑1908
PRA . . . . . . . . . . . J P°hw °wis°ia Anpdioana, ed. J. A. Giles.
	84 vole. Iandonf 19388‑d8
PEF .... .. . . .. ...Palestine kp1oration Fund
	I Pet 	First Epistle ~ ~of Peter
	11 Pet .		Seoond, of Peter
		B. PlatinaVLives of We Popes boas
Plating, Popes.. Gregory ll. to . . . Paul 1 ., 2
		London, n.d.
Pliny, Hiss. net‑P6ny. Historic natwalis
Potthset, Wep‑S A. Potthavwd
	toeiser ... .... . werkeBerlin, 1898
	prov 	Proverbs
	Ps 	Psalms
	P$BA. . 	. . . Phi
01‑Ae society of
s 	Biblical
uod (w
	R .		Redaotor
	. L. van Ranks, History o1 the Popes.
P°p°'' 		8 vole., London, 1908
	RDM .	.......		Revue dot deux monde@, Paris, 1881 eqq.
	RR			8ee Hauok‑Hersog
Reich, Docu‑ 	E. Reich, 3QlectDOCalnente rl<a.NMtigp ~e‑
	megte . . diavd and Modem History London,1905
	RRJ .			Rmwe den dludes Juiroes, Yari 1880 pq. W. Re ' . to
Rettbere. RD... j F'	2 	M
Rev. .. . . . . . . . . . .BookM Revelation
RHR . ... ... . . . . Room de l kiefoire dot rdipions, Paris,
	1880eq q. ~
'E. C. R.ianar~eon, Alphabetical Subject Index and Index Bnqclopmdia to Period‑
ical Articles on Religion, 1880‑88, New
York, 1907.
A. L. liichterR Ldxbuds der kathdischen and em~pe~fICk61t Kifa. 8th ed. by W. Kohl Leipedo, 1888
	RRe‑(E. Robineo%oX. biblical Reeees in
saarc>rea, sad Palestine , 1841	and Later
Later Re‑	Biblicaleeeardue in Palestine, 8d ed.
	"arches . . . . . . , 	of the whole, 8 vole.. 1887
Robinson, Burs‑ J. H. Robinson. Reading# in ~nfepe~n pean Hsttoru. . Xsstorys 2 vole,g~t~, 1901‑08
Robineon a a d J. H. Robmeon sad C. A. Beard DaoslopBeard. Modern meet of Modern Swops. 2 volo.. Boston,
	Rurope .		1907
	Rom. . . . . . . 	. . . . Epistle to the Romans
		a ecdliastiques, Awes'
	R$R .		1880‑74, Amiene, 1875 oqq.
RTP... . . . . . . . . R°°a° d°	et de pkiloaopkis,
	Lausanne, 1878
R. V... .... .... . . .Revised Version (of the English Bible)
	am .		eaculum. " century "
I Sam .... . . ... . . .I Samuel
	II Sam . 	. . . . .II Samuel
38A . . . . . . . . . . 3	p	Berliner Akademie,
			Berlin, 1882
			F. Maz MOller and others, The Sacred
	3BR 	.........	,coke o We Rant, Oxford, 1879 pQ.,
			Vol. :lvi., 1904
			Sacred Books the Old Twtame:^.t (" Raia•
	380T 	. . . . . .	bow pmo, London, and

Behalf. Chridian P. Schaff, Xiefory of the Chridian Church, Chua‑rA . . . . . . . Vale. i.‑iv., vi., vii., New York,18892,
	vol. v., pert 1, by D. S. Schaff, 1907
Sohs¢, Creole P. Schaff The Creeds 188 vole. kew York,	of ~hrirtendora,
	7784
	E. Schrader Cuneiform Inscriptions and
Schrader, COT. .	~Fufament, 2 vole., Loon,
1895‑0
Schrader, %d T .
Schrader. $B. . .
Riohsrdaon Rn
	cydopaedria...'
Richter, RinMw,
	recAt .........
Scherer.
(iesdichte. . ...
E. Schrader. Die Reilinsdsijtan and doe Alts Testament, 2 vole.. Berlin 1902‑08
E. 8ohrader, %slinerhrittliche 11ibiiotkak, 8 vole.. Ber' 1889‑1901
'E. Scherer, Geschichis des jQdiaehen Vdket ins ZeiWltrrJsau Christi. 4th ad.. 8 vole. Leipma 190.; Ena. trend., b vole.. New York, 12r
	$aipt .		3aiptoree, writers
Scrivener,	F. H. A. Scrivener. In6rodsktion foNess Tse
	rnbrodudiors . . 	foment Criticism. 4th ad., London, 1894
	Bow .		3enterdiar " Sentences "
	B. J. . . . . . . 	. . . .8ociefas .tees, Society of Jesus "
	$Md 	$ittu der Msndtener Aka
		deasss.oh. 1880 oqq. and
Smith, Kinship. . ~ W.R. ALonndon, 1903Marriagein
Smith, One. .. W• R. Smith, The Old Testmneat to the
	Jewish Ck 	London, 1892
Smith, Prephets.. ~ w. $. Smith,	o/ rerod . . to
	the R~ 	London, 1895
Smith. Ref. o/ W. R. th~>piow of the 3emifee,
	$em .		London. 18%
	8. P. C. B. . 	. Society ledgefor the Promotion of Christian

S. P. G. . . . . . . . . ~° r the p~ Propagation of the Gospel
	p . pq		and f= Wing
	BVorw .		3bRoMOfa. 11 Miscellanies
u
	e.v		eub voce, or sub verbo
Swete, rntroduo‑ ~ HS.~B. Swet0. Introduction	Ale Old Too
	:::::: ~lio~n ....lament in Greek. 	1900
	TBS		Trinitsrisa Bible Society
Thstoher gad 1O. J. Thatcher sad ~ H. McNeal, A
MoNesl,Hourae~ Source Book for Mediaeval Hisser%
	Book 	. . . . . . . New York, 1906
	I Them 	. . .First ells to the Thessalonians
	II These .	Seoonde to the Thessalonians
	TkT 	..	. TijdacArift, Amsterdam and pq
Tillemont, M6I L' S. le N887 sin de ~Ti)lemoat, MEmoirse
			eal6siaetiques do ris ien
	moiree .			18 vole. Paris, 18‑1 12
I 15m . . . . . . First ells to Timothy
II Tim::::*.*. .....Seoon~ W Timothy
			Tkeolop"ff Jakresbmieke, Leiped0. 1882
	TJB			1887, Feniburg 1888. Brunswick 1889
			1~; 1898 p .
	TLS			Ta~ Bonn, 1888
	TLZ .		T	^o. LeiDela
		187 p~qs
	Tob .		Tobit
	TQ 	~ Thoo°gWis Quarmlsdlrift, TebinBen,
		1819eq q.
	T$		J. A. Robinson, Texts and Studies,
		Gmbridge, 1891 p
		T A~rchoisa~.~'of Biuicd
		~hsdsssdou~ HHsm
	T$R .	. . . . . . . bs,~. 1828 pq.
		r Tern, Untersurdunpen sw Oesdaidatr
		der allcbiWichm Linaratur, ad. 0. Von
		Gebhatdt and A. Harnadc, Leipsi0.
		1882 oqq.
		1838‑40
Ugolini, Thesau‑ B.~us,~ Theeawue se~ustalons
	rve .		aaanrum, 84 vole. Venice.44~9
	V. T. . . 	. . . . . 9etw Teafanrmtssm, View Testament, Old
		Testament
		i W. Wstteabach, Deutadrlagds (JescAichts‑
	bth ad., 2 vole.. Berlin, 1886;
th e2 . 1898‑94
I J. Wellhaueea, Redo ara6iechen XsidsnJung, Berlin, 1887
~J.ueen, Prolegomena sw OesdlidUe
i	Inane, 8th ed.. Berlin, 1906, Ena.
	traoel., FdinburZh, 1886
Zahn. .binlrei‑ ' . . ~ Zeitedati~t ~gr. Aasyrio(opie, Leipd0.
	1888‑88,_ Berlin, 1889 ed4i q. Hew Tetta
lsap . . . ... . .	T' ~ ~inleitsnp in
8d ed.. Lei 	1907
r_t_ p~.r . ) T.‑	OaaAieAfe des neutsbenR
agoru 2 vole.. LeiDei0. 1888‑02 Zei4dsrift tar his aluestafnentfirAe Wis.
Zit&k.riftfQrZ= ~saddeaf‑

		0.187mZDMO	Zsi fder nupedikew
~Leuipascike 1847eqq.Zt'~dePbilooDe, Halb,
	ZDPY .		ZIIR. do doulocken Pal"aa‑Ver‑
			sa
			ins. pals. 1878 oqq.
	Zeah		Zeohsrish
	Zoph .	. . .	7.ephaniah
Wsttenbsoh,
Wellhsm~,
	Xeidentuns . . . .
WeVhaueen,
	Pmlepoigega...
~Z
published Wdie succeed	t
I	urt and Goths. 188245
	ZRO 	~Z°'in for Rirdvsnpsadsiol~ts. Got6q,
		1878 oqq.
	ZHR . . . . 		ZRirrAsn"echt' Berlin, T0.
		Z~ , 1881 qe, Ikasholischo nar
		bruoiy 1877 e9q .
		. . . ~ Z°~^ft for katt3siirAe W'us~! wad
		kirchlichea Leben, Leipeia i
		ZQitadWt for die neutaetamaneLiche Win.
		emschaft. Giessen, 1900 oqq.
	ZPR		zoitschrift
		Erlan~ 1888‑78
		Zeitsolusjt 19r missensekafthdle Thedopil,
	ZWT .		. Jena, 1868‑00, Hall% 1881‑87, Lay"
		pq.
1888

SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION
The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew:
_ ' or omitted at the	T = Z	y =
	beginning of a word.	n=4	g = p
3_b	tD=t	p=phorp

Z=bhorb	'=y
y=z,
a=g	=k	=k
a=ghorg	7=khork	1=r
‑r=d		5=1	t~=a
	=dhord	b ‑m	~j=sh
	=h=n		n=t
		w	p‑s	n=thort

The vowels are transcribed by a, e, i, o, u, without attempt to indicate quantity or quality. Arabic and other Semitic languages are transliterated according to the same system as Hebrew. (reek is written with Roman characters, the common equivalents being used.
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
When the pronunciation is self‑evident the titles are not respelled; when by mere division and accentuation it can be shown sufficiently clearly the titles have been divided into syllables, and the accented
syllables indicated.
	a	as in sofa	a as	in	not	iu	as in duration
« <. arm		g 1.	< <	nor	c = k	~. « cat
	a " " at	u "	"	full'	ch	" " church
	8 " " fare	fl "	"	rule	cw = qu as in queen
	e « « pen'	v "	"	but	dh (th)	" " the
		« « fate	'D « .~ 		burn	f	.< « f‑cy
	i '° " tin	ad " ~~ 		pine	g (hard) "	" go
	f " " machine	au " "		out	H	" " loch (Scotch)
	o " " obey	ei " "		oil	hw (wh)	" " why
		u « no	iu « o~ 	few	i 	« a jaw

' In accented syllables only; in unaccented syllables it approximates the sound of a in over. The letter n, with a dot beneath it, indicates the sound of n as in ink. Nasal n (as in French words) is rendered n. I In German and French names a approximates the sound of a in dune.

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
GOAR, SAINT: Reputed missionary on the Middle Rhine. According to his biography in the Acta Sanctorum, he came from Aquitaine to the Rhine in the reign of the Frankish King Childebert I. (511‑558), and built a cell and a chapel on the site of the later town of St. Goar (on the left bank of the Rhine, 15 m. s. of Coblenz), where he passed his life in spiritual exercises and the entertainment of travelers, and converted not a few pagans. His very hospitality was,made a ground of complaint by two clerics from Treves; but he defended himself so impressively before Rusticus, the bishop of that see, that King Sigebert (561‑576) desired to make him bishop instead of Rusticus. Goar declined, returned to his cell, and died there seven years later. The legend, which goes back only to the ninth century, has not the slightest historical value. According to a document of Louis the Pious, dated 820, Pepin and his queen Bertha built a cell over the saint's grave, and Pepin is said to have assigned it to the jurisdiction of Abbot Asuer of Priim, while Charlemagne, in 788, assigned the cell as a residence for Tassilo of Bavaria. In the eleventh century it was changed into a house of canons, and it continued so till the Reformation.
(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The early anonymous life, with commentary, a second life and Miracula ere in ABB, July, ii. 327‑346; the later life and Miracula are also in MGH, Script., xv (1887), 361‑373. Consult: A. Grebel, Gaachichte der Stadt 8t. Goar, St. Go., 1848; P. Heber, Die vorkarolinpiachen chriselichen Glaubenahelden am Rhein, pp. 130‑140; Rettberg, KD, i. 465, 481; Friedrich, %D, ii. 175; DCB, ii. 687‑888.
GOATS. See PASTORAL LIFE, HEBREW.
	GOBAT, go"bs', SAMUEL: Second Anglican
German bishop in Jerusalem; b. at Grdmine (23
m. s.s.W. of Basel), Switzerland, Jan. 26, 1799; d.
at Jerusalem May 11, 1879. Desiring to become a
missionary, he went to the Missionshaus at Basel
(1821), where he received his theological training,
after which he studied in Paris. After having
been ordained in the state church of Baden, he was
sent to England to seek employment from the
Church Missionary Society. He was destined for
Abyssinia, but was compelled to wait three years
in Egypt before he was admitted. In 1829, with his
companion Christian Kugler, he entered the country.
King Saba Gadis received them with kindness, and
a time of zealous and successful work followed.
After three years Saba Gadis was killed in war and
Gobat had to flee from the country. When peace
		V.‑1
was restored he went back, but sickness of himself and wife made a return to Europe necessary.
In 1846 King Frederick William IV. of Prussia appointed him to the bishopric of Jerusalem (see JERUaALEM, ANGLICAN‑GERMAN BrsHorRIc IN). Despite the peculiar and difficult conditions, and notwithstanding the opposition of the Oriental bishops and the mistrust of many Anglicans, Gobat labored faithfully until his death. His Journal of a Three Years' Residence in Abyssinia was published in London, 1834. CTHEODOR SCH"ER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mme. L. Roehrich, Samuel Gobat . .
&Bque anglican de Jerusalem, Paris, 1880, Germ. transl.,
Basel, 1884; Eng. transl. (from the Germ.) with preface
by the Earl of Shaftesbury, London, 1884; T. Hchoelly,
S. Gobat, Evanqelischer Bisdkof in Jerusalem, Basel, 1'100.

GOBELINUS PERSONA. See PERsoNA.

GOCH, g6a, JOHANN VON (Johann Pupper or Capupper): One of the "Reformers before the Reformation "; b. at Goch (43 m. n.w. of Diisseldorf) early in the fifteenth century; d. near Mechlin. Mar. 28, 1475, or later. He probably received his first education in a school of the Brethren of the Common Life, perhaps in Zwolle. He studied at the University of Cologne, and possibly also in Paris. In 1459 he founded the priory of Thabor for canonesses of St. Augustine, and governed it till his death.
Goch stood on the threshold of the Reformation in so far as he minimized the traditions of the Church and acknowledged as the only authorities the Bible and the Fathers. But in the central point of reformatory dogmatics, in the doctrine of justification, he still stood on the ground of the Middle Ages. He attacked monasticism on the ground that it could not be justified from the Bible, and that it lowered the value of grace, since the monastic vow was considered to lead to true Christian perfection. Against the doctrine of a twofold morality Goch argued that the so‑called " counsels " belong to Evangelical law as well as the " precepts," and are to be observed by both the clergy and the laity. By giving due regard to the secular professions, he rose above the one‑sided asceticism of the Middle Ages. As an extreme nominalist, Goch rejected all speculation in the sphere of religion, and strongly emphasized the authority of the Church. As a mystic he aimed at a closer and more intimate union with God through love of him and our fellow men. His importance

God	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
for the history of dogma lies in the fact that he belonged to the Augustinian reaction at the end of the Middle Ages which, by a revival of the Augustinian monism of grace, tried to combat the Semi‑Pelagianism and Pelagianism of the time and justification by works. His literary works remained long unknown. His chief work, De ltbertate Christians, which was written in 1473, appeared in print only
1. Name and General Conception, II. The God of Scripture.
Old Testament: Ethical Conception (§ 1).
New Testament: Fatherhood of God (§ 2).
Attributes of God (§ 3). III. The Doctrine of God in Christian Theology.
Dependence upon Pre‑Christian Thought (§ 1).
Platonism (§ 2).
L Name and General Conception: Though the reality of God's existence is the most certain of all truths to the Christian, it follows from the nature of the case that a thoroughly satisfactory definition of the idea of God can never be reached. A logical definition requires the use of genus and differentia, which are, of course, absent in the case of God; nor can he be subsumed in the same genus with other things. Nevertheless, the religions of the world have succeeded in reaching quite distinct conceptions of one or more gods without strict definitions. All of them, even the lowest, include in their idea of God that he is a being endowed with power over men and nature. A certain spiritual character is attributed to him by the fact of his invisibility; but the religious conception of God includes especially the idea of a will by which he acts on men. The more developed religions conceive this will as almighty, and refer the original being of all things to its operation. The most important element, however, according to Christian revelation, is the ethical nature of that will as the absolute good, determining the development of the world toward good ends.
Il. The God of Scripture: The Old Testament revelation is peculiar for its conception of God as wholly and from the beginning standing in an ethical relation to humanity, and espe‑
r. Old Tes‑ cially to his people Israel. It does
tament: not begin with theoretical speculaEthical tions as to his existence and nature,
Conception. but with his moral claims, his promises, and the proclamation to his people of his acts. The fear of him is based upon his absolute ethical exaltation, which repels and condemns all that is morally unclean. The proper name of the covenant God is Yahweh (q.v.). The exposition of the name in Ex. iii. 14 expresses not merely the general and abstract being of God, but the immutability of that being, and in its independence of anything beyond itself God's character as a spirit comes out clearly‑a, personal spirit, as distinguished from a force of nature. This spirit appears as the creative and motive principle of all life in the world, figured as a breath or wind (Ps. civ. 29,
GOD.
Alexandrian Judaism (§ 3). Gnosticism (§ 4). Post‑Apostolic Theologians (§ 5). Augustine (§ 6). Scotus Erigena (§ 7). The Scholastic Philosophers (§8). The Mystics (§ 9). The Reformers (§ 10). Leibnitz and Wolff (§ 11). Kant and Fichte (§ 12). Hegel (§ 13). Post‑Hegelian Philosophers (§ 14).
in 1521. The work which gives his most mature
thought is Dialogue de quattuor erroribus circa legem
evangelicam exortis, which was printed probably in
1523. 	(OTTO CLEMEN.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: O. Clemen, Johann Pupper von Goch, Leip. sic, 1896; a very complete treatment will be found in C. Ullmann, Reformers before the Reformation, i. 17‑157, where the earlier literature is fully given.
Schleiermacher (§ 15).
Modern Tendencies (§ le).
IV. In English and American Theology. The Deistic Period in England (§ 1).
The Same Period in America (§ 2).
Nineteenth‑Century Developments
(§ 3).
Theistic Arguments (§ 4).
Immanence (§ 5).
Fatherhood of God (§ 6).
30), especially of human life, originally breathed into man by God (Gen. ii. 7; Job xxxiii. 4; Eccl. xii. 7). The infinite fulness of power and majesty comprised in God and displayed in the revelation of his will and power is expressed by the plural form Elohim, used as it is in connection with the strictest monotheistic views. With the belief in the divine holiness is associated from the beginning the thought of a revelation of divine grace and love. God chooses Israel to be his people, redeems them from bondage, and on this ground requires from them obedience to his law. In virtue of the relation in which he thus stands to the people, and especially to the theocratically chosen king (II Sam. vii.; Pa. ii.), to which a filial obedience and confidence are supposed to correspond on their side, he deigns to be called their Father (Ex. iv. 22; Deut. xxxii. 6; Hos. xi. 1; Isa. lxiii. 16). The idea of the unity of God receives a practical application from the first; Yahweh alone is to be recognized and worshiped as God, and loved with the whole heart (Ex. xx. 2 sqq.; Deut. vi. 4, 5); and the universal dominion of the One God is everywhere proclaimed as a fundamental truth. It is, then, this ethicalreligious view of God and his relation to Israel and to humanity in general, together with the doctrine of the kingdom which he founds, and not any abstract conception of the unity of God, that forms the essential characteristic of the Old Testament revelation.
The New Testament revelation is characterized by the fact that God now reveals himself in the highest and fullest sense as a father to all those who share in his salvation or are members of his kingdom, and in the most absolute and perfect way as the father of Jesus Christ. On this a. New Tes‑ relation of sonahip is based the free,
tament: confident access to God and enjoyment Fatherhood of his love and all the blessings con‑
	of God.	nected with it; and the children are
		required to resemble their father in
character (Matt. v. 9, 16, 44). While in the Old
Testament Israel taken as a whole sometimes
appears as a son, here God's relation is to the indi
vidual; although this fact does not interfere with

a	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	clod
the other thought that the children of the One Father form a community, a kingdom of God, and that they can enjoy their union with God only when they are thus united with each other. According to Paul, the Spirit of God dwells in the Church as the motive power and principle of an entire new inner life in the sons of God‑who have also attained to their faith in Christ and their sonship only through the same Spirit (I Cor. xii. 3). The internal change effected from above is set forth as a new birth (see REGENERATION). John contrasts this birth from God with the ordinary human, physical birth (John i. 12; I John iii. 9, v. 4). It is especially John and Paul who conceive God's relation to man under these aspects of self‑revelation, foundation of a community, and self‑communication; but I Peter also contains the idea of our being born again of incorruptible seed (i. 23), and James of our being begotten of God with the word of truth (i. 18). The effect of this fatherhood is finally to be the filling of the children with all the fulness of God (Eph. iii. 19, iv. 6).
	This whole relation of God to the faithful is
brought about through Christ. He is called the
Son absolutely, the only‑begotten, just as he calls
God his father with a distinction ("my father and
your father," John xx. 17, not " our father ").
This he is by virtue of his primary origin, not through
a	regeneration. It is through him that all the
others become children of God; the spirit of their
adoption is his Spirit (Gal. iv. 6; II Cor. iii. 17;
cf. John xiv ‑xvi. ). The fulness of God is communi
cated to the Church and to the individual as it is
comprehended and revealed in him (Col. ii. 10;
Eph, iv.13, ii. 22). And of him who, as the historic
Christ and Son, is the partaker of the divine life
and the head of the kingdom, and shall see all
things put under him, it is asserted by Paul, the
Epistle to the Hebrews, and the Johannine writings
(including the Apocalypse) that in like manner all
things were created by him and through him, that
in him they have their life and being, and that all
divine revelation is his revelation‑the revelation
of the Logos. Thus the New Testament idea of
God includes the doctrine that from the very begin
ning the Word was with God and of divine character
and essence. With this relation of God to the
Logos the elements appear which are treated at
greater length in the article TRINITY.
But this relation of God to his children must be clearly distinguished from God's relation to the universal natural life of personal spirits and to nature in general. The expression " the Father of spirits " in Heb. xii. 9 (cf. " the God of the spirits of all flesh," Num. xvi. 22, xxvii. 16) refers not to the regenerate as such, and not to birth from God, but to creation by him, in which (cf. Gen. i. 2) he has imparted his image by the breathing of his Spirit. With the same reference the saying of the pagan poet " We are also his offspring " is quoted in Acts xvii. 28. In this same passage Paul expresses the general relation of God to man, which subsists even in those who have rejected him, by the words " In him we live, and move, and have our being." At the same time, it is said of the glorified Christ, who fills the Church, that he fills all things
(Eph. i. 23, iv. 10). and this can only mean the whole world, over which he presides, his divine powers first penetrating humanity, and then through it bringing all things into harmony with his purposes. Thus, as all things proceed from God and exist in him, so he, and especially he as revealed in Christ, with his plan of salvation and his kingdom, is the final goal of all things (cf. Rom. xi. 36).
Both in Christian revelation and in the idea of the fatherhood of God, love is a fundamental element. It is most forcibly expressed in the assertion that " God is love " (I John iv. 8, 16)‑not love in the abstract merely, still less a. loving God.
This is, in fact, the determining eIe3. Attributes ment in God's nature. From it fol‑
of God. lows that the perfect, almighty One,
who needs nothing (Acts xvii. 25), communicates himself to his creatures and brings them into union with him, in order to make them perfect and so eternally happy. Its highest expression is found in the fact that he gave his Son for us while we were yet sinners, and desired to make us his sons (I John iv. 10, iii. 1, 2; Rom. v. 8, viii. 32). But God is not only love; he is also light (I John i. 5). By this may be understood his perfect purity, which repels and excludes all that is unclean; his function as the source of pure moral and religious truth; and his glorious majesty. That the supreme, holy, and loving God, the Father of spirits, is himself a spirit is taken for granted all through the New Testament. In John iv. 24, where this is brought up to enforce the lesson that he is to be worshiped in spirit, without narrow confinement to a special place or to outward forms, it is spoken of as not a new truth but one which Jews and Samaritans were supposed already to know, and for whose consequences they should be prepared. The Yahweh‑name of Ex. iii. 14 is further developed, in Rev. i. 4, 8, xxi. 6, xxii. 13, into "Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the ending, which is, and which was, and which is to come." The eternity of God is thus placed in its relation to the development of the world and to its ultimate conclusion in the completed revelation of God and of his kingdom. See HEATHENISM, § 4.
III. The Doctrine of God in Christian Theology: The Christian revelation and its teachings about God supplied a distinct moral and religious need; but even after it had accomplished the foundation of a community based upon these ideas, there was
still room for a clear definition of its :. Depend‑ different elements and an investiga‑
ence upon tion of their relations to other depart‑
Pre‑Chris‑ ments of the intellectual life‑in a tian word, for a Christian science of the‑
Thought. ology. But Christian theology in its
earliest stages made use of the results of pre‑Christian, especially Greek, thought‑the methods and forms of philosophical reasoning, general logical and metaphysical categories, and philosophic views of the Godhead and its relation to the world, which, although they had originated on pagan soil and were in no way permeated by the spirit of Scriptural revelation, were yet considered as elevated far above the common polytheism of the heathen world, and even as borrowed in part from

God	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	4
the Old Testament. These elements had a distinct influence upon Christian theology; and it is also indisputable that, compared with the spirit known in the New Testament writings, the inner life of the succeeding generations showed a marked falling off in energy and depth, and gave room for reaotions of a non‑Christian tendency, sometimes mainly pagan, sometimes more Jewish, but always based upon the natural disposition of sinful humanity.
In regard to philosophy, it is necessary to bear in mind the more or less direct influence of Plar tonism, which viewed as the highest of all things the good that was above all being and all knowledge, identified it with the divine naus, and
2. Plato‑ attempted to raise the human spirit nism. into the realm of ideas, into a likeness with the Godhead; which taught men to rise to the highest by a process of abstraction disregarding particulars and grasping at universals, and conceived the good of which it spoke not in a strictly ethical sense, but as, after all, the most utterly abstract and undefinable, entirely eluding all attempts at positive description. Neoplatonism (q.v.) went the furthest in this conception of the divine transcendence; God, the absolute One, was, according to Plotinus, elevated not only above all being, but also above all reason and rational activity. He did not, however, attempt to attain to this abstract highest good by reasoning or logical abstraction, but by an immediate contact between God and the soul in a state of ecstasy.
This tendency was shared by a school of thought within Judaism itself, whose influence upon Christian theology was considerable. The more Jewish speculation, as was the case especially at Alexandria, rose above an anthropomorphic idea of God to a spiritual conception, the more abstract the latter became. In this connection Platonism was the principal one of the Greek philosoph‑
3. Alexan‑ ical systems toward which this Jewish drian theology maintained a receptive atti‑
	Judaism.	tude. According to Philo, God is to
		on, " that which is " par excellence,
and this being is rather the most universal of all
than the supreme good with which Plato identified
the divine; all that can be said is that God is,
without defining the nature of his being. Between
God and the world a middle place is attributed by
Philp to the Logos (in the sense of ratio, not at all
in the Johannine sense), as the principle of diversity
and the summary of the ideas and powers operating
in the world.
When the Gnostics attempted to construct a great system of higher knowledge from a Christian standpoint, through assimilating various Greek and Oriental elements, and worked the facts of the Christian revelation into their fantastic speculation on general metaphysical and cosmic
4. Gnosti‑ problems (see GNOSTICISM), this abcism. atract Godhead became an obscure background for their system; according to the Valentinian doctrine, it was the primal beginning of all things, with eternal silence (aige) for a companion.
In the development of the Church's doctrine with Justin and the succeeding apologists, and still more
with the Alexandrian school, the transcendental nature of God was emphasized, while the Scriptures and the religious conscience of
g. Post‑ Christendom still permitted the con‑
	Apostolic	templation of him as a personal and
Theologians. loving Spirit. Theology did not at
		first proceed to a systematic and logical
explanation of the idea of God with reference to
these different aspects. Where philosophical and
strictly scientific thought was active, as with the
Alexandrians, the element of negation and abstrac
tion got the upper hand. God is, especially with
Origen, the simple Being with attributes, exalted
above nous and ousia, and at the same time the
Father, eternally begetting the Logos and touching
the world through the Logos. In opposition to
this developed a Judaistic and popular conception
of God which leaned to the anthropomorphic, and
also a view like Tertullian's, which, under the influ
ence of Stoic philosophy, felt obliged to connect
with all realities, and thus also with God, the idea
of a tangible substance. In this direction Dionysius
the Areopagite (q.v.) finally proceeded to a really
Neoplatonist theology, with an inexpressible God
who is above all categories, both positive and negar
tive, and thus is neither Being nor Not‑being; who
permits that which is to emanate from himself in a
descending scale coming down to things perceived
by the senses, but is unable to reveal his eternal
truth in this emanation. With this doctrine is con
connected, after the Neoplatonist model, an inner
union with God, an ecstatic elevation of the soul
which resigns itself to the process into the obscure
depth of the Godhead. The ethical conception
of God and redemption thus gives place to a phys
ical one, just as the emanation of all things from God
was described as a physical process; and as soon
as speculation attempts to descend from the hidden
God to finite and personal life, this physical view
connects itself with the abstract metaphysical.
In the West there was long a lack of scientific and speculative discussion of the idea of God. Augustine, the most significant name in Western theology, sets forth the conception of God as a selfconscious personal being which fitted in with his doctrine of the Trinity; but as his own development had led him through Platonism, the influence of that philosophy is found in the
6. Augus‑ idea of God which he developed systine. tematically and handed down. He conceives God as the unity of ideas, of abstract perfections, of the normal types of being, thinking, and acting; as simple essentia, in which will, knowledge, and being are one and the same. The fundamentally determinant factor in the conception of God by the Augustinian theology is thus pure being in general.
Scotus Erigena (q.v.), who gave Dionysius the Areopagite to Western theology, though Augustine was not without influence upon him, fully accepted the notion of God as the absolute In‑
7. Scotus conceivable, above all affirmation and
	Erigena.	all negation, distinguishing from him
		a world to which divine ideas and
primal forms belong. He emphasizes the other side
of this view‑that true existence belongs to God

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	clod
alone, so that, in so far as anything exists in the universe, God is the essence of it; a practical pantheism, in spite of his attempting to enforce a creative activity on the part of God. The influence of this pantheistic view on medieval theology was a limited one; Amahic of Bena (q.v.), with his proposition that God was all things, was its main disciple.
In accordance with its fundamental character, scholasticism attempted to reduce the idea of God into the categories which related to the laws of thought, to being in general, and to the 8. The Scho‑ world. It began by adapting the lastic Phi‑ Aristotelian terms to its own pur‑
	losophers.	poses. God, or absolute being, was
		to Aristotle the priimum mobile, re
garded thus from the standpoint of causation and
not of mere being, and also a thinking subject. The
ideas and prototypes of the finite are accordingly
to be found in God, who is the final Cause. God,
in Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, is not the
essential being of things, but he is their ease effective
et exemplariter, their primum movers, and their
causa finalia. Aristotelian, again, is the definition
of God's own nature, that he is, as a thinking sub
ject, actus puru8‑pure, absolute energy, without
the distinction found in finite beings between poten
tiality and actuality. In opposition to Thomas,
Duns Scotus emphasized in his conception of God
the primum ens and primum movers, the element of
will and free causation. The arbitrary nature of
the will of God, taught by him, was raised by Occam
to the most important element of his teaching about
God. Upon this abstract conception of the will
of God as arbitrary and unconditioned depend the
questions (so characteristic of scholasticism from
Abelard down) as to whether all things are possible
to God.
About the end of the thirteenth century, by the side of the logical reasonmgs of scholasticism, there arose the mystical theology of Eckhart, which attempted to bring the Absolute near to the hearts of men as the object of an immediate intuition dependent upon complete self‑surrender. The transcendental Neoplatonic conception of the Absolute is here pushed to its extreme, and Dionysius has more influence than Thomas Aquinas. The view of God's relation to the world is almost pantheistic, unless it may be rather called acosg. The mistic, regarding the finite as naught.
	Mystics.	This is Eckhart's teaching, although
		at the same time he speaks of a crea
tion of the world and of a Son in whom God ex
presses himself and creates. This God is regarded
as goodness and love, communicating himself in
a way, but not to separate and independent im
ages of his own being; rather, he possesses and loves
himself in all things, and the surrender to him is
passivity and self‑annihilation. The 9Wling ideas
of this view were moderated by the practical Ger
man mystics and found in this form a wide currency.
On the other hand, pantheistic heretics, such as the
Brethren of the Free Spirit combined antinomian
principles with the doctrine that God was all things
and that the Christian united with God was per
fect as God.
	In partial contrast to the speculative theology
which has been considered above, the practical
popular view of the Middle Ages tended to repre
sent God as a strict autocrat and judge, and to
multiply intermediate advocates with him, of whom
Mary was chief. Luther went back to the God of
Scripture, regarded primarily in his ethical relation
to man, pronouncing curses, indeed, against the
impenitent, but really aiming at man's salvation.
		As the love of God has an ethical,
io. The personal character, so it requires from
Reformers, its human objects not self‑annihilation, but an entrance with all the power of personality into communion with this love and enjoyment of the filial relation. The Christian, though free from bondage to the world, is to realize that it was made by God to serve his purposes. Melanchthon and Calvin, in like manner, avoiding scholastic subtleties, laid stress upon these practical relations. The dogmatic differences, however, between the Lutheran and Reformed confessions point to a fundamental difference in the way of regarding God. The former emphasizes his loving condescension to man's weakness, and teaches a deification of humanity in the person of Christ and a union of the divine operations and presence with means of grace having a created and symbolic side, which the latter, with its insistence upon the supreme exaltation of God, can not admit; and it rejects a theory of an eternal decree of reprobation against a part of humanity which the latter defends by appealing to God's rights over sinners and his absolute sovereignty. The next generation of dogmatic theologians was accustomed to define God as essentia apiritualis infinita, and, in the description of his attributes, to pass from general metaphysical terms to his ethical attributes and those relating to his knowledge. The older rationalistic and supranaturalistic theologians showed an increasing tendency to return for their definitions and expositions to the Scriptures. Nor did they .accomplish much in the way of solving the real problems or investigating the relation between the content of revelation and the knowledge or conception of the divine to be found elsewhere.
The independent metaphysical systems of the philosophers, which embraced God and the world, did not at first make any profound impression on the thought of theologians. Spinoza's pantheism was by its very nature excluded from consideration; but the philosophy of Leibnitz and Wolff, with its conception of God as a supremely perir. Leibnitz feet, personal Being, in whom all pos‑
	and Wolff.	sible realities were embraced in their
		highest form, and with its demonstra
tion of God's existence, offered itself as a friend to
Christian doctrine, and was widely influential. In
so far, however, as the theologians adopted any of
its conclusions, it was with little clearness of insight
or independent thought as to the relation of these
metaphysical concepts to the Christian faith or as
to their own validity.
A new epoch in German philosophy, with which theology had and still has to reckon, came in with Kant. Confidence in the arguments by which God's existence had been proved and defined was at

God
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
least shaken by his criticism, which, however, energetically asserted the firm foundation of moral consciousness, and so led up to God by a new way, in postulating the existence of a deity for the establishment of the harmony required by
rz. Kant the moral consciousness between the and Fichte. moral dignity of the subjects and their happiness based upon the adaptation of nature to their ends. Fichte was led from this standpoint to a God who is not personal, but represents the moral order of the universe, believing in which we are to act as duty requires, without ques‑
tion as to the results.'
	But for a time the most successful and apparently
the most dangerous to Christian theology was a
pantheistic philosophical conception of God which
took for its foundation the idea of an Absolute
raised above subject and object, above thinking and
being; which explained and claimed to deduce all
truth as the necessary self‑development of this idea.
With Schelling this pantheism is still in embryo,
and finally comes back (in his " philosophy of
revelation ") to the recognition of the divine per
sonality, with an attempt to construct it specula
tively. In a great piece of constructive work the
philosophy of Hegel undertook to show how this
Absolute is first pure being, identical with not
being; bow then, in the form of externalization or
		becoming other, it comes to be nature
	13‑ Hegel.	or descends to nature; and finally, in the
		finite spirit, resumes itself into itself,
comes to itself, becomes self‑conscious, and thus now
for the first tune takes on the form of personality.
For Christian theology the special importance of this
teaching was its claim to have taken what Christian
doctrine had comprehended only in a limited way of
God, the divine Personality, the Incarnation, etc.,
and to have expressed it according to its real con
tent and to the laws of thought.
The conservative Hegehans still maintained that God, in himself and apart from the creation of the world and the origin of human personality, was to be considered as a self‑conscious spirit or personality, and thus offered positive support to the Christian doctrine of God and his revelation of himself. But the Hegelian principles were more logically carried out by the opposite wing of the party, especially by David Friedrich Strauss (in his ChristlicheGlaubenslehre Tiibingen, 1840) in the strongest antithesis to the Christian doctrine of a personal God, of Christ as the only Son of God and the God‑Man, and of a personal ethical relation between God and man. Some other philosophers, however, who may be classed in general under the head of the modern speculative idealism, have, in their speculations on the Absolute as actually present in the universe, retained a belief in the personality of God.
The realist philosopher Herba,rt, who recognized a personal God not through speculations on the Absolute and the finite, but on the basis of moral consciousness and teleology, yet defined little about him, and what he has to say on this subject never attracted much attention among theologians. The Hegelian pantheistic " absolute idealism," once widely prevalent, did not long retain its domi‑
nation. Its place was taken first in many quarters, as with Strauss, by an atheistic materialism; Hegel
'	had made the universal abstract into
14‑ Post‑ God, and when men abandoned their
Hegelian belief in this and in its power to pro‑
Philoso‑ lute results, they gave up their belief pliers. in God with it. Among the post‑
'	Hegelian philosophers the most im‑
portant for the present subject is Lotze with his de
fense and confirmation of the idea of a personal
God, going back in the most independent way both
to Herbart and to idealism, both to Spinoza and to
Leibnitz. Christian theology can, of course, only
protest against the peculiar pantheism of Schopen
hauer, which is reallymuch older than he, but never
before attained wide currency, and against that of
Von Hartmann. The significance for the doctrine
of God of the newer philosophical undertakings
which are characterized by an empiricist‑realist
tendency, and based on epistemology and criticism
is found not so much in their definite expressions
about God‑they do not as a rule consider him an
object of scientific expression, even when they allow
him to be a necessary object of faith‑as in the
impulse which they give to critical investigation of
religious belief and perception in general.
	Theology, at least German theology, before
Schleiermacher showed but little understanding of
and interest in the problems regarding a proper
conception and confirmation of the doctrine of God
which had been laid before it in this development of
philosophy beginning with Kant. This is espe
cially true of its attitude toward Kant himaelf
and not only of the aupranaturaliats who were sus
picious of any exaltation of the natural reason, but
also of the rationalists, who still had a superficial
devotion to the Enlightenment and to Wolffian phi
losophy. In Schleiermacher's teaching about God,
however, the results of a devout and immediate
consciousness were combined with philosophical
postulates. In his mind the place of all the so‑called
proofs of the existence of God is completely sup
plied by the recognition that the feeling of absolute
		dependence involved in the devout
rg. Schleier‑ Christian consciousness is a universal
	macher.	element of life; in this consciousness
		he finds the explanation of the source
of this feeling of dependence, i.e., of God, as being
Io ~e, by which the divine nature communicates
itself. For his reasoned philosophical speculation,
however, on the human spirit and universal being,
the idea of God is nothing but the idea of the abso
lute unity of the ideal and the real, which in‑the
world exist as opposites. (Compare Schelling'a
philosophy of identity, unlike which, however,
Schleiermacher acknowledges the impossibility of
a speculative deduction of opposites from an original
identity; and the teaching of Spinoza, whose con
ception o#=iGod, however, as the one substance he
does not share.) Thus God and the universe are to
him correlatives, but not identical‑God is unity
without plurality, the universe plurality without
unity; and this God is apprehended by man's
feeling, just as man's feeling apprehends the unity
of ideal and real.
Marheineke believed it possible as a dogmatic

7	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	God
theologian to set forth the content of the Christian faith from the standpoint of Hegelian philosophy without accepting (or even recognizing as Hegelian) the impersonal, pantheistic idea of the Absolute, and indeed without going deeply into :ti. Modern the train of thought leading up to that Tendencies. idea. Other theologians who more or less followed Schleiermacher, while they agreed with his statements about the devout consciousness, feeling, inner experience, and the like, yet avoided his philosophical definition of God. Others, again, holding to the same point of departure, have striven with zealous confidence to use the main elements of the idea of God thus attained in connection with conceptual speculation and construction in the interests of an objective knowledge of God. Among these may be classed Rothe, Martensen, Domer, and especially Frank. The point particularly aimed at by these men is the vindication of the personality of God, in opposition to the pantheistic philosophy noticed above. A tendency has also appeared to recognize the very being of this God in the world of being created by him, thus giving a theistic conception of God in opposition not only to the pantheistic but also to the deistic. This tendency has, on the one hand, done justice to so much truth as lies in the pantheistic conception, and, on the other, by its adherence to Scriptural forms of expression, it has led to a more vivid realization of the divine nature in its relation to the world than prevailed among the old rationalists and supranaturalists.
The question has also arisen among theologians of the strict positive school, in consequence of the doctrine of Christ as the God‑Man, whether, and if so how far, it is consistent with the divine nature, as found in the Logos or the second Person of the Trinity, to speak of a Kenosis (q.v.) or self‑emptying, such as was supposed to have taken place in the incarnation of the Logos, bringing with it a suspension of his eternal consciousness. This is in direct opposition to the old orthodox teaching, according to which Christ laid aside in his humiliation not what affected his Godhead, but what affected his humanity, endowed with divine qualities by the Communicatio adiomatum (q.v.).
Biedermann, a dogmatic theologian influenced by Hegelian speculation, treats the notion of the personality of God as one to be rejected from the standpoint of scientific philosophy. It is true that he designates personality as " the adequate form of presentation for the theistic conception of God "; but he goes on to say that a theism of this kind can never attain to pure thought, and is only an unscientific conception of the content of the religious idea, adopted in a polemical spirit against those who think this out logically. As against pantheistic notions of God, however, he is willing to admit the " substantial " validity of the theistic position. He himself describes God as absolute spirit, absolute being in and by himself, and the fundamental essence of all being outside himself. Quite a different tendency of philosophic thought on the matter is met with in Lipsius. He traces the belief in God back to a practical necessity felt by the personal human spirit, and reaches the concep‑
tion of God as a purpose‑determining intelligence and a lawgiving will, and thus as a self‑conscious and self‑determining personality. He finds our knowledge of God always inadequate as soon as we attempt to go on to transcendental knowledge of his inner nature, because we are forced to speak of this in metaphors borrowed from our human relations, and to carry over our notions of space and tame to where space and time are not. He declares also that the metaphysical speculations which attempt to replace these inadequate notions by a real knowledge of God are them Ives unable to do this, since they can not get beyond the boundary of an eternal and ever‑present existence underlying all existence in space and time, and are unable to define this existence in distinction from spatial and temporal existence except by purely formal logical definitions which really add nothing to our knowledge. It is really Kantian criticism which appears here, more forcibly than in previous dogmatic theology, as it reappears also in the later post‑Hegelian philosophy.
Ritachl, again, is reminiscent of Kant in his opposition to all " metaphysical " statements about God, and in the way in which he places God for our knowledge in relation to our personal ethical spirit, as well as the powers which he attributes to this latter in relation to nature (cf. Kant's so‑called moral proof or God as the postulate of the practical reason). Through the revelation in Christ, God becomes to him to a certain extent an objective reality, and, rejecting the conception of God as the Absolute, he prefers to define him simply as love. Against this not only dogmatic theologians like Frank and Nitzach, but Kaftan also objects that love is found also in the finite sphere, and thus can not sufficiently express the essential nature of God, which differentiates him from the finite. Ritachl himself says, moreover, that the love which God is has the attribute of omnipotence, and that God is the creator of the universe, as will determining both himself and all things, while these definitions can in no way be deduced from the simple conception of love. Kaftan begins by the statement that God is the Absolute; and this signifies to him not only that God has absolute power over all that is, but also and even more that he is the absolute goal of all human endeavor. Nitzsch employs the term " supramundane " to include the domination of the universe and to express at the same time not only the thought that he who conditions all things is himself unconditioned, but also the moral and intellectual exaltation of God.
The whole body, therefore, of these modern theologians hold fast to an objective doctrine of God with a strict scientific comprehension of terms; and they agree in displaying a characteristic which differentiates them from earlier schools of thought, though varying in degree and in logical sequencethe consciousness that the Christian doctrine of God is based not upon the operations of reason but upon the revelation of God in Christ, of which the witness is in our hearts and that it must grasp as the fundamentally essential in God and his relation to us the ethical element in him‑must conceive him, in a word, primarily as the sacred Love.
(J. KdamLiNt.)

God
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
	IV. In English and American Theology: In Great
Britain and America the idea of God has undergone
		many vicissitudes. In the period of
	:. The Deism (q.v.), 1650‑1800, the doctrine
	Deistic of God was profoundly affected by
	Period in certain modern questions which were
	England. already emerging: the scientific view
		of nature as a unity, the denial of the
principle of external authority, the right and suf
ficiency of reason, and the ethical as compared with
the religious value of life. The deists yielded to
none of their contemporaries in affirming that God
was personal, the cause of the fixed providential
order of the world, and of the moral order with its
rewards and punishments both here and hereafter.
The cosmological was the only theistic argument.
God's wisdom and power were expressed neither in
supernatural revelation nor in miracle. His nature
was perfectly apprehensible to man's reason. He
was, however, absolutely transcendent, i.e., not
merely distinct from but removed from the world,
an absentee God. This process of thought reached
its negative skeptical result in David Hume; the
being of God could be proved neither by rational
considerations nor by the prevailing sensationalist
theory of knowledge. Outside of the deists, the
demonstration of the being and attributes of God
by Samuel Clarks (q.v.) was thoroughly represent
ative of the time. Something must have existed
from eternity, of an independent, unchangeable
nature, self‑existent, absolutely inconceivable by us,
necessarily everlasting, infinite, omnipotent, one
and unique, intelligent and free, infinitely powerful,
wise, good, and just, possessing the moral attributes
required for governing the world. Bishop Butler
(Analogy of Religion) held as firmly as the deists
the transcendence of God, and if he made less of the
cosmic, ethical, and mysterious than of the redemp
tive side of the divine nature, this is to be referred
not to hid underestimate of the redemptive purpose
of God, but to the immediate aim of his apologetic.
Accepting the fundamental tenet of Matthew Tindal
(q.v.), i.e., the identity of natural and revealed
religion, he shows that the mysteries of revealed
religion are not more inexplicable than the facts of
universal human experience. Thus he seeks to open
a door for God's activity in revelation‑prophecy,
miracles, and redemption A new tendency in the
idea of God appears in William Paley (q.v.). The
proof of the existence and attributes of the deity is
teleological. Nature is a contrivance of which God
is the immediate creator. The celebrated Bridge
water Treatises (q.v.) follow in the same path,
proving the wisdom, power, and goodness of God
from geology, chemistry, astronomy, the animal
world, the human body, and the inner world of
consciousness. Chalmers sharply distinguishes be
tween natural and revealed theology, as offering two
sources for the knowledge of God. In this entire
great movement of thought, therefore, God is con
ceived as transcendent. God and the world are pre
sented in a thoroughly dualistic fashion. God is the
immediate and instantaneous creator of the world
as a mechanism. The principal divine attributes
are wisdom and power; goodness is affrmed, but
appears to be secondary: its hour has not yet come.
In America during the same period Jonathan Edwards (q.v.) is the chief representative of the idea of God. His doctrine centers in
z. The that of absolute sovereignty. God is a
Same	personal being, glorious, transcendent.
	Period in	The world has in him its absolute
	America.	source, and proceeds from him as an
		emanation, or by continuous creation,
or by perpetual energizing thought. As motive for
the creation, he added to the common view‑the
declarative glory of God‑that of the happiness of
the creature. On the basis of causative predestina
tion he maintains divine foreknowledge of human
choice‑a theory pushed to extreme limits by later
writers, Samuel Hopkins and Nathanael Emmons
(qq.v.; also see NEw ENGLAND THEOLOGY). His
doctrine of the divine transcendence was qualified
by a thorough‑going mysticism, a Christian experi
ence characterized by a profound consciousness of
the immediate presence, goodness, and glory of God.
His conception of the ethical nature of God con
tained an s atinomy which he never resolved; the
Being who showed surpassing grace to the elect and
bestowed unnumbered common favors on the non
elect in this life, would, the instant after death,
withdraw from the latter every vestige of good and
henceforth pour out upon them the infinite and
eternal fury of his wrath. Edwards' doctrine of God
and its implications later underwent, however,
serious modifications. In the circle which recognized
him as leader, his son reports that no less than ten
improvements had been made, some of which, e.g.,
concerning the atonement, directly affected the idea
of God. Predestination was affirmed, but, instead
of proceeding from an inscrutable will, following
Leibnitz, rested on divine foreknowledge of all
possible worlds and included the purpose to realize
this, the best of all possible worlds (A. A. Hodge,
Outlines of Theology, New York, 1900; S. Harris,
God, the Creator and Lord of All, ib., 1896). The
atonement was conceived as sufficient but not
efficient for all (C. Hodge, Systematic Theology,
Philadelphia, 1865), or, on the other hand, as ex
pressing the sincere purpose of God to redeem all
sinners (A. E. Park, The Atonement; Introductory
Essay, Boston, 1859)` Divine sovereignty was
roundly affirmed; for some it contained the secret
of a double decree, for others it offered a convincing
basis for the larger hope.
During the nineteenth century a new movement appeared in English thought. Sir William Hamilton
held that God was the absolute, the
3• Nine‑ unconditioned, the cause of all (PhiL‑
teenth‑	osoPhy of the Unconditioned, in Edin,‑
Century	burgh Review, Oct. 1829). But since
Develop‑	all thinking is to condition, and to con‑
ments.	dition the unconditioned is self‑con
	tradictory, God is both unknown and
unknowable. Following in the same path H. L. Mansel (Limits of Religimua Thought, London, 1867) found here the secret by which to maintain the mysteries of the faith of the church in the Trinity, the incarnation, the atonement, and other beliefs. Revelation was therefore required to supplement men's ignorance and to communicate what human intelligence was unable to discover. Hence the

9	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	God
dogmas concerning God which had been found repugnant or opaque to reason were philosophically reinstated and became once more authoritative for faith. In his System of Synthetic Philosophy Herbert Spencer (First Principles, London, 1860‑62) maintains on the one hand an ultimate reality which is the postulate of theism, the absolute datum of consciousness, and on the other hand by reason of the limitations of knowledge a total human incapacity to assign any attributes to this utterly inscrutable power. In accordance with his doctrine of evolution he holds that this ultimate reality is an infinite and eternal energy from which all things proceed, the same which wells up in the human consciousness. He is neither materialistic nor atheistic. This reality is not personal according to the human type, but may be super‑personal. Religion is the feeling of awe in relation to this inscrutable and mysterious power. With an aim not unlike that of Herbert Spencer, Matthew Arnold sought to reconcile the conflicting claims of religion, agnosticism, evolution, and history, by substituting for the traditional personal God the "Power not ourselves that makes for righteousness." Side by side with this movement appeared another led by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, based upon a spiritual philosophy, which found in the moral nature a revelation of God (Aids to Reflexion, London, 1825). This has borne fruit in many directions: in the great poets, Wordsworth, Tennyson, Browning; in preachers like Cardinal Newman, Dean Stanley, John Tulloch, Frederick William Robertson, and Charles Kingsley; in philosophical writers, as John Frederic Denison Maurice and James Martineau (qq.v.). The idea of God is taken out of dogma and the category of the schools and set in relation to life, the quickening source of ideals and of all individual and social advance. Religious thought in America has fully shared in these later tendencies in Great Britain, as may be seen by reference to John Fiske, Idea of God (Boston, 1886), unfolding the implications of Spencer's thought, and, reflecting the spirit of ‑Coleridge, William Ellery Channing, Works {6 vols., Boston, 1848), W. G. T. Stead, " Introductory Essay " to Coleridge's Works (New York, 1884), and Horace Bushnell, Nature and the Supernatural, and Sermons (in Centenary edition of his Works, New York, 1903). An idea of God based on idealism, represented in Great Britain by John Caird, Philosophy of Religion (London, 1881), Edward Caird, The Evolution of Religion (ib. 1893), in Canada by John Watson, God's Message to the Human Soul (New York, 1907), has received impressive statement by Josiah Royce, The Conception of God (ib., 1897), and The World and the Individual (2 vols., 1899‑1901). God is a being who possesses all logical possible knowledge, insight, wisdom. This includes omnipotence, self‑consciousness, self‑possession, goodness, perfection, peace. Thus this being possesses absolute thought and absolute experience, both completely organized. The absolute experience is related to human experience as an organic whole to its integral fragments. This idea of God which centers in omniscience does not intend to obscure either the ethical qualities or the proper personality of the absolute.
	Turning from the historical survey to specifie
aspects of the idea of God which have in more
		recent times engrossed attention, there
	q. Theistic come into view the theistic arguments,
Arguments. the immanence, the personality, the
		Fatherhood of God, and the Trinity.
Those writers who have not acknowledged the force
of Kant's well‑known criticism of the theistic argu
ments maintain the full validity of these proofs (cf.
R. Flint, Theism, new ed., New York, 1890; J. L.
Diman, The Theistic Argument, Boston, 1882).
Others, as John Caird (ut sup.), conceive of the cos
mological and teleological arguments as stages
through which the human spirit rises to the knowl
edge of God which attains fulfilment in the onto
logical, the alone sufficient proof; yet Caird accords
a real validity to the teleological argument inter
preted from the point of view of evolution. Still
others would restate the first and second arguments
so that the cosmological argument would run as
follows: The world of experience is manifold and
yet unified in a law of universal and concomitant
variation among phenomena caused by some one
being in them which is their true self and of which
they are in some sense phases. As self‑sufficient,
this reality is absolute; as not subject to restric
tions from without, it is infinite; as explanation of
the world, it is the world7ground. The teleological
argument would first inquire if there is in the world
of experience activity toward ends, and secondly,
when found, refer this to intelligence. Other forms
of the theistic argument are drawn from the fact
of finite intelligence, from epistemology (in reply
to agnosticism), from metaphysical considerations
in which purposeful thought is shown to be the
essential nature of reality, and from the moral
order which involves freedom and obligation to a
personal source and ideal (cf. E. Caird, Critical
Philosophy of Kant, 2 vols., Glasgow, 1889; T. H.
Green, Prolegomena to Ethics, 4th ed., London, 1899).
	The idea of divine immanence is variously pre
sented. Its true meaning is that God is the inner
		and essential reality of all phenomena,
	5. Im‑ but this is susceptible of two very
	manence. different interpretations. On the one
		hand, a pantheistic or metaphysical
immanence, in which the One is identified with the
many. This, however, destroys the relative inde
pendence of the human consciousness, eliminates
the ethical value of conduct, and breaks down the
very idea of God (cf. for criticism of metaphysical
immanence, J. Caird, ut sup.; J. Royce, The World
and the Individual, vol. ii.). Other notions of im
manence are: First, God is present by his creative
omniscience, so that the creation is in his image,
and with a degree of independence, proceeds of
itself and realizes the divine ideals (G. H. Howison,
in Royce's Conception of God, New York, 1897).
Secondly, the immanence of God is made picturesque
by the analogy of the outside physical phenomena
of the brain and the inner psychical phenomena
of consciousness in which the true self appears.
In like manner the veil of nature hides a person,
complete, infinite, self‑existent (J. LeConte, also in
Royce, ut sup.). Thirdly, God is personally present
as energy in all things and particularly in all per‑

Godliness	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	10
sons‑‑a doctrine which is not new in the Church, as witness the " spermatic Word " of Greek theology, and the Spirit of God in his cosmic and redemptive agency. The influence of the modern emphasis upon the divine immanence is evident in several directions. (1) Through the immanent teleology disclosed in the evolutionary process the teleological argument is reinstated in an unimpeachable form. (2) The distinction between the natural and the supernatural is not obliterated, but the natural is fully conceived only in relation to its supernatural cause: the natural is the constant method of the divine purpose, and the supernatural discloses itself in and by means of the natural. Special providence and even miracles are referred to the same divine causality. An ordinary event is as divine as a miracle (B. P. Bowne, Theism, New York, 1902). (3) Since the nature of man is grounded in God, life in union with God is not something alien or grafted on to his nature, but is the realization of what is essential and indissoluble in God's purpose for him (D. W. Simon, Redemption of Man, Edinburgh, 1889; A. H. Strong, Christ in Creation and Ethical Monism, Philadelphia, 1899). (4) In the light of the immanence of God a restatement of doctrine has been necessitated concerning revelation, the Trinity, creation, providence, sin,. incamar tion, atonement, and the Christian life (A. H. Strong, Systematic Theology, passim, Philadelphia, 1907). The doctrine of immanence does not detract from the truth of transcendence involved in ethical monism, since transcendence signifies that the fulness of the divine life is not exhausted in any finite expression of it, but, distinct from the world, is itself free intelligence and power (J. R. Illingworth, The Divine Immanence, London, 1898; B. P. Bowne, Immanence of God, ib. 1905). Neither English nor American thought has added anything essential to Lotze's presentation of the divine personality (J. R. Illingworth, Personality, Human and Divine, London, 1894; H. Rashdall, Doctrine and Development, pp. 268 sqq., ib. 1898 ; Mikrokosmus, Leipsic, 1856‑58; Eng. tranel., Mzcrocosmus, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1885).
The Fatherhood of God is the well‑nigh universal term to describe the relation of God to men. This position has been reached (1) by a
6. Father‑ return to the point of view of Jesus'
hood teaching and his own personal attitude of God. toward God, (2) by an increasing ethical interpretation of the divine nature ‑in this particular respect led by Universalists and Unitarians (qq.v.), and (3) by a juster appreciation of the worth of the individual life. Fatherhood has indeed been restricted to God's relation to the regenerate, on the ground that man's natural relation to God was legal and servile, and that sonship and adoption resulted from redemption and regenerar tion (R. S. Candlish, The Fatherhood of God, Edinburgh, 1865). This, however, ignores the fact that man's essential nature was constituted for the filial relation. Since man was made in the image of God, and Christ not only has revealed the true meaning of sonship, but is himself the way to its realization, Fatherhood exhausts all the natural and redemptive relation of God to men (W. N. Clarke, Can 1 Believe
in God the Father f New York, 1899; T. S. Lidgett, The Fatherhood of God, Edinburgh, 1902; J. Orr, Progress of Dogma, London, 1903). If, finally, all the divine attributes and activities are crowned in Fatherhood, even sovereignty, omnipotence, justice, election, and grace are interpreted by it (A. M. Fairbairn, Place of Christ'in Modern Theology, New York, 1893; cf. W. Sanday, DB, ii. 205‑215).
For English and American conceptions of the Trinity as affecting the idea of God, see TRINITY.
C. A. BECgwITH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For the Biblical conception of God consult the works given under BIBLICAL THEOLOGY, particularly those of Schultz and Beyschlag. On the development of the idea in general consult: K. R. Hagenbach, Hist. of Doctrine, ed. H. B. Smith, New York, 1861‑62; R. Rainy, Delivery and Development of Christian Doctrine, Edinburgh, 1874; A. V. G. Allen, Continuity of Christian Thougt, Boston, 1884; T. C. Crippen, Introduction to Hist. of Christian Doctrine, Edinburgh, 1884; E. Hatch, Influence of Greets Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church, London, 1892; also the sections in the various works upon church history which deal with the history of doctrine, and the works upon the history of dogma, such as those of Harnack and Dorner.
For modern treatment consult: J.‑B. Bossuet, TraitE de la connaisaance de Dieu et de soi‑mhrne, Paris, 1722; S. Charnoek, Discourses upon the Existence and Attributes of God, often printed, e.g., 2 vols., New York, 1874 (a classic); R. S. Candlish, Fatherhood of God, London, 1870; A. Gratry, De la connaissance de Dieu, 2 vols., Paris, 1873, Eng. transl., Guide to the Knowledge of God, Boston, 1892; J. Sengler, Die Idee Gottes, 2 vols., Heidelberg, 1845‑52 (vol. i. historical, vol. ii. dogmatic); H. Ulrici, Gott and die Natur, Leipsic, 1875; E. Mulford, Republic of God chaps. i.‑ii., Boston, 1881; s. Harris, SelfRevelation of God, New York, 1887; J. S. Candlish, Christian Doctrine of God, New York, 1891; P. H. Steenatra, The Being of God as; Unity and Trinity, New York, 1891; J. A. Beet, Through Christ to God, London, 1892; E. M. Caxo, LIM& de Dieu et sea nouveaux critiques, Paris, 1894; A. M. Fairbaim, The Place of Christ in Modern Theology, London, 1896; G. d'Alviella, Origin and Growth of the Conception of God, ib. 1897; J. Royce, The Conception of God, New York, 1897; R. Rocholl, Der christliche Gottesbegriff, Gbttingen, 1900; J. A. Leighton, Typical Modern Conceptions of God, London, 1901; E. A. Reed, Idea of God in Relation to Theology, Chicago, 1902; B. P. Bowne, The Immanence of God Boston 1905 S. Chadwick, Humanity and God, New York, 1905; W. H. Gillespie, The Argument a priori for the Being and Attributes of the Lord God, Edinburgh, 1906; F. Ballard, Theomonism True; God and the Universe in Modern Light, London, 1906; W. R. Inge, Personal Idealism and Mysticism lecture i., New York, 1907; P. Lobstein, .9tudes sur la doctrine chretienne de Dieu, Paris, 1907. Consult also the systems of theology in the works of Bus], Clark, Dabney, Dorner, Gerhart, Hodge, Jacob, Miley, Shedd, Smith
Strong, etc.; H. W. Gevatken, The Knowledge of God, Edinburgh, 1906.

GODEAU, g6"do', ANTOINE: Bishop of Grasse, and then of Vence; b. at Dreux (45 m. w. of Paris), in the diocese of Chartres, 1605; d. at Vence (14 m. n.e. of Grasse) Apr. 21, 1672. He devoted himself first to poetry, but later entered the clergy and became bishop of Grasse in 1636 and afterward of Vence. At the conventions of the clergy in 1645 and 1655 he attacked the Jesuit system of ethics. He wrote Histoire de l1glise depuis le commencement du monde jusqu'h la fin du neuvieme siMe (5 vols., Paris, 1653‑78), Version expliquee du Nouveau Testament (2 vols., 1668), Les Psaumes de David, traduits en vers fran gais (1649), biographies of Paul, Augustine, Carlo Borromeo, Fastes de l'6glise, a poem of 15,000 verses, and other works.
(C. PFENDER.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Pelliseon‑Fontanier Hint. de t'acadbmie frangaiae, Paris, 1653 ; B. Racine, AbHg6 de Mist. ecclesiastique, vol. sii., Paris; Lichtenberger, ESR, v. 618619.
GODEHARD, SAINT. See GOTTHARD, SAINT.

GODET, go"dg', FREDERIC LOUIS: Swiss Reformed; b. at Neuchhtel Oct. 25, 1812; d. there Oct. 29, 1900. He was educated in his native city and at the universities of Bonn and Berlin. After his ordination in 1836, he was assistant pastor at Valangin, near Neuch£tel, for a year, and was then tutor to Crown Prince Frederick William of Prussia (1838‑44). He was a supply for churches in the Val‑de‑Ruy (1844‑51), and pastor at Neuchftel (1851‑66). In 1850‑73 he was also professor of exegetical and critical theology in the theological school of the established church of the canton, but withdrew from that body in 1873 and became a professor in the theological academy of the Free Church of the canton of NeuchAtel. He held this position until 1887, when he retired from active life. He wrote Histoire de la REformation et du refuge daps le pays de Neuchdtel (Neuehhtel, 1859); Commentaire sur lWangile de saint Jean (2 vols., Paris, 1864‑65; Eng. transl. by F. Crombie and M. D. Cusin, 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1877); Conf6rences apolog&iques (Neucbhtel, 1870; Eng. transl. by W. H. Lyttleton under the title Lectures; in Defence of the Christian Faith, Edinburgh, 1881); Commentaire sur l'Evangile de saint Luc, (1871; Eng. trans]. by E. W. Shalders and M. D. Cusin, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1875); etudes bibliques (2 vols., Neuchatel, 1873‑74; Eng. trans]. by W. H. Lyttleton under the title Old Testament Studies and New Testament Studies, 2 vols., London, 1875‑76); Commentaire sur fgpftre aux Romains (2 vols., 1879‑80; Eng. tranal. by A. Cusin, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1880=81); Commentaire sur la premiere 6petre aux Corinthians (2 vols., 1886; Eng. transl. by A. Cusin, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1886‑87); and Introduction au Nouveau Testament (2 vols., Paris, 1893‑98; Eng. transl. by W. Affieck, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1894‑99).

GODLINESS: The most usual translation in the English New Testament of the Greek eusebeia. This word and its adjective (evseUs), like the equivalent theosebeia and theosebes, are found a few times in the Old Testament Apocrypha (Wisd. of Sol. x. 12; Baruch v. 4), and in the New Testament first in the historical books with reference to pre‑Christian piety (John ix. 31; Acts x. 2, 7) and then in the later epistles mainly of Christian piety (I Tim. ii. 2, 10, iii. 16, iv. 7, 8, vi. 3, 5, 6, 11; 11 Tim. iii. 5, 12; Tit. i. 1, ii. 12; 11 Pet. i. 6, 7, iii. 11). The reason for this infrequency of occurrence is evidently that the notion eusebeia, derived from the heathen religion and morals, denotes piety in its complete generality comprising all forms of religion, whereas in the Biblical writings the uniqueness of the Old Testament and Christian knowledge and worship of God is placed foremost in opposition to all other religious ideas. When once this uniqueness of Christian piety was firmly established, the general designation could be applied in the latest New Testament writings without running the risk of mis‑
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
God
Godliness
understanding. The result was that this generic
term actually received the more special meaning of
Christian piety as the root of all Christian morality.
To show godliness is to lead a Christian‑moral life
(I Tim. ii. 10, vi. 11; II Pet. i. 7); in this sense it
is profitable unto all things (I Tim. iv. 8). See
PIETY 	F. SIEFFERT.
In the modern acceptation of the word, godliness is the religious bearing of man, his disposition and his actions, in relation to God; or religiousness. Its forms are as varied as the differences in religions, yet heathen (Acts xvii. 22‑23), Jewish (Luke xxiii. 50; Acts x. 2), Mohammedan, and Christian godliness are revelations of the same fundamental disposition of man toward the deity. It manifests itself by the same means with all: viz., by prayer and sacrifice; the first denoting reverence and reliance, the other the expression partly of gratitude, partly of the sense of guilt. Godliness, even where not inspired by Christianity, must not be underrated. It often supplies the want of right knowledge by warmth of feeling, by zealous deed, or by superior work. As long as, for an individual or a nation, the period of ignorance lasts, its devotion is agreeable (Gk. dektos) to the deity. Only when it is retained in conscious opposition to the proclaimed divine truth and the change of mind (Gk. metanoia)' is refused does it lose its religious value.
Christian godliness is founded on the pure knowledge of God. But this knowledge, if merely theoretical, can exist combined with actual ungodliness (James ii. 19). Therefore, as a second point, there must be the feeling of entire dependence on God, the holy fear of him, which, wherever it is not in the spirit of bondage, but of adoption (Rom. viii. 15), marks a sensation of bliss, of delight in God. Godliness is perfect if man retains the pure knowledge of God and the filial awe of him, with conscious will, as his most precious good and relies entirely on God; if he becomes a man of God (I Tim. vi. 11), if his heart is firmly established in its innermost direction toward God (Heb. xiii. 9). This godliness is the soul of personal religion, the root of all true virtue, the vigor of true morality. Its immediate expression is the offering incumbent upon the true Christian; unrestrained self‑sacrifice to God (Rom. xii. 1), prayer and confession (Heb. xiii. 15), and brotherly love (Heb. xiii. 16). It must exercise a notable influence on all the doings of a Christian. The godly man walks before God (Gen. xvii.1), follows him with all his heart (I Kings xiv. 8), walks in his truth (Ps. lxxxvi. 11), in the spirit (Gal. v. 25), in Jesus Christ (Col. ii. 6), in the light (I John i. 7); he lives unto God (Gal. ii. 19), and unto Christ (Phil. i. 21).
Individually godliness expresses itself in many a way; it develops by degrees, in conformity with age, sex and temper. Mary and Martha show two types (Luke x. 38‑42). The model of a child's devotion and godliness is Jesus in the temple when he was twelve years old; the godliness of old age is displayed in Simeon and Anna. Peter, John, Paul are godly men, yet very different from each other. Sound godliness exists where knowledge, feeling, and will are well balanced. But as the normal natural man is realized in one person only, so is the normal

God‑Parents
Goetz	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	12
godly man; all others, at the beat, are merely on
the way of approximation to him. Truth and sin
cerity are the criteria of godliness; where they are
wanting, it becomes cant and hypocrisy, a mere
semblance (II Tim. iii. 5) or gain‑seeking (I Tim.
vi. 5). 	CARL BURGERt.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The lexicons upon the words, particularly that of Cremer and that of H. Greer, Goths, 1902, Edinburgh, 1886. Also the works upon New Testament Theology, particularly that of Beysahlag, Edinburgh, 1896.

GOD‑PARENTS. See BAPTISM, III., 7.

GODWIN, FRANCIS: Bishop of Hereford; b. at Hannington (7 m. n.e. of Northampton), Northamptonshire, 1562; d. at Whitbourne (16 m. n.e. of Hereford) Apr., 1633. He was the son of Thomas Godwin, Bishop of Bath and Wells, and studied at Christ Church, Oxford (B.A., 1581; M.A., 1584; B.D., 1594; D.D., 1596). After having held various preferments, including the subdeanery of Exeter, he was elevated to the see of Llandaff in 1601, and translated to the see of Hereford in 1617. His principal works are: Catalogus episcoporum Bathoniensium et Wellensium, a manuscript in Trinity College, published in part by Thomas Hearn in his edition of John Whethamstede'a chronicle (Oxford, 1732); A Catalogue of the Bishops of England since the First Planting of the Christian Religion on this Island (London, 1601; Lat. transl., 1616); Rerum Anglicarum Henrico VIII., Edwardo VI. et Maria regnanhbus, Annales (1616; Eng. transl., Annales of England; Containing the Reignes of Henry the Eighth, Edward the Sixt, Queens Mary, 1630); and the posthumous The Man in the Moon (1638; French tranal., Paris, 1647), which suggested to Cyrano de Bergerac the theme for his famous " Voyage to the Moon."
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. A Wood, Athenle Oxonienws, ed P. Bliss, ii. 555, 882, 4 vols., London, 1813‑20; J. Le Neve, Fasti ecclesiee Anplicanou, i. 196, 390, 470, ii. 252, Oxford, 1854; DNB, xxii. 55‑58.
GOEBEL, ga'bel, SIEGFRIED ABRAHAM: German Reformed; b. at Winningen (4 m. s.w. of Coblenz) Mar. 24, 1844. He was educated at the universities of Erlangen (1863‑64), Halls (1864‑65), and Berlin (1865‑67), and was deacon at St. Peter's, Posen (1868‑74), court preacher at Halberstadt (1874‑89), and consistorial councilor at Munster (1889‑95). Since 1895 he has been professor of theology at the University of Bonn. In theology he represents Biblical Christianity, and has written Die Parabeln Jesu (2 vols., Gotha, 1879‑$0; Eng. transl. by J. S. Banks, Edinburgh, 1883); Neutestamentliche Schriften, griechisch, mit kurzer Erklarung 2 vols., Gotha, 1887‑93); Das Christentum Christi and das kirchliche Christentum (Giitersloh, 1896); and Die Reden unsers Herrn nach Johannes im Grundtext ausgelegt, i (1906).

GOEPFERT, gap"fart', FRANZ ADAM: German Roman Catholic; b. at Wiirzburg Jan. 31, 1849. He was educated at the university of his native city (1867‑71) and, after being chaplain in Kitzingen (1871‑73) and subdirector of a school for boys in Wiirzburg (1873‑79), was in 1879 appointed associate professor of moral and pastoral theology in the university of the same city. Since 1884 he has been
full professor of the same subjects at Wilrzburg, where he was also university preacher from 1882 to 1892 In addition to editing J. B. Renninger'a Pastoraltheologie (Freiburg, 1893), he has written Die Katholizit4t der Kirche (Wilmburg, 1876); Der Eid (Mainz, 1882); Moraltheologie (3 vols., Paderborn, 1897‑98); and St. Kilianusbtichlein (W iIrzburg, 1902).

GOERRES, gbr‑r6s', JOHANN JOSEF VON: German Roman Catholic; b. in Coblenz Jan. 25, 1776; d. in Munich Jan. 27, 1848. As a youth he welcomed with great enthusiasm the revolutionary movement when it began to invade Germany from France, and advocated the same by word and pen. But when in Paris at the close of 1799 he found opportunity to observe the republic at close hand, he was so‑
bered and turned his back on political
Early Life. life. The years 1800‑06 he spent Political quietly as a teacher at Coblenz, occu‑
Activity. pied with studies in physical science,
after which he spent two years at Heidelberg, where he became interested in Old German literature, and published, as first fruits of his Germanic studies, Die deutachen Volksbiicher (Heidelberg, 1807). The last fruit of his Germanic studies was the Altdeutsche Volks‑ and Meisterlieder aus den Handschriften der Heidelberger Bibliothek (1813). By these achievements G6rres' name is honorably connected with the beginnings of Germanic specialization. His Mythengeschichte der asiatischen Welt (2 vola., Heidelberg, 1810) was a product of the effort of Romanticism to unite religion and poetry.
The wars of liberation led Gorrea back into political life. He created an organ for himself in his journal, the Rheinischer Merkur, and wielded a potent influence by reason of his vigorous language, the keenness of his political judgment, and his patriotic attitude against Napoleon. But when, after Napoleon's defeat, he also directed his criticism against the home government and courageously opposed the incipient reaction, he became objectionable; on the publication of his Deutschland and die Revolution (Coblenz, 1820; Eng. transl., Germany and the Revolution, London, 1820), a warrant of arrest was even issued against him, but he fled to Strasburg. He still issued political writings (1821 and 1822). But the center of gravity of his interests became shifted; he entertained a different philosophy in regard to affiliation with the Roman Catholic Church, and the political writer became a church writer. This transition found practical expression when he joined the staff of the review Der Katholik.
In 1827 Gorres was called by King Louis I. of Bavaria to the University of Munich, and there at last he found the environment in which his individuality could fully unfold itself. An imposing group of notable personalities flourished in harmony at that time in Munich (Dollinger, Lasaulx, Ringseia,
M6hler, Phillips and others), connected
Professor with the review Eos. Besides his suc‑
in Munich. cessful activity as teacher, G6rres found time for thoroughgoing scientific works, the chief of which, Die christliche Mystik,
appeared in four volumes, from 1836 to 1842,

18	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	God‑parents
Goetz
and fortunately escaped being placed on the Index; for at that time the Cologne controversy broke out (see DRosTE‑VIsCHERING), which straightway called G6rres into the arena, and incited him to what was perhaps his most important, at any rate his most effectual, piece of writing, his Athanasiua (Regensburg, 1837), wherein he brilliantly championed the archbishop of Cologne. As the Roman Catholic Church in Prussia emerged victorious from this conflict, G6rres prompted the establishment of the still current Historischrpolitische Blotter. When Bishop Arnoldi of Treves aroused no small sensation by display of the seamless robe of Christ (see HOLY CoAT), and was sharply attacked in the matter, it was Gbrres, again, who undertook the literary vindication of that procedure. He was ennobled in 1829.
G6rres proved himself a decided personality in very different situations, and made a name for himself through his versatile literary activity. He exhibited his principal talent as a political, writer; for strictly scientific research was not his province, and he was wanting in critical perception. It is significant in relation to his ecclesiastical position that both the later Ultramontane cause and the Old Catholic party appealed to his support, and could make that appeal consistently; since in his case there were points of contact with both these tendencies. He was neither an Ultramontane nor an Old Catholic, but an exponent of that moderate Catholicism which in conjunction with the after‑effects of the rationalistic period had blunted the edge of earlier acerbities. Nor was it until after the Cologne dispute that the distinctively Roman phases of G6rres manifested themselves the more conspicuously. CARL MIRBT.
In honor of Gorres, the G6rres‑Gesellschaft (" G6rres Society ") was founded on the centennial anniversary of his birth, 1876, to promote scholarship in Roman Catholic Germany. It has issued an annual Historiachea Jahrbuch since 1880 and Philosophischea Jahrbuch since 1888, Quellen and Forschungen aus dem Gebiet der Geschichte (11 vols., 1892‑1906), and a Staatslexicon (2d ed., 5 vols., 1900‑04), besides occasional publications. Prizes are offered to encourage investigation. The headquarters are in Bonn. Consult H. Cardanus, Die G6rres‑Gesellsehaft, 1876‑1901 (Cologne, 1901).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The collected writings and letters were published by Marie G6rres and F. Binder, 9 vole., Munich, 1854‑74. Consult: J. Galland, Josef van GSrres, Freiburg, 1878; ADB, ix. 378‑389; J. Friedrich. Ignax con DbUinger, vol. i., Munich, 1899; P. von Hoenebroeeh, Daa PapaMum in seiner soaiabkudturellen Wirkeamkei4 i. 235 sqq., Leipsie, 1901; H. Briick, Geschichte der deuteden katholischen Kirche im 19. Jahrhundert, vol. ii. Munich, 1903.
GOESCHEL, gb'shel, KARL FRIEDRICH: German jurist and philosopher; b. at Langensalza (25 m. n.w. of Erfurt), Thuringia, Oct. 7, 1784; d. at Naumburg (22 m. s.s.w. of Halle) Sept. 22, 1861. He received his first education at Gotha, and in 1803 began the study of jurisprudence at the University of Leipsic, where he remained until 1806, when he was appointed a magistrate in his native town. There he remained for twelve years, and during that period gathered material from the
town archives for a Chronik der Stadt Langensalza in Thiiringen (4 vols., Langensalza, 1818‑44). After the acquisition of Saxony, the Prussian government required officials acquainted with the law and administration of the new province, and G6scheI was accordingly called to Naumburg in 1819 as a justice of the Superior Court, holding this office until 1834. From 1834 to 1845 he officiated as a secretary in the ministry of justice in Berlin, where he was occupied chiefly with ecclesiastical affairs; while in 1845 he was appointed a member of the council of state, and president of the consistory of the province of Saxony, with residence in Magdeburg, until the revolution of 1848 forced him to take refuge in flight.
The main endeavor of Gbschel's life was the reconciliation of Christianity with modern culture, of which Hegel was the philosophical, and Goethe the poetical, representative. Among his numerous works may be mentioned: Ueber Goethea Faust and dessen Fortsetzung, nebst einem Anhange vom ewigen Juden (Leipsie, 1824); Cdcilius and Octavius, oder Gesprache aer die vornehmaten Einwenr dungen gegen die chriatliche Wahrheit (Berlin, 1828) ; Von den Beweisen fur die Unsterblichkeit der menschlichen Seele im Lichte der spekulativen Philosophic (1835); Beitrage zur apekulativen Philosophie von Gott and dem Menachen and dem Gott‑Menschen (1838), and Unterhaltungen zur Schilderung Goethescher Dicht‑ and Denkweise (3 vols., Sehleusingen, 1834‑38). He also published a collection of essays entitled Zeratreute Blotter alts den Hand‑ and HWfsAden eines Juristen (3 vols., Erfurt, 1832‑42), and likewise wrote a noteworthy treatise on Die Konr kardienformel naeh ihrer Geachichte, Lehre and kirchliehen Bedeutung (Leipsie, 1858).

GOETTLER, got'ler, JOSEF: German Roman Catholic; b. at Dachau (25 m. s.e. of Augsburg) Mar. 9, 1874. He was educated at Scheyern, Freising, and Munich (1885‑98), and since 1904 has been privat‑docent for dogmatic theology at the University of Munich, as well as vicar of St. Cajetan's. He has edited G. Gundlach's ExerzitienVortrage (2 vols., Munich, 1904), and has written St. Thomas von Aquino uned die vortridentinisehen Thomisten t2ber die Wirkung des Bussakramentes (Freiburg, 1904); and Der Miinchener katechetische Kura (Kempten, 1906).

GOETTSBERGER, getz'ber‑ger, JOHANN: German Roman Catholic; b. at Kohl, Lower Bavaria, Dec. 31, 1868. He was educated at Freising (18891890) and Munich (1890‑93), and after a year as curate (1894) was prefect at the archiepiscopal school for boys at Freising (1895‑97) and instructor in theology in the archiepiscopal school in the same city (1898‑1900). In 1900 he was appointed associate professor of Old Testament exegesis at the royal lyceum of Freising, and since 1903 has been full professor of the same subject at.the University of Munich. He has written Barhebrdns and seine Scholien zur heiligen Schrift (Freiburg, 1900).

GOETZ, getz, LEOPOLD KARL: German Old Catholic; b. at Carlsruhe Oct. 7, 1868. After the

Goetz
Goldziher
THE NEW 8CHAFF‑HERZOG
completion of his studies, he became, in 1891, pastor of the Old Catholic Church at Passau, since 1900 professor at the Old Catholic theological seminary in Bonn, and since 1902 has also been associate professor of philosophy at the university of the same city. He has written Die Busslehre
Cyprians (Konigsberg, 1895); Die gesehiehtlzche Stellung and Aufgabe des deutsehenAltkatholizismus (Leipsie, 1896); Geschichte der Slawenapostel Konstantinus (Cyrillus) and Methodius (Goths, 1897); Lazaristen and Jesuiten (1898); Redemptoristenund Protestanten (Giessen, 1899); Leo X111, seine Weltanr schauung and seine Wirksamkeit quellenmdssig dargestellt (Gotha, 1899); Jesuiten and Jesuitinnen (1900); Franz Heinrich Reusch (1901); Das Kiever Hohlenr kloster als Kulturzentrum des vormongolisehen Russlands (Passau, 1904); Der . Ujtramontanismus ale Weltanschauung, auf Grund des Syllabus quellenmassig dargestellt (Bonn, 1905); Kirchenrechtliche and kulturgeschichtliche Denkmdler Altrusslands (Stuttgart, 1905); Ein Wort zum konfessionellen Frieden (Bonn, 1906); and Klerikalismus and Laizismus, das Laienelement im Ultramontanismus (Frankfort, 1906).
GOEZE, ge'tse, JOHAN MELCHIOR: German theologian and controversialist; b. at Halberstadt (31 m. s.w. of Brunswick) Oct., 1717; d. at Hamburg May 19,1786. He studied theology at Jena and Halls; in 1741 he became assistant minister at Aacheraleben, whither his father had moved; and in 1744 diaconus. Six years later he accepted a call to the Church of the Holy Spirit in Magdeburg; and in 1755 went as chief pastor to the Church of St. Catherine in Hamburg, where he remained until his death. It was as a defender of the orthodox Lutheranism and as an opponent of the Enlightenment (q.v.) that Goeze is best known, and in the course of the long continued conflict many hard blows and violent epithets were exchanged. The lapse of time has led those who review the controversy to admit Goeze's sincerity and to grant his claims to real scholarship. In his polemics his appeal was to Scripture and the symbolical books of Lutheranism; and when these seemed to be assailed, his conceptions of his duty to himself and his office and the earnestness with which he threw himself into the defense led him often into a violence which is regrettable. As a consequence he was the object of severe attack, especially in the Allgemeine deutsche Bibliothek. In 1765 against Semler he defended the Complutsnsian Polyglot (see BIBLES, POLYGLOT, l.). Later he justly assailed the German translation of the German Bible by Karl Friedrich Bahrdt (q.v.). Other polemics were directed against matters which are now wholly of the past. His principal attack was made upon Leasing after the publication of the Wolfenbiittel Fragments (q.v.); and the fact that Leasing chose Goeze as his opponent and made him the almost exclusive object of his replies indicates that Leasing saw in him the most dangerous of his critics. In a single year (1778) Leasing issued fifteen writings against Goeze, eleven of them named AntiGoeze (all in Hempel's ed. of Leasing, vol. xvi.). C=oeze's attacks upon Leasing were printed in Frey‑
willige Beytrdige zu den hamburgischen Nachrichten aus dem Reiehe der Gelehrsamkeit, parts 55‑56, 6163, 75. The conflict centered about the importance of the historical element for faith, Goeze maintaining that Christian faith must fall if the essential content of Biblical history, especially drat of the New Testament, were denied. Leaving's replies were rather irritable than sound, while Goeze's attack was directed by his conscience.
CARL BERTHEAU.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. R. RSpe, Johan Melchior Goeze, eirte Rerturep, Hamburg, 1880 (answered by A. Boden Leasing and Goeze, Leipeic, 1862); C. Bross, in Hempel's ed. of Leasing, vol. xv., Berlin 1873; E. Schmidt, Leaainp, ii. 347 eqq., Berlin, 1892; ADB, is. 524h530.
GOG AND MAGOG: A people usually identified with the Scythians. In Gen. x. 2 the second son of Japhet, named Magog, stands between Gomer and Madai. This sets him forth as the representative of a great people, if not of an entire group of nations north of Palestine. Since Togarmah (Armenia) is mentioned as the last branch of Gomer (the ancient Kimmerians, Odyssey, xi. 14; Herodotus, iv. 11 aqq.), a stricter geographical location would place Magog's dwelling between Armenia and Media, perhaps on the shores of the Araxes. But the people seem to have extended farther north across the Caucasus, filling there the extreme northern horizon of the Hebrews (Ezek. xxxviii. 15, xxxix. 2). This is the way Meahech and Tubal are often mentioned in the Assyrian inscriptions (Mushku and Tabal, Gk. Moschoi and Tibarenoi). Some derive the name Gog in Ezekiel from the name of the country Magog; others see in Gog a historical personage for whom the prophet invented the name of a country, and find in him the famous king of the Lydians named Gyges (Gugu in the Assyrian inscriptions), who reigned about 660 $.c. (so E. Meyer, and Sayc;e, Higher Criticism, London, 1893, pp. ‑125‑126), or Gagi, ruler of the country of Sahi (F. Delitzsch, R'o lag das Parodies f Leipaic, 1881, pp. 246‑247), which G. Smith identified with that of the Scythiana. Ezekiel announces a coming inroad by this Gog which according to the whole description recalls the inroad of the Scythiane into anterior Asia (about 630 R.c.; Herodotus i. 103 aqq.; cf. Jer. vi. 1 sqq., especially verses 22‑23). According to the general testimony of classical writers (Herodotus, lEschylus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Ovid, Arrian) the Scythiana were northern barbarians full of avarice and fond of war, had immense troops of cavalry, wore very efficient armor, and distinguished themselves as archers, just as is narrated of Magog. These characteristics induced Ezekiel to conceive of Magog as in close connection with the Scythians. Josephus also so identifies them (Ant. L, vi. 1), and after him Jerome and later writers. The name " Scythiana " was among the ancients an elastic appellation, and so was the Hebrew Magog. The inroad of the hordes of Gog as described by Ezekiel is to fall in the period when Israel has long returned from exile and is quietly enjoying in its own country the salvation its God had granted. This Gog appears as the leader of the last hostile attack of the worldpowers upon the kingdom of God, of which the prophets of Israel had spoken (Ezek. xxxviii. 17;

15	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Go ldtzziher
particularly Joel iii. 9 sqq.; cf. Micah iv. 11 sqq.;
Zech. xii. 2 sqq. and xiv.). Ezekiel describes it
more fully. The attack of the enemy brings about
the world‑judgment before the walls of Jerusalem.
Then all the world shall know the Lord, all captives
of Israel among the nations shall be brought back,
and the state of blessing and grace of the people of
God shall be completed. The Apocalypse (xx. 7
sqq.) mentions Gog and Magog whom Satan, un
bound for the last time, brings together after the
millennium from the four corners of the earth to
fight against God's sanctuary and his Church.
Their destruction through fire from heaven pre
cedes the new creation of heaven and earth. In
like manner both nations stand side by side in
Jewish theology (Jerusalem Targum on Num. xi.
27), and among the Mohammedans (Koran xviii.
93, xxi. 96). 	C. VON CREWI.
The name Gog, who is defined in Ezek. xxxviii. 2, 3, and xxxix.1, as " prince of Rosh, Meshech and Tubal," occurs seven times in the Bible, and Magog five times. In Ezek. xxxix. 6 Magog is a mistake for Gog, which appears in the Septuagint and is demanded by the preceding context. In xxxviii. 2 the phrase " the land of Magog" is attached ungrammatically to Gog, and is shown by the phtase as repeated in verse 3 to be a gloss. The only other passages in the Old Testament in which Magog occurs are Gen. x. 2; I Chron. i. 5. It has been plausibly suggested that Magog is here miswritten for Gog, as in Ezek. xxxix. 6, the copyist having at first overlooked the right word and after beginning the next one (Madai) rectified his error without erasing the first letter. Hence the existence of Magog, which can not be explained or illustrated from any source, is perhaps more than doubtful. Cf. B. Stade, Geschickte des Volkea Israel, ii. 61‑62, Berlin, 1885. J. F. MCCORDY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. H. Sayce, Higher Criticism and the Monuments, London, 1894; J. A. Eisenmenger, Enidecktea Judenthum, ii. 732 sqq., Konigsberg, 1711; A. Knobel. Vblkertafel der Genesis, pp. 60 sqq., Giessen, 1850; F. Lenormant Les Originee de l'histoire, ii. 458 sqq., Paris, 1884; J. B&hmer, in ZWT, xl (1897), 321 sqq.; H. Winekler, Altorientalische Forechunpen, i. 160 eqq., Leipsic, 1898; DB, ii. 224, iii. 212; EB, ii. 1747‑48; and the commentaries on Genesis and Ezekiel.
GOLDEN CALF. See CALF, THE GOLDEN.
GOLDEN LEGEND. See JACOB (JAMES) of VARAzzE.
GOLDEN NUMBER: A number (I.‑XIX.) indicating the place of R year in the Metonic cycle, according to which the new moon of any particular month occurs on the same day every twentieth year. The name is said to be due to the fact that when the Metonic cycle came into general use about 432 B.C. inscriptions in letters of gold were set up in Athens and other cities indicating the number of the year in the cycle. The numbers were also written in gold or red letters in the old calendars. In the year 1 B.C. the new moon fell on Jan. 1. Hence to find the golden number of any year, add one to the year A.D. and divide by nineteen; the remainder, if any, is the golden number of the year; if there be no remainder, the golden number is nineteen. The golden number is used in finding the date of
Easter. See CALENDAR, THE CHRISTIAN, § 4; and EASTER, 1., 3.
GOLDEN ROSE: An ornament blessed by the pope every year on the fourth Sunday in Lent (called Laetare Sunday from the opening words of the introit of the mass for the day) and usually sent afterward as a mark of special favor to some Catholic sovereign, male or female, or to some Catholic personage distinguished either as a church member or in the civil community. The rose is also occasionally bestowed on noted churches orsanctuaries, or even on illustrious Catholic cities or commonwealths.
Originally the ornament consisted of a single flower of wrought gold colored red; later the golden petals were decked with rubies and other precious stones; and finally the form adopted was that of a thorny branch bearing several flowers and leaves with one principal flower at the top, all of pure gold. The ceremonies at present employed in the blessing of the golden rose are quite elaborate, symbolizing, according to the liturgists, Christ and his grace. The origin of the custom is uncertain. An allusion to it is certainly found in the Chronicle of William of Newburgh (1197) and mention of the golden rose as such is found as early as the eleventh century. Urban V. who sent a golden rose to Joanna of Naples in 1366, is Said to be the first to determine that the blessing should take place annually. Doubtless the practise was but the development of a much earlier custom on the part of the popes of sending presents to princes who had deserved well of the Church.
Among the great number of instances of the conferring of the golden rose recorded in Morone'sDizionario ecclesiastico, a few of the more noteworthy are the following: Henry VIII. of England received the rose from three popes, the last time from Clement VII. in 1524. His daughter, Queen Mary, received the same favor from Julius III. in 1555. Pius IV. honored the republic of Lucca with it in 1564, and the same pontiff in 1564 bestowed the favor on the Lateran basilica. The shrine of Loreto received it from Gregory XIII. in 1584. Similarly the cathedral of Capua was favored by Benedict XIII. in 1726, and in 1833 the same distinction was bestowed by Gregory XVI. on the basilica of St. Mark in Venice. The queen of France, MariaTheresa, received it from Clement IX. in 1668; and the queen of Poland, Maria Casimir, from Innocent XI. in 1684, in recognition of the recent deliverance of Vienna by her valiant husband, John Sobieski. If in any particular year no one is deemed worthy to receive this distinction, the rose is laid up in the treasures of the Vatican. JAMES F. DRISCOLL.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Moroni, Diyionaria eeeleaiastico, s.v., Rome, 1865; w. E. Addis and T. Arnold, Qatholic Dictionary,
pp. 412‑413, London, 1903.

GOLDZIHER, gold'zi‑her, IGNATIUS: Hungarian Jewish Orientalist; b. at Stuhlweissenburg (35 m. sm. of Budapest), Hungary, June 22, 1850. He was educated at the universities of Budapest, Berlin, Leipsic (Ph.D., 1870), and Leyden. He was privat‑docent at Budapest in 1871‑72, and in

Golgotha
Good, The Highest
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
1873,84 traveled in Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. He was secretary of the Jewish community at Budapest from 1876 to 1905 and in 1894 was appointed professor of Semitic philology in the University of Budapest, while since 1900 he has been lecturer on the philosophy of religion in the Jewish Theological Seminary of the same city. He served as one of the members of the foreign board of consulting editors of the Jewish Encyclopedia, to which he also contributed (1901‑05). He is particularly known for his researches in Mohammedanism. In theology he adheres to the critical method in all problems. He has written Sttudim caber Tanchum jerusehalmi (Leipsie, 1870); Der Mythos bei den Hebretem and seine geschichtliche Entudcklung (1876; Eng. transl., Hebrew Mythology, by R. Martineau, London, 1877); Az Iszldm (Budapest, 1881); Die z4hiriten, ihr Lehrsystem and ihre Geschichte (Leipsie, 1884); Muhammedanische Studim (2 vols., Halle, 18891890); Der Diwdn des Garwal ben Aus Al‑Hufej'a (Leipsie, 1893); Abhandlungen zur arabisehen Philologie (2 vols., Leyden, .1896‑99); Le Livre de Mohammed tZn Toumert, Mahdi des Almohades (Algiers, 1903); and A Buddismua hatdsa az 1szldmra (Budapest, 1903); and has edited Kitab ma ani al‑nafs (Gdttingen, 1907).
GOLGOTHA. See HOLY SEPULCHER.
GOLTZ, EDUARD, FREIHERR VON DER:
German Protestant; b. at Langenbruck (16 m. s.e. of Basel), Switzerland, July 31, 1870. He was educated at the universities of Berlin, Halle, and Bonn (lic. theol., Berlin, 1893), was vicar at Fehrbellin (1895‑96), and pastor at Deyelsdorf, Pommerania (1898‑1902). In 1902 he became privat‑docent for practical theology at the University of Berlin, where he still remains. He has written Das Gebet in der dltesten Christenheit (Leipsic, 1901); Reisebilder am dem griechischrturkischen Orient (Halle, 1902); and Der Dienat der Frau in der christlichen $irehe (Potsdam' 1905); Athanasiua de Virginitate (Leipsie, 1905); and Tisehgebete and Abendmahlgebete in der allchristlwhen uttd griechischen Kirche (1905).

GOLTZ, HERMANN, FREIHERR VON DER:
German Protestant; b. at Dasseldorf May 17,
1835; d. in Berlin July 23, 1906. He was edu
cated at the universities of Erlangen, Berlin, Tti
bingen, and Bonn (1853‑58), and after being
chaplain to the Prussian embassy in Rome from
1861 to 1865, was appointed associate professor
of theology at Basel, becoming full professor there
in 1870. In 1873 he went to Bonn in a simi
lar capacity, but after 1876 resided in Berlin as
honorary professor, councilor of the supreme con
sistory, member of the supreme Evangelical church
council, and provost of St. Peter's. He wrote
Die reformm* Kircke Genf s im neunzehnten Jahr
hundert (Basel, 1862; Gottes Of'enbarung durch
heilige Geschichte, each ihrem Wesen belevchtel (1868) ;
Die christlichen Grundwahrheiten, oder die allge
meinen Principien der christlichen Dogmattk (Goths,
1873); and TempeWder nus dem Leben des Hewn
Jesu (sermons; Berlin, 1877). He also collaborated
with A. Wach in editing Synodalfragan zur Ortetr
tirung fiber die bevorstehende General‑Synode (Bielefeld, 1874‑75).
GOMARUS (GOMAR), FRANCISCUS: Leader of the strict Calvinistic party in Holland in the Arminian controversy; b. at Bruges, in Flanders, Jan. 30, 1563; d. at Groningen Jan. 11, 1641. He devoted himself to humanistic studies under Johann Sturm at Strasburg, and, beginning in 1580, studied theology at Neustadt under Ursinus, Zanchius, and Tossanus, then successively at Oxford, Cambridge, and Heidelberg. From 1587 he was pastor of the Netherlandish congregation in Frankfort‑on‑theMain. In 1594 he became professor of theology in Leyden. His strict Calvinism involved him in severe controversies with Arminius when he became his colleague in 1603. The chief point of dispute was the doctrine of predestination. The controversy soon became general. Colloquies arranged for the purpose of reconciling the opponents were without success. When Arminius died in 1609, Konrad Vorst (q.v.), a man of still more heterodox tendencies, became his successor, and Gomarus resigned in 1611 and became preacher of the Reformed congregation in Middelburg, where he also lectured on theology and Hebrew. In 1614 be went to Sampur as professor of theology, and four years later to Groningen. He took a prominent part in the Synod of Dort (1618‑19), and was one of the chief opponents of Arminianism in that assembly. Thenceforth he lived a lonely life at Groningen. In 1633 he took part in the revision of the translation of the Bible at Leyden. He was of a polemical nature, but faithful and conscientious in the discharge of duty. His collected works, mostly polemical, appeared in one volume folio, Amsterdam, 1645. See ARnsamus, JAconus, ARMIxIAmsM;
DORT, SYNOD OF; REMONsTRANTs.
(S. D. VAN VEEN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: B. Glasius, Godgeleerd Nederland, i. 537, 546, Hertogenbosch, 1851; C. Sepp, Het godpeleerd Omderwijs in Nederland i. 101‑120, 167‑170, Leyden, 1873. Consult also A. Schweizer, Die protestantiachen Centraldogmen in ihrer Entwickelunp, ii. 31‑224, Zurich, 1856.
GOMER See TABLE OF NATIONS.
GONESIUS (GONIADZKI, CONYZA), PETRUS:
Polish antitrinitarian; b. at Goniadz (32 m. n.w. of Bielostok) c. 1525; place and date of death unknown. By his opposition to the anti‑Catholic teachings of Francesco Stancaro at Cracow he attracted the attention of the bishop and clergy of Samogitia, who sent him abroad to complete his education. During the following years he resided in Germany (especially at Wittenberg), Switzerland (including Geneva), and probably Italy. His association with Italian antitrinitarians in Switzerland and his study of the writings of Servetus seem to have inspired him with heretical doctrines concerning the Trinity, while from the Moravian Anabaptists he received the teaching that the Christian can neither accept office nor engage in war, and took a hostile attitude toward infant baptism. At a synod held at Secymin Jan. 22‑23, 1556, Gonesius boldly polendzed against the doctrine of the Trinity, accepting the Apostles' Creed, but rejecting the Nicene and Athanasian Symbols. The Father alone

17	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA.	Golgotha Highest
is God; the Logos is not the Son, but the seed of the Son; and the doctrine of consubstantiality is rejected. The man Christ was transformed into God, and God or the Word into man, so that the Son is at once subject to the Father, and at the same time the two are identical. Refusing to retract, Gonesius was sent to Wittenberg„in the hope that Melanchthon might convince him of error. The treatise which he there prepared, De communications idiomatum nee dialediea nee physics ideoque prorsus nulls, was so filled with the heresy of Servetus that Melanchthon declined to have any further dealings with him, and dismissed him. Gonesius'a reception in Poland, however, was moat unfavorable, and at a synod held in the same year at Pinczow his doctrines were condemned as Arian. Two years later at the Synod of Brzesk in Lithuania, he repeated his assertions, and found a strong defender in the atarost of Samogitia, Jan Kiszka, who appointed him preacher at Wengrow and placed a press at his disposal for the promulgation of his views. He now won to his side many of the clergy and nobility of Podlachia and Lithuania, and in 1565 the Reformed openly divided into trinitarian and unitarian factions. The latter party soon far outstripped Gonesius, and he was forced to struggle in vain against the " Ebionite " and " Artemonite " heresies which denied the preexistence of Christ. Of the latter part of his life nothing is
known. 	A. HEGLERt. (K. HGLL.)

BInwoGRAFKY: F. S. Rock, Hiat. andidrinitariorum, i. 108, ii. 1079, Leipeie, 1774‑84; 0. Fock, Der Socinianismus, pp. 143 eqq., Kiel, 1847.

GOOD FRIDAY. See HOLY WEEK.

GOOD, THE HIGHEST.
Conceptions of Plato and Aristotle (f 1). The Scriptural Conception Q 2). Augustine's Influence (§ 3). Schleiermacher's View (¢ 4). The Sum of All True " Goods " (¢ 5).
	The term " Highest Good " (summum banum) is an
expression used in philosophic discussion to denote
the chief end of man's existence. Cicero defines it
(De fintbw, I., xii. 42) as " that which is referred
		to no other thing, .while all other
	L Concep‑ things are referred to it." The corre
	tions of sponding Greek word telm, " end," is
	Plato and often used simply, without any quali
	Aristotle. fying words, for the highest good, with
		which Aristotle identifies it (" Nico
machean Ethics," 1094a, 18‑22) : " If anything is
an end of our actions which we desire for itself, and
other things on account of it . . . it is plain that
this must be the Good and the Best." And that this
is almost universally predicated of eudaimonia,
" happiness," he states in another passage (1095a,
17 sqq.): "For we choose this for its own sake al
ways, and never for the sake of anything else." He
admits, however, that there is a controversy as to
what constitutes it. The Christian Fathers, in
estimating the opinions of the philosophers on this
subject, give the preference to Plato, because in
his system God is especially prominent as the
" objective " Highest Good, in the modern phrase.
Y.‑2
Aristotle considers merely " the end of our actions," the " Good ", which can be realized by human effort, while Plato brings ethics into close relation with metaphyaicq. He hypoatatizes the " Good " of Socrates into the highest of his " ideas," identifying it with the moos, " mind," of Anaxagoras, the one thing, that has real existence, the Godhead. In Plato the same term, " the Good," designates what is highest alike in the life of man and in the system of the universe. The Fathers also commend the way in which he speaks of the ethical "good," the attainable " end," the " happiness " of man; the Highest Good in a subjective sense, as " a likeness to God to the extent of our powers, which likeness consists in becoming just and holy by means of wisdom." The conception of the Highest Good in Christian ethics was largely influenced by the Platonic view, according to which the soul becomes like God only by ascetic flight from the world of sense into the world of ideas, by philosophic meditation on death, by ideal speculation and contemplation of the Godhead. This is intellectualism, to whose prevalence in the Church Aristotle also contributed by defining as the highest good the " contemplative activity " of the soul which is like that of God.
The phrase " your good" of Romans xiv. 16 might be referred to the Highest Good and to the
" kingdom of God " in the following z. The verse; but telos nowhere in the New
Scriptural Testament denotes the Highest Good.
Conception. Pa. xvi. is sometimes superscribed "God the Highest Good"; though the text of verse 2 is uncertain, throughout the psalm Yahweh is the " portion " of the rights pus, from whom they derive all good things (cf. also Pa. Ixxiii. 25, 26, 28). Schleiermacher remarks (Werke, III., ii. 456) that the designation of God as the Highest Good is an improper expression, and that it is more correctly defined as love for God. But we are in the habit of referring to persons (such as a wife or a child) as our good in the sense of a possession that makes us happy, without thinking it necessary to speak definitely of our love for them. God is thus Israel's Highest Good; he has given himself to this people as their lord and king. As such be is their lawgiver, their national good (Deut. iv. 8), more to be desired than gold (Ps. xix. 10), and provides all other good things for them. If " your good " in Rom. xiv. 16 is not directly to be referred to the kingdom of God, this kingdom is still, according to the words of Jesus (Matt. vi. 33; cf. xiii. 44, 46) that which is first to be sought. When God is perfectly recognized as king, he will as such bless his people with all good things and thus be the Highest Good of men. Even at present it is the good (best) part (Luke x. 42) to hear the words of Jesus, through which the kingdom of God is established within the soul (cf. also Matt. xiii. 16; John iv. 10). That he is our Highest Good is expressed most clearly in Phil. iii. 7‑10, i. 21‑23; 11 Cor. xii. 9; Heb. iii. 14. The " good things " of Matt. vii. 11 are summed up by Luke (xi. 13) in the Holy Spirit as the Highest Good, including all the others. It would, however, be unscriptural to confine the idea of the kingdom of God as the Highest

TheGood,	I	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	is
Good to these relations with him. His rule implies the blessing of his people with social and natural good things. But if any religion may be taken as having an eschatological conception of the Highest Good, it is the religion of the Bible, which understands the term of that which is really highest (" that which is perfect," I Cor. xiii. 10). Such passages as I Cor. viii. 8; Rom. mi. 36; Eph. iv. 8 imply that God, who directs all things toward himself, is the end of the world, or that the course of its history is to tend to his glory. The expressions of I Cor. xv. 28 and Rev. i. 8 have contributed to a metaphysical conception of God as the Highest Good in the sense of the ultimate end of all things. The maintenance of his glory in this sense is the devout purpose of those who desire his beneficent rule to prevail (Matt. v. 16; 1 Cor. x. 31; Eph. f. 12; Phil. i. 11, ii. 11; I Peter iv. 11).
In the Church of the second century also, the expected kingdom of God was looked upon as the
Highest Good. It was a result of the 3. Augus‑ Hellenization of Christianity when an tine's In‑ increasing influence was exerted, from fluence. Clement of Rome (Ad Corinthios,
xxxvi. 2) to Clement of Alexandria (Strom., VI., xii.), by the formula " the most perfect good is knowledge, which is to be chosen for its.own sake," without reference to anything else as in the quotation from Aristotle above. This knowledge (in the high sense given to the word gnosis, denoting a knowledge of the mysteries of God), since it has God for its highest, object, in a sense deifies man, and makes him immortal. Augustine's influence was epoch‑makingforthe development of the idea here discussed. He removed it a considerable distance from the moralism, intellectualism, naturalism of the ancients, and returned to the Scriptural paths. In union with Paul, he departs most widely from moralistic naturalism. The ancient morality was capable of the religious interpretation that the natural powers were gifts of God; but Christian ethics presupposes new, supernatural powers, derived from the new creation by God's grace. The ancient ‑philosopher expected, for perfect happiness, to become what he already was by nature, through the energetic cultivation of the higher or spiritual part of his being, in itself good and making it dominate the lower or sensual part. Augustine taught that man can become something quite other than he is by nature, through correspondence to the divine. purpose. The period of Augustine's influence extends practically down to Schleierma,cher. Even Kant's conception of the Highest Good is not really a new one. In the %ritik der praktischen Vernunft (Riga, 1788), he treats of two different elements of the Highest Good‑virtue conceived as an incessant progression toward perfect happiness, he calls the highest (supremum) good; but it is not yet the perfect and complete (consummatum) good, since to become this it requires a happiness proportioned to it, which is the second element of the Highest Good. The ultimate end of the universe is to be sought not in the happiness of rational beings, but in the Highest Good, which adds the condition of its accordance with the laws of virtue,
	After Augustine Schleiermacher's teaching marks
the next stage in the development. In his two
		treatises Ueber den Begrif dea hiichsten
4. Schleier‑ Guts (1827, 18301, the term denotes
	macher'a the sum of the products of moral
	View. activity, in so far as this activity still
		includes them in itself and continues to
develop them. The total result of the operations of
reason in the world through the human organiza
tion is the Highest Good‑a perfect and complete
whole, expressed in the terms " golden age," " per
petual peace," " community of language," " king
dom of heaven." In this organism of results, vir
tue, their cause, is included as the powerful life of
reason in the individuals. Schleiermacher's epoch
making character in regard to this question con
sists in his introduction into the concept of the
Highest Good of two new elements, the dominion of
man over the earth and the blessings of civilization.
	The place where alone, if God is all in all, the
absolute ultimate end exists is God's own personal
spirit, that of his Son, and those of the angels and
saints. The life of God and the " eternal life " of
his perfect children is the highest reality which
exists for its own sake and renders the question of
a purpose absurd. But what is life? In the Scrip
tural conception of the life of God causation, ac
tivity, incessant energy predominates among its
constituent factors. In the eternal life of spirits
that are like him, causation of religious acts in
relation to him and of social acts in relation to the
world of blessed spirits is a sinulaxly dominant fac
tor. With this energy sensations of happiness are
so inseparably connected that they can not be
differentiated, as accidental consequences, from it
as the end. To separate happiness as a subjective
accident from the moral end is something only to
be attempted by objectivism, which designates
objective spiritual results, valuable in and for them
selves, as the end. It calls them " good " because
the object of life is their attainment, and disap
proves of the ordinary meaning of the word " good,"
something which has the power to produce happi
ness in the individual consciousness. In opposition
to this view, the Christian doctrine uses the term
" Highest Good " in the old eudemonistic sense,
and maintains that the happiness produced in the
blessed spirits by their perfect acts of causation
is necessarily included in the absolute ultimate end.
Even when we call God himself the "objective
Highest Good," we do so only in distinction from
the subjective eudaimonia (happiness) which he
causes. And God is not a " good " in the abstract,
but the Highest Good to himself, to the Son, and
to the world. So far Schleiermacher is correct
when he says in' his Christliche Ethik : " The asser
tion that God is the Highest Good is not altogether
justifiable, four a thing is only classed among our
	goods '‑ when we have or possess it; but if we say
that the possession of God or union with God is the
Highest Good, no objection can be raised." This
possession is not an inactive possession. achleier
macher insists that it, is an essential property of
what we call a " good " to arouse a living activity,
and that an inactive condition, no matter bow
richly endowed, does not come under this head; and

19	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Good. The Nishest
(food Work
the same is true also of " goods " not produced by human activity, of God and his dominion, in relation to the religious and social activities of the spirits, in which they are " blessed" (James i. 25). Now, the Christian faith knows of no capacity to produce these activities except through the Savior; and Sehleiermacher says, "accordingly the redemption through Christ is itself the Highest Good," thus including in the term the element of the gift of grace. It is easy enough to avoid any identification of this with the real end.
There is, however, a distinction drawn by Thomas Aquinas (Summa, iii. 13) between " an end which is constituted by the action of an g. The Sum agent " and " an end which is proof All True existent and to be acquired or ob‑
	"Goods."	twined .by action or motion." Under
		the latter head come God and his
gifts, the Savior and salvation, and the Holy Ghost
who ministers salvation. These gifts are accepted
by an act of the will, with which man's part, the
" action," begins, that which constitutes the " end "
in the former sense, without losing sight of the
" preexistent end." In the religious and social ac
tivities produced in him by the eternal"goods"the
Christian must perfect himself by daily repentance.
The degree of perfection which must be attained
by each in this world is not known to us; but we
have firm confidence in the grace of God, and hope
for moral perfection in the other world, which shall
perfect also our moral happiness. Physical happi
ness, too, will~be bestowed upon us by God's love,
though of what nature this will be no one knows.
While Christians already possess "eternal life," a
life which is supramundane and heavenly, this is
only a feeble beginning compared with the blessed
perfection to be attained in the likeness of God in
the world to come. It may therefore be doubted
whether it is to be included in the idea of the (sub
jective) Highest Good. God's gifts, when he shall
be all in all, will of course not be the same as his
present gift‑redemption, forgiveness of sins,
sanctification. And since in this life the blessings
of civilisation may be numbered among his gifts,
it is possible to include them also in the conception
of the Highest Good, which thus becomes the sum,
the organism, the system, the totality of all true
" goods." 	KARL THIEME.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The subject is treated from the historicphilosophloal side in all works on the history of philosoply‑e.g.. F. Ueberweg, Gew*kAu der philosopAis, ed. M. Heinse, i. 184, 238 277‑273, Berlin, 1894 (giving references to other literature). It is also included within the scope of works on ethics and Christian ethics.
Consult: Palmer, in Jahrbflchar fflr deutsdis Theolopie,
v (1880), 438 eqq.; K. Werner, GesrhiAte der apolopetiaehen and polmiacAan Likmtur der chrieaichan Thsolopia, I. 489‑499, Schaffhausen, 1881• Roman, in jahrbgcher fir deutadw Theolopie, roil (1872), 442 eqq. (on Sehleiermseher); Arnoldt, in Altpreussieche‑iKonatswArifk, u (1874), 193 sqq‑ (on Kant); 8. Huber, Die Glaekeelipkeitskhre des Aristotdee and heifigen Thomas von Aquinas Freising, 1893; J. Kaftan, in Zeiteehritt tar Tkeolopie Una Birds, vii (1897), 13.
GOOD, JAMES ISAAC: German Reformed; b. at York, Pa., Dec. 31, 1850. He was educated at Lafayette College (B.A., 1872) and Union Theological Seminary (1872‑75). He was pastor of Heidelberg Reformed Church, York, Pa. (1875‑
1877), Heidelberg Reformed Church, Philadelphia
(1877‑90); Calvary Reformed Church, Reading,
Pa., (1890‑05). He was connected with Ur
einus College, Philadelphia, first as professor of
church history from 1890 to 1893, and then as pro
fessor of dogmatics and pastoral theology and dean
of the school of theology from 1893 to 1897.
Since 1907 he has been professor of Reformed
Church history in Central Theological Seminary,
Tiffin, O. In theology his position is conservative
and positive. He has written Origin of the Re
formed Church of Germany (Reading, Pa., 188?);
Rambles around Reformed Lands (1889); History
of the Reformed Church of Germany (1894); History
of the Reformed Church in the United States (1899);
Famous Women of the Reformed Church (Philadel
phia, 1902); and Famous Miasionariea o f the Re
formed Church (1903).
GOOD TEMPLARS. See TOTAL ABsTumNcE.
GOOD WORKS.
Ethnic and Jewish Conception (§ 1). The Teaching of Jesus (12).
I	Pauline Teaching (.§ 3).
Patriotic and Roman Catholic Doctrine (§ 4).
In the Eastern Church (§ b).
The Teaching of Luther and Melanchthon (§ 8).
Modern Lutheran Teaching (§ 7).
Roman Catholic Doctrine Criticised (§ 8).
	There are only faint traces among the Babylo
mans of the conception of a judgment of the dead,
		but Babylonian prayers contain peti
	:. Ethnic tiona that the " table of good works "
	and Jewish might be written upon and the " table
Conception. of sine " destroyed. The former table
		is identical with the " table of life "
upon which Nebo registers man's length of life.
In the Egyptian religion Thoth corresponds to this
writing god, the heart of the dead is weighed in a
scale and Thoth notes the result. The dead man
puts in a claim, for example, for charity, " I have
given bread to the hungry, water to the thirsty,
clothes to the naked, and passage to those without
ship." The Greek conception of the judgment of
the dead was influenced by the Babylonians (cf.
L. Rub], De mortuorum judicio, Giessen, 1903). In
the Zoroastrian eschatology the conceptions, good
thoughts, good words, good works, are important
(Bee ZOROAaTER, ZOROAaTRIANIaM). These accom
pany the soul in its flight to heaven. At the judg
ment of the dead good works are weighed against
bad works. Here may be found the idea of a treas
ury of superfluous good works and that works of
pity are decisive. These ideas probably had an
influence upon the Jewish religion. Their influence
upon Islam is well known. These parallel features
are especially noteworthy: books of good and bad
works, the' weighing of them, and emphasis on
works of pity. God accepts repentance. Faith
and good works moat follow in order to drive away
former evil (J. B. Ruling, Eschotologie des Islam,
pp. 18‑25, Leipaic, 1895). In the Jewish religion
ma'oaim forum, "good works," are frequently men
tioned along with mizwoth, " fulfilment of the law."
Ma'aseh signifies the practical fulfilment of the law,
and comes neat to its study, and might include the
conception of mizwoth. It was not limited to the
giving of alms and acts of kindness. It can not be

Good Works	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	20
maintained that all good works of these two sorts were regarded as extralegal (cf. Dent. xv. 7 sqq.). But although they were commanded by the law, the measure and degree in which they were to be performed were left'to individual initiative. The idea of `deeds=‑ofleiselaes~tc~e ~asadhim3first appears in Ecclesiasticus and Tobit; these acts relate to the dead, mourners, the sick, strangers, and prisoners, and are dependent upon personal motive. They have justifying and atoning power. They are written down in books in heaven, and on the judgment day God opens the books and judges accordingly (Jubilees, xxx. 19 sqq.). Another conception is that of the garnering up of good works. On the judgment day they " awake " (IV Ezra. vii. 35, 77). In Pirke Aboth iv. lla, vi. 9b, good works are represented as companions of the departing soul and witnesses in his favor before the judgment seat. The idea sometimes appears of the superfluity of the good works of the Fathers being vicariously accredited to Israel (IV Ezra 8, 26 aqq.).
On the expression kala or agatha ergs., which occurs in the New Testament first in Matt. v. 16, cf. H.
Cremer, Wbrterbuch der neutestament‑
2. The lichen Grdcitat (Goths, 1902), and Teaching of Zahn, Das Evangedium deg Matthdus,
Jesus.	p. 203 (Leipsic, 1905). The image of a
" treasure in Heaven " is used also by Jesus (Matt. vi. 20), who retains the conceptions relating to the reward for good works. The image of bookkeeping with reference to good works appears in Rev. xx. 12; that of the companionship of good works in Rev. xiv. 13. Jesus' criticism of the righteousness of good works is aimed at the Presumption of claiming credit with God, at the confusion of the distinction between moral and ritualistic works, at the increasing of the necessary number of good works to an intolerable degree, and at the pride and love of glory accompanying it. The Jews commonly associated almsgiving, prayer, and fasting as types of good works. Jesus approved of fasting as an expression of a sorrowful mood, but not as a means of purification. He emphasized the importance of words as indications of the character of the spirit (Matt. xii. 36‑37), but he also praised the doing of the will of God in contrast to the mere utterance of words (Matt. vii. 21, xxi. 28 aqq.). He taught also that only those acts of love are good that arise from adequate motives (Matt. xxv. 37 aqq.). In Luke x. 20 he uses the old image of a book of life, meaning that his disciples had cOnfeseed God and been chosen to salvation.
Paul was not only a man of deep religious feeling, but an active character and an ethical genius.
It is an exaggeration to assert that
3. Pauline his denial of justification by works
Teaching. meant an alienation from works (A.
Sehlatter, Der Glaube im N. T., pp. 327 sqq., 381 aqq., Stuttgart, 1905). Paul opposes the doctrine that man may demand recompense from God for doing that which God has bidden him do. It is impiety from the standpoint of the religion of salvation and faith in Christ. He opposes to the Jewish formula, " works and faith," the principle " out of faith alone." Faith is trust in .the grace of God, which alone brings salvation and would no longer
be grace if the principle " by works " were valid. The sole efficacy of predestined grace is lauded in Rom. xi. 6; its relation to works in Eph. ii. 9‑10. Paul certainly valued highly the activity of Christians in works, which, religiously considered, is nothing less than God's " good works." The saving power of good works arises from the fact that at the judgment decision will be based upon them. This seems contradictory of the doctrine of justification by faith alone. It will not do to regard the former of these views as a mere survival in Paul of a Jewish mode of thought., Paul not only felt that Christ was producing all those heroic works which he, Paul, was able to do through love of Christ, but he also recognized in himself freedom, power, and responsibility. He was filled with the spirit of selfsacrifice and joy because he was able to do something for the love of Christ, for which he hoped to receive not " reward "from Christ, but favor and friendly recognition. Faith in Christ as judge because of his " meekness and gentleness " (II Cor. x. 1) made the idea of man's hoping in his littleness to deserve anything of God because of his works seem less presumptuous. The ethical conception that salvation must be dependent upon activity, responsibility, and duty was developed in Paul's mind by the idea of the atonement. The pastoral letters mention frequently the idea of good works, which then passed into church doctrine and terminology. While these letters do not contain the phrase " faith and works," they do contain the phrase " faith and love."
For the evolution of the idea of justification by works see JUSTIFICATION. The best material bearing
on the common postapostolic view of 4. Patristic good work is presented in A. Titius, and Roman Die neutestamentliche Lehre von der
Catholic Seligkeit, vol. iv., chap. iv. (Tilbingen,
Doctrine. 1900). For the apostolic fathers, E. J.
Goodspeed, Index patristicus (Leipsic, 1907) is valuable. Their ethicism is currently explained as due to Jewish influence. The significance of Tertullian, Cyprian, and Augustine for the Roman Catholic doctrine of good works is very great (see JUSTIFICATION). Augustine's De ,fide et operibus established in the Church Paul's doctrine of " faith which worketh by love " (Gal. v. 6). The specific Roman Catholic combination of a religion of salvation and a religion of justice began after the time of Tertullian to be formed by means of an elastic and complicated conception of Merit (q.v.). The thesis of Augustine that God crowns as human desert his own gifts of grace made the combination possible. The scholastics treat many problems relative to this subject not under the title of bona opera, " good works," but under actus humani, " human activities," as belonging to ethics. As they recognized seven principal virtues, seven gifts of the Holy Spirit, and as especially good acts, eight evangelical beatitudes, so also they counted seven corporal and seven spiritual works of charity. The corporal were the Jewish " deeds of kindness " (Lactantius, Epitome, Ix.; Augustine, De moribm eeclesim catholicce, xxvii.). These works of pity especially, but also the other categories mentioned, are still important in the Roman Church. The prevailing,

21	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Good Works
external, reward‑hungry doctrine of the Middle Ages was undermined by mystics like Bernard, Eckhart, and Tauler (qq.v.). The Tridentine council defended the " regard for reward " (see REWARD) and the fear of hell and judgment. Christ is not only the Savior whom one should trust, but the lawgiver whom one must obey. The Gospel is not a bare and unconditioned promise of eternal life without the requirement of observing the commands of God and of the Church. As works of satisfaction are mentioned " fasting, works of charity, prayer, and other exercises of the spiritual life." The point of view is not alone that of the observance of the, commandments. Good works are regarded also as sufferings with Christ (Rom. viii. 17), as war with the flesh; and especially noteworthy is the connection with Johannean mysticism. The current Roman Catholic doctrine of good works may be sketched briefly as follows: even a man who has committed a sin deserving of death may perform naturally good works, which, although they will not bring him to Heaven, " are very useful in obtaining from the Divine pity the grace of conversion, and in winning temporal reward or avoiding temporal punishment " (Katholischer Katechismus fiir das Apostolische Vikariat im KBnigreiche Sachsen, p. 89). The commands of God and of the Church, the performance of which will win Heaven for the doer, are to hear mass, to fast, to confess and partake of the communion, to pay church tithes, and not to marry at forbidden times. To the question, which works . are especially recommended by the Bible, the catechism quoted, p. 90, mentions prayer, fasting, and almsgiving, in which are included all works of reverence, mortification, and love of neighbors. A great theological‑ethical tradition beginning with Augustine lies back of the doctrine of the catechism that. God " especially regards the good intention, through which even with slight works we may obtain great reward of God." The good intention should be awakened every morning with prayer; to renew it frequently through the day increases the merit. A good intention that does not coincide with the proper aim and direction of a good work adds a new species of goodness to the good work, makes it doubly good. An alms, an action or suffering of anything irksome, is spoken of as being " brought as a sacrifice " to God. The good intention then makes doubly good the deed good in itself. The awakening of the good intention is an act of explicit love of God. The acts of faith and hope also should frequently be awakened. These three theological virtues are, together with sanctifying grace, an inpoured ornament of the soul disposing to a fulness of good works. It is evident how great is the number of possible good works. The Catholic needs many of them not only to obtain merit in order to attain blessedness, but also as acts of penance in order to escape temporal punishment for his sins. The acts of penance imposed by the confessor (prayer, fasting, and alms) must be supplemented by voluntary deeds, which avail to help the poor soul suffering the fires of purgatory.
In the Eastern Church the spirit of an Augustine has been lacking to lead the way beyond the formula
" faith and good works." Faith and good works are regarded in that church as the two factors of all Christianity.. According to Metho‑
g. In the dius "the praiseworthy are those who
Eastern	adorn the inner man with the proper
	Church.	faith as well as the outer with good
		works." The words of Cyril of Jerusa
lem are well known: "The way of regard for God is
twofold, pious beliefs and good deeds; these beliefs
apart from good deeds are not acceptable to God;
nor are good works apart from right beliefs received
by him " (MPG, viii. 456 B). The " Confession "
of Mogilas names fourteen works of charity.
With Luther, it may be admitted, the ethical interest was secondary, in the sense that he preached the receptive power of faith with more 6. The enthusiasm than the effective power; Teaching of that faith is, according to him, ethio‑
Luther and ally effective only when it is not too Melanch‑ far removed from its idealization, as he thon. himself for the most part experienced it; and that he should have avoided his apparently antinomian modes of expression. His principal work, Von den guten Werken (1520), begins with " It is to be understood in the first place that those things commanded by God are not the only good works." 'Luther believed that faith brought all religious activities along with it. He refers several times in this tract to the charge that he forbade good works. While he had condemned mere legal good works, intended to procure blessedness for the doer, he defended good works &,rising from faith. Good works are, according to him, the end and aim of faith, which reenforces the natural human motives to good works. Faith, especially that in the beneficence of God, disposes the recreated man to be beneficent to his neighbor. Good works are not necessary to blessedness; they flow of necessity from the beatific faith. He who has been baptized and believes is just and happy, and has received heaven and eternal life. But in order to remain so, he must retain, exercise, complete, and test his faith, and for this good works are necessary. Good works are a means, at the judgment, for measuring the degree of faith, but are not in themselves causes of blessedness. Luther continued the fight of the mystics against the " regard for reward," but in practise he did not take away the motives of reward. Melanchthon, on the other hand, defended the principle of obligation in the good works of believers‑they are not " forced " but " owed." In the Augsburg Confession, VI., the statutory motive, the necessity arising from command and obligation, is placed beside the more idealistic bringing forth of good fruits, and the " thus hath God commanded " contains a third thought‑it is aimed at the former emphasis upon " childishly unnecessary works,, of which MelanchthOn Complains in articles XX. 3, XXVI.2, XXVII. 13. In §f bodii. sqq. of the " Apology " the ideas of merit and reward are brought in‑good works are meritorious, but deserve neither justification nor I eternal life, but only "other corporal and spiritual rewards in this life and afterward."
For the controversies about the necessity of good works in the seventeenth century see ANTINOMIAN‑

Good Works
Goodwin	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	82
IBM AND ANTINOMIAN CoNTRovicRslza, II.; SYNCRETISTIC CONTROVERSIES; and HoRNIcrus, CONRAD. The doctrine of the orthodox dogmatists is given in H. Schmid, Die Dogmatik der evangeliseh‑ltttheriachen Kirche, ¢ 49 (Giitersloh, 1893). For the Reformed doctrine of good works see CALVIN, JOHN; PROTESTANTISM; and ZWINGLI, HULDREICH.
Few Lutherans to‑day adhere to Luther's dogma that "good works are to be excluded not only when
the discussion concerns justification, q. Modern but also when our eternal salvation is
Lutheran the question." Most of them would
Teaching. assert that we have no right to inter‑
pret the numerous Scriptural expressions concerning God's judgment as showing that he regards good fruits only as indications of faith, upon which alone everything depends, but that he appreciates them and the good conscience from which they proceed according to the value which the good in itself has for him. Man, possessing perfection only in a measure, may, and should, find favor in a measure with God. In view of the ideal of perfection, his state will bring him no joy, but only shame and pain and anxiety. It is not "perfection " at all from the point of view of the law. It has value only in the Father's loving eyes, upon which the mortal has no claim. Does this do justice to the certainty of salvation ? It is a common Lutheran misunderstanding of the Lutheran certainty of salvation to assume that the Christian is as sure of his salvation as he is, say, of his mortality. The Christian is heir to salvation, but not necessarily possessor of it. His faith is the key to a priceless treasure, but in order to possess that treasure he must guard and perfect the key. .He does not, it is true, according to Luther, attain to blessedness because of his perfected faith, but because of the Savior who is the judge that pronounces happiness. The perfected faith, however, is the means of ascending to the Savior. Luther himself in his wrestling with his own soul had no such certainty of salvation. He placed so much emphasis upon faith because in his view everything depends upon Christ, "which fact must be believed and can not be attained or grasped in any other way by any work, law, or merit." But the Christian believer, for whom the rule of grace obtains, can and should bring fruits which, though not according to the dispensation of the law, pass for a certain "per fection" according to the dispensation of grace. That the anxiety concerning the persistent imperfection of this "perfection" threatens the certainty of future blessedness does not make this view a kind of sub‑Lutheran Christianity. According to Luther, this very imperfection of the receptive power of faith is the never‑failing point of concern. The shattered certainty of Salvation becomes whole again through the faith that " God is greater than the heart and knows all things."
The specifically Lutheran dogma which condemns the principles that good works are necessary to blessedness and that it is impassible to attain blessedness without good works, does not do sufficient justice to the entire religion of the New Testament. This is a combination of the religion of salvation or atonement with a religion of morality,
which makes the Roman Catholic decline into a combination of religion of salvation with a religion of legality comprehensible. According 8. Roman to the Council of Trent, the Savior, by
	Catholic	means of the power that constantly
	Doctrine.	streams from him into the justified,
		brings it about that nothing of reward
is lacking to those who have fully accomplished the
Divine law and have deserved eternal life. In
opposition to the view of certain theologians that
at the judgment the merit of Christ will have to be
added anew, it is maintained that the justified can,
with his good works which are God's gifts of grace
as well as his own good deserts, make oneself secure
before the tribunal of God without any other im
putation of justice (G. Thomasius, Die chrisaiche
Dogmengeschichte, eel. Bonwetsch and Seeberg, ii.
698, Leipsic, 1889). These views of a complete ful
filment of the law and of a claim to a just reward
are unchristian. See CONSILIA EVANGELICA; ETH
ras; LAw AND GOSPEL; and MAJOR, GEORG.
(KARL THIEME.)
BiHLIOGHAPHT: The subject is often treated in works on systematic theology, for a list of which see DOGMA, DoGxATics; also in those upon ethics (q.v.). Consult also the literature on the articles to which reference is made in the text. For the Jewish doctrine consult: F. Weber, JUdisehe Theolopie, eel. F. Delitseah and G. 8chnedermann, Leipsic, 1897; P. Vols, Jadische Eschatolopie roan Daniel Us Akiba, Tabingen, 1903; W. Bousset, Die Religion doe Judentume im neuteatamentlichen Zeitolter, Berlin, 1908; O. Holtsmann, Neutestamentliche Zeitpeachichte, § 33, TObingen, 1906. For the doctrine in the New Testament consult the works in and under BzHLICAL THEOLOGY. On the doctrine in the Church and in ethics special treatment is in: B. Thieme, Die sittliehs Triebkraft des Glaubens, Lelpsic, 1895 (on Luther); C. E. Luthard, %ompendium der thedopischcn Ethik, § 42. Leipsic, 1898; Bensow, in Beitraye zur Fbrderunp chridlicher Theolopie, a. 2 (1908); F. Loafs, Doymenpeschichte, Halle, 1908; J. Gotteehiek, Ethik, i ¢ 14 sqq., Ttrbingen, 1907. For the Roman Catholic side consult: F. A. GSpfert, Moraltheoiopie, vol. i., Pader born, 1905; %L, rii. 132"1.
GOODELL, WILLIAM: Congregationalist missionary; b. at Templeton, Mass., Feb. 14, 1792; d. in Philadelphia Feb. 18, 1867. He was graduated from Dartmouth College in 1817, from the Andover Theological Seminary in 1820, and was sent by the American Board as a missionary to Beirut in 1822. On account of the Greek revolution he was forced to retire to Malta in 1828, where he. continued his missionary work till 1831. In June 1831 he opened a new mission to the Armenians in Constantinople, where he labored with conspicuous r.u3cees till 1865, returning then to the United States. The crowning work of his life was his Armeno‑Turkish translation of the Bible, the final revision of which appeared in 1863.
BwwoGSAPH7: E. D. G. Prime, Forty Years in the Turkish Empire; or, Memoirs of Rev. William Goodell, New York, 1883 (by his son‑in‑law).
GOODWIN, CHARLES WYCLIFFE: English jurist and Egyptologist; b. at King's Lynn (26 m. n.e. of Ely), Norfolk, 1817; d. at Shanghai, China, Jan. 17, 1878. He studied at St. Catherine's Hall, Cambridge (B.A., 1838; M.A., 1842), and was admitted to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1848. He was the only lay contributor to Essays aced Reviews (q.v.). In 1865 he was appointed assistant judge of the supreme court for China and

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Japan. In 1873 he was transferred to Yokohama as acting judge of the supreme court, a position which he retained when he returned to Shanghai in 1876. His works include: The Anglo‑Saxon Version of the Life of St. Guthlac . . . with a Translation and Notes (London, 1848); The Anglo‑Saxon Legends of St. Andrew and St. Veronica . . . with an English Translation (Cambridge, 1851); Hieratic Papyri (in Cambridge Essays, London, 1858); On the Mosaic Cosmogony (in Essays and Ravietas, 1860); The Story of Sanelui, an Egyptian Tale of Four Thousand Yearn ago, Translated from the Hieratic Text (1866), which, with other translations by Goodwin, was included in the first series of Records of the Past (12 vo1s., 1873‑81); also a number of contributions to the second eerier of Chabas' M‑9angea 4gyptologiquea (Chalon‑sur‑'3afte, 1864), and to Lepsius and Brugech's Zeitachrzft ftlr agyptisehe Spraehe.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: DNB, mi. 14?r143.
GOODWIN, DANIEL RAYIPBS: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at North Berwick, Me., Apr. 12, 1811; d. at Philadelphia Mar. 15, 1890. He was educated at BowdoinCollege (B.A., 1832), and, after a year of study at Andover Theological Seminary and two years in Europe, became professor of modern languages in Bowdoin College in 1835. In that position he completed his theological studies, and was ordained to the priesthood in 1848. From 1853 to 1860 he was president of Trinity College, Hartford, Conn., where he was also professor successively of modern languages and mental and moral philosophy. In 1860 he was elected provost of the university of Pennsylvania, a position which he held eight years, resigning to accept the deanship and Holy Trinity professorship of systematic theology in the Philadelphia Episcopal Divinity School, both of which he held until his death. He was a deputy to the General Convention from Maine in 1853 and from Pennsylvania after 1862. He wrote Christianity neither Ascetic nor Fanatic (New Haven, 1858); The Christian Ministry (Middletown, Conn., 1880); Southern Slavery in its Present Aspects (Philadelphia, 1864); The Perpetuity of the Sabbath (1867); The New Ritualistic Divinity (1879); Notes on the late Revision of the New Testamertl (New York, 1883); and Christian Eschatology (Philadelphia, 1885).

GOODWIN, JOHN: Arminian clergyman and controversialist; b. in Norfolk c.1594; d. in London, 1665. He was educated at Queen's College, Cambridge (M. A., 1817). He preached for a number of years in his native county, officiated for a time at St. Mary's, Dover, and went to London in 1632, where he became vicar of St. Stephen's in 1633. Ejected from his living in 1645, he maintained an independent church till he was restored by Cromwell in 1649. Under the influence of John Cotton (q.v.) he early sided with the Puritans s,nd was one of the first clergymen to go to the support of parliament on the appeal to arms in 1642, publishing numerous tracts in the interest of the Puritan cause. At the Restoration he, with eighteen others, was incapacitated for any public office, ecclesiastical or civil. In theology be was an Ar‑
minian, though he always maintained that he was independent of the system of Arminius. His most important works are: Imputatroo,fidei, or a Treatise
of Justification (London, 1842), held in high esteem
by John Wesley, and quoted extensively by Richard Watson in his Theological Institutes; The Divine Authority of the Scriptures Asserted (1648), which was commended by Beater; Might and Right Well Met (1648), a justification of the purging of the Parliament in 1648; "TpPwrodGcaa : The Obstructor8 of Justice (1649), a vindication of the sentence against Charles L, a tract publicly burned at the Restoration, together with several by Milton; 'AgoR4rpwaes 'AaoAurpG‑ecr, or RedemptiOft RsdseffW (1651) which called forth replies from John Oven, George Kendall, Robert Baillie, and others; WaterDipgring no Firm Footing for Church Communion (1653); Cata‑Baptism (1655), the last two works being polemics against Baptists; and the Triumviri (1658), a reply to his critics.
Bnuaoassrer: T. Jackson, Life of John l)oodwin, London. 1872; A. b Wood, Atlvence OmnisnrW, ii. 86, 85, 188, 219, 288, 334, ib. 1892; D. Nest. Hint. of the Puritans, ii. 238, 305, iii. 230, 481, iv. 227, ad. of 1822; DNB, zai. 14Ci148 (gives a number of other sources).
GOODWIN, THOMAS : English independent minister; b. at Rollesby (14 m. e.n.e. of Norwich), Norfolk, Oct. 5, 1600; d. in London Feb. 23, 1680. He was educated at Christ's College and Catherine's Hall, Cambridge (B.A., 1616; M.A., and B.D., 1620), where he was appointed lecturer at Trinity Church in 1828, and vicar in 1832. After an interview with John Cotton (q.v.) in 1633 he became an independent, and the following year he resigned his preferments and removed to London. Here he preached till 1639, when, his position having become untenable through Laud's vigilance, he went to Holland and became pastor of the English church at Arnheim. Soon after the opening of the Long Parliament (Nov. 3, 1640) he returned to London, gathered an independent congregation at St. Dunstan's‑in‑the‑East, and became one of the most eminent of the independent ministers. He was a member of the Westminster Assembly, allied himself with the Congregational party called the "° dissenting brethren," became their leader, and edited The Reasons Presented by the Dissenting Brethren (London, 1648). He was made chaplain to the Council of State Nov. 2, 1649, and president of Magdalen College, Oxford, Jan. 8, 1'660. He became one of Cromwell's chief advisers, served on various important commissions, and attended the Protector on his death‑bed. In 1658, with others, he secured Cromwell's consent to hold a synod for the purpose of drawing up a new confession of faith (see Coxax>eoemloxlnlsTS IIL, 1). On being deprived of his position at Oxford at the Restoration he returned to London as an independent minister. Of his voluminous writings only his sermons were printed during his lifetime. His Works (5 vo1s., London, 1681‑1704) have been edited, with a memoir, by Robert Hall (12 vole., Edinburgh, 18811868). There is also a condensed edition by J. Babb (4 vole., London, 1847‑50).
BIHLIOaaAPHY: Besides the memoir prefixed to his works,
consult: Walter Wilson, Riot. and Antiquities of Diassnh inp Chwdbs in London, id. 214‑21ti, iii. 420, 429‑430, 448‑

Goose Bible	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	$4
Gorton
447, 4 vols.. London, 1808‑14; D. Neal, Hiat. of the Puritans, iv. 172‑173, 4bb‑456, ed. of 1822; A. F. Mitchell, The Westminster Aaaemblg, p. 214, New York, 1883; DNB, xxii. 148‑150.
GOOSE BIBLE: See BIB,•t VER$IdNs, B, IV., § 9.
GORDON, ADONIRAM JUDSON: Baptist; b. at New Hampton, N. H., Apr. 19, 1836; d. at Boston Feb. 2, 1895. He was educated at Brown University (B.A., 1860) and Newton Theological Institution (1863). In 1863 he became pastor at Jamaica Plain, Maw., where he remained six years. From 1869 until his death he was pastor of the Clarendon Street Baptist Church, Boston, which became, under his leadership, a center of revivals and of philanthropic work. He also established a school for the training of missionaries and pastors' assistants. He described himself as " a prohibitionist in temperance reform; a supporter and colaborer with D. L. Moody in his evangelistic movement; Low‑church in ecclesiology, and premillennial in eschatology." He prepared New Vestry Hymn and Tune Book (Boston, 1872) and wrote In Christ: or, The Believer's Union. with his Lord (1872); Congregational Worship (1872); Grace and Glory (sermons, 1881); Ministry of Healing (1882); The Twofold Life (1884); Ecce Venit: Behold He Cometh' (New York, 1889); The Holy Spirit in Missions (1893); The Ministry of the Spirit (Philadelphia, 1894); and the posthumous Yet Speaking (New York, 1897).
GORDON, CHARLES WILLIAM: Presbtyerian Church of Canada; b. at Indian Lands, Ont., Sept. 13, 1860. He was educated at the University of Toronto (B.A., 1883), and Knox College, Toronto (1887), and pursued postgraduate studies at New College, Edinburgh. He was classical master in the high school at Chatham, Ont. (1883,84) and in Upper Canada College, Toronto (1886‑87), and tutor in Knox College (1884‑87). He was a missionary at Banff, Alberta (1890‑93), and since 1894 has been minister of St. Stephen's Church, Winnipeg. In theology he accepts the modem interpretation of Evangelical doctrines. He has written, under the pseudonym of " Ralph Conner," Black Rock (Chicago, 1898); Beyond the Marshes (1899); The Sky Pilot (1899); Ovld Michael (1900); The Man from Glengarry (1901); Glengarry School Days (1902); The Prospector (1904); The Pilot at Swan Creek (London, 1905); Breaking the Record (Chicago, 1905); and The Doctor (1906).
GORDON, GEORGE ANGIER: Congregationalist; b. at Oyne (18 ii. n.w. of Aberdeen), Aberdeenshire, Scotland, Jan. 2, 1853. He was educated at Bangor Theological Seminary and Harvard University (B.A., 1881). He was pastor at Greenwich, Conn., in 1881‑84, and since 1884 has been pastor of the Old South Church, Boston. He was lecturer in the Lowell Institute course in 1900 and Lyman Beecher Lecturer at Yale in the following year, in addition to being university preacher at Harvard in 1886‑90 and at Yale in 1888‑1901. He has written The Witness to Immortality (Boston, 1893); The Christ of To‑Day (1895); Immortality and the new Theodicy (1897); The New Epoch for Faith (1901); and Through Man to God (1906).
GORDON, JOHN: Presbyterian; b. at Pittsburg, Pa., Mar. 10, 1850. He was educated at the Western University of Pennsylvania (B.A., 1866), Auburn Theological Seminary (1868‑71), and union Theological Seminary, from which he was graduated in 1871. He held successive pastorates at Rensselaerville, N. Y. (1871‑79), the First Presbyterian Church, Lincoln, Neb. (1880‑82), the Fourth Presbyterian Church, Pittsburg (1884‑‑86), and Westminster Church, Omaha, Neb. (1887‑97). He was also professor of ecclesiastical history in Omaha Theological Seminary (1891‑99); president of Tabor College, Tabor, Ia. (1901‑03), and president of Howard University, Washington (1903‑06). He has written Three Children of Galilee (Boston, 1895).
GORE, CHARLES: Anglican bishop of Birmingham; b. at Wimbledon (8 m. s.w. of London), Surrey, Jan. 22, 1853. He was educated at Harrow and at Balliol College, Oxford (B.A., 1875), and was ordained priest in 1878. He was fellow of Trinity College, Oxford (1875‑95), vice‑principal of Cuddesdon College (1880‑83), and librarian of Pusey House, Oxford (1884‑93). His advanced theological views led to his resignation, however, and after being vicar of Radley, Oxfordshire (18931894), he was appointed canon of Westminster in 1894. He retained this position until 1902, being also honorary chaplain to the queen in 1898‑1900, and chaplain in ordinary to her in 1900‑01 and to the king in the latter year. In 1902 he was consecrated bishop of Worcester, and two years later was translated to the see of Birmingham. He was the editor of the famous Lux Mundi (London, 1890), to which he also contributed the chapters on The Holy Spirit and Inspiration, and wrote Leo the Great (London, 1880); The Church tend the Ministry (1889); Roman Catholic Claims (1889); The Mission of the Church (1891); The Incarnation of the Son of ("rod (Bampton Lectures, 1891); Dissertations (1896); The Creed of the Christian (1896); The Sermon on the Mount (1897); The Athanasian Creed (1897); Prayer and the Lord's Prayer (1898); The Body of Christ (1901); The Spiritual Efficiency of the Church (1904); The Permanent Creed (1905); and The New Theology and the Old Religion (1907). He commented on Ephesians (London, 1898) and Romans (1899), and edited G. Romanes' Thoughts on Religion (London, 1894); and Essays in Aid of the Reform of the Church (1898).

GORHAM CASE: ‑A well‑known ecclesiastical litigation which agitated the Church of England in the middle of the nineteenth century. In 1847 the Lord Chancellor presented the Rev. George Cornelius Gorham (b. 1787; d. 1857; B.A., Cambridge, 1808; M.A., 1812; B.D., 1820, fellow of Queen's College, 1810‑27) to the living of Brampford Speke, near Exeter. The bishop of Exeter, Henry Phillpotts, a determined High‑churchman, having doubts of Gorham's orthodoxy, required him to submit to a searching examination, and, finding that his views concerning baptismal regeneration were highly Calvinistic and not in accord with those of the Church of England, refused to institute him. Gorham took the case into the Court of Arches (see ARCHFs, COURT OF), which sustained the bishop

25	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Goose Bible
Gorton
in a decision rendered Aug., 1849; he then appealed from the decision of the spiritual court to the judicial committee of the Privy Council, exercising the right of every clergyman of the Established Church in England to appeal from the judgment of an ecclesiastical court to a court of law. On this occasion the court, while essentially a lay tribunal deriving its authority solely from .the crown, had for assessors the archbishops of Canterbury (Sumner) and York (Musgrave) and the bishop of London (Blomfield). The decision here, Mar., 1850, was in Gorham's favor, and an order in council demanded its execution. The bishop of Exeter questioned the authority of the .judicial Committee in the courts of Queen's Bench, of Exchequer, and of Common Pleas, but without success. Gorham was instituted by the Court of Arches into the vicarage of Brampford Speke in Aug., 1851. The committee justified its decision by appealing to the fact that " many eminent prelates and divines had propounded and maintained " opinions practically the same as Gorham's " without ,censure or reproach," thus showing " the liberty which has been allowed of maintaining such doctrine." The judgment also declared that " devotional expressions, involving assertions, must not, as of course, be taken to bear an absolute and unconditional sense."
The case aroused intense interest and something like fifty works were published concerning it. Gorham's sympathizers reimbursed him for the heavy expenses of the litigation by public subscription. The decision was the first of several which have established the right of a clergyman of the Church of England to express opinions honestly held and have made heresy trials for deviation from traditional interpretations well‑nigh impossible in the Established Church. On the other hand, the High‑church party considered that the judgment had struck out what they believed to be an article of the creed, and had asserted afresh, as an inherent right, the supremacy of the crown in matters of faith. The decision was one of the causes leading to Manning's withdrawal from the Church of England.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The principal documents in the case are: Examination before Admission to a Benefice, by H. Phillpotts, Bishop of Exeter, ed. G. C. Gorham, London, 1848; Gorham v. the Bishop of Exeter; a Report of the Arguments before the Privy Council, ib. 1850; Gorham v. the Bishop of Exeter; the Judgment of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, Mar. 8, 1860, reversing decision of Sir H. J. Fuat, ed. G. C. Gorham, ib. 1850; Gorham v. the Bishop of Exeter; Arguments before the Privy Council, the Court of Queen's Bench the Court of Common Pleas, and the Court of Arches, ed. G. C. Gorham, ib. 1850; G. C. Gorham, The Great Gorham Case, a Hiat. in Five Books, ib. 1850; idem, A Letter on the Recent Judgment, Gorham v. the Bishop of Exeter, ib. 1850. Consult also: DNB, xxiii. 243‑245. A partial list of the literature evoked by the case is given in the British Museum Catalogue, under " Gorham, Geoige Cornelius."

GORTON, SAMUEL (SAMUELL): English sectary and founder of the Gortonites; b. at Gorton (3 m. e. of Manchester), Eng., c. 1592; d. at Warwick, R. I., Nov. or Dec., 1677. He received a good education from private tutors and learned to read the Bible in the original tongues. When about twentyfive he began business in London on his own account
as a " clothier," i.e., a finisher of cloth after weaving. Being very unconventional in his religious views, he emigrated to America " to enjoy libertie of conscience in respect to faith towards God, and for no other end." He arrived in Boston in Mar., 1636 or 1637. But he did not find what he sought there, and so soon removed to Plymouth, where he did better for a while until what he considered unjust treatment of a servant led him to criticize publicly the magistracy, and in consequence he was, in Dec. of 1638, banished on a charge of contumacy. He then went to Rhode Island. But here again his independent views on State and Church got him into trouble, and in 1641 he was imprisoned and banished, probably after a public whipping at Portsmouth. He then went to Providence. In Jan., 1643, he and his followers retired to Shawomet, where be bought land of Miantonomi, head sachem of the Narragansetts, and two undersachems. The latter two were induced by the enemies of Gorton to deny that he had ever bought the land. This involved Gorton with the commonwealth of Massachusetts, to which the alleged misused Indians appealed. Accordingly he was summoned to Boston, Sept. 12, 1643, and because he and his followers refused, they were compelled by force of arms to obey. The general court of Massachusetts condemned him and six of of his followers to imprisonment, Nov. 3, 1643, but on Mar. 7, 1644, they were released and banished. Gorton went to Portsmouth, and in 1646 to England, where he pleaded his cause so successfully that he returned with an order from the earl of Warwick to the Massachusetts magistrates that the Shawomet colony should be free from interference. He renamed his colony Warwick. He was held in the highest esteem by his fellow citizens, and was honored by positions of trust.
Gorton stood politically for English law and citizenslup in the English colonies, and advocated that, while the latter should purchase their lands from the Indians, they yet should have charters from England. Religiously he stood for the right of private judgment, and maintained the following distinctive views: (1) He denied the doctrine of the Trinity, but declared that Christ was God and the only proper object of worship. (2) He declared against a " hireling ministry," and affirmed that there peas no fitness in a class of men paid for ministerial functions, as each man was his own priest. (3) He would do away with all outward ordinances. (4) He taught a conditional immortality wholly dependent on the character of the individual. With such views, which he boldly affirmed, it was no wonder that he had perpetual strife with the clerical and political powers in the colonies. It is claimed that for a hundred years after his death there were adherents of his views, but he did not organize any sect. To do so would have been contrary to his principles.
Gorton published several controversial tracts in advocacy of his political and religious views. The best known is his Simplicities Defence against SevenHeaded Policy (London, 1646, written while there to defend his cause, reprinted as vol. ii. in the Collections of the Rhode Island Historical Society, Providence, 1835, also in Force's Historical Tracts,

Goshen
Gospel and Gospels
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
vol. iv., Washington, 1846). But as yet unprinted is his commentary on the Lord's Prayer, preserved in the Rhode Island Historical Society library at Providence, in which, in final form and most fully, his theological views are presented.
BxnmoGRAPHY: An introduction to the Simplicities Dofence, ut sup., contains much material, in Collections, ut sup.. vol. ii. 9‑20, cf. vol. iv. 89‑92; J. Sparks. Library of American Biography, 2d ser., v. 315‑411, 15 vole., Boston, 1847‑‑55. Consult also: T. Hutchinson, Hist. of Massachusetts Bay, i. 117‑124, 549, Boston, 1785; J. Winthrop, Hiat. of New England, ed. J. Savage, ii. 57, 295‑299, ib. 1853; DNB, xxii. 251‑253.

GOSHEN: A region in Egypt generally called the land of Goshen, which, according to J, was given by a king of Egypt at the request of Joseph to his father Jacob and his family as a dwellingplace, and held by his descendants till the Exodus (Gen. xlv. 10; Ex‑ ix. 26). The priestly writer locates the Children of Israel in the " Land of Rameses " (Gen. xlvii. 11), and the Elohist places them " among " the Egyptians. The location of Goshen is not definitely given in J, but it appears that the region was in the eastern part of Egypt and was, in contradistinction to the land they had left, a fruitful region. By their occupation as shepherds the Hebrews were debarred from living directly among the Egyptians (Gen. xlvi. 34), and the stretch of country eastward from Bubastis known as the Arabian or Heroopolitan region is almost certainly the region which J had in mind, furnishing as it did all the requisite conditions. The translators of the Septuagint, possessing a more exact knowledge of the Nile delta than J had, have fixed more definitely the location. They identify Goshen with " Gesem of Arabia," and place the Hebrews there, and fix also the place where Joseph met his father, viz., at the city of Heroopolia in the land of Ramesea (Gen. xlvi. 28‑29). This city was the capital of a district of lower Egypt which embraced the region of the modern Wadi Tumilat. By the excavations of E. Naville the site of Heroopolis is fixed at the modern Tell el‑Mashkutah in the Wadi Tumilat, not far from the Isthmus of Suez, on the site of an older city the religious name of which was
The Gospels a Single Literature (¢ 1). The Gospels a Prophetic Response (§ 2). Applied to Corporate Needs (§ 3). Causes of the Rise of the Gospels (¢ 4). Papias and the " Logia " (§ 5).
	The Gospels are something more than individual
books and can not be treated adequately as inde
pendent literary units. The Synoptic problem is
the result of a unique literary situation. It straight
way suggests a set of conditions which must be
made the background for the study of the individ
		ual Gospels. Even the Fourth Gos
r. The Gos‑ gel, great as are its differences from
pels a Single the Syuoptists, has none the less cer
	Literature. tain fundamental qualities in common
		with them. It is necessary, then, to
treat the Gospels as a group of books organically
related, and this on two main grounds. First, from
Pitum, the Pithom (Coptic Petho»a) of Ex. i. 11, on
an arm or canal from the Nile to the Red Sea.
This is confirmed by the Coptic version of Gen.
xlvi. 28. The Land of Rameses, in which Hero
opolia lay, is shown also to be the same as a dis
trict Tkw, identical with the Succoth of Ex. xii.
37 or a district of it. To the Greeks the Arabia in
which Gesem was located was the entire region be
tween the valley of the Nile and the desert, under
the protection of the god Silt, the chief city of
which is called in the cuneiform Piaaptu. This dis
trict has been identified with the Arabian nome
whose capital was Phakouesa, and again with Ge
sem, while the god‑name Sgt is preserved in the mod
ern Saft al‑Henneh. Of all this J knew nothing:
it is the result of the desire of the translators of
the Septuagint to identify more closely the Goshen
of Genesis and Exodus. The attempt of Ptolemy
to connect Phakouselt, the chief city of " Arabia "
and the later Fakus, with Gesem, is shown by
Naville's researches to be impossible; the only rec
onciliation is that in the course of time the name
was changed. Phakouasa was doubtless a later
capital northeast of Saft al‑Henneh. Undoubtedly
under the influence of the Septuagint, Arabic and
Christian tradition located Goshen in this region.
On the other hand, the Arabic author Makrizi 1o
caked Goshen north of Cairo, at the junction of the
caravan routes from the East to Egypt. Saadia
and Abu Said locate Goshen at Sadir, placed by De
Sacy between Belbeis and Salihieh, to the east of
the delta, while Quatremert; locates this at the en
trance of the Wadi Tumilat. But these later de
terminations present so little of worth that not
much more can be said than that Goshen was east
of the delta and westward from the Isthmus of
Suez. 	(G. STE1Nnoltirir.)

BMLIOG13APIFY: The two important works are: E. Neville, Goshen and the Shrine o/ 8aft ebHenneh, and The Store City of Pithom and the Route of the Exodus, the 5th and lot memoirs of the Egypt Exploration Fund, London, 1887, 1885. Consult further: A. Dillmsnn, in SBA, 1885, pp. 889 eqq.; idem, Genesis, vol. ii., Edinburgh, 1897; idem, Exodus urd Leviticus, ed. V. Ryeeel, Lcipaio, 1897. Also C. R. Gillett, in S. M. Jackson, Concise Dictionary, Appendix, New York, 1898, and see Earn.
GOSPEL AND GOSPELS.
The Missionary stimulus (§ s). Mark's Gospel (§ 7). Luke's Gospel (¢ 8). Matthew's Gospel (§ 9). Gospel According to the Hebrews
Background of Fourth Gospel (§ 11). Character of Fourth Gospel (§ 12). Authorship, Date, and Place of Fourth Gospel ($ 13). Conclusion (¢ 14).
the literary side. In the field of comparative literature the Synoptists are unique. They must be treated, not only as single books found within the canon of the Scriptures, but as together constituting a single book. There is no great literature where the common life behind the books is more necessary to their understanding. The second ground is from the aide of introduction. The very existence of the Synoptic problem indicates an extraordinary literary method underlying them. The closest parallel is the Pentateuchal problem. But even this parallel is not wholly sufficient. In the Pentateuch are found literary strata; the Synop‑

Goshen RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	and Gospels
tics are books that have distinct individualities while they are indissolubly connected. They are three, yet one. The more intimate our knowledge, the more compelling becomes the problem, and the less easy of solution certain elements in it. To make the outstanding facts more certain, to put the unsolved questions in the best light, the Gospels must be treated as a single literature.
To the student reasonably acquainted with literature as a whole, the Synoptics suggest a kind of authorship deeply differing from that now prevailing. They possess a remarkable impersonality;
the author hardly appears. Even a. The the Fourth Gospel, though it is ex‑
Gospels a tremely self‑conscious, is nevertheless
Prophetic anonymous and the individual author
Response. seems to count for very little. The
Gospels require for their explanation an authorship which is in some sense corporate. The deepest element for the understanding of their peculiar genius is found in the fact that they are the literary products of a prophetic community. St. Peter preaching on Joel (Acts ii.) introduces the situation. Our Lord has founded a society in which prophetic power inheres as an intrinsic quality. The new prophetism differs from that of the old dispensation in that prophetic inspiration no longer belongs to certain gifted individuals, but to the entire community (cf. Paul in I Cor. xii. and xiv.). The literary history of a community is, therefore, the object of study. To use a distinction drawn by literary critics, the literary study of the Gospels is not the history of a literature, but a literary history of a great community which uses certain individuals as its instrumenta. The closest literary parallel is the Periclean age. Greater than the individual Athenians who wrote the classic books is the great Athenian community, the podia or Church‑State, whose extraordinary civic and corporate qualities made the individual genius possible. But the parallel is imperfect; the individual author is full‑grown in Athens, he hardly exists in the field of the Gospels. Corporate consciousness and the corporate mood are all‑controlling. An indication of this state of things is found in the title of the Gospels. They are entitled the Gospel according to Mark, etc. The meaning of kata is in part identical with the same prepositions in the editions of Homer put forth by famous editors. But there is more at stake. The kata carries the mind back from the second century into the prophetic age, when the Gospel was a corporate mood and a corporate message and the book‑gospel of the second century was not thought of.
Here is found the explanation of the style of the Gospels, their noble and sustained simplicity, and their extraordinary adaptability for translation. While their style is molded by the Old Testament and by the Aramaic language and mind, the soul
of it is the genius of a supreme commu3. Applied nity. The Gospels are, like Homer, the to Corporate creations of an age, and of conditions
Needs. where the bookish habits of our time
were wholly lacking. The Homeric singer was one with his audience, and the poem was lived before it was written. So with the Gospels.
The individual author was one with his audience, and the Gospel was lived before it was written. Hence, also, the relations between the Gospels. One of the solid results of criticism is the conclusion that the text of the Gospels took fixed form slowly and that, while it was fixing itself, it was played upon by the unwritten Gospel. This is the truth within the abandoned theory of an oral Gospel. In its original form this theory has become impossible, for the reason that a text formed by the natural memory, without the help of books, resists change far more successfully than a written text. The text of the Gospels, while forming, was for a long time plastic, and the living memories of a prophetic age which was far larger than its literature played upon the text and molded it. A corporate mood controlled the Gospels; consequently, in one sense they have a corporate author. Put in another way, this means that the Gospels constitute a literature which in its origins and in the forces and motives leading to publication closely resembles law. Law, in its deeper moments, is free from academic processes and motives. The literary individual plays an exceedingly small part. Law is the expression of the community's needs, hence it travels no faster than it is driven. But the literary individual is more or less detached from corporate needs. He writes for the pleasure of expression, and seeks a systematic, theory for his own mental satisfaction. But law is forced into expression and publication by the needs of the corporate life. Similarly the Gospels, in a very real sense, were published as law is published. They were built up with and shaped within the Apostolic Church.
There are two main conditions for the rise of the Gospels. First, the Christian Church from the first day had a Bible under its hand‑it inherited the Hebrew Scriptures. Second, it was a prophetic community, inspired with creative hope and moral passion, and, consequently, the process of gospelbuilding was entirely free. The need of new Scriptures was not consciously felt. The 4. Causes of law of the new community was the the Rise of Old Testament plus the Savior's words, the Gospels. the Logia of Jesus the Messias (Acts vii. 38, logia zonta). As late as I. Clement (90‑95 A.D.?) this situation continues. The eschatologic passion which dominated the Apostolic Age‑the intense and vivid belief in the speedy return of the Savior (see MmL&NARIANIBm, MI7•IzIsmuM), and in the triumph of his community‑hindered the growth of the Gospels. But this passion was chastened by the knowledge of the Christ of history and sobered by the growing governmental responsibilities of the Church. It may be supposed that small and imperfect collections of the saving words appeared at a fairly early date. The Jewish‑Christian community, as it began to come under strain, had to prove its right to exist. It was inevitable that it should do this by the argument from Prophecy, by searching the Scriptures (John v. 39; Acts xvii. 2‑3, 11), by proving that the life of Jesus tallied with the Messianic oracles of the Old Testament. It was equally inevitable that, in order to know its own mind so far as that

Gospel and Gospels
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
mind contained anything that transcended Judaism, the Jewish‑Christian community must study the mind of Jesus: Hence the tendency to assemble the saving words was instinctive.
This is the situation that explains the first published Gospel. Up to a short tune ago this Gospel was confidently called the Logia, the name being taken from Papias' account of Matthew's work. So many difficulties have besieged this fragment
and the utterances pf Papias are so 5. Papias confused that in the last few years an
and, the increasing number of scholars have
"Logic." either put it to one side or cashiered
it. In place of the " Logic " they would put "Q" (¢uelle, "source "). They assume, what must be conceded, that the Agrapha or extracanonical sayings of Jesus can not materially help and that the only other Gospel which might have helped (the Gospel according to the Hebrews) has practically perished. So, the interpreter of the origin and relations of the Gospels is shut up to the Gospels as they are. Hence as a measurable quantity the investigator must seek the literary source (Q) of that text of the saving words which underlies our Synoptists. But Papias can not yet be wholly abandoned: the beat possible must be made of his statement. It may be supposed that Matthew assembled and published a collection of the saving words. This edition of the Logia may have had a slight thread of narrative in it, but the narrative could not have been primary. The motive was to state the law of the new life and hope as Jewish Christians sought to live it. This could be done only by making clear to Christians the mind of Jesus. The cause of publication is utterly unlike that given by the Fathers, namely that St. Matthew was about to leave the Holy Land (Rusebius, Hist. eccl., III., xxiv.6). The true explanation has already been given. The new community Publishes its law, the ground and obligation of its corporate existence and aim. The place of publication, if any credit is due to Papias, must have been Jerusalem. The causes , And motives of gospelbuilding were necessarily strongest and clearest at the center of Christian life. The congregation of Jerusalem was the mother church of the new religion. Matthew, by assembling and publishing the Logia, gave to that great congregation a deeper understanding of itself and a clearer conception of its calling. The date of publication can not be determined. But it may well have been between the death of James (627) and the flight of the church of Jerusalem to Pella (677).
But the strongest motives for gospel‑building were found not inside, but outside Palestine. The converts from Judaism were, in terms of religion, rich before they came to Christ (Ram. ix. .4‑5). The converts from heathendom, on the contrary, being polytheists, were paupers (I Cor. xii. 2; Eph.
ii. 11). Jewish Christians inheriting 6. The Mis‑ a complete equipment of religion and sionary discipline, came slowly into the conStimulus. scious recognition of governmental
needs. Gentile Christians were outposts of Christ, besieged by a vast heathen world. As a result, Gentile Christianity very soon felt a
28
compelling need for clear knowledge of the Savior
(Luke i. 4). The period when the Gospels, appeared
is a distinct epoch in the history of the Church
(68P 95?). The Christian communities were rap
idly becoming self‑conscious; Judaism pressed
upon them from the one aide, from the other the
Roman empire. The persecutions under Nero and
under Domitian forced them into close coherence.
The Christian community, under pressure, needed
to know the reason for its being. A clear and con
tinuous view of Christ became a necessity. The
publication of the Gospels corresponds in part to
that need in the life of nations which leads to the
writing of histories and still more , closely to those
arises in the existence of great communities which
bring about the publication and codification of law.
	Mark begins the series. The priority of Mark is
a strong probability. The evidence is not merely
the lively coloring which is said to indicate the eye
witness. That might be otherwise explained, e.g.,
as due to the temperament and ability of the re
porter. Nor is the primary evidence found in
Mark's possession of inside knowledge, which might
in fact be secondary. The primary evidence is
		found, first in the literary relationship
	7. Mark's between the Synoptics. Practically
	Gospel. the entire text of Mark is found in
		Matthew and Luke. The theory
broached long ago by Augustine that Mark is an
epitomator becomes, in the light of the mental and
literary conditions of the Apostolic Age, a sheer im
possibility. The only alternative seems to be the
use of Mark by Luke and Matthew. Secondly, the
primary evidence is found in the way the story fife
into the times and in its contrast at this point with
Matthew and Luke. Mark gives the picture of
Christ in his time and place. Jesus' primary
question is his relation to the popular Measianiam
of Galilee. He is the Messiah, yet he avoids Mes
sianic titles. At a very early day he adopts a pol
icy of silence regarding his claims (Mark i. 34), and
consistently pursues it to its end. His primary re
lations are with the crowd. He walks across Pales
tine a man of his time in the fullest sense of the
word, whereas in Matthew and Luke other and later
motives come into the portrait. The literary and
historical arguments together give a very strong
probability of priority. The story of Mark is char
acterized by fine narrative qualities. The story
is not delayed by the massing of Logia as in Mat
thew, nor is its continuity ever threatened as in
Luke by detailed accounts of Jesus' relations with
all sorts and conditions of people. The story goes
steadily forward and is a narrative of noble simplic
ity and movement befitting its supreme object.
There is no reason for doubting the tradition that
it was published in Rome. Mark satisfied the Gen
tile Christians' craving for an enkindling story of
the Savior's life. It was probably published in the
years immediately following the Neronian persecu
tion (66‑68?). As with the Logic, so with Mark,
its publication was in close connection with the in
tense life of a great congregation. To the Roman
Church, as to the Church of Jerusalem, pressure and
persecution had given superior coherence and deep
ened its conscious needs. In the Gospel of Mark it

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
found a reason for its existence and a ground for its motives and aims.
Luke opens with a prologue of large interest and value. The dedication to Theophilus clearly indicates that the writer is an educated Gentile; the
style of it is thoroughly Greek, the
8. Luke's sentence being highly articulated and
	Gospel.	rhetorically developed (contrast the
		Aramaic type of sentence in the other
Gospels). The writer knows of other attempts to
write the life of Christ and they do not content him.
He tells his readers that he has gone to first sources
and consulted the eye‑witnesses. In every way he
bears himself as an educated Gentile, consciously
devoting himself in a literary way to the historian's
task. Yet he is not an apologete (contrast Mat
thew). He betrays no dogmatic motive. Hence
he exercises far less control than Matthew over the
materials. Coming from the Greek world into Pal
estine, he cares little for local coloring. While he
is careful to make connections with the chronology
of the Empire (iii. 1), he is careless of the connec
tions in the Savior's life, following Mark less care
fully than does Matthew. Like Mark, his Gospel
is, in the best sense, unconstrained, neglecting what
it does not need. Thus Jesus' relations to popular
Messianism are neglected or casually treated. The
" Herodians," more than once in evidence in Mark
(Mark iii. 6, xii. 13), are not in evidence. The Sa
vior's policy of silence is not consistently developed.
Luke's Gospel was for a long time called Pauline, a
term which does not do justice to its breadth. His
mind is controlled by forces deeper than a conscious
Paulinism. He represents the emotional needs of
the Gentile churches recruited for the most part
among the lower classes and the socially disin
herited. The Savior, in Luke's story, is in saving
touch with women and with the folk outside the
pale of rigorous Judaism. Luke's sources seem to
be Mark, the Logia, and springs of tradition still flow
ing among the Jewish Christians of Palestine. There
are distinct veinings in his Gospel (Jesus' dealings
with women, vii. 37 sqq., viii. 2‑3,19 sqq., 43 sqq.,
x. 38 aqq., xi. 27, xxiii. 49‑55, xxiv. 22 sqq.; a lean
ing toward Ebionism, vi. 20, xiv.13‑21, xvi. 20sqq.,
xxi. sqq.). Some of his sources are thoroughly
localized (the " Perean Gospel," containing much
material found elsewhere in mark and Matthew,
but some original and local matter: the Jerusalem
itic Gospel of the Resurrection; contrast the Gali
lean Gospel in Mark and Matthew). Evidently he
kept the promise made in his prologue; original
sources deeply color his report of the Savior's life
and words and are reflected much more clearly than
in Matthew. The person of Christ stands out more
distinctly than in Mark. Forgiveness of sins is
based upon love of his person (vii. 47). Luke
shares with Matthew the great Logion " No man
knoweth the Father " (Luke x. 22; Matthew xi.
27). Though it be true that he takes this froft the
Logia (or Q), yet his choice of it is significant. None
of our Gospels is shaped by a process of mechan
ical incorporation; all keep close to vital motives
and corporate needs. The outstanding person of
Christ (cf‑ the persistent use of Kurios as a title for
Jesus) answers the demand of Gentile Christians
Gospel cad Gospels
for a clear statement of the law of their life. The date of the Gospel can not be definitely fixed. It may fall anywhere between 70 and 85, probably nearer the later date than the earlier, and possibly at Antioch. If this is the case, it is another illustration of the truth that the Gospels were published to meet the pressure brought to bear upon the Christian consciousness at the great centers of missionary opportunity and interest.
In Mark unity is gained through a deep impression of the events. In Luke there is a certain loss of unity. But in Matthew unity of a high order is secured through conscious purpose. The ,first Gospel is intensely apologetic, and cong. Matthew's troll its material in this interest which
	Gospel.	is its first main object. It steadily
		employs the argument from prophecy
to prove that Jesus is the Messiah (" that it . might
be fulfilled " occurs in Matthew twelve times, in
Mark twice, and in Luke twice). The other main
purpose is a clear view of the teaching of Jesus,
and this is obtained by massing the Logia in im
pressive groups (sermon on Mount, parables in
chap. xiii., and elsewhere). Through adherence to
purpose Matthew becomes in a sense a creative
writer, having more ‑initiative and a larger influ
ence than Luke. The apologetic is Jewish‑Chris
tian in type. The book springs from the heart of
Jewish Christianity straining to convert Israel to
Jesus, and is built into Jewish Christianity and its
needs. There are some evidences that the Logia,
having been constantly used in debate, have been
more or less adapted (Matt. v. 3, cf. Luke vi. 20;
Matthew adds " in spirit "; v. 32, xix. 9, divorce
on ground of fornication, Mark and Luke being si
lent on divorce). The apocalypse of Jesus (chaps.
xxiv: xxv.) seems to be a literary unit which bad
passed through several editions before being in
corporated in Matthew's text (contrast Mark
and Luke).	In Matt. xvi. 18 the explanation of
Matthew's addition is found not, as Harnack and
others have urged, in a second‑century Roman
molding of the text, but in the history of Jewish
Christianity in the first century. Christ's criticism
of the Law (v. 21‑47) along with his insistence on
its binding force (v. 17 aqq.) clearly indicates this.
The Gospel stands close to Judaism, while superior
to it. The capital relation of Jesus is not, as in
Mark, with the popular Messianism (the policy of
silence is not steadily presented), but with Phari
seeism (xv. 1 sqq., xvi. 1‑6, xxiii. 2‑27). In close
opposition to Judaism as a teaching force the per
son and mind of the Savior stand out as in no other
Gospel except the Fourth. Christ lays hands on
the Torah and corrects it (v. 21‑17). His personal
consciousness stands out in spiritual sublimity (ser
mon on Mount; xi. 28 aqq., absent from Luke).
Thus the first Gospel marks the way in which the
deeper Gospel, the Gospel of the self‑consciousness
of Christ, came to be written. It was probably
published between 75 and 90, when Jewish Chris
tianity was under severe strain. Judaism, as the
result of the great war, was drawing in its lines and
becoming increasingly hostile to Christianity. The
author of our Matthew Published the Law for Jew
ish Christianity under the form of a Scriptural apol‑

Gospel and Gospels	THE NEW SCHAFF	8o
Qosener
ogetic. That his arrangement of the Logia satis
fied a deep need is proved by the fact that the
Matthean text of our Lord's words is the text gen
erally followed in the Apostolic Fathers, beginning
with Clement. The likeliest place of publication is
North Syria, possibly Damascus.
		The building and publishing of the Gospels was a
process inherent in the growth of the Apostolic
Church. It was wider than our canonical Gospels.
			There is one Gospel, the Gospel ac
	ro. Gospel cording to the Hebrews, which prob
	According ably falls within the first century. The
		to the	scanty fragments of it remaining make
	Hebrews. a constructive hypothesis of .any sort
			extremely hazardous. In its account
of the conversion of James it places itself on solid
ground (cf. I Cor. xv. 7). The silence of the canonical
Gospels and of Acts forcibly recall their limitations
as histories. But it would seem that the story of
James had already become a Jewish‑Christian legend.
And possibly the Gospel according to the Hebrews
at this point indicates the beginning of the Clemen
tine legend. There are other elements (account of
the temptation, " My Mother the Holy Spirit took
me by one of the hairs of my head and carried me
off to the great mountain, Thabor ") that suggest
a movement toward extravagant mysticism. This
may have been a growing tendency in the depressed
and disheartened congregation of Jerusalem, which
in the last years of the first century had lost its
hold on great affairs. The possible relations of
this Gospel to the canonical Matthew or tb the
Logia are questions upon which no opinion may
safely be ventured. The hazy and heterogeneous
opinions of the Fathers yield no solid data.
		The foregoing discussion shows that the Gospels
were not written as scientific histories were writ
ten, but that they constitute a religious literature
springing from corporate religious need. The
choice and presentation of the saving words of
			Jesus was determined by practical,
	i i. Back‑ not by systematic or historical, mo
	ground of tives (John xx. 30‑31). In Matthew
		Fourth	there are clear indications that inter
		Gospel.	pretation has to some extent fused
			with the Logia held in the living mem
ory and applied to imperious practical needs. The
habit of quotation has a long history. Nothing
like the modern standard of quotation was reached
in antiquity, not even in Greek learning, and most
certainly not in first‑century Christianity, where
the corporate need of law gave the main motive for
gospel‑building. Christians did not dream that
they were guilty of irreverence when they adapted
the words of Jesus even as they adapted the sa
ving words of the Old Testament (cf. Paul in Rom.
x. 8 sqq.). This study of the Gospels illumines the
problem of the Fourth Gospel. To place the book
fairly, the history of Christian prophetism must be
remembered. The Apostolic, or more concretely
the prophetic, age of Christianity was the creative
and constructive period of our religion. It founded
a new type of community and, as a part of that
work, created a new literary type, the Gospels. By
the year 100 Christian prophetism was in rapid de
cline. The Pastoral Epistles, II Peter, I Clement,
and the Didache are convincing evidence. The period of decline lasted till near the middle of the second century. The labored apocalypse of Hermes indicates its close. The publication of the Diatessaron (see HARMONY op xam GosrWB, I., § § 2‑4) proclaims its close. Then follows quickly the attempted revival of Christian prophetism in Montanism, and the period of the Catholic Church. Much hasty work has been done in the field of the Fourth Gospel through a disregard of certain fundamental facts involved in this history of Christian prophetism.
The quality of thought in the Fourth Gospel is not metaphysical but prophetic. The absence of the pictured parousia has been given excessive weight. The quality of the thought is the real criterion. The Gospel is inseparable from I John,
where there is a lively expectation of 12. Charac‑ the " last times." There is no emoter of tional gulf between the eschatologies.
Fourth. The " last day " plays a not inconsid‑
Gospel. erable part in the Gospel (vi. 39, 40,
44, xi. 23, xii. 48). The monotheism is intense. The conception of the " world " (kosmos) has been cast in the apocalyptic mold. It is true that the presence of the word Logos (i. 1, 14) carries great weight. But i. 1‑5, by its brevity, indicates the author's eagerness to get into history, his indisposition for metaphysics. The fundamental quality of thought is intensely prophetic and of itself places the core of the book well within the first century. The parallel with Matthew may be pressed. Here as there the opposition of Christ to Judaism is the determining element (the displacing of the purification of the Temple from the end of the ministry to the beginning to indicate the irrepressible conflict between Jesus and Judaism; the dialogue with Nicodemus, iii. 1‑10; the important part taken by the Sabbath questions; the constant phrase " your law "; the title " the Jews " constantly used to describe the dark figures in the picture). Here as there, though far more decisively, the self‑consciousness of Christ stands out in opposition to Judaism. The self‑consciousness of the Savior is the Gospel (the " kingdom of God " is absorbed into the person of the king, the phrase occurs only in iii. 3, 5; the parabolic form of teaching disappears with the " kingdom of God "; the style of Jesus in the Synoptics is in striking contrast). It is evident that the mold of the Gospel was shaped in the mind of a first century Jewish Christian.
The occasioning cause of publication is found in Gnosticism in its first period of development. There is a truth in the legend that connects the author of the Gospel with Cerinthus. The sub‑
stance of the Fourth Gospel was shaped 13. Author‑ by the same causes that shaped the ship, Date, Synoptists, the corporate need of the and Place of Christian community, fighting at close
Fourth quarters with the world. The per‑
GospeL spective and emphasis and main terms
of the Fourth Gospel are found also in the First Epistle. The person of Christ becomes the outstanding and all‑controlling principle. The conception of the Logos is used to lay in consciousness the final foundation for the fact and mystery

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
=and Gospels el.
of Christian fellowship. These conclusions are the secure results of exegesis. They prepare for the patient study of the Johannean Problem. The Johannean literature as a whole decisively demonstrates the existence of a " John " in Asia Minor. The Johannean organism of literature together with the exegesis of the Fourth Gospel places its author deep within the Jewish Christianity of the first century. Confusion begins when Papias is brought into court. Does he attest the existence of two "Johns," one of them the apostle, and both of them the disciples, the personal followers of Jesus? Prolonged study of Papias has possibly thrown our minds slightly out of bearing. Papias being in court with the results of exegesis, the controversy over the two Johns loses much of its importance. The mind of the Fourth Gospel requires a personal disciple of Jesus for its author. The Gospel or its first text (possibly worked over by the Johannean " School ") was published in Ephesus in the last decade of the first century. The law that applies to the other Gospels, namely, that they were shaped under pressure at the strategic points of a militant Christianity, applies in full force here. Ephesus and its region were the critical point in the religious movements of the Empire during the first century. It is not an accident that the Logos doctrine of the Fourth Gospel became the speculative platform of the Church Catholic.
The Gospels taken together furnish a life of Christ as the subjective and corporate needs of the apostolic or prophetic age shaped it. It is not a life of Christ in the scientific sense. Beyond question the vital interpretation of the Chris‑
	14. Conclu‑ tian consciousness has fused itself, in
		sion.	varying degrees, with the facts and
			words reported. But the modern
critic is in serious danger of confounding the sub
	jectivity of academic individualism with the pro
	phetic subjectivity of an age controlled by corpo
rate consciousness and corporate aims. The fact
that the Gospels were so largely shaped and pub
lished as law, and the fact that the publication of
the canonical Gospels falls within a period of thirty
years (66‑96?), a period, moreover, distant but a
	single generation from the original words and events
in the life of the Savior, are sufficient security to
Christians for the conviction that the first cause
and the primary reality of the Gospels is the per
son and mind of Jesus. See the articles on the
separate Gospels. 	HENRY S. NAss.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The reader should consult the literature under the separate articles on the individual Gospels, also the works on N. T. Introduction, those on the life of Christ and on the Apostolic Age. Not to be overlooked are the introduction and prefaces to works named in and under HARMONY OP THE GoePSLs, e.g., A. Wright, Syopsis, London, 1903. Consult further; C. Weissaeker, Untersuchunpen fiber die evanpelixhe Gewhiehts, Tabingen, 1901; P. Ewald, Das Hauptproblem den Evanpelienfrom, Leipsie, 1890; A. Wright, Composition of the Four Gospels, London, 1890; idem, Some N. T. Problems, ib. 1898; F. P. Badham, The Formation o/ the Gospels, ib. 1892; A. J. Jolley The Synoptic Problem, ib. 1893; B. F. Westeott, Introduction to the Study of the Gospels, ib. 1895; E.Roebrich,LaCompositiondesevanpiles,Paris,1897; J. C. Hawkins, Horse synopticie, London, 1899; P. Wernle, Die synoptische Frage, Freiburg, 1899; W. Wrede, Das Messiasgeheimnis in den Evanpelien, Gottingen, 1901; J. Well‑
bausen, Einleitunp in die drei ersten Evanpelien, Berlin, 1905; T. C. Burkitt, The Gospel Hist. and its Tran8mission, Edinburgh, 1906; J. E. Carpenter, The First Three Gospels, their Origin and Relations, London, 1908; G. Salmon, The Human Element in the Gospels, eel. N. J. D. White, ib. 1908; A. JGlieher, New Linien in den Brink den evanpeliac*en Ueberlie%rung, Giessen, 1908 (a criticism of the late works of Wrede, Wellhausen, and Harnack, giving the present situation of the problem); F. Blass, Die Entstehunp and den Charaktsr uneerer Evan. pelien, Leipsie, 1907; A. Harnack, Sprarhe and Roden Jesu, ib. 1907; Eng. trawl., The Sayings 4f Jesus, London, 1908 ; H. Lorisua, L'AutorW des hanpiles, Paris, 1907; C. T. Ward, Gospel Development, Brooklyn, 1907; P. Wernle, The Sources of our Knowledge of the Life of Jesus, London, 1907; A. Loiey, Lee Evanpaes synoptiques, vols. i.‑ii., Paris, 1907‑08; T. Nicol, The Four Gospels in the Earliest Church History, Edinburgh, 1908; B. Weiss, Die Quellen den synoptischen Ueberlieferunp, Leipeie, 1908; DB, ii. 234‑249, supplementary vol., pp. 338‑343; EB, ii. 1781‑1898 (elaborate, important, with a classified literature).

GOSS, CHARLES FREDERIC: Presbyterian; b. at Meridian, N. Y., June 14, 1852. He was educated at Hamilton College (B.A., 1873) and Auburn Theological Seminary, from which he was graduated in 1876. After several years as a home missionary, he was called in 1885 to the pastorate of the Moody Church, Chicago, but was forced by ill health to resign five years later. He then resided for two years at Kettle Falls, Wash., after which he was assistant pastor of the Madison Avenue Presbyterian Church, New York City, for a year. Since 1894 he has been pastor of Avondale Presbyterian Church, Cincinnati. Theologically he is in general sympathy with the methods and results of the historico‑critical study of the Scriptures, and accepts the " Brief Statement " of the Westminster Creed. Besides several novels, he has written Life of D. L. Moody (Hartford, Conn., 1900); Just a Minute (Philadelphia, 1904); and
Husband, Wife, and Home (1905).

GOSSNER, JOHANNES EVANGELISTA: German minister; b. at Hausen bei Ober‑Waletatt (near Augsburg) Dec. 14, 1773; d. at Berlin Mar. 20, 1858. He studied at the University of Dillingen and at the seminary of Ingolatadt, and was ordained priest in 1796. After officiating at Dillingen, Seeg, and Augsburg from 1797 to 1804, he was appointed parish priest at Dirlewang, where he remained for seven years. He had long entertained pronounced Evangelical convictions which at length made him consider the advisability of leaving the Roman Church. Despite the advice of his mystical Lutheran friend, Sch6ner of Nuremberg, he resigned his pastorate at Dirlewang, and engaged in literary pursuits, also accepting a small benefice at Munich. The Roman Catholic party unfrocked Gossner for his views in 1817, and two years later he was appointed religious instructor at the gymnasium at Dilsseldorf. From 1820 to 1824 he officiated as pastor of a German congregation at St. Petersburg, but his attacks on the celibacy of the clergy forced him to resign, and in 1826 he openly joined the Evangelical Church. In 1829 he was appointed pastor at the Bethlehem Church at Berlin, where he officiated for seventeen years. During his stay in Berlin he developed a great and beneficial activity, founding schools and asylums,

Goths
6lotteskasten
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
and establishing a missionary society which during his lifetime sent out more than 140 missionaries, especially among the Khols of East India. After his resignation from his pastorate in 1846; he devoted himself for the remainder of his life to ministerial work in the hospital which he had founded while still at the Bethlehem Church.
	Gossner made a highly popular and very faithful
translation of the New Testament; and published
numerous tracts and pamphlets. Among his more
important works may be mentioned his Schatzzkd8t
lein (Leipsie, 1825), M. Boos, der Prediger der
Gerecktigkeit (1826), and Goldkorner (Berlin, 1859).
In 1834 he founded a missionary journal, Die Biene
auf dem Missionsfelde, which he edited for several
years. 	(W. HALLENBERGt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. A. Von Bethmann‑Hollweg, Johannes Goasner Berlin, 1858; J. D. Prochnow Johannes Evan‑
gelista Gosener, ib. 1859; H. Dalton, Johannes Gossner,
ib. 1878.

GOTHS.
Origin and History (§ 1). First Contact with Christianity. Ulfilae (§ 2). Alaric. Settlement in the Roman Empire (§ 3). Relations to the Romans and the Church (§ 4). The Gothic Kings (§ 5). The Visigoths (§ 6).
The Goths were a people of Germanic stock who erected powerful Christian kingdoms upon the ruins of the Roman Empire in the West. Their original home seems to have been in
r. Origin Scandinavia and in the lands south of and the Baltic Sea corresponding to the
	History.	modern Prussia and Posen. About
		the year 150 the Scandinavian Goths
migrated southward into Silesia, whence they
pressed on to the north shore of the Black Sea.
There they came into conflict with the decaying
strength of the Roman Empire and in a series of
devastating campaigns overran Thrace, Greece,
and parts of Asia Minor. The Emperor Aurelian
(270‑275) relinquished to them the region north of
the Danube, where for a century they remained in
peaceful possession.
	The Goths met with Christianity as a result of
their frequent marauding expeditions into the
Empire. In 276 they carried off a number of
		Christian captives from Cappadocia
	z. First	and soon after we hear of a Syrian
Contact	priest Audius who founded a number
with Chris‑ of small churches among them. The tianity. new faith made appreciable progress Ulfllas. owing to the tolerant character of the people but, while the numbers of converts grew rapidly, Christian teachings exercised but little influence on the spirit of the warlike nation till the advent of Ulfilas (q.v.). The latter, a descendant of the captive Cappadocian Christians of 276, was consecrated bishop of the Goths by Eusebius, the Arian bishop of Nicomedia at Antioch in 341, and so the heretical form of Christianity was introduced. In the same year, however, the storms of persecution broke on the Christian converts. In 348 Ulfilas removed his followers across the Danube into Moesia where they followed a peaceful pastoral life. Ulfilas did not abandon, however, his missionary labors
among the Goths north of the Danube, in the course of which he reduced the Gothic language to writing, as embodied in his translation of the Bible (see BIBLE VERSIONS, A, X.). The complete conversion of the Goths to Christianity was effected when the pressure of the Hun invasion induced them to cross the Danube and seek a settlement within the ‑borders of the empire. This the majority of the nation, under the leadership of Fritigern, accomplished in 376 with the approval of the Roman authorities. A portion of the nation under Athanaric remained north of the Danube. The Ostrogoths had been conquered and to a certain degree incorporated by the Huns.
The perfidy of the Roman officials drove the Goths to turn their arms against the empire and in
the battle of Adrianople (Aug. 9, 378)
3. Alaric. they overwhelmed an army comSettlement manded by Valens, Emperor of the in the Ro‑ East, who lost his life in the slaughter. man Empire. It was under Alaric, who first appeared
e. 395, that the Goths became thoroughly Christianized and united; their creed was the Arian, a circumstance of the utmost importance in its influence on the fortunes of the future Gothic kingdoms. Alaric's ambition was to obtain for his people a legally assured home within the confines of the empire and it was with such views in mind that, after ravaging the Peloponnesus, he turned, in 400, against Italy. Repulsed by Stilicho at Pollentia and Verona, he made a second attempt in 408 to overrun the provinces of Noricum, Illyria, and Pannonia, and failed again. In 410 he invaded Italy and spread abroad the terror of the Gothic name by plundering Rome, revealing at the same time a spirit of moderation which may be taken as proof of the sincerity of his Christian faith (see INNOCENT 1.). Alaric died before the end of the year. Under his successor, Athaulf, the Goths left Italy for Gaul, but it was only under the next ruler, Wallia, that the object for which Alaric had struggled was obtained. Aquitania Secunda, the land between the Loire and the Garonne, was granted to the Goths and as fcederati of the Empire they ruled it, in nominal subjection to Rome till the fall of Augustulus (476), in complete independence after that. The Ostrogoths, meanwhile, had thrown off the yoke of the Huns after the death of Attila; united under Theodoric, they entered Italy in 489, overthrew Odoacer, captured Ravenna in 493 and erected a barbarian kingdom in the peninsula.
Both among the Visigoths of France and the Ostrogoths of Italy, a sharp line of division ran between the conquerors and their Roman subjects.
The Goths retained their military orq. Relations ganization, and as an armed estate
to the Ro‑ dwelt almost entirely in the open mans and country, leaving the cities to the Rothe Church. mans. In the cities a new aristocracy
arose at the head of which stood the Catholic bishop to whom with time an increasing measure of authority fell. The Church succeeded to the prestige of the empire and assumed the role of protector of the Romans against their alien masters, while at the same time the preeminence of Rome as the capital of Catholic Christianity was

88	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Goths
C+otteekssten
being successfully upheld. The Arian Goths appear in sharp contrast to the splendid organization of the Catholic Church. Their spiritual life was perhaps higher than that of their opponents, and their moral standards were admittedly superior. They were more tolerant and their theology was simple and based on the Scriptures. As a young nation they rejected asceticism and monasticism. But on the other hand their clergy, cut off, as they were, from the learning of the ancient world, were inferior to the Catholic priesthood and showed with time actual degeneration. More than this, the Arian Church had no unity inasmuch as each Gothic kingdom possessed its national Church.
	Over both churches the Gothic kings asserted
sovereign powers. Thus Theodoric intervened in
contested papal elections and exercised the right of
deposition over bishops; among the Visigoths of
France and Spain the decision of the national
		synods needed the royal confirmation.
g. The But whereas the relations between the
Gothic	king and his Arian followers were
	Kings.	simplified by the immediate depend
		ence of the latter upon their sovereign,
his policy toward the Catholics was made difficult
by the fact that the justifiable exercise of authority
might be denounced as persecution and lead to
difficulties with the power of the Catholic Byzantines
or Franks to whom the subjects of Arian rulers
looked for protection. Indeed, however tolerant
the Arian ruler may have been, his Catholic bishops
were sure to be engaged in chronic conspiracy with
outside powers, forcing their sovereign finally to
acts of violence. This is exemplified in the case of
Theodoric, who, an Arian, ruled impartially over
Arians and Catholics during the early part of his
reign. The persecution of Arians by the Byzan
tine emperors Justin and Justinian led Theodoric
to send an embassy to Constantinople to intercede
for his fellow believers. The mission met with
failure but the bishop of Rome, John, who was one
Of the ambassadors, was received with conspicuous
honors. The fact aroused Theodoric's resentment,
John was thrown into prison, and a number of the
leading Roman senators were put to death, among
them Boethius and Symmachus. The feud be
tween Goths and Romans which thus broke out
prepared the way for the overthrow of the kingdom
by the Byzantines under Belisarius and Narses.
In the Visigothic kingdom the relations between the two sects were more friendly in the beginning, owing to the fact that the Goths had arrived in Gaul as defenders of the provinces against foreign invasion. Dissension first appears under Euric (48G‑485) who was driven by political 6. The Visi‑ need to violent measures. Danger gothe. appeared when Clovis, king of the Franks, a convert to Catholic Chris. tianity, after overthrowing the Romans in Gaul under Syagrius (486), began his attack on the Visigothic kingdom. Alaric II. (485‑507) sought to gain the good‑will of his Catholic subjects by a policy of mildness and concession, but was impelled to persecution by the traitorous negotiations between his bishops and the Franks. In the battle of Voug16 he lost life and kingdom, and, though the V‑3
intervention of Theodoric saved some remnant of the Visigothic power in France for the time, the end came under Amalric (531) when the Visigothic kingdom was restricted to the Spanish peninsula. In Spain there ensued a period of comparative quiet during which the Catholic Church profited by the full toleration it enjoyed to extend and confirm its power while the Gothic kingship grew weaker in the strife between the rulers and the rebellious nobility. After the fall of the Vandal and Ostrogothic kingdoms and the conversion of the Suevi and the Burgundians the Visigoths were the only Germanic people of Arian faith. Leovigild (589588) restored the old splendor of the kingdom by bringing the entire Iberian peninsula under his sway, but his son Receared (588‑801) embraced the Catholic creed and thereby initiated a process of rapid assimilation between Goths and Romans which was to result in the development of the Spanish people. Church and State were brought closely together and the ascendancy of one over the other depended entirely upon the personality of the kings. These, however, showed little ability to check the forces of disorder and dissolution. Seventeen kings ruled during the last century of Visigothic power and the end came in 711 when the Gothic army usJer Roderic was overwhelmed by the Arabs under Tarik at the Wady Bekka.
(G. UHlBoxr>t.)

BmwOGHApHT: Among the sources may be mentioned: Lex Wisipothorum, in Bouquet, Recuei'., vol. xiv.; Jordanis, De oripine at actibus Getarum, ad. T. Mommseu in MGH, Aud. ant., v. 1 (1882), 53‑138. For the history consult: F. Dab‑, Die Kdnipe der Germanen, parts 2‑0, Munich, 1881‑71; C. Kingsley, The Roman and the Teuton, Cambridge, 1884; T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, 4 vols., Oxford, 1880‑Sb; G. Kaufmann, Deutsche Gesehichte, i. 238 eqq., ii. 47, Leipsio, 1881; H. Bradley, The Goths, London, 1888; W. M. and C. D. Ramsay, The Gothic Compendium, ib. 1889 (deals with history and language); B. Rappaport, Die Einfdlle der Gothen in dos r6mische Reich, Leipsia, 1899; P. Villari, Le Invasioni barbariche in Italia, Milan, 1900; and especially, Gibbon, Decline and Fall, consult Index.
On the relations with Christianity consult: W. Bessell, UebMr dos Lebsn des Ulfilas and die Bekthrung der Gothen sum Chriatenthum, GUtingen, 1880; A. Helfferieh, Der wsstpothiache Arianismus, Berlin, 1880; J. G. W. Uhlhorn, The Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism, New York, 1879; GSrree, in TBK, lxvi (1893), 708‑734; F. Kauffmann, in Zeitschrift far deutsche Philokyis, xxx (1897), 93‑112; Meander, Christian Church, ii. passim, iii. 149‑180 et passim.
On Alaric consult: A. S. D. Merry, Rfcite de rhist. romaine au 6. sitcla; Alaric, Paris, 1880; Meander, Christian Church. ii. 180. On Ulfilas: G. Waits, Leben and Lvhm des Ulfilas Hanover, 184o; 1 Gaugengigl, Ulfilas, 2 vols., Passau, 1853; C. A. Scott, Ulfilas, Apoetlv of the Goths, Cambridge, 1885; Meander, Christian Church, ii. 150159, 472‑473, On Theodoric: T. .Hodgkin, Theodorie the Goth, London, 1891.
On the Gothic Literature: W. Braune, Gouache Grammatik, Halle, 1887, Eng. tmnal., New York, 1883; T. L. M. Douse. Introduction . . . to the Gothic of Ulfas, Lon. don, 1888; G. H. Batg, Comparative Glossary o/ the Gothic Language, Mayville, 1887; idem, The First Germanic Bible, New York, 1891; E. Sievers, Geschichfe der pothiscken Litteratur, vol. ii., part 1, Strasburg, 1890; J. Wright, A Primer of the Gothic Language, London, 1899.
GOTTESKASTEft, LUTHERISCHER (" Lutheran.
Poor‑box"): The name of a number of societies of Lutherans in Germany aiming to help and support in church matters Lutherans living abroad

Gotteekasten	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HEZROG	34
Gottschalk
(see DIASPORA). The German Lutheran Church
has ever been responsive to the needs of its breth
				ren. 3n the hundred years between
	Beginning 1677 and 1777 the churches in Ham
			of	burg made eighty collections for for
	Movement. sign congregations. Through G. A.
				Francke and others, ministers were sent
to America, among them H. M. Muhlenberg (q.v.),
in 1742. Tobias Kissling, a merchant of Nurem
berg, beginning in 17¢3, made 106 personal visits
to the scattered congregations in Upper Austria,
Styria, and Carinthia and spent,the greater part of
his fortune in the effort to provide them with church
buildings, schools, preachers, and teachers. The
work first found a special organization, however,
in the Gustav‑Adolf‑Verein (q.v.). But this society
was limited by its constitution to the help of Evan
gelicals living among Roman Catholics, and many
strict Lutherans held themselves aloof. Such found
an abundant field for their labor by responding to
an appeal from America brought by Fritz Wy
necken. Wilhelm Lohe (q.v.), pastor in Neuendet
telsau, gave a practical direction to the work by
organizing efforts to educate and send ministers to
America. The name " Gotteskasten " was adopted
by three Hanoverians, Pastor L. A. Petri, General
Superintendent Steinmetz, and Consistorial Mem
ber A. F. O. Miincluneyer (qq.v.), who published a
statement of their purpose in the Zeitblatt fur die
Angelegenheiten der lutherischen Kirche for Oct. 31,
1853. They expressed approval of the aim of the
Gustav‑Adolf‑Verein, but took exception to some of
its ecclesiastical principles, and solicited voluntary
contributions to be used for the same purpose. Got
teskasten were established in Mecklenburg (1854),
the duchies of Bremen and Verden (1856), the
duchy of Lauenburg (1858), and in Bavaria (1863).
The society in Mecklenburg developed the greatest
activity. All were actuated by opposition to the
Gustav‑Adolf‑Verein because it extended aid to the
Reformed and so‑called United Church as well as to
Lutherans, and because it limited its field to local
ities where Roman Catholicism predominated.
After the formation of the German Empire the
movement received new life. In 1876 the original
				Hanover society resolved to employ
Progress agents, to hold an annual meeting and
		after	issue an annual report, and to unite
		1871.	with similar societies. General con
				ferences were held in 1878 and 1879,
and in the latter year the Bavarian Gotteskasten was
reinstituted. Gotteskasten were then established
in Wiirttemberg, Reuss, Sleswick‑Holstein, Ham
	burg, Oldenburg, Brunswick, Hesse, and Thuringia.
The " Lutherische Hilfsverein " was founded in
	Lippe‑Detmold, and in 1889 the " Evangelisch
lutherische Gesellschaft in Elsass‑Lothringen "
joined the union of Gotteskasten, which had been
	perfected at Hanover in 1880. The rules adopted
at that time are in the main still authoritative.
A certain society, selected for five years, acts as the
head and arranges for an annual conference. A
	special branch of the work‑the administration of
the Lutherstift in Kbniggr#tz, the work in Austria,
in Brazil, etc.‑is assigned Jo each society. Since
1880 a periodical, Der lutherische Gotleskasten, has
been published quarterly by the Bavarian society. The annual income is from 110,000 to 120,000 marks. A summary of the work of the Gotteskasten may be divided into three heads: (1) Aid to Lutherans among Roman Catholics‑in Bavaria, the greater part of Hanover, Paris, the Austrian Summary Empire, Peru, and Brazil. The first of Work. minister was sent to Brazil in 1897; in 1905 thirteen ministers were at work there, preaching was carried on at thirty‑eight places in three States, and the formation of a synod was contemplated. In Peru the Hanover Gotteskasten founded the united congregation of CallaoLima in 1897‑98. In Austria‑Hungary the most work has been done for the Lutheran Czechs. Congregations have been formed among them and preaching stations established, and they have been helped to maintain their parochial schools. The " Lutherstift " has been founded at Kdniggratz to provide Christian family life, religious instruction, and Sunday services for Lutheran students in the schools. Promising students of theology are aided to continue their training at German universities, and help has also been given to Lutheran students at Vienna. (2) Aid to Lutherans among Reformed and other Evangelical confessions‑in certain German cities (Metz, where a self‑supporting congregation was established in nine years; Miihlhausen; Borkum; Blumenthal; etc.), some Austrian congregations, Lippe‑Detmold, Switzerland, North America., South Africa, and Australia. The work here has been to supply ministers, help students, and support weak congregations. The Lutheran Emigrants' Mission (see EMIGRANTS AND IMMIGRANTS, MIBBION WORK AMONG) also receives support from the Gotteskasten as a part of their work. (3) Aid to Lutherans among the United‑Bremerhafen, three congregations in Baden, the Breslau synod and the Immanuel synod, now united with it. According to the order of the sovereign, dated Sept. 27, 1817, the Lutheran Church exists no longer in the ancient provinces of Prussia. Reformed ministers can be appointed for so‑called Lutheran congregations and vice versa, not to mention the doctrine of the Lord's Supper. Nevertheless, some refused to join the union and such are entitled to the support of strict Lutherans. The matter, however, is beset with difficulties.
W. FuxgE.
BIBwoaEAPBY: W. Funks, Dan Werk der luther£aden Gob tmkanten, Hanover, 1883; C. Hofstatter, Gustav‑AdolfVerein and luderische Gotteekasten, Erlangen, 1881; G. C. N&ltingk, Der Gudav‑Adolf‑Veretn and der luthsriarAe Gotteskasten, Bernburg, 1884; J. Hieronymus, Ana der lutheriachen Diaspora, Bischofewald, 1897; M. Ahner, Der lutheriache Gotteskaeten, Leipsie, 1898; idem, GustauAdolf‑Verein and Gotteskantsn, Leipsie, 1898.
GOTTHARD (GODEHARD), SAINT: Bishop of Hildesheim; b. at Ritenbach in Bavaria, near the monastery of Nieder‑Altaich (Altaha), c. 961; d. at Hildesheim May 5, 1038. His father was a servant of the monastery of Niedet‑Altaich and he received his education in the monastery school and the court of Archbishop Frederick of Salzburg. He was received into the monastery by Abbot Erkambert in his thirty‑first year, and succeeded him in 997. The emperor Henry II. summoned him

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
to reform the decayed monastery of Hersfeld in Hesse, and later that of Tegernsee. In 1012 he was able to return to Altaich, but was often called upon for counsel by the emperor, who nominated him to the bishopric of Hildesheim in 1022. He maintained the condition of the (jiocese at the height at which his predecessor Bernward (q.v.) had left it, and even improved it in some regards. He consecrated more than thirty new churches during his episcopate, and partly restored the cathedral; he promoted the cause of education, and reconstructed the system of the Hildesheim school. He remained a monk at heart, and kept his clergy under strict discipline. At the request of St. Bernard, he was canonized by Innocent III. in a council at Reims, 1131; and Bernard founded in his honor a monastery at Hildesheim, to which his remains were translated from the cathedral.
(G. UHLHORNt.)
Bmwoo6AYH7: The two early lives and other documents, ed. Pr. H. Peru, are in MGH, Script., a (1854), 162‑218; one of these lives and other documents are in ASB, May, i. 502‑530, of. Wattenbach, DGQ, ii (1894), 18‑26. Consult: J. M. Kratz, Der Dom au Hiideaheim, vol, iii., Hildesheim, 1840; H. A. Liintzel, Gesehichte der itdceae and Btadt Hildasheim, 2 vols., ib. 1858; F. X. 8ulzbeck, Lcben des GoWard, Regensburg, 1863; L. Lennsen, Beitrege our %ritik Hildeahtimer Gesdtichtaqueuen des 11. Jahrhunderts, pp. 1‑24, Tiibingen, 1878; H. Bresslau, in Jahrbacker des deutarhen Reicu unter Konrad 11., i. 353‑360 Leipsic, 1879 (against Lennsen).

GOTTHEIL, get'hail, GUSTAV: American Jewish rabbi; b. at Pinne (30 m. n.w. of Posen), Prussia, May 28, 1827; d. in New York City Apr. 15, 1903. He was educated in his native city and at the universities of Berlin and Breslau (Ph.D., 1853). In 1855 he became the assistant of Samuel Holdheim at. the Berlin Reformgenowenschaft, where he remained until 1860. In the latter year he accepted a call to Manchester, England, as rabbi to the Congregation of British Jews (Reformed) in that city, being also teacher of German in Owens College, Manchester. In 1873 he left Manchester for New York City to be the assistant of Samuel Adler, senior rabbi of Temple Emanu‑El, of which he became rabbi eighteen months later on Adler's retirement. He himself retired as rabbi emeritus in 1899. During his rabbinate he was one of the founders of a Jewish theological seminary in New York City. He likewise established the Sisterhood of Personal Service, founded the Association of Eastern Rabbis (later amalgamated with the Central Conference of American Rabbis), and was also a founder of the (American) Jewish Publication Society (of which he was elected president), and of the New York State Conference of Religions, vicepresident of the Federation of American Zionists, and chairman of the Revision Committee of the Union Prayer‑Book. In honor of his seventy‑fifth birthday the Gustav Gottheil Lectureship in Semitic Languages was established at Columbia University. His theological position was that of Reformed Judaism. He lectured repeatedly on Jewish subjects in Protestant Churches, and in addition to numerous lectures and contributions to periodicals, wrote Sun and Shield (New York, 1896), besides editing Hymns and Anthems (1887).
Qotteskaste~ Qottsohalk
GOTTHEIL, RICHARD JAMES HORATIO: American Jewish Orientalist, son of the preceding, b. at Manchester, England, Oct.13,1862. He was educated at Columbia College (A.B.,1881), the universities of Berlin, Tiibingen and Leipsic (Ph.D., 1886), the Lehranstalt fiir die Wissenschaft des Judenthums, Berlin, and the Veitel Ephraim Beth Hamidrash in the same city. He has been professor of rabbinic literature and Semitic languages in Columbia University since 1887, and was also president of the Federation of American Zionists from 1898 to 1904. Since 1903 he has been vice‑president of the American Jewish Historical Society, and is also vicepresident and one of the founders of the JudsP.ans. He is likewise president of the Jewish Religious School Union, which he established, and is head of the Oriental department of the New York Public Library. He is editor of the Columbia University Oriental Series and (together with Morris Jastrow) of the Semitic Study Series, and was editor of the departments of Jewish history from Ezra to 1492 and of the history of post‑Talmudic literature on the Jewish Encyclopedia (12 vols., New York, 19011906). In addition to numerous contributions to Oriental and popular periodicals, and besides many articles in standard works of reference, he has edited A Idst of Plants and their Properties from the Mendrat %udhshh o f Gregorius bar Ebhrdyd (Berlin, 1886); A Treatise on Syriac Grammar by Mar Mid of Sdbhd (Berlin, 1887); and Selections from the Syriac Julian Romance (Leyden, 1906).
GOTTI, GIROLAMO MARIA: Cardinal priest; b. at Genoa, Italy, Mar. 29, 1834. At the age of sixteen he entered the Order of Discalced Carmelites in his native city, and after completing his education there, was appointed professor of philosophy and theology in the same monastery, as well as instructor in mathematics at the royal school for naval cadets at Genoa. In 1870 he was summoned to Rome by the General of his Order to act as his adviser at the Vatican Council, and two years later he became Procurator‑General of the Discalced Carmelites. In 1881 he was chosen General, and in this capacity traveled both in Europe and Palestine. He was consecrated titular archbishop of Petra in 1892 and sent to Brazil as papal internuncio, and in 1895 was created cardinal priest of Santa Maria della Scala. He was likewise appointed Prefect of the Congregation of Indulgences and Relies, holding this office until 1899, when he became Prefect of the Congregation of Bishops and Regulars. In 1902 he succeeded Cardinal Ledochowski as Prefect of the Congregation of the Propaganda, and is likewise a member of several other Roman Congregations.

GOTTSCHALK: 1. A monk who started a famous controversy concerning predestination in the ninth century; b. c. 805; d. at the monastery of Hautvilliers, near Reims, 868 or 869. He was the son of BernO, a Saxon count, and was sent to the abbey of Fidda in early youth, but later felt little inclination toward the spiritual calling. A synod at Mainz in 829 declared in favor of releasing him from his vow; but his abbot, Rabanus Maurus (q.v.), refused to do so, and Gottschalk was sent to

Oottaohalk Gouge
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
88
the monastery of Orbais, in the diocese of Soissons, where he remained a monk. He studied with passionate energy, especially Augustine, whose doctrine of predestination he carried to its extreme logical conclusions. Everything he believed‑evil as well as good, condemnation as well as salvation‑is foreordained of God. From 837 to 839 he visited Italy. Wherever he went, he preached his doctrine with fervent enthusiasm and gained a considerable number of adherents. On his return he was ordained priest, and then undertook a second visit to Italy, from 845 to 848. There he enjoyed for two years the hospitality of the Count of Friuli; but Rabanus, now archbishop of Mainz, warned the count against the heresies of the subtle monk. Gottschalk then wandered, preaching, through Dalmatia, Pannonia, and Styria, and finally returned to Germany. He arrived in Mainz while the general diet was sitting there in 848, and laid his affirmation of the twofold predestination before a synod of German bishops convened by Rabanus, accusing the latter of SemiPelagianism. His doctrines were condemned as heretical, and he was sent to Hinemar (q.v.), archbishop of Reims and his metropolitan superior, to be imprisoned and punished. In the spring of 849 Hincmar convened a synod of French bishops at Quiercy; the doctrines of Gottschalk were condemned, he was compelled to throw his papers into the fire and was imprisoned in the dungeon of the monastery of Hautvilliers, where he remained until his death, becoming insane in the latter years of his life.
The controversy by no means reached an end with the imprisonment of Gottschalk. Powerful men, like the learned Ratramnus of Corbie, Bishop Prudentius of Troyes, Abbot Lupus of Ferrii'res, and Archbishop Remigius of Lyons (qq.v.) took his part and advocated with him the doctrine of Augustine. Gottschalk himself found opportunity now and then to take part in the controversy; he addressed a letter to Amolo, archbishop of Lyons (q.v.), in 851 and appealed to the pope in 866. Hinomar wrote . against Gottschalk Ad reclums et simPliees in Remenai parochia, and Rabanus Maurus, Amalarius of Metz, and Johannes Scotus Erigena supported him. A synod at Quiercy (853) decided for Hincmar; synods at Paris (853), Valence (855), and Langres (859), for the Augustinian teaching. Futile attempts at a settlement were made at SavonniEres (859) and Toney (860). In the end both sides became tired of the unprofitable strife, and Hincmar had the last word in his De prtedestinatione Des et ltibero arbOrio.
In purity, knowledge, and natural endowments Gottschalk was one of the foremost men of his time, but. the monastery was not the proper sphere for his activity. In his doctrine he started from the conception of the unchangeableness of God, who from eternity has ordered all his decrees in virtue of his prescience. Christ did not die for all, but only for the elect, and the true Church consists only of the elect. Gottschalk carried on an extensive correspondence with the most prominent men of his time. Of his writings there is still extant a letter to Ratramnus, a number of poems, two confessions of his faith (cf. MPL, cxxi. 346 sqq.), and
his Sehedula, which he	wrote in 853, attacking
Hincmar's doctrine concerning the Trinity. .
	(ALBERT FREYsTEDTt.)
BiBLz06HAPHT: Early material is found in J. Usher, De Gotteaehaiei et prodestinatione . . . Aietoria, Dublin, 1631; G. Manguin, Veterum auctorum qui ix. aceculo de pradestinatione . . . 1scripserunt opera, 2 vole., Paris, 1650; L. Cellot, Historia Gothucalei pradestinatiani, ib. 1655; Histoire littfiraire de la France, vole. iv. v. Modern treatments are: F. Monnier, De Gothescalci et Johannis Sroti Bripena contraveraia, Paris, 1853; V. Borrasch, Der Msndh Gottschalk von Orbais, Thorn, 1869; E. DiAmmler, in NA, iv (1879), pp. 320‑321; idem, Gewhichte des oeh frankisehen Reichs, i. 327‑386, 405‑409, Berlin, 1887; A. Ebert, Ailgemeine Gesckichte der Literatur des Mittelaltera, ii. 166‑169, Leipsie, 1880; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 472‑492; Schaff; Christian Church, iv. 522 sqq., 530 aqq.
2. Ruler of the Wendish tribes on the Elbe and champion of Christianity in that region; d. June 7, 1066. The son of the Wendish Prince Uto, he was educated at the monastery of St. Michael in Liineburg. Upon the assassination of his father by a Saxon, Gottschalk abjured his faith, and placing himself at the head of the Wendish forces, engaged in a sanguinary struggle with the Saxon Duke Bernard, by whom he was finally defeated and taken prisoner. Restored to liberty after some years, he betook himself to the court of Ding Canute in England, where he became once more a Christian. As apostle of that faith and as claimant also to the royal power, he returned to his native land and, with the aid of the Danish Sing Magnus and Adalbert, the powerful archbishop of Hamburg‑Bremen (q.v.), he succeeded in making himself master of the modern Mecklenburg and parts of Pommemnia, Holstein, and the Mark. The introduction of the new faith was zealously prosecuted; priests were summoned from abroad; churches and monasteries were founded at LUbeck, Oldenburg, Lenzen, and Ratzeburg; and the hierarchy of the Church was perfected by Adalbert. Gottschalk preached the Gospel in person and effected the conversion of a third of his subjects, but no sooner had the fall of Adalbert deprived him of foreign help than a pagan reaction ensued and Gottschalk was assassinated at Lenzen with many Christian priests and laymen. Within a year Christianity had been extirpated in the region. (A. HAucg.)
BIBLIoosAPHT: Sources are: Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammanburpensis ecclesix pontifimm, ii. 64, 75, iii. 18‑21, 4950, ed. Ports, in MGH, Script., vii (1846), 280‑389; .Helmold, Chronisa Slavorum, i. 19‑22, in MGM, Script., m., 1869 (not nearly so valuable as Adam of Bremen). Consult: L. Giesebreeht, Wendische Geachichte, ii. 65, 85, Berlin, 1843; W. Giesebrecht, Geschichte der dsutechen %aiseraeit, ii. 460 eqq., iii. 130‑131, Leipsic, 1888‑90; ADB, ix. 489; Hauck, %D, iii. 854‑857, 735.
GOTTSCHICg, JOHANNES: German Lutheran; b. at Rochau (a village near Altenburg, 26 m. a. of Leipsic) Nov. 23, 1847; d. at Tiibingen Jan. 3, 1907. He was educated at the universities of Erlangen and Halle from 1865 to 1868, and was a teacher in gymnasia successively at Halle (18711873), Wernigerode (187,3‑76), and Torgau (18761878). He was then religious inspector at the Monastery of the Virgin at Magdeburg with the title of professor in 1878‑82, and in the latter year was appointed professor of practical theology at the University of Giessen. Ten years later he was

87
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
called in the same capacity to Tilbingen, where he remained until his death. In theology he was an adherent of the school of Ritschl. He wrote, besides many minor contributions, Die Kirchlichkeit der sogenannten kirchlichen Theologie (Freiburg, 1890); and Abschiedapredigten (Tubingen, 1901).

GOUCHER, gau'cher, JOHN FRANKLIN: Methodist Episcopalian; b. at Waynesboro, Pa., June 7, 1845. He was educated at Dickinson College (B.A.,1868) and entered the ministry of his denomination in 1869, holding successive pastorates in the Baltimore circuit (1869‑72), Catonsville, Md. (18721875), Huntingdon Ave., Baltimore (1875‑78), Harlem Park, Baltimore (1878‑81), Strawbridge, Baltimore (1881,82), and City Station, Baltimore (1882‑90). Since 1890 he has been president of The Woman's College, Baltimore, Md. He projected the Princess Anne Training School and the Anglo‑Japanese College, Tokyo, and founded the West China Mission and the Korean Mission of the Methodist Episcopal Church. At the appointment of the Board of Missions of his denomination, he inspected the Methodist Episcopal missions in Italy (1886), Meldco (1892), and India (1897‑98), and took an active part in founding and supporting primary and secondary vernacular schools in the latter country. He was a delegate to several general conferences of his church, and is president of the American Methodist Historical Society.

GOUDIMEL, gil"di"mel', CLAUDE: Church musician; b. at Besancon or Vaison near Avignon, c. 1505; killed at Lyons, in the massacre of St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24, 1572. He was attracted to Rome, which at that time was the center of musical life, and in 1534 was a singer in the papal chapel. In 1540 he founded a school for music. His music formed an essential factor in the development of the classical style of Roman Catholic church music. For unknown reasons Goudimel went to Paris before 1549. It is uncertain at what time he embraced Protestantism, but he must have been a member of the Reformed Church when his first compilation of the complete Psalter appeared in 1564. By his majestically clear harmonization of the melodies to the translations of the Psalms by Marot and Beza, Goudimel has largely influenced Protestant church music, where they were only in part replaced, even in the Reformed churches of Germany and German Switzerland, by the tunes of the Basel cantor, Samuel Marschall. (E. F. KARL. Mt1ILER.)
BIBLIOaserar: E. and It. Haeg, La France proteatante, v.
308 eqq., Paris, 1855; G. Becker, in Bulietin hietoriyve de la aocikti de 1'hiatoire du proteetantieme trancair, 1885, pp. 337 eqq.; O. Douen, CUmsnt Marot at k psautier
huguenot. 2 vols., Paris, 1878‑79; P. Wolfrum, Die Entatshunp . . . des deutachen evanpelirchen Kirchenliedes,
pp. 123 sqq., Leipsie, 1890; H. A. Ksstlin, Guchiehte der Musk, Pp. 145‑146, 155, Berlin, 1899; Lichtenberger. ESR, v. 636‑638.

GOUGE, gauge, THOMAS: English non‑conformist divine and philanthropist; b. in London Sept. 29, 1609; d. there Oct. 29, 1681. He studied at Eton and at King's College, Cambridge, where he became fellow in 1828; took orders, and accepted the appointment to Coulsdon, Surrey, 1635; became
0ottsol Qouge
vicar of St. Sepulcher's, London, 1638, where he distinguished himself by his catechetical instruction, and also by a system of relief of the poor by providing work instead of giving alms. By the Uniformity Act of 1662 (see UNIFORMITY, AcTs OF) he was compelled to leave his living, and his charitable endeavors were directed to the relief of the netresssities of ejected London clergymen, giving largely of his own means to this and other charities and reserving a mere pittance for his own support. In 1672 he engaged in the work of education and evangelization in Wales, including the translation, publishing, and distribution of the Bible, catechism, and other religious works. His own writings, several of which were translated into Welsh, include: The Christian Householder (London, 1663); Christian Directions (1664); The Principles of Christian Religion Explained (1675); and The Surest and Safest Way of Thriving (1676); and many tracts which continued to be reproduced past the middle of the nineteenth century. His Works were collected with an Account of His Life by Archbishop J. Tillotson (1706).
BIBLIoaBAP87: Besides the Life by J. Tillotson, ut sup., consult: Samuel Clarke, Lives of Sundry Eminent Persons, i. 202‑203, London, 1683; T. Rees, Mist. of Pretestant Nonconformity in Wales, pp. 198‑197, 203‑204, ib., 1883; DNB, aOai. 289‑271.
GOUGE, WILLIAM : Puritan and Presbyterian; b. at Stratford Bow (4 m. e.n.e. of London) Nov. 1, 1575 (so his son states, but others say Dec. 25, 1578); d. in London Dec. 12, 1653. He was educated in St. Paul's School, London, and at Eton, and entered King's College, Cambridge, in 1595, where he became fellow in three years, and subsequently lectured on logic and philosophy and taught Hebrew, which he had learned from a Jew. During his nine years at Cambridge he was so strict and careful in all his life and studies as to earn the title " an arch‑Puritan." Reluctantly he withdrew from his studies to enter upon the active work of the ministry. He was ordained in June, 1608, in the parish of Blackfriars, where he remained until his death, accounted " the father of the London divines, and the oracle of his time." In his early ministry he was brought into trouble with the government by his publication of Sir Henry Finch on The World's Great Restaurntion, or Calling of the Jews, and with them of All Nations and Kingdoms of the Earth to the Faith of Christ (1621), and was thrown into prison because Finch's speculation that the Jews would soon set up a world‑wide empire was considered treasonable by King James. After nine weeks he was released, having given a statement of his own opinions, which were entirely orthodox. Several volumes of his sermons were issued: The Whole Armour of God (1616); Domestic Duties (1622, 3d ed., 1634); Guide to Go to God (1626); God's Three Arrows: Plague, Famine and Sword (1631); The Saint's Sacrifice (1632) and others. He was also distinguished for his method of catechizing, which was first published without his knowledge, but afterward revised and edited by himself in many editions; the eighth (1637) containing a larger and lesser catechism, with prayers, In 1643 he was made a member of the Westminster

Gough
Governor
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Assembly and took an active part in the proceedings, in 1647 becoming one of the assessors. He was on the committee for the examination of ministers, on that for drafting a confession of faith, and was chosen with others to write the Assembly's annotations on the Bible, his part being from I Kings to Job. He assisted in the conflict with the Separatists of the day. He was chosen prolocutor of the first Provincial Assembly of London, May 3, 1647, and was a recognized leader of the London ministers, uniting with them in protesting against the execution of Charles I. and the actions of Cromwell. His last work was his commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews, which he barely lived to finish, and which was published after his death, by his son, in 1655 (2 vols.). C. A. BRIGGS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His Life, by his son, is prefixed to the 1&55 edition of his Commentary, and in H. Clark's Lives of Thirty‑two English Divines, pp. 234 sqq., London, 1677. Consult further: A. i; Wood, Athence Oxonienaea, i. 807, ib. 1691; J. Reid, Memoirs of the Westminster Divines, Paisley, 1811; B. Brook, Lives of the Puritans, iii. 165, London, 1813; DNB, xxii. 271‑273.

GOUGH, gef, JOHN BARTHOLOMEW: Congregational layman and temperance advocate; b. at Sandgate (14 m. s. of Canterbury), Kent, England, Aug. 22, 1817; d. at Philadelphia, Pa., Feb. 18, 1886. When twelve years of age he emigrated to the United States and worked on a farm in Oneida County, N. Y., for two years. He then went to New York City, where he secured employment in the bookbindery of the Methodist Book Concern. He ultimately saved enough to bring his mother and sister to the United States. The family became reduced to poverty, however, and after the death of his mother in 1834 Gough began to drink heavily. In 1842 he was induced to sign the pledge, and quickly gained prominence as an advocate of total abstinence. Within two years he twice violated his pledge, but his earnest endeavors to keep it retained public confidence, and he became widely and favorably known as a temperance lecturer. In 1853‑55 and again in 1857‑60 he lectured in Great Britain under the auspices of the Scottish Temperance Association and the British Temperance Association. After his return to the United States he lectured on other than temperance topics, although he retained to the last his keen interest in the cause of total abstinence and frequently spoke in its behalf. He wrote Avtobwgraphy (London, 1846); Orations (1854); Autobiography and Personal Recollections (Springfield, Mass., 1869); Temperance Lectures (New York, 1879); Sunlight and Shadow : or, Gleanings from my LifeWork (London, 1881); and Platform Echoes (Hartford, Conn., 1886; edited in the following year by Lyman Abbott, with a memoir of the author).

GOULART, gu"ldr', SIMON: French Reformed theologian and poet; b. at Senlis (32 m. n.n.e. of Paris) Oct. 20, 1543; d. at Geneva Feb. 3, 1628. He first studied law, then adopted the Reformed faith and became one of the pastors at Geneva (1566). He was called to Antwerp, to Orange, to Montpellier, and Nimes as minister, and to Lausanne as professor, but. the Genevese magistrates always refused to part with him. In 1595 he spoke
violently of Gabrielle d'Estr6es, the favorite of
Henry IV., in a sermon and was therefore put in
prison by order of the Council of Geneva, but after
eight days he was released, although the French am
bassador had required a more severe punishment.
He wrote a number of books on history and theol
ogy (for full list cf. Lichtenberger, ESR, v. 639
641), the most important being his additions to
Crespin's Histoire ales Martyrs (Geneva, 1608);
Recueil contenant les ehoses les plus m6morables
advenues sows la Ligue (6 vols., 1590‑99); RReueil
des chows m6morables soul le regne de Henri 11.
(1598). 	EUGibNE CHolsy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. E. Godet, Hist. litE€raires de la Suisse franpaise, Paris, 1889; V. Rossel, Hist. littkraire de la Suisse romande, 2 vols., Geneva, 1889‑91; E. Choisy, L'Ptat chrAtien h Gen~ve, ib. 1902.
GOULBURN, EDWARD MEYRICg: Church of England; b. at Chelsea (a suburb of London) Feb. 11, 1818; d. at Tunbridge Wells (30 m. s.e. of London), Kent, May 3, 1897. He was educated at Eton College and at Balliol College, Oxford (B.A., 1839). From 1839 to 1846 he was fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and tutor and dean from 1843 to 1845. He was ordered deacon in 1842 and priested in 1843. He was successively perpetual curate of Holywell, Oxford (1844‑50), head master of Rugby (1850‑58), minister of Quebec Chapel, now the Church of the Annunciation, St. Marylebone, London (1858‑59), vicar of St. John's, Paddington, London (1859‑66), and dean of Norwich (1866‑89). He was also chaplain to the bishop of Oxford (18471849), and prebendary of Brownswood in St. Paul's Cathedral and chaplain to the queen (1859‑66). In theology he advanced gradually from the Evangelical to the High‑church position, although he was never a ritualist. He was a strong opponent of latitudinarianism and rationalism. Of his voluminous writings the more important are: The Doctrine of the Resurrection of the Body (Bampton Lectures; London, 1851); An Introduction to the Devotional Study of Holy Scripture (1854); A Manual of Confirmation (3 parts, 1855); Thoughts on Personal Religion (2 vols., 1862); The Pursuit of Holiness (1869); The Holy Catholic Church (1873); A Commentary on the Order of the Administration of the Lord's Supper (1875); Everlasting Punishment (1880); Three Counsels of the Divine Master for the Conduct of the Spiritual Life (2 vols., 1888); and John William Burgon, late Dean of Chichester (2 vols., 1892).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: B. Compton, Edward Meyrick Goulburn, London. 1899.
GOULD, GEORGE PIERCE: English Baptist; b. at Exeter, England, July 13, 1848. He was educated at London University (1865‑67), Glasgow University (M.A., 1871), Glasgow University Divinity Hall (1871‑73), and the universities of Berlin, GSttingen, and Leipsie (1873‑76). After his return to England he was pastor of Baptist chapels at Bournemouth and Boscombe (1876‑80), and at Cotbam Grove, Bristol (1880‑85). He was then appointed professor of Hebrew, Old Testament exegesis, and church history in Regent's Park College, London, holding this position until he was chosen principal, substituting systematic theology

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
for church history, but retaining his chair of Hebrew.
GOVERNOR: The title of an administrative political officer. In the Old Testament the term " gover‑
nor" is used almost exclusively for the Biblical Hebrew pehah, though the Hebrew
Use of word is not always translated by
Term.	" governor." " Governor " is found in
the books of Ezra (v. 3‑14, vi. .6, 13, viii. 36), Nehemiah (ii. 7, 9, iii. 7 etc.), Esther (iii. 12) etc.; but in other passages of the Old Testament pehah is rendered " captain " (Jer. li. 23, 28; Ezek. xxiii. 6, 23; Dan. iii. 27, etc.), or " deputy " (Esther viii. 9, ix. 3). The Hebrew term is to be traced back to the Assyrian bel pihdtu, " ruler of a district," and denotes the civil ruler of a district who is dependent upon the sovereign and is entrusted with the chief military command. The term is used in the Old Testament of Israelitic, Syriac, Assyrian, Chaldean, and Persian governors. Above the pehah stood, according to Ezra viii. 36, Esther iii. 12, the " king's lieutenants," but their mutual relation is not entirely clear; lower in rank stood the aeganim, " rulers " (Dan. iii. 2, 27; Jer. li. 23,28, 57; Ezek. xxiii. 6, 12, 23). The corresponding term hegem6n, hegemoneu6n, in the New Testament is rendered throughout by " governor," whether it refers to an imperial legate of Syria (Luke ii. 2), or a procurator of Judea (Matt. xxvii. 2, 11, 14 etc.; Luke iii. 1; Acts xxiii. 24, 26), or a Roman governor in general (Matt. x. 18; I Peter ii. 14). The Greek anthyPatos, which corresponds to the Roman title " proconsul," is translated in the Authorized Version by " deputy," in the Revised Version by" proconsul."
The official position and authority which these three classes of Roman ,governors‑proconsuls,
legates, and procurators‑exercised in Appoint‑ New Testament times rested upon the
ment and regulations of Augustus for the admin‑
Duties of istration of the Romanprovinces. The
Roman Provinces of the Roman empire were
Governors. divided into consular and pretorian,
and were entrusted to men of proconsular rank with the chief command of an army onto propretors without such a command; but the office carried with it almost sovereign power. After Augustus, through the victory of Actium, 31 B.c., had become ruler, the senate conferred upon him the chief military command, and in this way he controlled all provinces that were endangered by external attacks or internal disturbances, while the peaceful provinces, i.e., mostly those nearest to Italy, remained under the direction of the senate; but even these were dependent upon the emperor in virtue of his dignity as general governor of all provinces. For the appointment of governors in the senatorial provinces, such as Baetica, Sicily, Africa, Crete, and Cyrene, the republican forms were preserved as far as possible, especially election by lot, duration of office one year, and the distinction between Proconsular and pretorian provinces; but the distinction of title was removed‑the governors of all senatorial provinces, whether of consular or pretorian rank, were without exception called proconsuls. In accordance with this principle, the
dough
Governor
New Testament designates the governors of the provinces of Cyprus and Achaia, Sergius Paulus (Acts xiii. 7, 8, 12) and Gallio, the brother of Seneca (Acts xviii. 12), proconsuls (A.V. " deputies "). The governors in the organized and independent imperial provinces, Britain, Gaul, Spain, Upper and Lower Germany, Pannonia, Dacia, Meesia, Cilicia, Syria, Numidia, Arabia, and Assyria were appointed by the emperor himself, not for one year, but for an indefinite time; he could therefore recall them at will. Like the proconsuls of the senatorial provinces, they were chosen from former consuls and pretors, but in their ofce they had only pretorian rank, and were called not proconsuls, but as mere mandatories of the emperor, legates, more completely legatd Ccesaris. There was, however, a distinction between legati consulares and legati praYtorii; as compared with proconsuls of the senatorial provinces, they possessed considerably greater power because they were entrusted with full military command. From these two kinds of provincial governors in the proper sense are to be distinguished the Roman officers in dependencies which, for various reasons, had not yet been included within the legal and administrative organization of the Roman empire. The governors in such territories were not so much state officers as administrators of the imperial court, and therefore they were chosen by the emperor himself, not from the senators, but from the nobility, and received subordinate titles. In a few districts they were called prefects, but in most of the territories belonging in this category, such as Mauretania, Rhaetia, Vindilecia, Noricum, Thracia, Corsica, and Judea, the official title was procurator.
The relation of the procurators of Judea to the legates of Syria can not be accurately defined. After Pompey, in 64 B.c., had made Syria
Governors	proper a Roman province, he subjected
	of Judea.	Palestine to Roman supremacy, incor
		porating a part in the province of Syria
and subjecting the remainder to the supervision of
the legate of Syria. But it is not clear whether
this subjection to Syria, was still in force when the
territory of Arehelaus, in the year 6 A.D., was sub
jected to immediate Roman rule under the admin
istration of procurators. In the interior the power
of the procurator of Judea was not much restricted
by the Jewish administration which the Romans
left in force in accordance with their usual practise.
The Sanhedrin (q.v.) or college of elders at Jeru
salem was allowed to continue the exercise of its
administrative and legal functions in the southern
part of the country or Judea proper, but in all its
activity it remained dependent upon the consent of
the procurator, as may be seen from the trial and
condemnation of Jesus. But Roman citizens living
in Judea were under the jurisdiction of the pro
curator (Acts xxiii. 24); they might even contest
the judgment of the procurator and appeal their
cause to the imperial court in Rome (Acts xxv. 10).
The Procurator of Judea, it is true, had command
over the troops in the province, but this was of
little importance since only a few cohorts were at
his disposal. The seat of government and the resi
dence of the procurator were at Caesama (Acts

Governor	THE NEW S;gAFT‑gMZOG	40
Grace
	xxiii. 23‑24, xxv. 1). At least once a year it was
	his duty to travel through the whole province to
	execute the law, and he was usually accompanied
	by several councilors and assessors. The taxes and
	other duties from the province were strictly regu
	4ted, and the procurators were forbidden to increase
	them, nor were they allowed to accept presents,
	though there were not wanting instances both of
	cruelty and corruption. Incapable of understand
	ing the peculiarities of the Jewish people, the pro
	curator often excited Jewish hatred of Roman rule,
	and this finally contributed to the outbreak of the
	Judeo‑Roman war. Of the procurators who, in
	the time from 6 to 41 A.D., administered the territory
	of Archelaus, only Pilate (q.v.) is mentioned in the
	New Testament. During 41‑52 A.D. all parts of
	Palestine were once more brought under the domin
	ion nf Herod Agrippa. After his death the kingdom
	was again subjected to the administration of pro
	curators, who governed from 44‑66 A.D., among
	them Felix, (Acts xxiii. 24 sqq., xxiv. 1, 10) and
	Festus (Acts xxvi. 30). See CENsUa; FELI% AND
FEsTus; PuBLacAN; TAxATION.
	(F. SIzFFERT.)
	BIHLYooAAPn'T: For the governors during the pre‑Roman
	period consult the works on the history of Israel given
	under ARAB and ISRAEL, HISTORT or. For the Roman
	period consult: H. Gerlach, Dis r6misdtan Statthaltsr in
	Syrien and Judda, pp. 44 eqq., Berlin, 1886; E. Kuhn,
	Die stadtische and barperlvhe Verlassunp des r6mischen
	Reichs, ii. 161 eqq., 363 sqq., Leipsie, 1886; W. T. Arnold,
	The Roman System of Provincial Administration, London
	1879; E. Marx, Essai sur lea pouvoirs du pouverneur de
	province, Paris, 1880; J. Marquardt, Rdmisde Staats
	ve~oaltunp, vol. i., Leipsio, 1881; T. Mommsen, REmisehes
	Staaarecht, II., i.‑ii., Berlin, 1887; idem, in ZNTW, ii.
	2 (1901), 81 eqq.; A. Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus,
	i. 182, London, 1884; Kellner, in Z%T, 1888, 830 sqq.;
	J. B. Bury, Hist. of the Roman Empire, chap. vi., Lon
	don, 1893; H. F. Pelham, Outlines of Roman Hist.,
	book v., "p. iii., ib. 1893; W. M. Ramsey, Chi in
	the Roman Empire, pp. 41 sqq., 358‑3W, 362, ib. 1893;
	W. Liebenam, Stadfaverwaltunp des romiseAen Kaiser
	reichs, Leipeie, 1900; A. J. H. Greenidge, Roman Public
	Life, chap. xi., London, 1901; Scharer, GesAiehte, i. 454
	507, 584‑886, Eng. ‑transl., I., ii. 43 eqq.; DB. ii. 253;
	EB, ii. 1910‑16; JE, vi. 59, x. 208‑209 (list of the procu
rators is given); DCG, i. 88b‑688.
	GOZAN : The name of a country mentioned five
	times in the Old Testament (II Kings xvii. 6, xviii.
	11, xix. 12; I Chron. v. 26; Isa. xxxvii. 12). The
	passage in Chronicles refers to the deportation of a
	part of the inhabitants of Naphtali by Tiglath
	pileser IV., but the parallel passage (II Kings xv.
	29) makes no definite statement as to the portion of
	the Assyrian empire to which they were taken. The
	more definite statement in Chronicles must have
come from II Kings xvii. 6.	It has suffered
	in transmission, and contains the unintelligible
	word hara (E.V. "Hara"), which is probably a
	corruption of the expressions " cities of the Medea "
	or,, mountains of the Medea " (so the Septuagint).
	The first two passages in Kings refer to the fall of
	Samaria and the deportation of a part of its in
	habitants by Sargon II. in 722 B.C. and following
years.	In the A.V. an error in the translation of
	the Hebrew makes the passages read " in Habor
	by the river of Gozan," which is corrected by the
	American edition of the R.V. so that " Habor " is
	seen to be the name of the river of Gozan. The
	Septuagint reads erroneously " rivers " of Gozan.
The remaining two passages are parallel (II Kings xix. 12=Isa. xxxvii. 12) and enumerate Gozan, with Haran and Rezeph, among the conquests of the Assyrians.
As early as Bochart (Gegraphica Sacra, Caen, 1646) Gozan was correctly identified with the GauIianitia of Ptolemy, situated between the Chaboras (the modern Khabur, Biblical " Habor ") and the Saocoras, which can no longer be identified. The modern name of Gauzanitis is Kaushan. The Assyrian literature gives numerous references to a city Guzana, which was first attacked in 809 B.C. by Adad‑nirari III. From that time it may be regarded as a part of Assyria, for it supplied eponyms to the realm, though it bad to be reduced to subjection by Asshur‑don III. in 759‑758 B.C. An Assyrian geographical list mentions Guzana and Nasibina side by side (II Rawlinson, 53, 43a) and it has been inferred (by Alfred Jeremias, Das Alto Testament im Lichte des alien Orients, Leigsie, 1906, p. 545, note 1) that Guzana and Nasibina (i.e., Nisibis) are the same place. It is extremely interesting to find Samaria and Guzana named together in an Assyrian letter or report (K. 1366; cf. Bezold's catalogue and Jeremias in Hauck‑Herzog, RE, vi. 767). All the allusions to Guzana as a city and a district in Assyrian texts are satisfied by the location in the valley of the Euphrates between the Khabur and the Balikh, and this location also exactly fits the requirements of the Biblical passages. The country was well watered, and in ancient _ times doubtless fertile and well tilled.
ROBERT W. RoGERa.
BIHLIOanAY87: Bides the literature named in the text, consult: F. Delitsech, Wo lap do# Parodies? p. 184, Leipsic, 1881; Schrader, RAT, pp. 48, 168, 269, 273; DD. ii. 253; EB, ii. 1916.
	GRABAU, JOHANN aA~NDREAS AUGUSTUS. See
LUTHERANS, UNITED RrATEB, BUFFALO SYNOD.

GRABS, grd'be, JOHANNES ERNST: Septuagint editor and patristic scholar; b. at Konigsberg July 10, 1666; d. at Oxford Nov. 3, 1711 He received his master's degree at Konigsberg in 1685, and then visited several other universities. At the
. close of 1687 he lectured on church history in K8nigsberg with great acceptance, but declined the
'offer of a theological chair because of lack of sympathy with Lutheranism. After 1694, with other Konigsberg teachers and students, Grabs became involved in charges of leanings toward Romanism; and in the course of investigations which followed he accused Luther and the " Evangelicals " of apostasy from the true Church. For a time he was confined to his house, under arrest, but in May, 1695, he was allowed to leave Konigsberg and went to Breslau. On the way he received tracts composed against him by electoral mandate by Baier, Spener, and Sanden. The last one prompted a defense (Abgen&higte Ehrenrettung), but Spener, by his gentleness, won his confidence and dissuaded him from the step of transition to Rome. In 1697 he emigrated to England, where he found his ideal realized in the Anglican Church. He took up his residence at Oxford, and a royal pension and the income of an ecclesiastical office afforded him leisure for the scientific works that have rendered his

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA.
name famous (cf. P. de Lagarde, Mittheilungen, ii., Gisttingen, 1887, p. 190).
He first published the incompleted Spicslagium
patrum et heereticorum steculorum i‑iii. (2 vols.,
Oxford, 1698‑99), issued Justin's Apologia (1700)
and Irenmus's Liber adversss hereon (1702), and
then proceeded to his most celebrated work, an
edition of the Septuagint on the basis of the Codex
A lexandrinus, which was preserved in England.
Volumes i. and iv. were published by Grabs him
self in 1707 and 1709; volumes ii. and iii., after his
death, edited from his manuscript by F. Lee and
G. Wigan respectively, in 1719 and 1720; the Anno
tationea designed in conclusion of the work remained
unprinted. Grabe's comprehensive acquaintance
with patristic writings proved greatly to his advan
tage. He sought to verify the three recensions of
the Septuagint (Hesychius, Lucian, Origen) in the
manuscripts of his acquaintance, and in this way
marked out the course and aim of modern Septua
gint researches. In his last years he felt a great
longing for his home, and there is no doubt that he
was a significant factor in the contemporary efforts
to introduce there the Anglican hierarchy and lit
urgy (cf. G. J. Planck, Geschichte der protestan
ti8chen Theologie, G6ttingen, 1831, p. 355). His
manuscript remains are preserved in the Bodleian
Library. 	J. ERDMANN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. J. Spener, Der evanpdiwhen Kirdwn Ret<unp, Frankfort, 1695; B. von Sanden, Beanttoortunp
der dubiorum bf. Graben, KSnigsberg, 1695; S. Schelwig.
De eruditionie ploria in Anglia par advenas propagate in
memoriam	T. E. Grabii, 1712; A da Boruesica, vol. i.,
K6nigsberg, 1730; ADA ix. 536‑537; DNB, xtii. 3116‑'
307; H. B. Swete, Introduction to the O. T. in Greek, pp.
125‑126, 183 eqq., Cambridge, 1900.

GRACE.
Biblical Teaching ($ 1). Medieval Doctrine (1 3).
The Church Fathers (¢ 2). Luther and Melanchthon (¢ 4). The Reformed Church (¢ 5).
In the language of religion grace is the spontaneous, unmerited manifestation of divine love upon which rests the redemption of the sinner. Of the respective Hebrew expressions, 1$en has the general meaning of favor, while hesedh belongs specially to the sphere of religion and ethics, and denotes divine as well as human love. The term charia in the New Testament represents both conceptions, but is used preponderatingly of God's disposition. Manifestation of love is mercy (Heb. rahamim, Gk. eleoa) in so far as it relieves need and misery; grace, in go far as it does not consider the unworthiness of the receiver as an obstacle.
The people of Israel founded their election upon God's grace, which has no end (Isa. liv. 8‑10). The Gospel of Jesus is a testimony of the pardoning and saving love of God, although the word " gram " is not used. The time of grace, promised by Isaiah, was fulfilled in Jesus, who manifested :. Biblical himself as the mediator of saving grace.
	Teaching.	Salvation in the kingdom of God was
		represented by Jesus repeatedly as the
reward of corresponding conduct (Luke vi. 35, xvi.
9; Matt. v. 11 sqq., xia. 29); although at the same
time every legal claim of man upon God (Luke
xvii. 10) and all proportion between human achieve
ment and divine gift are denied (Matt. xx. 1‑16).
Governor Grace
John attests the fulness of grace which is to be found in Jesus (John i. 14, 16) and places charis in antithesis to nouwa (verse 17); but for him the conception of love preponderates. For Paul, however, grace is the fundamental conceptof the Gospel. It is God's free favor toward sinners, effecting their salvation in Christ. It is entirely spontaneous, and excludes all relation of debt or merit. It is mediated by redemption; its result is righteousness (Rom. v. 21) or forgiveness of sins (Eph. i. 7), and its aim is eternal life (Rom. v. 21). For Paul, grace is in the first place God's personal disposition; but it is also God's effective activity in Christ as it realizes itself in actual deeds (Eph. ii. 5; Titus ii. 11); and, finally, he understands by it the share of the individual in salvation as it is seized in faith (Rom. xii. 3; II Cor. xii. 9). Paul never regards grace as a general power separable from the person of Christ and his historical activity; it is always a " grace in Christ " (II Tim. ii. 1).
The Greek Church Fathers regarded freedom of choice as an indispensable condition of all moral life. Sin, according to them, is only
	s. The	an instantaneous decision of the will.
	Church	Grace can not, therefore, abolish man's
	Fathers.	freedom, but only supplements his
		spontaneous activity. For Pelagius,
liberty of will is an endowment of nature that can
not be lost. According to Augustine, man has lost
the will to do good by his fall. Grace is, therefore,
the power which frees man from evil concupiscence
and creates in him the will to do good. The will to
do good is conditioned by grace not only in its
incipiency, but also in its continuance. Thus there
seems to be no room for human merit; yet Augus
tine can think of good action only in the form of
good works. Therefore he makes them dependent
upon grace and regards them as gifts of God (dei
munera), as phenomena of an inner change. Thus
Augustine's doctrine of grace agrees with that of
Paul in so far as he traces salvation exclusively to
God; but it differs from Paul in so far as it brings
grace only into a loose connection with the person
of Christ and as it sees its essence not so much in the
forgiveness of sins as in the communication of moral
powers.
The scholastics of the middle Ages retained essential elements of Augustine's doctrine of grace; Thomas Aquinas especially followed closely in his steps. According to the scholastics, the original communication of grace is entirely unmerited. Grace is here also a communication of 3. Medieval power, a quality that is infused into
	Doctrine.	the soul. With the infusion of a new
		moral life there is also brought to us
the remission of guilt, though the latter is dependent
upon the former. Like Augustine, Thomas Aqui
nas upholds the necessity of, good works which are
made possible on the basis of received grace, al
though he infers the necessity of grace not from the
radical nature of sinful corruption, but from the
transcendent character of the religious gift which
is obtainable only by a transcendent power. More
over, his statement that God is the " first cause " is
for him only an abstract metaphysical sentence; in
practise he gives room to free will in the preparation

Oraco
Gradual
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
42
for grace. Finally he deepened the distinction between operating and cooperating grace. The beginning and continuance of salvation are not dependent upon grace in an equal degree; the fact that after conversion will is not only caused, but causes, justifies a special consideration of the share which it has in good works. The meritorious work of the converted is meritum de congruo in so far as it proceeds from his free will, meritum de condigno in so far as it originates from grace. According to Duns Scotus, man is the sovereign ruler of his will and the sole cause of the individual acts of will. Grace does not create the good, it only increases it.
Luther began as a disciple of Augustine. With him he taught the total incapacity of the natural man for the truly good. All good is a work of grace.
There is no preparation for its recep‑
4. Luther tion on the part of man. The acho‑
and Me‑ lactic conception of the infusion of
lanchthon. grace was at first accepted by Luther,
but even then the idea of Paul began to take possession of him that the real blessing is not moral transformation, but the forgiveness of sins. The grace of forgiveness depends upon Christ and his work, which must be seized as the power of God that effects redemption. The means by which God bestows grace is the Word. The Evangelical thought that grace is not an infused quality, but the personal favor of God, first appears in the works of Melanchthon, who explains gratin by " favor." It is only from God's benevolence that the gift of the Holy Spirit follows. The same interpretations are to be found in the works of Luther and Calvin. Thus the personal character of grace, as found in Paul, was restored, and the merits of man vanished behind the one merit of Christ. In his treatise De servo arb4rio (1525) Luther tried to build the necessity of grace and the certainty of salvation through faith upon metaphysical ideas of determinism and predestination. But the influence of these thoughts upon the Lutheran Church has been slight. Beside Luther's religious determinism, there appeared after 1527 Melanchthon's doctrin6 of liberty. Both tendencies culminated in the synergistic controversy (see SYNERGISM). The opponents of Philippism upheld the sole causality of God in conversion, but they did not approve the doctrine of a grace that acts irresistibly and can not be lost. The Formula of Concord concluded that there is no cooperation of man in conversion, but at the same time it restricted predestination to the eternal will of God to save those who believe in Christ (art. xi.). Thus, by putting into the background metaphysical questions, it tried to uphold the religious position of Luther.
In the Reformed Church the doctrine of grace is closely connected with that of predestination.
With Calvin as well as with Zwingli it
g. The originated undoubtedly in the relig‑
Reformed ious interest of the certainty of sa.lva‑
Church. tion, but it follows from the doctrine
of salvation only under the condition that there is a concurrent attempt at a metaphysical explanation of the general divine world‑rule. But if thought be concentrated upon the fact that God's grace is not his all‑effective will in general, but that
will which is manifest and effective in Christ and
directed toward salvation, there is no need of ex
plaining the reality and power of grace by meta
physical constructions and of representing its
effectiveness otherwise than as a personal manifes
tation of will, which changes and influences another
personal will. 	(O. K1RN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the Biblical conception consult: W. Beysohleg, Neon Testament Theology, 2 vole., Edinburgh, 1895; H. Schultz, Old Testament Theology. 2 vola., ib. 1895; DB, ii. 254‑257; Lichtenberger, ESR, v. 64b‑663. On the dogmatic conception, besides the works on systematic theology, consult: C. E. Luthardt, Du Lehrs von freien Willen and aeinem VerhBlMiaa our Gnade, Leipsic, 1863; F. WSrter, Die duyatl4che Lehre von Onade and Freiheit, vol. i., Freiburg, 1856; idem, Be%trnge our Dopmengesch%chte des Sem%peiayianiamue, Paderborn, 1898; H. Reuter, Aupuatinasche Studien. Goths, 1887; H. Schultz, Der a%ttliche Begrifj des Yerdienetea and scene Anurendung auf daa VeratBndniea des Werkes Christi, to TSK, Ltvii (1894), 1‑50, 245‑314, 554‑614.

GRACE, MEANS OF: In Protestant theology the Word and the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper, considered as means divinely ordained by which God offers through his grace to all sinners the salvation won by Christ the mediator, and gives and preserves in them a true faith. These means were those given by Christ for the continual propagation of his Church, and received by the apostles as having this specific content and purpose. What they thought of the preaching of the Word may be seen in such passages as I Cor. ii. 1, 4, 5; I Theas. i. 5, ii. 13; and as in it the presence of God is felt (I Cor. xiv. 25), so from it proteed definite divine workings, faith and the creation of a new moral nature (Acts xviii. 8; Rom. i. 16; I Pet. i. 23; James i. 18). In like manner baptism is regarded as a means for imparting communion with Christ and moral renovation (Acts ii. 33; Eph. v. 26; Heb. x. 22; Rom. vi. 3 sqq.; Col. ii. 11; Gal. iii. 27; Titus iii. 5; I Pet. iii. 21); and the appropriation of the new covenant in the blood of Christ, the remission of sine, excepted from the recurrent presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper. The two sacraments are thus connected by Paul in I Cor. x. 1‑5, as a parallel to the great works of salvation wrought by God for the children of Israel under the old covenant.
In the early Church great stress was laid upon the preaching of the Word, at first entrusted to persona specially endowed with charismata (" apostles, teachers, prophets "), and then becoming part of the regular official functions of the
The Word Church. In spite of all developments and Sacra‑ in a formal direction, many citations meats. might be adduced to show how long the primitive relation of Word and sacraments, of baptism and communion, was insisted on in the ancient sense. Medieval theology raised the sacraments as means of grace above the Word; Dionysius the Areopa,gite taught the East to seek grace in the " mysteries," and Abelard revised the Augustinian arrangement of faith, love, hope, replacing hope by a developed sacramental doctrine with a, keen insight into the tendencies of his age. From his day and that of Peter Lombard, the sacramental system formed an important separate section of medieval dogmatics. The absence of a

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
similar stress laid on the preaching of the Word was felt, and supplied by the preaching orders. It was one of their members, the Franciscan Duns Scotus, who worked out &e' thought (in his treatise De perfedione statuum, Paris ed. of his Opera, 1895, vol. xxvi.) that the preaching of the Word and personal influence is a higher thing than mere administration of the sacraments, so that monks who preach and represent a life of moral perfection are of more importance to the Church than the priests who administer the sacraments. Along this line it was possible to return to a position which restored to preaching its primitive significance as a means of grace; and Luther did so fully. Through " the Word and sacraments " the Spirit comes to men, and Christ performs his miracles in the soul. Precedence is given to the Word, and the sacraments are reduced once more to two; the Scriptural conception is recovered by this and by the attribution of the efficacy of the sacraments to the religious faith awakened by the words of institution. The Calvinistic theology laid equal emphasis on Word and sacraments both as vehicles of grace and as notes of the true Church, but considered them to be effective only in the predestinate, for whom the work of Christ was performed. This led to the view that they were not indispensable or necessarily connected with the saving divine operations. The Lutheran theologians of the seventeenth century worked out systematically the ideas promulgated in the sixteenth, without reaching any essentially new conclusions. The Pietistic conception of an "inner word" as an immediate revelation of the Spirit, while it was to some extent anticipated by Anabaptist tenets, had its importance as leading up to the rationalist idea that the true revelation of God consists in innate religious and moral concepts. The more modern development formally recognizes Word and sacraments as the means of grace, but is inclined to empty them of their force by understanding the sacraments in a Zwinglian sense as mere commemorative symbols, and failing to realize the present and operative divine power of the Word.
	A survey	of the primitive development of the
means of grace, with their relation to the work of
Christ and to the Holy Spirit as continuing that
work, leads to certain logical conclusions which it
		will be useful to state. (1) Since the
Conclusions. corporate life proceeding from Christ
		is a historic life, the means to be used
for transmitting and preserving it will be along the
line of bumanandhistorictradition. (2) Since mem
bership in the body depends on recognition of Christ's
authority, the means of grace and the method
of their administration must be those ordained by
him. (3) Since the life created and preserved by
the means of grace can be understood only as the
result of a supernatural causality, it follows that
the actual effect of them can not be produced with
out the presence of God, i.e., the direction of the
almighty Will to the hearer or recipient. (4) Since
the means of grace, as the historic form of the econ
omy of the Spirit, can, on account of his relation
to Christ, have no other purpose than Christ's pur
pose, no other operation can be attributed to them
arrace
Gradual
than the saving of souls. (5) An essentially similar operation must be attributed to Word and sacraments, but this does not exclude a " difference of operation" " according to the different manner of the administration, baptism and the communion having each its own special purpose and the Word being distinguished as either Law or Gospel. (6 ) Since revelation is intended to produce faith, the main purpose of the means of grace must be the awakening and preservation of faith; thus the administration of the sacraments is inconceivable without the presupposition of the Word and without strict relation of their purpose to it.
(R. SEEBERG.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The subject is treated in most of the works
given under DOGMA, DOGMATICS, and in the literature
under the articles on the sacraments; Consult, for ex
ample, Hamaek, Dogma, ii. 133 eqq., iii. 163 eqq., iv. 306
eqq., v. 84 sqq., 155‑168, 205 sqq.; B.. M. Stanbrough,
Scriptural View of Divine Grace New York, 1890; J. Watson, Doctrines of Grace, ib. 1900.
GRACE, TERM OF. See TERMm18M.
GRADUAL: 1. In the canon of the mass (no. ix.) the chant of two verses (occasionally more) taken, as a rule, from the Psalms and sung after the reading of the Epistle; properly as a responsory by one or several voices, or by a portion of the choir; then repeated by another voice, or by the choir collectively. In the stricter sense, "gradual" in the Roman missal denotes only the first couplet of verses, the second member being termed "verse." The name is from the gradus, or steps, on which the precentor stood. The gradual originated from the singing of entire Psalms occurring, in the primitive Church, between the lessons.
Luther, in his Formula missce, permitted the use of the gradual, but preferred to assign the longer graduals of the lenten season to family worship. Accordingly he substituted, in the German mass, a German hymn, to be sung by the full choir. Although the gradual is mentioned by some liturgies of the sixteenth century, it soon lapsed in the Lutheran Church. Latterly, however, it is coming to be restored, or at least, favored, especially on festivals, either in the forms of a congregational hymn, or choral song, or the two combined.
	2. In the Roman Church, "gradual " also sig
nifies the book containing all the chant, of the mass,
in distinction from the Antiphonarium, which con
tains the chants proper to the offices of prayer. As
first uniformly arranged by Palestrina and Gio
vanni Guidetti, it appeared in 1614‑15; subse
quently, as revised and enlarged in an edition
pronounced authentic, in 1872 (folio) and 1877
(octavo). 	OEM; RiETsCHEr,~
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Martbne De antiquie ecclesi® ritibua,
	I., iv. 12, § 1, Antwerp, 1736‑37; M. Gerbert, De cantu et
	musica sacra, i. 398 eqq, San Blas, 1774; W. Maskell,
	Mouumenta rilualia eccleaiee Anplicano, i. 39, London,
1846; L. aeh6berlein, Schatz den liturgiachen Chor‑ and
Gemeiudepeeanpe, i. 198 eqq., GSttingen, 1865; v. Thal
hofer, Haudbuch den kalholiachen Liturpik, ii. 9 eqq., Frei‑
burg, 1893; DCA, i. 746‑748; BL, v. 981‑983.
GRAFE, grd'fe, EDUARD: German Protestant; b. at Elberfeld (16 m. e.n.e. of Dilsseldorf) Mar. 12, 1855. He was educated at the universities of Bonn (1873‑74), Leipsic (1874‑76, 1878‑79), Tubingen

Grafton	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	44
Gratian
(1876‑77; Ph.D., 1880), and Berlin (1877‑78), and
became privat‑docent at the last‑named university
in 1884. Two years later he was appointed asso
ciate professor of New Testament exegesis at Halle;
whence he went to Kiel in 1888 as full professor of
the same subject. Since 1890 he has been pro
fessor at Bonn, and has written Ueber Veranlassung
and Zweck den Romerbriefs (Freiburg, 1881); Die
paulinische Lehre vom Genets (1884); and Die Std
lung and Bedeutung den Jakobusbriefes in der Ent
wicklung den Urchridentums (Tiibingen, 1904).
	GRAFTON, CHARLES CHAPMAN: Protestant
Episcopal bishop of Fond du Lao; b. at Boston
Apr. 12, 1830. He studied theology under Bishop
W. R. Whittingham of Maryland, and was ordered
deacon in 1855 and ordained priest three years
later. He was assistant at Reisterstown, Md., and
a city missionary in Baltimore, Md., from 1855 to
1858, and curate of St. Paul's, Baltimore, as well as
chaplain of the Maryland Deaconesses, from 1858
to 1865. He was rector of* the Church of the
Advent, Boston, from 1872 to 1888, and in the
following year was consecrated bishop of Fond du
Lao. While in England from 1865 to 1872 he
helped to establish the Society of St. John the Bap
tist, popularly known as Cowley Fathers, and also
founded a community of the English St. Margaret's
Sisterhood in Boston in 1888, in addition to estab
lishing the mother house of the Sisters of the Holy
Nativity at Providence, R. I., in the same year.
He is one of the leaders of the High‑church school
in America, and has written Vocation, or Call of the
Divine Master to a Sister's Life (New York, 1889);
Plain Suggestions for a Reverent Celebration of the
Holy Communion (1897); Christian and Catholic
(1905); and A Catholic Atlas, or, Digest of Catholic
Theology (1908).
	GRAMANN (GRAUMANN), JOHANN. See Pois
ANDER.
	GRAMMONTT, grd"man' (GRARDMONT), ORDER
OF (known also as Boni Homines, q.v.): One of the
chief orders of the latter part of the eleventh century.
Its founder, Stephan, was born in Auvergne in
1046. He was educated for the religious life by
his kinsman, Bishop Milo of Benevento, and from
1070 to 1074 resided in Rome. His petition to. be
permitted to establish ‑ religious order was refused
by Alexander II. on aceG int of Stephan's youth. In
1073, however, Gregory VII. granted his request,
and Stephan returned to France, where he built a
little but of boughs iii Muret, a desolate spot in
Auvergne, near Limoges where he lived according
to the strict Calabrian rule. For several years his
asceticism found few imitators, but gradually the
fame of his sanctity led many to submit to his
guidance, although he refused the title of master or
abbot and called himself simply "corrector." After
his death, Feb. 8, 1124, the home of the community
was fixed on the mountain Grandmont a few miles
northeast of Limoges, to which Stephan used to re
tire for prayer. Hence the name was given to the
order.
	The bull of Gregory VII. empowered Stephan
only to establish an order on the Benedictine rule,
yet he seems to have made certain additions from
other monastic institutions in so far as he considered
them advisable. In 1143 Stephan de Lisiac, the
third successor of the founder, reduced to writing
the regulations which hitherto	had been trans
mitted only by word of mouth. Under him the
order had more than sixty houses, especially in
Aquitaine, Anjou, and Normandy. The eighth prior,
Ademar de Friac, drew up a new rule of extreme
severity which was confirmed	by Innocent III.
It was not until the, seventeenth century that the
forty‑second prior, G. Bary, mitigated this rule,
but after that time a strict Observantine division
separated from the main order under the leadership
of Charles Fr6mont. From its very beginning the
order contained more lay brothers than regulars,
and thus fell a prey to internal	schism and decay.
Limited throughout its history	to France, it suc
cumbed to the storms of the	Revolution. The
habit was a black cassock with	a scapular and a
pointed hood. Toward the end	of the thirteenth
century the order also comprised three nunneries.
	(O. ZSes=Rt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The "Rule" wen published at Rouen, 1671. Sources are: J. Lev6que, Annalas ordinis Grandimontenais, Troyes, 1662; the Vita of the founder, by Gerald Itherii, with comment, is in ASS, Feb., ii. 199212, and in MPL, cciv. 1006‑48. Consult: C. Fr& mont, La Vie, la mort et Us miracles de S. thenne, Dijon, 1647; H. de la Marche de Peruse, La Vie do S. 96enns, Paris, 1704; Helyot, Ordres monastiques. vii. 406 eqq., 470493; Heimbuoher, Orden and Konprepationen, i. 415‑417; KL, v. 990‑993; Carrier. ttrimss. PP. 150‑152.

GRANADA, ARCHBISHOPRIC OF: An ancient metropolitan see in Spain. The city is identical with the ancient Illiberris or Elvira, which was early the seat of a bishop and is best known for the synod held there early in the fourth century (see ELvmA, SYNOD OF). It was occupied by the Moors in the eighth century and later became the capital of a powerful kingdom. The bishops of Elvira or Granada for a long time after the Moorish conquest were merely titular. After the capture of Granada by Ferdinand the Catholic in 1492, an archiepiscopal see was founded there, with Isabella's confessor Fernando Mendoza de Talavera, then bishop of Avila, as its first incumbent. Alexander VI. gave the sees of Guadix and Almeria to the new province, and added that of Malaga in 1493. Since the Concordat of 1851 the suffragan sees have been Almeria, Cartagena or Murcia, Gaudix, Jaen, and Malaga. Notable archbishops were Caspar de Avalcz, (1529‑45), who established the university and under whom John of God founded the Brothers of Charity (see CHARrrx, BROTHERS or), and Pedro Guerrero (1546‑76), one of the most learned theologians at the Council of Trent. The population of the diocese is about 230,000.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Flores, Espaia Saprada, vol. xii., 51 vols., Madrid, 1754 eqq.; J. Hidalgo Morales., Ilibena o Granada, Granada, 1842; P. B. Gams, Kirchenpeschichte von Spanien, vols. L ‑ii., 3 vols., Regensburg, 1862‑79; J. P. Kirsch and V. Luksch, lUushierte Geschichte der katholsscAen Kirche, pp. 306, 492 eqq., Munich, 1905; KL, v. 1013‑16.
GRANBERY, JOHN COWPER: Methodist Epic
copal bishop; b. at Norfolk, Va., Dec. 5, 1829. He was educated at Randolph, Macon College, Boydton, Va. (A.B., 1848), and entered the Methodist Epis‑

45
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
copal ministry in the Virginia Conference is 1848• He was assigned to the Eastville Circuit, Va. (18481849), Farmville, Va. (1849‑50), Lynchburg, Va. (1850‑b1), Loudoun Circuit, Va. (1853), Randolph, Macon College, Va. (1854‑55), Charlottesville, Va. (1856), Washington (1857‑58), University of Virginia (1859‑60), Market Street, Petersburg, Va. (1865‑68), Centenary Church, Richmond, Va. (18681872), and Broad Street Church, Richmond, Va. (1872‑75), interrupted only by illness in 1852 and by his duties as chaplain in the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia from 1861 to the close of the Civil War. In 1875 he was appointed professor of moral philosophy in Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn., and held this position until 1882, when he was elected bishop. He was retired from active service in 1902. In theology he is an orthodox member of his denomination and is an Evangelical Arminian. He has written A Bible Dictionary for Sunday Schools and Families (Nashville, Tenn., 1885); Twelve Sermons (1896); and Experience the Crowning Evidence of Christianity (1900).

GRANT, ABRAHAM: African Methodist Episcopal bishop; b. at Lake City, Fla., Aug. 25, 1848. He was born a elave, and after the close of the Civil War acquired au education in missionary and nightschools. He joined the African Methodist Episcopal Church in 1868 and for five years was a class leader and steward. He was licensed to preach in 1873 and became an elder three years later, and in 1888 he was elected bishop.

	GRANT, ASAHEL: American physician and
missionary; b. at Marshall, Allegany Countyipr N. Y.,
Aug. 17, 1807; d'. at Mosul, Asiatic Turkey,	. 24,
1844. He studied medicine at Pittsfield, Mass.,
and was practising his profession at Utica, N. Y.,
when, in 1834, he first became interested in missions.
In 1835 he went to Urumiah as a missionary of the
American Board. He gained the confidence of the
Persian officials, and of the Nestorian priests and
bishops, founded schools and did much to allevi
ate the sufferings of the Nestoriane in the war with
the Kurds. After the massacres of 1843 he nettled
at Mosul. He published The Ne&onans, or the Loaf
Trtbea (London and Boston, 1841).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. C. Lathrop, Memoir o/ Asahel Grant, New York, 1844; T. Lawrie, Dr. Grant and the Mountain Neatoriana, Boston, 1858.

GRANT, SIR ROBERT: Governor of Bengal, India; b. in Bengal in 1779; d. at Dalpoorie, Western India, July 9, 1838. He wan educated at Magdalen College, Cambridge (B.A., 1801; M.A., 1804), and wan admitted to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 180?. Prior to his appointment to the governorehip of Bengal in 1834 he wan a member of the House of Commons for fifteen years, in which body he championed the movement for repealing the civil disabilities of the Jews. He published three works dealing with Indian affairs and a number of hymns. Twelve of these, most of which were originally contributed to the Christian Observer, were collected by his brother Charles, Lord Glenelg, under the title Sacred Poems (London, 1839). Two of them, "When gathering clouds around I
=n
Rion
view," and "Savior, when in duet to thee," rank with the beat of modern hymns.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: DNB, soil. 402: 8. W. Duffield, English Hymns, p. 27 et passim, New York, 1888; Julian, HymrwloQy. PP. 449‑4b0.
GRAPHEUS (De Schryver, Scribortiua), CORftELIUS: ,Humanist; b. at Aalet (Aloat, 15 m. w.n.w.. of Brussels), in Flanders, 1482; d. at Antwerp, Dec. 19, 1558. While town clerk of Antwerp, he published the two works of Johann von Goch, Epistttla apologetics contra Dominicanum quendam and De libertste Christians, accompanying them with caustic prefaces dated respectively Aug. 23, 1520, and Mar. 29, 1521. In both prefaces he complains of the clergy's forgetfulness of duty, and of the suppression of the truth of the Gospel. He was soon arrested by the Inquisition, and early in Feb., 1522, he was taken to Brussels, being obliged to make a formal recantation both there and at Antwerp. He was not reinstated in office, however, until 1540. OTTO CLEMEN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. J. van der Aa, Biographiach woordenboek der Nederlanden, Haarlem, 1852 eqq.; C. Ullmann, Reformers before the Reformation, i. 18, 138‑142, 397, 402418, Edinburgh, 1877; O. Clemen, Johann Pupper von Loch, 1.eipsic, 1898; P. Kalkoff, Die Antdnpe der Gepenreformation in den Nieder7anden, i. 57; ii. 70‑71, Halls, 1903; sources may be found in P. Fredericq, Corpus documsntorum inqu%aiEionia Airreticce pravitatis Neederiandicce,
iii., nos. 60, 84, 74, 77. 83, 85, 90, 107, 108, 129, The Hague, 1889 eqq.
	GRATIS:, GRATIOSA RESCRIPTA: Technical
terms applied in the Roman Catholic Church to
iescripte by which the pope, as a grace or favor,
generally in response to a request, confers a dis
pensation, an indulgence, a privilege, an exemption,
a benefice, or an expectancy. The usual formula
"Fiat ut petitur" or "Conceeaum," involves the
tacit condition that the grounds adduced in the
request are truthfully stated. If the grace is given
in the form "Placet motu proprio," it in independent
of the grounds stated and operative even if they
should prove invalid. 	(P. Hlxscaluat.)
GRATIAN, gr6'shi‑an: 1. Roman emperor, 375383; b. at Sirmium, 359; killed at Lyons Aug 25, 383. He followed his father, Valentinian L, on the throne of the Went in 375, while his uncle, Valens (q.v.), governed the East until his death in 378, when Theodosius succeeded him. In 383 Gratian was murdered in Gaul by his general Maximus, who had assumed the title of emperor and made war upon him.
The policy which Gratian pursued with respect to the Church, and which was carried still farther by Theodosius (q.v.), was of decisive consequences. Religious liberty had reigned, at leant nominally, since the Edict of Milan (313; Bee CONSTANTINE THE GREAT AND HIS SONS, L, §4), but none of the powerful ecclesiastical parties in the empire was satisfied with it, while an equal tolerance of all parties would have entailed unceasing religious wars and threatened the existence of the empire. On the other hand, paganism had already received such a blow by the most far‑reaching laws that a serious and lasting resistance was not expected from it. Thus the time had come in which the rulers of the State, by elevating the confession of one of the ecclesiastical parties to the

Gratian
Graul
state religion and suppressing all others, could bring about the only kind of peace either attainable or desirable, if the empire and civilization were to be maintained. Gratian accordingly established the orthodox State Church, while Theodosius began with the systematic suppression of paganism. It is impossible to tell how far Gratian was influenced by the Christian bishops in his work, but his attachment to the Nicene faith was without doubt due largely to the personal influence of Ambrose. In 376 Gratian forbade all heretics to assemble for any religious purpose, confiscated the property belonging to their churches, and transferred the buildings to the orthodox, whom he favored at the same time by a series of laws. In the same year (376) he issued an edict concerning ecclesiastical jurisdiction. In 377 he exempted all officers of the orthodox Church, down to the ostiarii, from municipal services and personal taxes, and in 379 he even made the retail trade which the lower clergy carried on in Illyria, Italy, and Gaul free of duty. In the Roman schism Gratian took the part of Damasus (see DAMASUS I.), whom he appointed judge of appeal over all Occidental bishops. Nevertheless, he rejected the demand of the Roman synod of 378 to free the bishops of the cities from the jurisdiction of the State. In 381 the Council of Constantinople pronounced the anathema against all non‑Nicene parties.
After the accession of Theodosius, paganism was treated with the same severity as heretical Christianity. According to his edict of 381, apostates from Christianity to paganism lost their right to make a will, this being only the beginning of a number of special edicts. Gratian does not seem to have attacked paganism with the same severity as Theodosius; but he, too, beginning in 382, issued a number of edicts for his provinces under the immediate influence of Ambrose. All sacerdotal privileges and all state support were withdrawn from paganism, and real estate belonging to the pagan temples was confiscated. The altar of victory in the hall of the senate was removed; and Gratian declined to accept the emblems of the office of ponttfex maximus. Shortly before his downfall, he issued a law punishing apostasy to paganism and Judaism with the loss of citizenship. Thus the orthodox State Church came into existence, but neither Gratian nor Theodosius created it; it was no act of deep political insight, but the necessary result of historical development. (ADOLP HARNACIC.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources from the Christian side are the histories of Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, Rufinus and Sulpicius Severus, with which cf. Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman History, in Bohn's Classical Library, London, 1887. Consult: J. C. L. Gieseler, Church History, ed. H. B. Smith, i. 282‑283, New York, 1868; C. Wordsworth, Chow=h Hist. to the Council of Chalcadon, vol. iii., ib.1885; Gibbon, Decline and Pall, chaps. azv.‑zavii.; Neander; Christian Church, vol. ii. passim; Schaff, Christian Church, ik. 61‑62; w. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, ii. 301‑303, London, 1890.
2. Compiler of the Decretum Gratiani. He was a Camaldolensian monk, teacher of canon law in the monastery of St. Felix at Bologna, and prepared his work between 1139 and 1142. Nothing more is known of his life. See CANON LAw, II.
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
GRATRY, grd"trf', AUGUSTE JOSEPH ALPHONSE: French Roman Catholic; b. at Lille Mar. 30,1805; d. at Montreux (14 m. s.e. of Lausanne) Feb. 6,1872. He was educated at the college of his native city, at the Acole Polytechnique, and at the College Stanislas, Paris. Entering the priesthood at Strasburg, he was successively professor at the Catholic seminary there (1832‑42), director of the College Stanislas (1842‑47), and almoner of the Itcole Normale (1847‑52). He was decorated with the order of the Legion of Honor in 1845. In 1852, with Abby Petetot, he established anew the Oratory of the Immaculate Conception, and devoted himself chiefly to the education of Parisian youth till 1869, when his connection with Pyre Hyacinths and the International League of Peace forced him to retire from the Oratory. He was appointed vicar‑general to the bishop of Orleans in 1861, and professor of morals at the Sorbonne in 1863, and elected a member of the Academy in 1867. During the Vatican Council he published four letters against the doctrine of papal infallibility, but accepted the dogma when it was promulgated. His principal works are: Coors de philosophic (6 vols., Paris, 1855‑57); Les Sources, coraseils pour la conduits de l'esprit (2 vols., 18612); La Philosophic du credo (1861); La Paiz (1861); Ctrmmentaire sur l'Evangite selon saint Matthieu (2 vole., 1863‑65); Les Saphistes et la critique (1864); Jesus‑Christ. Mponse h M. Renan (1864; Eng. transl., London, 1868); and La Morale et la lai de l'histoire (2 vols., 1868).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides Gratry's (Euvrea poathumea, aouvenira de ma jeunesae, Paris, 1874, consult: B. Chauvelot, Le Pyre Graft, Paris, 1862; A. L. A. Perraud, Le Pyre Gratry; sea derniera 9oura, Paris, 1872, Eng. tranal., Last Days of Pyre Gratry, London, 1872; E. Peyrat, Le Pyre Gratry, Paris, 1890; A. Chauvin, La Pyre Gratry, ib. 1901; Lichtenberger, ESR, v. 865‑674.
GRAD, RUDOLF FRIEDRICH: German Lutheran; b. at Heringen‑on‑the‑Z'ferra (4 m. a.e. of Nordhausen), Hesse, Apr. 20, 1835; d. at KlSnigsberg Aug. 5, 1893. He studied at Leipsic under Liebner and Kahnis, under Hofmann at Erlangen, and under A. F. C. Vilmar at Marburg. After being a private tutor from 1857 to 1860, he returned to Marburg, fast as lecturer and then (1861) as privatdocent. In 1865 he was made professor extraordinary, but in 1866 was called to Kdnigaberg as ordinary professor of New Testament exegesis. He also lectured occasionally on dogmatics and apologetics, and was an admirable speaker upon subjects outside his official sphere.
In harmony with the influence of Hofmann and Vilmar, Grau's theological position was decidedly Lutheran, and he emphasized it by entering the Lutheran Union of his province and by his active association, both personally and by correspondence, with the leading Lutheran theologians of his day. In this same spirit he took a warm interest in American Lutheranism, although he was not in entire sympathy with the conservatism of the latter body. His Lutheranism was far more practical than dogmatic in character, and throughout his activity the apologetic defense of Christian belief against the hostile tendencies of the period found frequent presentation in his writings.
Grau's writings fall into two categories, apolo‑

47
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
getic and exegetic, the former being both the more numerous and the more important. Here belongs his Semiten and Indogermanen, eine Apologie des Christentums vom, Standpunkte der VolkerpsYchoWie (Stuttgart, 1864), in which he assailed Renan's view that the Semites were an inferior race, and emphasized the Biblical presentation of the monotheism of the Semitic stock. This work was, in a certain sense, continued and supplemented in his Ursprunge and Ziele unserer Kulturentwickdung (Gilteraloh 1875; Eng. transl., by Sir M. Williams under the title of Goal o f the Human Race, London, 1892),which emphasized the importance of the Hamites as a leading factor in the ancient culture‑history of mankind, while at the same time the "Hamitization of Rome and the Roman spirit " at the end of the republic and during the empire was emphasized as a warning precedent for certain tendencies of modern times. He likewise wrote numerous minor apologetic essays, chiefly in the Beweis des Glaubens, of which he became associate editor at its establishment in 1865. Among these essays special mention may be made of his Ueber den Glauben als die h6ehste Vernunft (1865); Der Glaube als die wahre Lebensphilosophie (1881); Das Geheimnis der Judenfrage (1881); Ueber J. G. Hamanas Stellung zu Religion and Christentum (1888); and Einem unbekannten Gott (1889). Many of his later essays express considerable bitterness against modern theology especially of Ritachl's school.
Grau's first exegetical work was his Zur Einfuhrung in das Schrifttum des NeuenTestaments (Stuttgart, 1868), which was fully developed in his F,ntwickelung8geschichte des neutestamentlichen Schrifttums (2 v ols., 1871). These were followed by his Bxblische Theologie des Neuen Testaments (Nbrdlingen, 1883; 3d ed., 1889) and Das Selbstbewusstsein Jesu (1887). During the final years of his fife Grau began a more comprehensive work on the theology of the Old Testament, but only a fragment appeared after his death under the title of Das Yolk Gottes and sein Gesetz (Giitersloh, 1894). He likewise wrote several briefer monographs on Old Testament themes, and prepared two works for a more general circle of readers. In collaboration with other scholars, he edited a New Testament Bibelwerk fur die Gemeinde (2 vols., Bielefeld, 18871880; 2d ed., 1889‑90), to which he himself contributed the exegesis of Matthew, John, the two Epistles to the Corinthians, and Revelation. Two years before his death appeared Luther, Katechiamus erkldrt aus biblischer Theologie (Gtiteraloh, 1891).
(O. Z6CSiMt.)
B:Brroaaerar: C. W. von Kugelpn, Rudolf Grau, ein
akademiaeher 'e‑e der dutkeriechen Kirche, Munich 1894; O. ZSokier, in Beweia dea Gtaubew, 1893, pp. 357‑370.
GRAUL, KARL: German Lutheran missionary; b. at Worhtz (9 m. e. of Dessau) Feb. 6, 1814; d. at Erlangen Nov. 10, 1864. In 1836 be entered the University of Leipsic, and after the completion of his theological studies spent two years in Italy as a private tutor. Returning to Germany he became a teacher at Dessau and published Ha mmersehaage in Dreizeilern (Leipsic, 1843) against the lax tendency of the times. Meanwhile the missionary committee at Dresden called him as their director in
Gratiaa Qraal
1842. Graul entered his new position in 1844, at the time when the question of creeds in missionary work was being agitated. He labored in the spirit of his predecessor Wermelskirch, looking upon the missionary society as a distinctive outgrowth of the Lutheran Church and its creed, in opposition to the ideas of the missionary institute at Basel; and the Dresden society soon became the bond of union between most of the Lutheran Churches, not only of Germany, but also of foreign countries. At the same time Graul developed an important literary activity. It was his idea from the beginning to bring missions into close touch with scientific theology by eradicating the prejudice between missionaries and theologians, and thus both to assign to missionary work its important place in the sphere of the theological science, and to lay a solid foundation for it. He accordingly required of missionaries a thorough education in scientific theology, and to attain this he removed the institute from Dresden to Leipsic, the seat of the university (1848). It was an early desire of Graul to be personally acquainted with the mission fields of India, and in 1849 he undertook a journey thither, returning in 1853 with a thorough knowledge of the country and of the Tamil language and literature. Henceforth the main efforts of his life were directed toward a thorough instruction of his pupils in Tamil. For this purpose he had collected in India a large Tamil library, and the principal literary work of his life was the Bibliotheca tamulica (3 vols., Leipsic, 18541856).
Graul desired to Christianize the Tamil people as a whole, rather than to convert individuals. He accordingly advocated a considerate treatment of the distinctions of caste among the Hindus, distinguishing a civil and a religious aspect of caste. The question engendered many controversies, most of the other missionary societies in India, especially the English, holding different views on the subject. Graul had occasion, while in India, to defend the principles of his society in an English polemical treatise. As the dispute was continued in Germany Graul thoroughly discussed the question in Die Stellung der evangelischrlutherischen Mission in Leipzig zur ostindischen Kasten frage (Leipsie, 1861). He admits that caste, although originally a distinction of purely national and social significance, shows in its present form a religious character, and that as such it is entirely contrary to the spirit of the Gospel. But, he continues, the practise of caste loses its force in native congregations of Christians because they all without distinction partake of the cup ill the Lord's Supper, and the express doctrine
of Holy Scripture concerning the common origin of human society deprives the institution of caste of
its pagan basis. In 1860 Graul retired as director of the missionary institute of Leipsic, because of the continuance of violent attacks and for the sake of his health; and in 1861 he removed to Erlangen, intending to establish himself as teacher in the university; but death prevented the execution of his

During his activity at Dresden he wrote Un‑

terscheidungskhren der verschiedenen christlichen Bekerantnisse (Leipaie,1845); Die evangelisch‑lutheri‑

	°
Greece		THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	48
ache Miasionsanatalt zu Dresden an die eaangelisch
lutherische Kirche aller Lands; Vorwdrls otter Riick
wdrts t (1845); Die chrislichen MissaonspldUe auf der
ganzen Erde (1847). A fruit of his studies on Irenteus
was Die christliche Kirche an der Schwelle des irendi
when Zeitalters (1860). His Ueber Stedlung and Bedew
tung der chridlichen Mission im Ganzen der Universi
tatawi8senschaf ten (Erlangen, 1864) is an exposition of
the ruling principle of his life. His last work was
Indiache Sinnpflanzen and Blumen zur Kennzeichnung
des indischen, vornehmlichtamuliachenGeistes (1864).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Hermann, Dr. Graul and seine Bedew tuns fair die tutherische Mission, Halle, 1866; Lichtenberger, ESR, v. 674‑676.
GRAVAMINA (Lat.,=" Grievances"): In historical terminology the official compilation of the grievances of the German nation against the Papal Court. Such formal complaints became more and more frequent, especially in the second half of the fifteenth century, and in the course of time developed into a constantly recurring subject of consideration or menace in the German diets far into the period of the Reformation. Their origin maybe traced to the complaints or propositions of reform which the German nation, like other nations, laid before the Council of Constance and the Council of Basel (qq.v.). Efforts at an ecclesiastical reformation accompanied those directed against abuses in the empire, and it is to be noted that the prime source of complaint, as well as of opposition, was the higher clergy. The general desire received a more tangible form in the Gravamina Alemanim nationia which were laid before the Diet of Frankfort in Aug., 1456, in which the unfulfilled hopes of the preceding councils again found expression; but conditions did not change. In the latter years of the century, under the influence of Berthold of Mains, complaints about the investiture of foreigners with German prebends became more urgent. Another chief point of complaint was directed against questionaries and mendicant friars. While thus far spiritual princes had been the leaders of the movement, so that secular princes and their desires came into consideration only secondarily, a change took place in the latter period of the reign of Maximilian I. (d. 1514); but it was at the Diet of Augsburg in 1518 that the Gravamina first received real official form, when a memorial was prepared stating reasons for the refusal to pay ecclesiastical tithes. The movement reached its culmination at the Diet of Worms (1521), where it was advocated even by Roman Catholic princes, like George of Saxony, who disavowed Luther, but favored a reformation after the conception of Erasmus. A commission, composed of spiritual and secular members, was immediately entrusted with the compilation of the complaints. Their discussions resulted in the famous "One hundred [more precisely one hundred and two] Gravamina of the German Nation," Deutsche Reichatagsakten, 2d ser., ii., Gotha, 1896, no. 96, which attack not only papal encroachments, but abuses of ecclesiastical jurisdiction and the immoral life of the clergy in general. Nevertheless, they remained only a provisional draft, and no result followed from them even though they were repeated in another form at the Diet of Nuremberg (1522‑23; cf. O. Redlich, Der Re6chdag zu Nurnr
berg I Slog‑83, Leipsic, 1887, pp.120,144; Gebhardt, pp. 133 eqq.); but, as an official accusation of the German nation, they form an important historical document concerning the conditions of the time.
(T. KOLDE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. F. Georgi, Imperatorsm impernique principum ac procsrum fotiusque nationis Germanica gravamina adroarsus curiam Romanam totumque axleaiastieum ordinum, Frankfort, 1725; G. M. Weber, Die hundert Boechwerden der puammten deutechen Nation, Erlangen, 1829 (teat alone); W. Roesmann, Betrarhtungen fiber doe Zsitalter der Reformation mit archivalisehen Bsilapen, Jens, 1858; Deutsche Reiehetagsakten, new series, vol. ii., ad. A. Wrede, Goths, 1898; B. Gebhwdt, Die Gravamina der deutschsn Nation oepsn den ramischen Hof, Breslau, 1895.
GRAVATT, WILLIAM LOYALL: Protestant Episcopal bishop of West Virginia; b. at Port Royal, Va., Dec. 15, 1858. He studied at the Virginia Military College, Blacksburg, Va., and was graduated at the Virginia Theological Seminary in 1884. He became curate of St. Paul's, Richmond, Va., 1884; rector of St. Peter's, Norfolk, Va., 1887; of Zion Church, Charlestown, W. Va., 1893, and was ooneecrated bishop coadjutor of West Virginia 1899.
GRAVES, ANSON ROGERS: Protestant Episcopal missionary bishop of Laramie; b. at Wells, Vt., Apr. 13, 1842. He was educated at Hobart College (B.A.,1866) and at the General Theological Seminary (1870). He was then curate of Grace, Brooklyn, and of Gethsemane, Minneapolis, and rector of St. Luke's, Plattemouth, Neb., All Saints', Northfield, Minn., All Saints', Littleton, N. H., St. Peter's, Bennington, Vt., and Gethsemane, Minneapolis. In 1890 he was consecrated missionary bishop of The Platte, the name of his diocese later beging changed to Laramie.
GRAVES. FREDERICK ROGERS: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Shanghai, China; b. at Auburn, N. Y., Oct. 24, 1858. He was educated at Hobart College (B.A., 1878) and the General Theological Seminary (1881). Since 1881 he has been stationed in China, being at Wu‑Chang 1881‑85, and professor in the Theological School of St. John's College, Shanghai, 1885,87. He was professor in the Theological School at Wu‑Chang, 1887‑93, and in the latter year was consecrated missionary bishop of Shanghai. He has translated a number of theological works into Chinese, among which special mention may be made of eight books of Joseph Bingham's Antiquities of the Christian Church and commentaries on Isaiah and the Psalms.
GRAY FRIARS: A popular English name for the Franciscans, from the color of their dress.
GRAY NUNS. See CHARITY, SISTSBS ox, 1.
GRAY SISTERS (Swurv Krises). See ELIzABrTH, SAINT, SISTERS OF.
GRAY, GEORGE BUCHANAN: English Congregationalist; b. at Blandford (45 m. s.e. of Bristol), Dorsetshire, Jan.13,1865. He was educated at New College and University College, London (B.A., 1886), and Mansfield College, Oxford. He entered the Independent ministry in 1893 and was fellow and tutor in Mansfield College from 1891 to 1900. Since 1900 he has been professor of Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis in the same institution, and was likewise lecturer on the Old Testament to the

49
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Friends' Summer School in 1897‑1899. He has been a member of the Board of the Faculty of Oriental languages in Oxford University since 1896, and of the general and executive committees of the Palestine Exploration Fund since 1905. In theology he is a liberal Evangelical. He has written Studies in Hebrew Proper Names (London, 1896); The Divine Discipline of Israel (1900); Numbers in The Temple Bible (1902); and Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Numbers (Edinburgh, 1903).
GRAY, GEORGE ZABRISKIE: Protestant Episcopalian; b. in New York City July 14, 1838; d. at Sharon Springs, N. Y., Aug. 4, 1889. He. was educated at the University of the City of New York (A.B., 1858), the Theological Seminary at Alexandria, Va., and the Episcopal Divinity School, Philadelphia (1862). After being rector of St. Paul's, Kinderhook, N. Y., in 1863‑65, and at Trinity, Bergen Point, N. J., in 1865‑76, he was dean and professor of systematic divinity at the Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass. He wrote The Children's Crusade: An Episode of the Thirteenth Century (Boston, 1872) which made his literary reputation and still holds its place; The Scriptural Doctrine of Recognition in the World to Come (New York, 1875); Husband and Wife: or, The Theory of Marriage and its Consequences (Boston, 1885); and The Church's Certain Faith (New York, 1890).
GRAY, WILLIAM CRANE: Protestant Episcopal missionary bishop of Southern Florida; b. at Lambertville, N. J., Sept. 6,1835. He was educated at Kenyon College, where he took the college and the theological courses simultaneously, being graduated in 1859. From 1860 to 1881 he was rector of St. James's, Bolivar, Tenn., where, soon after the close of the Civil War, he established St. James's Girls' School (now called St. Katharine's School). He was then rector of the Church of the Advent, Nashville, Tenn., from 1881 to 1892, and in the latter year was consecrated missionary bishop of southern Florida. In theology he holds firmly to the fundamental doctrines of the Church‑the Scriptures, the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds, the Sacraments, and the threefold ministry with apostolic succession‑but lays less stress on details of ritual and matters of opinion not concerned with these essential tenets.
GRAY, WILLIAM CUNNINGHAM: Presbyterian layman; b. at Pleasant Run, O., Oct. 17, 1830; d. at Oak Park, Ill., Sept. 29, 1901. He was educated at Farmers' College, College Hill, O. (A. B., 1850), and after being admitted to the bar in 1852 was a political editor until 1870. From the latter year until his death he was editor of the Interior, a Presbyterian organ, which he made one of the leading periodicals of the denomination. He was also the author of Camp‑Fire Musings ; Life and Good Times in the Woods (New York, 1894).
GREAT BIBLE. See BIBLE VERSIONS, B, IV., §4.

	GREECE.
I. In the Apostolic Age.		Paul at Athens (§ 2)_
Government under the		Corinth (1 3),
	Romans. The Pro‑		NicopoGs (§ 4).
	co8sul Gallic (¢ I),	II. 	Modern Greece,
I. In the Apostolic Age: The name Hellalg (E,V.
"Greece ") occurs in the New Testament Only in Acts
V.‑‑4
Gravamina Greece
xa. 2. From the connection the province of Achaia exclusive of Macedonia is evidently meant, especially Corinth, though the city is not mentioned. With
the destruction of Corinth and the over‑
t. Govern‑ throw of the Achean league under meat under Mummius in 146 B.C., Greece became a the Romans. Roman province, administered by the
The Procon‑ consul, proconsul, or pretor of Macesul Gallic. donia. After the battle of Actium (31 B.C.) Augustus made Achaea an independent province comprising, besides the southern part of Greece, Eubaea and moat of the Cyclades, the latter remaining so attached till the third century when they were connected with the newly established "island eparchy." When the provinces were divided into senatorial and imperial, Greece was allotted to the senate. Tiberius united it again with Macedonia, but under Claudius in 44 A.D. the former order was reestablished. During the period 44‑67 A.D., when Christianity took root in Achaea, it was a senatorial province and was governed by proconsuls, assisted by a legate and queator. They had the command of the provincial army and jurisdiction in criminal and civil affairs. One of the beat‑known proconsuls was Gallic (Acts aviii. 12) or Lucius Annaeus Novatua, son of Marcus Animus Seneca the elder and elder brother of the famous Seneca. Having been adopted by Lucius Junius Gallic, he took the name Junius Gallic. The date of Gallio's proconsulate in Acha:a is very doubtful and no dependence can be placed on mention of him as a basis for the chronology of Paul's life. More important, however, is his attitude toward the tumults caused by Paul's Preaching. The Jews of Corinth accused Paul not of political offense, as did those of Thessalonica (Acts suit. 7), but of preaching a new religion "contrary to the law" (Acts aviii. 13)‑no doubt the Mosaic law, not the Roman. Gallic was free to interfere or let the matter drop; the important point was whether the apostasy from Judaism was proven and the new religion appeared important or dangerous. Since the Jews were divided among themselves, Gallic considered the whole matter a quarrel of the Jews especially as there was no qreestion of "wrong or wicked lewdness" (Acts xviii. 14‑16). Gallio's disposition to hear the Jews in case of a wrong indicates that at Corinth, as elsewhere, the Jews had no jurisdiction in criminal matters. As a whole the Greek cities had certain liberties under the Roman administration. Some enjoyed an especially favored position, being treated as civitntes fcederattv.
The condition of the land at the time of Strabo's visit in 29 B.c. was deplorable. Under Roman sway the situation gradually improved, but even in the Apostolic Age the condition was unfortunate. It is
esWMY suggestive that in his misz. Paul at sionary journey between
Athens.
	Berea and
Athens Paul found no opportunity
a longer stay or for missionary effort. At all events, Athena was the first point which he considered promising se a missionary field. In Paul's time Athens had risen in importance. In spite of its decay, it was revered by the Romans and the entire Hellenistic world, and had a powerful attraction for the educated. Many cultivated Ro‑

Greece Green
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	50
mans were settled there at that time (cf. Acts xvii. 21); and there were also Jews there (Acts xvii. 17). Paul may have been interested in the votive offerings of Herod (Josephus, War, I., xxi. 11) and while walking through the city (Acts xvii. 23) must have been greatly impressed by the profusion of sanotuaries. Of the many altars one especially attracted his attention, that devoted to "the unknown god" (Acts xvii. 23). He disputed in the synagogue, and appeared daily in the market and held discussions with those who chanced to be there (Acts xvii. 17), including Epicureans and Stoics. He was brought before the court of the Areopagus (Acts xvii. 19), which met in the market before the royal colonnade (Pausanias I., iii. 1), no doubt to determine whether he and his preaching should be tolerated in Athens. That "Areopagus" in the narrative means the court, not merely the locality where it met, is shown by the mention of "Dionysius the Areopagite" (Acts xvii. 34.)
Not being successful at Athens, Paul went to Corinth, which became the center of his missionary work in Greece. There he wrote his epistles to the Thessalonians, to the Romans, perhaps also to the Galatians. To the Corinthians he wrote several, perhaps four, epistles (see PAUL THE APOSTLE),
since the Christians of Achma caused 3. Corinth. him much trouble. For Paul's mis‑
sionary method, for th3 difficulties to be overcome, for the typical experiences in the lives of the congregations, there is nothing more instructive and characteristic than what may be learned from all sources with regard to the Corinthian Church. At Corinth was to be found a mixture of Romans, Greeks, and Orientals, a cosmopolitan syncretistic "heathenism." That many Jews lived there is a matter of course (Acts xviii. 4, 7).
The city of Corinth was one of the most flourishing commercial cities of antiquity, and its situation between two seas made it the natural emporium between the Orient and the Occident. Naturally it had two ports. The western, Lecteeum, north of Corinth, was formerly connected with the city by walls; the eastern seaport was Cenchrea (Rom. xvi. 1; Acts xviii. 18), with a Christian congregation of its own. In the city was a sanctuary of the Ephesian Artemis; in the market a statue of Athene and a sanctuary of the Capitoline Zeus. On a rock which afforded a beautiful view stood the temple cf Aphrodite. There were also two sanctuaries of Isis, two of Serapis, altars to Helios, a temple of Anangke and Bia, and one of the mother of the gods. It can easily be imagined that in such a city immorality abounded; the catalogue of vices in Rom. i. 18‑32 was written at Corinth, as was I Thess. iv. 1‑12; and the epistles to the Corinthians show that Paul had to oppose there the base viciousness of heathenism. A great attraction for Greeks and Romans and for the rabble were the Isthmian games, and it is perhaps not accidental that Paul betrays an intimate knowledge of the stadium (cf. I Cor. ix. 24‑27). The congregation in Corinth was composed of members belonging to the lower class of the population (I Cor. i. 26 sqq.), so that, since it was there less possible than elsewhere to speak to people of the lower and higher
ranks at the same time, Paul there preached to the people. According to his own statement (I Cor. ii. 1 sqq.), he pursued there a method different from that followed in Athens. Like a popular speaker he relied entirely upon convincing, spiritual preaching, laying aside philosophic refinements. But this did not exclude the well‑considered rhetorical form which he used in the epistles to the Corinthians. The rhetoric employed by him was the kind used by the popular orators among the Cynics, as may be seen from the diatribes of Epictetus and the much earlier Teles. About the time of Paul, or a little later, the cynic Demetrius, the friend of Seneca, labored at Corinth, and no doubt the apostle intentionally adopted the method of these popular orators.
	A word may be added about Nioopolis (the mod
ern Prevesa, situated in Albania, the old Epirus, at
		the outlet of the Gulf of Arta). Zahn
4. Nicopolis. (Einleitung in das Neue Testament, i.,
		Leipsic, 1900, pp. 434‑435) has proved
that Titus iii. 12 refers to this city. This Roman
colony (Aclia Niwpolis) was established by Augus
tus in memory of the battle of Actium. Tacitus
(Annalea, ii. 53) speaks of it as belonging to Achma.
Its special attractions were the sanctuary of Apollo
and the Actian games indroduced by Augustus.
Here again it was a modern, flourishing city that
Paul selected for a longer residence. Nicopolis was
afterward the scene of the labors of the Stoic Epio
tetus. 		(JOHANNES WEISS.)
II. Modern Greece: The present kingdom of Greece dates from 1832. It comprises a continental portion, the Xgean Archipelago, and the Ionian Islands, with an area of 25,014 square miles, and a population of about 2,600,000, which belongs almost solidly to the Eastern Orthodox confession. Its Church (the "Church in Greece") is autonomous, having no hierarchical connection with the patriarch of Constantinople, and has been so, essentially, since 1833, although the separation was formally made by the constitution of 1852. The dignity of archbishop was abolished, save that a priority was reserved for the metropolitan of Athens, and the Church was recognized as a State Church in the national constitution. Since 1852 the highest authority in all affairs of church government has been exercised by the "Holy Synod," which is composed of the metropolitan and four other bishops, the latter being called in turn to officiate thus at Athens for the term of one year. The government convenes the synod, pays the salaries of these officers', and guarantees the validity of the synod's enactments by counter‑signature of the state commissioner. Further a general council of the bishops and qualified abbots may be convened as supreme tribunal. The Holy Synod elects and ordains bishops, who, however, must be confirmed by the government. In like manner the Holy Synod examines and appoints the remaining clergy. In case of an ecclesiastical assignment, in respect to educational institutions, the erection of a convent, and the alteration of feast‑days, the government's consent is required. The church administration is vested in thirty‑two bishops (besides the metropolitan), twenty‑two of whom are stationed on the mainland. There are also many monasteries; in 1898

61	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	d'
Green
the number was 198, including nine nunneries; though, all told, they sheltered only some 1,500 monks and nuns. The number of pastoral cures was 4,025, with 5,670 clergy, only 242 of whom were unmarried. Most of them were without higher scholastic education, the number with only common‑school training being 4,116. The clerical stipends are meager, usually being derived solely from voluntary gifts and surplice‑fees. Besides three so‑called clerical schools (at Tripolis, Chalcis, and Syra), which have scant attendance, there is a theological seminary at Athens.
Of other Christian confessions, only the Roman Catholic Church has an appreciable following, with a membership of about 22,000. The hierarchical establishment indicates a propagandist attitude of this Church in Greece, there being (since 1875) three provinces, Athens, Corfu, and Naxos. The latter comprises five suffragan sees, Andros, Syra, Tino, Santorin, and Milo. The archbishop of Corfu has also jurisdiction over the dioceses of Zante and Cephalonia; these two sees have but little over 7,000 adherents, a number surpassed by the single diocese of Syra. The number of secular and cloistered clergy is considerable; six male and seven female orders or congregations, mainly from France, are active in the country.
The number and significance of the Protestants is alight, there being only four small congregations, three in the capital and one at Pirieus. The socalled court congregation includes Protestant Germans, Swiss, and French; it is in charge of the clergyman whom the Protestant king (a prince of Denmark) maintains as preacher. The Anglican congregation numbers about 120. It is difficult to estimate the number of Greek Protestants, since not a few of them do not formally separate from the old Orthodox congregations. The congregation at Pirteus has grown slowly. A popular tumult, incited by attempts at proselyting, led to the destruction of its house of worship in 1888. Occasional Protestant services are held in other places, e.g., in Patras and Volo. There are some 6,000 Jews, more than half of whom belong to the Sephardim; and, notwithstanding copious emigration, there are still about 24,000 Mohammedans, mostly in Thessaly.
Popular education has been considerably promoted by compulsory schooling from the age of six to thirteen, though in many districts attendance is not enforced. There are 3,263 common schools, 285 public high schools, 39 state gymnasia, ten normal schools for men and three for women, and a number of private and technical schools. The University of Athens is a collective center for modern Greek scholarship and culture, with some 2,600 students from all parts of the Levant. It embraces faculties of law, medicine, philosophy, science, and theology. WILHELm GOETZ.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: On I. the three books indispensable are:
G. Finlay, Hint. of Greece, Vol. i., London, 1877; G. Herts
berg, Die Gewhwhte Gnechunlande unter der Herrschatt der
Remer, vols. i. ii., Halls, 1866; T. Mommeen, Rsmischs
Geschidte, ii. 42‑b0, v. 230‑294, Berlin, 1903‑04. Con
sult also: W. M. Ramsay, Historical Geography of Asia
Minor, London, 1890; idem, The Church in the Roman
Empire, New York, 1893; idem, St. Paul the Traveller,
ib. 1896; and literature under LB=i; PAUL; and works
on the Church history of the Apostolic Age; also DB, ii. 280‑‑263; %L, v. 1200‑27.
On IL: Finlay, ut sup., vols., vi.‑vii.; T. G. Clark, Christianity East and West, London, 1889; R. Curzon, Visits to the Monasteries of the Levant, ib. 1897; R. B. C. Sheridan, The (reek Catholic Church, O3dord, 1901; C. Berth, Die orientaliache Chriatsnheit der MitWmeerlander, Berlin, 1902; I. Silbernagl, Verfassunp and pepenw8rtiper Bestand aamtlicher Kirchen des Orients, Regensburg, 1904.

GREEK CHURCH. See EASTERN CHURCH.

GREEN, ASHBEL: American Presbyterian, president of Princeton College; b. at Hanover, Morris County, N. J., July 6, 1762; d. in Philadelphia May 19, 1848. He served as a sergeant in the Revolutionary War till the spring of 1782, when he entered Princeton (B.A., 1783). He was a tutor at Princeton (178385), professor of mathematics and natural philosophy (1785‑87), pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia (1787‑1812), chaplain to Congress (1792‑1800), and president of Princeton College (1812‑22). He was one of the founders of the Princeton Theological Seminary and president of its board of directors 1812‑48. On resigning the presidency of Princeton in 1822 he returned to Philadelphia and edited the Christian Advocate 1822‑34, and also The Assembly's Magazine during a part of this time. He was moderator of the General Assembly in 1824, and a member of that body in 1837,1838, and 1839. He wielded great influence in the Presbyterian Church, took a strong stand in favor of the Old School party, and was largely instrumental in bringing about the disruption of 1837. His principal works are: Sermons on the Assembly's Catechism (1818); History of Presbyterian Missions (1820); and Discourses Delivered in the College of New Jersey, Including a Historical Sketch of the College (1822).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A volume of Memoirs, begun by himself, was completed by J. H. Jones, New York, 1849. Consult W. B. Sprague, Annals of the American Pulpit, iii. 479‑496, New York, 1858; R. E. Thompson, in American Church History Series, vol. vi., passim, ib. 1895.

GREEN, EDMUND TYRRELL: Church of England; b. at Westminster Mar. 19, 1864. He was educated at St. John's College, Oxford (B.A., 1886). From 1887 to 1890 he was curate of St. Bamabas, Oxford, and was then applointed lecturer in Hebrew and theology in.St. David's College, Lampeter,Wales. Six years later he became professor of the same subjects, a position which he still retains, in addition to being lecturer in parochalia since 1896. He was lecturer in architecture in 1902. Besides his professorial duties, he has held many parochial missions and in 1904 delivered a course of apologetic lectures at Southampton. In theology he belongs to the Anglo‑0atholic school of the Church of England. He has written Notes on the Teaching of St. Paul (London, 1893); The Thirty‑Nine Articles and the Age of the Reformation (1896); The Sinner's Restoration (1899); The Church of Christ (1902); and How to Preach (1905). He has also edited Jeremiah and Lamentations in The Temple Bible (London, 1902).
GREEN, JOSEPH HENRY: English surgeon and student of philosophy; b. in London Nov.l, 1791; d. at The Mount, Hadley, near Barnet (11 m.

Green	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	62
Qreenup
n.n.w. of London), Dec. 13, 1863. He received his
medical education in German universities, and in
the College of Surgeons, London (M.D., 1815), where
he became professor of anatomy in 1824. He was
also surgeon to St. Thomas' Hospital (1820‑52),
professor of anatomy to the Royal Academy (1825
1852), professor of surgery at King's College (1830
1837), a member of the council of the College of
Surgeons (1835‑63), a member of the court of ex
aminers (1$46‑63), president of the college (1849
1850,1858‑59), and president of the General Medical
Council (1860‑63). He was a personal friend and
disciple of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and became his
literary executor. In 1836 he retired to the count 'ry
and spent the rest of his life in philosophical and
linguistic study with a view to publishing a monu
mental exposition of Coleridge's system. He em
bodied the results of his philosophical studies in
Vital Dynamics (London, 1840); Mental Dynamics
(1847); in the Introduction to his edition of Cole
ridge's Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit (1849);
and particularly in the posthumous Spiritual
Philosophy: Founded on the Teaching of Samuel
Taylor Coleridge, edited, with a Memoir of Green,
by John Simon (2 vols., 1865), the best expo
sition of Coleridge's philosophy that has yet ap
peared.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult, besides the Memoir prefixed to
	Spiritual Philosophy, ut sup., DNB, xxii. 49‑51.
	GREEN, SAMUEL GOSNELL: English Baptist;
b. at Falmouth (66 m. w.s.w. of Plymouth), Corn
wall, Dec, 20, 1822; d. in London Sept. 15, 1905.
He was educated at Stepney (now Regent's Park)
College (B.A., University of London, 1844). He
was successively pastor at High Wycombe, Bucks.
(1844‑47), and Taunton (1847‑51), then classical
tutor (1851‑63) and president (1863‑76) of Horton
College, Bradford, which was removed to Rawdon
in 1859. In 1876 he was chosen book editor of the
Religious Tract Society, London, of which he sub
sequently became secretary, retiring from active
life in 1899. He was a trustee of the John Rylands
Library, Manchester, and a vice‑president of the
British and Foreign Bible Society. In theology he
was a liberal Evangelical. His principal works are:
Addresses to Children (London, 1849); The Working
Classes of Great Britain (1850); Lectures to Children
on the Bible (1856); Lectures to Children on Scrip
ture Doctrine (1856); Biible Sketches for Young
People (2 vols., 1865‑70); Handbook to the Grammar
of the Greek New Testament (1870); The Written
Word; or, the Contents and Interpretation of Holy
Scripture briefly considered (1871); Life and Letters
of the Apostle Peter (1873); Kings of Israel and
Judah (1876); Pen and Pencil Pictures (4 vols.,
1876‑83); What do 1 believe f (1880); Christian.
Ministry to the Young (1883); Wycliffe Anecdotes
(1884); The Christian Creed and the Creed of Chris
tendom (1898); The Story of the Religious Tract
Society (1899); Handbook of Old Testament Hebrew
(1901); and Handbook of Church History (1904).
He edited a new edition of P. Lorimer's translation
of G. V. Lechler's Wiclif (London, 1884); an
enlarged edition of the Annotated Paragraph Bible
(1894); and a thoroughly revised edition of J. Angus'
$0le Handbook (1904); besides being chairman of
the editorial committee of a New Baptist Church Hymnal.
GREEN, THOMAS HILL: English philosopher; b. at Birkin (10 m. s.e. of Leeds), Yorkshire, Apr. 7, 1836; d. at Oxford Mar. 26, 1882. He was educated at Rugby and at Balliol College, Oxford (B.A., 1859; M.A., 1862), where he was elected fellow in 1860. His life henceforth was devoted chiefly to teaching in the university, first as tutor, after 1878 as Whyte professor of moral philosophy. Certain scruples prevented him from entering the ministry, though on taking his M.A. degree he signed the Thirty‑Nine Articles. He was a disciple of Rant and Hegel, but by his independent treatment of philosophical problems he won, and still holds, extremely high rank as an original thinker. By his trenchant criticism of Hume, from the idealistic viewpoint, he broke the sway of empiricism in England and afterward became the founder of the so‑called Neo‑Hegelian school, which is now practically dominant in English and American speculation. Briefly, his view is, that only the experienced is real, and that finite experience forms a system of relations which are caught up in one eternal self‑conscious whole, via., the Absolute or God. While for God the world is, for man it becomes; and human experience is only God partially and gradually revealing himself in man. Green's ethics is based on his idealistic metaphysics. The ethical ideal, the end in which the effort of a moral agent "can really find rest," is revealed to the self‑conscious subject by the reason; and the difference between a good man and a bad man is, that while the one wills what the eternal and divine intelligence reproduced in him demands, the other wills contrary to reason, and therefore in violation of divine law. Green's character is described in Mrs. Humphry Ward's Robert Elsmere, under the name of Mr. Gray. His principal works are, the famous Introduction to Hume's Treatise of Human Nature (i. 1‑310, London, 1874); his posthumous Prolegomena to Ethics (ed. A. C. Bradley, Oxford, 1883), one of the most valuable contributions to constructive philosophy ever made by an Englishman; and The Witness of God, and Faith (London, 1883), two lay sermons delivered to his pupils at Oxford. His Works, exclusive of the Prolegomena, were edited by R. L. Nettleship (3 vols., London, 1885,88). .
BIBraodBAPBy: A Life, by R. L. Nettleship, was prefixed to vol. iii. of the Works, reprinted separately, London, 1908. Consult: DNB, xxii. 55‑56; W. H. Fairbrother, The Philosophy o/ Thomas Hill Green, New York, 1896; full bibliography in Baldwin. Dictionary; III., i. 228.

GREEN THURSDAY. See HoLy WEEK, § 4.

GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY: Presbyterian; b. at Groveville, N. J., Jan. 27, 1825; d. at Princeton, N. J., May 4, 1896. He was educated at Lafayette College (A.B.,1840) and Princeton Theological Seminary (1846). He was instructor in Hebrew at Princeton Theological Seminary from 1846 to 1849 and was also stated supply at the Second Presbyterian Church there in 1847. From 1849 to 1851 he was pastor of the Central Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia, and from the latter year until his death was a professor in Princeton Theological

53	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	snap
Seminary, first of Biblical and Oriental literature (1851‑59) and later of Oriental and Old Testament literature (1859‑96). He was chairman 'of the American Old Testament Company of the AngloAmerican Bible Revision Committee, and in 1868 declined the proffered presidency of Princeton College. In Biblical criticism he was one of the leading representatives of the conservative school, and firmly impressed his individuality on the seminary. Besides editing the Song of Solomon for the American edition of the Biblical commentary of J. P. Lange (New York, 1870), he wrote A Grammar of the Hebrew Language (New York, 1861); A Hebrew Chrestomathy (1863); The Pentateuch Vindicated from the Aspersions of Bishop Colenso (1863); The Argument of the Book of Job Unfolded (1874); Moses and the Prophets (1883); The Hebrew Feasts in their Relation to Recent Critical Hypotheses concerning the Pentateuch (1885); Prophets and Prophecy (Princeton, 1888); The Old Testament Canon (1889); Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch (New York, 1895); The Unity of the Book of Genesis (1895); and the posthumous General Introduction to the Old Testament (2 vole., 1898‑99).

GREENE, RICHARD GLEASON: Congregationalist; b. at East Haddam, Conn., June 29, 1829. He was educated at Yale College, but left before graduation on account of the death of his father. He received his theological training at Andover Theological Seminary (1853), becoming immediately acting pastor of the First Congregational Church, Springfield, O., after which he held successive pastorates at the Eastern Congregational Church, New York City (1854‑56), Plymouth Congregational Church, Adrian, Mich. (1856‑57), East Cambridge, Mass. (1858‑60), First Congregational Church, Brighton, Mass. (1860‑62), Bedford Congregational Church, Brooklyn, N. Y. (1862‑65), Orange Valley Congregational Church, Orange, N..J. (1865‑66), North Church, Springfield, Mass. (1866‑74), and Trinity Church, East Orange, N. J. (1875‑89). He was editor‑in‑chief of the Library of Universal Knowledge (15 vols., New York, 1882); the first edition of the International Encyclopa;dia (16 vols.,1887); and the Columbian Cyclopedia (32 vole., 1890). In theology he is an Evangelical, placing more stress on the fellowship of faith in Christ than on any similarity either of doctrinal belief or of church government. In addition to numerous reviews he has written Glimpses of the Coming (New York, 1877).
GREENE, WILLIAM BRENTON, JR.: Presbyterian; b. at Providence, R. I., Aug. 16, 1854. He was educated at the College of New Jersey (A.B., 1876) and Princeton Theological Seminary (1880). He then held successive pastorates at the First Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia, 1880‑83, and at the Tenth Presbyterian Church in the same city, 1883‑93. In the latter year he was appointed professor of apologetics and Christian ethics in Princeton Theological Seminary, a position which he still holds. In theology he is a strict conservative, believing firmly in the supernatural character of Christianity and the infallibility of the Bible. He has written Christian Doctrine (Philadelphia, 1905).
GREENFIELD, WILLIAM: Linguist and Biblical scholar; b. in London Apr. 1, 1799; d. there Nov. 5, 1831. He studied under two maternal uncles, business men in London, and afterward received instruction in Hebrew from a Jew in the employ of a bookbinder to whom Greenfield had been apprenticed in 1812. In 1824 he gave up business to devote himself to languages and Biblical criticism, and in 1830 he became editor of foreign versions to the British and Foreign Bible Society. During the year and a half that he was in the employ of the Society he wrote on more than twenty languages. His principal publications were: The Comprehensive Bible . . . with . . . a General Introduction . . . Notes, etc. (London, 1827); The Polymicrian Greek Lexicon to the New Testament (1829; new revised ed., 1885); A Defense of the Serampore Mahratta Version of the New Testament (1830); Novi Testamenti Grteci Tapeiov . . . ex opera E. Schmidii (1830); The New Testament, Greek and Hebrew (1831); and The Pillar of Divine Truth Im. moveably Fixed on the Foundation of the Apostles and the Prophets (1831), an abridgment from the Cony prehensive Bible.
BISLmonAPHr: DNB, x3di. 76‑77.
GREENHILL, WILLIAM: English nonconformist; b. probably in Oxfordshire 1591; d. in London Sept. 27, 1671. He studied at Magdalen College, Oxford (B.A., 1609; M.A., 1612) and held the Magdalen College living of New Shoreham, Sussex, from 1615 to 1633. After officiating for a time in Norwich he removed to London and became afternoon preacher at Stepney. He was a member of the Westminster Assembly and one of the so‑called "dissenting brethren." In 1644 he became the first pastor of the Congregational church at Stepney, in 1649 chaplain to the children of Charles I., in 1654 one of the commissioners for approbation of public preachers, and about the same time vicar of St. Dunstan's‑in‑the‑East. He lost this post at the Restoration in 1660, but retained his independent pastorate at Stepney till his death. His principal works are: The Axe at the Root (London, 1643), a sermon preached before the House of Commons Apr. 16, 1643; An Exposition, of the Prophet Ezekiel (5 vole., 1645‑62; ed. J. Sherman,1839), one of the most celebrated Puritan commentaries, of which the first volume was dedicated to Princess Elizabeth, daughter of Charles I.; Sermons of Christ, His Discovery of Himself (1656); and The Sound‑Hearted Christian (1670).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Kennedy, in Evangelical Magaxins and Missionary Chronicle, July, 1862; D. Lyson, Environs of London, vols. i., iii., 4 vole., London, 1792‑96; A. g Wood, Athena: Oxonienses, ed. P. Bliss, iii. 1145, 4 vole., London, 1813‑20; 8. Palmer, Nonconformist's Memorial, ii. 468, 2 vole., London, 1775‑78, 3 vole., 1802‑03.
GREENLAND, MISSIONS IN. See EGICIDE, HANS.
GREENUP, ALBERT WILLIAM: Church of England; b. at London June 5, 1866. He was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1890; M.A., 1893). He has been chaplain to the earl of Cadogan since 1893, and was rector of Alburgh, Norfolk, from 1897 to 1899, when he was appointed principal of the London College of Divinity, St. John's Hall, Highbury, becoming also Macneil pro‑

Greenwood Gregory I.
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
fessor of Biblical exegesis in the following year. He was public examiner at the University of Cambridge in 1898‑99, and has been prodean of the faculty of theology in the University of London and a member of the board of theological studies since 1901, as well as examiner in Hebrew, Greek Testament, and Aramaic since 1903 and in ecclesiastical history since 1905. In theology he belongs to the Evangelical school of the Church of England. He has written Short Commentary on Lamentations (Hertford, 1893); Marginal References to the Revised Version (Oxford, 1898); Forms of Absolution (London, 1901); and Commentary on Micah (1903), in addition to translating the Targum on Lamentations (Sheffield, 1893) and editing the commentary of Tobiah hen Eliezer on the same book (Hertford, 1896).
GREENWOOD, JOHN: English Separatist; he studied at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge (B.A., 1581), and took orders in the Church of England, but in 1586 was arrested for holding a private conventicle in London. He was released, again arrested, and held in prison for more than four years. In 1592, with Francis Johnson (q.v.), he organized the first society of the Separatists in London and became its "teacher." He was arrested Dec., 1592, tried and condemned with his friend, Henry Barrow (q.v.), for publishing seditious books, and the two were hanged at Tyburn Apr. 6, 1593. He wrote several works, most of them in collaboration with Barrow.
BIBLIOGRAPa:: H. M. Dexter, Conprrapationaliam of the Last Three Hundred Years, New York, 1880; W. Walker, Creeds and Platforms of Congregationalism, p. 30, n. 1, New York, 1893; DNB, xljii. 84‑85.

GREER, DAVID HUMMELL: Protestant Episcopal bishop of New York; b. at Wheeling, W. Va., Mar. 20, 1844. He was educated at Washington College, Pa. (A.B., 1862), and the Gambier Theological Seminary, Gambier, O. (1866). He was rector of Grace Church, Providence, R. I., 1871‑88, and of St. Bartholomew's, New York City, 18881904. In 1904 he was consecrated bishop coadjutor of New York, becoming bishop in 1908. He has written The Historic Christ (New York, 1890); From Things to God (1893); The Preacher and his Place (1895); and Visions (1898).

GREGG, DAVID: Presbyterian; b. at Pittsburg, Pa., Mar. 25, 1846. He was educated at Washington and Jefferson College (A.B., 1865) and the Theological Seminary at Alleghany, Pa. (1868), after which he held pastorates at the Third Reformed Presbyterian Church, New York City (1870‑87), Park Street Congregational Church, Boston (18871890), and Lafayette Avenue Presbyterian Church, Brooklyn (1890‑1904). Since 1904 he has been president of Western Theological Seminary, Alleghany, Pa. He has written: From Solomon to the Captivity (New York, 1890); Studies in John (1891); Our Best Moods (1893); The Heaven safe (1895); The Testimony of the Law to the Book (1895); Makers of the American Republic (1896); Ideal Young Men and Women (1897); Facts that call for Faith (1898); Things of Northfield and other Things (1899); New Epistles from Old Lands (1899); The Didum of
Reason on Man's Immortality (1902); Individual Prayer as a Working Force (Chicago, 1903); and Between the Testaments (1907).
GREGOIRE, grli"gwar', HENRI: French eccle‑
siastic; b. at Veho (a village just e. of Lunt;ville) Dec. 4, 1750; d. at Auteuil, Paris, Dec. 28, 1831. He was brought up in the Jesuit college at Nancy, taught for a while in the Jesuit school at Pont‑suMoueson, and was then vicar and finally priest at Emberm6nil (3 m. n. of Veho) until 1789 or 1791. The clergy of the district of Nancy sent him to the Assembly of 1789, and until 1814, with trifling interruptions, he was a member of various legislative bodies, being at the same time bishop of Blois from 1791 until 1801. After 1814 be busied himself with learned researches.
As a priest he was the first to take the oath demanded by the Constituent Assembly (Dec. 27, 1790). Out of two bishoprics to which he was elected he chose Loire‑et‑Cher or Blois and served faithfully there for ten years, but, on the signing of the Concordat (q.v.) in 1801, was forced by the Ultramontanes to leave. Nevertheless, in spite of all attacks he continued to wear his bishop's robe in the Convention and on the street, and read mass at home daily.
As a statesman he was at times secretary or president of the assemblies, or chairman of important committees. The Legislative Body which had made him its president chose him senator three times, thus forcing Napoleon to confirm him. In 1819 France was roused by his election as representative of the department of Iei're, but the Chamber refused to let him take his seat.
As a philanthropist he stood ahead of his day. His book on the Jews took a prize in 1788, and today the Jews hold his name in honor. He combated slavery with vigor. In the Convention he did much for'commerce and trade, and for schools and libraries. His report on bibliography was often reprinted (at late as 1873). The French Institute was his creation.
As a writer he treated of the Jews (Paris, 1789), Port Royal (1801), theophilanthropy (1806), negro literature (1808), history of religious sects (2 vole., 1814; 8 vo1s.,1828), Gallican liberties (1818), Christianity and women (1821), history of confessors of emperors (1824), marriage of priests in Franca (1828), Mhmmrea (1837). Many of his books were translated into foreign languages.
The archbishop of Paris refused him extreme unction, because Gr6goire refused to retract his oath of Dec. 27, 1790; but Abby Guillon served him as confessor and gave him the last rites.
CA$PAR RE14 GREGORY.
BIRLIOORAPH7: His own MLriiOiTe.1, ed. H. Carnat with 8
biographical notice, appeared in 2 vole., Paris, 1839. Consult: G. Kroger, Heinrich GrE9oire, Biaclwf van Blois, Leipaic, 1838; P. Bdhringer, OrADoire, sin Lebenabild, Basel, 1878; A. Debidour, L'Abbli Ciropoire, Nantes, 1881; H. Cannot, ?Studs our :'abbg QrEpoire, Pari0. 1882: Liahtenberger, ESR, v. 728‑731; W. H. Jervis, The l7alliaan Church and the Revolution, passim, London, 1882 (well worth consulting).
GREGORIAN CHANT. See Music. SACRED, IL, 1, § 2.

65	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Greenwood
Gregory I.
GREGORY: The name of sixteen popes.
Gregory I., the Great: Pope Sept. 3, 590‑Mar. 11, 604. He was born in Rome about 540. His father, Gordianus, was an ecclesiastical fionarius (q.v.). After her husband's Life Before death his mother devoted herself to his Conse‑ the cloistral life. Brought up "as a cration as saint in the midst of saints," Gregory
	Pope.	was thoroughly instructed in grammar
		and rhetoric, and read the Latin Fa
thers zealously, especially Augustine, Jerome, and
Ambrose. He so distinguished himself, moreover,
in his legal studies that Emperor Justin II. ad
vanced him to the rank of prefect of the city (be
fore 573). Nevertheless, his religious devotion ul
timately led him to renounce the life of the world;
and after his father's death he devoted his wealth to
good works. He built six cloisters in Sicily and
endowed them with lauded estates, as well as a
seventh in his own house at Rome. The latter
St. Andrew's‑‑he himself entered about 575. It is
uncertain under what rule he lived as monk; but he
extolled the Benedictine rule in his Dlalogua (ii.
26) and sooner or later he introduced it into the
cloisters of his foundation. To the end of his life
Gregory evinced a special predilection for monas
ticism, desiring to promote the purely contempla
tive life as the most perfect, and to secure it from
perturbations.
Pope Benedict I. constrained Gregory to return to the world, and ordained him one of the seven Roman deacons (577). When Benedict's successor, Pelagius IL, had been consecrated before imperial confirmation of his election had been received, he sent Gregory as his delegate to Constantinople in 579, to justify this irregular procedure, and at the same time to entreat aid against the Lombards, then menacing Rome. The first object succeeded, but not the second. It is probable that Gregory was allowed to return to Rome and his cloister in 585. In 590 he was unanimously elected pope by senate, clergy, and people. He hesitated to accept this high dignity, owing not only to his predilection for the contemplative life, but also to his conviction that the office should be conferred only on one who fled from it in humility; but he was consecrated on Sept. 3.
His first care was the security of Rome against the Lombards. Efforts to this end, however, were obstructed by the factional struggle in Ravenna, the imperial capital of Italy, for the independence of its Church from Rome, which cre‑
Struggle ated difficulties for the Roman bishop
Against the in the political sphere and sought to
	Lombards.	influence the imperial exarch against
		him (see RAVENNA). In 591 Gregory
despatched soldiers to support the imperial com
mander against the Lombard duke, Ariulf of Spo
leto; and likewise sent a reenforcement to the im
periled border‑post of Nepi, and a tribune to Naples,
so that that city was able to hold out. Neverthe
less the exarch sent no help and refused his consent
to a peace. Gregory, therefore, of his own accord
concluded peace with Ariulf in 592. Next, how
ever, the Lombard King Agilulf moved against
Rome, to chastise the pope as his most zealous an‑
tagonist. He invested the city in June. The stress of famine that shortly set in compelled Gregory to send a liberal ransom and bind himself to an annual tribute. He then again zealously endeavored to bring about a general peace between the Lombards and the imperial party. But the emperor, Mauritius, sided with his exarch, whereupon, Gregory's efforts for peace remaining fruitless, the Spoletans and Beneventans again broke forth in 596, devastating Campania and the southwest of the peninsula. With a view to mitigate the misery thus occasioned, Gregory sent funds for the ransom of the captives, and even authorized the bishop of Naples to apply the sacred utentils to this object. He then sought to defend Corsica and Sardinia from the threatening danger. Finally, in the spring of 599, it was practicable to conclude peace.
The means for so sweeping a political activity were secured to the pope by the patrivwnium Petri ‑the rich possessions of the Roman Church in all Italy, Dalmatia, Gaul, and North Africa. Gregory now strove to consolidate this property into an organized whole, and to enhance its productiveness.
To this end, he sought to make pracAdministra‑ tical application of the principle that
tion of the Church must not farm out her esChurch tates, but administer them herself, as
Property. far as possible through the clergy exBenevolent clusively. At the same time, he ex‑
Activity. ercised a careful personal supervision
over these officials, requiring of them the most scrupulous accountability in receipts and expenditures, and supplying them with minute instructions as to the best management of the estates. The revenues which accrued were applied not only to strictly ecclesiastical purposes; but also toward provision for the sick, the infirm,.aad orphans; to the maintenance of almshouses and pilgrims' hostelries; to the support of other benevolent institutions at home and abroad; to the ransoming of captives and slaves; toward fighting or conciliating the Lombards. This political and social activity which the conditions of the time forced Gregory to undertake on so large a scale obtained for him in the sight of all Italy, which looked in vain for protection and help from the emperor, so high a regard that ~.i Central Italy he was honored like a sovereign prince. In a word, the temporal sovereignty of the papacy then had its beginning (see PAPAL STATES).
Gregory entertained a noble conception of his position as Roman bishop, yet, while he regarded every office in the Church as a service, in another
light Peter must have been charged Gregory's ‑and likewise his successors‑with Conception the duty of strengthening his brethof the Pa‑ ren; and every bishop should be will‑
	pacy.	ing freely to receive service from
Relations Peter's successor. It was Gregory's
with Con‑ indefatigable endeavor gradually to stantinople. gain ground for this theory, though
in every concrete instance he brought only so much pressure to bear as would secure the recognition of his tenets. His views were destined to encounter opposition, especially in Constantinople. When the patriarch at that see, Johannes IV.,

CtTegory I.
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Jejunator (q.v.), kept assuming the title "Ecumenical," Gregory made earnest remonatrancea to him, and forbade his envoy to attend the patriarch's masa so long as he retained that title. The emperor addressing Gregory a' written admonition to keep the peace, he answered both emperor and patriarch in the sharpest terms. Not even the bishop of Rome, he said, though to him was "committedthe primacy and the care of the entire Church," called himself "Universal. Bishop"; and last of all might the bishop of Constantinople so style himself, since it was notorious that many bishops of that Church had fallen into the abyss of erroneous doctrine. The dispute continued under the new patriarch, Cyriacue (see CYRIACUB, 2). Finally, Gregory believed himself permitted to hope for victory in this contest, when (Nov., 602) the patriarch's defender, Emperor Mauritius, was dethroned and executed by Phocae. In confidence of the new emperor's assistance, he again admonished the patriarch "to put far from the Church the scandal of that impious and proud title." His will was attained after his death, in that Phocas soknowledged Rome as "head of all the churches."
Gregory had likewise to contend with John, the archbishop of Ravenna, who had been loyally devoted to him at the outset. When the pope, however, forbade him to wear the pallium
Relations except during mass, he would not com‑
with Ra‑ ply. After his death (595), Gregory
venna and rejecter the candidates proposed in Other Bish‑ Ravenna, and nominated his friend,
	oprics.	the Roman presbyter Marinianus, yet
		even he soon refused to acknowledge
the bishop of Rome as the decisive tribunal in the
affairs of distant churches. Gregory encountered
similar opposition in Illyria and Aquileia. In
Africa, the Church still suffered grievously from the
1)Onatlat schism (see DGNATIBM). Gregory deemed
it his official duty to exhort the bishops as well as
the exarch and the emperor to combat this heresy,
and to express his censure if this were not done
in the way by him judged proper. When, how
ever, he desired that in future the primate of each
ecclesiastical province should no longer be ap
pointed. according to seniority, but by election, the
bishops declined to approve this infringement of
their ancient con suetudines; and the pope was
obliged to yield. In other instances he regarded
the independent spirit of the North African Church;
but, though he had the gratification of appeals
from this church to Rome, he never required the
case to be decided by himself at Rome, but stopped
short with allowing the matter to be settled on the
spot. He was able to commit the Spanish Church
unreservedly to the care of his friend, Bishop Lea,n
der of Seville.
Peculiarly difficult was Gregory's position in respect to the Frankish Church, which was already accustomed to independence, while The Gregory was so entirely unprovided
Frankish	with practical means to confront the
	Church.	situation aggressively that here he
		must show forth, in special measure,
a wise "humility in service." No vicar of the
pope had held office in Gaul from 586 onward, until
Bishop Virgilius of Arles, in harmony with King Childebert, besought Gregory, in 595, to appoint him his vicar, and to confer the pallium on him. Gregory forthwith made efforts to abolish simony and the promotion of laymen to bishoprics. He also encouraged the holding of synods under the presidency of his vicar, along with obedience to their enactments, reserving for the Apostolic See the decision of disputes in matters of faith, and other difficult questions. When nothing resulted from all these beginnings, Gregory attempted to gain influence over this "extra‑Roman" Church through a special legate, Candidus, as well as through frequent written communications to the princes and a number of the Frankish bishops. The task was aggravated because he was obliged to commend himself and his wishes to the favor of Brunhilda; but infamous as her deeds were in all else, at least she befriended the Church, so that Gregory deemed it his duty to ignore the darker sides of her life, and by laudatory recognition of what she did for the Church to render her disposed toward still further fulfilment of his wishes. This policy was not simply diplomacy. Gregory was entirely persuaded that what the good Brunhilda had wrought for the Church was in itself well‑pleasing to God, meritorious, and available to cancel sin. However, the irregular appointment of bishops was not abated, nor did the synod, from which Gregory hoped for important reforms, come to pass in his lifetime. Nevertheless his endeavors with reference to the Frankish Church are to be reckoned among the fruitful seeds which at last sprang up and grew.
Of the very greatest importance for the future was Gregory's missionary activity, of which the conversion of the Anglo‑Saxons (see ANGLO‑SAXONS, CONVERSION OF THE ; AUGUSTINE, SAINT, OF CANTERBURY) was the most conspicuous result.
He sought also to win the Jews for
Gregory's Christendom, forbidding herein all Missionary manner of coercive procedure, but
Activity. holding it allowable to promote their
conversion by pecuniary rewards. When he learned that in Sardinia there were still many heathen, he commanded the bishop to resort to flogging and imprisonment. Here the Church possessed power, and so needed not to exercise the patience that was still requisite in England.
Among the writings of Gregory, his Expoaitio in beatum Job seu moralium libri XXXV. was utilized and highly esteemed as a compendium of ethics
during all the Middle Ages. He was
Writings. moved to compose his second work,
ReguLa pastorales, by the reproaches of Archbishop John of Ravenna for his attempt to avoid by flight his elevation to the papal throne. In the first part he shows how the highest government is to be attained; in the second, how a pastor should live; in the third, how he should teach; in the fourth, that good conduct of office must not be allowed to lead one astray through pride. This book was early so renowned that in 602 the Emperor Mauritius had it translated into Greek, while Alfred the Great (q.v.) rendered it into AngloSaxon. At several synods (for instance, those of

8"!	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Gregory I.
813 at Mainz and Reims) it was read aloud to the priests for a standard of conduct. According to Hincmar of Reims, a priest at his consecration had to hold it in his hand and swear that he would discharge his office accordingly. In the form of conversations with his friend Peter, Gregory composed in 593‑594, his Lxbri IV. dialogorum de vita et miratr ulis patrum Italicorum et de ceternitate animtarum. The first and third books tell wondrous stories of various persons, to which the third appends all sorts of instructive digressions; the second book relates the life of Benedict; the fourth, wonderful apparitions intended to prove the existence of the soul after death. This work was much in vogue in the Middle Ages, and was rendered into Greek by Pope Zacharias (d. 752), and into Anglo‑Saxon under Alfred's direption. Gregory cpnstantly emphasized his conviction that one of the pastor's main duties is preaching, and industriously praotised it himself, so long as his health permitted. Twenty‑two homilies by him on Ezek. i. 1‑iv. 3 and xl. are preserved as well as forty homilies on passages from the Gospels. Eight hundred and fifty‑three of Gregory's letters are extant and have great value for the history of the time. Lastly he composed hymns. Those which are universally attributed to him show resemblance in both substance and form to the hymns of Ambrose
In the liturgical sphere, Gregory was certainly active, but the evidence does not altogether con‑
firm the traditional view that "he esReform of tablished a strict order in the ordo the Liturgy. Romanus for the solemn observance of mass, as performed in Rome on processional days, transcribing from the Psalms into the liber antiphonarius the portions to be sung during the introit, gradual, hallelujah, tract, offertory, and communion, and eliminating from the sacramentary of Gelasius whatever he deemed unnecessary; but adding new matter, and thus becoming the author of the sacramentary still known by his name, besides perhaps compiling the ltber responsalis, containing the responsories usual in the mass, and the hymns of the canonical book of hours." Nor is it altogether certain whether that style of liturgical chant which has become customary in the Roman Catholic Church is, rightly termed "Gregorian" after Gregory I. as its originator (see MUSIC, SACRED, Il., 1, § 2). Against such an epochmaking activity on Gregory's part in the musical sphere, it is especially significant that no indications of it appear, either in his versatile correspondence, or in any other sources in all the seventh century; although it is certain that he founded a

* The Benedictine edition of his works attributes eight hymns to him, viz. (1) Primo dierum omnium, several Eng. transls., e.g., J. M. Neale, " On this the day that saw the earth"; D. T. Morgan, " welcomel Thou chiefest of all days"; (2) Nocte surgentea tigilemus omnea, by Cardinal Newman, " Let us arise and watch by night"; (3) Ecce jam noctis tenuatur umbra, by Cardinal Newman, " Paler have grown the shades of night"; (4) Clarum decua fejunii, by R. F. Littledale, " The shining glory of the fast"; (5) Audi, benigne conditor, by J. M. Neale, " O Maker of the world, give ear"; (6) Rex Chriate, factor omnium, by Ray Palmer, " O Christ! our King"; (7) Lucis creator optime, by Cardinal Newman, " Father of lights, by whom each day"; and (8) Mapno salutia gaudio. Cf. Julian, Hymnology, passim.
chorister school in Rome to improve the church singing.
Gregory's importance in the history of dogmatics is great. During the Middle Ages no Christian writer of the past was studied so much as he. Though he furnished no original thoughts, this very
defect made his writings especially Gregory's useful for an era wherein the only valid
Theology. rule was to transfer what was old into
the new ecclesiastical forms which grew out of national readjustments. Furthermore, he was commended by the fact that he appeared to lean entirely upon the great Augustine, and was even able to replace the latter, reproducing his thoughts in such a form that they were no longer too difficult for the uneducated multitudes. The impression is not infrequently given that Gregory may have possessed more Christianity than he offered to others; the fact is that the same regard for the attainable as is traceable in all his policies caused him, as a teacher, to say only so much, and that only in such guise, as, in his opinion, could find acceptance and exert practical influence amid the ecclesiastical conditions then prevalent. As thus viewed, Gregory's contribution may be termed an abridged and materialized Augustinianism. Stiff necks are to bend under the authority of Holy Scripture and Holy Church. The former is dictated by the Holy Ghost; outside the latter one can "absolutely not be saved." That is to say, none but the officiating "regents" in this Church administer the necessary "boons" to the attainment of salvation. True, Christ "appeased by his death the judge's wrath"; but his sacrifice undergoes its effectual repetition in the sacrifice of the mass provided by the Church. Consequently the Church, in the sacrifice of the mass, is possessed of a means for influencing God. Again, this "good work" dispensed by the Church also profits the dead in Purgatory, while it ‑_;ometimes helps even the living in earthly tribulation. In like manner, Gregory sharply defined and incorporated into the church doctrinal plan certain theories which had long been in vogue in a supplementary way, 'out which Augustine had admitted to be only "perhaps" true, or "not incredible"; and he likewise keenly appreciated the value of the marvelous in impressing a people still half‑pagan. His doctrine of sin and grace is so far Augustinian that he teaches the damnation of children dying without baptism, and seems to assume the irresistibility ~f grace (Moralia, IX., ix. 13); even though he speaks of a "monstrous great weakness" in fallen man, of our "voluntary accord with the grace which frees us," and of the cooperation of man's will in good works. In this light "it can be said of us that we free ourselves"; and therefore "the good that we do is both God's and our own doing," and becomes our "merit." In a similar vein he speaks of the "hidden decree of predestination"; but "the determined number of the elect," rests on "the foreknowledge of God." Gregory indeed appears to hold the necessity of an inward transformation of man, in that according to him the voice of the Spirit wbich speaks in man by process of the Word inspires love toward the invisible Creator, and, con‑

dregory I.‑IV.
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
sequently, the will of what is good. In reality, however, whenever he aims to insure the doing of what is good, he virtually assumes that his readers or hearers do not do so out of love, the predominating motive being "the fear of eternal pain." He is always guarding against the contingency that the acceptance of forgiveness may result in a relaxation of the fight against sin; so that he not only requires the Church to intermingle hope and fear for its believers; but also stresses his conviction that "no sin is forgiven without punishment." If man will not punish himself, God will punish. On one occasion, to be sure, he can say: "Certainly God has no joy in our suffering; he simply cures our sin‑sickness by means of corresponding remedies." But if he then declares that "upon sinful pleasure there must follow the bitterness of tears; upon unrestraint in what is disallowed, restraint from what is allowed"; this, in turn, he can call "a satisfaction for the Creator," a "sacrifice to cancel guilt." If Gregory's exaltation of the contemplative life above the secular be borne in mind, and if to all this there be added the consideration that the idea of intercession is already so great a factor in his life, while not only Christ but also the angels and saints are recommended as interceding protectors; it becomes clear that the type of Christianity which finds expression in Gregory's writings became the religion of the Middle Ages, and underwent but little further development.
Gregory died on Mar. 11, 604. The Church received him into the number of her saints, and honored him by the title of "the Great." His earnest monastic piety; his restless toiling for Gregory's the extension and strengthening of the Character faith, for the elevation of morals, for and influ‑ union of the various churches with
	ence.	the see of Rome; and the justice and
		gentleness, energy and patience that
he showed‑all this makes him one of the noblest
representatives of the papacy. If, notwithstand
ing his defects of actual scholarship and original
thoughts, he has been reckoned one of the four
great doctors of the Western Church, the explanar
tion is, on the one hand, the comparative power of
even a dim light in a dark age; on the other hand,
the fact that the age succeeding him found the
dwarfed type of Christianity which he transmitted
fully satisfactory. 	WILHELM WALTHER.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lists of literature will be found in Potthast, Wegweiaer, pp. 539‑540, 1349‑50. The Opera are collected in MPL, Lcxv. lxxix. His Dialogorum libri quatuor, ad. W. Forster, appeared Halle, 1876 (the best). The moat worthy edition of his Epistles is by P. Ewald and L. Hartmann, 2 vols., Berlin, 1887‑99. His Decretals are in the Bullarium magnum Romanum, ed. A. Tomaesetti, i. 159‑160, Turin, 1857; and his Hymns in H. A. Daniel, Thesaurus hymnologicus, i. 175 sqq., Halls, 1841; King Alfred's Version of Gregory's Pastoral Care, ed. H. Sweet, appeared London, 1871. Parts of the Works, tmnsl. by J. Barmby, are in Fathers for English Readers, London, 1878, and by the same person his Pastoral Rule and Seceded Epistles, with Introductory Notes and Indices, in NPNF, 2d ser., vol. ail. Interesting issues are: The Dialogues of S. Oregorie, Paris, 1608, ed. H. J. Coleridge, London, 1872; and The Life and Miracles of S. Benedict, from an old Version by P. W., Paris, 1808, ed. F. J. Luck, ib. 1880. An Eng. tranal. of the Morale on the Book of Job, 3 vols., ed. E. B. Pussy, app,amd in the Lives of the
58
Fathers, London, 1838, and selection from the Dialogues, ib. 1901.
The sources for a life are: Liber pontifmlis, ed. Duchesne, f. 143 eqq., Paris, 1888, and ed. Mommsen in MOH, Oest. poet. Rom.. i (1898), 180‑162; the Vita by Paulus Diaconus, in MPL, Ixxv. 41 eqq., and that by Johannes Diaconus, ib. pp. 63 sqq.; Paulus Ihaconue, Hist. Langobardorum, iii. 24‑25, and iv. 5, ed. Waits in MOH, Script. rer. Langob., i (1878), 12‑187; Gregory of Tours, Hid. Francomm, x. 1‑2, ed. Waits in MOH, Script. rer. Memo., i (1885), 1‑450; Bede, Hist. ecd., i. 22‑23, ii. 1‑3, v. 25; Jaff6, Regesta, i. 443 aqq.; P. Ewald, Die alteste Biographie Gregor# l., in G. Waits, HiatoriaeAe Aufsatee, Hanover, 1886.
Modern treatises on the subject are: G. Lau, Oregon I., Leipsic,1845; E. Clausier, S. Gksgoire, 3 vols., Paris, 18891890; T. Bonsmann, Oregon 1. den Grosse, Paderborn,1890; A. Snow, St. Gregory, his Works and his Spirit, London, 1892; F. Gregorovius, Hist. o/ the City of Rome, ii. 3br 99, ib. 1894; C. Wolfegruber, Oregon den Grosse, 8sulgrau, 1897; F. H. Dudden, Gregory the Great, 2 vols., London, 1905 (critical and independent); Mann, Pop", I. 1‑250 (his letters to Leontia and Phocas, pp. 419‑424); Ceillier, Auteura sacrEs, xi. 429‑587, cf. Index; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 112‑119, 141‑151 et passim, consult Index (very full and varied discussion); Schaff, Christian Church, iv. 211‑229; Bower, Pop", i. 390‑424; Milman, Latin Christianity, ii. 42‑85; Heimbucher, Orden and Kongregationen, i. 104 sqq.; Rettberg, KD, ii. 584; Hauck, KD, i. 425 sqq. et passim; DCB, ii. 779‑791; much of the literature given under AUGUSTINE (AUSTIN), SAINT, bears on this subject.
For treatment of various phases of Gregory's activities consult: P. Game, Kirchengeschichte won Spanien, ii., part 2, Regensburg, 1862; L. Pingaud, La Polstique do S. Glrdgoire, Paris, 1872; Grisar, in ZKT, i (1877), 321 eqq., 526 sqq., xiv. 1890 T. Wollachack, Die Verhdltnisse Italians . . . nach deco Briefwechsel Gregors I., Horn, 1888; W. Weisbaum, Die wichtigsten Ricktungen and Ziels den Thdtigkeit des Papatea Oregon Bonn, 1884; F. GSrres, in ZWT, xxix (1886), 36 eqq.; H. Gelser, in JPT, xiii (1887), 549 sqq.; L. M. Hartmann, Untersuchung cur Gesehichte den byzantiniadhen Verwaltung in Italien. Leipsie, 1889; F W. Kellett Pope Gregory the Great and his Relation. with Gaul, Cambridge, 1889: E. Basaenge, Die Sendung Augustine cur Bekehrung den Angelsaeheen. Leipsic, 1890; R. Heinrichs, in Katholik, 1894, pp. 12 sqq.; The Mission of St. Augustine to England according to the Original Documents, Cambridge, 1897; F. H. Dudden, Gregory the Great, his Place in Hist. and Thought, London, 1905.
On his writings: A. Ebert, Geachichte den chriselichlateinischen Literatur, pp. 516 sqq., Leipsic, 1874. On his liturgical influence: W. Hohaus, Die Bedeutung Gregors . als liturgischer Schriftatsiler, Glats, 1889; F. A. Gevaert, Lee Origines du chant liturgique de llgliw latine, Ghent, 1890; G. Morin, Los Veritabfes Origines du chant Grtgorien, Abbaye de Maredsous, 1890; Grisar, in ZKT, xiv (1890), 377 sqq.; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 469470. On his significance as a theologian: G. F. Wiggers, in ZHT, 1854, pp. 7 12; C. E. Luthardt, Die Lehre vom freien Willen, p. 53, Leipsic, 1863; J. Nlrschl, Lehrbuch den Patrologie and Patriatik, iii. 533 sqq., Mainz, 1885; F. Loofa, Leitfaden sum Studium den Dogmengeschichte, pp. 244 aqq., Halls, 1893; R. Beeberg, Lehrbuch den Dogmengeschichte, ii. 1 aqq•, Leipaic, 1898; Harnack, Dogma, iii.‑vi. passim.
Gregory II.: Pope 715‑731. A Roman by birth, he was destined from childhood for the ecclesiastical state. Under Sergius I. (687‑701) he became a subdeacon, and was made treasurer and librarian of the Roman Church. He accompanied Constantine I. (q.v.) on his journey (709‑711) to the Byzantine court, and is said to have made his mark in the discussions there. He was elected pope May 19, 715. His pontificate was marked by the beginning of the great conflict between the Roman see and the Lombards, which ended in the downfall of the Lombard kingdom; by his controversy with the iconoclastic Emperor Leo III.; and by his relay

69	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Gregory I.‑IP.
tion to Boniface and the nascent Germanic national churches of central and northern Europe. In regard to the first point, Gregory recognized from the beginning of his pontificate the danger offered by the Lombard kingdom to Rome and the Church; but for some time he contrived to maintain friendly relations with the court of Pavia, succeeding in gaining from Liutprand in 715 or 716 the restoration of a portion of the patrimony of Peter near Genoa, and in 728 the city and district of Sutri. The first outbreak of trouble was caused by the iconoclastic edict of Leo III., which caused all Italy to rise against the Byzantine overlordehip. Even Ravenna opened its gates to the Lombards. But Gregory was forced to proceed against the emperor, and solemnly condemned the iconoclasts in a synod held about 729. The east coast from Venice to Osimo threw off the Byzantine rule, and the election of an Italian emperor was even discussed. Gregory, however, rightly perceived a greater danger in Liutprand than in Leo. When the eunuch Eutychius was sent as exarch of Ravenna about 730, he made common cause with the Lombards against the pope, whose opposition to the emperor was on purely ecclesiastical grounds, and even on those kept within the bounds of moderation. In these difficulties Gregory was comforted by the submissive reverence of the Western peoples, greater than they had shown to any of his predecessors. King Ins, of Wessex founded the achola Saxonum at Rome and established the payment of Peter's pence in his kingdom for its support. Theodo of Bavaria came to Rome in 716 to consult the pope about the ecclesiastical organization of his dominions, and a few years later Gregory came into relations with Boniface, sending him to Thuringia in 719 and consecrating him bishop in 722 that he might go to the north as an ecclesiastical organizer in the interests of the Holy See (see BONIFACE, SAINT; PAPAL STATES). No pope since Gregory the Great had done so much for the increase of the papal territory, for the elevation of the spiritual life of Rome, or for the promotion of monasticism, and none had followed with such intelligent force the path of development marked out by the first of
his name. 	(H. BOHMER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His Epietolm et eanones are in MPL, Ixmx. Consult: Libor pontfificalia, ed. Ducheane, i. 249‑267, Paris, 1888; Paulus Diacanus, Hist. Langobardorum, vi. 40, ed. Waits in MGH, Script. Per. Lanpob., i (1878), 12187; Jaff€, Repesta, i. 249‑257; F. Kunstmann, Die lateinischenP3nitentialUcher der Anpelsachsen, Mainz, 1844; A. von Reumont, GsacAiahte der StaM Rom, ii. 213 eqq., Berlin, 1887; R. Baxmann, Die Pofitik der Papate, i. 195‑209, Elberfeld, 1888; J. Langen, Gewhichte der r6miechen Kirche, i. 802‑818, Bonn, 1885; F. Gregorovius, Hist. of the City of Rome, ii. 215, 231‑241, London, 1894; Schaff, Christian Church, iv. 231; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 47‑48 (his letter to Leo is on pp. 210‑212); Mann, Popes, i. 141‑202, and the letters to Leo, pp. 498502; Bower, Popes, ii. ZO‑89; Mihnan, Latin Christianity, ii. 311‑317 et passim; Hauck, KD, i. 384‑388 et passim; DCB, ii. 791‑798.
Gregory UL: Pope 731‑741. He was of Syrian origin, and was elects Mar. 18, 731, succeeding Gregory II. His first care was to establish better relations with Constantinople, and to induce Leo III. to abandon his iconoclastic position, though without success. The stubbornness of the em‑
peror and the danger from the Lombards ultimately
forced Gregory to widen the breach between new
and old Rome. Of the measures which he took to
strengthen himself against the Lombards, his alli
ance with the dukes of Benevento and Spoleto
brought him into direct conflict	with Liutprand,
who appeared before Rome in the	summer of 739.
Gregory twice urgently besought the aid of Charles
Martel; and although this was refused, and a com
bination of circumstances delivered him from the
Lombard attack, it was clear that	only in alliance
with the Franks could the papal see maintain
its independence (see PAPAL STATEs). He was
more successful in the province of	ecclesiastical ad
ministration. He maintained the	relations of his
predecessor with Boniface, whom he made arch
bishop in 732 with the right to organize new dio
cases as he saw fit in Germany, and in 738‑739 in
duced him to give up his Saxon	missionary plans
and devote himself as papal vicar	to the organiza
tion of the Bavarian and Alemannic churches (see
BONIFACE, SAINT). In the same spirit he at
tempted to draw closer the ties	between himself
and the Anglo‑Saxon Church,	to attach the
North Italian bishops more firmly to Rome, and
generally to extend the scope of the papal
jurisdiction. After Gregory II., he was undoubt
edly the most important pope of the eighth century.
	(H. BSBafER.)

BIBLIOGRAPHr: His Saropta are in MPL, lxxxix., and his Epiatola: in MPL, xeviii. Consult: Liber pontifuxilis, ed. Duchesne, i. 416‑426, Paris, 1886; Paulus biaconus, Hist. Lanpobatdorum, vi. 54‑68, ed. Waits in MGH, Script. Per. Lanpob., i (1878), 12‑187; Fredegar, Chronieon, Continuationes, xaii., ed. Kruech in MGH, Script. Per. Merov., ii (1888), 188‑193; Jaffd, Repesta, i. 267‑282; R. Bammaun, Die Poiitik der Pdpak, i. 209‑218, Elberfeld, 1888; J. Laogen, Geachichte der r6miscAen Kirchs, i. 818‑828, Bonn, 1885; F. Gregorovius, Hist. of the City o/ Rome, ii. 241‑284, London 1894; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 50‑87; Schaff, Christian Church, iv. 231‑232; Mann, Popes, i. 203‑224; Bower, Popes, ii. 89‑78; Milman, Latin Christianity, ii. 323, 382‑388; Hauck, KD, i. 488‑489 et passim; DCB, ii. 796‑798.

Gregory IV.: Pope 827‑844. He was a Roman of noble birth and had been priest of the basilica of St. Mark. His election was the first at which the Constitutio Lotharii was carried out, the Roman proceres acting as electors, and an imperial miamta confirming the choice before his consecration, to which another preliminary was the taking of an oath of fealty to the emperor. This dependence on the Frankish power lasted through the first years of his pontificate, and was only mitigated by the conflicts in the imperial family. Early in 833 he went to Germany at the summons of the young Lothair to work for peace in the imperial house and for the unity of the empire. But after efforts in which he was misunderstood by both parties his intervention proved fruitless, and he went back to Rome feeling that he had been tricked, and remained friendly to Louis as long as the latter lived, attempting again to work for peace upon his death, but with what success is not known. He labored with great liberality for the building and furnishing of churches and monasteries, and erected a strong fortress against the Saracens in the ruins of Ostia. He died in Jan., 844. (H. BSRafER.)

Gregory V. ‑IM.
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
BLBmOORAPHT: His Egiatolm are in MPL, evi. Consult: Liber pontti.ficalia, ed. Duehesne, ii. 73‑85, Paris, 1892; Einhard, Annalea, ed. Peru in MGH, Script., i (1826), 135‑218; Theganus, Vita Hludmvics, chaps. AL, xlviii., lvi., ed. Pertz in MGH, Script., ii, (1829), 585‑603; R. Baxmann, Die Politik der Pdpste, i. 339‑349, Elberfeld, 1868; B. Simson, Jahrbileher des deutschen Reicha unter Ludwig dem Frommen, i. 28b‑286, ii. 32‑61, 164 eqq., Leipsic, 1876; J. Langen, Geachichte der romischen Kirche, i. 816‑822, Bonn, 1885; M. Heimbucher, Papetwahlen unter den Karolingern, pp. 144‑148, Augsburg, 1889; F. Gregorovius, Hint. of the City of Rome, iii. 65‑81, London, 1895; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 277 et passim; Bower, Popes, ii. 209‑314; Milman, Luton Christianity, ii. 540‑541; Hauck, KD, ii. 468‑470.
Gregory V. (Bruno of Carinthia): Pope 996‑999. He was a great‑grandson of Otto the Great and uncle of the later emperor, Conrad II.; and this relationship, together with his German education, accounts for his partial subserviency to the views then prevalent at the imperial court. Under the influence, however, of the old curial traditions, he took the papal standpoint in the strife about the see of Reims (see SYLVEsTER II., POPE), and at a synod at Pavia in the spring of 997 suspended all the French bishops who had taken a part in Arnulf's deposition, and declared energetically in favor of his restoration. He took strong moral ground also against the uncanonical marriage of Robert of France and against simony. Toward the end of 996 he was driven from Rome by Crescentius, the leader of the Roman nobles, who the next year set up John, archbishop of Piacenza, formerly the tutor of Otto III., as antipope (see JOHN XVI.). In Feb., 998, Gregory was forcibly restored by Otto, after which he was wholly dependent upon the imperial power. At his death (Feb. 18, 999) the papacy was more dependent on the crown than at any time since the restoration of the Empire by Otto the Great. (H. B6HMER.)
BISmoaRAPRT: Liber pontifualia, ed. Duchesne, ii. 261, Paris, 1892; Vita Nili, in ASB, Sept., vii. 336; Jaff€, Regesta, i. 489‑495; Annales Hildeaheimanaes, ed. Peru in MGH, Script., iii. (1839) IS‑22, 42‑70, 90‑112; Annalea Quedlinburiensea, in the acme, pp. 2269, 72‑90; Theitmar, Chronicon, IV. xxvii., axg., xliii.‑xliv., ed. Pertz in MGH, Script., iii. (1839) 723‑781; R. Baxmann, Die Politik der Pdpste, ii. 147‑159, Elberfeld, 1869; J. Langen, Geachichte der r6miachcn Kirche, ii. 381‑387, Bonn, 1892; Hauck, KD, iii. 259‑264, 559; F. Gregorovius. Hiat. of the City of Rome, iii. 410‑462, London, 1895; Schaff, Christian Church, iv. 292, 294‑295; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 374; Bower, Popes, ii. 329‑331; J. Bryce, Holy Roman Empire, pp. 235‑236 et passim, New York, 1904.

Gregory VI.: Antipope 1012. He was set up by the Crescentian party as antipope to Benedict VIII. (q.v.), who was elevated by the Tusculan party in 1012. Being compelled to flee from Rome, he betook himself to Germany, to King Henry II., but was by him constrained to lay down the ptwpal dignity. What became of him is not known.
CARL MIRBT.
$InLIoORAPBT: Thietmar, Chronicon, vi. 61, ed. Peru in MGH, Script., iii. (1839); Jaffd, Regeata, i. 514; S. Hirsch, Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich 11., ii. 385, 390‑391; F. Gregorovius, Hit. of the City of Rome, iv. 14, London, 1896; P. G. Wappler, Paps6 Benedict VIII., pp. 15, 19, 22, Leipsic, 1897.

Gregory VI. (Johannes Gratianus): Pope 1045‑46. While arohprieat of San Giovanni a Ports Latina,
80
he bought the papal dignity from Pope Benedict IX.
by a written contract dated May 1, 1045, for the
sum of 1,000 (or 2,000) pounds silver. It is probable
that this downright simony was not publicly known
at the outset, for Peter Damian (q.v.) enthusias
tically congratulated Gregory on his elevation.
Gregory's personal reputation in Rome was good
and he also secured recognition abroad. However,
when it became notorious in what way he had risen
to the papacy, his continuance in the office was
impossible. Benedict had reaffirmed his claim to
the papacy and John, bishop of Sabina, was also
trying to reign as Sylvester III. To remove the
scandal of three popes and terminate the impossible
situation, the Emperor Henry III. made his appear
ance in Italy in the autumn of 1046. Gregory was
deposed at a synod at Sutri, Dec. 20, 1046, or per
haps, for the sake of form, he was forced to depose
himself. He was exiled as state prisoner to Ger
many‑probably to Cologne, where he appears to
have died about the beginning of 1048. See BENE
DIGT IX. 	CARL MIRBT.

$IHLIOORAPST: Jafft;, Regeata, 1. 524‑525, 11. 709; R. B8Zmann, Die Politik der P6pste, ii. 199 sqq., Elberfeld 1869; E. Steindorff, Jakrbilcher des deutachen Reichs enter Hen‑
'	rich 111., vole. i. ii., Leipeic, 1874‑81; J. Langen, Go‑
achichte der rbmiachen Rirche, vol. iii., Bonn, 1892; C.
Mirbt, Die Publiziatik im Zeitalter Gre9ora VIZ., pp. 241,
381, 671 eqq., lxipaic, 1894; F. Gregorovius. H%at. of the
City of Rome, iv. b0‑b5, London, 1898; Hefele, Concilien
geachichte, iv. 707 eqq.: Hauck, KD, b70‑b79, b83‑690;
Neander, Christian Church, iii. 377, 380; Bower, Popes,
ii. 341; Milman, Latin Christianity, iii. 231‑233.
	Gregory VII. (Hildebrand): Pope 1073‑8G;one
of the greatest of popes and preeminently the rep
resentative of their claims to temporal power. He
was born in Tuscany probably near the beginning
of the third decade of the eleventh century. Rao
vacum (Rovacum) is given as the place of his
		birth. His father (Bonitos or Bo
	Education. nizo) appears to have been of humble
	Services station. The son went to Rome in
to Leo 17L, his early years and received his educa
	Victor IL, tion at a school of the Lateran. When
and Stephen Henry III. of Germany, after the synod
IX., Io48‑ of Sutri (1046), took Gregory VI. to
	:og8. Germany with him (see GREGORY VI.),
		Hildebrand attended Gregory into
exile, and thus by personal ob9ervation learned to
know the land which was destined more than any
other to influence his future policy. Thanks to
Bishop Bruno of Toul, who in 1048 succeeded Pope
Damasus II. as Leo IX., Hildebrand was brought
back to Rome; although at that time he intended
to spend the rest of his life as a monk. He ap
pears, indeed, to have made profession in Rome,
whether before or after the visit to Germany moat
be left an unsettled question. Leo IX. ordained
Hildebrand subdeacon (1049), appointed him
"aeconomua" of the Roman Church, assigned .to
him the direction of St. Paul's monastery at Rome,
and in 1054 employed him as legate in France.
Victor II. also showed appreciation of him, both
admitting him to the papal, chancery and also send
ing him as envoy to France. When Stephen IX.
found it desirable to have the acquiescence of the
Empress Agues in his election, he committed this

81	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Gresory v.‑vxx.
difficult mission to Bishop Anselm of Lucca and to Hildebrand. Nor did the result fail to justify this mark of confidence. How highly this pope esteemed Hildebrand appears further from the fact that when seized with forebodings of death, he solemnly bound the clergy and people of Rome to institute no new papal election before Hildebrand had returned from Germany. The pope's apprehensions proved, after his sudden death (Mar. 29, 1058), to be well founded. Bishop John of Villetri was immediately made pope (Benedict X.) by the Roman nobility. But he was unable to maintain his position, and this was Hildebrand's work (see BENEDicT X:). He heard the news of the occurrences in Rome at Florence on his way back from Germany, and he at once effected an understanding with Duke Godfrey concerning an opposition candidate; then he alienated a portion of the Roman people from Benedict, and won the German court to his plans. After the preliminaries, Bishop Gerhard of Florence was elected pope by the cardinals in conclave at Sienna, and enthroned in Rome as Nicholas II. on Jan. 24, 1059.
Hildebrand's influence during the administration of Nicholas is unmistakable; and he had his full share in the great events which mark this pontificate (the law as to papal election, 1059; alliance of the papacy with the Patarenes; Nicholas 11. treaty with the Normans; see NICHo‑
and Alex‑ ies II.). He became archdeacon in
ander II. 1059. When the pope's death (1061)
Hildebrand imperiled the hardly won independ‑
Chosen ence of the papacy from the Roman
Pope, 1073. nobility and the German kingdom, it was Hildebrand again who knew how to act with promptness and success. The fact that Alexander II. (Anselm of Lucca) was elected, and finally asserted himself in opposition to Bishop Cadalus of Parma (Honorius II.), was made possible through Hildebrand's energy (see ALEXANDER II:, POPE; HONORIUS II., ANTIPOPE). After Alexander's death (Apr. 21, 1073), Hildebrand's time had come. During the funeral solemnities in the Church of the Lateran, the shout went up: "Hildebrand for bishopl" and amid the tumult Hildebrand was hurried to the Church of St. Peter ad Vincula and enthroned. It took place in direct contradiction to the election law of 1059; but attacks against the validity of the election were not brought forward till after 1076.
By far the most important chapter in the history of Gregory's policy deals with his relations to Germany. After the death of Henry III. (1056), the power of the kingdom became greatly weakened under the regency of the Empress Agnes and the princes. In 1073 Henry IV. (b. 1050)
Relations was still inexperienced in statecraft, with and was so preoccupied with affairs
Germany.	of home government that he could not
Quarrel maintain his father's attitude toward with the Curia. The situation, accord‑
	Henry IV.	ingly, was uncommonly favorable for
		Gregory. In 1073‑74 Henry was in
such straits by reason of the insurgent Saxons that
he was compelled to seek the pope's support. In
May, 1074, he laid certain declarations before the
pope's legate in Nuremberg, which so thoroughly satisfied Gregory that he turned his thoughts to plans for a crusade and purposed, during his absence, to commit the protection of the Roman Church to Henry. In the summer of 1075, however, the situation of the German king changed completely by his victory over the Saxons near Homburg on the Unatrut, thus gaining a free hand in Germany, with corresponding changes in his status toward the pope. Henry despatched his trusted servant, Count Eberhard, to Lombardy to restore the imperial prestige shattered by the Patarene movement. He appointed Teobald archbishop of Milan, and opened negotiations with the Normans. These steps on the king's part were at variance with the pope's policy, and Gregory addressed him an ultimatum, at the same time referring to alleged crimes of the king for which he might be excommunicated and deposed. Henry forthwith convened a council at Worms on Jan. 24, 1076. The attending prelates sided with the king and the excitement was intensified by the attacks of Candidus upon the pope, with the result that the bishops declared Gregory deposed, while Henry summoned the Romans to elect a new pope. The documents were hurriedly despatched to northern Italy, and the episcopate bf Lombardy indorsed them at the Synod of Piacenza.
The papers were now conveyed to Rome, and an ecclesiastic of Parma contrived to have them read aloud before the Lenten synod just then in session.
Gregory retorted by excommunicating
Henry Ex‑ the king, declaring him deposed, and
communi‑ releasing his subjects from their oath cated, ro76. of fealty. Nevertheless, the political
Canossa, effect of the papal measures was con‑
Jan., :077. tingent upon whether the German
princes would remain loyal to the king. However, the pope's calculation proved correct; the princes fell away from the king. The Saxons found the moment opportune for a new uprising, and in Oct., 1076, the princes assembled at Tribur on the Rhine to confer about the election of a new king. Although they disagreed in the matter, Henry was obliged to promise the pope obedience and satisfaction, but even so his crown gained little security. The rebellious princes agreed to deprive him of the crown, unless the ban were removed within a year, and also resolved to invite the pope to a diet of the princes at Augsburg, set for Feb. 2, 1077. Henry clearly discerned his predicament; he could save his kingdom only by obtaining release from the ban. Straightway he despatched messengers to the pope, and declared himself ready to make full satisfaction; but Gregory refused to release him. Henry now hurried in person to Italy and put upon the pope the moral obligation of absolving him before going to Germany. The Alpine passes being held by the South German princes, he traveled through Burgundy, setting out from Speyer shortly before Christmas, and reaching northern Italy in good season. Gregory had already started on his journey to Germany, but was awaiting the promised escort of the German princes. Upon tidings of the king's arrival in Lombardy, he fled to Canowa (11 m. e.w. of Reggio),

Gregory Yes.‑Vln.	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	62
the castle of Countess Matilda of Tuscany. Henry appeared before the gate of this castle, a penitent, and succeeded in inducing Gregory to release him, though not without reservation; for he did not revoke the sentence of deposition.
Only a transient peace ensued between Henry and Gregory upon this basis. When, several weeks later, on motion of some of the German princes,
Rudolph of Swabia was elected oppoSecond Ex‑ anion king at Forchheim, Gregory did
communi‑ not declare against him. He treated
cation of the matter of Henry's or Rudolph's Henry,iogo. legitimacy rather as an open question, Henry's Tri‑ and hoped to be able to decide the disumph, io84. puce as judge. Finally, when Ru‑
dolph, on Jan. 27, 1080, won a great victory‑so the report went‑near Flarchheim, Gregory again placed Henry under the ban and sentence of deposition. But this time public opinion was against him, whereas in 1078 it had sided with him; furthermore, on Oct. 15, 1080, Rudolph died, and Hermann of Luxemburg, later elected in his stead, could not materially strengthen the papal position in Germany. Henry IV. was now able to take the offensive against Gregory. At Briaen (June 25, 1080), Gregory was solemnly repudiated, and Guibert of Ravenna (q.v.) was made oounterpope. In the following year, Henry marched to Italy, since Gregory was to be conquered only in Rome. This was accomplished in 1084. A faction of the clergy fell away from Gregory, thirteen cardinals turned their backs on him, and the Roman people, weary of the war, delivered the city to the German king. Guibert of Ravenna was now enthroned (Mar. 24) as Clement III. and Henry IV. was crowned emperor by him on Mar. 31. Not until May did the Norman prince Robert Guiseard march to Gregory's aid. He forced Henry to retreat, but by his plundering of Rome the cause of Gregory, who was held responsible therefor, was lost forever. Gregory lived a year longer in exile at Salerno, forsaken by his friends but unbroken in spirit. He died May 25, 1085.
The concentration of his strength upon Germany prevented Gregory from acting with similar energy
in other countries. He projected
Gregory's great things in the Orient; but he did
Policy and not succeed in abolishing the schism
Achieve‑ between East and West, nor could he meats out‑ institute a crusade or form a union
side of with the Armenians. He made good Germany. some political claims on Dalmatia,
Corsica, and Sardinia; and he cherished the vain hope of founding a papal feudal kingdom in Spain. He once threatened excommunication and interdict, and even deposition, against Philip I. of France, who had aroused his ill‑will by reason of simony and ecclesiastical oppressions; but he did not enforce these penalties‑although the king showed no improvement‑because he was unwilling to provide Henry IV. with a confederate. William I. of England also derived advantage from the conflicts in Germany. For; in spite of his marital relations, in spite of his appointment of bishops and abbots, in spite of his forbidding the bishops to visit Rome, and of many other
things, he was spared the Roman censures. Gregory maintained favorable relations with Denmark, whose King Svend II., Estridsen, was summoned ‑without practical result‑to transform his kingdom into a feudal dependency upon the apostolic prince. He directed like hopes toward Russia; and he affirmed that the Roman Church had long held a right of possession in respect to Hungary. He also kept Poland and Bohemia in view; even as his provident care was likewise engaged by north Africa, oppressed by the Saracens.
Gregory's administrative activity thus encompassed the entire Christian world, operating along definite lines, and clearly pursuing well‑defined aims. Of fundamental significance The Aims were his ideas as to the essence of the and Means. State. The Augustinian theory that The Inves‑ the State is a product of sin was shared titure Con‑ by him; only, inasmuch as the logical
	troversy.	sequel of a permanent conflict with
		the State as such was not within prac
tical realization, he recognized the coexistence of
State and Church as of divine ordination, at the
same time vigorously affirming the obligation to
subordinate the State to the Church. From these
premises he deduced the right of excommunicating
and deposing incompetent rulers and of confirming
the status of a German king. The attempts to per
suade particular States into a relation of spiritual
dependency on the Roman see show that he had
consciously in view the goal of subjecting temporal
States to the Church; that is, to found a theocracy
or to create an ecumenical papal dominion. He
endeavored to apply these principles in filling spir
itual vacancies, and in this way the dispute as to
Investiture (q.v.) came about. Inaugurated by a law
promulgated in 1049, under Leo IX., it filled West
ern Christendom down to the Concordat of Worms
in 1122. It is manifest from the laws enacted un
der Gregory in 1075, 1078, and 1080 that he pur
posed to withdraw appointments to spiritual posi
tions from the influence of the king for the sake of
securing this influence for himself, and so to sub
stitute papal nomination for the previous royal
nomination. But even had this goal been attained,
Gregory was not yet at the end of his aspirations;
for even if the king no longer had influence on epis
copal nominations, the bishops were expected to
retain all the sovereign rights, allodia, and fiefs
which had been conveyed to them as princes of'the
realm. By this process, however, the king's right
to church property of the realm would have been
annulled, and the pope, as feudal suzerain, would
have acquired the right of administration over the
goods of the Church.
In the internal direction of the Church, Gregory's efforts to enforce the celibacy of the clergy and to extirpate simony took front rank at the outset. The legislation of Leo IX. The Internal on celibacy was energetically sustained Adminiatra‑ by Gregory, and the "Nicolaitan hertion of the esy" was combated in all countries,
	Church.	‑though with spirited protests on the
		part of many married ecclesiastics.
The difficulty of abolishing simony was increased
by the fact that in the course of time the practise

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•MA‑.ne AXODO'O	vlaaaozoaoHH snoiolzau	99

Gregory, vM.‑z.
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: ATnaates R07aani, in MGH,
script., v (1844), 468‑480; Landulfus. Historia Mod' olansis, ib. xx (1868), 17‑49; Eccehard, Chronicon, ib. vi. (1844) 33‑265; Jaffd, Regesta, i. 821‑$22. Consult: J. Langen, Geschichte der r6mischen Kirche, vol. iv., Bonn, 1893; F. Gregorovius, Hist. of the City of Rome, iv. 372374, 384‑387, 394‑396, London, 1896; Hefele, Coucilienpeschichte, v. 327 et passim.

	Gregory VIII. (Albertus de Moray: Pope _'1187.
He was born in Benevento between 1105 and 1110,
was a Benedictine and cardinal, and after the death
of Urban III. was almost unanimously chosen pope
on Oct. 21, 1187. He was imbued with the ideal
of strict asceticism, which he sought to apply both
in the curia and among the clergy. He had the
plan of a crusade particularly at heart, and to this
end he strove to reach an understanding with Em
peror Frederick I., and attempted to mediate be
tween the cities of Pisa and Genoa. In the midst
of his projects he was suddenly overtaken by death,
on Dee. 17. 	CARL MIRBT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Three of his Rpistola are in Bouquet, Re‑
cueil, xix. 330‑331; twenty‑seven Bpistola et privilegia are in MPL, ccii. 1537‑64. Consult: Jaffd, Repesta, ii. 528‑535, 770; J. M. watterich, Pontihcum Romanorum vita, ii. 683‑692, Leipsic, 1862; P. Nadig, Grepors Vlll. 57‑tdgipes Pontifikat, Basel, 1890; J. Langen, Gosdhichte der rsmischen Kirche, iv. 570 eqq., Bonn 1893; F. Gregorovius, Hist. of the City of Rome, iv. 614‑815, London, 1896; Hauck, KD, pp. 912, 919; Bower, Popes, ii. 528‑529; Milman, Latin Christianity, iv. 444‑445.

Gregory IX. (Count Hugo‑Ugolino‑of Segni): Pope 1227‑41. He was born at Anagni perhaps about 1145, and began his spiritual career under Innocent III., his uncle, who created him cardinal deacon and afterward appointed him cardinal bishop of Ostia. Honorius III. (1216‑27) honored him with important commissions. His name is likewise intimately connected with the history of the rise of the Franciscan order, while Dominic, the founder of the Dominican order, likewise had his support. After the death of Honorius III., Cardinal Ugolino was elected as Pope Gregory IX.
Gregory quickly came into strained relations with Frederick II. of Germany, although they had previously been on good terms. The causes of estrangement lay in the general trend
Gregory of the imperial policy. At the Diet and Fred‑ of Frankfort, 1220, Frederick had had erick II. of his son Henry elected king of the RoGermany. mans; the administration of Sicily had been ceded to Frederick by Honorius III.; and, after putting affairs in order there, he had undertaken to win back the German imperial rights in northern Italy, where the Lombards had curtailed them. In this enlargement of the imperial power, Gregory perceived a danger for the Roman see. His distrust was enhanced by the fact that Frederick had postponed the fulfilment of his promise to proceed to the Holy Land. At the appointed term (Aug., 1227) he had indeed stationed himself at the head of the crusaders, assembled at Brindisi; but the epidemic which carried off thousands of pilgrims seized him as well, and compelled him to remain in Otranto. Gregory, not making a full examination of the circumstances, excommunicated the emperor (Sept. 27, 1227), and justified this condemnation in an encyclical. Frederick,
too, made public defense of himself, and in the follow=ing year actually began the crusade‑‑against the pope's protest and under difficult conditions. Despite all this, he succeeded, by a treaty with the sultan Kamil of Egypt (Feb. 18, 1229), in achieving more than the other crusaders before him. The main gain was that Jerusalem was again turned over to the Christians, with the right of fortification. But the patriarch of Jerusalem, after Frederick had put on the crown of the kingdom of Jeruear lem, covered the sacred sites with a sentence of interdict. In view of this hostility, and upon receipt of tidings of the pope's encroachment on Sicily, Frederick resolved on a speedy return. He soon succeeded in expelling the papal soldiers; and in the year following, by the Peace of Ceperano (Aug. 28, 1230), after great concessions he was released from the ban.
There now followed nine years of peace, but the fundamental conflict of papal and imperial interests continued, and finally led to another open rupture. Gregory allied himself with Frederick's adversaries, the Lombards, and on Mar. 20, 1239, put the emperor under the ban for the second time. Both pope and emperor vindicated their cause in public, but Gregory, not disposed to peace, formed the design, in 1241, of having Frederick sentenced in Rome by an ecumenical council. The plan failed, however, since the imperial and Pisan fleet defeated the Genoese fleet southeastward of Elba, and the extra‑Italian prelates happened, to be aboard the vanquished squadron. Gregory was not even turned from his bitter opposition to the emperor by the great surging of the Tatars toward Central Europe in 1241, until the battle near Liegnitz (Apr. 9, 1241) checked their progress.
Gregory's relations with other countries quite receded into the background in contrast with his struggle with Germany. Under his contemporary,
St. Louis of France (1226‑70), that Relations country was consolidated into a
with Other strong hereditary kingdom. In Eng‑
Countries. land, the clergy vigorously reacted
Gregory's against the curia's practise of be‑
Importance stowing the lucrative benefices upon
	and	foreigners. Gregory also gave atten
Character. tion to crusading plane, and was
occupied with thoughts of missions. His early relations with the mendicant orders proved to their advantage, though the division among the Franciscans began even in his time. His converting the battle against heresy, on the conclusion of the Albigensian wars, into a permanent institution of the Church came to be of epoch‑making significance for the medieval Church, for the laws affecting heresy, as developed in his time, maintained themselves (see INQUISITION). His importance for medieval philosophy and theology was due to the fact that he approved the study of Aristotle. Finally, Gregory's pontificate was of the utmost importance in the sphere of canon law, since through his chaplain, Raymond of Pennaforte, he had a collection of decretals compiled which gained universal recognition as a codification of canon law (see CANON LAW, IL) and thus contributed to the victory of the pope's legislative authority. Greg‑

86	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Gregory VIII.‑8.
cry died Aug. 22, 1241. He may be called great
in his zeal for the Church. That he was blinded by
his hatred of Frederick and unscrupulous in his
choice of aggressive measures is the blot on his
reputation. 	CARL MrRHT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources for a history are: The Rpistolm, in MGH, Bpist. smc. xiii., i (1883), 261‑739; MGH, Log., ii. 1 (1837), 274‑276, 299‑300; his treaty of peace with Frederick II., in MGH, Leg., i. 1 (1837), 334‑337; lu Repistres de Gregoire IX. Recucdl des bullet de cs pope . ed. L. Auvray, Paris, 1890‑99; A. Huillard‑Bre‑
holles, Historia diplomatica Priderici 11., 6 vols., Paris, 1852‑61 (a collection of documents, letters, eta.); A. Potthast, Regesta pontifcum Romanorum, i. 880‑939, ii. 2099‑2110, 2136‑37, Berlin, 1874‑75; Vita Greporii IX., in L. A. Muratori, Script.. rer. Itai., iii. 1, pp. 575587, 25 vols., Milan, 1723‑51, also ad. J. Marx, Berlin, 1889. Pertinent documents are to be found in Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, pp. 240‑259, 590‑591, and in Reich, Documents, pp. 266‑270, 308‑318. Consult: E. Winkelmann, Geschichte Kaiser Friedrichs 11. and seiner Reiche, 2 vols., Berlin, 1863‑65; A. Pichler, Geschichte der kirchlichen Trennunp ewiechen dam Orient and Occident, i. 323 sqq., Munich, 1864; B. Haurcau, GrAgoire IX. at la philosophic d'Aristote Paris, 1872; P. Balan, Storia di Gregorio IX. a dei suoi tempi, odena, 1872; H. Reuter, Geschichte der religidiaen Aufkl4runp in Mittelalter, vol. ii., Berlin, 1877• W. Felten, Papat Gregor IX., Freiburg, 1886; C. Rodenberg, Kaiser Friedrich 11. and die deutsehe Kirche, in Hiatorische Auf,Uee rum Andenken an G. Waits, pp. 228‑248, Hanover, 1886; idem, Die Vorserkandlungen sum Frieden von San Germano, 1889‑1030, in NA, xviii (1892), 177‑205; E. Michael, in ZKT, ii (1888), 290‑301; F. Gregorovius Hint. of the City o/ Rome, r. 142‑217, London, 1897; M. Halbe, Friedrich ll. and der apostoliache Stuhl, Berlin, 1896; R. R6hricht, Geechirhte des K6nigreichs Jerusalem 1101‑1281, pp. 757‑796, Innsbruck, 1898• J. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, pp. 102, 209, 218, New York, 1904; Hefele, Concilienpeschichte, v. 955 sqq.; Neander, Christian Church, iv. 17$‑‑183; Bower. Popes, ii. 557‑559; Milman, Latin Christianity, v. 321‑452.
For his relation to the crusades consult: J. I. Mom.
bert, Short Hint. of the Crusades, pp. 246 et passim, New York, 1894; T. A. Archer and C. L. Kingsford, The Crusades, pp. 380‑383, 386, 428, ib. 1895; J. M. Ludlow, The Age of the Crusade#, p. 300 et passim, ib. 1896.

	Gregory %. (Teobaldo Visconti): Pope 1271‑76.
He was born in Piacenza in 1210 and was archdea
con of Lidge when he was chosen pope on Sept. 1,
1271. The Roman see had been unoccupied for
nearly three years (since the death of Clement IV.,
Nov. 29, 1268), the cardinals in session at Viterbo,
divided into a French and an Italian party, being
unable to agree until finally they reached a com
promise in the election of Teobaldo Visconti. At
the time he was in the Holy Land as a crusader.
Upon the news of his elevation, he set out from
Acre Nov. 19, arrived at Brindisi Jan. 1, 1272, and,
after stopping awhile at Viterbq, entered Rome on
Mar. 13; he was ordained priest on Mar. 19 and on
Mar. 27 received consecration in St. Peter's as
Gregory X.	On Mar. 31 he ordered a general
	council on May 1, 1274, for the aboli
The	tion of the Greek schism, and to abate
	Council of the oppression of the Holy Land by the
Lyons, 1274. Saracens and the corruption of morals
	among clergy and laity. It was form
ally decided, on Apr. 13, 1273, that the coun
cil should convene at Lyons. Of the princes in
vited only James I. of Aragon attended in person;
but many ambassadors were present, and about
sixteen hundred prelates, among whom were five
hundred bishops. The first session of the council,
V.‑5
which is usually designated by the Roman Catholic Church as the Fourteenth Ecumenical Council, was opened on May 7, 1274; the sixth and last session was held on July 17.
Gregory cherished peculiar interest for the Holy Land and large resources were obtained from
France and England, which enabled
A Crusade the new patriarch of Jerusalem whom
Attempted. Gregory had installed (Archbishop
Thomas of Cosenza) td afford sustenance to the Christian army. Moreover, on the initiative of King Charles of Sicily, a ten years' truce had been concluded in Csesarea between Sultan Bibars and King Hugo of Cyprus‑at least as far as Ptolemais and Nazareth were concerned. There shortly ensued, however, all kinds of untoward circumstances. Prince Edward of England left the Holy Land; the new patriarch proved incompetent; and the strife between Hugo of Cyprus and Maria of Antioch over the crown of Jerusalem continued. The council failed to support the operations in the East. The pope contrived, indeed, to have a tithe of the church revenues appropriated for six years to the prospective crusade; but no great or adequate action was taken.
Emperor Michael Paheologas of Byzantium had sent ambassadors to Lyons; and to gain Gregory's assistance against the aggressive designs of Charles of Sicily, he evinced great cordiality toward the pope's ecclesiastical plans. The Byzantine dele‑
gates accepted the filwqrte clause in
Union	the creed; the primacy of Rome was
with the acknowledged in an imperial com‑
Eastern	munication that was read in public;
Church.	and the logothete took the oath in the
emperor's name that he solemnly abjured all schism. In short, the submission to the Roman see was complete.
The Council of Lyons was also important for Gregory's relations with Germany. When, after the death of Richard of Cornwall (Apr. 2, 1272),
the surviving pretender, Alfonso of
Relations	Castile, demanded imperial corona‑
with	tion, the pope held aloof; as he did
Germany. with respect to the demand of Philip
of France, which was backed by Charles of Sicily. On the other hand, at the clove of July, 1273, he addressed to the German eleAorr the mandate to hold a new election promptly, and threatened, were this avoided, himself to appoint a king. Count Rudolph of Hapsburg was accordingly elected at Frankfort, Oct. 1, 1273. King Ottoear of Bohemia lodging a protest against tke election it was only after receiving extensive concessions that Gregory gave an affirmative decision in behalf of Rudolph's petition for imperial coroner tion. The pope had no success in. his attempt to move Ottocar of Bohemia to submit to Rudolph; but he succeeded in procuring the renunciation by Alfonso of Castile of all claims to the German empire. Rudolph of Hapsburg was recognized by Gregory in a written proclamation dated Sept. 26, 1274. After further concessions at Lausanne (Oct. 21, 1275), the day for the imperial coronation was set for Feb. 2, 1276.
At least some attempt was also made, although

Gregory BI.‑XVI.	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	86
no fundamental reform was attained, to remedy the moral corruption of the time. The most important of the laws passed was the one touchEcclesiasti‑ ing papal election; by its terms the cal Reform. cardinals, when a vacancy occurred, were to hold the new election in conclave. Finally; while the council was in progress, negotiations were concluded through Philip of France for the cession to the curia of the County Venaissm, which remained a papal possession until 1791.
From all this‑ it would appear that Gregory X. could point to great results, but they were not enduring. The union with the Greeks soon proved a great delusion; and the time of the crusades was past. Gregory was spared disappointment, however, for he died on Jan. 10, 1276.
CARL MIRBT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: Les Registres de GrApoire X. Recueil des bulles de ce pope .... ed. J. Guiraud, Paris, 1892 aqq.; O. Raynaldus, Annales eecleaiaaticd, xiv. 188246, Cologne, 1692; J. F. B51uner, Acta imperii selects, Innsbruck, 1870; A. Potthast, Repesta pontifcum Romanorum, ii. 1651‑1703, 2131, 2138, Berlin, 1875.
Lives by three authors are collected in L. A. Muratori,
Rer. Ital. script., iii. 1, pp. 597‑4Ob, iii. 2, 424‑125, 25 vols., Milan, 1723‑51. Consult: A. Pichler, Geschichte der kirchlichen Trennung zwKachen Orient and Occident, i. 342 eqq., Munich, 1864; H. Finke, Konzilienatudien zur Geschichte des 13. Jahrhunderts, pp. 1‑18, Munster, 1891; F. Walter, Die Politik der Kurie unter Gregor X., Berlin, 1894 ; H. Otto, Die Beziehunpen Rudolfe van Hapsburg zu Papal Gregor X., Innsbruck, 1895; J. Loserth, in NA, xm (1895), 309‑310; F. Gregorovius, Hist. of the City of Rome, v. 465‑473, London, 1897; O. Redlich, Rudolf von Habsburg, Innsbruck, 1903; Hefele. Concilienpeackichte, vi. 119 sqq.; related documents in Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, pp. 260‑262; Neander, Christian Church, v. 71‑77; Bower, Popes, iii. 15‑23; Milman, Latin Christianity; vi. 123‑133.
On his relations to the crusades consult: F. Wilken, Geschichte der KreuzNige, vol. vii., Leipsic, 1832; G. W. Cox, The Crusades, p. 217, New York, 1875; J. I. Mombert, Short Hist. of the Crusades, p. 283, ib. 1894; A. von I3irseh‑Gereuth, Studien zur Geschichte der Kreuzzugsidee each den Kreuzzilpen, vol. i., Munich, 1896; R. 1iohriaht, Geschichte des Konipreichs Jerusalem, 1100‑1881, chap. xxxviii., Innsbruck, 1898.
	Gregory XI. (Pierre Roger de Beaufort): Pope
1370‑78. He was of the diocese of Limoges, and
was chosen pope at Avignon Dec. 30, 1370. He
was a nephew of Clement VI. and was made a car
dinal in his seventeenth year. As pope he made
fruitless efforts at a reunion with the East and
against the Turks, and attacked the teachings of
Wyclif with vehemence. In response to the en
treaties of the Romans, and possibly influenced.by
St. Catherine of Sienna, he determined to return to
Rome and entered the city on Jan. 27, 1377. He
died Mar. 27, 1378. 	PAUL TsCHACKERT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Balusius, Vita paparum Avenioneneium, i. 425‑486, 2 vole., Paris, 1693 (contains a collection of five early lives); A. Ciaeeonius, Vito et Yes gestd Romanorum pontificum, ed. A. Aldoinus, 4 vole., Rome, 1677; J. B. Christoph, Hint. du papaut6 pendant Is xiv. ai&le, 3 vols., Paris, 1853; F. Gregoroviue, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, vi. 442 sqq‑. Stuttgart, 1879; Pastor, Popes, i. 100116; Bower, Popes, iii. 116‑124; Milman, Latin Christianity, vii. 219‑226; KL, v. 1136‑39.
Gregory Xhl. (Angelo Corrario): Pope 1406‑15. He was of a noble Venetian family and was chosen pope by the Roman cardinals Dec. 2, 1406; but even the cardinals who had voted for him forsook
him. The Council of Pisa deposed him on June 5, 1409, whereupon he, like his rival Benedict XIII. (q.v.) at Avignon, protested against the competency of the council and threatened excommunication. Finally, on July 4, 1415, he resigned and spent the rest of his life as cardinal bishop of Porto. He died Oct. 18, 1417. PAUL TscHAc$ERT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. G3aoeonius, Vita et Yes tlestos Romanorum pontifcum, ed. A. Aldoinus, 4 vole., Rome, 1677; A. L. Muratori, Rer. Ital. script., iii. 2, pp. 837‑838, 841, 1118‑1119, 25 vols., Milan, 1723‑51; J. B. Christoph, Hiss. du,papaut,6 pendant is ziv. aipcJs, 3 vols., Paris, 1853; Pastor, Popes, i. 175‑201; Bower, Popes, iii. 157‑167; Milman, Latin Christianity, vii. 296‑317; KL, v. 11391142.
Gregory XIM (Ugo Buoncompagni): Pope 15721585. He was born at Bologna in 1502 and for eight years taught canon law at his birthplace. His learning and his services at the Council of Trent procured him the cardinal's hat in 1564, and Spanish influence made him pope six years later. Gregory celebrated the Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572) by a service of thanksgiving and a commemorative medal. Twenty‑three Jesuit colleges were founded by him and he sent the Jesuit Antonio Possevino (q.v.) to Russia to work for a union with the East, besides promoting the missions in India and Japan. He adorned Rome with magnificent churches. In 1582 he received the completed new edition of the Corpus juria canonici (see CANON ]LAW, III.), at which he had himself worked while cardinal, and by the bull of Feb. 13 of the same year he was able to announce the completion of the work of the commission he had appointed to reform the calendar (see CALENDAR, THE CHRISTIAN, §§ 8‑9). The expenses of all his undertakings brought the papal finances into disorder and the procedure of his courts incited the barons of the Papal States (q.v.) to acts of brigandage which he was unable to restrain. He died Apr. 10, 1585. K. BENRATH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The best reference is Ranks, Popes, i. 319 sqq., 185 eqq• Consult further: H. M. Baird, Hiet. of the Rise of &e Huguenots, ii. 500, 530‑534, 564, London, 1880; idem, The Huguenots and Henry of Navarre, i.. 28 et passim, New York, 1886; M. Broach, Gesckichte des Kirchenataates, i. 247 sqq., Goths, 1880; Philippson, in Deutsche Zeitachrift far GeschichGwissenachaft, vol. vii., 1892; Bower, Popes, iii. 321‑322; KL, v. 1142‑45; J. Janssen, Hiet. of the German People, p. 112 et passim, London, 1905.
	Gregory XIV. (Niciolo Sfondrati): Pope 1590
1591. He was born in Cremona 1535, and was
chosen to succeed Urban VII. Dec. 5, 1590. He
was pious and upright, but was wholly under the
influence of the Spanish party and the League in
France. By excommunicating Henry IV. of France
he contributed much toward making Henry's re
turn to the Roman Church a political necessity.
He died Oct. 15, 1591. 	K. BENRATH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Vita by Cicarella is in the later editions of B. Saechi de Platina, Le Vite de' pontifci, e.g., 4 vols., Venice, 1760‑85. Consult: Ranks, Popes, ii. 32‑38; H. M. Baird, The Huguenots and Henry o/ Navarre, ii. 247, 308, New York, 1886; M. Broach, Geschichte des Kirchenataates, i. 300 sqq., Goths, 1880; Bower, Popes, iii. 325; KL, v. 1145‑46.
Gregory XV. (Alessandro Ludovisi): Pope 1621‑23. He was born in Bologna 1554, and was chosen to succeed Paul V. Feb. 9, 1621. His

87	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Gregory XI.‑gQI.
nephew Ludovico acted for him and continued with energy the policy of Gregory XIII. The Counterreformation prevailed in Bohemia, Austria, and Hungary. Ferdinand II. and Maximilian of Bavaria were surrounded with Jesuit influences. In France, and even in the Netherlands and at the English court, the restoration of the Roman Catholic Church made progress. A permanent basis for missions outside of Europe was provided by the foundation of the Congregation de propaganda fide, and the conclave was organized in its present form by a constitution of Gregory. He died July 8, 1623.
$. BENRATH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rsnke, Popes, ii. 202 eqq., iii. 333‑334; M. Broach, Geechirhte den Kirchenataates, i. 370 aqq., Goths, 1880; H. M. Baird, The Huguenots and as Renocation of the Edict of Nantes, i. 194‑198, New York, 1895; Bower, Popes, iii. 328; KL, v. 1146‑48.

Gregory XVL (Bartolommeo Alberto Cappellari): Pope 1831‑46. He was born at Belluno (51 m. n. of Venice) Sept. 15, 1765, and at eighteen entered the order of Camaldoli. He became increasingly prominent in its affairs, and in 1805 Early Life. was made abbot of the large monastery Election of San Gregorio in Rome. After the as Pope, breach between Pius VII. and NapoFeb. a, 1831. leon he was forced to find shelter in his first monastic home at Murano, just outside of Venice, where he conducted a school for the sons of the upper classes. This he was obliged later to transfer to Padua; but in 1814 he was able to return to San Gregorio, and presently rose to be procurator‑general and vicar‑general of his order. In 1825 Leo XII. made him a cardinal and prefect of the Propaganda. On the death of Pius VIII. (Dec. 14, 1830), the conclave was divided between Cardinals Paces, and di Gregorio, and only when the friends of the latter showed signs of going over to the reactionary Giustiniani did Pacca's principal supporter Albani turn to Cappellari. Nevertheless, he did not reach the requisite number of votes until Feb. 2, after the duke of Modena had plainly signified the desire of Austria that a choice should be speedily made, in order that pope and emperor might work together to counteract the threatened revolution in central Italy.
Cappellari was hardly crowned as Gregory XVI. before the revolution broke out. Louis Philippe had declared in favor of the policy of The Italian non‑intervention in the autumn of Revolution 1830, and the small states of Italy of 1831 and hoped to be allowed to regulate their Its Conse‑ own affairs. Francis IV. of Modena, quences. perhaps in the Austrian interest, had affected to coquet with the revolutionary movement. On the day after the election of Gregory he thought the time had come to act decisively against it. But the next day a formidable rising at Reggio and elsewhere forced him to take refuge in Mantua; at the same time a similar movement showed itself in Bologna, and by Feb. 8 the Italian tricolor had generally replaced the papal flag in that part of the States of the Church. An attempted rising in Rome on the night of Feb. 12‑13 was easily suppressed; but outside the city the flood of revolution rose, and Bernetti, the secretary of
state, saw nothing for it but to summon Austria to his aid. By Feb. 25 a strong Austrian force was marching on Bologna; the provisional government fled to Ancona, and it was not long before most of the conspirators (among whom was Louis Napoleon) had taken refuge in foreign countries. Austria, felt entitled to make certain demands of the pope, and Bernetti at once promised considerable reforms. When these were not carried out, the five great powers in a joint note of May 21, 1831, demanded the admission of laymen to administrative and judicial offices, the establishment of communal and provincial councils, and a giunta or assembly of notables which should be a guaranty for continuity in the government. Gregory appointed commissions to report on these proposals, in order to gain time. The year 1831 was one of great financial distress in the Papal States, and the public debt rose alarmingly, reaching sixty million scudi by the death of Gregory. Such reforms as were introduced failed to content the populace, and when the Austrian army departed in July, a new revolution was already in contemplation. Deputations from the provinces came to Rome, hoping, with the aid of the foreign ambassadors to compel the execution of the reforms demanded by the powers. Bernetti still temporized and made slight concessions; but in Jan., 1832, Austrian troops had to be summoned once more into the legations. France had already warned Bernetti that this step would be followed by a French occupation of Ancona, which was carried out, in spite of papal protests, on Mar. 21. Casimir‑Pdrier announced that this was done with a view to compelling liberal reforms; but its effect was counterbalanced by the influence of Austria. The universities had been closed the year before and many students had to leave their homes, embittered against the Church. A good idea of the spirit which prevailed in the curia may be gained from the encyclical Mirari vos of Aug. 15, 1832a link in the series of declarations which culminated in the encyclical and syllabus of 1864; it was directed especially against Lamennais (q.v.) and against Belgium, which had shortly before adopted a constitution guaranteeing liberty of conscience. Considerable excitement was also caused in Germany by the encyclical Dum acerbissimas of Sept. 26, 1835, condemning Hermesianism (see HERmEs, GEORG).
An indiscreet note of Bemetti's which came into Metternich's hands caused his downfall. He was replaced by the Genoese Lambruschini,
Lambrus‑ who had been nuncio in Paris during chini the July Revolution, and as a diplomat
Secretary was a pupil of Consalvi's, though with of State. more churchly feeling. He soon made The Jesuits himself feared, and the pope was Suppressed wholly led by him. The Austrians
	in France.	evacuated Bologna and the French
		Ancona in 1838, and things seemed
quiet; but the revolutionary party was pursuing
its work in secret. Mazzini had formed the "Young
Italy" party, which, while it did not share the
religious belief of the populace, still coupled the
name of God with that of the people in its appeals.
The neo‑Guelph party which arose in the forties,
under the leadership of Gioberti and Count Cesare

Gregory of Montelongo
Gregory XV1.	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	as
Balbo, adhered to the teachings of the Church, and could have no concord with a liberalism hostile to the Holy See. Lambruschini, however, had no greater sympathy for the neo‑Guelphs than for Young Italy; and relations began to be strained between Rome and France. Gregory XVI. caused uneasiness in Paris by his frank sympathy with the duke of Bordeaux and the Legitimist cause. The government began to be suspicious of French Ultramontanism, and the students in the College de France applauded Michelet and Quinet when they attacked the Jesuits. Guizot sent Pell‑,grino Rossi to Rome to induce the pope to withdraw his support from the order. At first it seemed a hopeless task; but the curia gradually came to see that the Jesuits must be less prominent. Louis Philippe frankly told the nuncio in Paris that he was not prepared to risk his crown for the sake of the order, and Lambruschini finally yielded. In July, 1845, the order was suppressed in France and its houses closed.
Meantime the revolution had lifted its head once more at Bologna and Rimini in 1843. Luigi Carlo Farini issued a manifesto which called Later for an amnesty, juster penal laws, and Events in a share in the government; Massimo Italy. d'Azeglio and Gino Capponi published Gregory's notable appeals. , Lambruschini's an‑
Merits. ewer was the exercise of still greater severity, and d'Azeglio was banished from Tuscany at his request. The Jesuit question came up in Italy also. Some expressions of Gioberti in his Prolegmneni al Prinwto (1845) called forth a defense of the order from Francesco, brother of Silvio Pellico, and Curci; Gioberti was not silenced, but began to collect material for his thoroughgoing work 11 Geauith mod‑ (8 ‑Is‑, Paris, 1846‑47). Before it was published, however, Gregory XVI., already failing in health, died June 1, 1846. He was a friend of all the monastic orders, and did much to prepare for the definition of the immaculate conception. Stiff and unyielding in his ecclesiastical policy, he came into serious conflict with Prussia over the mixed marriage question (see DRO$TE‑VIBCHERING), and by the encyclical Inter prcecipuas of May 8, 1844, condemned the Bible societies and the newly formed Evangelical Allicance. He was a liberal patron of art and letters; he established the Etruscan and Egyptian collections of the Vatican, and laid the foundation for the Lateran museum of Christian antiquities. (F. NIEIBENt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. N. Maynard, JacQues Cretineau‑Joiy, Paris. 1875; M. Brooch, Oesehdchts doe Kirchenstaatea, ii. 337 sqq., Goths, 1882; C. Sylvain, Grbpoire XVI. et son pontdfCat, Paris, 1889; J. J. 1. von D611inger, Kirche and Kirden, pp. 581 eqq., Munich, 1881; idem, Dos Papsh tum, pp. 234 eqq., ib. 1892; C. Mitt, Die yremsiseAe Gosandtaehaf am Ho% des Papatea. pp. 28 eqq. Ldpsie, 1899; F. Nippold, The Papacy in the 18th Century, Pp. 82, 93, 95, 112, New York, 1909; F. Nielsen, Hid. of fhe Papacy in the 1 9th Century, 2 vole.. ib. 1905; Bower, Popes, iii. 470‑472; KL, v. 1148‑58. For the Encyclicals of Gregory consult the Eng. trends. which appeared Dublin, 1833, London, 1838; The Encyclical Letter of ‑ ‑ ‑Pope Gregory XVI. . . issued may 8th, 1844, Lat. text, Ital. tranal., London, 1844; A Voice /turn Rome Answered by an American Citizen. A Review of the Encyc1ioa4 Philadelphia, 1844 (with the text); L Rupert, La LiberM moderns iuD& Pay' 1'Miae. Eneyclique . . . de Gr6poire XVl„ Paris, 1882.
GREGORY (Gk. Gr9gorioa): The name of several patriarchs of Constantinople, the most important being the following:
Gregory III.: Patriarch 1445‑48; d. at Rome 1459. He was a Cretan by origin, and bore the epithets of Mamas, Melissenus, and Strategopulus. As protosyneellus of the patriarch of Constantinople and confessor of the Emperor John VIII., Palteologus, he attended the council held at Florence for a union of the Greek and Roman Churches (see FERRARA‑FLORENCE, COUNCIL OF). Originally orthodox, he now became an adherent of the Roman party, and after his return was appointed patriarch. On the death of the emperor in 1448, however, he was forced to resign, spending the remainder of his life at Rome. In defense of the union he wrote his three works, "Apology for the Confession of Ephesus"; "Apology for the Epistle of Ephesus"; and "To the King of Trebizond." His sole argument for union was its harmony with the teachings of the Church Fathers.
BrBwOGaAPHY: The three works are in MPG, clx. 13‑248. Consult Fabrieius‑Harles, Biblioywca Grwca, xi. 393394, Hamburg. 1808; Krumbacher, Geschichte, p. 119.
Gregory V.: Patriarch 1797‑98, 1806‑08,18181821; b. at Dimitzana (40 m. n.w. of Sparta) 1745; d. at Constantinople Apr. 22, 1821. He was educated at Athens, Smyrna, and Patmos, and in 1785 was consecrated metropolitan of Smyrna, becoming patriarch of Constantinople twelve years later. In the following year the intrigues of the clergy forced him to resign, although he ruled again from 1806 to 1808. His third patriarchate lasted from 1818 to his strangulation by the order of the Sultan. The manner of his death has caused Gregory to be regarded as the martyr of Greek freedom, although he took no part in the uprising of his fellow countrymen, and his attitude toward the Greek movement for independence was unsympathetic. As patriarch, he promoted the welfare of his Church in all ways, and particularly by education. He made Romaic translations of the nine homilies of Basil on the hexaemeron (Constantinople, 1807), as well as the addresses of Chrysostom on the priesthood (new edition by J. Papadopulos, Smyrna, 1879), and he is also said to have edited the "Ethics" of Basil in 1807.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Accounts of his life, in Greek, appeared at
Athens in 1863 and, in 2 vole., 1885.
Gregory VI.: Patriarch 1835‑40, 1867‑71; b.
Mar. 13, 1798; d. at Constantinople June 20, 1881. His entire tendency was reactionary and devoted to the purification of the Greek Church from all foreign elements. In this spirit he waged an unceasing war against the Occidental churches, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, as well as against every liberal movement within his own communion, so that he may almost be said to have given his impression to the present Greek Orthodox Church. Important
factors in this struggle were his decrees, which have been collected by Gedeon and partially translated into German by Wenger. (PHILIPP MEYER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Wenger, Beltrdp our Kenntnlse dee pepenw&tipen asides and zustandes der priechisehen Kirche in Griwhenland and der TRrkey. Berlin, 1839; M. 1. Gedeon, narp&apxucoi*ivases, Constantinople, n.d.; idem. Harovwai gtarasat, 2 vols., ib. 1888‑89.

RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
GGreirory of Montelonro,
reirory XV1.
GREGORY OF ELVIRA: Bishop of Elvira, in Spain (hence called Bwticm, the "Andalusian"); fl. c. 357‑384. He was one of the stanchest western adherents of the Nicene Creed. He rigorously opposed Hosius of Cordova (q.v.) when the latter returned from exile; and stood firmly in relation to the Homoian party at the synod of Ariminum, 359. Afterward he joined Lucifer of Calaria (q.v.), and became one of the leaders of the Luciferians. It seems probable that Gregory composed the socalled Tractatus Origenis (ed. P. Batiffol, Paris, 1900), and "Five Homilies on Canticles" (ed. G. Heine, in Bibliotheca anecdotorum, Leipsic, 1848). He is the probable source, besides, of a brief tract, De file, generally attributed to Ambrose (Vigiliua of Thapsus, Phaebordius of Agennum, MPL, xx. 31; cf. Jerome, De vir. ill., cv.). Moreover, Kattenbusch holds that to Gregory should be credited Exhortatw sands Ambroadi episeopi ad neophytos de aymbolo (cf. C. P. Caspari, Quellen our Geschichte des Taufsymbole, ii. 128‑182, Christiania, 1869).
G. KRt)GER.

BIaLIoanAPar: F. Kattenbusch, Daa apostdiache Symbol, 2 vole, Leipeic, 1894‑1900 (consult Index); G. Morin, in Revue de i'hiatoire et de litttrature relipieuaea, 1900, pp. 145‑161; A. Wilmaert in Bulletin de to litt,6rature ecddsiaetique, 1906, pp. 233‑299; DCB, ii. 739‑740.

GREGORY OF HEIMBURG: German popular reformer; b. at Schweinfurt (22 m. n.n.e. of Wiirzburg) about the beginning of the fifteenth century; d. at Dresden 1472. His importance has been overestimated; he was no "forerunner of the Reformation," still less "a civil Luther." As a youth he devoted himself to legal and humanistic studies and took the degree of doctor of civil and canon law at Padua about 1430. Upon his return to Germany he practised law, and was present at Basel during the sessions of the Council, becoming acquainted there with Rneas Sylvius Piccolomini (afterward Pope Pius IL). In 1435 he was elected syndic of Nuremberg and held this influential position till 1461. He often had an opportunity to play a part in public affairs, and to work for the diminution of the influence of the Italian papacy in Germany. In 1446 he headed a delegation which the German electors sent to Pope Eugenius IV. Angered by the ill success of his mission, he wrote against the curia, after his return, his Admonitio de iniustia u8urpatitmZus paparum. When Aneas Sylvius was elected pope in 1458, his antipapal spirit became even more aggressive. The new pope convoked a meeting of the German princes at Mantua in 1459, at which Gregory was present as the representative of Sigismund of Austria to oppose the crusade projected by Pius against the Turks, and where he even delivered a mocking discourse against the pope. Pius soon found an opportunity to take vengeance. When Duke Sigismund of the Tyrol had fallen out with Nicholas of Cusa, cardinal bishop of Brixen, and had been excommunicated by the pope (June 1, 1460), Gregory pleaded his cause. Pius II. now excommunicated Gregory also, and, in a brief dated Oct. 18, 1460, requested the city council of Nuremberg to expel the offender and to confiscate his property. Gregory replied in a stern appeal to a future council.. In 1464 Nicholas of Cuss and Pius
II. died. Sigismund had made his peace with the pope shortly before and had obtained absolution, but Gregory remained under the ban, which obliged him to leave the court of the duke of Austria. He went to Bohemia to King George Podiebrad, in whose interest'he continued to oppose the papacy in controversial writings. The death of his protector drove Gregory from Bohemia, and he now fixed his residence in Saxony, whose dukes had asked his advice on former occasions. When Sixtus IV. ascended the papal throne, he obtained absolution, and died in the same year. His polemical works were published under the title Scripts nervosa justititeque plena (Frankfort, 1608).
PAUL TaCHACKERT.
BIBLIOORAPBT: J. M. Dfx, Nicolaus von Cusa, especially book iv., 2 vole., Regensburg, 1848; C. Broekhaue, Gregor van Neimburp, Leipsic, 1861; A. JAger, Der Streit des .
Nicolaua von Cuaa mil dens Hersop Sigmund von Oesterre", 2 vols., Innsbruck, 1861; G. Voigt, Xnea Silvio de' Piccolomin%, ii. 349‑351, Berlin, 1862; C. Uhlmann, Reformers before the Reformation, i 195‑202, Edinburgh, 1874; Lorenz, DGQ, i. 220, ii. 382‑384; P. Joachimson, Gregor Heimburp, Bamberg, 1891; Pastor, Popes, iii. 184192 et passim; Creighton, Papacy, iii. 32, 76‑$1, 256265 et passim; KL, v. 1648‑52; ADB,.:a. 327.
GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR. See ARMENIA, III., § 2.
GREGORY OF MONTELONGGO: Patriarch of Aquileja; d. at Cividale (70 m. n.e. of Venice), in Friuli, Italy, Aug. 31, 1269. He is mentioned first in 1213 as canon of the church of Vercelli, then in 1231 as subdeacon in the March of Ancona. In 1238 he appears as a Roman notary and subdeacon, first as papal nuncio, then as apostolic legate for Lombardy, Romagna, and Treviso. Montelongo was a bitter opponent of the house of Hohenstaufen and contributed not a little to the downfall of Frederick II. and his partizans. After Frederick was excommunicated in 1239, Montelongo frustrated his attack upon the city of Milan, and here laid the foundation of his military fame. The capture of Ferrara in the following year was also essentially the work of Montelongo. He alienated the city of Vercelli in 1243 from the margrave of Montferrat, and later the neighboring Novara from the emperor. In 1247 he captured Parma, led its defense with great ability, and by a sudden attack dispersed the imperial army. By this victory the supremacy of the papal party in Lombardy was restored. In 1251 Montelongo was appointed patriarch of Aquileja, and it became his task to defend his extensive diocese against the Hohenataufens, the counts of Gorz, Tyrol, and Carinthia, against Eccelino II. of Romano, and the Venetians, though his expeditions against them were not always successful. At the same time he kept a watchful eye on Lombardy. In 1252 he aided Parma against Uberto Pellavicini; in 1256, with the archbishop of Ravenna, he took possession of Padua, which thus far had been under the sway of Eccelino. After the death of Eccelino in 1259, Treviso, Vicenza, and Baasano joined the papal party owing to the efforts of Montelongo, and the adherents of Eecelino in his patriarchate also submitted to his rule. The latter years of Montelongo's life were darkened by continual dissensions with the counts of Garz, the bai‑

Oregory Nazianzea	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	70
liffs of the chapter of Aquileja. In 1267 Count Albert of GSrz, the bishop of Feltre, and the citizens of Capo d'Istria conspired against him, and he was imprisoned in the castle of GSrz. After his release, hostilities were continued until his death.
HERMANN FRANKFURTH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources are to be found in the Annalea Parmenaes, Annalea Placentini Gibellini, Annalea 8. Juatince Patavini, and the Annalea Poroiulineaea, all in MGH, Script., xviii.‑xix. (1883‑66); in the Vitcs patriarcharum Ayuilegiensium in L. A. Muratori, Rer. ltal. script., vol. xvi.; also Salimbene, in Monumenta historira ad provinciae Parmensem et Placentinam pertinentia, vol. iii., 12 vols., Parma, 1856‑69. Consult: H. Frankfurth, Gregorius de Montelongo, ein Beitrag zur Geuhichte Oberitaliena 1238‑1289, Marburg, 1898.

GREGORY NAZIA1NZEN.
Early Life (§ 1).	Works (§ 3).
Episcopate (§ 2).	Theological Attitude (§ 4).
	Christological Attitude (§ 5).
	Gregory Nazianzen or Gregory of Nazianzus (in
s.w. Cappadocia, 24 m. s.e. of Archelais, perhaps the
modern Nenizi, six hours east of Ak Serai), one of
the leading theologians of the Eastern Church, was
		born at Arianzus, near Nazianzus,
	:. Early probably in 329; d. there probably in
	Life. 389 or at least $90. His father, also
		called Gregory, was a man of some im
portance. Even before he was a Christian, he was
an upholder of a monotheistic morality, and a
member of the sect known as Hypsistarians (q.v.).
He was converted to Christianity by his wife, Nonna,
who came of Christian stock, and was. baptized at
the time of the opening of the Council of Nicaea by
the Bishop of Nazianzus, whom he succeeded in his
office in 328 or 329. Nothing positive is known of his
attitude in the first generation of the Arian contro
versy; in the sixties he may be reckoned, with most
of the bishops of Asia Minor, among the Homoiou
sians,but later, with his son and the latter's friend
Basil (see BASIL THE GREAT), whom he helped to
raise to the see of Caesarea, he accepted the homo
ousios. He and his wife had long wished for off
spring; and Gregory seems to have been the eldest
of the three children who were born to them when
they were already advancing in years. The foun
dations of his education were laid at Nazianzus;
but his higher training in literature and rhetoric he
probably received with his brother Caesarius, in
the Cappadocian Ca'sarea, where his friendship
with Basil began. To pursue his studies he then
went to Palestine, to Alexandria, and finally to
Athens, where he seems to have spent some years
in close association with Basil. Leaving Athens,
probably in 357, and passing through Constanti
nople, where his brother had already begun a suc
cessful worldly career from which Gregory tried in
vain to turn him to the ascetic life, he returned home
on account of his duty to his parents, and spent
some time there, partly in meditation and partly in
the administration of the family property. It was
at this time that he seems to have been baptized.
After the return of Basil from his journey through
the monastic settlements of Palestine and Egypt, in
358 or 359, Gregory joined him in his retreat on the
River Iris in Pontus. By 360, however, he must
bave been once more with his parents. During the
next five years he was ordained priest against his
own will but at the request of the faithful; after
trying to escape the duties of the office, he returned
and delivered the orations numbered i. and ii. in
his works; after Julian's death (363) he wrote,
apparently on Basil's advice, the two invectives
directed against Julian (iv. and v.); when court
pressure had forced his father to sign a formula which
the monks of Nazianzus considered heretical, and
they broke off communion with both father and son,
he succeeded in reconciling them to their bishop
(oration vi., De pace); when Basil and his monks had
fallen out with Eusebius, chosen Bishop of Clesarea
in the summer of 362, he took Basil to Pontus with
him, and then effected a reconciliation (probably
in 365). During the next seven years Gregory
assisted his father, cooperated with him in 370 in,
procuring the elevation of Basil to the bishopric
of Caesarea, and stood by the side of the new bishop
in his struggle with Valens in the beginning of 372.
	The old friendship seems, however, to have
grown less warm after Basil was promoted to the
		metropolitan see, and suffered a harder
	2. Episco‑ blow when Basil, apparently soon after
	pate. Easter, 372, forced Gregory to accept
		the bishopric of Sasima, an insignifi
cant place between Nazianzus and Tyana, in order
to hold it against Anthimus, bishop of Tyana, who
infringed upon Basil's dignity by claiming and so
tually exercising metropolitan rights over a portion
of Cappadocia. Gregory retired from his bishopric
to the solitude of the mountains before he had en
tered upon its duties, declining to take up the strug
gle with Anthimus. He rejected his father's en
treaties that he should return to his post; but when
he was asked to come and help at Nazianzus, filial
duty and appreciation of a larger field prevailed
upon him in the same summer of 372. After his
father's death, he continued to officiate there, but
only as his father's representative. When, how
ever, the neighboring bishops showed no signs of
appointing another incumbent, he again fled in
375, this time to Seleucia. There he seems to have
remained until, after the death of Basil (Jan. 1,
379), he was called to undertake a task sufficiently
important to tempt him from his retirement. This
was no less than to represent the Nicene faith in
Constantinople, heretofore abandoned to Arian
ism. When in the spring of 379 he began to preach
in the capital, he was undoubtedly considered as an
aspirant for the bishop's throne; but his natural
wavering between the attraction of usefulness in
the world and that of the hermit life hindered him
from considering himself consistently in that light.
Still, it would appear from the whole history of his
conflict with Maximus, a false friend who now
came forward as a rival, and of the council of 381
that he had definitely put forward his candidacy.
He was practically bishop there from the time
(Nov. 26, 380) when the cathedral church of the
Apostles was placed in his charge; officially he held
the position only for a short time during the ses
sion of the council in the following year. After
his renunciation of the office he left the capital,
probably in June, before the close of the council,
and retired to Cappadocia. His interest in the dio‑

71	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Gregory Nasianzes
ease of Nazianzus, then troubled by the Apollinarians, induced him to give some measure of attention to its needs; but after he had succeeded (probably in 383) in procuring the appointment of his kinsman Eulalius as bishop, he lived in seclusion, apparently at Arianzus. When Jerome wrote his Catalogus in 392, he had been dead nearly three years, and so must have passed away in 389 or at latest 390.
The works of Gregory fall into three groups‑45 orations, 243 letters, and a considerable number of poems. The orations seem all to have been actually delivered except the two invectives against Julian, and the second oration, at least in its present form. The most famous are the five "Theological Orations" (xxvii.‑xxxi.) delivered in Constantinople. Of historical interest are several of the memorial orations, especially those on Basil (xliii.) and on his father (xviii.). Among
	3. Works.	those written for festivals, the most
		noteworthy are the Easter sermon of
363 (commonly assigned to 362), and three (xxxviii,
xl.) preached in Constantinople on Dec. 25, 379.
and Jan. 6 and 7, 380; the first of these three is
the earliest Christmas sermon known to have been
preached in Constantinople, or, for that matter, in
the East. Only one (xxxvii.) has the nature of a
homily; in fact, the exposition of Scripture, or in
general what is usually meant by preaching, is en
tirely subordinate to rhetorical declamation. The
letters, most of which belong to the last six or
seven years of Gregory's life, are as a rule short
and not to be compared for interest or historical
importance to those of Basil. Of dogmatic value
are the two anti‑Apollinarian epistles to the pres
byter Cledonius (ci., cii.) and the last of those ad
dressed to Gregory's successor at Constantinople,
Nectarius (ecii.). The concluding. letter, or rather
treatise, "To the Monk Evagrius on Divinity;"
which is ascribed by the manuscript variously to
Gregory Nazianzen, to the other Gregories, Thauma
turgus and of Nyasa, and to Basil, can scarcely be
long to Gregory Nazianzen. The poems are good
examples of the artificial poetry of the rhetori
cal school, but to a modern mind most of them
have very little that is poetical. The autobiograph
ical poems (book ii., section 1) comprise about a
third of the whole. The drama known as "The
Suffering Christ" has long been known to be not
Gregory's, but a Byzantine production of the
eleventh or twelfth century.
Though Gregory Nazianzen is called "the Theologian" by the Greek writers, he has given no systematic exposition of the Christian faith; and an examination of the doctrinal positions
4. Theo‑ taken by him in his orations would be logical profitable only if it were connected
	Attitude.	with an investigation, here impossi
		ble, of the question how far he dis
plays the result of the process of giving an ecclesi
astical form to the thoughts of Origen; though the
Origenistic tradition has certainly not in him come
down to the level of the popular catholicism of his
day, as is clearly evidenced by his views on sin,
the fall of man, Paradise, inequality on earth as a
result of the fall, the doctrine of angels, and eschar
tology. His general doctrine of God is Platonic metaphysics rather than Christian teaching. It is noteworthy what a contrast there is between the way in which, against Eunomius, he maintains the unknowableness of God and the certainty with which he develops the details of the doctrine of the Trinity. In this latter field he is not, indeed, the founder of the school known as sub‑Nicene, for before he took any prominent part in the discussion, during the reign of Julian, the transition from the hmnmusios to the homoausim had taken place in the Meletian group at Antioch (see MELETIUB OF Arrrioca); and the analogous development in many homoiousians of Asia Minor, at least in regard to the consubstantiality of the Son, was certainly in the main‑ independent of Gregory's influence. Still, Gregory was the oldest of the theologically important representatives of that school, and its special teaching comes out clearly in him at a time when Basil was yet on friendly terms with Eustathius and when Gregory of Nyasa was a layman. This is true even of the doctrine of the Holy Spirit; although Gregory was all his life a little cautious about defining the consubstantiality, from a feeling that the consequences would lead beyond what was contained in Scripture, even though he never excluded the necessity of these consequences. To state his doctrine in its technical terms, it is based upon the distinction between the One Godhead, Substance, or Nature (mia theotea, ousia, or physis) and the Three Persons (hvis hypostaaeis or idiotWa). The term ousia means more than the generic essence of several individuals; but none the less the treis hypostaseis are numerically three, and the One God is one because the mia theotes is common to the three, because the Son and the Spirit have their origin in the Father outside of time, and because the will of the three is the same. The things which distinguish the three‑"that the Father is unbegotten, that the Son is begotten, that the Holy Ghost is sent forth" (oration xxv.) ‑are not, therefore, differences of substance, but expressions of the mutual relation of the hypostdseis. That the reproach of tritheism might be brought against this teaching with more justice than that of Sabellianism against Athanasius is obvious. Gregory was fully conscious of the divergence between the older and later Nicene theology, but he considered it purely one of terminology.
	That Gregory should have been able to coin
standard formulas in Christology also (the Council
of Ephesus and that of Chalcedon cite his first
epistle to Cledonius, and under Justinian he was
		one of the principal witnesses to the
g. Christo‑ orthodox view on this question) was logical due to the process through which he
	Attitude.	passed in his last years. The casual
		expressions of his orations are the ob
scure utterances of a curtailed Origenistic tradi
tion. His terminology did not become clear and
precise until after he had taken his stand in oppo.
sition to Apollinarianism, and felt the need of re
jecting the Antiochene tradition (opposed also by
Apollinaris) of the existence of two subjects in the
historic Christ. He is now clear on the point of the
completeness of the human nature in Christ,

G'°g°ry Nsert	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	72
Qrerory Thaumaturgas
	though he holds firmly that the historic Christ is
nothing but the Logos‑subject made man.	His
	formulas, though even then they were perhaps not
	fully thought out, suited the needs of later ortho
	doxy; and in fact to some extent he anticipated
	the differentiation which took place in Christology
	also between the terms physis and hypoatasia. The
	orthodoxy of Justinian's reign needed but to point
	to his assertion that the trinitarian formula was the
	converse of the Christologieal‑that where in the
	former there were three hypostases and one nature,
	in the latter there were two natures and but one
hypostasis.
	In the matter of ChrisWlogy, Gregory owes his
	reputation as "the Theologian" for the greater
part to chance.	His position is somewhat better
	merited in regard to theology in the narrower sense
	‑though even here it can not be denied that he
	who complained at unnecessary length in his life
	time of misconception and ingratitude has since
	his death, and especially since the sixth century,
	been more richly indemnified than he really de
served.	(F. Loolrs.)
	Brawoeas,rsr: The edition of the Opera by Clemenaet (vol.
	i., Paris, 1778) and Caillau (vol, ii., ib. 1840), supersedes
	all earlier collections, and was reproduced in MPG, xxxv.
	xxxviii. Worthy of notice, besides that edition, are
	Opera . . . Grow et Latins, 2 vole., Paris, 1809, and 3
	vole., ib. 1Q38; of. Fabricius‑Harles, Bibliotheca Gras,
	viii. 892‑403, Hamburg, 1802. Editions of separate
	works are: Carmina aeieeta, ed. E. Dronke, GBttingen,
	1840; Opera dogmatica selecta, ed. C. Thilo, 2 vols., Leip
	sie, 1854; Oratio swunda apolopetica, ed. J. Alsog, Frei
	burg, 1858‑88; Oratio optima in laudem CdaarM, ed.
	E. Sommer, Paris, 1891; Oratio in laudem Machabmorum,
	ed. E. Sommer, Paris, 1891. Some of his poems are in
	Anthelogia Gram carminum Chnrtianorum, by W. Christ
	and M. Paranikae, Leipsic, 1871, and other poems by W.
	Meyer, in AMA, philowphiash‑philolopieche Klaus, EVIL
	2 (1885), 285 aqq., Beilw i. 400‑109; Five Theological
	Orations, ed. A. J. Masson, London, 1899; an Eng. transl.
	of selected orations and letters, with life and prolegomena,
are in NPNF, ?d sec., vol. vii.
	Sources for a Life are his own Carmina de as ipso and
	Carmina de vita ass; a Vita Greporii by Gregory ,the
	Presbyter, in MPG, mcv. 243‑304; and the church his
	torians of the fifth century. The two later biographies
	which are essential are C. Ullmann, Greporisa von Natians,
	der Theolope, Darmstadt, 1825, Eng. tranal., London,
	1851, and A. Benoit, S. Grpoire de Nasiante, 2 vole.,
	Paris, 1885. Consult, ASB, May, ii. 373‑428; Tillemont,
	Mbmoiru, ix. 305‑380, 892‑731; W. Cave, Lives of &s
	Fathers, iii. 1‑90, Oxford, 1840; A. Grenier, La Vie et lee
	pohsies de S. Grpoire de Naaianae, Paris, 1868; J. H.
	Newman, Church of the Fathers, London, 1888; idem,
	Historical Sketches, vol. iii., chaps. iii. iv., ib. 1873; H.
	Weise, Die proem Kappadocier Baailius, Gregor von Na
	sians . . . alt Exepeten, Leipsic, 1872; L. Montaut, Re
	vue critique do qualquea questions hiatortquea as rapportant
	d S. Gr6poire . . . et h son eOcle, Paris, 1878; C. Ca
	vaillier. S. Gr4oire do Nazianee, par 1'abU A. Benoit. .9tude
	bibliopraphique, Montpellier, 1886; F. W. Farrar, Lives
	of the Fathers, f. 491‑582, New York, 1889; J. DrAeeke,
	in TSK, lxv (1892), 478‑512; J. R. Asmus, in T$K,
	ixvii (1894), 814‑339; 0. Bardenhewer, Patrolopie,, Frei
	burg. 1901; Ceillier, Auteure sacra, v. 172‑383, ef. iv.
	passim; Neander, Christian Church, ii. 482‑488 et passim;
	Schaff, Christian Church, iii. 908‑921; Gibbon, Decline
	and Fall, chap. xvii.; DCB, ii. 741‑761 (elaborate); KL,
v. 1180‑88.
	From the standpoint of dogma, consult: 'J. Hergen
	rather, Die Lakre von der oattlichen Dreiednigkeit reach dem
	beiligen Gregor von Nations, Regensburg, 1850; H. Weiss'
	ut sup.; F. K. HOmmer, Des heiligen Gregor . . . Lehre
	von der Gnade, Kempten, 1890; Harnaak. Dogma, vole.
iii.iv.
	GREGORY OF NYSSA: Gregory of Nyssa,
a leading Greek theologian of the fourth century
and younger brother of Basil the Great (q.v.),
died after 394. The date of his birth is un
known, as are the details of his early life,
except that he attended pagan schools. That
		he seems for a while in his youth to
	Life.	have officiated as a lector makes it
		probable that he was baptized at an
early age; but it does not necessarily follow that
he was always destined for a clerical career. Later,
perhaps between 380 and 365, he was apparently
devoting himself to secular business to an extent
that gave scandal to some. He certainly married;
the Theosebia on whose death Gregory Nazianzen
condoles with him (after 381) was evidently his
wife, with whom he seems to have lived in conti
nence after he became a bishop. The assertion fre
quently made that he gave up his calling as a rhet
orician and retired to a contemplative life is possible
but not demonstrable; nor are the circumstances
known under which he became bishop of the small
Cappadocian town of Nyasa, on the river Halys
and the road from Ciesarea to Ancyra. This oc
curred, indeed, before Gregory Nazianzen became
bishop of Sasima, and thus before Easter, 372;
and he is said to have accepted the episcopal office
under pressure. As a bishop, he was one of the
Homoousians who had to undergo personal un
pleasantness in that difficult time‑probably be
cause his orthodoxy gave the court party a handle
against him which they used in order to get posses
sion of his see for one of their own kind. When
Demosthenes, the imperial vicar of the province of
Pontus, came to Cappadocia in the winter of 375,
an obscure person appeared before him with charges
against Gregory of malversation of church prop
erty, coupled with doubts as to the validity of his
appointment. Gregory was arrested and ordered
to be brought before Demosthenes; but his suffer
ings on the way were so great that he decided to
escape. He was condemned in absence by a synod
of Pontic and Galatian bishops in the following
spring, and was unable to return to Nyssa until
after the death of Valens (hug. 9, 378). In the
autumn of 379 he was present at a synod in An
tioch, and in 381 at the Council of Constantinople,
where he preached at the enthronization of Greg
ory Nazianzen as bishop of that see, and also at
the funeral of Meletius of Antioch. His promi
nence among the members of the council appears
from the fact that the imperial edict of July 30,
381, names him among the bishops with whom
others must be in communion if they wish to be
left undisturbed in the administration of their
churches. This position of importance entailed
difficulties and struggles, and probably led to the
journey to Arabia for the purpose of setting in order
the ecclesiastical conditions there. He was most
likely present at the conferences of 383 in Constan
tinople, and in the autumn of 385 or 386 preached
at the funeral of the little princess Pulcheria and
shortly after at that of the Empress Flacilla. He
was present once more at the synodal discussion of
an Arabian matter in Constantinople in 394; but
no further facts of his life can be traced.

RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gregory Nsuaiwn$en.
Gregory Thaumatnrtras
No final discussion of Gregory's works is possible until more critical labor has been expended upon them than they have yet received. References to the personal history of the author demonstrate the authenticity of a considerable number
	Works.	of them, including, besides several let
		ters, the "Hexaerleron," the "Ma
king of Man," the "Life of Moses," "Against Usu
rers," "Against Eunomius," "On the Soul and the
Resurrection," "Eulogy of Basil," "Letter to
Peter," and the "Life of the Holy Macrina." An
cient external testimony comes to the support of
internal evidence in the uses of others, such as "On
the Song of Songs," "° On Prayer" (five homilies,
the last four a careful exposition of the Lord's
Prayer), "On the Beatitudes," the "Great Cate
chetical Oration," "Against Apollinaris," and the
"Antirrhetio against Apollinares." But, on the
other hand, the works either omitted or marked as
doubtful by Migne are by no means all the spurious
ones which have passed under Gregory's name.
Among his dogmatic works special attention is deserved by the "Great Cathechism," an apologeticdogmatic treatise on the Trinity and the Incarnation with instructions on baptis•n and the Lord's Supper; the "Soul and the Resurrection"; the treatise against Eunomius, his most extensive work; and the "Antirrhetic," the most important of the extant anti‑Apollinarian treatises. Of the exegetical writings, the "Hexaemeron" and the "Making of Man" are the most sober and valuable; in the ethically interesting "Life of Moses" and "On the Superscriptions of the Psalms" the allegorizing tendency runs riot. Among the sermons, those on the lives of Basil and Macrina are the most interesting.
The personality of the man Gregory is difficult to grasp; his works are too rhetorical and too little individual to give a clear conception of it. As far, however, as is determinable, he seems to have had a more harmonious, calm, and
Person‑	self‑controlled character than his
ality and brother or Gregory Nazianzen, and to
	Teaching.	have been less forceful but more amia
		ble than either of them. His theo
logical position stands out more clearly than his
personal character, though it, too, is lacking in dis
tinction. He has few new thoughts, and the form
which he gives to the old bears little mark of ge
nius. But he was an accomplished theologian, who
succeeded in reconciling to a certain extent the Ori
genistic traditions with the demands of a theology
which had grown narrower and more realistic. He
had sufficient acuteness to work among his formulas
with technical correctness while satisfying the tend
encies of a mystical nature by avoiding precise
definition at the right time and rising above the
terminology in which the dogmatic controversies
of his age expressed themselves. His teaching on
the Trinity is so similar to that of Basil and Greg
ory Nazianzen that in the case of three works it is
safe to predicate the authorship of one of the three
men, but impossible to determine which. For his
doctrine of the Lord's Supper, see LoxD's SUPPER,
II. His Christology also is substantially the same
as that reached by Gregory Nazianzen in his later
life. A fuller investigation of his whole Christo
logical doctrine would need to go deeply into the
connection of his thought with those of Origen and
Athanasius. It is worth mentioning that he held
the Origenistic belief in the final restoration of all
things, so that the patriarch Germ anus of Constan
tinople in the eighth century imagined his "Soul
and the Resurrection" to have been interpolated
by the heretics, instead of containing, as it does,
genuine Origenism; and here, as with Origen, the
foundation of this doctrine is ;,o be sought not in
the "generic" conception of the humanity of
Christ but in his idea of God. 	(F. Loolrs.)

BIHwoaEAPnrT: The earlier Latin editions of the Opera were Cologne, 1537, Basel, 1582 and 1571, Paris, 1578, all surpassed by that of Paris, 2 vols., 1803. The Greek text, with Let. tranel., appeared 2 vole., Paris, 1615, with appendix, 1618 2d ed., ib. 1638, the 2d edition inferior, however, to the first in many respects (contents see given in Hauck‑Herzog, RE, vii. 146‑147). New material was discovered and included in the collection in A. Gallandi, Bibliotheca veterum patrurn, vi. 515‑716, Venice, 1770. MPG, xliv.‑xivi. included all that had then ben discovered except what the editor rejected as of doubtful authenticity. An excellent edition, .with critical apparatus, was begun by G. H. Forbes, but only two parts appeared, Burntieland, 1855‑81. A selection of the works has been edited by F. Oehler, with Germ. tranel., Halle, 1864, and in the Bibliothek der Kirchenvater,'•vols. i. iv., Leipeic, 1858‑59. An Eng. tranel. of selected treatises and letters, with a sketch of the life, activities and characteristics, is in NPNF, 2d ser., vol. v., and the CatecAdical Oration, ed. J. H. Srawley, appeared London, 1903.
Consult: J. Rupp, Grepore du Bischofs won Nyssa Loben and Meinunpen, Leipsie, 1834; E. W. Moller, Greporii Nymeni doctrinam de homisis natura, Halle, 1854; J. N. Stigler, Die Psycholopie des heilipen Gregor von Nyssa, Regensburg, 1857; J. Huber, Die Philosophic der Kirchenvoter, Munich, 1859; L. Kleinheidt, Sancti Gregorii . doetrina de anpeiis exposita, Freiburg, 1860; P. Bouedron, Doctrines psychologiquea de 8. Grdpoire, Paris, 1861; F. BShringer, Die Kirche Christi and ihre Zeupen, trol. viii., Stuttgart, 1876; S. P. Heyne, Diaputatio
de Greporio Nysseno, Leyden, 1885; F. W. Farrar, Lives of the Fathers ii. 57‑82, New York, 1889; A. Krampf, Der Ursustand des Mensehen nach der LeAre des ... Gregor von Nyssa, W6reburg, 1889; F. Hilt, Des ... Gregor van Nyssa Lehre vom Afenachen, Cologne, 1890; W. Meyer, Die Gottealehre des Gregor von Nywa, Leipsie, 1894; F. Diekamp, Die Gotteelehre des . . . Gregor von Nysea, Mfinster, 1896; F. Preger, Die Grundlagen der Ethik des Gregor von Nywa, Leipsie, 1897; W. Vollert, Die Lahre Gregor# von Nyssa vom Guten and Bdsen, ib. 1897; F. Loofs, Eustathius, Halle, 1898; Ceillier, Auteure saer€j, vi. 119‑258, cf. iv. passim and v. passim; DCB, ii. 781768; Neander, Christian Church, vol. ii. passim, of. Index; Schaff, Christian Church, iii. 903‑908 et passim.

GREGORY THAUMATURGUS ("the WonderWorker "): Bishop of Neocaesarea in Pontus and an important ecclesiastical writer of the Eastern Church; d. about 270. His name was originally Theodore, and he came of a prominent heathen family in Neocaesarea, becoming acquainted with Christianity only after his father's death, when he was fourteen. With his brother Athenodorus, he studied law in the famous school at Berytus, but on a visit to Cmsarea he came under the spell of Origen, who had arrived there a short time before, and became his enthusiastic disciple, first in philoaophy and then in theology. The oration in which he expresses his gratitude to his teacher is valuable as affording an insight into Origen's methods of teaching, and as the first attempt at a Christian autobiography. Returning to Neootesarea with the in‑

k Gregory Thanmaturgue	THE NEW SCHAFF ‑HERZOG	74
Qregory
tention of pursuing the legal career for which he
had been educated, Gregory was consecrated bishop
of his native city about 240 by Bishop Phsedimus
of Amasia. According to tradition, there were
then only seventeen Christians in the town, and
Gregory is considered the founder of the Church
there. Of the marvels which were believed to have
accompanied his labors, there are three or, it
may be said four, accounts. These are the "Life
and Eulogy" by Gregory of Nyssa (MPG, x1vi.);
Rufinus' account of the miracles (Hilt. eccl., vii.
25); and the Syrian "Narrative of the Glorious
Deeds of the Blessed Gregory," preserved in a
manuscript of the sixth century, besides the account
contained in Basil, De Spiritu sancto, lxxiv. The
differences seem to exclude the hypothesis of a
common written source, as the similarities make
for that of a common oral tradition. The personal
and local knowledge of Gregory of Nyssa makes his
version apparently the most trustworthy; but the
legendary element is strong in all of them. Greg
ory governed his diocese for thirty years, took part
in the first, and probably the second, council held
against Paul of Antioch, and, according to Suidas,
died in the reign of Aurelian, leaving, it is said,
only as many pagans in Neocaesarea as he had
found Christians.
	A memorial of his work is found in his Epistola
canonica, on the regulation of church life in Pontus
after it bad been troubled by the invasion of the
Goths. Apparently, however, the demands of
practical life left him little time for literary activ
ity. His "Exposition of the Faith" was evidently
written to meet practical needs. A "Metaphmse
of Ecclesiastes" is attributed by some manuscripts
to Gregory Nazianzen, the most famous Eastern
bearer of the name; but Jerome (De vir. ill., lxv.;
In Eccl., iv.) definitely ascribes it to Gregory Thau
maturgus. It is more difficult to decide the ques
tion of authorship in the case of two treatises
ascribed to him in their Syriac translation, "To
Theppompus on the Impossibility of God" and
"To Philagrius on Consubstantiality." The for
mer offers striking points of resemblance with the
undoubted works of Methodius, both in general
structure and in detail. The Greek original of the
latter is found among the works of Gregory Nazi
anzen, and also of Gregory of Nyssa. The "To
Tatian on the Soul," a philosophical discussion of
the nature of the soul, found also in the Syriac,
is ascribed to Gregory in a passage of Nicholas
of Methone. The treatise commonly known as
Anathematismoi, on the other hand, is certainly not
his, whether it belongs to Vitalis or, as is more
likely, is an anti‑Apollinarian work of the latter
half of the fifth century. Caspari has proved the
Kata meros pistis to be a work of Apollinaris; and
the complaint is made as early as 500 that such
works were interpolated among the genuine wri
tings of Gregory. Of the fragments found in the
Greek, Syriac, and Armenian catenae, some are gen
uine and some spurious.	(N. BoNwLrsca.)
BIBLIoaRAPHY: Lists of literature are given in ANF, bib
	liography, pp. 65‑66; Fabricius‑Harlee, Bibliotheca Griew,
	vii. 249 sqq., Hamburg, 1801; KrGger, History, pp. 226
	sqq.; P. Batiffol, Anciennes lit6ratures chrdtiennes, pp.
180‑181, Paris, 1897.Editions of the Opera were pub‑
lished in Latin, ed. F. Mons, Venice, 1574, Rome, 1594; ed. G. Vossius, Mainz, 1804; in Greek, ed. F. Ducs'ue, Paris, 1622; and in MPG, x. Works were published separately, the Rpiatola canonica, in Routh, Reliquiae wcras, iii. 251‑283, 5 ,vole., Oxford, 1846‑48; the Metaphrasia, Greek and Latin, by A. Schott, Antwerp, 1613; the Expositio fidei, in Greek and English, in W. Cave, Lives of the Primitive Fathers, ii. 267, London, 1683, ef. C. P. Caspari, Alte and neue Quellen zur Geschichte des Taufsymbols, pp. 10 sqq., Christiania, 1879; F. Kattenbusch, Daq apostoliache Symbol, i. 338 sqq., Leipsic, 1894; A. and G. L. Hahn, Bibliothek der Svmbole and Glaubensregdn, pp. 253 sqq., Breslau, 1897; a Syriac tranal. of one of his works is in A. S. Lewis, Studio Sinaitica, pp. 19 sqq., London, 1894; Eng. transl. of the works is in ANF, vi. 7‑74.
Consult: V. Ryssel, Gregor Thaumaturgue, sein Leben and seine Schriften, Leipsic, 1880; idem, in Theologische Zeitachrift sue der Schweiz, 1894, pp. 228‑254; F. W. Farrar, Lives of the Fathers, i. 326‑330, New York 1889; J. Draseke, in JPT, vii (1881), 379 sqq., 724; E. Nestle, Benpel als Gelehrter, pp. 21 sqq., Tubingen, 1893; 0. Bardenhewer, Patrolagie, pp. 167 sqq., Freiburg, 1894; F. X. Funk, in TQS, 1898, pp. 81 sqq.; P. Kotschau, in ZWT, 1898, pp. 211 sqq.; Neander, Christian Church, i. 716‑720; Schaff, Christian Church, ii. 796‑800; Harnack, Dogma, ii.‑iv. passim; DCB, ii. 730‑737; Krtiger, History, pp. 226 sqq.; KL, v. 1184‑88.

GREGORY OF TOURS: Frankish bishop and historian; b. at Arverna, the present ClermontFerrand (250 m. s.s.e. of Paris), 538 or 539; d. at Tours Nov. 17, 593 or 594. He came of a noble Roman family, and originally bore the name Georgius 7lorentius, which he changed afterward out of veneration for his great‑grandfather, Gregory, bishop of Langres. A dangerous illness in 563 induced him to make a pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Martin at Tours, and his recovery fixed the religious tendency of his earlier years. On the death of Bishop Euphronius of Tours, in 573, he was chosen to fill the vacancy, and obliged by Sigibert I., at whose court he had been living, to accept. He devoted himself zealously to his episcopal duties, and also looked after the temporal welfare of the people of Tours. Tours had belonged to Charibert, on whose death (567) it came into Sigibert's possession, though it was incessantly contested by Chilperich, who, after Sigibert's murder in 576, ruled it until his own death in 584. Gregory took no active part in this conflict; but Chilperich and his partizans hated him, until his firm and wise behavior, when brought to trial on a false charge of having slandered Queen Fredegunde, made such an impression on the king that he maintained more friendly relations with him. These were continued by his successors, Guntchramnus and Childebert II., under whom he was frequently consulted on affairs of state. His literary activity began with a book (never completed) on the miracles of St. Martin in 575. Next came the history of Julian, a local saint. The Lrber in gloria mcrtyrum was written after 587; it, as well as the In gloria confessorum, celebrates by choice the deeds of Gallic saints. More important is the Ltber vito patrum, which gives information concerning a number of Gallic leaders of the period following the fall of the empire and the foundation of the Germanic states. But his best‑known work is his Historic Francorum, which he began not long after his consecration and continued down to 591, with some fragmentary additions in his later years. It be‑

75
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gregory Thaumaturgus Gregory
gins with a synopsis of the history of the world,
and at the end of the first book comes down to the
beginning of the Frankish conquest and the death
of St. Martin. The treatment grows more ex
tended as it comes down, the last seven years alone
filling four books. From the fifth book on it has
the character of contemporary memoirs. Without
graces of style, it has accuracy of statement and
an earnest endeavor to be impartial, though theo
logical and moralizing tendencies are sometimes
obtruded on the reader. Gregory wrote also a
commentary 'on the Psalms, of which only a few
fragments remain, and De cursu scellarum, which
served the practical purpose of helping to fix the
time for the night offices by the position of the
stars. 	(A. HAucg.)
Bisraoaserar: The Historia Prancbrum and other writings were first published at Paris, 1511‑12, then at Basel, 1568; the Opera were edited by T. Ruinart, Paris, 1699; a new critical ed. by W. Arndt, with the Miracala by B. Krusch is in MGH, Script. rer. Memo., i (1885), 450‑878; the Historia, ed. H. Omont, appeared Paris, 1886, and by G. Collon, ib. 1893. Ruinart's ed. is also in MPL, Ixxi. and in Bouquet, Recueil, vol. ii. Mention should also be made of the great edition by H. L. Bordier, 4 vols., Paris, 18574, containing the Vita by Odo and Jean Gilles, the latter of small value.
The Vita by Odo follows the preface in Ruinart's ed., ut sup., and is in MPL, lxxii. 115‑126; cf. Ceillier, Auteurs sacr&, x. 809, xi. 365‑409. Consult: J. W. L5be11, Gregor von Tours and seine Zeit, Leipsic, 1839; A. Thierry, R&ita des temps m6rovingiena, Paris, 1840; A. Dupuy, Vie de S. Gr€goire, ib. 1854; A. Jacobs, G€ographie de GrEpoire de Tours, ib. 1858; L. B. Des Francs, ttudm sur Grigoire de Tours, ib. 1861; C. Chevalier, Les Origines de lWlise de Tours, Tours, 1871; L. F. JAhan, Les L,~gendes veng6es, ou S. Gr4goire de Toura, ib. 1871; Holder‑Egger, in NA, i (1876), 268‑276; A. Ebert, Allgemeine Geachichte der Literatur des Mittelalters, i. 566‑579, Leipsic, 1889; M. A. Bonnet, Le Latin de Grigoire de Tours, Paris, 1890; Hiatoire litttraire de France, iii. 372‑397; Neander, Christian Church, consult the Index; Schaff, Christian Church, iii. 658‑661; DCB, ii. 771‑776.
	GREGORY OF UTRECHT: An early Frankish
missionary; b. 707 or 708; d. at Utrecht Aug. 25,
775 or 776. Ile was educated at the court school
and in the monastery of Pfalzl (diocese of Trevea),
where in 722 he met Boniface, whose constant com
panion he became. Toward the end of his life he
appears as a priest and head of the minater school
of St. Martin's in Utrecht. After the death of
Boniface, he was charged by Pope Stephen III.
and King Pepin with the evangelization of the
Frisians. His own work was mostly confined to
central Frisia, with his headquarters either at
Utrecht or at Wijk, though his influence extended
much further through his scholars. He refused
promotion to the episcopate, but in his later years
had the assistance of the Anglo‑Saxon Aluberht,
who was consecrated bishop at his request by the
archbishop of York in 767. 	(A. HAucx.)
BrswoosArar: The Vita by Liudger is in ASB, Aug., v. 241‑264 (cf. June, i. 483‑487), in MPL, xcix. 752‑770, and, ed. Holder‑Egger, in MGH, Script., xv (1887), 6379. Consult: A. Ebert, Allgemeine Geschichte der Literatur des Mittelalters, ii. 106‑108, Leipsie, 1889; G. F. Maelear, Apostles of Medimal Europe, London, 1888; Rettberg, %D, ii. 531; Hauck, HD, ii. 344 eqq.; Moeller, Christian Church, ii. 65.
GREGORY, CASPAR RENE: Lutheran; b. at Philadelphia, Pa., Nov. 6, 1846. He was educated at the University of Pennsylvania (A.B., 1864),
the Theological Seminary of the Reformed Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia (1865‑67), Princeton Theological Seminary (1867‑73), and the University of Leipsic (Ph. D., 1876). After the completion of his studies in Germany, he was appointed subeditor of the Theologische Literaturzeitung, and held this position until 1884, being also pastor of the American Chapel at Leipsic in 1878‑79. In 1884 he became privat‑docent of theology in the University of Leipsic and was appointed associate professor three years later, being promoted full professor in 1889, after having declined an appointment as professor of New Testament Greek at Johns Hopkins University in 1885. He has written the Prolegomena (3 parts) to the eighth major edition of %. von Tischendorf's Novum Testamentum Grwce (Leipsie, 1884‑94); Textkritik des Neuen Testamentes (2 vola., 1900‑02); Canon and Text of the N. T. (New York, 1907); and Das Freer Logion (1908). He has also translated C. E. Luthardt's Das johanneiache Evangelium under the title St. John the Author of the Fourth Gospel (Edinburgh, 1875) and the same scholar's commentary on the Gospel of John (3 vola., 18761878), in addition to assisting Charles Hodge in the preparation of his Systematic Theology (3 vols., New York, 1871‑73).
GREGORY, DANIEL SEELYE: Presbyterian; b. at Carmel, N. Y., Aug. 21, 1832. He was educated at the College of New Jersey (A.B., 1857) and Princeton Theological Seminary (1860). He was instructor in rhetoric in the College of New Jersey (1858‑60), and held pastorates at the South Church, Galena, Ill. (1860‑63), Second Presbyterian Church, Troy, N. Y. (1863‑66), Third Congregational Church, New Haven, Conn. (1866‑69), and South Salem, N. Y. (1869‑71). He was then professor of metaphysics, logic, and English literature in Wooster University, Wooster, O. (1871‑78), and president of Lake Forest University, Ill., (18781886). He was managing editor of the Standard Dictionary from 1890 to 1894, and from 1895 to 1904 was editor of The Homiletic Review. Since 1904 he has been secretary of the American Bible League and managing editor of the Bible Student and Teacher. He has written Christian Ethics (Philadelphia, 1875); Key to the Gospels (New York, 1877); Practical Logic (Philadelphia, 1881); Christ's Trumpet Call to the Ministry (New York, 1896); The Church in America and its Baptisms of Fire (in collaboration with S. B. Halliday, 1896); and The Crime of Christendom (Philadelphia, 1900).

GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT: English mathematician; b. at Yaxley (13 m. n. of Huntingdon), Huntingdonshire, Jan. 29, 1774; d. at Woolwich (7 m. e.s.e. of St. Paul's, London) Feb. 2, 1841. He received his training under Richard Weston, the Leicester botanist, and in 1796 settled in Cambridge, where he devoted himself chiefly to tutorial work. In 1802 he became mathematical master at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and in 1807 professor of mathematics there, a position which he held till 1838. He was editor of the Gentleman's Diary 1802‑19, and of the Ladies' Diary 1819‑40. He published a number of

Grellet	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	78
Qriesbach
books on astronomy, mathematics, and mechan
ics, and three noteworthy works of religious inter
est, viz., Letters to a Friend on the Evidences, Doc
trines, and Duties of the Christian Religion (2 vols.,
London, 1811; 9th ed.in Bohn's Standard Library,
1851); Memoirs of . . John Mason Good (1828);
and A Brief Memoir of the Rev. Robert Hall (pre
fixed to an edition of Hall's Works, 1832; printed
separately, 1833).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Knight, English Cycfopadia: Biography,
	iii. 193‑194, 27 vols., London, 18W70; DNB, mi. 103.
	GRELLET, grel"15', STEPHEN (Etienne de Grellet
du Xabillier): Missionary of the Society of Friends;
b. at Limoges (88 m. w. of Clermont), France, Nov.
2, 1773; d. at Burlington, N. J., Nov. 16, 1855.
The son of a wealthy French nobleman, he attended
the military college at Lyons and at seventeen en
tered the body‑guard of Louis XVI. During the
Revolution he and his brothers were captured and
sentenced to be shot. He escaped to Demerara in
1793, came to New York in 1795, and joined the So
ciety of Friends. He preached extensively in the
United States and Canada, also in Haiti, and made
four visits to Europe, preaching in England, France,
Germany, Norway, Sweden, Russia, Greece, and
Italy. He enlisted the friendship of Alexander I.
of F assia and induced him to introduce into the
Russian schools Biblical selections prepared by
himself and his friend, W. Allen. He also preached
before Pope Pius VII. and urged Protestantism
upon him. In 1834, on his return from a three
years' tour of Europe, he retired to Burlington.
On his missionary journeys he scrupulously de
frayed all his expenses, being enabled to do so
through successful business ventures in New York
City.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: B. 8eebohm, Memoirs of Stephen Grellet,
	Philadelphia, 1868.
	GRENFELL, BERNARD PYNE: Church of Eng
land layman; b. at Birmingham Dec. 16, 1869.
He was educated at Clifton College and Queen's
College, Oxford, where he bas been fellow since
1894, having already been Craven Fellow in 1893
1894. Since 1895 he bas been excavator and joint
editor to the Greco‑Roman branch of the Egypt Ex
ploration Fund (q.v.), and in this capacity has dis
covered papyri of the utmost importance, including
the famous Logic Jeau. He has edited Revenue Laws
of Ptolemy Pha7adelphus (Oxford, 1896); An Alex
andrian Erotic Fragment and other Greek Papyri,
chiefly Ptolemaic (1896); Uncanonical Gospel (1907)
and, in collaboration with A. S. Hunt, New Classical
Fragments and other Greek and Latin Papyri (Ox
ford, 1897); Sayings of Our Lord (1897); Menander's
Georgos (1897); The Oxyrhynchus Papyri (5 parts,
London, 1898‑1907); Fayum Towns and their Papyri
(1900); The Amherst Papyri (2 parts, 1899‑1900);
The Tebtunia Papyri (2 parts, 1902‑07); Greek
Papyri in the Cairo Museum (Cairo, 1903); New
Sayings of Jesus and a Fragment of a Lost Gospel
(London, 1904); The Hitch Papyri, i. (1906).
	GRESSMANN, grAdman, HUGO: German Protes
tant; b. at MSlln (17 m. s. of Ltibeck) Mar. 21, 1877.
He was educated at the universities of Greifswald,
Gottingen, Marburg, and Kiel (Ph.D., Gottingen,
1900), and since 1902 has been privet‑docent for
Old Testament exegesis and Syriac at the University of Kiel. He bas written Ueber die in Jesaia 56‑66 vorausgesetzten zeitgesehichtlichen Verhaltnisse (Gottingen, 1899); Studien zu Eusebs Theophanie (Leipsie, 1903); Uraprwieg der israelitischizldischen Eschatologie (Gottingen, 1905); and Des Evangelium Markus (1907; in collaboration with E. Klostermann).

GRESWELL, EDWARD: English chronologist and harmonist; b. at Denton (5 m. e.s.e. of Manchester), Lancashire, Aug. 3, 1797; d. at Oxford June 29, 1869. He was educated at Brasenose College and Corpus Christi College, Oxford (B.A., 1819; M.A., 1822; B.D., 1830), and was a fellow of Corpus Christi College 1823‑69 and vice‑president of the college 1840‑69. He took part in the controversy precipitated by the appointment, in 1836, of Renn Dickson Hampden to the regius professorship of divinity at Oxford; but otherwise his life at Oxford was uneventful. Some of his works are of high value, the most important being: Dims sertations upon the Principles and Arrangement of a Harmony of the Gospels (3 vols., Oxford, 1830; 2d ed., 4 vole. in 5, 1837); Harmonica evangelica (1830; 5th ed., 1855); An Exposition of the Parables (5 vols. in 6, 1834‑35); Prolegomena ad harmoniam evangelicam (1840); Fasti temporis catholici aged origines kalendarite (4 vols., 1852), followed by two volumes of Fables (1852); Origines Kalendarim Italics (4 vols., 1854); Oraginea Kalendarid Hellenicts (6 vols., 1862); and The Three Witnesses, and the Threefold Cord (London, 1862).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: DNB, ail. 158.

GRETER, gr6'ter (GRETTER, GRAETER), gASPAR: German Lutheran; b. at Gundelsheim (30 m. s.s.w. of Heidelberg) c. 1501; d. at Stuttgart Apr. 21, 1557. In 1519‑20 he studied at Heidelberg where he took his bachelor's degree in 1522, and then accepted the position of tutor in the house of Dietrich von Gemmingen. After the latter's death in 1526 he went to Brenz at Hall, and was recommended by him in 1527 to the town council of Heilbronn as a teacher. Here Johann Lachmann (q.v.) entrusted to him the spiritual instruction of the children, and Greter accordingly prepared in 1528 his Catechesis oder underricht der Kinder (enlarged ed., 1530). Against the conservative and libertinist party in Heilbronn he wrote Des der Christlich Glaub der einich gerecht and wahrhaftig aey (Nuremberg, 1530). He also published Drew schoen Psalmen (Ettlingen,1531), and translated into Latin the work of Brenz on matrimonial questions, under the title Tradatus caauum matrimonialium (Ettlingen, 1536).
On Dec. 8, 1531, Greter was commissioned to treat with the Carmelites on the question of accepting the Reformation, but, feeling the need of more knowledge, he went in Oct., 1533, to Heidelberg, where he took his master's degree on Feb. 10, 1534. He intended at this time to study law, but the Reformation in Warttemberg (1534) gave his life a new turn. In the fall he was called to the Herrenberg parish, where, in 1536, he prepared a catechism which attempted to reconcile those of Luther and Brenz. Together with other prominent theo‑

77	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Grrellet
		Grieebach
logiaas, he was summoned to Urach (Sept. 10,
1537), to discuss the abolition of images, in‑ regard
to which he took a moderate line. Soon after he
was called to Cannatadt and had a voice in the mat
rimonial court and in the theological examinations
in Stuttgart, where he was made court preacher in
1540. A sermon which he delivered in the spring
of 1542 so exasperated Duke Ulrich that Greter had
to flee. He went to his former pupil, Philip von
Gemmingen, and took up his abode in Neckar
miihlbach. The town of Wimpfen called him as
pastor, and at the same time, he was recommended
to the Margrave George of Brandenburg for the
vacancy at the collegiate church of Ansbach.
Meanwhile, however, he was recalled by Ulrich.
He now enjoyed the fullest confidence of the duke,
who sought his advice in all important questions
pertaining to the Church of Wurttemberg. It was
due to his quick influence that the period of the
Interim in Wiirttemberg did little harm, and that
the duke took care of the victims of the imperial
policy, such as Alber and Brenz. Greter rendered
further assistance to the latter by publishing in
1548 the Explicatio pstlmorum xciv. et cxxx., which
Brenz had written in the fortress of Wittlingen,
under the name of Gamaliel Gratius, and in 1552
the Catechismus pia et utili explications Wustratus,
composed by Brenz for the private use of his friends.
	After the death of Ulrich (Nov. 6, 1550) Greter
had the full confidence of the next duke, Christo
pher, with whom he lived at Ttibingen from 1551
to 1553, and whom he no doubt advised to appoint
Brenz to the highest ecclesiastical office in his gift.
He warmly defended Brenz in the answer of the
Swabiana to the Thuringians for his position in the
Osiandrian controversy.		G. BOssERT.
BniLIOGRAPBT: L. M. Fischlin, Memoria theoloporum Wir
	temberpensium, i. 3 sqq., 40 sqq., 281 sqq., 313 sqq., Ulm,
	1709; C. F. Sehnurrer, Erlauterumen der urirtemberpiechan
	KircherrRe/ormatione and Gelehrten‑Geschiehte, pp. 183 sqq.,
	Tiibingen, 1798; C. Jriger, Mittheilunpen der adhwdbisehen
	and /r4nkischen Re%rmationegeschichte, pp. 80 sqq., 268,
	Stuttgart, 1828; J. Brenz, Aneedota Brentiana, pp. 308,
	309, 363, 434 sqq., Tiibingen, 1868; ADS, ix. 599; Bo
	echrefbung des Oberamb Heilbronn, 2 vols., Stuttgart, 1901
	1903; Monumenta Germaniae paedapopica, vol. xxi., Ber
	lin, 1900; J. M. Rau, Quellen zur Gewhichte des kirdlichen
	Untemichta, Giitersloh, 1904.
	GRETSCHER, et'sher (GRETSERUS), JACOB:
Jesuit controversialist; b. at Markdorf (11 m. e.n.e.
of Constance) 1562; d. at Ingolstadt Jan. 29, 1625.
He joined the Society of Jesus in 1578, and became
professor in the University of Ingolstadt. Here he
polemized indefatigably in all departments of the
ology and history against Protestantism. In his
most important work, De sancta cmce, he treats of
the cross in its historical and liturgical aspects.
On account of his polemic zeal he was highly es
teemed by Roman Catholic princes and ecclesias
tical dignitaries. Constant fighting, made his
manner of speaking decidedly unpolished. His
collected works (229 separate volumes in print)
appeared in 17 vols., Regensburg, 1734‑39; the first
volume contains a biography. See FLAGELLATION,
FLAGELLANTS, II., § 6.	PAUL TsCHAC%ERT.
BIBLIoaRAPHY: BiblioWqw des lcrivains de la compagnie
	de Jiew, ed. C. Sommervogel, vol. i., Brussels, 1890; KL,
	v.1199‑1200.
GREVIRG gr5'ving, EARL MARIA NIKOLAS JOSEF: German Roman Catholic; b. at, Aachen (40 m. w. of Cologne) Dec. 24, 1858. He was educated at the universities of Bonn and Munich (D.D., 1893), and at the theological seminary at Cologne (18931894). He was then chaplain Successively at Essen (189496) and Cologne (1898‑99), and since 1899 has been privat‑docent for church history at the University of Bonn. He has written Patch von Bernried Vita Gregorii VII. Papce (Munster, 1893).

	GRIBALDI, MATTEO: Italian anti‑Trinitarian
of the sixteenth century; d, at Farges, not far from
Geneva, Sept., 1564. He studied law at Padua,
and when visiting Geneva gave offense by anti
Trinitarian utterances made in a meeting of the
Italian community. He was persecuted in Padua,
and began a restless, vagrant life. In 1555 he was
in Zurich, in Tiibingen (where he was appointed
teacher at the recommendation of Vergerio), then
at Fargea, whence be was sent to Bern. A par
tially satisfactory confession of faith assured him
permission to reside on his estate at Farges, in spite
of the objections of the Geneva theologians to his
orthodoxy. 	K. BENRATH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. M. Tracheal, Die proteatantiaclun Antitrinitasasr, ii. 277 sqq., Heidelberg, 1844; Fazy, in M& mares de l'inetitut Geneooia, vol. xiv., 1878‑79; J. H. Allen, Hid. of the Unitarians, p. 81, New York, 1894.

GRIESBACH, grSs'b8a, JOHANN JAKOB‑ German New Testament scholar; b. at Butzbach (11 m. s. of Giessen) Jan. 4, 1745; d. at Jena Mar. 24, 1812. He was educated at Tiibingen, Halls, and Leipsic, and after a tour through Germany and Holland to London, Oxford, Cambridge, and Paris, he entered the theological faculty of Halls as privatdocent in 1771. Two years later he was appointed professor, but in 1775 was called to Jena, where he taught until his death. He was a deputy to the diet, and took a keen interest both in political and in academic affairs. As a textual critic Griesbach marks a new epoch in this department of study. He commenced his investigations by collecting and sifting variant readings, devoting special attention to the citations of the Greek Church Fathers and to various versions which had hitherto been little studied, such as the Philoxenian, the Armenian, and the Gothic. He then investigated the history of the text in antiquity, and on the basis of this history he constructed his theory of criticism which was intended to determine the choice and value of each individual reading, and which rested essentially on a combination of historic fact and logical principle. He was the first to print the teat of the New Testament as modified by the results of his criticism. Before him there had been but two forms of the teat, both products of the sixteenth century, the so‑called Textus recepctta of Stephens and Elzevir, which represented unimpeachable orthodoxy in the eyes of the Lutherans, and that of the Complutensian Polyglot (see BIBLES, POLYGLOT, L) and Plantin, which had been adopted by the Roman Catholics and, in part, by the Reformed. Griesbach's editions of the New Testament, which aroused conservative opposition, appeared in the following order: 47m: Novi. Testaments h(2

Griesbaoh
Grindal
parts, Halle, 1774; the first three Gospels synoptically arranged); Epistollce omnes et Apocalypsis (1775; containing also a second, non‑synoptic, edition of the historical books). The synoptic edition has been frequently reprinted. The chief edition of the entire work is that published at Halle in two volumes in 1796‑1806 with a complete critical apparatus and important prolegomena. The text in all editions, however, is not identical. See BIBLE TExT, II., 2, § 4.
The other critical works of Griesbach are as fol‑
lows: De codiclbus quatuor Evangelistarum Origenianis (Halle, 1771); Cure in historiam textus Epistolarum Pavlinarum (Jena, 1777); Symbolw criticw ad supplendas et corrigendas roarids Novi Testamenti lectiones (2 parts, Halle, 1785‑93); and Commentarius criticus in textum Grwcum Novi Testamenti (2 parts, Jena, 1793‑1811; also containing his Meletemata de vetustis Nova Testamenti recensiont'bus). His other writings are of minor importance, being chiefly academic addresses collected by J. P. Gar bler under the title Opuscula academics (2 vols., Jena, 1824‑25). As a theologian, Griesbach assumed an intermediate position, conservative at heart, yet gradually yielding to the spirit of the times. Here his most important work was his Anleitung zum Studium der popularen Dogmahk (Jena, 1779), while his Vorlesungen aer Hermeneutik des Neuen Testaments, edited after his death by J. C. S. Steiner (Nuremberg, 1815), is a product of the grammatico‑historical school which was in vogue during its author's lifetime.
(E. Rmusst.)
BrawoORAPR7: J. C. G. Auguati, Ueber J. J. Griesbache Verdiensts, Breslau, 1813. Consult also: P. Schaff, Companion to the Greek Testament, pp. 82, 250‑252, New York, 1883; S. Davidson, Introduction to the Study of the N. T., i. 549, ii. 248, London, 1882; B. Weiss, Manual o/ Introduction to the N. T., ii. 419, New York, 1889; H. J. Holtsmann, Einfeitung in das N. T., pp. BO‑61, 343, 345, 354, Freiburg, 1892; A. Rilieher, Introduction to the N. T., pp. 325, 345, 620, New York, 19(1`1.
GRIFFIN, EDWARD DORR: American Presbyterian, president of Williams College; b. at East Haddon, Conn., Jan. 6, 1770; d. at Newark, N. J., Nov. 8, 1837. He was graduated at Yale in 1790, studied theology under Jonathan Edwards, and began to preach at New Salem, Conn., in Jan., 1793. In 1795 he became pastor of the Congregational Church at New Hartford, in 1801 associate pastor of the First Presbyterian Church in Newark, and pastor in 1807. He was professor of rhetoric at Andover Theological Seminary from 1809 to 1811. In 1811 he became pastor of the Park Street Church, Boston, but returned to his former pastorate in Newark in 1815. In 1821 he was elected president of Williams College. On resigning this office in 1836 he returned to Newark. He achieved success and distinction as preacher, educator, and author. His principal works are: Lectures Delivered in the Park Street Church (Boston, 1813); The Extent of the Atonement (New York, 1819); and The Doctrine of Divine Efficiency Defended (1833).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. B. Sprague prefixed a Memoir to the Sermons, 2 vole., Albany, 1838, of. idem, Annals of the American Pulpit, iv. 26‑43, New York, 1858; R. E. Thompson, in American Church History Series, vol. vi. passim, New York, 1895.
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
78
GRIFFIS, WILLIAM ELLIOT: Congregationalist'; b. at Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 17, 1843. He was educated at Rutgers College (A.B., 1869), after serving in the Civil War with the Forty‑Fourth Pennsylvania Volunteers during Lee's invasion of his native State. In 1870 he went to Japan for the purpose of organizing schools, and was successively superintendent of education in the province of Echizen (1871) and professor of physics in the Imperial University of Tokyo (1872‑74). Returning to the United States in 1874, he was graduated from Union Theological Seminary (1877), and served as pastor of the First Reformed Church, Schenectady, N. Y. (1877,86), Sbawmut Congregational Church, Boston (1886‑93), and the First Congregational Church, Ithaca, N. Y. (18931903), but in 1903 he resigned from the active ministry to devote himself to authorship and lecturing. He was a member of the committee of the Boston Congregational Club to erect a Pilgrim memorial at Delfshaven, Holland, and has traveled extensively in that country. In theology he is liberal, and distinctly subordinates doctrine to personal belief in Christ. He has written The Mikado's Empire (New York, 1876); Japanese Fairy World (Schenectady, N. Y., 1880); Asiatic History; China, Cores, and Japan. (New York, 1881); Corea, the Hermit Nation (1882); Corea, Without and Within (Philadelphia, 1885); Matthew Calbraith Perry (Boston, 1887); The Lily among Thorns (1889); Honda the Samurai (1890); Sir William Johnson and the Six Nations (New York. 1891); Japan in History, Folk‑Lore, and Art (Boston, 1892); Brave Little Holland and What she Taught us (1894); The Religions of Japan (1895); Townsend Harris, First American Envoy/ in Japan (1895); Romance of Discovery (1897); Romance of American Colonization (1898); The Pilgrims in their Three Homes (1898); The Student's Motley (New York, 1898); The Romance of Conquest (Boston, 1899); The American in Holland (1899); America in the East (New York, 1899); Verbeck of Japan (Chicago, 1900); The Pathfinders of the Revolution (Boston, 1900); In the Mikado's Service (1901); A Maker of the New Orient (Chicago, 1902); Young People's History of Holland (Boston, 1903); Sunny Memories of Three Pastorales (Ithaca, N. Y., 1903); Dux Christus: An Outline Study of Japan (New York, 1904); Japan in History, Folk‑lore and Art (1906); Japanese Nation in Evolution (1907); and The Fire‑fly's Lovers and Other Fairy Tales of Old Japan (1908).

GRILL, JULIUS VON: German Protestant; b. at Gaildorf (32 m. n.e. of Stuttgart) July 10, 1840. He was educated at the universities of Tabingen (1858‑62; Ph.D., 1873) and Heidelberg (1865‑66), and visited London, Oxford, and Paris for purposes of study (1865‑66). He was lecturer at the theologicakseminary at Tubingen (1867‑70), deacon in Calw (1870‑76), and a deputy member of the Halle conference for the revision of Luther's translation of the Old Testament (1871). In 1876 he was appointed professor at the seminary of Maulbronn, and four years later was made ephor of the same institution. Since 1888 he has been professor of Old Testament exegesis at Tubingen.

		Griesbach
79	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Grindal
He has written Der ochtundsechzigate Psalm erkM (Tubingen, 1883); Untersuchungen fiber die Entstehung des vlerten Evangeliums, i. (1902); Die persisAe Myaterienretigion in rbmischeqa Reich and das Chr4ztentum (1903); and Das Primat des Petrus (1904); and has edited the Sanskrit drama of Narayana Bhatta entitled Venaaamhdra (Leipsic, 1871) and translated Hundert .Laeder des AMarew Veda (Stuttgart, 1889).

GRIKM, JOSEPH: German Roman Catholic; b. at Freising (20 m. n.e. of Munich) Jan. 23, 1827; d. at Warzburg Jan. 1, 1896. He studied at the University of Munich, became a teacher in 1852, and a chaplain two years later. In 1856 he was appointed professor of Old and New Testament exegesis in the royal lyceum at Regensburg, but in 1879 was called to Wiirzburg as professor of New Testament exegesis. He was the author of Die Samariter and ihre Steddung in der Weltgeschichte (Regensburg, 1854); Die Einheit des Lukasevangeliuma (1863); Die Einheit der vier Evangelien (1868); Das Leben Jesu each den vier Evangelien (5 vols., 1876‑85); and Das alte Israel and die badeaden Kiinste (1889).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Schell and A. FJarhard, Gedenk‑Bldtter
zu Ehren des Dr. Joseph Grimm W iirzburg, 1897.
GRIMM, KARL LUDWIG WILIBALD: Professor of theology at Jena; b. at Jena Nov. 1, 1807; d. there Feb. 22, 1891. He studied from 1827 to 1831 at Jena, where he became privatdocent in 1833. He was appointed extraordinary professor in 1837, and honorary professor in 1844. Most of his life was spent at Jena, where he labored (church councilor from 1871, privy church councilor 1885) until, in 1888, at the age of eighty‑one, he lost his eyesight. His was the quiet life of a scholar, reverenced by his many pupils as prceceptor Thurin&.
Grimm's field of labor was the New Testament, although he also treated in his lectures theological encyclopedia (cf. ZWT, xxv., 1882, pp. 1‑24), symbolics, and dogmatics‑the latter on the basis of his Institutio theologies dogmatieae (Jena, 1848; 2d ed., 1869), which was composed in excellent Latin. Grimm broke his work up into various essays, which he published in periodicals, treating, in part, historical and critical questions of isagogics, in part, again, in an exegetical way, detached Biblical passages. His two principal works are the Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zu den Apokryphen des Alien Testaments, in collaboration with O. F. Fritzsche, for which he prepared the Books of the Maccabees (Leipsic, 1853‑57) and Wisdom (1860; of. ZWT, xvii., 1874, pp. 231‑238; six., 1876, pp. 121‑132; xxiv., 1881, pp. 38‑56); and his Lexicon gra:co‑Winum in lzros Novi TestameWi (Leipsic, 1867, 1878, 1888), which he prepared on the basis of Wilke's Clavis Novi Testamenti philoI1ogica (Eng. trand., with valuable additions, by J. H. Thayer, New York, 1886, 1889). What the older philological labor had achieved for the New Testament is here coordinated; and although the progress of modem times calls for a New Testament lexicon upon totally new foundations, Grimm's work will always retain an honorable place in the history of sacred philology (cf. Grimm's Kri.‑
tischrhwtoruche Uebersicht der neutestementlwAen
Verbauexica seit der Reformation, in TSK, 1875, pp.
479‑515, and 1877, pp. 512‑513; also his review
of Woaai's Cluvis, TSK, 1858, pp. 368 sqq., and of
Cremer's Btbliwi‑theology cUs Worterbuch, TSK,
1884, pp. 581‑589). Grimm also took part in the
revision of Luther's translation of the Bible (cf. his
LvdAerbtbel and ihre Texlesrevdaion, Berlin, 1874;
Kurzgefasste Geschwhte der tuthertschen BiUvber
setaung, Jena, 1884; ZWT, xv., 1872, pp. 521‑528;
TSK, 1883, pp. 375‑400). His theological stand
point was one of circumspect supernaturalism,
while all his works were characterized by great
painstaking, breadth of scholarship, and rare philo
logical acumen. 	E. voar Dosscafz.

BrexAoaserar: Proteatantiache Kirchenwittunp, 1883, nos. 19‑20, 1891, nos. 9‑10; H. J. Holtmmann, Einleitung in day N. T., paa4m, Freiburg, 1892.

GRIMME, HUBERT‑ Swiss lay Orientalist; b. at Paderbom (75 m. n.e. of Elberfeld), Germany, Jan. 24, 1864. He was educated at the University of Berlin (Ph. D., 1887), and, after teaching at the real‑school of Lippstadt in 1888‑89, accepted a call to the newly founded University of Freiburg a's privat‑docent. Since 1892 he has been full professor of Semitic languages and literatures in the same institution. He has written Mohammed (2 vols., Munster, 1892‑95); Grundzuge der hebraisehen Akzent‑ and Vokallehre (Freiburg, 1896); Psalmenprobleme (1902); Die weltgeschichtliche Bedeutung Arabiens (Munich, 1904); and Das israelitische I'fingstfest and der Plejadenkult, Paderbom, 1907.
GRINDAL, EDMUND : Archbishop of Canterbury; b. near St. Bees (26 m. s.w. of Carlisle), Cumberland, c. 1519; d. at Croydon (10 m. s. of London Bridge) July 6, 1583. He was educated at Magdalen College, Christ's College, and Pembroke Hall, Cambridge (B.A., 1538; M.A., 1541, D.D., 1564), where he was made a fellow in 1538, proctor of the university in 1548, and Lady Margaret's preacher in 1549. He was selected to argue on the Protestant side in one of the disputations held at Cambridge in 1549 and was afterward employed in such disputations elsewhere. In 1850 he became chaplain to Nicholas Ridley, bishop of London, in 1551 precentor of St. Paul's and chaplain to Edward VI., and in 1552 prebendary of Westminster. On the accession of Queen Mary he abandoned his preferments and took refuge in Germany, spending his exile at Strasburg, Wasselheim, Speyer, and Frankfort. He returned to London in Jan., 1559, took part in revising the liturgy, and also in the disputation held at Westminster to silence the Roman divines. In July, 1559, he was elected master of Pembroke Hall, and in the same month bishop of London. His sympathy for the Puritans unfitted him for the government of the diocese of London, the main stronghold of Puritanism, and in 1570, through the influence of Archbishop Parker, he was translated to the see of York. Early in 1576, when Queen Elizabeth was temporarily leaning toward Puritanism, Grindal succeeded Parker as archbishop of Canterbury; but immediately after his elevation Elizabeth, who

Qrigwold
Groningen
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
had now begun to court the favor of the Roman Catholic powers, found him in her, way and sought to get rid of him. For refusing to put down "prophesying.," meetings of the clergy to discuss the Scriptures, he was sequestered for six months in June, 1577, by order of the Star Chamber. His sequestration was subsequently prolonged to several years, and he was not fully restored to his office till 1582. His writings will be found in The Remains of Edmund Grindal (ed. for the Parker Society by W. Nicholson, Cambridge, 1843).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Strype, Life and Ads of . . . Edmund Grindal, 2 parts, London, 1710; idem, Annals of the Reformation, 4 vole., Oxford, 1824; W. Nicholson's Preface to the Remains, ut sup.; C. H. Cooper, Athena; Cantabrigienses, i. 470‑480, London, 1858; W. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury, new nor., vol. v., 12 vole., ib. 1860‑78; W. Clark, The Anglican Reformation, pp. 315‑324 et passim, New York, 1897; J. H. Overton, The Church in England, i. 448‑472, London, 1897; W. H. Frere, The English Chw•h . . . 1668‑IB86, passim, ib. 1904 (very full); DNB, axii. 261‑264.
GRISWOLD, SHELDON MUNSON: Protestant Episcopal missionary bishop of Salina, Kan.; b. at Delhi, N. Y., Jan. 8, 1861. He was educated at Union College (A.B., 1882) and at the General Theological Seminary, from which he was graduated in 1885. He was then rector at Union, N. Y. (1885‑88), Emmanuel, Little Falls, N. Y: (1888‑90), and Christ Church, Hudson, N. Y. (1890‑1903), being also archdeacon of Albany (1898‑1902). In 1903 he was consecrated missionary bishop of Salina.

GROEN, grOn, VAN PRINSTERER, GUILLAUME: Conservative Dutch statesman and religious leader; b. at Voorburg, an eastern suburb of The Hague, Aug. 21, 1801; d. at The Hague May 19, 1876. He studied classical philology and law at the University of Leyden, where he belonged to the circle which gathered around the poet Bilderdijk, from whom he received an impulse that led him to break with liberalism; but while Bilderdijk was a pronounced reactionary, Groen became the father and leader of the "antirevolutionary" party. In 1827 the king appointed him referendary of the cabinet; in 1829 he became secretary. In 1828 he went to Brussels, where he learned to know the Revolution, and also, through the "awakening" under the influence of Merle d'Aubign5, the Gospel. His watch‑word now became, "against revolution,.the Goapell" A severe illness forced Groen to resign his position as secretary, but in 1833 he became director of the royal archives, devoting himself principally to historical studies and the edition of the Archives ou torreapondance iMdite de la maison d'Orange‑Nasstdu (14 vole., Leyden, 1855‑82). In 1840 he was elected member of the "Double Chamber," which had been convened for the purpose of revising the constitution. With power and ability he defended and recommended his antirevolutionary principles. During the following eight years he kept aloof from practical politics, delivering before a select audience a famous course of historical lec. tures, which he published under the title Ongeloof en revolulie (" Unbelief and Revolution," Leyden, 1847)‑a powerful testimony against both evils and for Groen himself a confession of faith.
The period of his most vigorous activity now
so
began. In 1849 the district of Harderwijk sent him to the Second Chamber, of which he was a member until 1857. When he entered, he stood alone in his views, yet he did not hesitate to take up a vigorous campaign against Thorbecke, the leader of the liberal party. In spite of his strenuous activity, he found time from 1850 to 1855 to edit a daily paper, De Nederlander, for the propagation of his religious and political principles and supported it entirely from his own means. But everywhere he met either open or underhand resistance. He opposed with great zeal a bill advocating the emancipation of the school from the Church, and when it was passed in spite of his protests, he resigned his position as member of the Second Chamber. Later he entered it again for a short time, but in 1865 he turned his back on parliamentary life forever. His influence was still potent, however. He gave the impulse to the organization of the "Association for Christian‑National Instruction in Schools" (1861) and took an active part in its leadership. He worked for his conservative principles until his death, firmly believing that his ideas would in the end prevail among the people, in spite of the continual triumph of the parties opposed to him.
Groan was a faithful Christian, a Calvinist, and a Netherlander who knew and understood the history of his people. These circumstances explain his principles and actions. Faith and subjection to God were to him the highest ideals. Without them, he held, there is no salvation for a people. God's sovereignty must be acknowledged in the political sphere as well. Reason is corrupted by sin. Whoever enthrones the principle of reason is "revolutionary." The "revolutionary" principle in Church and State, school and science, must be opposed by the Gospel. He stood upon the ground of Christian history, and in church matters advocated the confessional tendency, being a decided opponent of the liberty of doctrine as it was advocated by the School of Groningen (q.v.). The influence of Groan's ideas is perceptible in the political and ecclesiastical tendencies in the Netherlands of the present, but owing to the fact that he did not succeed in uniting his thoughts in a compact system, there is no harmony among the different parties. His moat important works not already mentioned are: Handboek der Geschiedertia van hat Vaderland (Amsterdam, 1852), Maurice et Barteeveld, etude his‑
'~ 	torlqtie (187b), and a number of pamphlets on canon
	law. Beside his daily paper De Nederlander, he
	published also a political journal entitled Neder
	lartdache Gedachten. 	(S. D. veN VEEN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. J. Vos, Groan roan Prsnaterar en sign tiyd, 2 vole., Dort, 1888‑91; M. C. Stuart, in memoriam, Guillaume Groan van Prinaferer, Utrecht, 1878; J. T. Buija, in De tide. 1878, ii. b40‑b48; T. Wenaelburger, in Preusaische Jahrbftcher, al (1877), 203‑224; W. H. de Beaufort, in De (aide. 1883, iii. 92‑130. The correspondence of Groan van Prirmterer and his wife are collected in the three volumes: Groan van Prinaterer, Brieven roan Thorbecke, 1830‑1832, Amsterdam. 1873; Brieven van Isaac do Costa, 1830‑80, ib. 187&‑78; Brieven roan J. A. Wormeer, IB.¢8‑8,8, 2 vole., ib. 74‑78.
GRONIftGEN, gren'ing‑en, SCHOOL: A school of Dutch theologians and scholars, deriving its name from the university town of Groningen, where its founders and principal representatives lived and

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Griswold
Qroaincen
worked, though it originated at the sister university of Utrecht, under the influence of Philip Willem
van Heusde, a Platonist, who was proOrigin. fessor there of history and Greek from
	1804 to his death, in 1839, and exerted
much influence. He studied Christianity, accord
ing to his own statement, by reading the Bible and
"then only Plato." Christianity was to him a
doctrine of love, "which by its very nature is,_by
the fear of God, to reconcile men with men as chil
dren of the same Father." A number of disciples
gathered around Van Heusde, who all aimed at
reaching a deeper and independent knowledge of
Christianity and the truth by the study of the Gos
pel. At Groningen there existed a similar circle of
students who were not satisfied with the orthodox
doctrine of the Reformed Church of Holland. The
leading spirit of this circle was Petrus Hofstede de
Groot (q.v.). They pursued before everything else
the study of the New Testament, but were also
greatly influenced by German theologians like
Usteri, Twesten, and Ullmann. They too began to
study Plato and soon became acquainted with Van
Heusde. From Benjamin Constant's De la religion
(6 vols., Paris, 1824‑32) they adopted the idea
to them wholly new = "that religion has its source
in a special religious feeling which is innate, nat
ural." The two circles of students came into closer
contact when certain of them were called from
Utrecht to Groningen as professors (J. F. van Oordt
in 1829; L. G. Pareau, 1831; W. Muurling, 1840).
Hofstede de Groot became professor in 1829; and
his friends, C. H. van Herwerden and M. A. Ams
hoff, gained wider influence as pastors in Groningen.
They met together once a week to read the New
Testament, and it became evident to them that
the older Reformed theologians had understood
the Gospel	better than they. In 1835 a
theological society came into existence, which
met once every month. This society, called Waar
heid in Liefde ("Truth in Love"), in 1837 be
gan to publish a magazine which bore the same
name and spread the fruit of the studies of its mem
bers in larger circles. The "Groningen School"
then began to be talked about, and while violent
opponents arose, its influence among the churches
spread farther and farther.
The great merit of the Groningen School consisted in the fact that its system centered in the personality, work, and example of Christ. In this way it set a check to the intellectualistic orthodoxy
which overemphasized the teachings Distinctive of Christ. According to the school,
Doctrines. Christ is subordinated to God. He is
not God and man at the same time. He has in his heavenly as well as in his earthly life only one nature, namely the divine or spiritual nature, which is possessed by both God and man. God has given his revelation in Jesus Christ in order that mankind may become more and more similar to himself. In regard to its form, the revelation of God m Christ was new and peculiar, and accordingly was confirmed by miracles; but in regard to its content, it was the development and perfection of what God granted from the beginning. It must be conceived and explained as a historical phenomenon V.‑6
that was prepared by everything which God did before the birth of Christ, especially among the Greeks and Romans, and, in an extraordinary degree, in Israel; it was realized by the sending of Jesus, by his.activity among men, and the end to which he was destined; it is continued by his rule of the faithful, whose head he is, neat to God. The entire theology of the Groningen School was naturally closely connected with these Christological views, and it is self‑evident that the School had decisively to oppose Reformed dogmatics and to depart from the confessional standards. The dogma of the Trinity was rejected. The doctrine of predestination was restricted to the acceptance of election, while reprobation was rejected and its sense was changed. Christ did not die in order to satisfy God's justice which demands punishment; the death of Christ is a revelation of God's love which impels and guides man to crucify his sensual life and rise to the spiritual life. The Groningen School denied the infallibility of the Bible, and attributed higher authority to the New Testament than to the Old. It declared itself decisively against restrictions on liberty of doctrine, and against the obligation of the teachers of the Church to agree with the confessional standards.
	In 1835	the General Synod of the Reformed
Church of Holland approved of liberty of doctrine
in the sense of the representatives of the Groningen
School. In 1842 a new dispute arose concerning
its theology, but the synod adopted no measures
		against the school. Although the op‑
Growth position to the new tendency did not and cease, for a time it seemed as if the
	Decline.	influence of the Groningen School
		would continue dominant. Its ad
herents filled various chairs in universities, and thus
many future theologians were won for its views.
Among its preachers it counted many adherents who
distinguished themselves by scholarship and ability
to popularize their ideas‑A. Rutgers van der
Loeff of Zutphen and Leyden, L. S. P. Meyboom of
Amsterdam and Groningen, A. T. Reitsma of Gron
ingen, J. Donwes of Leens, and others. The
periodical Waarheid in Liefde lasted many years.
In 1867 a second periodical, Geloof en Vrijheid
("Faith and Freedom") was started and is still
in existence. The adherents of the school dis
tinguished themselves also by their practical labors
for home and foreign missions, circulation of the
Bible, schools for children, etc. For along time
they constituted the majority of synods. But con
ditions have changed. In the judgment of many,
the Groningen School did not go far enough; it was
not sufficiently negative for the more modern tend
encies; and, on the other hand, it did not satisfy
others because it was not positive enough. The
older Reformed principles, which give Christian
life a firmer basis, revived. The founders of the
school are dead, and their successors in professorial
chairs represent other views. Of the nineteen mem
bers of the synod, only one or two can now be
classed with the Groningen School.
(S. D. VAN VEEN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Hofatede de Groot, De Groninger God‑
geleerden in hunne eipenaardigheid, Groningen, 1855; idem,

Groote	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
VOftip iaar in do 7h®ologie, ib. 1872; G. J. Voe Asn, Groen roan Prinsterer en ziin tijd, i. 87‑8b, passim, Dort, 1888; J. H. Gunning, Hot prwestantxhe Nederland onzer dagen, pp. 26‑30, Groningen, 1889. The teachings of the school were embodied in Series oompendiorum theoiogicorurn in ‑ edwlarum academioarum, 7 vols., 1836‑81, embracing treatises on theological encyclopedia, hermeneutiM church history, Christian ethics, practical theology and dogmatics, and apologetice.

GROOTE (Groot, Groet, Groete, de Groete), GEERT (Gerrit, Gerhard): Founder of the Brethren of the Common Life (see COMMON LIP'S, BRETHREN oh Tim); b. at Deventer (8 m. n. of Zutphen), Holland, Oct., 1340; d. there Aug. 20, 1384. He was educated at the cathedral school of his native place, after which he studied theology, philosophy, medicine, canon law, astronomy, magic, and He‑
brew at the University of Paris. He Life. then went to Cologne, and even to
Prague (1360), and visited the papal court of Urban V. at Avignon in 1366. Two canonries and his private fortune enabled him to lead a gay and luxurious life, but while seriously ill in 1374 his early friend, Henry of Kalkar (q.v.), became the agent of his sincere and deep conversion. Groote now resigned his income, retaining only as much as was necessary for a modest living; in shabby attire he wandered about as a preacher of repentance, but he kept his books, and spent much of his time in study and prayer, associating only with his friends of like sentiments, Jan Cools, Henry of Kalkar, and Jan van Ruysbroeck, whom he had visited as early as 1377. For a time he retired to the monastery of Mbnnikhuizen, but after three years he came forward as public preacher of repentance. He declined ordination, and wished only to labor as a missionary preacher with episcopal permission. Before entering upon his work, he devoted the last part of his possessions to a dwelling for virgins and widows without monastic profession.
From place to place Groote went, preaghing in the vernacular at Deventer, Zwolle, Kampen, Amersfoort, Amsterdam, Haarlem, Gouda, Leyden, Delft,
and Zutphen. The churches were too His small to hold his hearers, on whom he
	Preaching.	impressed the vital question of the sal
		vation of the soul. He revealed the
iniquities of clergy and laity, preaching against
avarice, simony, and unchastity, while his fiercest
invectives were launched against "focaristee"
(priests living in concubinage) and against here
tics (the Brethren of the Free Spirit, q.v.).' His
influence upon the laity and clergy was profound
and lasting,. his followers including Florentius
Radewyns, Johannes Voss, Johannes a Rempis
(brother of Thomas), Heinrich Wilde, Berthold
ten Have, Johannes Waater, and the priests Jo
hannes Scutken, Johannes Klingerbiel, Werner
Keyenkamp, as well as Hendrik van Wilson,
burgomaster of Kampen, and the physician Ever
hard of Almelo or Eza. Groote's life and words
influenced his auditors deeply. His bishop often
invited him to preach, once before the General
Synod, and urged him especially to inveigh against
concubinage (1383). The secular clergy, on the
other hand, attacked him for his castigation of their
luxury, simony, and usury, while the monks assailed
him on account of his diatribes against their idleness and assumed poverty. The magistrates and laymen sided with them, even accusing him of heresy, and the bishop was induced to forbid preaching by those who had not been ordained, this prohibition naturally including Groote with the rest. In refutation of the charge of heresy he wrote his Publics proteatatio, while to offset the prohibition of preaching he referred unsuccessfully to the canon law. His influence was not diminished by these attacks, however, but showed itself especially in the school through which he wished to educate a better and wiser clergy, while his prestige was still more evident at Deventer and Zwolle, where the houses of the Brethren and Sisters of the Common Life and the congregation of Windesheim were founded.
In his teaching, Groote was in full accord with his Church, though his mode of life showed a certain legalistic trait. His day's work was strictly regulated. He slept seven hours, ate only once, and declined every invitation from outside. Prayer, meditation, and reading of the Bible and the Church Fathers filled the day. He heard mass each day, and also .ministered constantly to his fellow men, besides conducting an extensive correspondence. His control of the school was exercised chiefly through his devoted teachers, although he aided the pupils, whom he employed to copy manuscripts, and influenced them profoundly. He bad preached but three years and a half when! he died of the plague.
Groote's literary activity was essentially practical and pastoral. The most complete lists of his writings, some of which are still unpublished, are given by Bonet‑Maury (pp. 91 sqq.)
His and Anger (p. 272). Among his serSermons. mons special mention may be made of the following: De fgatrinis (reprinted in the Archief v<wr kerkelijke geschiedenie, i., Leyden, 1829, pp. 365‑379); Sermo in feato palmdrum de paupertate (ed. W. Moll, in Studien en bijdragen op 't gebied der historlsche theologie, ii., Amsterdam, 1872, pp. 432‑169); an informal sermon (ed. J. Van Vloten, in his Vemameling van nederland prowatukken, Leyden, 1851, and again in the Nieuw archief voor kerkehjke geechiedenis insanderheid van Nederlaad, ii., Leyden, 1854, pp. 299 sqq.); De vajf poente, die Meeater G. de Groot in den vnlke t' Utrecht predide, discovered in a Vienna manuscript of the year 1393 by F. Hellwald (ed. W. Moll in Studien en bijdragen, i., Amsterdam, 1870, pp. 404‑411); Sermo de septem mrbia Domini penderdw in eruee (not yet published); Sermo de nativitate Christi, mentioned by J. Foppens; Publica proteatatib de veridica evangelai prmdiratwne, written before he was forbidden to preach (ed. J. Clarisse from a Utrecht manuscript in Archief voor kerkelijke geechiadmis, i., Leyden, 1829, p. 359); Concluaa et proposita, non vota in nomine Domini a Mag. Gerardo edits, in the Vita by Thomas A Kempis, comprising rules of life and admonitions, often with slight relevance; Canaalium cuidam juveni datum, cut collate Pit eecleaia quadam, curatta ad inetantiam aororts sues (ed. J. Clarisse, in Archief, iii., Leyden, 1831, supplement 3, pp. 13 sqq.); Tradotus de matKmonio (ed.

as
RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Gxoots
GroDDer
J. Clarisse, in Archief, viii., 1836, pp. 129 sqq.), a eulogy of celibacy; and De locatiotte eedevamm, a discussion on leases of livings.
Groote's personality is reflected in his epistles. Twelve are given by Jan Busch in his Chroniaon
WindeMemenae (ed. K. Grubs, Halls, His 1886; ed., with other letters of Groote, Letters. J. Clarisse, in Archief, iii., Leyden, 1831, supplement 2, pp. 5 sqq.; ed. J. Acquoy, Gerardi Magni epidolw XIV., Amsterdam, 1857); eight were edited by P. de Ram in Compte rendu des a6ances de la Commission . . . bdgique (Brussels, 1860), pp. 66 sqq.; seven by Nolte in TQ, 1870; one in German addressed to a nun, by W. Moll in Studien en bijdragen, iii., Amsterdam, 1876, pp. 434 sqq.; and sixteen by W. Preger in AMA, iii., class xxL, part 1 (Munich, 1894). Many of his epistles were copied as independent treatises, such as the De mainmonio and De imUtutione noviciorum (the latter ed. L. Schulze, in ZHG, xi. 577).
Groote also rendered three works of his friend Ruysbroeck from Dutch into Latin: Ornatus ap‑tualium nu#iarum; De seem gradZta amoras; De duodecim virtuttbua; and translated from Latin into German for the sister houses several brief treatises (ed. W. Moll, Geert Groote's didache verWingen, Amsterdam, 1880).
The theological standpoint of Groote was that of Thomism. ‑ Accepting the theological teachings of his time, he rejected the mystic concepts of Ruys‑
			broeck, although he shared the ascetic
		His	doctrine of renunciation of the world,
	Theology. even while opposing it since the new
			devotion established and advocated
by him was to be promoted and spread in the world.
All his efforts were intended to lead souls to God,
but he can be called a Reformer before the Reform
ers only in a relative sense. He sought to carry
out hill principles in the community of brethren and
sisters, by the common life of clergy and laity, by
work (especially copying), and by the rejection of
mendicancy and monastic vows. He never opposed
the Church, but assailed the abuses among the clergy
and laity, and strongly advocated the reading of the
Scripture in the monasteries and schools, and by the
members of his communion, also urging the need
of a translation of the Bible into the vernacular for
the benefit of the laity. 	L. SCHULZE.
BIHwoa8APH7: Sources of knowledge are the writings of
Rudolph Dier de Muden, in G. Dunbar, Analecta, Daven
try, 1719; the writings of Johannes Busch, q.v.; and
the work of Thomas 8 Kemple, The Poundem o/ the New
Devotion, good edition in English by J. P. Arthur, Lon
don, 1905. Consult: C. Ullmann, Reformers before the
Reformation, ii. 59‑81, Edinburgh, 1877; G. Bonet
Maury, Gerard de Groote, un pr€curseur de la rt/orme au
1.(. *WU, Paris, 1878; idem, De opera wholaetica fralrum
vita; communie in Nederlandia, ib. 1889; idem, Lea PTf
euraeurB de la rbfmme . dams les pays Wine, Paris,
1903; A. Anger, in hfinoiree . pubii6e par l acadhnie
royale . . . de Belpique, alvi. 266 aqq., Brussels, 1892;
W. Preger, Geuhidhte der rdigifen Bewepunp in den Nis
derlanden im . . 1#. Jahrhundert, Munich, 1894; M.
SchOngen, Die Schule in Zwoile, vol. i., Freiburg, 1898;
RL, v. 1288‑‑89; end the literature under CouaoN LzF$,
BBxTaBEN OP T81..
CROPPER, JOHANN: Roman Catholic church politician of the Reformation period; b. in Soest
(65 m. n.e. of Cologne) Feb. 24, 1503; d. in Rome Mar. 13, 1559. After being made keeper of the seal of the archbishopric of Cologne, he was appointed scholasticus of St. Gerson in 1527. Gropper was an adherent of Erasmus, and aided the
At First a reform efforts of Hermann van Wied, Follower archbishop of Cologne (see HERMANN of Erasmus. VON WMD). This led him, after having completed his legal studies at Cologne in 1525, to devote himself to theological study. He edited the LandrecU of Cologne, and also the canons of the provincial council at Cologne held in 1536 (both published in 1538, together with a detailed manual of Christian doctrine [Enchiridion) which he had composed). In both of these Gropper's Emsmian tendency showed itself; in both he took pains to make the Bible and the Church Fathers his point of departure. In many matters, especially in the doctrine of justification, he approximated Protestant views, but he did not approve of the doctrine of the Reformers concerning the concept and the organization of the Church. He championed the seven sacraments and the veneration of images and relics. He rejected the doctrine of the priesthood of believers, he defended the hierarchical order of the Middle Ages and the primacy of the pope, though on these very points his differences with the representatives of the papal system were apparent. Protestant and Jesuit writers alike censured the book.
Gropper took a zealous part in the negotiations for church union and in the religious colloquies held in 1540 and 1541 in Hagenau, Worms,
	Later	and Regensburg. In the latter place
opposes the he secured agreement on the formu‑
Reforma‑ lation of the doctrine of justification; lion in but he and his sympathizers could not
	Cologne. reach an understanding with the
	Protestants about the organization of
the Church. 	When, therefore, Archbishop Her‑, felt himself committed to a far‑reaching

reform of ecclesiastical affairs in his archdiocese, and invited the Strasburg Reformer Martin Butzer for that purpose, Gropper came forward as the spokesman of the clergy of Cologne in opposition to the plans for Evangelical reform proposed by his former patron; as a representative of the cathedral chapter he sought in the Landtag of March and July, 1543, to persuade the Estates to oppose Hermann and Butzer. As he was unsuccessful, he prepared an answer to the memorial for reformation which the archbishop laid before the latter Landtag. The answer was approved by a committee of the cathedral chapter and was published in 1554 in its name, in German and Latin. When even this document did not convert the archbishop, Gropper and the members of his party lodged complaints against him with the emperor and the pope. Gropper now negotiated eagerly with imperial counselors. Ile addressed to the emperor his Wahrhaftige Antwort against what he claimed were false accusations by Butzer, but the latter proved the falsehood of Cropper's allegations. In connection with this fight against the heretics, Gropper came to favor the settlement of the Jesuits in Cologne. Canisius, who was especially advanced by him, praises in the

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
highest terms Gropper's merits in saving Romanism within the archdiocese of Cologne. When the victory was won, and in place of Hermann the previous coadjutor, Adolf von Schaumburg, had been enthroned with his assistance, Gropper received the provostahip in Bonn formerly held by a brother of Hermann. Under the new archbishop, Gropper worked by word and pen against the Protestants; he likewise acted as imperial commissioner for the carrying out of the Interim in his native city of Soest.
How little in accordance with his wishes, however, ecclesiastical affairs developed in the neat years, he himself states in a letter of 1556, in which he seta forth the reasons why he did Disappoint‑ not wish to accept the dignity of the ment of cardinalate which had been offered to his Later him. A letter of the following year
	Years.	betrays a still gloomier mood; he
		begged Canisius not to be suspicious
of him if he held aloof from the religious colloquy
soon to be held in Worms. In 1558 he saw new
dangers arise for those near him, when Johann
Gebhard von Manafeld was chosen archbishop of
Cologne. In order to prevent his confirmation by
the pope, Gropper decided to make the journey to
Rome, whither Paul IV. had formerly invited him in
vain. The pope received him with honor and
demanded his opinion in weighty matters; never
theless not only did he not accomplish that which
he wished in the Cologne affair, but he was de
nounced to the Inquisition by the Venetian Del
fino. On Mar. 13, 1559, he died in poverty, and was
buried in the church of Maria dell' Anima. The
pope, probably convinced by Gropper's defense that
he was innocent, spoke before a consistory on Mar.
15 in praise of the services of the deceased and
transferred his benefices to his brother Kaspar.
As a papal nuncio Kaspar was later the zealous
servant of the Counterreformation, which directed
its efforts against the Erasmian tendency which
Gropper had once represented; with the result
that in 1596 Gropper's Enchiridion, "the most
detailed and most important pre‑Tridentine dog
matic of the Reformation period," was put upon
the Index. 		K. VAl11tENT1tAPP.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The writings of Cropper and the literature on him are recorded in a careful article in Ersch and Gruber, Encyclopadie, section L, vol. acii., 1872. For later investigations consult ZKG, xx (1899), 37 sqq.; KL, v. 1239 sqq. Consult also: F. H. Reuseh, Der Index der roerbotenen Bfcher, i. 318, 468 et passim, Bonn, 1883; A. Hasenelever, Die Politik derSchmalkaldenerroorAuabruurh des achnwlkaldiachen Kriega, pp. 25 eqq., Berlin, 1901.
GROSSETESTE, gr6s'test, ROBERT: Bishop of Lincoln; b. in Suffolk c. 1175; d. at Buckden (4 m. s.w. of Huntingdon), Huntingdonshire, Oct. 9, 1253. He was of humble birth, but studied at Oxford and Paris. On his return to England he entered the service of William de Vere, bishop of Hereford, on whose death in 1199 he went to Oxford as teacher, becoming later rector scolarum, and in 1224 the first rector of the Franciscans at Oxford. During the Oxford period he held .several preferments, including two prebends in Lincoln, and the arch‑, deaconries of Wilts., Northampton, and Leicester.
In 1235 he became bishop of Lincoln, then the
84
moat extensive see in England. His episcopal administration was marked by zeal in advancing its spiritual interests, and not seldom by the use of arbitrary and high‑handed measures. He attacked the corruption and condemned the incompetency of the clergy, and instituted a systematic visitation of his diocese. With the monastic institutions he was especially severe, removing in the first year seven abbots and four priors. His vigorous course aroused such opposition that in 1237 an attempt was made to poison him. In 1239 began his long quarrel with the Lincoln chapter, which denied him the right of visitation. Finally he suspended the dean, excommunicated the prior, and went to Lyons to secure a papal decision of the case, which was decided entirely in his favor by a bull of Innocent IV., Aug. 25, 1245. Groaseteate returned to England as an obedient agent of the pope; but his attitude toward papal claims soon underwent a complete change. In 1250 he again visited the pope at Lyons. Here on May 13 he delivered a celebrated sermon, in which he declared that the papal court was the origin of all the evils in the Church, and urged the necessity of appointing competent pastors. On his return to his diocese he assailed the Italian ecclesiastics who were fleecing English parishes. He found by computation that the annual incomes of the foreign clerks in England appointed by Innocent amounted to seventy thousand marks, more than three times the clear revenue of the king. For refusing to admit an Italian ignorant of English to a rich benefice in his diocese he was suspended temporarily in 1251. Early in 1253 he refused pointblank to induct Frederick of Lavagna into a canonry at Lincoln, to which he had been appointed by his uncle, Innocent IV. In a plain but respectful letter the bishop told the pontiff that it was his duty to make appointments for the edification, not for the destruction, of the Church (Epist., caxviii.). This letter has done more to perpetuate G`rosse. testes fame than any of his other works.
Groaseteste's relation to the state was one of independence. He rebuked ecclesiastics for holding civil offices, and asserted that to St. Peter belonged both swords, and that a bishop did not in any sense derive his authority from the civil power. He not only .dared to refuse to execute the royal commands in his diocese, as the one regarding the legitimization of children born before wedlock, but told the king the plainest truths, and on more than one occasion refused to install his appointees in office, threatening even to excommunicate the royal offender.
Like Luther, previous to the Diet of Worms, Groeeeteste had trusted in the pope, and hoped for relief from Rome for the ecclesiastical corruption of England. Once undeceived, he was drifting rapidly away from all veneration for the pontiff, when death overtook him. In a conversation on his death‑bed with the scholarly cleric and physician, John of St. Giles, he gave a definition of heresy, and asked whether the pope did not fulfil it. "He was the open rebuker of both the pope and the king, censor of prelates, corrector of monks, instructor of clerks, and unwearied examiner of the books of Scrip‑

85	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Gronper
		Grotaus
ture, a crusher and despiser of the Romans," re
ports the chronicler Matthew Paris. He was buried
with great pomp at Lincoln, the archbishop of
Canterbury and several bishops being present at
the funeral. This seems to disprove the state
ment that the pope had excommunicated him.
Miracles were reported at his grave, but in vain did
prelates and King Edward I. (1307) apply for his
canonization.
	Grosseteste has been called a "harbinger of the
Reformation," and he was the first link in the
chain of the Reformation in this sense, that Wychf
appealed to him, and quoted his protest against
Rome, as, later, Luther quoted Huss, and Huss
learned from Wyclif. In his impetuous and fear
less temper he resembles Luther. Not only Wyclif,
but others, like Bishop Hall, delighted to find in the
Bishop of Lincoln a support for their Scriptural
views, or, like Richard Field, to use his name
against the claims of the pope to supreme authority
in the Church (Of the Church, iv. 384 sqq.).
	Grosseteste was one of the most learned men of
his time and a voluminous author. His writings
include works on theology, commentaries on Aris
totle and Boethius, essays on physical and mental
philosophy, translations from Greek authors, also
French poems, and even works on husbandry. A
list of his works given in Pegge's Life covers twenty
five closely printed quarto pages.
			D. S. SCHAFIr.
BIHLIOGRAPRY: The best sources for a life are: his own
	Epiatolle, ed. H. R. Luard, no. 24 of Rolls Series, London.
	1861; Matthew of Paris, Chronica majora, and Annales
	monastici, ed. H. R. Luard, no. 36 of Rolls Series, 5 vols.,
	London, 1864‑69. Lives have been written by: $.
	Pegge, London, 1793; R. Pauli, Tllbingen, 1864; G. G.
	Perry, London, 1871; G. V. Lechler, Leipsic, 1884; J.
	Felten, Freiburg, 1887; and F. s. Stevenson, London,
	1899. Consult further H. Wharton, Anglia sacra, ii.
	325‑348, London, 1891; J. H. Overton, The Church in
	England, i. 231‑243, ib. 1897; W. R. W. Stephens, The
	Evlglash Church (1086‑1,870, ib. 1901; M. Creighton, His
	torical Lectures and Addresses, pp. 116‑149, ib. 190.3;
	DNB, xxiii. 275‑278.
	GROSSMANN, CHRISTIAN		GOTTLOB LE
BERECHT: German Lutheran; b. at Priesanitz,
near Naumburg (17 m. s.s.w. of Merseburg), Nov.
9, 1783; d. in Leipsic June 29, 1857. He was edu
cated at the University of Jena; and was appointed
assistant minister, then pastor, and in 1822, teacher
and deacon at Schulpforta.	In 1823 he became
general superintendent of Altenburg, in 1829 pas
tor at St. Thomas' Church, superintendent, con
sistorial assessor, and professor of practical the
ology at Leipsic. He applied himself to the study
of Philo and the Apostles' Creed, and was active in
reconstructing the constitution and reorganizing the
administration of the State Church of Saxony. He
was one of the founders of the Gustav‑Adolf‑Verein
(q.v.). On occasion of the bicentennial commem
oration of the death of Gustavus Adolphus, Nov.
6, 1832, he proposed a foundation for the support of
poor Evangelical congregations, and after the main
society was established he belonged to its governing
board and presided over its general conventions.
		GEoRO MtTLLER.
BIBIaoaRAPIIV: F. Blanckmeister, Vater Grossmann, der
	Grander des GUBlaV‑Adolf‑Verans, Barmen, 1889 ; G.
Miiller, Ver/aeaungs‑ and Venaaltungsgewhichte der s&ch‑
sischen Landeskirche, i. 206‑208, Leipaie, 1894; G. Fuchs,
C. G. L. Grossmann, der Leipziger Superintendent, Leipsie,
1907; ADB, ix. 751‑752.
GROSSMANN, LOUIS: American rabbi; b. at Vienna Feb. 24, 1853. He came to the United States at the age of eleven and was educated at the University of Cincinnati (B.A., 1884) and the Hebrew Union College in the same city, receiving his rabbinical diploma in 1884. In the same year he was called to Detroit, Mich., as rabbi of Temple Beth El, where he remained until 1898, when he was chosen to succeed I. M. Wise as rabbi of Congregation B'nai Yeahurun, Cincinnati, and also as professor of ethics, theology, and pedagogics in the Hebrew Union College. In theology he is an adherent of Reformed Judaism. He has written Judaism and the Science of Religion (New York, 1889); Maimonides (1890); Hymns, Prayers, and Responses (Detroit, Mich., 1894); The Jewish Pulpit (1894); and an edition of The Selected Writings of Isaac M. Wise (Cincinnati, 1900).
GROTIUS, gr6'abi‑us (DE GROOT), HUGO: Dutch statesman, lawyer, and theologian; b. at Delft Apr. 10, 1583; d. in Rostock Aug. 28, 1645. He owed his first instruction to his learned father and to the minister Jan Uytenbogaert (q.v.). When he was twelve years old he became a pupil
of Scaliger at the Leyden academy. Early Life. In 1598 he accompanied Oldenbarne‑
velt and Justinus van Nassau to Paris where the fame of his learning was already publicly known. On his return he was promoted doctor in law at Orldans. After having established himself as a lawyer at The Hague, the States appointed him advocate‑general at the Court of Holland and charged him with writing the history of the rebellion against Spain, which was not published till after his death. Abroad he was known as a Latin poet by his Adamus exul and his Christus patiens, and as a lawyer by his Mare liberum, which led to an extensive correspondence with the learned men of his age.
His political career began with his being appointed pensionary of Rotterdam in 1613. From this time he attended the sessions of the States of Holland and the States‑General, but was at the same time entangled in the quarrel between the
Remonatrants (q.v.) and Contra‑RePolitical monstranta. He was the defender of Career. Oldenbarnevelt's ecclesiastical policy,
Theological which was intended to prevent a rupContro‑ ture in the Church. He took an acversies. tive part in extraordinary measures to
maintain peace in different places and was opposed to the convocation of a National Synod. During the revolution of 1618 he was put in prison and condemned to be shut up for life at the castle of Loevenatein. Here he occupied himself for two years with philological and theological studies, then escaped on Mar. 22, 1621, and fled to Paris. There he lived till 1631 with his wife and children.
Under the mild government of Frederik Hendrik he at length ventured to return to his native country, but he was disappointed in his expects‑

Grotius
(?roves and Trees
tiona and went to Hamburg. Arrived there he was invited by Gustavus Adolphus to enter the Swedish
service. Before the matter was arSwediah ranged, the prince died in the battle Ambassa‑ of Liitzen, but Oxenstierna carried
dor in on the negotiations and soon after
Paris.	Grotius made his appearance as Swe‑
dish ambassador at Paris. After having occupied this post for ten years, he went to Stockholm, where the Queen Christina received him with much distinction. She offered him a place of honor, but he secured release from further service. On his return he was shipwrecked and arrived at Rostock seriously ill and died there.
Hugo Grotius was also an excellent theologian. His natural disposition and the religious agitation
of his age led him involuntarily to Grotius as theological studies. Few men were so Theologian. well versed in Christian literature of
earlier and later times. At Loevenstein as well as in Paris he occupied himself with writing expositions of the Bible, which were published under the titles Explioatio trium utiliasimorum locorum Novi Testamenti, Amsterdam, 1640; Commentatio ad loea Novi Testamenti quo de Antichristo agunt, 1640; Explicatio Decalogi, 1642. His writings were not a commentarius perpetuus but annotationes, explaining difficult passages in a few words. He declared that the Bible had nothing to do with dogmatism, and dealt with the books of the Bible as with literary writings according to grammatical rules, and explained the words of Jesus and the apostles by quoting passages from Greek and Latin authors. According to his opinion the books of the prophets contained real prophecies, but concerning Israel only. He was the first to deny the Solomonic authorship of Ecclesiastes. His Annotationes, afterward also incorporated in the London Polyglot and Critici saeri, excelled by their impartiality. To him belongs the honor of first having applied the historical‑philological method to the explanation of the Scripture. He was the precursor of Emesti.
Grotiua's book De Veritate religionis Christian is no less celebrated. At Loevenstein he wrote a Dutch didactic poem as a manual for sailors to help them refute pagans and Mohammedans; later he worked it over in Latin prose at Paris and published it there 1627. This book was published again and again, and translated into many languages, including Arabic and Urdu. It shows how little Grotius esteemed the dogmas of the severe Lutherans and Calvinists, and caused him to be considered the founddr of the scientific apology and gives him a place next to Pascal.
In more than one writing Grotius has shown his irenie tendency‑e.g., Via ad pacem ecclesiasticam, Amsterdam, 1642 ; Votum pro pace ecclesiastiea, 1642. He wanted peace in the Church and a Chris‑
tianity without religious discord. He His Irenic would admit in one ecclesiastical alTendency. liance not only Remonstrants and
Contra‑Remonatrants, but also Lutherans and Socinians, even Roman Catholics. In his time, however, he was misunderstood. With Arminius he believed in the universality of divine
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
se
grace, but he did not want to be taken for a Pelagian (Diaquisttio an Pelagiana aunt ea dogmata quee nunc sub so nomine traducuntur, Paris, 1622). As to the doctrine of reconciliation he differed from Augustine and Anselm, but in his Defentio , fides: catholicce de aatiafadione Christi adversua F. Socinum, 1614, he defended the doctrine of the Church. He regretted that the Reformation had brought so much quarreling among Christians. It was his conviction that the English Church had done better than Calvin, taking from Catholicism what was not repugnant to the Gospel and suffering the ancient organization of the Christian Church to remain. His Annalm et hiatorim de rebus Belgicia, 1657, and his Historia Gothorum, Vandalorum et Longobardorum, 1655, are not without importance for church history. His Dissertatio de cants ad_ ministrations ubi paatores non aunt, 1638, belongs to liturgies. His De imperio summarum potestatum circa. sacra, Paris, 1647, to canon law. Although he had chosen a political career, he deserves a place of honor among the theologians of his age, and also among the world's greatest benefactors; for he laid the foundations of the modern international law in his great book, The Rights of War and Peace.
	His Opera appeared, 4 vola.,	Basel, 1732. In
English translation there have appeared: Two
Tracts: 1. Whether the Sacrament of the Lord's Sup
per May be Administered Where There are no Pas
tors t 2. Whether it be Necessary at All Times to
Communicate with the Symbols f (London, 1700);
The Mourner Comforted (1652); A Poem on the
Holy Sacrament (Edinburgh, 1732); Adamua Exul;
or, the Prototype of Paradise Lost (London, 1839);
Annals and History of the Low‑Countrey Wars
(1665); The Whole Duty of a Christian (1711);
Christ's Passion, a Tragedie (1640); A Treatise of
the Antiquity of the Commonwealth of the Battavers
(1649); The Right of the State in the Church (1651);
The Rights of War and Peace (1738; abridged
transl., 1853); The Truth of the Christian Religion
(new ed., 1859); A Defence of the Catholic Faith,
Concerning the Satisfaction of Christ against Paustus
Socinus (Andover, Mass., 1889); Joseph, a Tragedy
(London, 1652); A Letter to the States Ambassador
(1675); Politick, Maxims and Observations (1654).
		(H. C. Roaaat.)
BIBLIOasAP87: C. Brandt and A. van Cattenburgh, Hia‑
torie roan hot leven van H. de Groot, 2 vole., Amsterdam,
1727; J. Levesque de Burigny, Vie de Grotius, acec t'hist.
de $ea ouvrages, 2 vols., Paris, 1752, Eng. tranal., London
1754; H. Luden, H. Grotius each semen Schicksalen and
Schriften, Berlin, 1808; C. Butler, Life of Hugo Grotius,
London, 1826; G. F. Creuser, Luther and Grotius,
oder GTaube and Wiwenecha/t, Heidelberg, 1846; d. L.
Motley, John o/ Barneoetd, vol. i., chap. x3di., New York, 1874; L. Neumann, Hugo Grotius, 1653‑16.;6, Berlin, 1884; D. Nesmith, Makers o/ Modern Thought, 2 vole., New York, 1892.
GROVES, ANTHONY NORRIS: English missionary; b. at Newton (20 m. n. of Winchester), Hampshire, 1795; d. at Bristol May 20, 1853. He studied chemistry in London, took up dentistry under his uncle, James Thompson, and at the same time studied surgery in the London hospitals. In Feb., 1813, he settled as a dentist at Plymouth, but removed to Exeter in 1816, and in 1825 took charge of a small church at Poltimore, near Exeter.

87	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Grotins
		Groves and Trees
With a view to taking orders he studied at Trin
ity College, Dublin, where he associated with John
Nelson Darby and other early Plymouth Brethren
(see DARBY, Jowl NEI$ON;t~pand PLYMOUTH Brrrm
REN). His proposal in 1860 that Christians meet
together in brotherhood, with no other tenets than
faith in Christ, entities him to be regarded as one
of the founders of this sect. In 1829 he went as
an independent missionary to Bagdad, whence he
proceeded to Bombay in Apr., 1833. With the
exception of two visits to England to secure re
cruits for the missionary cause, he spent the neat
nineteen years in effective missionary work in India.
Of interest are his Journal . . . Diving a Journey
from London to Bagdad (London, 1831); and his
Journal of a Residence at Bagdad Draing the Yom
1880 and 1881 (1832).
BmLj0G86PH7: Memoir and Corraspondenoe o) d. N. (hover,
	by his widow, London, 1866; W. B. NesAby, HiA of the
	Plymouth Brethren, ib. 1902; DNB, ntii. 299‑300.
	GROVES AND TREES, SACRED: In all stages
of religious development the use of groves as
places of worship is attested. These groves were
not the result of deliberate choice, but marked
the locality in which some superhuman being was
supposed to be or to have been manifest. It is
most probable that sacred groves in populated
regions and in historical times were survivals of
parts of the early forest around the spot where a
divinity had revealed itself, since the area thus
honored was protected by taboo (see COMPARATIVE
RELIGION, VI., 1, c). It often happened, however,
that these groves were in part the result of man's
assistance of nature, that trees were planted and
carefully reared and protected, as in the case of the
great sacred park at Antioch; but where this was
the case it was always bemuse tradition, generally
a very ancient one, regarded the place as hallowed
by some supposed theophany or like manifestation.
Not seldom the tradition suggests the actual divin
ity of the grove itself or of some individual tree in
it (as when a part of the sacred oak was built into
the Argo in the expedition of the Golden Fleece).
The progress in the development of regard for a sa
cred grove may be stated in this way: in the ani
mistic period the tree itself was divine and gave
omens or warnings, in a later period the tree was the
home of a spirit or deity, while still later a deity
used the tree to indicate his will.
	Among the Semites the tree cult was indigenous,
so that the Hebrews on coming into Canaan found.
the practise established. The Semites regarded
certain trees as connected with the fructifying
powers of nature, and in many cases with female
deities‑and this is doubtless one cause of the severe
denunciations of the prophets of Israel (see below).
So the moon was brought into this connection, espe
cially as giving moisture in the shape of dew (see
A$HERAB; AsHroRwH; and MooN); and in the
Astarte‑Aphrodite circle of cult, the cypress, myrtle,
palm, and pomegranate were sacred to this deity.
But a large portion of the great region inhabited
by the Semites is characterized by a scarcity of
tree growth. As a consequence, among Semites it is
much more common to hear of the sacred tree than
of the grove. Hence the Passages in the Old Tes‑
tament where the A. V. speaks of groves the R.V. either changes the translation or, where proper, correctly transcribes the Hebrew original "Asherah" (see ABHERAH).
Aside from the Asherah, which was probably a survival of tree‑worship (cf. G. A. Barton, Semr is Origins, pp. 87 eqq., New York, 1902), the traces of a tree cult in the Old Testament are quite numerous. Abraham built an altar to Yahweh at "the tree of the seer" (Gen. xii. 6‑7, Hebr. Won moreh, A.V. "plain of Moreh," R.V. "oak of Moreh," margin, "terebinth"; d. Judges iv. b, according to which Deborah dwelt under "the palm‑tree of Deborah "). Moreover, Abraham took up his residence, built an altar, and witnessed a theophany by the terebinths of Mature (Gen. Ioii. 18, ziv. 13, aviii. 1, Hebr. 'elowm, Septuagint Wi drut, A.V. "plain," R.V. "oaks," margin "terebinths"). He planted a tamarisk (Hebr. 'sahd, AN. "grove") at Beersheba and "called there on the name of Yahweh" (Gen. aai. 33), and this place was held sacred by Isaac (Gen. aavi. 25) and by Jacob (a1vi. 1), and apparently by Joshua, who set up the stone of witness "under tire oak (Hebr. 'aRah) that was by (in) the sanctuary" at Sheclem (Josh. naiv. 26); but of. Judges ix. 6, where the terebinth (Hebr. 'clan) seems to have been sacred to Basl‑berith, while in Judges ix‑ 37 it is called (ILV. margin) "the augurs' terebinth," and note II Sam. v. 24, where the signal for marching is given by rustling in the mulberry‑trees. Jacob buried the rejected idols under the terebmth (Hebr. 'dah) which was by Shechem; Deborah, Rebekah's nurse, was buried beneath "the oak of weeping" below Bethel (Gen. xxav. 8), and the ashes of Saul and his sons were buried under the tamarisk in Jabesh (I Sam. xxxi. 13). The theopbany of Es. ii. 2 is connected with a bush. Gideon witnessed a theophany under the terebinth at Ophmh (Judges vi. 11 sqq.) and built an altar there. Possibly Saul's place of encampment under "the pomegranate" (I Sean. Iav. 2) and his place of judgment under the tamarisk on the height (I Sam. a:ui. 6; cf. Judges iv. b sqq.) were sacred spots. The "green tree" as a place of idolatry is noted in I Kings aiv. 23; II King avi. 4; II Chron. gaviii. 4. In later times, just as the worship at the high places and at the numerous altars came undue the ban of the prophets, though these altars seem to have existed with the approval of earlier prophets (cf‑ I Kings via. 14, "altars" in the plural), so this worship under "oaks, poplars, and terebinths" was regarded as sinful (Has. iv. 13; cf. Ira. i. 29, lviL 5, 1zv. 3, lavi. 17; Deut. xii. 2; Jer. fi. 20, avii. 2). lAek. vi. 13 (cf. xx. 28) is quite decisive of the trees as places where idolatry was practised. Burton (ut sup., p. 90) thinks that the story of Judah end Tamer (Gen. axxviii.; note that Hebr. famar, memo "Palm,,) indicates that a palm clan was incorporated into the tribe of Judah, the palm in this case being a totem (cf. the place name Baai‑tamer, judges ax. 33). Tlie same authority, sees saae6ity in the mention (Ex. av. 27) of seventy pshDtrees and twelve springs (possibly a combination of asered trees and springs). It is not unlikely that Jerxbo, the city of palm‑trees (Dent. xxxiv. 3; Judges i. 16, iii. 13),

Qrueneieen
Grundtvig	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	88
was once a sacred city. It is noteworthy that the
pomegranate and the palm‑tree formed part of the
adornment both of Solomon's temple (I Kings vi.
vii.) and of Ezekiel's (Ezek. x1i. 18), and the cheru
him are connected with both. In elucidation of
the last fact Barton, in a striking passage (cat sup.,
pp. 91‑92), quotes Tylor as suggesting that the
cherubim were personifications of the wind which
was so important in fertilizing the male date palm.
The two trees, originally perhaps only one, in Gen.
ii.‑iii. were explained in the Book of Enoch (chap.
xxiv.) and by the rabbis generally as date palms,
and the two varieties of palms, male and female,
were associated with the discovery of sexual dis
tinction in man. 	GEo. W. GILmORE.
BIHLIGGuAPHY: W. Baudisein, Studien zur semitiachen Relipionegeschichte, ii. 143 eqq., Leipsie, 1878 (list of older literature on p. 184); B. Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel i. 455, Berlin, 1887; A. von Gall, Altisraelitischen Kulb e, pp. 23‑28. Giessen, 1898; Smith, Rel. o/ Sem., pp. 125, 169, 174‑175, 178‑179, 185‑197; ED, iv. 4892‑93; 'and the work of Barton cited in the text. On the general tree‑cult the most important work is J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough, 3 vols., London, 19W; idem, Adonis, Attic, Osiris, London, 1906; Stark, in Berichte der kaniglichsacheischen Gesellseha#t der isaenschaften zu Leipzig, Phil.‑hilt. Clasee, viii (1856), 32‑120; M. OhnefalschRichter, Kypros, die Bibel and Homer, pp. 32‑227, Berlin, 1893; H. C. Trumbull, Threshold Covenant, pp. 228 sqq., New York, 1896; Mrs. J. H. Philpot, The Sacred Tree or the Tree in Religion and Myth, London, 1897; H. P. Smith, Old Testament History, p. 135, New York, 1903; Evans, in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxi. 106 sqq.; Folk‑Lore, vi. 20 aqq.

GRUENEISEN, grlUn‑ni'sen, CARL: Theologian, preacher, art patron, and poet; b. at Stuttgart Jan. 17, 1802; d. there Feb. 28, 1878. His parents educated him in the spirit of true religion, and also that of genuine artistic liberality. He studied at the gymnasium of Stuttgart and in 1819 entered the University of Tubingen, where he studied theology. In 1824 he visited the principal cities of Germany, and was attracted by the theology of Schleiermacher in Berlin. Then he traveled to Italy where he showed a deep interest in the treasures of ancient and medieval art. King William I. of Wiirttemberg appointed him court chaplain and field chaplain of the guards. In 1835 he entered the consistory; in 1846 he became court preacher. He took a prominent part in reforms of liturgy, hymn‑book, and church constitution, and awakened a sense for art in the Church. In 1847 with Immanuel Faisat he organized a "Society for Classical Church Music," and in 1857 a "Society for Christian Art in the Evangelical Church of Wiirttemberg." In 1846 the king sent him to the first German Evangelical Church Conference in Berlin which had been convened for the purpose of bringing about a closer union between the German state churches, from which sprang, in 1852, chiefly under the influence of Graneisen, the Church Conference of Eisenach which elected him its president regularly from 1852 to 1868 (see EISENACH CONFERENCE). On account of his Prussian sentiments he incurred the displeasure of King Charles, the successor of William. In 1868 he was forced to resign his position, but the consistory appointed him honorary member. In 1870 he retired altogether from official activity, and devoted himself
to art, chiefly in the service of the Church. He published Predigten fur Gebildete in der Gemeinde (anonymously, Stuttgart, 1835); Die evangelischen Gottesdienstordnungen in den oberdeutschen Landen (1839); Christliches Hausbuch in Gebeten and Liedern (1846; 7th ed., 1883); and five collections of Chrisaiche Reden (1856‑63). In the sphere of Christian art he published: Ueber bildliche Darstellung der Gottheit (1828); Ueber das Sittliche in der bildenden Kunst bei den Griechen (1835); De, protestantismo arttbus hand infesto (1839); Ulms Kun8tleben im Mittelalter (with E. Mauch, 1846); and (his most important work) Niklaus Manuel, Leben and Werke vines Malers and Dichters, Kriegers, Staatsmanns and Reformators im 16. Jahrhundert (1837). He also edited an art journal, Christliches Kunstblatt fur Kirche, Schule and Haus. (H. MosArr.)
BIHmoGHAPHY: Luthardt, in Aligemeine eoangelisd‑Lutherische Kirchenaeitung, 1878, pp. 233 sqq.; Gottschalk, in Unsera Zeit, 1878, p. 628; W. Litbke, in Kunetchronik, supplement to Zeieechrift far bildende Kunst, 1878, pp. 386 aqq.
	GRUENSLEDER, grftns‑16'der, (GRUENLLEDER,
GRUENSLEDERER), ULRICH: German Hussite;
burned as a heretic at Regensburg Mar. 31, 1421.
He came from Vohenstrauss (near Weiden, 32 m. s.e.
of Baireuth) in the Upper Palatinate, was educated
at Regensburg, was ordained priest, and, about
1420, occupied the post of chaplain in Regensburg.
The Hussite doctrines, toward which a portion of
the Bavarian clergy just then inclined, found a
zealous adherent in GrUnaleder. He translated
sundry writings of Huss into German, dissemina
ting the same in lay circles, and by clandestine
sermons sought to gain a following for Hussite
ideas. In May, 1420, he was seized as a heretic.
Notwithstanding prolonged custody under the In
quisition, he could not be induced to abjure his
heretical persuasion. Consequently he was put to
death. 	HERMAN HAUPT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Andrew of Regensburg, Cronica de espeditionibus in Bohemian contra Husaistas haereticos, ed. K. HMer, Geschichtaschreiber der husitischsn Bewepunp, in Fontes rerum Auetriacarum, Division 1, vol. vi., part 2, pp. 427‑458, Vienna, 1866; idem, Chronicon generals, in B. Pes, Thesaurus anecdotorurn novissimorum, iv. 723, Augsburg, 1723; H. Haupt, in Historisdes Taschenbuch, 6 ser., vii. 246‑247.
GRUETZMACHER, GEORG: German Protestant: b. at Berlin Dec. 22, 1866. He was educated at the universities of Lausanne, Berlin, and Halle (Ph. D., Heidelberg, 1892), and in 1892 became privat‑docent for church history and New Testament exegesis at Heidelberg, where he has been associate professor of church history since 1896. He has written Untersuchung caber den Ursprung der in Zacharia 9‑I!t vorliegenden Prophetien (Berlin, 1892); Die Bedeutung Benedikts van Nursia and seiner Repel in der Geschichte des Monehtums (1892); Pachomius urul das liltede Klosterleben (Leipsie, 1896); Die evangelische Landeskirche des GrossJkerzogtums Baden (Freiburg, 1898); and Hieronymus: biographische Studien zur alten KirehxngesehicW (2 vols., Leipsic and Berlin, 1901‑06).
GRUETZMACHER, RICHARD HEINRICH: German Protestant; b. at Berlin Dec. 3, 1876. He was educated at the universities of Heidelberg and

89	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Granneisea
		Qrnadtvfg
Berlin (lic. theol., 1901), and in 1902 became privat
docent at Greifswald. In the following year he
was appointed to his present position of associate
professor of systematic theology at Rostock. He
has written Wort and Geist, eine historasche und dog
matische Untersuchuug zum Gnadenmittel des Wortes
(Leipsie, 1902); Weltweites Chridentum (Ham
burg, 1904); Studien zur sgstematischen Theologie
(2 parts, Leipsie, 1905); Modems positive Vortrage
(1906); and Ist das liberals Jesusbild modern f
(1907).
	GRUNDEMANN, PETER REINHOLD: German
Protestant; b. at Bnrwalde (48 m. n.e. of Berlin)
Jan. 9, 1836. He was educated at the universities
of Tabingen, Halle, and Berlin (1854‑58), and was
assistant pastor at Pouch, near Bitterfeld (1861
1863). He was then prison chaplain at Frankfort
on‑the‑0der for two years, after which he was a char
tographer in the establishment of Justus Perthes,
Gotha, for four years, preparing a missionary atlas.
Since 1869 he has been pastor at Morz, near Bel
zig.	In 1882 he founded the Brandenburg mis
sionary conference, of which he has since been
the president. In addition to his work as editor
of G. E. Burkhardt's Kleine Mission"liothek (4
vols., Bielefeld, 1876‑81) and of the Jahrbuch der
nordostdeutschen Missions‑Kanferenz, he has pre
pared Allgemeiner Missions‑Atlas (Goths, 1868
1871); J. F. Riedel, sin Lebensbild (Gtitersloh,1873);
Kleiner Missions‑Atlas (Calw, 1883); Zur Statistik
der evangelischen Mission (Giitersloh, 1886); Die
deutschen Schutzgebiete in Afrika and in der Sudsee
(1886); Die Entwicklung der evangelischen Mission
im letzten Jahrzehnt, 1878‑1888 (Bielefeld, 1890);
Missions‑Studien and Kritiken (2 vols., Giitersloh,
1894‑98); Neuer Missions‑Atlas (Stuttgart, 1896);
and Kleine Missiamgeographie and Statistik (1901).
He also contributed ten parts to the Domen and
Aehren vom Missionsfelde (Berlin, 1887‑1904).
	GRUNDTVIG, grfmt'vig, NICOLAI FREDERIK
SEVERIN: Danish bishop, poet, and hymn‑writer,
was born at Udby, near Vordingborg (on the s. coast
of the island of Seeland, 52 m. s.w. of Copenhagen),
Sept. 8, 1783; d. at Copenhagen Sept. 2, 1872. _In
			1800 he entered the University of Co
		Early	penhagen and passed his theological
	Life and examination in 1803. From his mother
	Works.	he inherited an inclination to history
			and poetry, and his active mind took a
deep interest in the events of his own time, and he
became interested also in the songs of the Edda and
the medieval chronicles of Snorre Sturleson and Saxo
Grammatirua. In 1805 he became private tutor
upon the small island of Langeland. Later he oc
cupied himself in the study of Shakespeam, Goethe,
Schiller, Schelling, and Fichte; translated some of
the German masterworks into Danish; and pub
lished at Copenhagen in periodicals treatises on the
fundamental thought of northern mythology, on
the reform of the liturgy in the Danish Church, and
on the lack of solid scientific education which he
found among the students and officials of the coun
try. In 1808 he went to Copenhagen as school
teacher, and published the same year a peculiar
poetical book, Nordene Myt)wlogie ("Mythology
of the North "). Other literary works of this period were a dramatization of the Icelandic saga of the Jomsvikings under the title, OPtrin of Kcempelivets Undergang i Nord ("Scenes from the Decline of North Vikingism," Copenhagen, 1809), and a compilation of the W81sungsaga, Optrin of Norners og Asers Kamp ("Scenes from the Struggle between Norns and lEsir," 1811).
A change in Grundtvig's life ensued when his aged father summoned him to become his assistant at Udby. His trial sermon treated the theme that the unity of history must be sought in
Ordina‑ the effect of Christianity upon the nation; Con‑ tions. Shortly after it was published
flict and in 1810, six influential clergymen of
Mental Copenhagen addressed a complaint to
	Struggles.	the ministry of public affairs, alleging
		that the sermon contained a series of
insulting charges against the whole clergy. Grundt
vig was reprimanded, but his sermon spread among
the laity in Denmark and foreign countries. About
this time he underwent experiences like those of
Luther in the monastery, seriously asking himself
whether he was a Christian and whether his sins
were forgiven. This mental suffering was aggra
vated by physical weakness due to overexertion.
In June, 1811, he was ordained and devoted him
self with great zeal to his duties as pastor. But he
also felt that the gifts which he possessed as poet
and historian should be employed for the renewal
of old Lutheran Christianity in his vocation. He
asked prominent men of his country to cooperate in
the revival of the Danish State Church, but re
pelled many of his friends by his admonitions. In
1812 appeared his Verdens Kriinike ("World His
tory") in which he openly criticized men who were
still alive and active. At a convention of ecclesi
astics in 1814 Grundtvig offended again by his de
nunciations of the clergy. From 1813 he had lived
in Copenhagen and had frequently preached there;
but after this offense pastors hesitated to admit
him to their pulpits. Before 1811 he had broken
with that part of the educated world which stood
on the ordinary ground of the eighteenth century.
Those who had been influenced by Steffens had
almost all separated from him between 1812 and
1814. Now he was deprived even of the opportunity
to preach.
To occupy his time and energies he turned to literary work. He began to translate Snorre's history of Norway, which had been written in Icelandic, and Saxo's Historic Danica. A
Resume. rich Dane induced him to publish a
tion of Danish translation of the Anglo‑SaxLiterary on poem Beowulf. For seven years
	Work.	(1815‑21) translations filled up all his
		time. Christianity had taught him to
see a brother in the lowliest of his fellow men, and
he intended his translations principally for the com
mon people. He aimed to revive the northern
heroic spirit for the performance of Christian deeds
in a manner adapted to the needs and conditions
of his time. For this purpose he considered it nec
essary to adapt his written word to the understand
ing of the plain people and to find a genuinely
Danish mode of expression as he heard it among

Grundtvic
Gualther	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	90
peasants and read it in the old rimed chronicles of the Middle Ages and in collections of popular proverbs and heroic songs. Many found his new language too artificial and affected, and for some years Grundtvig's activity as a poet ceased, but when he resumed his pen, he had mastered his mother tongue as never before. From this later period of his life principally have proceeded the folk‑songs and hymns which are now sung in Danish schools and churches and have exercised such a strong influence upon Danish national and ecclesiastical life.
In 1821 he resumed his clerical activity as pastor of PrBestG, a small town in southern Seeland, and the next year he was called to the chaplaincy at the Church of our Savior in Copenhagen. He looked with anxiety at the growing doubt of the learned concerning the origin and authenticity of the Bible,
and was disturbed by assertions that Later the fundamental doctrines of the
Clerical Church‑the Trinity, the divinity of
Activity. Christ, and the Atonement‑are not in
the Bible at all. He sought for a sure, universal, and powerful testimony, valid for the layman and the scholar alike, and found it in the Apostles' Creed. In 1825 he became involved in a controversy with H. N. Clausen, professor in Copenhagen, the representative of the reigning rationalism, in which his violent language occar sioned a civil suit as a result of which he was sentenced to pay a fine, and forbidden to publish without permission of the royal censor. From that day a party of "Grundtvigians" existed in the Danish Church.
In 1828 Grundtvig's second retirement began. He now devoted himself to the study of the history of the world. He published %r6nike‑Riim tit Borne‑Lcerdom ("History in Rime for Children," Copenhagen, 1829), and Haandbog i Verdertahistorien ("Handbook of the World's History," 3 parts, 1833). In 1829, 1830, and 1831 he visited
England to study the Anglo‑Saxon Second manuscripts, and gave a powerful imRetirement. pulse to the study of Anglo‑Saxon
	Later	there. The individual liberty in Eng
Work and land made a deep impression upon
Interests. him, and after his return to Denmark
he worked for its realization in his own country and advocated the erection of schools "for popular scientific training and civil education." He visited England again in 1843, and his travels deeply influenced his views concerning the Danish Church. The great problem for him became to preserve the State Church and yet allow the life of the church to develop as freely as possible. He advocated liberty of doctrine and rite among the pastors, and maintained that laymen should be at liberty to sever their parochial connection and join another parish, to legalize which a law was enacted in 1855 and amplified in 1868. In 1839 Grundtvig was made chaplain of the Vartov (a home for aged indigents) in Copenhagen. It was essentially a free congregation within the national Church. He translated certain Psalms as well as Greek, Latin, Anglo‑Saxon, English, and German hymns, and also made slight changes in the expression of the
Danish hymns. In this way originated his SrsngVdrk Q den Danske Kirke (" Hymn‑Book for the Danish Church," Copenhagen, 1837), which gave to song in the Danish churches a new and very original character. Although Grundtvig never had support among the leading bishops of Denmark, his influence upon the Church increased greatly during the last thirty years of his life. At the fiftieth anniversary of his ordination (1881) the king conferred upon him the title of bishop with the rank of the bishop of Seeland.
(L. Scnaanaa,.)
Bmwofi81PHY: a. Kaftan, Grundtoip, der ProPUt des Norde»e,Bawt 1878; H. Brun, Biakop N. F. B. Grundtoipa
Lewietalo6, 2 vols., Bolding, 1879‑82.

GRUSCHA, grfi'ahd, ANTON JOSEF: Roman Catholic cardinal; b. at Vienna, Austria, Nov. 3, 1820. After the completion of his studies he was in charge of various parishes and instructor in religion at the Theresianum gymnasium of his native city. He was then cathedral preacher and for many years was the confessor of the Archduchess Sophie. In 1863 he was appointed professor of pastoral theology at the University of Vienna and fifteen years later was made apostolic chaplain of the Austrian army and consecrated titular bishop of Carrhae. In 1890 he was enthroned prince archbishop of Vienna, and in the following year was created cardinal priest of Santa Maria degli Angeli. Throughout his life he has been deeply interested in the cause of the working men, and is a member of the Roman Congregations of the Propaganda, Index, Discipline, and Indulgences.

GRYIPEUS, gri‑nf'us (GRYNER): A family of Swabian origin which produced several celebrated Reformed theologians.
1. Simon Gryn us was born at Vehringen (40 m. s. of Stuttgart), Hohenzollern‑Sigmaringen, 1493; d. at Basel Aug. 1, 1541. He studied at Pforzheim and at the University of Vienna and became professor of Latin (1524) and of Greek (1526) at Heidelberg. In 1529 he was summoned to Basel to succeed Era‑emus, who had left the city upon the introduction of the Reformation. Delay in the reorganization of the university, which was not effected till 1531, afforded him opportunity for a journey to England, where he was entrusted by Henry VIII. with the task of obtaining the sanction of the Reformed theologians to the king's desired divorce from Catherine of Aragon. This favorable attitude to Henry's plans, which he shared with the majority of Swiss theologians, he was induced to change by the influence of Butzer. After the death of (Ecolampadius in 1531 Grynaeus refused to contend with Myconius for the post of antistes of the church in Basel, but received in addition to his chair in Greek the appointment of extraordinary professor in theology, in which capacity he delivered lectures on New Testament exegesis. In 1534 he was entrusted by Duke Ulrich of Wiirttemberg with the establishment of the Reformation in his territories and the reorganization of the University of Tiibingen. In 1536 he took part in the drawing up of the so‑called First Helvetic (Second Basel) Confession and in 1540 was the only Swiss represent‑

91	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	=he~g
ative at the Conference of Worms. He died of the plague in the following year. Grynwus was one of the greatest scholars of his time; in Greek especially few were his rivals. As a theologian he die` tinguished himself by his broad knowledge, clear insight, and repugnance for controversy.
2. Johann Jakob Grynaus, grandnephew of Simon, was born at Bern Oct. 1, 1540; d. at Basel Aug. 13, 1617. He studied at the universities of Basel and TObingen, and in 1565 succeeded his father in the pastorate at Rotelen near Basel, whence he went to the city, in 1575, as professor of the Old Testament at the university. At this time he definitely abandoned his Lutheran views on the Eucharist. In 1584 he was entrusted by the Elector Palatine John Casimir with the reorganization of the University of Heidelberg, but returned to Basel in 1586 as successor to Sulzer in the post of antiates of the church. Connected with this office were the duties of pastor at the cathedral, president of the city clergy, archdeacon of the territory of Basel, and professor of theology at the university. In the internal history of the church at Basel his administration is important as marking the downfall of the movement toward Lutheranism fostered by Sulzer and the assimilation of the doctrines of the church of Basel with that of the other Swiss churches. The Basel Confession of 1534, set aside by Sulzer, was reissued by Gryneeus in 1590. Blindness, which overtook him in 1612, did not prevent him from continuing his duties as pastor and professor.
S. Johann Grynteus (1705‑44) was an Orientalist of note and one of the founders of the Frey‑Grynwan Institute at Basel.
4. Simon Grynteus (1725‑99), the last of the name, is known as a translator of antideistic writings from French and English, and as the author of a Bible version in the taste of his time (Basel,
1776). 	(R. STiiaEraNt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY'. 1. The Literce, with an index of the works of Simon Gryneaue, were edited by G. T. 8treuber, Basel, 1847, who in the Baaler Taechsnbwh for 1853 wrote a sketch of the life. Consult also R. Thommen, (Jeachichte der Un4veradf5t Basel 16,2‑IB32, Basel, 1889.
2. The EgiatoLca fomiliaree of J. J. Grynarus, ed. 8. A.
Apinus, appeared Frankfort, 1715; a Vita, by J. J. and H. a Brun, gathered from his own. writings, was published Basel, 1818. Consult K. R. Hgenbach, Hr%tieche Geachichte . . . der crates Basler Confession, pp. 137‑158, Basel 1827; idem, Die theologiache $chule Bawl&, pp. 1617, ib.1880; R. Thommen, utsup., pp. 117‑131.
GUALBERTO, gwiil‑bia,r'to, GIOVAIPNI: Florentine nobleman, founder of the Order of Vallombrosa; b. in Florence 985; d. July 12, 1073. According to tradition, his father sent him to avenge the murder of a kinsman, and on Good Friday he found the assassin in a defile. The murderer, however, in his prayer for mercy, raised his arms in the form of a cross, whereupon his life was spared. Gualberto then hastened to the church of the Benedictine monastery of San Miniato near Florence, where he knelt in prayer before the crucifix. In recognition of his act of mercy, the head of Jesus bowed to him, and he then resolved to consecrate himself to the Church and the service of God. In 1038 he became a monk, but before long joined the hermits of Camaldoli (see Cexelrnorrr>,s), only
to leave them shortly afterward.with the intention
of founding an order of his own for contemplative
piety. With two other hermits, he began the exe'
cution of his plane in the valley of Aquabella or
Vallombrosa (whence his order was to take its name)
near Camaldoli, and there he was soon joined by
others. Gualberto's order won such approval that
it soon attained considerable strength, and was
divided by its founder into religious, lay brothers,
and laity, the second class being apparently first
introduced by him. At the time of the founder's
death, the order possessed seven monasteries, and
when be was canonized by Celeatine III. in 1193
they had increased to about sixty, all in Italy,
except the French abbey of Corneillac near Or
l6ans. A reform in the discipline of the order,
which had become lax, was begun by Eugeniua IV.
and completed by Pius II. in 1463, while from 1662
to 1680 the monks were united with the Sylvee
trians. The original habit of the monks of Vallom
brosa was gray, but under Abbot Blasius of Milan
they assumed a brown habit, which was temporarily
changed to black during their union with the
Sylveatriana. In the thirteenth century Rosana,
Altimonte (Sister Humilitaa; d. 1310) founded at
Faenza a female branch of the order of Vallombroea.,
whose last cloister of San Salvi existed in Florence
until 1869. 	(0. ZSc>iraat.)
Bisrroaawra:: The early Yitce, with the Miracula and commentary, are in A$B, July, iii. 311‑458. Consult also: F. UBhelli, Italia sacra, iii. 294, 10 vole., Venice. 1717‑22; O. Delarc, in Rev" des questions historiVes, aliii (1888), b‑80: E. Aoerbi, vita di s. Giovanni t7ualberto, Florence, 1889; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 398‑399. On the order consult: Helyot, Ordru nwnartiquea, v. 298‑321; Heimbuoher. Order and Honprepationcn, i. 408‑414.
	GUALTHER, 0‑altar (WALTHER), RUDOLF:
Third artistes of the Church of Zurich; b. at Zurich
Nov. 9, 1519; d. there Dec. 25, 1686. From 1538
to 1541 he studied at Basel, Strasburg, Lausanne,
and Marburg, and in 1542 was appointed pastor of
St. Peter in Zurich and remained in that position
until his death. His sermons represented the tran
sition from the free homily of the Reformers to the
more artistic manner of later times. As assistant
of Bullinger he rendered great services in the leader
ship of the Zurich Church and in the cultivation of
active relations with the Reformed Churches of all
countries. In 1575 he succeeded Bullinger as ar
tistes. Of his literary works may be mentioned
especially his homilies and expositions of the Bible,
which appeared in great number and many editions,
almost yearly. He edited vole. i.‑iii, of the first
edition of the works of Zwingli (his father‑in‑law),
translated more than thirty of his German writings
into Latin, and prefixed an Apologia pro Ztvinglio et
operum eiss editione (also published separately).
Another work was Oucir>n aeu sernus ecclesiasticus,
de Officio ministtrorum eccleaiaatico oratio (1548). He
wrote poems on Simon Grynseus and Margaretha
Blaurer (qq.v.), a work on metrics entitled De
ayllabarum et carminum rtttione lz'brt; ii (1542);
Arguments omnium rum Vetetas tum Non Teatamenti
capitwm elegia	nine conscriPta (1543); and even
attempted a drama, Nttbal co»uedia sacra (1562).
			(Enfl>; Eors.)

an uiana
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His letters and writings are in great part collected in J. H. $ottinger, Schola Tiguri‑‑ CGTOlina, pp. 115 sqq.. Zurich, 1664. Consult: G. R. Zimmermann, Die Ziircher Kirehe 1518‑1819, pp. 73‑103, Zurich, 1878; ADB, x. 239; 8. M. Jackson, Huldreieh Zuringli, pp. 360‑361, New York, 1903.
GUARDIAN: The usual title of the superior of a Franciscan convent.

GUASTALLINR, gwes"tal‑li'nf or ‑nlA. See ANGELICAIS.
GUATEMALA. See CENTRAL AMERICA.
GUDEA. See BABYLONIA, VI., 3, § 3.

	GUEDER, g6'der, EDUARD: Swiss clergyman
and theological writer; b. at Walperswyl, near Nidau
(16 in. n.w. of Bern), June 1, 1817; d. at Bern July
14, 1882. He was educated at Bern and Berlin, and
after acting as vicar and pastor at Bienne, where as
a representative of orthodox dogma and practise he
came into conflict with the prevalent revolutionary
ideals, he became pastor of the Nydeck church at
Bern and attained repute as an eloquent preacher
and an active participant in church politics. From
1859 to 1865 he lectured on the New Testament at
the university, assuming, in contrast to the ma
jority of his colleagues, the standpoint of dogmatic
orthodoxy. In the theological controversies that
followed the publication of Langhans' Heilige Schrift
in 1866, Gdder showed himself consistently the
champion of the traditional interpretation of the
Scriptures, and was successful in winning over the
synod to his views. The law of 1874 effecting the
separation of church and state encountered in him
an uncompromising opponent, but the high esteem in
which he was held by friends and opponents alike
induced him to remain in the service of a church
which, crippled as he conceived it to be, was still
dear to him. Of his theological publications the
principal are Die Lehre von der Erscheinuttg Christi
unter den Toten (Bern, 1853) and an edition of
Sehneckenburger's Vergleichende Daratellung des
lutherischen and reformierten Lehrbegrifs (Stuttgart,
1855). 	(P. GtDDERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Gilder, E. G"er, rein Leben and Wirken, Bern, 1886.

GUENEE, gb"n6', ANTOINE: French Roman Catholic controversialist; b. at ttampes (35 m. s.s.w. of Paris) Nov. 23, 1717; d. at Fontainebleau (37 m. s.s.e. of Paris) Nov. 27, 1803. He studied in Paris and for twenty years was professor of rhetoric at the Collage du Plessis there. To learn modern languages he traveled extensively in England, Germany, and Italy. He translated several works from the English and wrote among other works of less importance, Lettres de quelques Juifs portugai8, allemands et polonais h M. de Voltaire,(4 vols., Paris, 1769; Eng. transl., Letters of Certain Jews to Monsieur de Voltaire., 2 vols., Dublin, 1777), a refutation of Voltaire's attack on the Bible, and the best book produced by the Roman Catholics against the French skepticism of the eighteenth century. For this work Gudnde was made a canon in the cathedral of Amiens and afterward was attached to the chapel of Versailles by Cardinal de la RocheAymon.
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
92
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A biographical preface by Dacier is to be found in the ed. of Paris, 1815, of. Voltaire, (Euvres cony pates, vol. x., Paris, 1863; Uehtenberger, ESR, v. 756758.

GUENTHER, gwen'ter, ANTON: Roman Catholic philosopher and theologian; b. at Lindenau, near Leitmeritz (34 In. n.n.w. of Prague), Bohemia, Nov. 17, 1783; d. at Vienna Feb. 24, 1863. He studied philosophy and jurisprudence at Prague and theology in the academy at Raab, Hungary. In 1820 he received consecration as a priest and in 1822 entered the Jesuit cloister of Starawies, in Galicia. After a two years' noviciate he went to Vienna, where he spent the rest of his life as a private priest and (till 1848) censor of philosophical and juridical books. When his own works were placed on the Index in 1857 he submitted to the ecclesiastical authority. As a philosopher his aim was to effect a reconciliation between knowledge and faith. and place the dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church on a firm philosophical foundation. For current pantheism he substituted dualism, on the basis of which he sought to show that God exists outside of the world, that he can not be identified with his creation. The two opposing principles in the world, which is objectified by God, are nature and spirit, and man is the synthesis of both of these. Of his works the more important are: Vorschule zur spekulativen Theologie des positiven Christentums (2 vols., Vienna, 1828‑29; 2d ed., 1848); Peregrins Gastmahl (1830); Slid‑ and Nordliehter am Horizonte apekulativer Theologie (1832); Thomas a Scrupulis. Zur Trans, figuration der Persiinlichkeits‑Pantheismen der neuesten Zeit (1835); and Die Juste‑Milieus in der deutachen Philosophie gegenwxirtiger Zeit (1838).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Knoodt, Anton Ganther, 2 vols., Vienna, 1881; F, H. Reuseh, Der indev der verbotenen Bticher, ii. 1121‑1125, Bonn, 1885.

GUERICKE, gt‑ri'ke, HEINRICH ERNST FERDINAND: German Lutheran theologian; b. at Wettin (15 m. n.e. of Elberfeld) Feb. 25, 1803; d. Halle Feb. 4, 1878. He studied at the University of Halle and in recognition of his biography of August Hermann Francke (Halle, 1827), and his Beitrdge zur histori8eh‑kritischen Etnleitung ins Neue Testament (1828‑31) he was appointed associate professor at Halle in 1829. He was a zealous student of the history of theology; and published several works which attained much popularity. Among these may be mentioned: Handbuch der Kirchengeschiehte (Halle, 1833; Eng. tranal., A Manual of Church History, Andover, 1857); Allgemeine christliche Symbolik (Leipsie, 1839); Historisch‑kritische Einleitung in das Neue Testament (1843; 3d ed., entitled Neutestamentliche 1sagogik, 1867); and Lehrbuch der christlich‑kirchlichen Archdologie (1847; Eng. transl., Manual of the Antiquities of the Church, London, 1851). In 1834 he was ordained pastor of a small congregation at Halle, but when this congregation emigrated to America. a few years later he returned to his professorship, and in 1840 he founded, together with Dr. Rudelbach, the Zeitschrift fur die gesammte lutherische Theologie and Kirche, of which he was associate editor until his death. His life of Francke was translated into English, London, 1837.

RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Guardian Guiana
GUERRY, ger'i, WILLIAM ALEXANDER: Protestant Episcopal bishop of South Carolina; b. at Fulton, S. C., July 7, 1861. He was educated at the University of the South, Sewanee, Tenn. (M.A., 1884; B.D., 1888), and after being rector of St. John's, Florence, S. C., from 1888 to 1893, was chaplain and professor of homiletics and pastoral theology in the University of the South until 1907, when he was consecrated bishop coadjutor of South Carolina, and in 1908, on the death of the bishop, became full diocesan.

GUETZLAFF, guts'laf, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST: German Protestant missionary; b. at Pyritz (24 m. s.e. of Stettin), Pomerania, July 8,1803; d. at Hongkong, China, Aug. 9, 1851. In 1821 he entered the mission established in Berlin by Johann Jfinike. In 1823 he entered the service of the Netherlands Missionary Society. During 1826‑28 he was located at Batavia where he learned the commonest Chinese dialects. In 1828 he went to Bangkok as an independent missionary, and in 1831 he proceeded to China, residing first at Macao, afterward at Hongkong, whence he made numerous journeys to various parts of the Chinese empire. He assisted W. H. Medhurst and Robert Morrison in translating the Bible into Chinese, wrote in Chinese several tracts of useful information, edited a monthly magazine in Chinese, and in 1844 founded at Hongkong an institution for the training of native missionaries. After 1835 he held the office of interpreter and secretary to the English commission, and by his knowledge of the people and country rendered valuable aid to the English during the Opium War. He wrote: Journal of Three Voyages along the Coast of China (London, 1834); A Sketch of Chinese History (2 vols., 1834); China Opened (2 vols., 1838); Geschichte des chinesischen Reichs (Stuttgart, 1847); Die Mission in China (Berlin, 1850); and The Life of Taou Kwang (1851).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. C. Cosack, Leben and Hefmpanp C. P. A.
GVtzlaff, Berlin, 1851.

GUIANA: A district of northeastern South America between the Atlantic Ocean, Brazil, and Venezuela. Colonization began about 1620 by the French and Dutch, and, more permanently, by the English in 1650. The present division into the three colonial governments of British, Dutch, and French Guiana was established by the Treaty of Breda (1667) and the Peace of Paris (1815).
British Guiana, the westernmost of the three colonies, was organized as a crown colony in 1831. The area is 90,277 square miles; population (1904), 301,923, chiefly negroes, East Indian coolies, and half‑breeds; there are about 8,000 Indians living in the settled regions. The greater portion of the colored population had been won to at least a nominal Christianity through the missionary activity of the Anglican Church, which early adopted an organized mode of procedure, though the bishopric of Guiana was not created till 1842. The see is at the capital, Georgetown, or Demerara, and the diocese forms part of the province of the West Indies, having as metropolitan the archbishop of Jamaica. It now contains 120,000 souls. There is
also a synod of the Church of Scotland with fifteen ministers, and a Wesleyan Methodist district with twenty preachers. The Congregationalists have a few congregations, and the Moravians have planted settlements and congregations among the colored people in connection with their activity in the neighboring Dutch colony. The Coolie Mission Association and the Diocesan Mission Society are active in missionary work. The Roman Catholic Church had about 24,000 adherents, Irish immigrants and converts of the Jesuits, who have had general charge of the spiritual interests of those of their faith in the colony. The apostolic vicariate of British Guiana or Demerara was created in 1837.
Dutch Guiana or Surinam, east of British Guiana, has an area of 46,072 square miles and a population estimated at 90,000, about half of whom are descended from emancipated negro slaves. The largest number of adherents is accredited to the Moravians who settled in the colony as early as 1739, with missionary activity among the slaves primarily in view. They consecrated the first church for these Christians in 1796. At the abolition of slavery in 1863, some 20,000 of the 33,000 slaves belonged to the Brethren, and the total of their converts in 1902 amounted to 29,300. Next stands the Dutch Reformed Church, with seven congregations and about 5,000 souls; then the Anglican Church, the "Society for Free Evangelization," and two Presbyterian bodies with 4,000 followers all told. The Roman Catholic Church gained a footing in 1787 by opening a house of worship in the capital, Paramaribo, but closed it six years later, and Roman Catholic worship was not permanently reinstated until 1810. In 1842 the apostolic vicariate of Dutch Guiana was created for some 13,000 Catholics, the majority of whom are colored. They have pastors of the Redemptorist Order. There are upward of 1,200 Jews, mostly descendants of those expelled from Brazil in 1663; the first synagogue was built in 1730. Somewhat more numerous, 2,000 to 2,100, are the Mobammedans, and there are nearly 8,000 Brahmans who have come from India and supplanted the negroes on the plantations.
	French Guiana or Cayenne, the easternmost of the
three colonies, contains 27,027 square miles, with
33,000 inhabitants. The negro slaves (numbering
at the time upward of 12,600) were emancipated
in 1848. At the same time there were about
20,000 Indians in the sylvan interior of the country,
about half of whom are still heathen. The Jesuits
and the Capuchins who came as early as 1643, have
labored among them, with but indifferent success
Since 1816 this missionary activity has been con.
tinued by the Fathers of the Holy Ghost. The
apostolic prefecture of French Guiana was created
in 1643. There are two Protestant churches be
longing respectively to the French Reformed and the
Presbyterians. 	WILHELM GoaTz.

BIBLIOGRA‑: On British Guiana: T. H. Bernan, Mia eionarp Labour anwng the Indians of Bri" Guiana, Lon‑
don 1847; W. H. Brett Mission Work among the Indian
Trite of	Guiana ib. 1881; T. Farrar, Notes on the
Hiat, of the Church in Guiana, Berbiae, 1892. On Dutch
Guiana: W. G. Palgrave. DutcA Guiana,
London, 1878; A. %appler, Hottdndiadr(luzana, Stuttart, 1881. On

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	94
French Guiana: F. Bonys. La Guysas fraepaisc Paris, 1887; E. Nibauk Guyane fraapaiss, ib. 1882; P. Mury, Lea J&uites a Cayenne. Strasburg, 1895.
	GUIBERT, gI"bgr', OF NOGE1fT: Abbot of No
gent (Nogent‑aou&‑Coucy, near Lam, 75 m.. n.e. of
Paris); b. at Clermont (40 m. n. of Paris) 1053;
d. at Nogent between 1121 and 1124. At the age of
twelve he entered the monastery of Flay, where he
received a classical and theological education, and
came under the influence of Anselm, then prior of
Bee. In 1104 he was made abbot of St. Mary's
monastery at Nogent and remained there the rest
of his life. He was first of all a moralist, and hence
cultivated moralizing Scripture exposition, which
seemed to him especially necessary in a time when
faith was unshaken, but morals were much on the
decline (De vita stet, i. 17, p. 876). He is not to be
counted, however, among the enlighteners, but is
rather a true child of his time, deeply sunk in its
superstition. Of interest among his writings is the
Ltber quo ordine aerww fteri debeat which strenuously
opposes the prevalent repugnance to preaching.
Guibert advised placing the moral and psychological
elements into the foreground of the sermon, and
held that no manner of preaching was more salu
tary than that which presented man's own picture
to his mind. The pretense of the monks of St.
Medard that they had a tooth of Christ induced him
to write De pignorabm aanctomm. He by no means
attacks the worship of relics, but demands that one
should first be convinced of the genuineness of the
relics and the holiness of those from whom they
come. He disapproves of the exhuming of the
bodies of the saints and the dismemberment of these
bodies. He denies entirely the existence of physi
cal parts of Christ, since his earthly body has been
completely transfigured. In the second book he
defends most energetically the doctrine of transub
stantiation, and‑ the doctrine of the necessary in
tentio of the priest is here found. Guibert was also
the first to write an extensive history of the first
crusade‑Hiatorim qute dic£tur gesta Dei Per Francos
sive historia Hierosolymitano, from 1095 to the end
of 1099, written about 1108; it was founded on an
earlier narrative by a crusader, which Guibert
enlarged from the oral communications of others
and, as he thought, improved. His statements are
not always reliable, but the book as a whole is an
important historical source. Guibert also wrote a
kind of autobiography, Monodiarum give de vita
sua libri iii. The first book only, which reaches to
his election as abbot, is biographical; it is written
after the plan of Augustine's "Confessions," and
treats of his errors and his repentance through the
divine grace. The second book contains historical
material on the monastery at Nogent, relates Gui
bert's election, and tells monks' stories. The most
interesting part is the third book, a description of
the doings of the unworthy bishop Galderich of
Leon and of the controversies between him and the
community of Laon. 	S. M. I)EUTscm
BIRLIoaRAPHY: Guibert'e works were edited, with notes, by L. d'Achdry Paris, 1861 and am reprinted thence in MPL, elvi. Consult: J. Mabillon, Annales ordinis S. Benedicti, books lx. hiv.; J. A. Fabrieius, Bibliotheca Latina media< et infimae aelatis, book vu. 382‑368; Histoire litt€raire de 14 France, x. 433 sqq.; H. F. Reuter,
GssehirJUs der redagibsen Aufkidrun® im iA(indalter, i. 143 aqq, Berlin, 1875; J. Michaud, BiblioWque dm voisadu, i. 122 sqq Paris, 1829; idem, Hiatoire des coieadea vi. 88 aqq., Paris, 1841; H. C. L. von Sybel, Gesdhichts des ervtsa Krrousaups, pp. 88, 38, DBeseldorf, 1841; T. A. Archer and C. L. $ingsford, The Crusades, pp. 28 3435, 440, New York, 1895; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, vi. 288, 292; Moeller, Clridian CA‑W4 ii. 323‑324, 332, 373; Meander, Christian Chard, iv. 124 sqq., et passim.
GUIBERT OF RAVENNA: Archbishop of that city and antipope (Clement III.) 1080‑1100; b. in Parma c. 1025; d. at Civita Castellana (19 m. s.e. of Viterbo) Sept. 8, 1100. He was the descendant of a noble Italian family, and entered political service as chancellor for Italy, officiating from 105710&3. After the death of Nicholas II. in 1061 he openly separated from the curial party and induced the bishops of Lombardy to protest against the election of Alexander II. and to ally themselves with the secular court. The election of Bishop Cadalus of Parma as antipope at Basel, Oct. 1061, took place probably in his presence and corresponded to his conception of the situation. TM resolution of the Synod of Augsburg which led to the acknowledgment of Alexander II. did not have his consent, and probably for this reason he resigned his chancellor ship after that synod. For the next ten years he seems to have lived in Parma. Though his name was not prominent during this period, the German court did not lose sight of him. In 1072, at the intercession of the empress, Henry IV. made him archbishop of Ravenna. In the beginning of the p6ntificate of Gregory VII. Guibert seems to have cooperated with the pope, but probably as early as 1074 he took the side of the opposition. As he absented himself from the synod of 1075, Gregory VII. suspended him from his office. In 1080 the imperial party elected him antipope, but it was not till Mar. 24, 1084, that he reached Rome and was enthroned in the Lateran Church. The German episcopate acknowledged him as pope at the Synod of Mainz, April, 1085; but his elevation did not bring to the emperor that increase of power which he expected.
Personally Guibert was respected by friend and foe, but he lacked the initiative necessary for a champion of the imperial cause. He remained faithful to Henry IV., and on March 31, 1084, crowned him king, but was never able to exercise a decisive influence upon the condition of the Church.
(A. HAucg.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jaff6, Regesta, 1. 849‑655; O. K6hneke, Wibert wen Ravenna, Leipeic, 1888; Schaff, Christian Church, v. i, pp. 41, 81 eqq., 73, 75; Milman, Latin Christianity, vol. iii. passim, iv. 87; Bower, Popes, ii, 397‑427.
GUIDO, gi'do, OF AREZZO: Benedictine; b. at Arezzo (55 m. s.e. of Florence) between 990 and 1000; d. about 1050. In the early part of the eleventh oeutury he became a monk in the monastery of Pomposa, but the success of his method of teaching singing aroused such jealousy that he was expelled. He found refuge with the bishop of Arezzo, and at the invitation of John XIX. went to Rome. His abbot then urged him to return to Pomposa, but whether he did so or whether he is to be identified with the Prior Guido who died at the Camaldolite monastery of Avellana in 1050, is uncertain.

		Ouibert
95	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Quilt
He applied the famous syllables "ut re mi fa sol !a " to the notes of the scale, these being the initial syllables of the hemisticbs of a hymn on John the Baptist. He improved the system which already existed by the use of additional lines and by availing himself of the spaces between them. The signs which he placed on and between the lines were not notes, but the old neumes. In addition to the works enumerated in the bibliography, he was probably the author of a letter against simony, addressed to Heribert, archbishop of Milan.
(R. SCHIItm.)
Bramooasrai: Guido's works on music, genuine and doubtful, were edited by Gerhart in Script. eaT. de musim sacra, vol. ii., St. Blas, 1784, in MPL, cxh., and in C. E. H. de Couseemaker, Scriptonsm de muaica . . . novus series, vol. ii., Paris. 1865. Consult: R. G. Siesewetter, Guido von Armzo, Leipsic, 1840; H. Niemann, Studien zur Geschichte der NotenaehriA ib. 1878; idem, Musiklexaon, ib. 1895.
GUIDO OF CREMA. See PASCHAL III.
GUIDO (GUY) DE BRAY (BRES). See Bales.
	GUIDONIS, gwWa'nis, BERNAARDUS, (BER
NARD GUI): Dominican, inquisitor in Toulouse;
b. at Roy&es (department of Haute‑Vienne, arron
dissement of Saint‑Yrieix, 27 m. s. of Limoges) about
1261; d. at Lod4ve (33 m. w.n.w. of Montpellier)
Dec. 30, 1331. He entered the Dominican Order
in 1279. From 1294 to 1305 he served as prior in
convents at Albi, Carcassonne, Castres, and Limoges;
in 1314 he was vicar of the province of Toulouse;
and about 1318 became procurator general of his
Order. In 1307 he was appointed inquisitor of
Toulouse, where for nearly eighteen years he ad
ministered his office with zeal and took an active part
in the extirpation of the Catbarist heresy (see NEW
MANCcHEANs. II.). A fairly exhaustive narrative of
his activity is supplied in the Liber sententiarum in
qui8itionis TolosancE, published by P. van Limborch
in his Hiatoria inquiaWo4ia (Amsterdam, 1692). An
official manual for the procedure of the officers of
the Inquisition was prepared by Guidonis under
the title: Practice inpisitionia (first issued by
C. Douais, Paris, 1886), a volume furnishing val
uable elucidations of the doctrines and peculiarities
of the various heretical factions. That the Curia
appreciated his eminent ability, appears from his
repeated employment in the papal diplomatic serv
ice. Thus in 1317 he was despatched to Italy in
behalf of pacification between the Guelphs and
Ghibellines, and for the adjustment of partisan
strifes at Genoa; and in 1318 he was commissioned
to mediate a reconciliation between Philip V. of
France and Count Robert of Flanders. In 1233 he
became bishop of Tuy, in Spain; whence, in 1324,
he was translated to the diocese of LodAve.
Along with his official activity, Guidonis exhibited a remarkably comprehensive literary industry. Of his historical works, the best known are his great history of the popes (Flom cronicomm seu caaalogus PorttifLum Romanorum); his compendious account of the popes and emperors (Catalogus br‑ pordtfcu' m Romanorum el imperatorum); and his annals of the French kings. Of importance, moreover, is the great work on the history of the Dominican Order, which Guidonis undertook in
1304; only parts have hitherto been published, but C. Dousis has repeatedly made use of Guidonis' materials for the history of that Order. Guidonis' digest of the acts of the original chapter general of the Dominican Order has been edited by B. M. Reichert (Monuments ordinie frnh‑um prcedicatorumm, vol. iii., Prague, 1898); the acts of the provincial chapter of the Dominican province of Provence (down to 1302) were made known by Dousis in 1894. As yet unpublished are Guidonis' Spy lure sanctorale (a valuable collection of legends of the saints) and De ternporibus et annie generalium et prmrincialium conctliorum. Great confusion ensued formerly from the designation erroneously attributed to Guidonis: "de Castris S. Vincentii "; since his writings thus came to be partly ascribed to Bernardus de Castris S. Vincentii. He has also been confused with the Dominican Guido de Pileo of Vinoenaa (d. 1331), and is to be distinguished from his elder fellow Dominican, Bernardus Guidonis of Bdaiers (hence Biterrensia), who died in 1273.
(HERMAN HAUPT.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The earlier literature is given in U. Chevalier, REperloira lea aourm historiquea du mown‑doe, btblioyraphis, i. 1919, Paris, 1905. The principal modern work is L. Delisle, Notice err lea manusaita de Bernard Oui, in Notices et eitraita lea MSS. de la biblio&bqus nationals, uvii. 189‑465, Paris, 1879. Consult: C. 'Molinier, L'Inquiaitton dare Is midi de la Prance, pp. 5 aqq., 197 aqq., ib. 1880; idena4 in Archivba lea 'minions seir entifiques et litt6raires, 3 ser., aiv. 189 .qq., 238 eqq., ib. 1888; O. Lorenz, DGQ, vol. ii. passim, Berlin, 1887; H. Bachne, in Halts was du hoot, Berlin, 1891; idem, Bernardue Guuidonis and die Apostelbreder, Rostock, 1891; Potthast, Wepweiser, pp. 150‑152 (indispensable for the sources); F. Arbellot, Elude biographique et bibliopraphique sur Bernard Guidonia, Limes, 1896; C. Dousia, Documents pour servir h Mist. de l'inquwition, Paris, 1900.
GUILLON, gVYW, MARIE NICOLAS SYLVESTRE: French Roman Catholic, Bishop of Morocco in partibus infaWium; b. in Paris Jan. 1, 1760; d. at Montfermeil (19 m. n.e. of Paris) Oct. 16, 1847. He studied at the College du Plessis and at the College Louis‑le‑Grand and acquired great proficiency in medicine, as well as in theology. He became almoner and librarian to the Princess Lamballe, but fled to Sceaux after her execution in 1792 and practised medicine there, and at Meaux, for several years under the assumed name of Pastel. After the Revolution he was made honorary canon and librarian of the cathedral of Paris. He accompanied Cardinal Fesch to Rome, and on his return became professor of rhetoric at the Lycde Bonaparte, and shortly afterward professor of sacred eloquence at the Sorbonne. He also became almoner of the Coll6ge Louis‑le‑Grand, almoner to the Princess of Orldans, honorary canon of Saint Denis, bishop of Morocco (1833), dean of the theological faculty at the Sorbonne, and an officer of the Legion of Honor, He was a prolific writer, and some of his works are still of value, particularly his Colledion des brefa du Pope Pie VI. (2 vols., Paris, 1798); Btbliothkue choisie lea pyres greea et lading (26 vols., 1822); and his excellent translation of Cyprian's works (2 vols., 1837).
Biamoaserer: Lichtenberger, ESR, v. 792‑793.
GUILT: The state resulting from the violation of law. In Christianity the presuppositions of guilt are the Christian view of Sin (q.v.),' personal

Guilt
Gulick	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	98
freedom and moral law. Originally the word for guilt signified a debt, then the liability for debt, still later it stood for crime and the state of one who had violated custom or law without reference to the ideal nature of these, as liable to punishment. With reference to the law of God, guilt was the condition of one who having transgressed the law was liable to penalty. In the Old Testament guiltofferings were coupled with sin‑offerings, both of which assumed violation of the covenant relations which demanded atonement. It involved the assumption that legal requirement, not so much personal as arbitrary and external, had been disturbed and that satisfaction had to be made. This idea has its ethnic parallels. In Roman law culpa designates the transgression of law where no dolus can be attributed to the conscious intention. Aitia, which stood for cause, meant also guilt; even heroes lay under a burden of guilt which could not be ethically attributed to them; hence it appears as a fate‑haimwrmene. The German Skulda was one of the fates. The earliest Christian term for guilt was not aitiabut opheilema, "debt" (of. Matt. vi. 12).
Guilt thus appears in two relations‑civil and personal. In civil affairs one may come under obligations to compensate for an action legally defective, by the payment of money or other equivalent. By a criminal act, in addition to the injury done, the criminal has violated a social order for which the only satisfaction is punishment; this, while not repaying the injured party, compels a recognition of the order violated. Here the relation is no longer external, involving debt and things, but personal, involving crime and persons. Thus the necessity of punishment cleaves to the transgressor. According to the New Testament guilt has the following relations: (1) to the object violated by the sin (I Cor. xi. 27; Jas. ii. 10); (2) to the sin with which it is connected (Mark iii. 29); (3) to the penalty to which the evil‑doer is liable (Matt. xxvi. 66); (4) to the person to whose jurisdiction one is answerable on the grourld of violated obligation (Rom. iii. 19).
Several theories have been proposed to account for the consciousness of guilt: (1) It is grounded in part in the participation of all men in Adam's sin, and in part in the corruption which is the punishment of that sin. (2) A blameworthy deed committed by each individual of the race in a prenatal state announces itself in the universal consciousness of guilt (Julius Milller). (3) The consciousness of guilt is an incident of human development; " in his direct and unformed condition, man is in a situation in which he ought not to be, and he must free himself. This is the meaning of the doctrine of original sin." This condition is therefore inevitable, but to be transcended, and with its disappearance guilt will also disappear (Hegel); or through the painful‑guilty‑consciousness of natural weakness as something that should not be, one becomes susceptible to redemption by which he attains perfection (Schleiermacher). (4) Guilt is a social phenomenon. All men are involved in the general consequences and sufferings caused by sin. This is the truth contained in the doctrine of origi‑
nal sin. Men may be only in part aware of this
state and later they may be awakened from their
indifference and lethargy and be led to confess and
forsake their blameworthy share in a general im
moral and irreligious condition. So far at least
as they consent to those social conditions which
violate the ideal moral order they are guilty. But
the line between individual and social guilt is hard
to define. (5) Guilt attaches only to those actions
and to that character which are self‑originated and
for which one is therefore responsible. He has
freely identified himself with the moral conditions
in which he is found. Accordingly he is out of
tune with the moral order of the world, society,
and his own better self. His acts become habitual,
his choice cumulative, registered in a permanent
alienation from God. And the wrong act has not
only its outer, but its inner consequences, and these
latter cleave to the sinner and he is answerable to
God. This constitutes his guilt. The prophets, in
their revolt from the earlier Hebrew notion of sin
as derived from social solidarity, carried the idea
of individual sin and guilt to the very breaking
point (Jar. xxxi. 29, 30: Ezek. xviii. 2, 4, 9, xxxiii.
12‑20). In personal life there may be guilt where
there is no immediate consciousness of it. There are
degrees of guilt, but no guilt is infinite. Strictly
speaking, there is neither inheritance nor transfer
of guilt. 	C. A. BECgwiTH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The subject is treated in the treatises on systematic theology (see DoGwA, Dooxemce); in the works on BIBLICAL THEOLOGY (q.v.); and in the commentaries on the passages cited in the teat. Consult
also the literature under SIN; J. Miller, Die chriatlicha
Ldrs con der Sands, 2 vole., Stuttgart, 1877, Eng. trahel.,
Edinburgh, 1877; DCG, i. 898‑698.
GUITMUND, gwit'mund, CHRISTIAN: Bishop of Aversa (13 m. n.n.w. of Naples); b. in Normandy, probably c. 1020; d. about 1095. He was instructed by Lanfranc at Bec. Later he was a monk in the monastery of La‑Croix Saint‑Leufroi in the diocese of Evreux (department of Eure, between Gaillon and Evreux). Thence William the Conqueror called him to~England after the battle of Senlac (Oct. 14, 1066), with the intention of offering him later an English bishopric, but he could not induce Guitmund to remain. At the beginning of 1077 he was in Rome, where he entered a monastery under the name of Christianus. He soon gained great influence at the papal court. In an account of the events in Rome in Dec., 1083, he appears as the leader of the Gregorian party. After the death of Gregory he vehemently opposed the election of Victor III. (pope 1086‑87), but was more favorably inclined toward Urban 11. (1088‑99). To him he owed his election as bishop of Avers&, about July, 1088.
Guitmund's fame rests upon his attack on Berengar of Tours and his formulation of the common doctrine of the Lord's Supper in his Ltbri tree de corpords et sanguinis Domini writate in euchmmristia. The work originated between 1073 and 1078, probably in La‑Croix‑Saint‑Leufroi, and aims to refute Berengar's book Des acra cans. Guitmund tries (1) to prove from the conception of divine omnipotence the possibility of the "essential" change; (2) to confute the esthetic objection to the idea of

97
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
a "chewing" of Christ. In this connection he
argues (3) that in every paitide of the elements the
whole Christ is partaken, and (4) that the special
manner of the change which takes place in the
Lord's Supper corresponds exactly to the special
manner . of generation in the birth of Christ, and is
as difficult to be understood by the intellect as it is
easy to be grasped by faith. In the second book
he refutes (5) the objection of Berengar that the
incorruptible body of the heavenly Christ is, accord
ing to the doctrine of the Church, considered sub
ject to the process of digestion, and tries (6) to
invalidate Berengar's proofs from the Fathers. :In
the third book he attempts (7) to prove from the
Fathers that the doctrine of transubstantiation is
in accordance with the doctrine of the Church, and
(8) to confute :three similar heterodox views on the
Lord's Supper that had originated with Berengar.
Besides his principal work, Guitmund wrote also
on the Trinity‑Confes8io de sancta trinitate, Christi
humanitate carpawiaque ac 8anguinis Domini nostri
veritate, and Epistola ad Erfastum of which only a
fragment is preserved. 	(H. B6HMER.)
BiBLIOasAPB7: The oditio princapa of his work on the Eucharist was published by Erasmus, Bawl, 1530; that and the Confessio were issued by Ulimmier, LSwen, 1561; these two and the Epietola are in MPL, exlix. His life is in Orderieus Vitalis, Hist. eccl., iv. 8. Consult: Histoire litWraire de la France, viii. 553‑572; J. Bach, DopmenpeerhicW des Afiuelalters, i. 586‑587, Vienna 1873; A. Seeberg, Lehrbuch den Dogmenpesrhichte, ii. 60, Leipsic, 1898; Harnaek, Dogma, vi. 52; KL, v. 1359‑60; Ceillier, Autewe sacres, ix. 759‑760, xiii. 131, 175, 516‑525.

GUIZOT, gf"z8', FRANgOIS 'PIERRE GUILLAUME: French historian and statesman; b. at Nimes (32 m. w.s.w. of Avignon) Oct. 4, 1787; d. at Val‑Richer, a former Augustinian monastery near Lisieux (35 m. e. of Caen), Sept. 12, 1874. He was descended from a family of Huguenot pastors. His father, an advocate of liberal views, having been guillotined during the Reign of Terror, he was taken by his mother to Geneva and educated there under her care. In 1805 he went to Paris to study law, but soon devoted himself to literature, and in 1812 became professor of history at the Sorbonne. He belonged to the school of doctrinaires, who sought to unite liberalism and conservatism and retain under a limited monarchy the liberties won by the Revolution. His lectures found an enthusiastic reception; but for this very reason they were soon prohibited. From 1830 to 1848 he devoted himself to politics and held various posts including that of minister of public instruction (1832‑34), and that of premier (1840‑48). He reformed the educational system of France from top to bottoM, introducing particularly valuable improvements in the primary and secondary schools. During the revolution of 1848 the popular indignation against him was so great that he sought safety in England. After his political fall he lived mostly in retirement and took an increasing interest in religious affairs. In 1852 he became president of the consistory, in which capacity he fought the liberals tooth and nail. Whether in the consistory, or the cabinet, or the professor's chair, he showed always the same firm and unyielding disposition. He was the chief support of orthodoxy in the Reformed Church in V.‑7
auslt
GtuUok
France and was largely responsible for the division of the Church which occurred at and after the Synod of 1872. He believed strongly in the necessity for authority and had no patience with criticism, either of religion or politics., F,W, him religion was above all, the sanction of order and authority. Hence his great admiration for the Roman Catholic Church.
Guizot was thoroughly unselfish and a man of unimpeachable integrity. Though he filled the highest political offices and as premier had the entire power of France in his hands, he died a poor man. It may be added that he took part in founding the Socidt6 Biblique in 1826, and the Soci&k de 1'Histoire du Protestantisme, 1857. A few of his most important works are: Histoire gfn&aL de la civilisation en Europe (Paris, 1828), and Histoire de la civilisation en France (5 vols., 1829‑32), both translated into English by W. Hazlitt under the title, The History of Civilisation (3 vols., London, 1856); Histoire de la Rdvolution d'Angleterre (2 vols., 1826‑27, extended to 6 vols., 1850‑56; Eng. transl., 2 vols., Oxford, 1838; also transl. by W. Hazlitt, London, 1856);' Vie, correspondance et &rits de Washington (6 vols., 1839‑40, Eng. transl., London, 1840); Mfmoiree pour servir d l'hiatoire de mon temps (8 viols., 1858‑67; Eng. tranel. in part, Memoirs to Illustrate the History of My Time, 4 vols., London, 1858‑61); Llglise et la soci6tg chr6tienne (1861; Eng. transl., The Christian Church and Society in 1861, London, 1861); Mdditations sun l'essence de la religion chrotienne (1864; Eng. transl., Meditations on the Essence of Christianity, London, 1864), subsequently supplemented; Les Vies de quartre granda ChrUiena frangai8 (viol. i., 1868; Eng. transl., Saint Louis and Calvin, London, 1869); and L'Histoire de France . . . racontkx h mss petite‑enfants (7 vols., 1870‑79; Eng. transl., History of France . . . to the Year.1789, 8 vols., London, 1872‑81). Other works of his have . ap‑: peared under English titles, and illustrate the range of his activities, e.g.: Memoirs of George Monk, Duke of Albemarle (London, 1838); Democracy and its Mission (1848); On the Causes and Success of the English Revolution of 16.¢0‑1888 (1850); Essay on the Hist. of the Origin of Representative Government (1852); The Fine Arts, their Nature and Relations (1853); Hist. of England (3 vols.,
1877‑79). His Life of Oliver Cromwell (1854 and
often) is an extract from his " History of the Eng
lish Revolution."	(C. FENDER.)
BnswoaRAPHY: Henriette de Witt, Guizot daps sa famine et avec sea amis Paris, 1880, Eng tranel., Guizot in Pri‑
mate Life, London, 1$$0 (by big dgllfty)i D. 01arle, The Life and Writings of M. Guizot, Boston, 1875; J. F. Simon, Mors, Guizot, RJmusat Paris, 1885; C. A. SainteBeuve, Essays on Men and Women, London, 1890; A. BardOux, Guixot, Paris, 1894.
GULICIi, gu'lik, JOHN THOMAS: Congregationalist; b. at Waimea, Kauai, Hawaii, March 13, 1832. He was educated at Williams College (A.B., 1859)
and Union Theological Seminary (1861). He then went as a missionary to China under the auspices of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions and was stationed at Peking in 1864‑65 and Kalgan in 1865‑75. From 1875 to 1899 he was a missionary in Japan, being stationed at KobS

Gnriolr
Qnrnall
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
98
in 1875‑82 and Osaka in 1882‑99, but in 1899 he returned to the United States and retired from active life. He has written Evolution, Racial and Habitudinal (Washington, 1905).

GULICK, LUTHER HALSEY: Congregationalist and missionary; b. in Hawaii, of missionary parents, June 10, 1828; d. in Springfield, Mass., Apr. 8, 1891. He was educated in Hawaii, and in medicine in the C :legs of Physicians and Surgeons in New York City, and in 1851 went as missionary of the American Board to Micronesia. There he labored successfully till 1860, when his health compelled him to retire. He went to Hawaii, and from 1863 till 1870 he was secretary of the Hawaiian Evangelical Association. He was then employed by the American Board to visit Spain and Italy with a view of establishing missions there, and was also under consideration as one of the secretaries of the Board; but from 1875 till 1890 was the agent of the American Bible Society, first of its work in both Japan and China, and after 1881 for China only; later Siam was added. Ill health compelled him to return to the United States in 1890, and he shortly thereafter resigned.

GUNDULF, gi‑ln'dulf: 1. Heretical teacher of the first half of the eleventh century. About 1025 a number of heretics were arrested in Arras and committed to a synod convened in the city for final sentence. The defendants named as their teacher an Italian called Gundulf, who had escaped pursuit. It would appear that he had acquainted them with the precepts of the Gospels and the apostles, beside which no other source of faith was to be regarded. They rejected the church doctrine of the sacraments, and opposed zealously all liturgical developments, the veneration of saints (except the martyrs and apostles), and prayers for the dead. Ecclesiastical hierarchy was supplanted among them by sectarian preachers called from the laity, while the ecclesiastical means of grace were superseded by individual " election " to the state of justification. Their moral ideal consisted in forsaking the world, mortifying the flesh, subsisting by the labor of their hands, and showing love to all; the married estate appeared to them sinful. On declaring themselves ready to recant, the accused were allowed to make reconciliation with the Church. Undoubtedly Gundulf and his adherents may be classed with the Cathari, who were then spreading from northern Italy into the districts beyond the Alps.
HERMAN HAUPT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. d'Achtiry, Spicilepium, i. 606 qq., Paris, 1723 (contains the Acts of the Synod of Arras and the
letters of Bishop Gerhard of Cambrai); Mansi, Concilia, xix. 423 eqq.; P. Fredericq, Corpus docurnentorum inquisitionis Neerlandica, i. 1‑5, The Hague, 18$9. Consult also: C. Schmidt, Hiat. et doctrine de la secte des
Catharee, i. 35 sqq., Paris, 1849; J. J. 1. van DSllinger, Beitrdge zur $aktenpesehichte des Mitfelaltere, i. 65 aqq., Munich, 1890.
2. Bishop of Rochester; b. near Rouen, France, c. 1024; d. at Rochester Mar. 7, 1108. He received his education at Rouen, became a clerk of the cathedral there, and in 1059, on his return from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, became a monk in the monastery at Bee. Here he met Anselm of Canterbury
in 1060, with whom he formed a lifelong friendship. Lanfranc, the prior at Bee, became greatly attached to him, took him to Caen in 1066, and on his appointment to the archbishopric of Canterbury, in 1070, he made Gundulf his proctor and placed him in charge of the estates of the archbishopric. Through Lanfranc's influence Gundulf was appointed bishop of Rochester, being consecrated in Christ Church, Canterbury, Mar. 19, 1077. Gundulf, who was a famous architect, at once rebuilt the church at Rochester and made his chapter monastic, substituting for the five canons sixty monks. He also built the White Tower in the Tower of London, a castle at Rochester for William Rufus, a nunnery at Malling, and the so‑called St. Leonard's tower at West Malling. In 1078 he founded a hospital for lepers at Chatham. He was well liked by William Rufus, and by Henry I.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Vita by a contemporary is in H. Wharton, Anglia sacra, ii. 273‑292, cf. i. 336 sqq., London, 1691, and MPL, clix. 813‑836. Consult: T. Wright, Biopraphia Britannica literaria, ii. 41‑43, London, 1846;
T. D. Hardy, Descriptive Catalogue of Materials, p. 103,
no. 156, in Rolls Series, ib. 1862‑71; Hiatodre littiraire de la France, ix. 369; W. R. W. Stephens, The English Church . . . 1086‑187,2, pp. 25, 35,104, 275, London, 1901; DNB, xxiii. 339‑341.
GUNKEL, gun'kl, JOHANN FRIEDRICH HERMANN : German Protestant; b. at Springe (14 m. s.w. of Hanover) May 23,1862. He was educated at the universities of G6ttingen, Giessen, and Leipsic, and in 1889‑94 was privat‑docent at Halle. Since the latter year he has been associate professor of Old Testament exegesis at the University of Berlin. In addition to editing the Forschungen zur Religion Itnd Literatur des Alien and Neuzn Testaments in collaboration with W. Bousset since 1903, he has written Wirkung des heiZigen Geiatea (G6ttingen, 1888); Sch6pfung and Chaos in Urzeit and Endzeit (1895); Der Prophet Esra (Tilbingen, 1900); Genesis fitberseW ltnd erkldrt (Gbttingen, 1900); Die Sagen der Genesis (1901; Eng. transl. by W. H. Carruth, The Legends of Genesis, Chicago, 1901); Israel and Babylonien (G6ttingen,1903; Eng.transl. by E. S.B., Israel and Babylon; The Influence of Babylon on the Religion of Israel); Zum religionsgeschichtlichen Yeratdndnis des Neuen Testaments (1903); Ausgewdhdte Psalmen (1904); and Literaturgeschichte Ismels and des alien Judentums (Leipsie, 1906).

GUMWWDER PLOT: A conspiracy on the part of certain Roman Catholics in England to destroy the king, lords, and commons by blowing up the parliament house at the opening of parliament on Nov. 5, 1605, and thus overthrow the government in the interest of Roman Catholicism. The conspiracy grew out of the resentment felt toward James I. for his rigid enforcement of the old penal laws of Elizabeth against Roman Catholics. In order to facilitate his accession to the English throne he had promised a number of prominent Roman Catholics that fines against recusants would no longer be exacted. Spanish diplomacy having been tried upon James in vain, the Gunpowder Plot was hatched by Robert Catesby, John Wright, and Thomas Winter early in 1604. Thomas Percy and Guy Fawkes were soon sworn into the plot, and later several others, including Everard Digby,

99	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	~f
Francis Tresham, and Ambrose Rookwood, all men of we$lth and prominence. A building adjoining the parliament house was rented in Percy's name, and in Dec., 1604, the conspirators began to excavate a passage from their cellar. After they had bored about half way through the wall, which was nine feet thick, they were able the following March to rent, also in Percy's name, a cellar immediately under the House of Lords. Here they stored thirty‑six barrels of powder, covering them with stones and bars of iron, and concealing all beneath lumber and fagots of various kinds. By May, 1605, all was in readiness; but parliament was not to meet till Nov. 5. While he did not originate the plan, Fawkes was the leading conspirator in all these preparations, and on account of his coolness and courage he was entrusted with the important work of firing the powder on Nov. 5. Ten days before the plot was to have been consummated, Lord Monteagle, a Catholic and a friend of several of the conspirators, received an anonymous letter warning him not to attend the opening session of parliament. He at once showed the letter to Lord Salisbury, who communicated the matter to the king. On Nov. 4 the lord chamberlain, while going over the parliament house, noticed a suspicious abundance of fuel in the cellar occupied by Fawkes. That night the cellar was searched, the powder was discovered, and Fawkes was arrested just as he was returning from a midnight conference with Percy. Under severe torture Fawkes made a full confession on Nov. 9; and on Jan. 27, 1606, all the conspirators were condemned to be drawn, hanged, and quartered. Fawkes, with three others, ascended the scaffold on Jan. 31, 1606. Four fellow conspirators had been executed on the preceding day. What part, if any, the Jesuits took in the plot is still a mooted question, though it is pretty certain that Henry Garnett, the head of the order in England, had a guilty knowledge of it. He was executed on May 3, 1606. On Jan. 21, 1606, parliament set apart Nov. 5 as a day of national thanksgiving. This act was not repealed for two hundred years. It was long customary on this day to. dress up in rags an effigy of Fawkes, parade it through the street, singing rimes, and finally burn the effigy at night. The discovery of the plot was disastrous to the cause of the Roman Catholics in England, as thereafter the laws against them were enforced more rigidly than ever.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. Jardine, A Narrative o/ the Gunpowder Plot, London, 1857; J. Gerard. The Condition of Catholics under James 1. Father Gerard's Narrative of the Gunpowder Plot Ed., with his Life, by J Morris, ib. 3d ed, 1881; DNB, ix. 283‑284, xviii. 266‑268, lxii. 218‑219; S. R. Gardiner, What Gunpowder Plot Was, London, 1897; J. H. Overton, The Church in England, ii. 18, 26, 38, ib. 1897; w. H. Frere, The English Church . . 1668‑me6, pp. 324‑327, ib. 1904; and in general the histories of the period.
GUNSAULUS, FRANK WAKELEY: Congregationalist; b. at Cbesterville, 0., Jan. 1, 1856. He was educated at Ohio Wesleyan University (A.B., 1875) and after being a Methodist Episcopal minister for four years joined, the Congregational denomination. He held pastorates at Eastwood Congregational Church, Columbus, O. (1879‑81), Newtonville,
Mass. (1881‑,85), Memorial Congregational Church, Baltimore, Md. (1885‑87), and Plymouth Church, Chicago (1887,89). After a few months as pastor at the Central Church in the same city in 1889, he was appointed to his present position of president of the Armour Institute of Technology. He has written Metamorphoses of a Creed (Chillicothe, 0., 1879); Transfiguration of Christ (Boston, 1886); The Man of Galilee (1899); Paths to Power (1905); Higher Ministries of Recent English Poetry (1907); and Paths to the City of God (1907).
GURK, BISHOPRIC OF: An Austrian bishopric, named from the town of Gurk (49 m. n. of Laibach) in Carinthia, on the banks of a river of the same name. A convent for seventy nuns and twenty canons was founded on the river Gurk by Emma, wife of Count William of Styria, and consecrated probably in 1043. It soon decayed, however, and the idea of turning it into the seat of a bishopric was suggested by the great extent gf the diocese of Salzburg, and carried out by Archbishop Gebhard (1060‑‑88), who gained the assent of Pope Alexander II. in 1070 and of the emperor Henry IV. in 1072. In May of the latter year, Gunter of Chraphelt was consecrated bishop of Gurk. The boundaries of the small diocese were first settled by Archbishop Conrad (1106‑47). Of the early bishops the most important were Hieronymus Balbus (1522‑357), the distinguished humanist, poet, and politician, and Urban "the Austrian" (1556‑73). From the fifteenth century the incumbents of the see have had the title of prince bishop, but at first without a seat in the Council of Princes. Since 1827 they have resided not at Salzburg but at Klagenfurt, the capital of Carinthia.
GURNALL, WILLIAM: English clergyman; b. at Walpole (8 m. w. of Lynn), Norfolk, 1617; d. at Lavenham (16 m. w.n.w. of Ispwich), Suffolk, Oct. 12, 1679. He was educated at the Lynn grammar‑school and at Emmanuel College, . Cambridge (B.A., 1635; M.A., 1639). Nothing is known of his life after he left the university till the year 1644, when the living of Lavenham was conferred upon him by Sir Symonds D'Ewes. On Dec. 16 of that year parliament ordered that the "learned divine " should be " rector for life, and enjoy the rectory and tithes as other rectors before him." At the Restoration he signed the declaration required by the Act of Uniformity and continued at Lavenham till his death. For conforming he was severely attacked in a pamphlet, Covenant‑Renouncers Desperate Apostates (London, 1665). He is known chiefly by his work, The Christian in Compldc ATM0'9.T: or a Treatise of the Saint's War against the Devil (3 vols., London, 1655‑62; new ed., with a biographical introduction, by J. C. Ryle, 2 vols., 18641865), a series of sermons on Eph. vi. 6‑20, characterized by their quaint fancy, epigrammatic style, and astonishing application of Scripture. The work passed through six editions during the author's lifetime and still enjoys a measure of popularity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the biographical introduction to The Christian in Complete Armour, ut sup., there is available H. McKeon, inquiry into the ife o/ William Gurnall, London, 1830.

HE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
100
GURNEY, JOSEPH JOHN: Philanthropist and Friend; b. at Earlham Hall, near Norwich, Aug. 2, 1788; d. there Jan. 4, 1847. He attended lectures for a while at Oxford, and was recognized in 1818 as a minister by the Friends. In 1837‑40 he preached in the United States and the West Indies. He aided his sister Elizabeth Fry (q.v.) in her measures for prison‑reform, and was the associate with Clarkson, Wilberforce, and his brother‑in‑law, T. Fowell Buxton, in their efforts for the abolition of the slave‑trade. He was also a prominent advocate of total abstinence, and his temperance tract, Water is Best, has been widely circulated. Among Friends, he ‑ led an orthodox movement both in England and America which profoundly affected his, branch of the Society, and in the latter country produced a separation (see FRIEwDs, SOCIETY OF, I., § 7; WILBUR, JOUNI).
Gurney issued a number of tracts and pamphlets, with some larger works. Of these the principal. are, Essays on the Evidences, Doctrines and Practice Operations of Christianity (London, 1827); History, Authority, and Use of the Sabbath (1831), and Puseyism traced to its Root (1845).
ISAAC SHARPLEBB.
BIHLIOdRAPBY: The principal Memoir is by J. B. Braith‑
waite, 2 vols., Norwich, 1854, Bd ad., 1902; others are by
J. Alexander, London, 1847; and B. Barton, ib. 1847.
Consult also DNB, xriii. 803‑304, and F. 8. Turner, The
Quakers, pp. 295‑302 et passim, London, 1889.

GURYr, gii"ri', JEAN PIERRE: French Roman Catholic moralist; b. at Mailleroncourt, FrancheComte, Jan. 23, 1801; d. at Vals (80 m. a. of Lyons) Apr. 18, 1886. He entered the Society of Jesus in 1824, studied at Rome 1828‑32, and in 1833 became professor of morals at the Jesuit College in Vals. In 1847 he went to Rome as professor at the Collegium Romanum, but returned to Vals in 1848 and taught there till his death. Following Alfonse Liguori he revived the old Jesuit casuistry and probabilism. His teachings are embodied in Compendium theologies moralis (2 vols., Lyons and Paris, 1850; best ed., Rome, 1882), which quickly became a favorite text‑book of ethics among Roman Catholics; and Casus canacientice in prwcipuas questiones theologise moralis (2 vols.,1864, new ed.,1891). Both works have been variously edited and revised in numerous editions.
BIHLIaa$APHT: Vie du J. P. (icy, Le Pay, 1807; C. W.
Lines, Das Handbuch der djeolopisrhen Moral des Jeeuiten
Oury and die ckristlide Ethik, Freiburg, 1809.
GUSTAV‑ADOLF‑VEREIN ("GUSTAVUS ADOL‑
PHUS ASSOCIATION"): A society of German Prot.
estants, aiming to give aid and support to Protes
tant families and congregations wherever needed,
especially to succor the " Diaspora " (q.v.). The
idea of the association was conceived by Dr. C. G.'
L. Grossmann of Leipsic in 1832 in connection with
the celebration of the second centennial of the
		death of Gustavus Adolphus (q.v.), at
Origin and Liltzen. An association was formed
	Earlier by committees in Leipsie and Dresden,
	History. and on Oct. 4, 1834, its statutes were
		confirmed by the Saxon king. Sue
pass was slow; contributions were scares; and the
foundation was hardly known outside of Saxony.
But it gradually developed and gained the acknowledgment and support of King Frederick William III. of Prussia and of King Charles XIV. of Sweden. Continual, appeals for assistance, particularly from Austria; forced upon the leaders the idea of soliciting a larger participation by change of the statutes. Before this was done, however, a pastor of Basel named Legrand suggested at a conference of preachers an association to support poor Evangelical congregations, and on Oct. 31, 1841, Karl Zimmermann, court preacher at Darmstadt, propounded a similar plan, though neither knew of the existence of the Saxon association. Zimmermann's proposal was eagerly seized everywhere in Evangelical Germany and Switzerland. After an agreement with the leaders of the Saxon movement, the older and. younger associations united. Leipsic remained the center of administration, and the association was now called Evangeliacher Verein der (3taatav‑Adolf‑Stiftuttg (" Evangelical Association of the Gustavus Adolphus Foundation "). At the second convention in 1843 at Frankfort, new statutes were adopted, twenty‑nine associations being represented by delegates, including representatives of countries outside of Germany.
Every country, every larger state, and every province has a main association with branch associations. At least every third year a general con‑
vention takes place. Since the general Later convention of Frankfort, the aesocia‑
History. tion has developed rapidly. Only Ba‑
varia, the Stronghold of the Roman Catholics, closed its doors, the introduction of the association into that country being prohibited by royal edict of 1844. A controversy arose in regard to the admission of preachers of " free congregations " as delegates, and the majority decidgd that only members of the Evangelical State Churches should be admitted. The confessional basis was considered necessary for the sound development of the association. Owing to the events of 1848 and 1849, the interest in the movement slackened, and the contributions decreased considerably; but the lost ground was soon recovered, and by an ordinance of 1849 Bavaria was also open to the .work of the association. In 1851 at the suggestion of Dr. Jonas, preacher in Berlin, a new branch was added in the organization of women's associations. After 1852 associations originated also in Holland, Sweden, Austria, Transylvania, Hungary, and in 1859 an association for supporting Lutheran congregations was formed in Russia. At several universities students' associations were called into existence. Institutions like the Evangelical Society for Protestant Germans in North America at Barman and Elberfeld, the Society for Pastoral Assistance in Berlin, the Rhenish Institute for Pastoral Assistance in Duisburg, the Jerusalem Association in Berlin, the 7nstheriacher Ootteskasten (q.v.), all originated under the influence of the Gustav‑Adoif=Verein. Associations in foreign countries, working in the same spirit, but having no connection with the original German association, have been established in Belgium, France, Rumania, and Italy, though England, Denmark, and America do not possess them.
Since its beginning, the Gustav‑Adolf‑Vereia has

101	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	~ 1'.1°e
expended 33,094,069.74 marks and supported 4,518 congregations of which 2,729 belonged to the German Empire; 1,203 to the Austrian Monarchy, and 586 to other European countries and countries outside of Europe. To this sum must be added 424,334.33 marks for personal support and contributions in kind. The Association has built 1,972 churches and houses of prayer, 882 schoolhouses, 768 parsonages and established 80 cemeteries. It has paid special attention to Evangelical instruction in the Diaspora, and has also cared for widows and orphans of ministers and teachers and contributed to the erection and maintenance of asylums and teachers' seminaries. The principal periodicals published in the interests of the association are the Dormstddter Bote (since 1843), Markischer Bote, Thiirirnger Bote, Rheiniaeh‑westfdlischea Gustav‑Adolf‑Blatt, Oesterreichi8cher Protestant, Gudav‑Ado(j‑Berichte aua Leiden, and others.
(K. ZIMMERMANN.)
BIHLIOGRAPH:7: K. Zimmermann, aewAichte des GuetaeAdolf‑Vereins, Darmstadt, 1877; W. pressel, Bausteine zur Geschichte des Gudaro‑Adolf‑Vereim, 2 vols., Freienwelde, 1878; Der Guetas‑Adolf‑Veredn and doe Volk Israel, Tilbingen, 1879; W. Zschimmer, Bins Gwtao‑AdoltBeiee, Halle, 1888; K. Benmth, GeerhicW des Hauptvereins der Gvataro‑Adolf‑Stittung, 18¢¢‑8.¢, K6mgsberg, 1894; F. Blanclmneister, Gustaro‑Adott‑Stunden, Leipei0. 1894; idem, Fedechriften far Guetaro‑Adolf‑Vereine, ib. 1902 sqq.
GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. See THIRTY YEARS' WAR.
GUSTAVUS VASA. See SWEDEN.
GUTHE, gil'te, HERMANN: German Protes. tant; b. at Westerlinde, a village of Brunswick, May 10, 1849. He was educated at the universitieb of G6ttingen (1867‑69) and Erlangen (18691870; 1873), and after being a private tutor in Livonia from 1870 to 1873 was a lecturer at GSttingen from 1873 to 1877. In 1877 he became a privat‑docent at Leipsic, and seven years later was appointed to his present position of associate professor of Old Testament exegesis. In 1881 and 1904 he was in Palestine, engaged in scientific excavation. His theological standpoint is one of ethical supernaturalism with entire freedom in historical research. He has edited the Zeitschrift des deutechen PaUstina‑Vereins from 187'8 to 1896 and its Mitteilungen tend Nachrichten .since 1897, and has also written: De fiederia notions Jeremiana (Leipsic, 1877); Ausgrabungen bei, Jerusalem (1883); Paldstina in Bald and Wort (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1983‑‑84; the German edition of Pidureaque paleadine in collaboration with G. Ebers); Geachichte des volkea Israel (Freiburg, 1899); The Books of 9zra and Nehemiah in The Polychrome Bale (New York, 1901); Jeaaia (Tabingen, 1907); and Pal"na (Bielefeld, 1908). He likewise prepared a number of maps of Palestine and a Kwze8 Baelworterbuch with the assistance of other scholars (Ttibingen, 1903).
GUTHLAC, guth'lac, SAINT: Presbyter and hermit of Crowland (40 m. s.s.e. of Lincoln, Lincolnshire) ; b. in Mercia c. 673; d. at Crowland Apr.11, 714. He was the son of a wealthy Mercian nobleman and in his youth came under the influence of the martial spirit of the time. For nine years he led a band of
his fellow noblemen in a life of wild guerrilla warfare until his conversion in 697. He then became a tonsured monk in the monastery at Repton and in the neat two years learned all the psalms, canticles, hymns, and prayers used in the choir service. In 699 he began his life as a hermit at Crowland, then a dreary island of the Welland, in the very heart of the fen. Here he spent the remainder of his life in religious devotion, subsisting on one meal a day, composed of barley bread and water, which he took after sunset. Like St. Anthony he was for years tormented by visions of demons,. until he was rescued from them by his patron St. Bartholomew. His fame for piety spread far and wide, and pilgrims of all classes visited him. One of these was Hedda, bishop of Lichfield, who ordained him priest. He was buried in his oratory, and a year after his death his remains were, placed in a shrine, which at once became an object of pilgrimage. In 716 Ethelbald, king of Mercia, reared over his relics the building which afterward . grew into Crowland Abbey.
BnawoOHAP87: The Vita by Felix of Croyland, with other material, is in ASB, April, ii. 38‑60; also in R. Gough, History and Antiquities of Croyland Abbey, pp. 131‑153, London, 1783; is edited by W. de Gray Birch, Wisbeck, 1881, and an Eng. trend. with the AngloSason Version was edited by C. W. Goodwin, London, 1848. Consult: C. F. de T. Montalemberk Les Moines d'oetidsnt, v. 118129, Paris, 1868; DHB, atiii. 373‑374.

	GUTHRIE, THOMAS: Free Church of Scotland;
b. at Brechin (60 m. n.n.e. of Edinburgh), Forfar
shire, Scotland, July 12, 1803; d. at St. Leonards
on the Sea (now a part of Hastings), Sussex, Eng
land, Feb. 23, 1873. He entered Edinburgh Uni
		versity in his thirteenth year; was
	Life and	licensed by Brechin Presbytery in
	Ministry.	1825; and after two years of further
		study in Edinburgh and Paris, fol
lowed by two years as a bank agent in Brechin,
became parish minister of Arbirlot, Forfarshire, in
1830. His Evangelical preaching, pastoral zeal,
and strenuous opposition both to voluntaryism and
to patronage attracted public notice, and led, in
1837, to his translation to the Collegiate Church of
Old Greyfriars, Edinburgh. In 1840, the charge
was divided, and a new church (St. John's) was
built, of which Guthrie became minister, with the
Cowgate as his territorial sphere.
Meanwhile the conflict between church and law courts over the Veto Act had culminated in 1838, when the Court of Session enjoined the Church to induct a qualified but unpopular presentee to Auchterarder. Guthrie would have preferred agitation for the abolition of patronage to a Veto Act of disputed legality; but he attached himself cordially to the non‑intrusionists. In 1840 he preached in Strathbogie by instruction of the General Assembly, in defiance of the Court of Session. He itinemted in behalf of non‑intrusion and " spiritual independence." His sagacity and' tact helped to prevent division in the convocation of 1842:
After the Disruption,.Guthrie became minister of Free St. John's, Edinburgh, erected fifty yards from his former church. For about twenty years he ministered to a large and influential congregation, and attracted crowds of strangers from all parts of

Guthrie	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	102
Guyon
the world. His chief service to the Free Church
after the Disruption was the raising in 1845‑46 of
£115,000 as a manse fund. In 1862 he was elected
moderator of the Free Church Assembly. III
health, brought on by overwork, constrained him to
retire from the pastorate in 1864, when a testimo
nial, including a gift of £5,000, was presented to him
in the name of contributors from all ranks and of
many churches and lands.
	Guthrie's most signal philanthropic service was
the institution of " Ragged Schools " for the
		reclamation of juvenile " waifs," who
His Pllilan‑ were fed, taught, and trained for in
	thropic	dustrial work. His efforts in this
	Efforts.	sphere, along with those of Sheriff
		Watson of Aberdeen, and of Dr. W.
Robertson of New Greyfriars Parish, Edinburgh,
awakened public interest, and resulted in various
Industrial Schools Acts, through which magistrates
received power to " commit " to such schools
vagrant and neglected, even though not criminal,
children. Guthrie was also an early and powerful
advocate of total abstinence. His work, The City:
its Sins and Sorrows (London, 1857), and three
tracts (1851‑53) on the sinful folly of New Year
drinking customs, were widely circulated and fruit
ful. He was a warm friend of foreign missions and
devoted his sermon as retiring moderator to their
advocacy. He was still more notable in pleading
for the Waidensian Church and its mission work.
	Guthrie was an ardent but not narrow Presby
terian and Free‑churchman.	He was a zealous
advocate of union with the United Presbyterian
Church. In 1843, he exerted his influence to pre
		vent the insertion in the Free‑church
His Broad‑ standards of what might preclude
mindedness. union with the Secession Churches.
		His Plea for Union in 1867 and some
of his latest letters strongly urged the consumma
tion of the union. He disapproved of the estab
lishment of Free‑church schools after the Disrup
tion, and looked forward to a national system of
education.
	After his retirement from the ministry Guthrie
exerted a most extensive influence by his pen.
		Literary distinction had already been
	Writings. obtained through his Gospel in Ezekiel
		(Edinburgh, 1856), Christ and the
Inheritance of the Saints (1858), and several vol
umes of sermons. He now became editor of a new
periodical, the Sunday Magazine, in which appeared
originally, in serial form, Man and the Gospel, The
Angels' Song, The Parables, Our Father's Business,
Out of Harness, Early Piety, Studies of Character,
and Sundays Abroad. All his works were repub
lished in the United States and were as popular
there as in Great Britain.	HENRY COWAN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Autobiography of Thomas Guthrie . . and
	Memoir by his Sons . . D. K. and C. J. Guthrie, 2 vols.,
	London, 1874‑75; O. 9meaton, Thomas Guthrie, Edin
	burgh, 1900; D71rB, xxiii. 380‑382.
	GUYON, gi"6n', JEANNE MARIE BOUVIER DE
LA MOTTE: French mystical writer of the Quietist
school; b. at Montargis (38 m. e. of Orl4ans) Apr. 13,
1648; d. at Blois June 9, 1717. Her earliest educa
tioh was received in convents. As a young girl of
delicate constitution, she displayed an enthusiastic tendency toward an ascetic, self‑tormenting mysti‑
cism, marked especially by a fervent Early Life. devotion to the name of Jesus. She
early became familiar with the writings of St. Francis of Sales and St. Jane Frances de Chantal (see VISITATION, ORDER OIL' THE) and began instinctively to make all the vows and practise all the good works she found recommended in the latter's works.
Her great desire was to join an order, and especially that of the Visitation founded by her model, but her mother had other plans for her. On Jan.
28, 1664, she was married to a rich man Marriage. twenty‑two years her senior, Jacques
Guyon, Seigneur de Chesnay, whom she had seen for the first time two or three days before. She was exceedingly unhappy in the worldly and otherwise uncongenial atmosphere of her husband's house, and her only consolation was to maintain unbroken communion with God; but, insufficiently acquainted with the practises of mysticism, she found it difficult to live a life of prayer until a young Franciscan whom she met at her father's spoke the decisive words which were to direct her whole life: " Your trouble comes from seeking externally what all the time is within you. Accustom yourself to seek God in your own heart, and you will find him there."
From this time she began the methodical practise of ascetic usages, scourging herself till the blood came, wearing nettles next to her skin and a girdle set with sharp nails, drank bitter drafts to spoil the taste of the little food she allowed herself, and broke off all intercourse with the world. Not long after she had entered on this course of life, she became acquainted in Paris with the prioress of the Benedictine nuns there, Genevipve Granger, who recommended her to the mystic Bertot as her director. In the same summer, under the prioress' advice, she went through the solemn form of a mystical espousal with Christ. Four years later M. Guyon died. His wife had given him the most devoted care during his illness; but she felt that now her chains were broken and she was free to devote her whole life unreservedly to God. The next day she renewed her mystical espousal and vowed never to take another earthly husband, on condition that her director approved of making the vow for life.
In 1680 she went to Paris for a time, and entered into correspondence with Pyre Ia Combe, superior
of the Barnabites at Thonon. Moved Widow‑ by his words and by some striking hood. Re‑ occurrences at the time, she believed lations with herself called by God to go to Geneva.
Ptre Is The bishop of that diocese (d'AranCombe. thon) being then in Paris, she sought
an interview with him and told him it was her intention to devote her property to the foundation of a community for " those who were willing truly to turn to God and serve him without reserve." The bishop told her of an association already at work in his diocese for the education of the daughters of Protestants and other converts to the Catholic faith, which was planning to establish

103	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Guthrie
		Canyon
an institution at Gex, and offered her the headship
of this community. She set off without telling
any one of her intention, reached Geneva on July 21,
1681, and proceed to Gex, where she was joined
by Pdre la Combe, whom she now (Bertot having
died just before) adopted as her spiritual father.
She was not at all comfortable in the house, how
ever, so that it was not long before she gave up the
project and took refuge with the Ursulines of Tho
non. Here her life began to be a continuous series
of visions and revelations; and here, at 1a Combe's
instance, she entered on her career as an author.
When la Combe left Thonon to take up a position
in the household of the Bishop of Vercelli, she
accepted the invitation of the Marquise de Prunai
to Turin so as to be near him. She intended to
reside there permanently; but he announced to her
that it was her duty to go at once to Paris. She
yielded, and went as far as Grenoble, where she
began her commentary on the Scriptures and became
an object of general attention as her fame had
already been spread abroad. She was soon, how
ever, denounced as a dangerous person, in fact a
sorceress in league with the Evil One, and was
obliged to take flight. She went first to Marseilles,
and finally, on Good Friday, 1685, made her appear
ance at Vercelli.
	Here there seemed a prospect of her finding at
last a peaceful retreat, as the bishop planned to use
		her for the foundation of a congregation
	Returns of women; but a dangerous illness
	to Paris.	sent her back to Paris, whither la
Her Ideas Combe got permission to accompany
Condemned. her. She had hardly reached there
		before she found that her own brother,
a priest, and others were working against la Combe;
suspicion of his relations with Madame Guyon and
the charge of being a follower of Molinos led to his
being imprisoned in the Bastille on the order of the
archbishop (Oct., 1687). But the attack was
directed not merely against him. It was reported
to the king that Madam Guyon was a supporter of
the Quietistic mysticism, and that she held meetings
of a prohibited sort. By royal order she was
arrested and confined in a convent of the Visita
tion (Jan. 29, 1688); but she was fortunate enough
to enlist the sympathy of Madame de Maintenon,
who procured her release. From 1688 to 1694 she
lived partly in Paris and partly with her married
daughter. At St. Cyr she came into contact with
Fdnelon, and began a lively interchange of relig
ious ideas with him. Her friends brought about a
meeting also with Bossuet, who came to see her
and looked at her manuscripts early in 1694.
	New trials were, however, preparing. Her ideas
had found entrance into Madame de Maintenon's
school at St. Cyr, and the confessor of Madame de
Maintenon denounced them as dangerous and heret
ical, which led to her visits there being interdicted.
Soon it was reported that Bossuet had found a
number of grave errors in her writings, and accu
sations were even whispered against her manner
of life. She besought Madame de Maintenon for
an investigation, and a commission was named,
consisting of Bossuet; de Nosilles, Bishop of Cb$
lons; and Tronson, superior of St. Sulpice, a friend
of Fdnelon's. The final result of their meetings, at the latter of which Fdnelon, now archbishop of Cambrai, assisted, was made known on Mar. 10, 1695. Thirty propositions collected from her writings were condemned. On Apr. 15 she signed a revocation of these propositions, after which Bossuet gave her a certificate of orthodoxy. Returning to Paris from Meaux, where she had spent some time for convenience of examination, she felt fortified by her rehabilitation and began to hold meetings for promoting the spiritual life. On Dec. 28 she was again arrested and imprisoned, first at Vincennes and afterward in the Bastille. She remained in confinement until the king and Bossuet had obtained from the pope (Mar., 1699) a condemnation of her Maximes des saints, and Bossuet had emerged victorious from his conflict with Fdnelon. He now began to take a milder tone with her, and she was released either in 1700 or 1702. She lived fifteen years longer in retirement at Diaiers near Blois, where her son was, maintaining a voluminous correspondence with admirers in France, Germany, Holland, and England.
Madame Guyon's influence did not perish with her, but spread wider throughout France and the surrounding countries, where her folHer lowers regarded as Gospel truths her
Influence maxims‑that the true Christian must and strive for a pure, wholly disinterested
	Writings. love; that he must pray, not in order
		to gain anything, even salvation, from
God, but as an act of submission and resignation
without any will of his own; that perfect prayer is
mental power, the resting in God without words
and without will; that he who has attained this
state is thenceforth without sin. Since this kind
of "internal" religion, without dependence on the
institutions and sacraments of the Church, was ac
ceptable to Protestants, it had numerous fol
lowers among the members of different religious
bodies in both England and Germany. Among
Madame Guyon's works the following are note
worthy:	her autobiography in three volumes
(Cologne, 1720); Moyen court et trds facile pour
l'oraison (Lyons, 1688); Le Cantique des eantigues,,
interprN selon le sens mystique (Grenoble, 1685);
and her version of the Bible with notes and reflec
tions (Les Torrens spirituels, 30 vols., Cologne,
1713‑15). 		(C. PFENDER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A number of Madame Guyon's works are acoessible in English e.g., her Autobiography, Bristol, 1772, Dublin, 1775, Bristol, 1806, and a full tranel. by T. T. Allen, 2 vols., London, 1897; many of her Poems were translated by w. Cowper, London, 1811, and they appeared, edited and arranged, with a short life, by A. Saunders Dyer, Glasgow, 1887; A Method o/ Prayer, An Analysis . . by T. C. Upham, London, 1859; A Short and Easy Method of Prayer, ib. 1867; and A Method of Prayer, by D. MacFadyen, ib. 1902.
On her life consult: J. B. Bossuet, Quakerism h la
mode, or a History of Quietism, particularly that of .
Madame Guyone, Containing her Life, Prophecies and
Visions, London, 1698; L. M. Francis, The Biographies
of Lady Russell and Madame Guyon, Boston, 1832; C.
Hermes, Ztipe aus derv Leben der Frau von Guioxi, Magde
burg, 1.845; T. C. Upham, Life and Religious Opinions
and Experience of\Madame de la Mothe Guyon, 2 vols.,
New York, 1847; H. Heppe, Geschichte der quietistischen
Mystik, pp. 145 sqq., Berlin, 1875; A. Grivesu, Ettudr

Rabaggnk	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	104
our la condamnation du livre des Maximes des Saints, Paris, 1878; L. Guerrier, Madame Guyon, sa vie, s¢ doctrine et son influence, Paris, 1881; H. T. Cheever, Correspondenceee.otPaith and Views of Madame Guyon, New York, 1885; H. Delacroix. Atudes d'histoire at de p8yrhutopie du mysticdama, Pariss, 1908.

GWAT11s1Y, HENRY MELVILL: Church of England; b. at Barrow‑on‑Soar (8 m. n. of Leicester), Leicestershire, July 30, 1844. He was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge (B. A.,1867), where he was fellow in 1868‑74 and theological tutor in 1874‑91. Since 1891 he has been Dixie professor of ecclesiastical history in the University of Cambridge and fellow of Emmanuel College. He was also Gifford lecturer at Edinburgh in 1903‑05 and has written Studies of Arianism (Cambridge, 1882); The Arian Controversy (London, 1889); Selections from Early Christian Writers (1893); The Eye for Spiritual Things (Edinburgh, 1906); and The Knowledge of God (Gifford lectures, 1906).
GWYNN, JOHN: Church of Ireland; b. at Larne (18 m. n:e. of Belfast), County Antrim, Ireland, Aug. 28, 1827. He was educated at Trinity Col= lege, Dublin (B.A., 1850; MA., 1854), where he was fellow in 1853‑64. He was also warden of St. Columba's College, Dublin, from 1856 to 1864, and from 1863 to 1882 was rector of Tullyaughnish, County Donegal, in addition to being dean of Raphoe in 1873,82. After being rector of Templemore, County Derry (1882,83), he was Archbishop King's Lecturer in divinity in Dublin University (1883‑88) and since 1888 has been regius professor of divinity in the same university. He has written Commentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians in The ,Speaker's Commentary (London, 1881), besides editing The Apocalypse of St. John in a Syriac Version hitherto Unknown (Dublin, 1897), and The Book of Arntayh (1905), and translating Selections from Ephraim and Aplnohat in The Nicene and PostNicene Fathers, second series (Edinburgh, 1898).
GYRUVAGI ("Circuit‑Wanderers," almost ‑"Tramps"): Vagrant monks who subsisted upon charity. Benedict of Nursia mentions them as being worse than the cenobites, eremites, or Sarabaites (q.v.), and desired their extermination (Requla, i.). Taking advantage of the general rule of hospitality they roved from one cell to another,
HAAG, EMUS: Freneh Protestant; b. at Montb6liard (100 m. n.e. of Cbfilon) Nov. 10, 1810; d. at Paris May 11, 1865. He studied law at Strasburg, and after being a tutor in Poland for two years, was appointed professor of political economy in a commercial school in Leipsic. In 1836 he left Leipsic togeether with his brothel Eugene (q.v.) and went to Paris, where he supported himself by miscellaneous literary work. He is best kaown by his collaboration with his brother in the preparation of La France pratestante (9 vole., Paris, 1846=59), a biographical dictionary to which he contributed the articles an the artists and poets. He likewise wrote Satires et potsies diverses (Paris, 1844).
refusing to adopt the community‑life. Even prior to Benedict's day they were common in the Occident. Augustine . calls them circelliones, or Circumcelliones (q.v.), and relates that they were the first monks to carry on a brisk traffic in spurious bones of martyrs. Cassisn also mentions a class of monks who were probably identical with Benedict's gyrovagi, and the circumcellimtea of Augustine. They were notorious gluttons, shrank from fasting and even beguiled the cloister brethren to break fasts of obligation. The earliest report of such unstable monks in the Orient is contained in a Greek tract on ascetic rules (cf. .MPG, xxxi. 84, 119). Nilus the Sinaite (d. after 430) complains of these "false monks" (bk. iii., epiat. 119), and Johannes Climacus ~d. 606) warns the true and settled anchorites to beware of all gyrovagi (Scala poradisi gradus, xxvii.).
The Church soon.recognized the duty of restraining the excesses of these vagrants. The Gallican synods at Angers in 453 (cannon viii.), and at Vannes in 465 (canons vi. and vii.) ruled that the roving monks should be debarred from communion and on occasion should be strictly disciplined; the two Spanish synods at Toledo in 633 (canon liii.) and 646 (canon v.) demanded that the religiosi vagabundi should either be coordinated with the clergy or else consigned to the cloister. The monastic foundations of Cfesarius of Arles, Benedict of Nursia, and Cassiodorus in the sixth century served to repress wandering monks, expressly .binding their inmates to persevere in the monastic estate until death, and to remain in the cloister first selected. The triumph of the Benedictine rule in the eighth century brought Western monasticism under the fixed cenobite form. In the East measures to suppress roving monks were taken by the Council of Chaloedon in 451 (canon iv.), also by Justinian, and later by the Second Trullan Council in 692 (canon xlii.). Notwithstanding these enactments, there were roving impostors in monks' garb throughout the Middle Ages. Later the term "gyrovagi" was sometimes applied to unsettled and migratory clerics.
G. GRTZMACHER.
BzHLrooRAPBt: E. Martbne, Commentarius in reouta S. BenediA pp. 53 sqq., Paris, 1890; A. Calmet, Commen‑
tsire sw la r~pte do S. Benoit, pp. 26 sqq., ib. 1734; Heim‑
buohea:Orden urd Konpropationen, i. 149; HL, vi. 1403‑04.
HAAG, EUGENE: French Protestant; brother of the preceding; b. at Montbi6liard (100 m. n.e. of Chhlon) Feb. 11, 1808; d. at Paris Mar. 5, 1868. After studying theology at Strasburg, he conducted a boarding‑school at Cernay, and was then appointed professor of literature at a commercial school in Leipsic. In 1836 he went with his brother to Paris, and there supported himself by translating and by contributing to the periodical press. He also prepared a report on German military science for the Duke of Orldans, assisted in A. J. Matter's revision of the Bible (Paris, 1850) and in editing several periodicals, not only religious but even medical. Among his works special mention may

106	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Gwatkin
		Habakkuk
be made of his Vie de Luther (Valence, 1840); Vie
de Calvin (Paris, 1840); Histoire des dogmes ehrc
dens (2 vols., Paris, 1862); and the posthumous
Th6ologie biblique (1870). His chief fame, however,
rests upon his La France protestante (9 vols., Paris,
1846‑59), to which he contributed all the articles
except those on artists and poets. Together with
C. Weiss, A. Coquerel, jr., and C. Read he also
founded in 1852 the Social d'histoire du protestan
tisme franfais, of which he was secretary and vice
president, as well as editor of the journal of the
society.
	HAAS, JOHN AUGUSTUS WILLIAM: Lutheran;
b. at Philadelphia, Aug. 31, 1862. He was educated
at the University of Pennsylvania (A.B., 1884),
the Lutheran Seminary at Mt. Airy, Philadelphia
(1887), and the University of Leipsic (1887‑88).
He then held pastorates at Grace Lutheran Church,
New York City, in 1388‑96, and St. Paul's Lutheran
Church in the same city in 1896‑1904. Since 1904
he has been president of Muhlenberg College, Allen
town Pa., where he is also professor of religion and
philosophy. In theology his position is conserva
tively Lutheran, although he makes allowance for
modern positions, especially with regard to Biblical
research and the doctrine of inspiration and atone
ment. He has written Commentary on the Gospel of
Mark (New York, 1895); BZlical Criticism (Phila
delphia, 1902); and Bible Literature (1903), and
was also a coeditor and contributor of the Lutheran
Cyclopedia (New York, 1899).
	HAAS, LORENZ : German Roman Catholic: b.
at Hungenberg, a village of Germany, Dec. 18,
1844. He was educated at the universities of
Munich and Wurzburg, after which he was vicar
of Erlangen (1868‑71), teacher of religion at Bam
berg (1871 73), and a member of the foundation of
St. Stephen's, Augsburg, where he was also occu
pied at the lyceum and gymnasium (1873‑79).
He then taught at Burghausen (1880,88) and at
Munich for a portion of a year (1888), after which
he was a professor at the lyceum in Passow in 1888
1900. Since 1900 he has held a similar position
in the lyceum of Bamberg. He has written Die
notmendVe Intention des Ministers zur gultigen Ver
waltung der heiligen Sakramente (Bamberg, 1869);
De philosopharum sceptieorum ruccessionabua eoru»r
que usque ad Seatum Empirieum acriptis (Wurzburg,
1875); Ueber Hypnotismus and Suggestion (Augs
burg, 1893); and Die immaterielle Substanzialitat
der menschlichen Seele (Regensburg, 1903).
	HABAIKVUg (LXX., Ambakoum; Vulgate,
Habacuc): The eighth of the Minor Prophets.
From the subscription to the third chapter it has
been inferred that the author was a Levite, and in
the superscription of Bel and the Dragon in Codex
Chisianus this is stated as a fact. The subscrip
tion mentioned suggests personal official partici
pation in the song service of the Temple. While
there is no certain knowledge of Habakkuk's life,
a very rich body of legend clusters about his name
(F. Delitzseh, De Habacuci prophets vita atque
state, Leipsic, 1842). The titles of chaps. i. and
iii. show that he was a well‑known prophet of Judah.
The book is cast in the form of dialogue. Chap. i. 2‑1 contains the prophet's complaint against the corruption among his people; i. :rll is the divine answer foretelling the impending judgment through the Chaldeans; i. 12‑17 expresses the prophet's wonder at their use by the Almighty; the divine answer follows in a fivefold "wo" presaging the overthrow of the enemy (ii. 2‑20); chap. iii. is the answer of the trusting community to this double revelation, closing with an expression of perfect confidence in God. The kernel of the book is in the second announcement, ii. 2‑3.
Against the early and persistent interpretation that in i. 2‑4 the prophet has the Chaldeans in mind are: (1) that the same sins are denounced by other prophets (e.g., Ezek. xiii. 8); (2) that as component parts of the prophecy appear the sin, the punishment, forgiveness, and restoration; (3) the use of "law" in i. 4, which must mean the divine law. Also that the punishment of the Hebrews by the Chaldeans involves retribution of the instrument also is an integral part of the prophecy. The interpretation given avoids any necessity for considering i. 5‑11 an interpolation, or for taking ii. 9‑20 as a later addition, or for regarding the whole as a short preexilic prophecy worked over in the Exile.
There is only internal evidence upon which to determine the date either of the prophet or of his writing. Delitzsch's date, after the twelfth regnal year of Josiah, involving the assumption that Zeph. i. 7 depends on Hab. ii. 20, is doubtful‑the dependence may be the other way. It is better to accept the verdict of most of the later critics and place it shortly before the battle of Carchemish. Delitzach's later placing of Habakkuk under Manasseh is against i. 5 "in your days."
	The diction of Habakkuk is classical, the words
are rare and often peculiar to himself, the style is
artistic and independent of earlier models. Chap.
iii., an example of the highest art in Hebrew poetry,
pictures Yahweh coming forth from Sinai in the
ophany to judge the foes of his people. All creation
is in consternation at his presence; the earth is
shaken to its foundations, sun and moon withdraw
before the bright glow of his arrows and spear. Even
the prophet, to whom the purpose of this coming is
known, is stricken with terror until he recovers in
view of the end which he sees and breaks off in a
song of triumph. There is a close relationship be
tween parts of the song and Ps. lxxvii. 16‑20, and
between Jer. iv. 13, v. 6, and Hab. i. 8. The passage
ii. 4 is used by Paul in Rom. i. 17 and Gal. iii. 11;
it is used also in Heb. x. 37‑38, but in much altered
form. 	(W. VOLCxt.)
It is scarcely possible to regard as a unit the prophecy ascribed to Habakkuk. At any rate chap. iii. gives no indication of a close relation with the first two chapters. The inscription (iii. 1) and the musical note (iii. 19) indicate the use of the chapter in the second temple, while the style and contents correspond to those of some of the latest psalms (e.g., Ps. lxviii:). The Chaldeans of i. 6 are not mentioned or suggested, and the fact that in verse 13, as the parallelism shows, it is the people of Israel that is called the "anointed" indi‑

Habakkuk	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	108
Hadad
cates that the regal period is past and that the
community has taken the place of the king as the
theocratic representative. The poem does not give
information regarding the nature of the impending
danger which is to bring about the intervention of
Yahweh (as in the days of old). This danger can
hardly be a drought and failure of the crops, such
as is suggested in verses 17‑19; hence many recent
critics assume that these verses constitute an addi
tional hymn, also by an unknown late author. If
this be the am, these two compositions had appar
ently been written on the same roll and thus came
to be used as a single liturgical psalm. Before the
canonical limitation of the Psalter this composite
psalm was plated alongside the prophecy contained
in the first two chapters on account of their general
internal kinship.
	The first two chapters are not very easily ex
plained as an original unit. It is not plain how
the several sections of which they are composed
are related to one another; and whsle it is possible
to connect them as is done in the teat above, such
an explanation seems somewhat forced and is rather
to be accepted as tentative than as final. On the
other hand, it must be admitted that no alternative
view of the composition of the prophecy has as yet
met general approval.	J. F. McCuRny.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Delitasch, Der Prophet Habakkuk, Leip
	sie, 1843; L. Reinke, Der Prophet Habakuk, Briaen. 1870
	(contains full list of earlier works); A. G. Baumgartner,
	Le Prophhto Habakkuk, Leipsie, 1885; F. W. Farrar, The
	Minor Prophets, in Men of the Bible Series, London 1890;
	F. Giesebreeht, Beitrape sur Jesaiakritik. DP. 170 eqq.,
	GSttingen, 1890; R. Sinker, The Psalm of Habakkuk.
	Cambridge, 1890; K. Budde; in Expositor, May, 1895;
	A. B. Davidson, in Cambridge Bible for Schools, 1898;
	W. Nowaek, Die kleinen Propheten, Gbttingen, 1897 G.
	A. Smith, The Book of as Twelve, vol. ii., London, 1898;
	DB, ii. 269‑273; EB, ii. 1921‑28; JR, vi. 117‑118; B.
	Duhm, Dos Buch Habakkuk, Tilbingen, 1906; F. Nicolar
	dot, La Composition du livre d'Habacuc, Paris, 1908.
	HABERKORN, ha'barkern, PETER: Lutheran
theologian and controversialist; b. at Butzbach
(24 m. n. of Frankfort), Hesse, May 9, 1604; d. at
Giessen Apr. 1676. In 1625 he went to Marburg,
where he acquitted himself with such success as to
win the approval and friendship of Mentzer. After
passing some time at Leipsic and Strasburg, and at
Cologne to acquaint himself with the Roman Catho
sic polemic, he became in 1632 professor of physics
at Marburg, but resigned in the following year to
become court preacher at Giessen, where in 1650
he was made professor of theology in the reorgan
ized university. After the death of his father‑in‑law, Justus Feuerborn, in 1658 he held the rank of
senior professor in theology and was the recognized
head of the faculty. His importance rests in the
fact that he may be said to have held the Univer
sity of Giessen and with it Upper Hesse faithful to
the doctrines of the orthodox Lutheranism. Most
noteworthy of his writings against the Roman
Catholics is the Vindicatio Ltdherante fulei contra
Hetfericum Ulrieum Hunnium (Marburg, 1633).
Against the Syncretists he wrote: Fidelis contra
Syncretismum indituta admonitio (Giessen, 1665);
Enodatio errorum Syncretiaticorum (1665); Vindicue
Syncretie»w Casselano opposites de S. Cwna (1669).
			(F. BossE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. W. Strieder, Grundlaye su einer heesiaehan Gelehrten‑ and Schriftetellerfiewhichte, vol. v., 21 vole.. GSttingen, 1781‑1888; H. L. J. Heppe, Kirehenpeaehichts beider Hamm vol. ii., Marburg, 1878; dDB, vol. z
	HABERXANN, ha'blir‑man, JOHANN UOHAN
NES AVENARIITS) : German Protestant theologian;
b. at Eger (92 m. w. of Prague) Aug. 10, 1516; d.
at Zeitz (23 m. s.w. of Leipsic) Dec. 5, 1590. He
went over to the Evangelical Church about 1540,
studied theology, and filled a number of pastorates.
After a brief academic activity at Jena and Witten
berg, in 1575, he accepted a call as superintendent
of Naumburg‑Zeitz. Though praised by his con
temporaries as an Old Testament exegete, his sig
nificance lies in the practical field. He published
a number of sermons, a Trm"chlein, a life of Christ,
and above all the prayer‑book, Chrietliche Gebett fur
allerley Not and Stende der gantzen Chrmtenheit
(Wittenberg, 1567), in which, for the first time, the
prayers for various Christian needs were appor
tioned among the several days of the week. With
a few exceptions the prayers are written in plain
Biblical language, without ornament. The work
was translated into Latin, English (The Enimie
of Securitie, London, 1580), and French, and was
widely circulated in Protestant circles. Despite its
occasional crudities of expression the book is still
used; and some of the prayers have passed into
church books. 	HERmANN BECK.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are the funeral sermon by J. Oertel, Leipsie, 1591; Zeuner, Vito professorum Jenensium, i. 88 eqq., Jena, 1711. Consult: H. Beek Die Erbau‑
unpalitteratur der evanpetisehen Kirche Deutachlands, i. 270 eqq., Erlangen, 1883; idem, J. Habarmann. sin Gedenkblatt, Pfarrhaus, 1890.

HABERT, ha"bar', ISAAC: Bishop of Vabres; b. in Paris at the end of the sixteenth century; d. at Pont de Salara, near Rodez (230 m. s.w. of Lyons) Sept. 15, 1668. He was educated in Paris and in 1626, on receiving his doctorate in theology from the Sorbonne, was made a canon in the cathedral at Paris. In 1641, probably at the instigation of Richelieu, he started the attack on Jansenism and subsequently provoked Antoine Arnauld to publish his two apologies for the doctrine, which led to numerous polemic writings pro and con. He was responsible for the letter sent to Pope Innocent X. in 1650, signed by eighty‑five bishops, praying him to suppress the Jansenistic heresy. He was bishop of Vabres from 1645 till his death. His principal writings are: De consenau hierarcha:Ie et tlwnurchiw (Paris, 1640); De cathedru sew primatu sancti Petri (1645); and Theologi‑ gra;corum Ixitrum trindicofce circa universam materiam graha= perpetua eolWione acripturce eonctaiorum . . . sari tree (1646; reprinted, Warzburg, 1863), his chief work against Jansenism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Besoign^ Hist. de 1'abbaye de Port Royal, Vol. vi., Cologne, 1753; C. Cl6menoet, Hilt. ohdrale de Port Roial, vol. iri., 10 vole., Amsterdam. 1755‑57; W. H. Jervis, The Gallican Church, London, 1872; Lichtenberger, ESR, vi. 56‑57.
HACBET, JOHN: Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield; b. in London Sept. 1, 1592; d. at Lichfield Oct. 28, 1670. He was educated at Westminster School, London; and at Trinity College, Cambridge (B. A.,1612; M.A., 1615), where he was

107	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
elected to a fellowship. He was ordained in 1618 and soon afterward became chaplain to John Williams, through whose patronage he was instituted to the rectories of Stoke Hammond (Buckingbsmehire) and Kirkby Underwood m 1621. In 1623 he became proctor for the diocese of Lincoln, prebendary in Lincoln Cathedral, and chaplain to James I., and the following year he received the livings of St. Andrews, Holborn, and Cheam in Surrey. In 1631 he became archdeacon of Bedford, and in 1642 canon residuary of St. Paul's. He was a member of the committee for religion appointed by the House of Lords in Mar., 1641, to reconcile the Puritans by making certain concessions regarding church service and discipline; and in May, 1641, at the request of this committee, he spoke in the House of Commons against the so‑called "root and branch" bill for the abolition of all offices connected with the episcopal form of church government. In 1643 he became a member of the Westminster Assembly, but, with other episcopal divines, he soon withdrew from that body. During the civil war he lost all of his preferments except his small benefice at Cheam. At the Restoration he was made chaplain to Charles II., and was consecrated bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, Dec. 22, 1661. He restored the cathedral at Lichfield, a work of eight years, and contributed largely to this and other causes. His only important book is his life of Archbishop Williams, Scrinia reserata: a Memorial Wered to the Great Desemngs of John W%Uiams, D.D. (London, 1693; abridged by A. Philips, 1715), an excellent biography, which S. T: Coleridge considered invaluable for the insight it gives into the times preceding the civil war.
B;HLIOaaA?87: T. Plume, An Account of the Life and Death of . . . John Hacket, ad. with . . . Additions and . . . Notes, by M. E. C. Walcott, London, 1885; John Walker, Sufferings of the Clergy, ib. 1714; Diary of Samuel Pepys, vol. iii., ib. 1858; DNB, mil. 418‑920.

HACKETT, HORATIO BALCH: Baptist; b. in Salisbury, Mass., Dec. 27, 1808; d. in Rochester, N. Y., Nov. 2, 1875. He was graduated from Amherst College in 1830 and studied theology at Andover 1830‑‑31 and 1832‑34, having been tutor at Amherst during the year 1831‑32. Extended studies on infant baptism during his senior year in the seminary shook his confidence in his denomination and prevented him from entering on the work of the Congregational ministry immediately after graduation from the seminary. He was instructor in Mount Hope College, Baltimore, 1834‑35 and was immersed in Baltimore in July, 1835. The same year he became professor of languages in Brown University, and in 1839 professor of Biblical literature and interpretation in Newton Theological Institution. He was also ordained to the ministry in 1839. During 1841‑42 he studied at Berlin and Halls. Pressure of literary work led him to resign at Newton in 1868. From 1870 till his death he occupied the New Testament chair in Rochester Theological Seminary. His first publications were translations from the German. In 1844 he published an annotated edition of Plutarch's De sera niniums vindida (Andover, 1844). This was followed by a translation, with improvements, of
Winer's Grammar of the Chaldee Language (1845); a Hebrew Grammar (1847); Commentary on Ads (Boston, 1851; new ads., 1858 and 1877); Mua.. trotiona of Scripture; Suggested by a Tour through the Holy Land (1855; also 1868 and 1882); Ph" mon (1860); Christian Memorials of the War (1864); a translation with additions of Van Oosterzee's Philemon (1868) and of Braune's ,Philippians (1870) for Schaff's edition of Lange; an edition of Rawlinson's Historical Illustrations of the Old Testament (1873). With Ezra Abbot, he edited the American edition of Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1868‑70). He also collaborated in the Bible version of the American Bible Union (see BiB1.B Soc1BTiEs, III., 2), before which he delivered a memorable address on Bible revision in 1859. (A. H. NEwMAN.)
Bmwoowsrar: G. H. Whittemore, Memorials of H. B. HackeU, Rochester, 1878.
HADAD: An Aramaic anti possibly an Edomitio deity (see HADADRIMMON). In Hadadezer and Benhadad are probably traces of this divine name, which is certainly preserved in the Old Testament name Hadadrimmon. Hadad alone is the name of an Edomite. As such it is not necessarily derived from the name of the god, for nothing is known of a god Hadad among the Edomites; yet its combination with the name of the god is very natural. The reading in the versions is Hadad and Hadar, but the former is better attested. In the Old Testament the following are mentioned having the name of Hadad: (1) an Edomitic king (Gen. xxxvi. 35,36; I Chron. i. 46, 47), who smote the Midianites in the territory of Moab. (2) In I Chron i. 50, 51, a later Edomitic king is mentioned. In the parallel passage, Gen. sxsvi. 39, the Massoretic text reads Hadar (with variants Hadad, LXX. reads Arath, Arad). (3) An Edomite of royal descent (I Kings xi. 14‑22). He is hardly the same as the Hadad mentioned last. The notices concerning the wife of Hadad in (2) and the time of the kings of Edom in Gen. xxavi. 31 do not agree with those in the Kings passage. This Hadad might rather be a son or grandson of that one. This one, who was of royal blood, fled in childhood to Egypt when Joab defeated the Edomites. Pharaoh provided for him, and gave him land and also as wife the sister of Queen Tahperies. At David's death Hadad made an attempt to reconquer his native land. The Hebrew text breaks off suddenly at verse 22, and verse 25 is evidently out of place; it is better, therefore, to suppose that the conclusion of his story has, by a copyist's error, been inserted in the wrong place, and to read at verse 25 with the Septuagint, "This is the evil that Hadad did, and he abhorred Israel, and reigned over Edom." He is not to be confounded with the Hadadezer (I Kings xi. 23) who was king of Zobah. From the Masoretic text I Kings xi. 25 Josephus (Ant. VIII., vii. 6) made the story of a covenant between the Edomite Hadad and the Syrian Rezon, and of the former's elevation to the throne of Syria.
BIHLIoaaAP87: On the whole subject, DB, ii. 273; ED, ii.
1929‑1930; JR, vi. 130‑131. On Hadad as a divine name E. Nestle, Die israditisehen Eipennamen,114‑116, Haarlem.
1876; E. Schrader, %ilinsehriften and GesA~or` erAung, pp. 371‑395, 538, Gieseen. 1878• idem, RAT,
pp. 42, 133, 147, 442 sqq., 538; C. P. Tiele, BabylowsA‑

Hadadeser
HaAen	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	108
aasyrischeGeschichte, p. 626, Goths, 1888‑88; H. Winolder, Alueetamintlidhe Foraehunpen, p. 09, Leipsio, 1892; H. v. Hilprecht, Assyriaca, pp. 7ti‑78, Boston, 1894, and see under HAn6DRIMMax and Rnnsox. On the kings of that name consult: P. Cassel, in Sunen, sin Berliner Wochsnblatl, vol. vii., 1881; H. Winokler, ut sup., pp. 1‑16; F. Buhl, Geschichte der Rdomiter, pp. b7‑81, Leipsio, 1893; A. H. Sayoe, The Hiohe' Criticism and the Monuments, London, 1894; J. Lury, GewAichte der Edomiter, Bern, 1898; T. K. Cheyne, in JQR, ii (1899), bbl‑868; Schrader, RA T, pp. 240‑241, 460.

HADADEZER: An Aramean king and opponent of David (II Sam. viii. 3‑12; I Kings xi. 23). The name means "Hadad helps." A variant is Hadarezer, to which the form Hadadezer is superior, since HadaA (q.v.) is the name of an Aramaic deity, and "Hadadezer" is formed on customary lines (cf. Hebr. Eliezer, Joezer; and Phenician Eshmunezer). The name occurs on a seal of the seventh century in which the letters 1 and r are clearly distinguished (Euting, 8itzungsberichte der Berliner. Akademie, 1885, p. 879). It is probable ',, that Hadadezer was the name of the king of Dama6cus whom the Old Testament mentions as the second Benhadad. The subject of this article was king of Zobah (q.v.), a principality lying south of Mt. Hermon and the chief of a group of Aramean states extending as far south as the borders of Ammon. When David was engaged in war with the Ammonites, Hadadezer assisted the latter and was defeated by David; he then secured the aid of the king of Damascus, and again met defeat. He finally summoned all the remaining Aramean states to the south of Hermon except Hamath (then an ally of Israel), only to be beaten again.
	Such is the account of the events of David's
Aramean wars as compiled from the two accounts
in II Sam. viii. and x., which in part supplement
each other and in part are different versions of the
same event. Confusion has been introduced by
the use of the term "river" in viii. 3 and x. lg,
which has been taken to mean the Euphrates, which
indeed some manuscripts read in viii. 3 and as the
Septuagint reads in the parallel i Chron. gix. 16.
Probably, however, the Jordan is meant, and the
area of the transactions referred to in the context
was restricted to eastern Palestine and its northern
Aramean border. 	J. F. MCCUBDY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Ewald, Gesthichte des Volkes Israel, iii. 202‑212, Gottingen, 1888, Eng. tranal., London, 1871; F. Hitaig, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, pp. 143‑148, Leipale, 1869; E. Schrader, %eilinachriften und Geschichtstorachunp, P. 386, Giessen. 1878; A. Kohler, Lahrbuch der bibliadenn Geeschichte, 11. i. 282‑286, Stuttgart, 1884; E. Meyer, Geschichte des Alterthums, i. 383‑384, Erlangen, 1884; ,J. Euting, 3itsunpaberichte der Berliner Akademie, 1886, P. 879; B. Stale, Geschidde lea Volkes load, i. 278, Berlin, 1887; F. Baethgen, Beifraoe cur semitiachen Relipionepeschichta, p. 87, Berlin, 1889; E. Renan, Hint. du peuple Israel, ii. 37‑41, Paris, 1889, Eng. trand., Boston, 1889; J. F. McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments, i. 247‑248, New York, 1894; R. Kittel, Geschichte der Hebrder, ii. 140‑141,. Gottingen, 1892, Eng. tranal., London, 1898; DB, ii. 273‑274; BB, ii. 1930; JR, vi. 131; Schrader, RAT, pp. 231, 460.

HADADRIMMON: According to the usual interpretation, a place name mentioned in Zech. xii. 11. The word is the union of two names of the same deity, "Hadad" and "Rimmon " (see RIMMON); but such a formation is remarkable, and in itself
furnishes a difficult problem, perhaps the best explanation being that it is an abbreviation for Haaladbaal‑Rim»wn, "Hadad, lord of (the place) Rim= mon." The passage, which is one of unusual difficulty, reads: "In that day there shall be a great mourning in Jerusalem, as the mourning of Hadadrimmon in the valley of Megiddon." This may be construed to mean mourning at a place named Hadadrimmon, or for an event which occurred there, or for a person of that name. The ancient and most modern commentators accept the word as a place name. Thus Jerome states in his commentary on the passage that Adadremmon was a village near Jezreel to which the name Maximianopolis (identified with the Roman Legio and the, modern Lejjun) had been given. On the other hand the most usual identification is with Rummaneh (n.w. of Jenin and near Lejjun; cf. G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of Palestine, p. 389, London, 1897). But after it is granted that the word is a place name, the identification of the event referred to is uncertain. Reference has been seen to the mourning of Sisera's mother for her son who suffered defeat nearby (Judges iv.‑v.). But the passage seems to allude to an event which was notable for the grief it caused, and the reference to Sisem's mother seems exceedingly far‑fetched. Others have thought of a mourning for Ahaziah of Judah, who died at Megiddo (II Kings ix. 27); but Ahaziah had not so great importance for Judah as to make his death particularly noteworthy, and was also. overshadowed by the great slaughter of princes which followed. The favorite hypothesis has been to refer it to the mourning for Josiah, who also died at Megiddo (II Kings xxiii. 29). This seems best for two reasons: (1) on account of the importance for the development of the religion of the king in whose reign the Deuteronomic reform took place, the ruler from whom so much was hoped, whose death therefore became an important event to be kept in sorrowful remembrance; (2) it falls in with the testimony of the Chronicler (II Chron. xxxv. 2b), who was nearly or quite a contemporary of the author of Zech. xii., to an established custom of mourning for Josiah which had persisted to his own time. The objection of Cheyne (EB, ii. 1930) that the mourning for Josiah (and, of course, for Ahaziah) would be at Jerusalem, not at Hadadrimmon, has no force against those explanations which see a reference not to a mourning which took place in Hadadrimmon, but to a mourning for an event which occurred there. The Targum combines a mourning for Ahab, whom it declares a Syrian named Hadadrimmon slew, and for Josiah. The critical school is inclined against all these interpretations, sees in Hadadrimmon a divine name, brings the passage into connection with Ezek. viii. 14, reads in an identification of the Phenician Adonis (the Babylonian Tammuz) with the SyrianAramean deity Hadad (Rimmon) or a confusion of the two, and refers the mourning to the yearly lament for that deity on the waning of the sun (cf. Schrader, KAT, pp. 399, 450). In that case this is the only reference to such a cult and is against all that is known of the worship of Had ad
and Rimmon.	GEO. W. GILMORE.

109 	RELIGIOUS.ENCYCLOPEDIA
BIHwoosAPBT: On Hadadrimmon: W. W. von Baudissin,
Studien Sur semitdschen Relvionapaehiehts, i. 293‑325, of. ii. 215, Leipsic, 1876‑78; DB, ii. 274; EB, ii. 1930‑31; JE, vi. 130. On the location of Megiddo and ifiaxImianopolis: Roland, Palmetina, pp. 873, 893‑895, Utrecht, 1714; Robinson, Researches, vol. iii; g. von Raumer, Paldstina, pp. 448‑448, Leipsio, 1880; C. R. Conder, in PEF, Quarterly Statement, 1877, pp. 13‑30, cf. 190‑192; F. Buhl, Geopraphie des alten PaUakaa,‑pp. 208‑209, Tiibingen, 1896. On Rummane, V. Gudrin, Description pfraphique, historique . . . de is PaleAna, 11. ii. 228230, Paris, 1875.
HADDAN, ARTHUR WEST: English church historian; b. at Woodford (5 m. n.n.e. of London), Essex, Aug. 31, 1816; d. at Barton‑on‑the‑Heath (15 m. s.s.e. of Stratford), Warwickshire, Feb. 8, 1873. He was educated at Brasenose College and Trinity College, Oxford (B.A., 1837; M.A., 1840; B.D., 1847). He was a scholar of Trinity College 1835‑40, fellow 1840‑58, classical tutor and dean 1841, and vice‑president 1848. He was deeply affected by the Tractarian movement, and was particularly influenced by Isaac Williams, then a tutor at Trinity College, and also by J. H. Newman, whose curate he was in 1840 at St. Mary's, Oxford. Despite his eminent attainments the only preferments he ever received were the small college living of Barton‑on‑the‑Heath, to which he retired in 1857, and the barren title of honorary canon of Worcester, which he received in 1870: In 1865 he was appointed Bampton lecturer, but was forced by ill health to resign the appointment. He was a thorough scholar, and all his writings are marked by extreme accuracy. The two works by which he will be remembered are, Apoatolical Succession. in the Church of England (London, 1869), the final authority on the subject; and Councils arid Ecclestaetical Documents Relating to Great Britain and Ireland, in collaboration with W. Stubbs (3 vols., Oxford, 1869‑78), an extremely valuable collection of sources for the early ecclesiastical history of England, based upon the works of H. Spelman and D. Wilkins. Haddan wrote much for the Guuardian and the Christian Remembrancer, contributed to the various reviews, wrote a number of articles for the DCA, edited for the Library of Anglo‑Catholic Theology the works of John Bramhall (5 vols., Oxford, 18421845) and Herbert Thorndike (6 vols., 1844‑56), and translated for NPNF (1 ser., vol. iii.) St. Augustine's De trinitate. His Remains were edited by A. P. Forbes (London, 1876).
BIBLIoafiAPHY: Article by R. W. Church in Remains, ut
sup.; DNB,,xsiii: 424‑425.
HADES: The abode of departed spirits.
The Hebrew name for the abode of the dead is Sheol, and from the Hebrew the word passed into the Aramaic and Syriac versions of the Old Testament. The Septuagint has almost always translated it by Hades, registering thereby the close resemblance of the Hebrew and Greek ideas in regard to the dwelling‑place of the dead.
The Israelitic conception of Sheol rests upon the belief that the decomposition of the dead body, by means of which dust returns to dust (Gen. iii. 19; Ps. cxivi. 4; Eccles. xii. 7), does not involve complete annihilation, only that in death the "shade" of the living man separates from the body and takes up its abode in Sheol. Neither
soul (nephesh) nor spirit (rush) dwells in Hades, only the rephaim, "the shades" (Job xxvi. 6; Ps. lxxxviii. 11; Isa. xiv. 9), who lack everything which according to Hebrew thought could be called life. The care taken to preserve the bodies of the dead from insult or injury does not seem to have been prompted by the thought that the shades could suffer thereby. Sheol is a land of forgetfulness (Pa. Ixxxviii. 12), where nothing is known of what happens in the upper world (Job xiv. 21). The only instance of an evocation (I Sam. xxviii.) implies that a man gifted with supernatural knowledge, as was Samuel, did not lose his power even in death. That Sheol was located beneath the earth's surface is clear from the expression "down into Sheol" (Gen. xxxvii. 35; Isa. xiv. 11, 15; Ezek. xxxi. 15). It lies deeper than thought can reach, and to it no light of‑ sun penetrates. Yet it is compared to a house, has chambers; and gates with bars. In poetry it is likened to an insatiable beast. Yet it is subject to God's power; though man can not praise God there (lea. xxxviii. 18) and God's reproof does not reach it (Ecclus. x1i. 4Y. About the tbdrd century before Christ the idea of Sheol was modified by the‑ Pharisaic doctrine of a return of all or a part of the pious dead to this life at the end of the, worldperiod (Isa. xxvi. 19: Dan. xii. 2; Enoch; xc. 33); and also, by the Essenic doctrine that the pious were, like Enoch (Gen. v. 24), taken up to God (Ps. lxxui. 24; Wisd. of Sol. iii. 1; Enoch xxxix. 5; see REsIIRRECT70N; and GEHENNA). When the doctrine of a punishment immediately after death began to prevail, the idea that there was a place of. punishment and a place of bliss superseded the old conception of Sheol. Since, however, the expressions used by the Old Testament in regard to Sheol could be applied only to the place of punishment, Sheol and Gehenna came to mean the same thing.
In the New Testament the word Hades is rarely used (Matt. xi. 23). That the gates of Hades would not prevail against Christ's community (Matt. xvi. I8) means simply that death can not harm it. In Luke xvi. 23, the rich man while in torment in Hades beholds thence Lazarus in Abraham's bosom, so that Hades and the place of punishment are the same. For Paul, "the deep" (Rom. x. 7) is the dwelling‑place of the dead; according to Eph. iv. 9, Christ descended "into the lower parts of the earth "; the dead are inhabitants of the. underworld (Phil. u. 10). To Hades all men must go, to await the decision of their lot. Christians, after their death, dwell in Hades until the resurrection (I Thess. iv. 16; I Cor. xv. 23), but cf. Phil. i. 23, where believers are with Christ in death. According to Revelation believers who have departed this life are in heaven (vi. 9, vii. 9, xv. 2), and at the resurrection their souls will be clothed with a body (xx. 4, 5). The other dead dwell in Hades (xx. 13). The bottomless pit (ix. 1, 2,11, xi. 7) is distinguished from Hades as the place whence came the evil spirits under their leader Abaddon (ix. 11); there Satan will be otlained a thousand, years. At the end the evil, both men and angels, will be cast into a "lake of fire" (xix: 20, xx. 10). The Gospel of John lays stress upon the conception that believers

8XOln~
asrO
ln
gg
THE NEW HCHAFF‑HERZOG
are from the beginning partakers of eternal life [but cf. v. 28‑29]. Death and resurrection are only phases of that life. I Pet. iii. 19 makes mention of the "prison" in which the dead were found at Christ's death.
Christianity did not so much modify the Jewish ideas of death and the abode of the dead as give to them a new foundation. The real victory of life over death was won when Jesus rose from the dead. (G. DALMAN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: B. Btade, Usber die allftWoomdgdien Voretellunpsn son Zustande sack deco Tode, Leipsic, 1877; idem, Bibiisdhe The»lopie des A. T., pp. 183 en., Tabin;en, 1906; T. Buraek Concerning the State of Departed Scale, 2 vole„ London, 1738; J. R. Oertel. Hades, Leipsic, 1883; F. W. Farrar, Eternal Hope, London, 1878; idem, How and Judgmenk lb. 1882; E. White. Life in Christ, .ib. 1878; H. oort, in TAT, xv. (1881), 850 eqq.; 1. A. Beet, The Lad Things, London, 1905; F. 8chwslly, Das Lsben naeh dome Tale, Giessen. 1892; J. Frey. TOO, Sealenplaubs and Sesunkult ire alter Israel Leipsio, 1898; R. H. Charles, Critical Hisc of the Doctrine e/ a Future Lifer London, 1899; A. Berth dltDie israditisrhsn 1orNelluyan sun Zutande nad rods, Freibur& 1899; DB, ii. 274‑278, 843‑348; EB, ii. 1338‑41, iv. 4453‑&l; JB, xi. 282‑283; DCa, i. 527‑528, 538‑538; the lexicons under the words Hades, Sheol; the treatises on Biblical theology; and the literature under Dmmczirr or CBuis'r nrro Hrnn; EscasToLoar; and Garl=xA.

HADORAM: ha‑do'ram. The name of several persons mentioned in the Old Testament.
1. One of the sons of Joktan mentioned in Gen. x. 27 (Septuagint Odorro, Lucian 0dorram) and I Chron. i. 21 (Septuagint %edouran, Lucian Adoram). The entire context points to an Arabian environment, and the name is to be taken as the name of an eponymous progenitor of an Arabian tribe. It is to be remembered that the Arabs claim Joktan (Kaftan) as their progenitor (see TABLE oa NATioNs). The name Hadoram has been found on a Sabean inscription (CIS, IV. i. 1) in the form Hdrwm. Miller and Glaser refer to Dauram in Yemen as possibly from the same origin.
2. Sons of Toi (Tou), king of Hamath, mentioned in I Chron. xviii. 10. as sent by his father to congratulate David upon his conquest of Hadarezer, a common foe. The parallel account in II Sam. viii. 10 gives Joram instead of Hadoram‑a name of the same formation but substituting the abbreviated form of Yahweh for Hado (the shorter form of Addu in the Amarna Tablets). The form in Chronicles is regarded as probably the original (cf. Septuagint ln, and S. R. Driver, Hebrew Text of . . . Samuel, pp. 217, 287 "a Hamathite name ").
	S. The name given by II Chron. to the officer of
tribute sent by Rehoboam to collect taxes from the
people, by whom he was stoned to death. The
parallel passage in I Kings xii. 8 gives the name as
Adoram; possibly the text in both should be
Adoniram. 	GEo. W. GILMORE.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: 1. E. Glaser, Skins der Geschichta and Geopraphie Arabiens, ii. 426‑427, 435, Berlin, 1890; D. H. Mallor, Die Burpenund Sehlasser SUdarabiene, i. 380‑361, Vienna, 1879. On $.‑S: H. V. Hiiprecht, Babylonian Expedition, ix. 27, 48, Philadelphia, 1898; A. H. Ssyoe, Early Hist. o/ the Hebrews, p. 428, London, 1898.
HADRACH, had'rac: A place name occurring in Zech. ix. 1. The word (Hebr. ,Hadrak) occurs nowhere else in Scripture, unless Cheyne's plausible
conjecture (EB, ii. 1933) be correct that it is to be
found in the haderek ("the way ") of Ezek. xlvii.
15. The place was almost lost to knowledge until
the Assyrian inscriptions were discovered and read.
A saying is preserved in the Yalkuf Shimoni on
Zech. ix. 1 by a rabbi Jose to the effect that his
mother, a Damascene, recognised Hadrach as the
name of a place near Damascus; and David ben
Abraham, a Jewish lexicographer of the tenth cen
tury, also locates it there. In the Assyrian inscrip
tions the name, written Fatarika, occurs several
times in connection with the western campaigns of
Amur‑Dan III. in 772, 785, and 755 B.c., and is
mentioned as tributary to Assyria in the inscrip
tions of Tiglath‑Pileser dealing with the western
campaign of the year 738 B.C. (see AssYRIA, VI., 3,
if 8‑9). The Assyrian mention is always in con
nection with the region in which Damascus, Arpad,
and Hamath are situated. The early interpreta
tions, making it the name of a king or a deity, a
symbolical term "strong weak," a name of Caele
syria or of the Hauran, or as referring to a Chat
racharta in Assyria mentioned by Ptolemy and
Strabo (cf. W. Baudissin in Hauck‑Herzog, RE,
viii. 300‑301), are by the cuneiform inscriptions
rendered obsolete, and Hadrach may be identified
with a city or region not far from Damascus.
GEo. W. GILMORE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult, besides the commentaries on Zeoh‑
saiah, Schrader, %AT, p. 33; F. Detits.ch, Gems", p.
538, LeipAe, 1872; F. Delitaseh, Wo lap due Paradise? p
279, ib. 1881; H. Winckler, Alttestamenaiahs UnterescAunpen, pp. 120‑134, ib. 1892.
HADRIAft (Popes). See ADRIAN.

HADRIA3.
Life (11). 	The Rescript Concerning the
Character (1 2). 	Christians (¢ 4).
Hadrian and Christianity Policy Toward the Jews
	($ 3). 	(15).
Publius Mus Hadrianus, Roman emperor 117138, was born at Italics, in the Spanish province of Booties, Jan. 24, A.D.; d. at Baiae July 10, 138. After the early death of his father, he was educated under the care of his kinsman, the subsequent emperor Trajan, and early entered the
	I. Life.	service of the State. Upon the death
		of Trajan, in Aug., 117, he obtained
the imperial dignity, probably on the ground of a
simulated adoption by the empress and her party.
He strove effectually to raise the standard of offi
cial life, to procure well‑regulated financial conditions
and to shape the laws by his own humane spirit.
One dominant object of his government was the
welfare of the provinces. In 120 or 121 he began a
series of extensive journeys, which led him into all
the domains of his empire, and were prompted alike
by the deeply felt need of seeing the situation with
his own eyes, and by a very marked interest on his
part in behalf of science, archeology in particular.
From 138, a grave dropsical affection seriously in
terrupted his activity, and led him, unsuccessfully,
to attempt to put a violent end to his life. The
present Castle of St. Angelo or the Mole of Hadrian
(moles Hadriani) in Rome became his imposing
mausoleum.
The effectiveness of Hadrian's excellent natural

RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
endowments was seriously impaired by abrupt alterations in his moods and conduct. Especially, as he aged, did distrust and severity
2. Charac‑ increasingly come to the surface. Reter. ligiously he lived in the faith and forms of antique piety. He directed many temples to be built, or restored, in the course of his journeys, and not a few of them were dedicated to him. He had himself solemnly initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries; he accepted, with faith in its operation, the voluntary sacrificial death of Antinous, instituting an elaborate worship for his dead favorite; and he firmly believed in magic. In his ethics, the influences of Stoic philosophy, and of the contemporary philanthropy, are distinctly apparent. He carried forward, on a larger plan, the benevolent foundation begun by Trajan for dependent boys and girls; he gladly sought out the sick, both high and low, and strengthened them with comforting words and good advice. Legislation affecting slavery underwent at his hands momentous reforms in a more humane direction. He kept sharp watch on the administration of justice, and its instrumentalities.
It is obvious that a ruler so highly interested in all the issues and circumstances of his time, could not fail to take account of Christi‑
3. Hadrian anity, either in Rome or during his and journeys, which led him into ChrisChristianity. tendom's principal districts and centers (Ephesus, Antioch, Alexandria, Bithynia). Among his immediate attendants his trusty freedman Phlegon had deemed it important enough to refer to its history in his writings (cf. Harnack, Litteratur, i. 867‑868). On the other hand, Hadrian's much quoted letter to the consul Servianus (Vopiscus, Vita Satumini, viii.), with its utterances concerning Christendom and Christians, must be characterized as a clumsy counterfeit of the fourth century (cf. Victor Schultze, Hadriani epistola ad Servianum, TLB, xviii., 1897, 561‑562). Events in Asia Minor, however, elicited a momentous imperial manifesto concerning the Christians, which is still extant. When Hadrian, in the years 123‑124, was in western Asia, a native Christian of high standing, Quadratus (others transfer the occurrence to Athens, and date it about 125‑126), presented to him an apology, which was inspired by an undoubtedly ominous oppression of the Christians at the hands of "evil men." There soon afterward followed, possibly by mandate and in consequence of this letter, an official report to the emperor by the proconsul, Quintus Licinius Silvanus Granianus. By the time the imperial decision had been rendered, the proconsul had already found a successor in Caius Minucius (Minicius) Fundanus, and accordingly the rescript was issued to the latter. Exact chronological data are lacking, but it is customary to assign the proconsulship of Silvanus Granianus to the years 123‑124 and that of his successor to 125‑126, and this date for the apology of Quadmtus is supported by both internal and external reasons (see QUADRATUB).
The substance of the rescript is as follows: the statutory methods of proceeding against the Christians are to be accorded to the provincials; if any
unlawful act be ascertained as a result of a statutory judicial investigation, the legal penalty is to he im‑
posed. But all compulsion of official 4. The Re‑ intervention by means of public rioting, script Con‑ or underhand promotion of the same cerning the by self‑seeking denunciation, is to be Christians. repelled, and, if need be, to be severely
punished. At the very beginning the emperor declares it his earnest will, that there be an end of both turbulence and sycophancy. The sense is plain: the Christians in Proconsular Asia are exempted from uncertain and arbitrary official procedure, and committed, when calumnies are charged against them, to the due course of criminal law. Justin Martyr appends this rescript, in its original Latin text, to his first apology, either because it became known to him only after completing his work, or because he disdained to derive his evidence in favor of the claims of tolerance elsewhere than from the essence of Christianity. Eusebius (Hilt. ecd., iv. 9) turned it into Greek, and this translation subsequently took the place of the original text, and caused the latter to pass out of use. The genuineness of this rescript, important in its eccesiastical and civil bearings alike, is insured beyond doubt, on both internal and external grounds. On the other hand, the story that comes to light in a later author (Lampridius, Vita Alexarulri, xliii.), to the effect that it was a part of the emperor's purpose to have Christ accepted into the number of the gods, and to dedicate a temple to him, must be regarded as legendary. Very different was Hadrian's policy with the Jews. The prohibition of circumcision and, still more, the establishment, from 130, of the colony of
Xlia Capitolina, together with the g. Policy erection of a temple to Jupiter upon Toward the ruins of Jerusalem, fanned the the Jews. religious ardor of Judaism, and about
132 it burst into a powerful flame of insurrection under the leadership of Bar Kokba (q.v.). Only after the legate Julius Severus had been summoned thither from Britain, did Rome succeed, through wearisome and sanguinary conflicts, in gradually crushing the insurgents. The campaign ended in 135; hundreds of thousands of men had perished and the country had been laid desolate; and now a heathen colony grew up in the environs of the Holy City, and over the foundations of the destroyed sanctuary there arose a temple of Jupiter, the Jews being even forbidden entrance to the city under penalty of death. Vicrox Scauvrzls.

B1HL10aRAPHY: A. Hauerath, NCateata.enalichG ZeiiqBschichte, vol. iii., Heidelberg, 1874, Eng. tranal., London, 1895; T. Keim, Rom and das Chriattntum, Berlin 1881; H. Schiller, Geschichte der r6misohen KaiaerzA4 i., part 2, Goths, 1883; F. Gregorovius, Der Kaiser Hadrian, Stuttgart, 1884, Eng. trawl., London, 1898; E. G. Hardy, C1ristianitiJ and the Roman Empire, London, 1894; Neander, Christian Church, i. 101‑103 et passim; Schaff, Christian Church, ii. 49‑50; Moeller, Christian Church, i. 95, 162.

HAERING, Wring, THEODOR: German Protestant; b. at Stuttgart Apr. 22, 1848. He was educated at the universities of Tiibingen and Berlin (1866‑71), and after being a lecturer in the Evangelical theological seminary at Tilbingen (1873‑76),

8 nieSer	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	112
was pastor at Calw (1876‑81), and at Stuttgart (1881‑86). In 1886 he was appointed professor at Zurich, whence he was called, three years later, to G6ttingen, as Ritschl's successor, remaining there until 1895. , Since 1895 he has been professor of New Testament exegesis, dogmatics, and ethics at the University of Tiibingen. In theology he is a conservative of the Ritschlian school. He was associate editor of the Theologische Studien aus Wurttemberg from 1880 to 1889, and has written: Ueber das Bleibende im.Glauben an Christus (Stuttgart, 1880; Die Theologie and der Vorwurf der doppeltenWahrheit (Zurich, 1886); ZuRitschlsVerstihnungslehre (1888); Zur Versohnungslehre (G6ttingen,1893); Unsere personliche Stellung zum geistlichen Beruf (1893); Die Lebensfrage der systematischen Theologie (Tiibingen, 1895); Das chrestliehe Leben (Stuttgart, 1902); Zeitgemessene Predigt (G6ttingen,1902); and Der chriatliehe Glaube (Calve, 1906).

	HAERTER, FRANZ HEINRICH: German Lu
theran; b. at Strasburg Aug. 1, 1797; d. there Aug.
5,1874. He studied theology in Strasburg from 1816
to 1819 at the time when rationalism flourished.
Later he visited France and Germany, remained for
some time in Halle, and there became startle ,1 by
the consequences of rationalism. After his return
to Strasburg he supported himself by tutoring until,
in 1823, he was installed as pastor in the neighboring
Ittenheim. He found the church there in a degen
erate condition, but by his zeal succeeded in filling
the empty pews, while his skill in treating the sick
won the hearts of his parishioners, In 1829 he
went to the New Church in Strasburg, and inspired
great enthusiasm there by his oratory. At this
time he passed through a severe crisis, coming to
believe that his former piety and manner of preach
ing had been insincere, and becoming a new man.
His new views, proclaimed from the first pulpit of
the town, caused a sensation, and won the con
tempt of the ecclesiastical authorities, but filled the
church building.
Harter's fame rests chiefly upon his efforts in behalf of home missions. In 1834 certain of his friends formed an association to advance Christian life, which later joined the Evangelical Society of France. In 1839 it was constituted anew as a society for the maintenance and expansion of the pure doctrine of the Gospel as it is expressed in the confessional writings of the Protestant Church, and especially in the Augsburg Confession. In 1842 Harter realized a plan he had long cherished by founding an institution for, deaconesses similar to that of Fliedner at Kaiserawerth (see FLIEDNER, THEODOR). He was attacked, and his work was considered a relapse into Roman monasticism, but Harter remained firm to his purpose, and in 1844 a new and larger house became necessary, and soon branch institutions arose in Mdhlhausen, Gebweiler, Neuchatel, Markirch, M6mpelgard, and elsewhere. He aided the foreign mission in Basel, and his Evangelical Society worked hand in hand with the Reformed, though such affiliations with non‑Lutherans provoked criticism. About sixty of his sermons have been printed. They present in simple manner the Biblical doctrine concerning the natural
corruption of man, the omnipotence of God, and the peace of a soul that has turned from the world. At the same time they attack rationalism in the most severe manner. They appear mediocre when read, but when delivered were effective by the weight of personal conviction and by the penetrating earnestness of the preacher's manner.
(K. HACxENsCHMmT.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Haekenschmidt, Bilder aus dem Leben von F. H. Hdrter, Strasburg, 1888; Im Dienat dea Herrn. Daa Sbuaaburger Diakonieeenhaus, ib. 1893; G. Harter, Zur hundertiahrigen Geburtsfeier von F. HBrter, ib. 1897; M. Reichard, Franz HPlrter, ein Lebembild aua dem Mean, ib. 1897; T. Todt, Franz Hdrter, der Strasaburger Diakoniesenpfarrer, Berlin, 1901.

HAETZER, h6'tzer (HETZER), LUDWIG: Swiss Anabaptist; b. at Bischofazell (11 m. s.s.e. of Constance), Switzerland, c. 1500; d. at Constance Feb. 5, 1529. He was educated at Freiburg, where, in addition to acquiring a mastery of the classic tongues and of Hebrew, he came under the influence of the mysticism of Tauler as expounded by Johann Breisgauer and others. He was chaplain at Wadenschwyl at the upper end of Lake Zurich at the time when Zwingli entered upon his active career and when the radical faction that combated him, arose. In his Tistachen Bfchli (Zurich, 1523) Haetzer made his appearance as a spokesman of the Iconoclasts, and the repute it brought him led to his appointment as secretary to the Second Zurich Conference in October. He remained in Zurich for some time engaged in literary work, meanwhile growing more discontented with the policy of the moderate Reformers. His dissatisfaction finds expression in the introduction to his German version of Bugenhagen's exposition of the Pauline epistles. In June, 1524, he left Zurich for Augsburg, furnished with a letter of recommendation from Zwingli to the well‑known preacher Frosch. Of greater consequence was the acquaintance he formed with Urbanus Rhegius. He also gained entrance into the patrician house of Regel, where he lived in close intimacy with its members until the autumn of the same year. Returning to Zurich, he came into close contact with the radicals Grebel, Manz, Reublin, and Br6dlein, who were then engaged in a violent struggle against the power of the "tyrants and popes" and especially against the practise of infant baptism. Though Haetzer was no advocate of adult baptism, confining himself to a protest against the compulsory baptism of children, he was banished from the city together with a number of the radicals in Jan., 1525. Returning to Augsburg, he attained prominence as an opponent of infant baptism and an advocate of Carlstadt's teachings on the Lord's Supper, and came to be regarded as the head of the Anabaptist community. His exposition of faith, of the free spirit, of love. and sacrifice even to the cross, is contained in his Schrift von den evangelischen Zechen and von der Christen Red (1525). His capacity for intrigue, his duplicity, his talents for slander and abuse appeared in this book, as well as in the letter which he addressed to Zwingli in September of the same year. This depravity of character led to his fall from his high position at Augsburg. Challenged to a public disputation by

11S	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Haerter
		8afenreffer
Rhegius he declined to accept the issue and was
expelled from the city as a man of bad morals,
an instigator of sedition and an enemy of the Prot
estant faith. In his hour of need he sought to make
his peace with Zwingli. Traveling to Zurich by
way of Basel, he was hospitably received by (Eco
lampadius, who rendered him assistance in the
translation of his First Epistle on the Holy Com
munion to the Swabiaus. In Feb., 1526, he arrived
in Zurich and was successful in effecting a recon
ciliation with Zwingli. But soon the newly formed
friendship expired, and in March Haetzer returned
to Basel more bitter than ever against Zwingli,
whom he attacked in the introduction to his tranda
tion of the Book of Malachi (Zurich, 1526).
	From Basel Haetzer went to Strasburg where he
began his translation of the Prophets of which,
besides the book of Malachi, two chapters of Isaiah
(xxxvi.‑xxxvii.) appeared in 1526. At Strasburg
he fell under the influence of Denk, whose views of
the inner word, of merit, and of the person of Christ
acted as a stimulant to the development of Haetzer's
own beliefs. Of the works of this period aside from
the translation of the Prophets none has survived;
but from the fragments that have been preserved
it is apparent that especially in his teachings of the
person of Christ he goes beyond Denk and reveals a
fearlessness and freshness of spirit that is charac
teristic of the man. In 1526 Denk was expelled
from Strasburg and betook himself to the Palat
inate. Haetzer followed him thither in the spring of
1527 and there completed his translation of the
Prophets from the Hebrew, a work of permanent
importance and the first of the Protestant trans
lations, anticipating the Zurich version by two
years and that of Luther by five. In the Palatinate,
Denk and Haetzer for a time formed a successful
partnership for purposes of agitation, in which the
former supplied the ideas while the latter had charge
of the strategy of the campaign. In July, how
ever, they were forced to flee, and Haetzer, after
wandering for nearly a year, settled down in Con
stance. There he was arrested toward the end of
1528 on the charge of an illicit connection with the
wife of Regel, his former patron at Augsburg, and
on Feb. 4, 1529, he was condemned to death and
decapitated on the following day. His memory was
held in reverence by the Anabaptists.
			(A. HEGFLER t) K. HOLL.
	[The translation of the Prophets, first published
by P. Sch6ffer in 1527, was by Hans Denck and
Ludwig H&tzer, the Anabaptist scholars and re
formers. It passed through at least thirteen differ
ent editions, was extensively used by the Zurich
translators, and much of it almost copied, without
credit, by Luther in his version. The work has been
highly praised for its scholarship and style (cf.
V. Keller, Ein Apostel d. Wiedertagfer, pp. 210 sqq.).
				A. H. N.]
B‑Par: The best account of Haetser's life is by T.
	Keim in Jqhrbfcher far deutwhe Theolopie, 1856, pp. 215
	eqq. Consult: J. Beck, Die Geschicktsba~her der Wieder
	tWer, in Pontes rerum Ausdtacatum, afiii. 33‑34, Vienna,
	1884; A. Baur, Zwdnglis Theologde, Halle, 1885‑89: C.
	Beard, Refornwhon in the dixtwnth CentwV, London,
	1897.
		V.‑‑8
HAEVERRICg, HEINRICH ANDREAS CHRISTOPH: German Evangelical theologian; b. at Kropelin (15 m. w. of Rostock), MecklenburgSchwerin, Dec. 29, 1811; d. there July 19, 1845. He studied at the universities of Leipsic and Halle, but in 1830 migrated to the University of Berlin, where he came under the influence of Hengstenberg, whose theological trend he adopted. Two years later he was appointed instructor at the theological school founded at Geneva by the Soci6t6 Evang& lique, and there he published, with W. Steiger, the MElanges de thkologie rdformke (2 parts, 1833‑34). In 1834 he settled in Rostock, and three years later was appointed assistant professor at the unversity there, and preacher at the Klosterkirche. In 1841 he was called to the chair of theology at K6nigsberg. Havernick was a prolific writer, especially on the history of the Books of the Old Testament; and he was a firm believer in the traditional views concerning their origin. Like Hengstenberg, he believed in the unity and Mosaic origin of the Pentateuch, as well as in the genuineness of the Book of Daniel. His most important works were: Kommentar caber das Buch Daniel (Hamburg, 1832); Handbueh der histonwlo‑kritischen Einleitung in das Alte Testament (3 vols., Erlangen, 1836‑49; Eng. transl. by W. Alexander, A General Historico‑critical Introduction to the 0. T., Edinburgh, 1852); Neue kritisehe Untersuchungen caber das Bush Daniel (Hamburg, 1838); Lucubrationes critiew ad apocalypsin spec, tames (K6nigsberg, 1842); Kommentar fiber den Propheten Ezeehiel (Erlangen, 1843); and Vorlesungen fiber die Theologie des Alten Testaments (1848). (W. VOLC$t.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: ADB, m. 118‑119; Evanpeliachea Gemeindebladt, 1846, Nos. 35‑36; Ze%tblaf far die evangeliedr ludwriache Kirche Afecklenburga, 1849, Nos. 24, 25, 28.
HAFENREFFER, MATTHIAS: Lutheran; b. at Kloster Lorch (25 m. e. of Stuttgart), Wurttemberg, June 24, 1561; d. at Tilbingen Oct. 22, 1619. He studied philosophy and theology at Tiibingen, became pastor at Ehningen in 1588 and in 1590 court preacher at Stuttgart. Two years later he was appointed professor of theology at Tiibingen. Thoroughly trained in Old Testament learning and the Church Fathers he possessed in addition no mean knowledge of natural science and mathematics and added to his wide attainments the charm of a pious, pacific, and thoroughl‑ unselfish character. Keeping aloof as far as possible from theological controversy he found his true mission in a devotion to his academic duties which gained him the love and remembrance of many of his pupils, among them the astronomer Kepler, Johann Valentin AndreA, and W. Shickard. Noteworthy as casting light on the rectitude of his orthodoxy as well as,the versatility of his interests is his correspondence with Kepler, who was accustomed to send his writings to Hafenreffer, his "dearest of preceptors," and invited him to act as arbitrator in his dispute with the church authorities at‑Linz. Hafenreffer is best known for his Loci Theologici, a handbook of theological science composed at the request of Duke Frederick of Wurttemberg, published at Tiibingen in 1600 and issued in revised form in 1603. It is marked by a simplicity and

Hairw	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	114
attractiveness of presentation which, in connection with its undoubted orthodoxy, rendered it a popular teat‑book, not only at Tflbingen where it was used throughout the seventeenth century, but in the Swedish universities where it was made the official teat‑book in 1612. Still more admired by Hafenreffer's contemporaries was his Templum Ezechielis (1613), a commentary on Ezechiel xl.x1viii., with a detailed description of the temple at Jerusalem accompanied by meditations on the principal features of the Christian religion and learned dissertations on the coinage, weights, and measures of the Old Testament.
(JoHANNES KUNZE.)
BimioonApay: Sources for a life are the Leichenrede by L. Osiander, Tabingen, 1620, and the Amicdtios monumentum of T. Lansius, ib. 1620. On his writings consult: W. Gass, Geschicbte der protastantiachsn Dopmaak, i. 250, Berlin, 1864; G. Frank, Geschichte der protestantisdhen Theolopis, i. 250. On his part in the TQbingen‑Giessen controversy consult J. G. Walch, Relipionastredtipkeiten der luderiachen %irde. iv. 560‑561, b vols., Jens, 1733‑36.
HAGAR, hA'gar: The bondservant of Sarah whom she gave to Abraham as a concubine. Hagar is mentioned in three places in the Old Testament (Gen. xvi., xxi. 9 sqq., xxv. 12), containing narratives by J, E, and P. P gives only the outline, as is his custom. J narrates that Sarah, who was barren, gave her Egyptian slave Hagar to Abraham that he might have children by her and so remove the reproach of being childless. Hagar, becoming pregnant, despised her mistress, was humiliated by bar, and fled to the desert in the south, where an angel met her by whose command she returned; she then became the mother of Ishmael, the ancestor of the Ishmaelites (Gen. xvi.). According to E, it was Ishmael himself who, after the birth of Isaac, aroused Sarah's anger. Both J and E trace the origin of the Bedouins to Ishmael and from a partly Egyptian stock. Possibly the Hebrew tradition has mistaken the earlier form and has confused the North Arabian Muzri. with Mizraim, the name for Egypt (see ASSYRIA, VL, 2, 1 1). The name Hagar meaning "flight" (of. the Arabic hajirah), has an etymological bearing upon the story, which seems to have risen at a time when the Arabs had the place Lahai‑roi in their possession. The Bedouins still point out a spring near a rockdwelling on the caravan route from Beersheba to Egypt as Hagar's spring, and Jerome knew of such a spring in that neighborhood. The later Arabic tradition makes Hagar Abraham's wife and makes her have the vision of the angel in Mecca, where her grave is shown. In the New Testament Paul uses Hagar allegorically to express the old Sinaitic covenant of the law (Gal. iv. 21 sqq.). (R. KITTEL.)
BIBLIOGRAPH7: E. Renan, Hist. of Isroe1, i. 81, London. 1898; the Commentaries on Genesis, particularly that by Dillmann, p. 315, Leipsic, 1892, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1897; H. Winekler, in Midheilungen der roorderasiatiachan Osseliedaf4 1896, pp. 1 sqq.; Tuch, in ZDMO, i. 175176; Robinson, Researches, vol. i.; DB, ii. 277‑278; EB, ii. 1933‑34; .7B. vi. 138‑139.
HAGARENES, h6'gar‑fnz, HAGARITES, hA'garnits (R.V., Hagrites): A Bedouin stock of North Arabia. According to I Chron. v. 18 sqq. they were in Saul's time defeated by the Reubenites, and acpording to verse 22 by the three trans‑Jordanic
tribes, which occupied their territory. I Chron.
xxvii. 31 makes a Hagrite the keeper of David's
flocks while an Ishmaelite is keeper of his camels.
Hagrites and Ishmaelites are associated in Ps.
lxxxiii. 6. From these items it appears that they
were Bedouins like the Ishmaelites, but not of
the same stock, while their home was in the Syrian
and North Arabian desert. In spite of the similarity
in name, they are not to be connected with Hagar,
since the region allotted to her descendants was the
region of Beersheba, where the Hagrites are not
found. This people is mentioned by both Strabo
and Ptolemy. 	(R. KrrrEL.)
BIamOGRAPHy: T. K. Cheyne, Book of Psalms, p. 238, London, 1888; idem, Origin of Pte, p• 97. ib. 1891; E. Glaser, 8kiaw der Geerhichte and Geopraphie Arabians, ii. 402‑407, Berlin, 1890; DB, ii. 281‑282; EB, 1933‑34; and the Hebrew lexicons, s.v.
HAGEN, JOHANN. See BUR8FELDE, CONGREGATION OF.

HAGENAU, CONFERENCE OF: An assembly summoned by Charles V. in 1540 for the discussion of questions at issue between the Catholic and Protestant princes of Germany. The preliminary negotiations were prolonged through the efforts of the emperor to have himself recognized as arbitrator at the disputation, while the Schmalkaldic princes, through Melanchthon as their mouthpiece, demanded that the debate be prosecuted and the decision rendered only according to the Scriptures. The conference was called for the sixth of June at Speyer, whither the emperor sent his brother Ferdinand as his representative. By the latter part of May the Catholic delegates were assembled at Speyer but owing to the ravages of the plague in that city the sittings were removed to Hagenau. The papal interests were represented by the legate Cardinal Cervino, who, however, remained with the emperor in the Netherlands, and only Morone accompanied Ferdinand to Hagenau. His instructions were to enter into no binding agreements, to abstain from participating in the public disputations, and to content himself with rendering aid to the Catholic party by advice; in case the conference should arrive at the discussion of vital issues other legates would be sent, and if affairs took a turn hostile to the interests of the Curia he was to leave the city. On June 12, Ferdinand was first in a position to open negotiations with the Catholic representatives, to whom he complained of the perverse obstinacy of the Protestants and extended assurances that the outcome of the conference should leave the Catholic faith unimpaired. Of the Protestant theologians who now made their appearance the most prominent were Cruciger, Myconius, Butzer, Link, Capito, Qsiander, and Pistorius; Melanchthon was ill at Weimar and Luther, who wished to go in his place, was not permitted to attend out of regard for his safety. Cochleeus, Eck, Faber, and Nausea were the leading exponents of the Catholic position. The latter attempted to lay down as a basis for negotiations that the articles debated at Augsburg be regarded as definitely settled and that the discussion proceed with the articles not yet considered. In this sense Eck and Cochlaeus submitted a progr; m to the conference. The Protestants, how‑

115	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
ever, denied that any agreement had been reached
at Augsburg, rejected the submitted program as
incorrect and demanded a full and free discussion
of their entire confession. It was evident that no
common action was possible and on July 16 Fer
dinand proposed that the negotiations be post
poned to another time and place on account of the
absence of the Protestant leaders, the elector John
Frederick of Saxony and Philip of Hesse. On July
28 the conference dispersed after deciding upon a
new conference at Worms in October. The absolute
failure of the negotiations served to emphasize the
fact already expressed by Cochlwus that no discus
sion as to particular doctrines could be of any
avail so long as the two parties were irreconcilably
opposed in their ideas of the nature of the Church
as a whole. 	(G. KAwERAU.)
BIHwoaEAPHY: Sources are: CR, iii.; G. Burckardk (Georg Spalatin), Annalea Re/ormationis, ed. Cyprian, pp. 381 sqq., 1718. Consult: R. Moses, Die Relipionsverhandlunpen su Hagemu and Worms, Jena, 1889; J. Janssen, GewAichte des dautschen Volks, iii. 425 sqq., Freiburg, 1885; F. Dittrieh, Regesten and Briefs des . . Gasparo Contarini, pp. 504 sqq., Braunsberg, 1881; M. Spahn, J. CochMus, pp. 279 aqq., Berlin, 1898.

HAGENBACH, hH'gen‑bdH, KARL RUDOLF: Church historian; b. at Basel Mar. 4, 1801; d. there June 7, 1874. He studied in a Pestalozzian institution from 1808 to 1813 and at the gymnasium of his native city. He was greatly influenced by Herder, and learned to look upon Christ as the perfect man, and not as a metaphysical problem. This ideal rationalism became decisive for his whole theological tendency although it was balanced by a due regard for history and historical development. In 1819 he began his theological studies at Basel, and studied at Bonn and Berlin from 1820 to 1823. In Bonn he was chiefly attracted by Liicke, and in Berlin he was under the influence ot Schleiermacher and Neander. After his return to Basel in 1823, De Wette persuaded him to establish himself as privat‑docent at the university where he soon became professor and remained about fifty‑one years. He lectured chiefly on church history and the history of dogmas, and it was owing to his, as well as De Wette's, influence that the university entered again into closer touch and a more living union with German Evangelical theology. At the same time Hagenbach served the Church of his native city as member of the council and of the board of higher education. He was also president of the Protestant relief society for Switzerland founded by him and De Wette. He was a powerful preacher, and he also published poems marked by tenderness of feeling and Christian earnestness.
The fundamental views of Hagenbach's theology are based upon the ideas of the "mediating theology." His historical studies led him gradually away from the subjective position of Schleiermacher and De Wette and made him emphasize more strongly the objective realities of revelation. His publications originated in connection with his academic activity, or from similar occasions of a praotical nature. His manuals for students have been very popular, especially his Encyklopddie and Methodologie der theologischen Wissenschaften (Leipsic, 1833; 12th ed. by Reischle, 1889; Eng. transl.
adapted by G. R. Crooks and J. F. Hurst, Theological Encyclopaedia and Methodology, New York, 1884); Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte (1840, 6th ed. by Beneath, 1888; Eng. tmnsl. History of Christian Doctrine, by Buch, Edinburgh, revised and enlarged by H. B. Smith, 2 vols., New York, 1861; new ed., with preface by Plumptre, 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1880); Leitfaden zum christlichen Religionsuntericht (1850, 9th ed. by S. M. Deutsch, 1905); Grundziige der Homiletik and Liturgik (1863). His chief literary work is Kirchengeschichtevonderdltesten Zeit bis zum neunzehnten Jahrhundert (7 vols., Leipsie, 1869‑72; partial tmnsl. History of the Reformation, by Miss E. Moore, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1878; History of the Church in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, by J. F. Hurst, 2 vols., New York, 1869). This work grew from lectures at Basel from 1833; published at first in single parts (Geschichte der Reformation and des Protestantismus, 1834‑43, Geschichte der alien Kirche, 1853‑55; Geschichte des Mittelalters (1860‑61). The characteristic feature of the work is not so much originality and felicity of scientific results as its clear arrangement and attractive compilation, and especially the living connection between theology and life, science and practise, past and present. Of other works may be mentioned, Kritiache Geschichte der Entstehung and der Schicksale der ersten Baslerkonfession (Basel, 1827), Sermons (1858, 1875), Ueber die sogenannte Vermittlungstheologie (1858), Ueber Ziel and Richtdunkte der heutigen Theologie (1867), Ueber Glauben and Unglauben (1872); Mein Glaubensbekenntnis and meine Stellung in den theologischen Parteien (1874); Tabellariache Uebersicht der Dogmen‑Geschichte Us zur Reformation (new ed. Halls, 1887). Hagenbach was also the editor of the Kirchenblatt fiir die reformierte Schweiz (1845‑65).
(R. STAHELINt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: An extensive autobiographic sketch remains unpublished; a shorter sketch, also by Hagenbach, appeared with other matter as Erinnerung an K. R. Hapanbach, Basel, 1874, ef. G. A. Finsler, Zur Erinnerung an K. R. Hagenbach, Zurich, 1874; C. F. Eppler, K. R. Hapenbach, Gtitersloh, 1875. Consult also P. Schaff, Germany, its Universities, Theology and Religion, p. 403, Philadelphia, 1857.
HAGER, hd'ger, KONRAD: German religious reformer of the fourteenth century. In Feb., 1342, he was tried by the Inquisition at Wiirzburg. He admitted that he bad opposed the collection of offerings for masses, and also the holding of masses and supplications for the dead, thus alienating many from the teachings of the Church. The trial ended with his recantation; but later he adopted his former heretical views, and, it is said, suffered death at the stake. He is supposed to have been under the influence of Waldensian doctrines.
HERMAN HAUPT.
BIBwoa$APH7: Monumenta Boica, xl. 381, 388‑396, Munich, 1870; H. Haupt, Die religi6sen Sekten in Franken vor der Reformation, pp. 20‑21, wiirsburg, 1882.
HAGGADAH. See MIDRA8H.
HAGGAI, hag'ga‑ai: The tenth in order of arrangement of the Minor Prophets, and the earliest of the post‑exilie prophets. The book is an important source for early postexilic history. The contents are in brief as follows: In the second year of

Haggai a
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	118
Darius (520 B.C.), Haggai was commanded to oppose before Zerubbabel and Joshua the current opinion in Judea that the time had not come to rebuild the Temple; the result was a commencement of the work (i. 1‑11). A second oracle rebuked the faintheartedness of the people due to their lowly condition by promising a stirring among the nations which should pour treasures in abundance into it (li. 1‑9). A third and a fourth oracle, a month later, promised the wakening of the nations, the overthrow of the heathen kingdoms, and the acknowledgment of Zerubbabel as Yahweh's signet (ii. 11‑19, 20‑23).
The contents of this book make clear that the building of the Temple had not been accomplished during the reign of Cyrus and according to his edict (Ezra i. 3), and supplements the account in Ezra iv. 1‑5; though there is no trace in either Haggai or Zechariah that the foundations had already been laid (Ezra iii. 12). Haggai speaks as though the fault was that of the Jews themselves, but he shows also that they had suffered from drought and failure of crops (i. 6, 9, ii. 16), and the people were few in number, so that they had tried to proselyte, a process which had brought its own difficulties (Isa. lvi.‑lxvi.). The course of events stated or implied is as follows: The first address on the first day of the sixth month, 520 B.C.; a further encouraging word between that date and the twentyfourth; discouragement followed the first efforts, hence a new delivery on the twenty‑first day of the seventh month, parallel to Isa. Ix.; to remove evident discouragement came a new stimulus in the address delivered on the twenty‑fourth day of the ninth month, followed by an address later on the same day and of different tenor, in which Zerubbabel is called by God to a special mission. He is God's signet, his representative; and this can point only to the reestablishment of the kingdom. And with this was bound up also the realization of certain Messianic hopes. Doubtless the stimulus to this was given in the stormy condition of affairs in the East, which looked toward the destruction of the Persian empire and seemed favorable to the erection of the Messianic kingdom in Judea. (R. KrrrEL.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. K. Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life aft' the Exile, New York, 1898; A. KShler, Weieaapunpm Hagpaie, Erlangen, 1860; P. H. Hunter, Afer the Exile. vol. i., chap. vii., Edinburgh, 1890; J. Wellhausen, Bkizaen and Vorarbeiten, vol. v., Berlin, 1893; E. Meyer, Die Entstehunp des Judenthuma, Halle, 1896; Bah‑e. in ZATW, vii. (1887), pp. 215 sqq.; W. Nowack, Kleine Propheten, GBttingen, 1897; G. A. Smith, The Book of the Twelve, vol. ii., London, 1898; DB, ii. 279‑281; EB, ii. 1935‑37; JE, vi. 146‑149.
HAGIGAH. See TALMUD.
HAGIOGRAPHA ("Holy Writings "): The name given to the third division of the Old Testament canon. See BIBLE VEasloNs, A, V., 1 5; and CANON OF SCRIpTuRE, I., 1, 1 4, c.
HAGUE ASSOCIATION, THE: A society founded in Oct., 1785, by a number of distinguished Dutch theologians for the defense of the Christian religion. The occasion was the appearance, in a Dutch translation (Dort, 1784) of Priestley's History of the Corruptions of Christianity; and the object of the society was to take a firm stand against
the anti‑Christian tendencies of the age. During
the first period of its life (1785‑1810) its standpoint
was strictly orthodox and supernaturalistic. The
doctrines of vicarious atonement, the divinity of
Christ, the personality of the Holy Spirit, etc.,
were strongly emphasized; and the inspiration of
the Scriptures was considered an indisputable fact.
During the second period (1810‑35) the exegetical
element was made more prominent, and the stand
point ‑may be characterized as Biblico‑evangelical.
The character of the third period (1835‑60) was
principally determined by the writings of D. F.
Strauss and the Tiibingen school. The contest
raged around the fundamentals of Christianity;
and the principles which the society fought for were
strongly conservative, though it carried on the fight
in a free, scientific spirit. But, from this critico
historical platform the society, after 1860, grad
ually glided into the field of ethics and social reform;
slavery, war, capital punishment, woman's eman
cipation and questions of a similar nature have
received particular attention; though the doctrinal
history of Christianity continued to be cultivated
in the spirit of modern research, the rigid orthodoxy
of the early period of the association has disap
peared. 	(J. A. GEATH vAN Wimt.)

UN, AUGUST: Lutheran; b. at Grossosterhausen near Querfurt (18 m. s.w. of Halle), Prussian Saxony, Mar. 27, 1792; d. at Breslau May 13, 1863. His father died when he was a child and he was taken under the care and instruction of the village pastor. In 1807 he was sent to the gymnasium of Eisleben and in 1810 he went to the University of Leipsic. While studying theology, he perfected his knowledge of the ancient languages; Rosenmiiller guided him in Syriac and Arabic, and Heil in Orientalia. In 1813 he finished his theological course and became private tutor. In 1817 he entered the newly founded theological seminary at Wittenberg where the two Nitzschs, Schleusner and Heubner were his teachers and where he found again his old faith temporarily lost at Leipsic. In 1819 he became privat‑docent at Konigsberg and professor. In the following year he was appointed preacher and superintendent of one of the Konigsberg churches, but because of his health had to resign these additional offices in 1822. In 1827 he accepted a call to Leipsic where he was drawn into fierce theological battles. In his inaugural dissertation he attacked the rationalists by declaring rationalism diametrically oppoeed to Christianity. The rationalists, such as Schulthess, Rohr, and others replied, and in the following year Hahn published his Lehrbuch dea christlichen Glaubens. It breathes the Christian and Biblical spirit which animated his whole personality. In 1833 Hahn became professor and councilor of the consistory at Breslau, where he lectured on dogmatics and historical theology, also on ethics, practical theology and New Testament exegesis. Hahn became involved in the occasional fierce struggles in the consistory and faculty, also in dissensions with the " Old Lutherans," who would not submit to the demands of the Evangelical Union of Prussia. His activity in Silesia became still more extensive and successful after the accession of

117	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Frederick William IV. In 1844 he was made gen
eral superintendent; and the call of E. F. Gaupp to
the university and consistory, of Oehler to the uni
versity, and of Wachler to the consistory showed the
changed conditions which he brought about. In
his later years he gave up his lectures and devoted
himself entirely to his ecclesiastical office. He
expressed his later dogmatic convictions in the
second edition of his Lehrbuch (1857) where he
declared the confessional writings of the Church an
entirely justified expression of Christian truth. He
also wrote a treatise on the writings of Ephraem
Syrus (Leipsic, 1819), several dissertations on
Marcion (1820‑26), a Syriac chrestomathy (1825),
and edited a Hebrew Bible (1833) and Greek New
Testament (1840‑61). 	(J. K6sTliNt.)
BIBLIOaaAPH7: K. Kolbe, in Allgemeine Kirchenwitung, 18&3, nos. 75‑77 (uses an unprinted autobiography).

HAHN, HEINRICH AUGUST: Lutheran; b. at K6nigsberg June 19, 1821; d. at Greifswald Dec. 1, 1861. He was the son of August Hahn and studied at Breslau and Berlin. He lectured on Old Testament exegesis and theology, first as privat‑docent in Breslau (1845) and in 1846 at Konigaberg after the death of HAvernick. In 1851 he became professor at Greifswald. He published a number of works, characterized by conscientiousness, carefulness, and faithfulness to duty, and representing the orthodox standpoint against a criticism that contradicted the old traditions. He published HAvernick's lectures on the theology of the Old Testament (Erlangen, 1848), a commentary on the Book of Job (Berlin, 1850), a translation of the Song of Songs (Breslau, 1852), an exposition of Isaiah xl.‑Ixvi. as the third volume of Drechsler's commentary on Isaiah (Berlin, 1857) and a commentary on Ecclesiastes (Leipsic,1860). (J. K6sTiiNt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allgemeine Kirchenseitung, 1862, no. 28.

HAHN, JOHANN M1CHAEL: Founder of the sect of the Michelians; b. at Altdorf near B6blingen (9 m. n. of Tdbingen) Feb. 2, 1758; d. at Sindlingen near Herrenberg (8 m. n.w. of Tiibingen) Jan. 20,1819. The son of a peasant, from his early youth he was given to meditations and visions, and to study of the Bible and of the works of Jakob Boehme, Oetinger, and others. As he attracted great audiences wherever he spoke publicly, he was several times summoned before spiritual and secular courts, the vexations of which he avoided by extensive travels, by abstaining temporarily from public activity and by living quietly on the estate of the Duchess Franzisca at Sindlingen. The Scripture was for Hahn of infallible authority in matters of faith, but he interpreted it according to his own light. Starting from the cosmic standpoint, he regarded all created existence as the evolution of divine attributes, mediated by the Word. By the fall of Lucifer the harmony of these attributes was disturbed, and the wrath of God awakened. There occurred a double fall, in the first place by tile awakening of sexual desire in Adam who originally combined within himself the male and female qualities; later there occurred a differentiation of the sexes and the evolution of a coarse sensual body. The fall was completed by the eating of the apple.
The work of redemption by Christ was thought of in a physical manner, in that he exuded with his blood the sensuality that had invaded man through the fall, and thus transfigured the flesh into a spiritual body. Justification is conceived not forensically, but effectively; sanctification is thought of almost after the manner of a chemical process as the excretion of carnal matter from the new spiritual body of man acquired by conversion. Therefore Hahn advocated an ascetic attitude of life, and greatly valued celibacy. His attitude toward the Church was not altogether that of a separatist; he clung to the rites of the Church, but only for the sake of the weak. In the latter years of his life, however, he was intent upon the organization of a spiritual congregation; for the colony of Kornthal, near Stuttgart, was organized after a plan of Hahn. He wrote more than two thousand spiritual hymns which, however, are of little poetical value; three of them have been embodied in the Wihttemberg hymn‑book. After his death there appeared a collection of his works (15 vols., TUbingen, 1819 sqq.).
After Hahn, J. G. Kolb, schoolmaster in Dagersheim, exercised the greatest influence in the sect; he knew how to transform Hahn's theosophy into practical wisdom. The " Michelians," as the adherents of Hahn are called, are found especially among the peasants and are highly respected for their moral and economic efficiency. Since 1876 they have had a regular organization with presbyterial and synodical institutions. The congregational order of 1876 divided the whole territory (beside Wilrttemberg, especially Baden) with several hundred localities into twenty‑six districts. The number of members is about 15;000. (C. KOLB.)

BIHwoaBAPHP: H. Staudenmeyer, Michael Hahn, min Lebea and seine Lebra, Carleruhe, 1893; Haug, in Studien der euanpdischen Geiatlichkeit WUrttmberga, vol.:u., 1839; W. F. Stroh, Die Lehre des . . . Theoadphen J. W. Hahn, Stuttgart, 1859; C. Palmer, Qemeinerhaften and Sekten Wffrttemlxrgs, ed. Jetter, Ttlbingen, 1877.

HAHN, PHILIPP MATTHAEUS: German Pietist; b. at Scharnhausen (6 m. s.e. of Stuttgart) Nov. 26, 1739; d. at Echterdingen (6 m. a. of Stuttgart) May 2, 1790. After preparation for the university at home, he studied theology in Tilbingen (1756‑60), and became preacher at Onstmettingen (1764), at Kornwestheim (1770) and at Echterdingen (1781). He used his leisure in mechanics, for which he had decided genius. In theology he stood midway between Bengel and Oetinger, less orthodox, more of a theosophist than the former, but not following the latter in his alchemistic views. Like Oetinger, he was intent upon a living, comprehensive, and systematic knowledge of divine revelation as laid down in Holy Scripture. Hahn considered the fundamental idea from which everything else was to be derived to be " the kingdom of Jesus." He held a dynamic idea of the Trinity; in God the One there are originally three egos or sources of life, analogous to the coexistence of the bodily, psychic, and spiritual life in man. The son is the most perfect reflection of the Godhead who only in him becomes conscious, but in relation to the world he is called the first‑born. As such, he is, according to his heavenly humanity,

a Halmo	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	118
not absolutely eternal and absolutely divine. The creature on account of his great unlikeness could not be united with God without a mediator who, being the first‑born, is the fundamental being of the first angelic world of which one part, under Lucifer, separated itself from its head. Consequently the world of the fallen angels became dark, sensual, and earthly, and out of its disorderly mass the earthly world was created. The first‑born reestablished the earth as a dwelling‑place of lower creatures and created man as a shadow of his own image. Like the other theosophists, Hahn taught a double fall; for if man had not fallen, the first‑born would have been united with man as he was with Jesus, and thus the connection with God would have been reestablished; but now the earthly must again become heavenly and the flesh must become spirit. This takes place in the incarnation and death of the first‑born. The earthly life of Jesus, who was sinless but subject to temptation, consisted in continually mortifying the flesh by means of the spirit; thus he realized the reunion of humanity with God. On account of his heterodoxy Hahn was denounced as a Socinian before the consistory and compelled to recant, and his writings were publicly forbidden (March 7, 1781). He translated the New Testament [Winterthurl (1777) and published among other works: Betrachtungen and Predigten Ober die Evangelien (1774); Vermiachte theologasche Schriften (1779); Erbauungsstunden t%ber die O fjenbarung (1795). (C. KOLB.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Philipp MatWMw Harm, Stuttgart, 1858; C. G. Barth, Siaddeuteche Oripinalian, parts 2‑4, 4 parts, Stuttgart, 1828‑38; W. Claus, Witrttembagiaahe VBtar, ii. 148 sqq., Calw, 1888.
	HAIMO (HAYMO, AIMO): Bishop of Halber
atadt; d. Mar. 27, 853. He was a schoolfellow of
Rabanus Maurus (q.v.), and lived as monk in Fulda
and Hersfeld. In 840 Louis the German made him
bishop of Halberstadt (cf. Annalista Saw, 575),
where he had to overcome many difficulties, being
on the outposts, not far from the borders of the
Wends. The writings ascribed to him, mostly
homilies and Biblical commentaries, are attributed
by some scholars to other authors. Hauck thinks,
on account of their uniform method and views, that
they are the work of one author, but surmises that
he was a certain Haimo, who in 1091 became suc
cessor of the Abbot William of Hirschau (cf. Wat
tenbach in MGH, Script., xii., 1836, 209‑210), and
whom the Histoire litthraire (v. 122) assumes to be
the author of a collection.of homilies transmitted
under the name of Haimo and of a work De varietate
librorum. The matter needs to be examined further,
and this the more since Abelard uses Haimo in a way
which forbids to refer his works to a man of the
most recent past. The Epitome historim sacra; of
Haimo is a brief compendium from the church his
tory of Rufinus. 	S. M. DEUTsCH.
Bn9LIoaHAPHY: Haimo's works are collected~in MPL, cavi. 185 aqq., cxviii. 958 sqq. Consult: J. Mabillon, Acts sano• torum ordinis Sancti Benedicti, iv. 1, pp. 818‑821; Histoire littdrairs de la France, v. 11‑128; Annaliela Saxo in MGH, Script., vi (1844), 542‑777; Hauck, KD, ii., especially p. 597, note 3; Wattenbach, DOQ, i. (1885), 322, i (1893), 344.
HAIR AND BEARD OF THE HEBREWS: A full growth of black, curly hair is a characteristic
mark of the Semitic races (Cant. v.‑11; cf. iv. 1)Reddish hair was a rarity among the Israelites. Esau is described as red‑haired (Gen. xxv. 25), and in the case of David it is remarked as a special quality of his beauty that he was blond (I Sam. xvi. 12).
Long hair and a long beard were considered an adornment for a man. On the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments Canaanites and Israelites always wear long hair and beards (cf. for example, the obelisk of Shalmaneser II.). It is the same with the Babylonians and Assyrians; the Egyptians, however, shaved their beards, the priests even their heads. A bald head may have been uncommon among the Israelites and therefore the more .likely to lead tb mockery by the rude and insolent (II Kings ii. 23, cf. Ise. iii. 17, 24). To shave the beard of another was a grave insult (II Sam. x. 4‑5; cf. Isa. vii. 20, 1. 6). Absalom, who was proud of his luxuriant hair, allowed it to be cut only once a year (II Sam. xiv. 26). On religious grounds the Nazirite (q.v.), during the period of his vow, did not allow a razor to touch his hair. The cutting off of the hair and beard in time of mourning, an ancient custom followed by the Hebrews and still practised in the East, had its origin in religious ideas (the offering of the hair as a sacrifice; and of. Isa. iii. 24; Jer. xvi. 6; Ezek. vii. 18; Amos viii. 10; see Moualqlo). The custom was forbidden by the law (Lev. xix. 27, xxi. 5; Deut. xiv. 1). The shaving of the hair roundwise, which is now often practised by the nomads of the desert, was expressly forbidden to the Israelites (Lev. xix. 27), and the priests were not permitted to shave a bald spot on their heads (Lev. xxi. 5; Ezek. xliv. 20). Ezekiel also forbids them to wear the hair long. As to the hairdressing of the men, which was very elaborate among the Egyptians, and as to the skill of the barbers (Ezek. v. 1), no details have survived. Samson, as one dedicated to God, wore seven carefully arranged locks (Judges xvi. 19).
Women never cut their hair (cf. Jer. vii. 29), and long hair was their greatest ornament (Cant. iv. 1; cf. I Cor. xi. 15; Cant. vii. 5). To cut off a woman's hair and so expose her neck was the greatest contumely (cf. Jer. vii. 29; I Cor. xi. 6). Naturally much attention was given to the care of the hair, and the prophet's mockery shows that vain women in early times knew well how to twist curls and weave artistic braids (Isa. iii. 24; of. Judith xvi. 8). Fragrant ointments played a great part in the dressing of the head (Ps. xxiii. 5, exxxiii. 2; Matt. vi. lfi; Luke vii. 46). Unfortunately no picture has been preserved to show the fashions of women's hair‑dressing in ancient times; later they copied the noble Roman dames. So Josephus notes the custom of sprinkling the hair with golddust to make it brilliant (Ant. VIII., vi. 3).
I. BENZmUBH.

BISLIoossPHY: A. Philippe, Hist. phibsophique, polihque
et relipiauae de is barbe, Paris, 1845; I. Goldtiher, Mythology among the Hue, p. 137, London, 1877; J. Wellhausen, Skitsen and Vorarbeiten, iii. 117, Berlin, 1887; Bensinger, ArcAAolopie, pp. 88‑87. 382, 879; Nowaok, Archaaolopia, i. 134; DD, i. 280, ii. 283‑285; EB, i. 507, it. 1938‑41; JE, ii. 811‑815, vi. 157‑180.
For illustrations from other regions consult: J. Batcha‑

119	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
		Hadans
lor, Ainu o/, Japan, pp. 149, 188, New York, 1892; E: 8. Hartland, Legend of Perseus, ii. 58 aqq., 215 aqq., London, 1895; Zend‑Avesta, Vendidad, Fargard xvii., in SBE, Am. ed., iii. 190‑192; Mary H. KinWey, West African Studies, pp. 183‑185, London, 1899; J. G. Fraser, Golden Bough, 3 vols., London, 1900 (consult Index); E. Crawley, Myatk Rose, pp. 107 sqq., New York, 1902; W. H. Furness, Headhunters of Borneo, pp. 92‑93, London, 1902; E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture. ib. 1903.
HAITI. See WEST IxDIES.
HAITO (HATTO): Abbot of Reichenau and bishop of Basel; b. 763 ; d. at Rsichenau 836. He descended from the Swabian lineage of the counts of Saulgau. In his fifth yearwith his brother Wadileoz he was sent to the monastery of Reichenau, where he remained in different positions until the end of his life. He stands at the head of the group of learned men who established the scholarly fame of Reichenau in the ninth century and made it by the side of St. Gall the most important institution of training and education for the nobility of Swabia. He became principal of the monastic school at Reichenau and later abbot of Reichenau and bishop of Basel. Like Waldo, his predecessor, he enjoyed the favor of Charlemagne, and was sent to Constantinople to complete negotiations of peace with the emperor of the East. He introduced the Benedictine rule in his diocese, and it is very probable that he was the author of the so‑called Murbach statutes, twenty‑seven chapters of which appear in the resolutions of a synod at Aachen in 816, concerning monastic reforms, which were received into the Cqpitulare monaaticum of 817. He is certainly the author of twenty‑five chapters which formed the rule for the official conduct of the clergy of Basel. They are of historical importance, since they give an insight into the low state of education among the clergy and at the same time show the efforts of the authorities to elevate the clergy spiritually and morally and give the people a Christian education. About 820 Haito was in Rome. In 823 a severe illness compelled him to abdicate his offices and retire as a simple monk to Reichenau. His pupil Erlebald succeeded him.
(FRIEDRICH WIE(fAND.)
BIHLIO68APHr: The Capitufaria are in MGH, Leg., i (1835), 439‑441, and ib., Leg., Section IL, Capitularia, i (1883), 382‑380; and in MPL, cv.
Sources are; Heriman, Chronicon, in MGH, script., x (1844), 87‑183; Walafrid 13trabo, De roisionibus WetNni, in MGH, Poetm Latini ovi Carob, ii (1884),287‑275, 425‑428; Einhard, Vita Caroli, chap. mtiii.; and a letter from Frothar, presumably to Haito, is in MGH Epiet., v (1898), 279. Consult: A. Ebert, Allpemeine Geschichte der Littaratur des Mittetalters, ii. 144‑152, Leipeic, 1880; Histoire litteraire de la France, iv. 523 ®qq.; Ceillier, Auteum sales, :ii. 330‑337, 390; Rattberg, RD, ii. 9390; Wattenbach, DGQ, i (1893), 288‑‑280; Hauck. RD, ii. passim.
HALABAB ("Norm"): The traditional oral law, embodied in sententious form, contained in the Midrash. See MmRmH.
HALBERSTADT, BISHOPRIC OF: A see founded, according to Saxon tradition, by Charlemagne, who is said to have conferred it on Hildigrim, brother of Liudger of Munster. The verification of this statement depends on the decision as to the authenticity of a document of Louis the Pious relating to Halberstadt, which Rettberg and Simson
reject as forged. while Mahlbacher, with more
probability, considers it merely interpolated. If
this view is taken, Halberstadt was not then an
episcopal see, but a collegiate church whose over
sight was entrusted to a Frankish bishop. Hildi
grim (d. 827) could hardly have been bishop at
once of ChS,lons and of Halberstadt, and his brother's
biography is against such a supposition. As bishop
of ChAlons (before 809) he exercised a general over
sight of the missionary work in eastern Saxony, for
which Halberstadt formed a central point. The
statement of the Quedlinburg annals, under the
year 781, that the church was originally founded at
Osterwiek and removed later, may be true. The
otgrim (827‑840) is the first who can strictly be
called bishop of Halberstadt. His jurisdiction was
extensive, embracing eastern Saxony from the
Ocker to the Elbe and Saale, and from the Unstrut
and the Harz to the Milde. Its area was consid
erably diminished by the foundation of new sees
by Otto I., especially those of Magdeburg and
Merseburg, established at the instance of Bishop
Hildiward in 968. 	(A. HAucx.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: G. Schmidt, Urkundenbuch des Hochstifta Halberstadt, 4 vols, Leipsio, 1888‑89; Gesta apiscoporum Halberstadaneium, 9'81‑1.808, ed. L. Weiland. in MGH, Script., xxiii (1874), 73‑123; Geeta Alberti 11. episcopi Halberataden&18,1824‑13.¢9, ib. i. pp.123‑129; Series spieooporum Halberstadenaium, ib. xv (1888),1311‑12. Consult Rettberg, RD, ii. 470 aqq • A. Reineoke, Die Einftthrunp des Chriaknthums in Hartapau in 8. Jahrhundar6, Osterwiek, 1888.
HALDANEE, ROBERT, and his brother JAMES ALEXANDER: Scottish leaders of Evangelical views.
1. Robert: b. in London Feb. 28, 1764; educated in Dundee and Edinburgh, entered that university; from 1780 to 1783 served as midshipman; resigned, reentered Edinburgh University for a year's study, but on attaining his majority left, made the " grand tour," married, and settled down on his ancestral estates.
2. James Alexander: b. at Dundee July 14, 1768; had a similar education, and in 1785 entered the East India Company's service and rose to be captain of one of its ships. In 1794 both brothers were converted, and with characteristic directness sought ways of serving their fellow men. Henceforth they were associated and prominent in original schemes. James left the East India Company's service, and with Edinburgh as a center, went upon preaching tours, which at the time was a novel thing for a layman to do. Robert sold his estate and devoted his large means to missionary purposes. He first proposed to found a mission in India and be himself a missionary, bearing all the expenses, but the refusal of the East India Company to give him permission for such work led him to abandon the scheme. He finally decided to open preaching places throughout Scotland and seminaries for the training of preachers, all at his expense. James became a Congregational minister in Edinburgh, over a church which Robert had built for him. In 1808 he announced himself a Baptist. In 1816 Robert went to Geneva, and later to Montauban and other places, holding parlor meetings on religion of a more fervid j type than was there known. His Bible views, like

Hale
Half‑Way Covenant	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	120
those of his brother, were decidedly different from those they encountered, as he maintained the infallibility and plenary inspiration of the book. By his presentation of these views he won converts, among whom were Merle d'Aubign6, Malan, and Gaussen, who exerted a profound influence on their countrymen, and introduced Evangelical theology in rationalistic circles. He died in Edinburgh Dec. 12,1842, and his brother in that city on Feb. 8,1851.
Both brothers were writers upon controversial topics. But the books of Robert were much more ambitious. They are probably not read at all to‑day, and present views that, even in conservative circles, are now not held, but which in their day attracted attention. The titles of the tracts, pamphlets and volumes of these brothers constitute a record of the topics which interested such religions persons as Edward Irving, Thomas Erskine of Linla,then, and John McLeod Campbell of Row. Of a less personal nature was the strenuous and successful effort to exclude the Apocrypha from the Bibles issued by the British and Foreign Bible Society. Such were the controversies in which these brothers took part, always on the side of the narrowest Evangelical position. Robert's Exposition of Rornana (3 vols., London, 1852), and James's Exposition of Galatians (Edinburgh, 1848) give their views in their most mature forms.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Haldane, Memoirs of the Lives of R. Haldane, of Airthrey, and of his Brother James Alexander
Haldane, London and New York, 1852.
HALE, CHARLES REUBEN: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Cairo, Ill.; b. at Lewiston, Pa., Mar. 14, 1837; d. at Cairo, Ill., Dec. 25, 1900. He was educated at the University of Pennsylvania (A.B., 1858), was ordered deacon in 1860, and advanced to the priesthood in the following year. After being curate of Christ Church, Germantown, Pa., and of All Saints', Lower Dublin, Pa. (1861‑63), he was chaplain in the United States Navy until 1870, being also professor of mathematics in the Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md., for a part of this time. He was then rector of St. John's, Auburn, N. Y. (1871‑73), a missionary among the Italians of New York City.(1873‑75), rector of St. Mary the Virgin's, Baltimore, Md. (1875‑76), curate of St. Paul's in the same city (1877‑85), and dean of Grace Cathedral, Davenport, Ia. (1886‑92). In 1892 he was consecrated bishop of Cairo (coadjutor to the bishop of Springfield). He took a prominent part in the negotiations of the Protestant Episcopal Church with the Orthodox Greek Church and the Old Catholics. He wrote:
List of the Sees and Bishops of the Holy Eastern Church (Philadelphia, 1870); List of all the Sees and Bishops of the Holy Orthodox Church of the East (New York, 1872); An Eastern View of the Bonn Conference (Utica, N. Y., 1876); The Mozarabic Liturgy and the Mexican Branch of the Catholic Church of Our Lord Jesus Christ Militant upon Earth (Nbw York, 1876); Innocent of Moscow, the Apostle of Kamehatka and Alaska (1877); Russian Missions in China and Japan (1878); An Order for the Holy Communion, Arranged from the Mozarabic Liturgy (Baltimore, 1879); An Office for Holy Baptism, Arranged from the Mozarabic and Cognate Sources (1879); Mosarabic Collects, Translated and Arranged from the Ancient Liturgy of the Spanish Church (New York, 1881); The Universal Episcopate: A List of the Sees and Bishops in the Holy Catholic Church throughout the World (Baltimore, 1882); The Eucharistic Office of the Christian
‑. i;w,
Catholic Church of Switzerland. Translated, and Compared with that in the Missals Romanum (New York, 1882); A Visit to the Eastern Churches in the Interest of Church Unity (1886); and Missionary Relations between the Anglican and the Eastern Churches (1894).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. 8. Perry, The Episcopate in America,
p. 339, New York, 1895.

HALE, EDWARD EVER=: Unitarian; b. at Boston Apr. 3, 1822; d. at Roxbury, Maws., June 10, 1909. He was educated at Harvard College (A.B., 1839), studied theology privately and was ordained to the Unitarian ministry in 1846. From that year until 1856 he was minister of the Church of the Unity, Worcester, Mass., and from 1856 to 1899 was minister of the South Congregational (Unitarian) Church, Boston, retiring as pastor emeritus. He was chaplain of the United States Senate for many years, and also prominent in general philanthropic work. He edited LZrary of Inspiration and Achievement (10 vols., New York, 1905), while among his numerous writings particular note may be made of his Man without a Country (Boston, 1861); Ten Times One is Ten (1870); In His Name (1874); What Career t (1878); If Jesus came to Boston (1895); Memories of a Hundred Years (New York, 1902); and Prayers in the United States Senate (Boston, 1904). He wrote also several works on historical subjects, and published a number of volumes of sermons. His collected works appeared in ten volumes at Boston in 1898‑1900.

HALE, SIR MATTHEW: Lord Chief Justice of England; b. at Alderley (15 m. n.e. of Bristol), Gloucestershire, Nov. 1, 1609; d. there Dec. 25, 1676. Left an orphan at the age of five he was placed under the care of the Puritan vicar of R% otton‑under‑Edge. In 1626 he matriculated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, with a view to taking orders, but soon devoted himself to law, and in Sept., 1628, entered Lincoln's Inn. He was called to the bar in 1636 and quickly attained eminence in his profession. He was one of Laud's counsel on the archbishop's impeachment in 1643. Having adopted Pomponius Atticus as his model he sought to maintain a position of strict neutrality during the civil war, but after the execution of Charles I. he threw in his lot with the commonwealth. He was justice of common pleas 1654‑58, and member of parliament for Gloucester 1654‑55, and for the University of Oxford 1659‑60. In the convention parliament, which met in Apr., 1660, he sat again for Gloucester and took an active part in the restoration of Charles II., by whom he was knighted Jan. 30, 1661. He was lord chief baron 1660‑71, and lord chief justice from May 18, 1671, till Feb. 20, 1676, when, on account of failing health, he surrendered his office to the king in person. At the time of the Savoy Conference he wished to see the Presbyterians comprehended in the Church, and later he showed his sympathy for dissenters by his lenient administration of the Conventicle Acts, and also by an attempt made with Sir Orlando Bridgeman in 1668 to bring about the comprehension of the more moderate. He was on intimate terms with Baxter, Stillingfieet, and other celebrated divines.
Hale's rank as a lawyer and judge, and as a Christian, is of the highest. That he condemned

RELIGIOUS
two poor women to death for witchcraft, at the Bury St. Edmunds assizes, Mar. 10, 1662, has been by some considered a blot on his reputation, but, though a deplorable fact, it only shows that he was not in advance of his times. His principal religious works are Contemplations, Moral and Divine (London, 1676); Of the Nature of True Religion (ed. from MS. by R. Baxter, 1684); A Discourse of Religion (1684); and A Discourse of the‑Knowledge of God and Ourselves (1688). His Works, Moral and Religious, with Burnet's Life and R. Baxter's Notes prefixed, were edited by T. Thirlwall (2 vols., 1805).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources are: G. Burnet, The Life and Death of Sir Matthew Hale, London, 1682, and prefixed to Hale's works, ut sup.; A. h Wood, Athenm Ozoniensea, ed. P. Bliss, iii. 1090‑96, 4 vols., ib. 1813‑20. Consult: J. B. Williams, Memoirs of the Life, Character and Writinp8 of Sir Matthew Hale, ib. 1835 (careful but pragmatic); John Campbell, Limes of the Chief Justices, 3 vole., ib. 1849‑57; DNB, xxiv. 18‑24; W. H. Hutton, The English Church . . . 1886‑171.¢, pp. 204, 336 337, London, 1903.

HALES, JOHN: English clergyman, surnamed °' The Ever‑Memorable "; b. at Bath Apr. 19, 1584; d. at Eton May 19, 1656. He studied at Corpus Christi College and Merton College, Oxford (B.A., 1603; M.A.,1609), became a fellow of Merton in 1605, distinguished himself as a lecturer in Greek, and shone as a preacher. In 1616 he went to Holland as chaplain to Sir Dudley Carleton, the English ambassador, by whom he was sent to the Synod of Dort in 1618 to report the proceedings of that assembly. In 1619 he retired to his fellowship at Eton, to which he had been elected in 1612, and thereafter spent his life chiefly among his books, of which he had a noted collection. Once or twice a year he visited London, where his wealth of knowledge and ready wit made his company much desired in the brilliant circle of literary men then gathered there. Through Archbishop Laud, whose friend and chaplain he was, he was made canon of Windsor in 1639, but was ejected by the parliamentary committee in 1642. He was a man of beautiful tolerance and the foe of religious disputation, holding that mere doctrinal points about which pride and passion rather than conscience lead men to dispute have no place in any liturgy. He assisted Sir Henry Savile in the preparation of his edition of Chrysostom and published a number of sermons and tracts, of which the most important was the Tract Concerning Schism and Schismaties (London, 1642). His Golden Remains, containing his Letters from the Synod of Dort, Acta synodi, etc., with a preface by J. Peaxson, were edited by P. Gunning (1659). His Works were edited by Sir David Dalrymple (3 vols., Glasgow, 1765).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. h Wood Athena Oxonirnses, ad. P. Bliss, iii. 409‑410, 4 vols. London 1813‑20; idem, Faso, ii. 299, 334, appended to the Athenw; John Walker, Sufferings of the Clergy, ii. 87,93‑94, ib. 1714; DNB, xxiv. 3032, where further literature is given; W. H. Hutton, The English Church . . . 18,86‑171.¢, p. 116, London, 1903.

HALES, WILLIAM: Irish chronologist; b. at Cork Apr. 8, 1747; d. at Killashandra (46 m. w. of Dundalk), County Cavan, Jan. 30, 1831. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1768), and was for twenty years a teacher in that institu‑
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hale
Half‑Way Coveaaat
tion, first tutor, afterward professor of Oriental
languages. In 1788 he resigned his professorship
for the rectory of Killashandra, where he spent the
remainder of his life in scholarly retirement. He
is known chiefly for his New Analysis of Chro
nology (3 vols., London, 1809‑12; 2d ed., 4 vols.,
1830), which deals with Biblical chronology and
gives a portion of the early history of the world.
To be mentioned also is his Essay on the Origin and
Purity of the Primitive Church of the British Isles
(1819), portions of which were edited by J. Briggs
under the title; A Historical Survey o f the Relations
. between the Church and State of England and Ireland (1868).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Nichols, Illustrations of the Literary Hist. of the 18th Century, vii. 786, viii. 317, 320, 678, 8 vols.. London, 1817‑58; DNB, xxiv. 38‑39.

	HALF‑WAY COVENANT: An expedient adopted
by New England churches in the seventeenth cen
tury to allow baptized persons of moral conduct
and orthodox belief to have their children baptized
and enjoy themselves all privileges of church‑mem
bership except participation in the Lord's Supper.
In the early New England colonies church members
included (1) Christians who had entered into cov
enant with a local church; and (2) their children,
who were members in virtue of their birth in a
Christian household. There was thus a double
basis of church membership. The children were,
however, admitted to the Lord's Supper only after
regeneration and taking the covenant of the church.
The question whether such as were church members
by birth only were entitled to have their children
baptized was a matter of controversy for nearly
thirty years, when a synod called by the General
Court of Massachusetts in 1662 confirmed the de
cision of a ministerial body appointed by the same
Court in 1657; viz., that non‑regenerate members
who " owned the covenant," publicly approved the
principles of the Gospel, lived upright lives, and
promised to promote the welfare and submit to the
discipline of the church, might bring their children
to baptism; but they themselves might not come
to the Lord's table nor take part in ecclesiastical
affairs. Notwithstanding much opposition, this
became the general practise of the New England
churches. Accordingly many persons of reputable
life, especially in times of religious interest, who
could make no full profession of religion, were
admitted to Half‑Way Covenant relations in the
church and their children were baptized. Solo
man Stoddard, pastor at Northampton, Mass.,
1669‑1729, initiated a further modification which
was widely adopted: the Lord's Supper, in his view
a converting ordinance, was to be participated in
by " all adult members of the church who were not
scandalous." The Half‑Way Covenant received
its death‑blow from Jonathan Edwards, Stoddard's
successor, although it survived for many years.
The last instance of its practise was in Charlestown,
Mass., in 1828. See CONGREGATIONALISTS, I., 4,
J 3. 	C. A. BECHwrTH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. B. Felt, Ecclesiastical Hist. o/ New Eng
	land, ii. Passim, Boston, 1862; A. E. Dunning, Congrega‑
tionalists in America pp. 186‑188 passim, New York,
1894; W. Walker, American Church History Series, iii.

~trar	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	122
170‑182 et passim, ib. 1894; idem, Ten New ffnpland Leaders, pp. 128‑134, 244‑247 et passim, ib. 1901; L. W. Bacon, Conprepationdiets, pp. 78‑112, 114, ib. 1904.

HALITGAR: Bishop of Cambrai. Little is known of his life. He was consecrated probably in 817. In 822 he was designated by Pope Paschal I. to assist Archbishop Ebo of Reims, sent as papal representative to the northern mission, but seems not to have accompanied him on his visit to Denmark; and indeed it has recently been doubted whether the Halitgar mentioned in this connection was the bishop of Cambrai at all. Later he took part in several Frankish synods, and in 828 was sent by the emperor as ambassador to the Byzantine court. His death is usually placed on June 25, 831. He is beat known as the author of a penitential book which he compiled at Ebo'8 request (see PEmTENTIAI$). It is matter of debate whether books iii.‑v. were taken directly or indirectly from the Colledio Dacheriana, and whether book vi, was Halitgar's work or that of a later editor‑though in the time of Flodoard (893966) it already consisted of six books.
(K. MAURNRt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult beside the literature under 'Pum. xarrriU.s, Hauck, %D, ii. 731; J. C. F. Bahr, l#esekkhte der rsmuehen LiterWur int karolinpisdhen Zeitolter, pp. 377 sqq.. Carleruhe, 1840; F. W. H. Waseeraehleben, Die Buaordnunpen der abendldndiseAen Ruche, pp. 80‑82, Halle, 1851; H. J. Schmitz, Die Bumbacher and die Bussdisciplin der Ruche, pp. 719‑733, Mains, 1883.

HALL, ARTHUR CRAWSHAY ALLISTON: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Vermont; b. at Binfield (6 m. s.w. of Windsor), Berkshire, England, Apr. 12, 1847. He studied at Christ Church, Oxford (B.A., 1869), joined the Society of St. John the Evangelist (the Cowley Fathers), 1870, established a branch of the society in the diocese of Massachusetts, 1873; and later became provincial superior of the Cowley Fathers in America. He became curate of the Church of the Advent, Boston, 1874, priest‑in‑charge of the Mission Church of St. John the Evangelist in the same city, 1882; was recalled to England by his Order, 1892, and was a licensed preacher in the diocese of Oxford for a year, but in 1894, being released from his vows to the Cowley Fathers, was consecrated third bishop of the diocese of Vermont. In theology he belongs to the High‑church school, and has written Confession and the Lambeth Conference (Boston, 1879); Example of the Passion: Five Meditations (New York,. 1882); Notes for Meditation upon the Collects for the Sundays and Holy Days, i. (Milwaukee, 1887); The Virgin Mother (retreat address; New York, 1894); Christ's Temptation and Ours (Baldwin lectures; 1896); The Church's Discipline concerning Marriage and Divorce (1896); Confirmation (1900); Marriage with Relatives (1901); Instructions arid Devotions on the Holy Communion (Milwaukee, 1902); Companion to the Prayer‑Book (New York, 1902); The Use of Holy Scripture in the Public Worship of the Church (Paddock lectures; 1903); The Christian Doctrine of Prayer (Bohlen lectures; 1904); The Relations of Faith and Life (Bedell lectures; 1906); The Example of Our Lord, especially for His Ministers (1906); The Work of the Holy Spirit (Milwau‑
kee, 1907); and Forgiveness of Sine (New York, 1908).
BI81doaBAP87: W. S. Perry, The Episcopate in America, p. 383, New York, 1895.
HALL, CHARLES CUTHBERT: Presbyterian; b. in New York City Sept. 3, 1852; died there March 25, 1908. He was educated at Williams College (A.B., 1872), Union Theological Seminary (1872‑74), and in London and Edinburgh (1875). He filled pastorates at the Union Presbyterian Church, Newburgh, N. Y. (1875‑77), and at the First Presbyterian Church, Brooklyn, N. Y. (187797) and was professor of homiletics in, and president of, Union Theological Seminary from 1897 till his death. He was Carew Lecturer at Hartford Theological Seminary (1890), Barrows Lecturer to India and the Far East under the auspices of the University of Chicago (1902‑03, 1908‑07), Haskell Lecturer on comparative religion at the University of Chicago (1903), Cole Lecturer at Vanderbilt University (1905), and William Belden Noble Lecturer at Harvard University (1906). Theologically he was in sympathy with liberal scholarship, while holding firmly the Evangelical position in matters of Christian belief. His elevated tone and deep spirituality drew toward him those of all creeds who loved purity and virtue. His courtly manners, gentle ways, and generous sympathies made him a model pastor and presiding officer. He was the author of: Into His Marvellous Light (Boston, 1892); Does God Send Trouble f (1894); The Children, the Church, and the Communion (1895); Qualifications foraVinizteriadPower (Hartford,Conn., 1895); The Gospel of the Divine Sacrifice (New York, 1896); Christian Belief Interpreted by Christian Experience (Barrows lectures; Chicago, 1905); The Redeemed Life After Death (1905); The Universal Elements of the Christian Religion (the Cole lectures; 1905); Christ and the Human Race (Noble lectures; Boston, 1906); and The Witness of the Oriental Consciousness to Jesus Christ (second series of the Barrows lectures; Chicago, 1908).

HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN: English Congregationalist; b. at Maidstone (8 m. ex.e. of Rochester), Kent, May 22, 1816; d. at London Feb. 18, 1902. He was educated at Tottenridge and Highbury College (B.A., London University, 1841), and was minister of Albion Congregational Church, Hull (1842‑54), and of Surrey Chapel, London (1854‑92), the church being moved to Lambeth in 1876 and its name changed to Christ Church. From 1892 until his death he devoted himself to evangelistic work. While still at Hull, he became conspicuous for his zeal in the cause of total abstinence; and during the American Civil War he earnestly sought to secure English sympathy for the North. After the close of the war he made an extensive tour of the Northern United States, seeking to allay the popular bitterness then existing against Great Britain. He was the author of Come to Jesus (London, 1846; a tract of enormous popularity, reaching a circulation of several millions and translated into forty languages); It is 1 (1848; reaching a circulation of some 200,000); Antidote to Fear (1850); The Land of the Forum and the Vati‑

128	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Mt9"r
can (1852); Sacwifue, or Pardon and Purity through the Cross (1857); Conflict and Victory (1865; a biography of his father); Homeward Bound, and other Sermons (1868); From Liverpool to St. Louis (1868); Pilgrim Songs in Cloud and Sunshine (1871; poems); Prayer, its Reasonableness and Efficacy (1875); The Lord's Prayer, a Practical Meditation (1883); Songs of Earth and Heaven (1885); Gethsemane, or Leaves of Healing from the Garden of Grief (1891); Divine Brotherhood in " The Man Christ Jesus " (1892); Lyrks of a Long Life (1894); and Autobiography (1898).
	HALL, FRANCIS JOSEPH: Protestant Episco
palian; b. at Ashtabula, O., Dec. 24, 1857. He was
educated at Racine College (A.B., 1882), General
Theological Seminary (1883‑85), and Western
Theological Seminary (1886). He was ordained
priest in 1886 and since that time has been professor
of dogmatic theology in Western Theological Semi
nary, Chicago; he was also president of the Western
Theological Seminary in 1898‑99. In theology he
is Anglo‑Catholie. He has written Theological
Outlines (3 vols., Milwaukee, 1892‑95); Historical
Position of the Episcopal Church (1896); The Ke
notic Theory (New York, 1898); The Episcopate
of Bishop Chase (Chicago, 1902); Theology (vols.
i: ii., New York, 1907‑08).

HALL, GORDON: Congregationalist, the first American missionary to Bombay; b. at Tolland, Hampden County, Mass., Apr. 8, 1784; d. at Durlidhapur, Bombay, Mar. 20, 1826. He received his academic training at Williams, College (B.A., 1808), began the study of theology under Ebenezer Porter, and in 1810 entered the Andover Theological Seminary. After taking a course in medicine at Philadelphia he received ordination in 1812 and went to India as a missionary of the American Board. He first attempted to establish a mission at Calcutta, but met with opposition from the East India Company, which peremptorily ordered him to leave the country. In 1813 he removed to Bombay, where, in spite of the petty persecution of the governorgeneral, he prosecuted his labors with diligence and success till his death by cholera while ministering to the stricken natives. In 1817 he was joined at Bombay by Samuel Newell (q.v.). Hall was an eloquent preacher in the Marathi language, and was greatly esteemed among the Brahmans for his discussions and addresses. Besides a few pamphlets he wrote, in collaboration with Newell, The Conversion of the World, or the Claims of Six Hundred Millions (Andover, 1818), which was widely circulated in England and America. He also translated the New Testament into Marathi (Bombay, 1826).
BramOGBAmy: H. Bardwell, Gordon Hail, Andover 1834; National Cydopaedia of American Biography, z. 248‑247, New York, 1900.
HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER: Presbyterian layman; b. at Norwalk, Conn., Dec. 12, 1837; d. at Mt. Vernon, N. Y., July 2, 1896. He was educated at Hamilton College (A.B., 1859), and after being a tutor there for two years (1861‑63), entered the law school of Columbia College, from which he was graduated in 1865. He then practised law in New
York City until 1875, when he went to Beirut, Syria, as professor in the Protestant college there. Returning to the United States two years later, he was associate editor of The Sunday School Times, Philadelphia (1877‑84). From 1884 until his death he was a curator in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, as well as lecturer on New Testament Greek in Johns Hopkins University. He was one of the original decipherers of the Cypriote inscriptions, and likewise discovered, while at Beirut, an important Syriac Biblical manuscript. He was a pioneer of Syriac scholarship in the United States, and was a member of numerous learned societies in his own country and abroad. Besides many contributions to Oriental periodicals, he wrote American Greek Testaments : A Critical Bibliography of the Greek New Testament as Published in America (Philadelphia, 1883).

HALL, JOHN: Presbyterian; b. at Ballygorman, County Armagh, Ireland, July 31, 1829; d. at Bangor, County Down, Ireland, Sept. 17, 1898. He was graduated at Royal College, Belfast (1846) and the General Assembly's theological college, Belfast (1849). He was a " students' missionary " in Connaught (1849‑52), pastor of the First Presbyterian Church, Armagh (1852‑58), and of Mary's Abbey (now Rutland Square Church), Dublin (1858‑67). In 1867 he was sent as delegate from the Presbyterian Church in Ireland to the General Assemblies and other Reformed bodies in the United States, and, after his return home, accepted in the autumn of the same year a call to the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church, New York City. He became one of the leading Presbyterian ministers in America and was probably equal in influence to any other clergyman in the country. His pastoral work was especially effective. He was president of the Presbyterian Board of Home Missions, and chancellor (without salary) of New York University 1881‑91. His Lyman Beecher lectures at the Yale Divinity School in 1875 were published under the title God's Word through Preaching (New York, 1875).
BIBIaOGBAPHY: Thomas C. Hall (his eon), John Hall, Pas
	tor and Pread aer, New York, 1901.

HALL, JOHN VINE: English bookseller and religious writer; b. at Dias (18 m. s.s.w. of Norwich), Norfolk, Mar. 14, 1774; d. at Kentish Town, London, Sept. 22, 1860. He began work in a bookseller's shop at Maidstone in 1786, opened a shop of his own at Worcester in 1804, and in 1814 returned to Maidstone as proprietor of the shop where he had worked as a boy. He retired from business in 1850 and four years later removed to Kentish Town, where he devoted the remainder of his life to religious and temperance work. In early life he had fallen into drunken and profligate habits, but afterward reformed and in 1818 became a total abstainer and an ardent advocate of teetotalism. He is remembered as the author of The Sinner's Friend (1821), which was translated into thirty languages, passed through about three hundred editions, and reached a circulation of some three million copies. The first edition consisted of selections from the English transl$tion of the

Haller	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	1544
Guldenes Schatzkastlein der Kinder Gottes of Karl Heinrich von Bogatzky (q.v.), with a short introduction by Hall; but in subsequent editions Hall gradually substituted passages from his own pen, until in the end, with the exception of a single extract, the work was entirely his own. Christopher Newman Hall (q.v.) was his son.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Conflict and Victory; the Autobiography of the Author of the Sinner's Friend, ed. Newman Hall, London, 1874.
HALL, JOSEPH: Bishop of Norwich; b. at Ashby‑de‑la‑Zouch (16 m. n.w. of Leicester), Leicestershire; July 1, 1574; d. at Higham, near Norwich, Sept. 8, 1656. He studied at Emmanuel College, Cambridge (B.A., 1592; M.A., 1596; B.D., 1603; D.D., 1612), and began his career as a poet and satirist, but later took orders and in 1601 accepted the living of Halsted in Suffolk. In 1608 he became chaplain to Henry, prince of Wales, and shortly afterward he received from the earl of Norwich the donative of Waltham. In 1616 he was sent to France as chaplain to the English ambassador, and the following year he was summoned to attend James I. to Scotland to aid the king in his attempt to introduce there the ceremonial and liturgy of the Episcopal Church. He was made dean of Worcester in 1617 and was sent by James as one of his commissioners to the Synod of Dort in 1618. A Latin sermon preached by Hall before that assembly has been preserved. The see of Gloucester having been declined by him in 1624 he was elevated to that of Exeter in 1627, and translated to Norwich in 1641. With eleven other bishops he was accused of high treason and imprisoned in the Tower in Dec., 1641, but was released in June, 1642. The following year the revenues of his see were sequestered, though an allowance of £400 a year was granted him by parliament. Early in 1647 he was ejected from his palace, and his cathedral was dismantled. He then retired to a small estate at Higham.
	Hall was a man of broad and tolerant sympathies,
a moderate Calvinist, and sought for a mean between
Calvinism and Arminianism. His Puritanical lean
ings offended Laud, but, like many other Puritans,
he was strongly attached to the Church of Eng
land. As a pulpit orator he has had few equals
among English preachers of the Established Church.
He was a prolific author, but many of his works
were purely controversial and only of ephemeral in
terest. To be mentioned particularly are: his satires,
published under the title, Virgzdemiarum, Six Books
(2 vols., London, 1597‑98; ed. A. B. Grosart, in The
Complete Poems o f Joseph Hall, Manchester, 1879),
which are among the best in the language; Medita
tions and Vows, Divine and Moral (London, 1606; en
larged ed., 1621; ed. Charles Sayle, 1902), his most
popular work; Epistles (3 vols., 1608‑11; ed. W.
H. Hale, 1840); Contemplations upon the Principal
Passages o f the Holy Story (8 vols:, 1612‑26; ed.,
with a Memoir, by C. Wordsworth, 1871), a valuable
devotional work; The Old Religion (1628; ed. J.
Brogden, in Catholic Safeguards, vol. ii., 1846), au
exposition of the corruption in the Roman Catholic
Church; Explication. of All the Hard Texts of .
Scripture (Exeter, 1633; new ed., 2 vols., London,
1837); Episcopacy by Divine Right Asserted (1640;
new ed., 1838), written at the suggestion of Laud;
An Humble Remonstrance to the High Court o f par
liament (1640), a skilful vindication of liturgies and
episcopacy which called forth the reply from the
Puritans " written by Smectymnuus " and led to a
famous controversy (see SMEOTYMNUUs); and the
posthumous Contemplations on the New Testament
(1662). There are a number of collected editions of
his works, the best being those of P. Hall (12 vols.,
Oxford, 1837‑39) and P. Wynter (10 vols., Oxford,
1863).
BIBLIoaBAPHT: Besides the biographical material already mentioned, consult: G. Lewis, Life of Joseph Hall, London, 1886 John Jones, Memoirs of Bishop Hall, ib. 1828; T. Fuller, Hist. of Use Worthies of England, ii. 230‑231, ed. P. A. Nuttall, ib. 1840; J. H. Overton The Church in England, ii. 31, 73 et passim, ib. 1897; W. H. Hutton, The English Church 1826‑171.¢, pp. 79 et passim, ib. 1903; DNB, mv. 75‑$0.
HALL, RANDALL COOK: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Wallingford, Conn., Dec. 18, 1842. He was educated at Columbia College (A.B., 1863) and the General Theological Seminary (1866), and was ordained priest in 1870. He was instructor in Hebrew in the General Theological Seminary from 1869 to 1871, and from 1871 until his retirement as professor emeritus in 1899 was professor of Hebrew and Greek in the same institution. Since 1904 he has been chaplain of the House of the Holy Comforter, New York City. He has written Some Elements of Hebrew Grammar (New York, 1895).
HALL, ROBERT: Baptist; b. at Arnesby (7 m. s.s.e. of Leicester), Leicestershire, May 2, 1764; d. at Bristol Feb. 21, 1831. His father was Robert Hall (d. 1791), a Particular Baptist minister of some eminence, who joined Andrew Fuller and John Ryland (qq.v.) in opposing hyper‑Calvinistic antinomianism in his denomination. The son was the youngest of a family of fourteen and as an infant was so frail that his life was despaired of. At the age of nine, however, he delighted to read the works of Jonathan Edwards. After a year and a half of classical study under Ryland and a period of theological study under his father, he entered Bristol College in 1778, and accomplished the course required in three years. He then entered Aberdeen University (M.A., 1784). In 1785 he returned to Bristol to assist Dr. Caleb Evans in the work of instruction in the college. His ministry in the Broadmead Church attracted great audiences; but the liberal tone of his teachings alarmed Dr. Evans and other conservative brethren, and Hail's consciousness of the possession of superior gifts and attainments, not being coupled with due humility of spirit, brought about such strained relations between him and the aged principal as to necessitate his withdrawal (1790). He had greatly offended his conservative brethren by expressing the conviction that God would not damn Joseph Pries

Unitarian the tarian leanings. The and death about this time of
Robert Robinson (q.v.) of Cambridge, who from
being a Calvinist had become Arminian and then
Socinian, left vacant a church that was glad to
secure the services of the brilliant young preacher.
His fifteen years' pastorate in Cambridge was by

125	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Hail
Halter
far the most strenuous period of his life. His tendency toward excessive liberalism soon disappeared. The members of the church and congregation that were aggressively Sociman gradually withdrew. His ministry was thronged by professors and students of the university and by lovers of pulpit eloquence of all denominations. He soon gained recognition as the foremost preacher of the time, and in majesty of thought and expression and impressiveness of delivery it is doubtful whether he has ever heen surpassed. His Apology for Freedom of the Press (London, 1793) increased his popularity with lovers of liberty. His sermon on Modern Infidelity (Cambridge, 1800) passed through many editions and was regarded as the most powerful antidote to current skepticism of the French type. Successive attacks of extreme nervous prostration led to his resignation of the Cambridge pastorate in 1805. After a year of rest he accepted the charge of a church in Leicester, where for twenty years he ministered with remarkable power. In 1826 he accepted an often repeated call to the pastorate of Broadmead Church, Bristol, and spent the last five years of life amid the scenes of his earliest ministry. He followed in the footsteps of Robinson in his advocacy of open communion. His Works were collected in six volumes (London, 1832) and have been republished both in England and America. A. H. NEwMAN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His biography by 0. G. Gregory is in vol. vi. of the Works, ut sup. Consult also the Life by E. P. Hood, London, 1881, and DNB, xiv. 85‑87.
	HALL, THOMAS CUKIRG : Presbyterian; b. at
Armagh, County Armagh, Ireland, Sept. 25, 1858.
He was educated at Princeton (A.B., 1879) and
Union Theological Seminary (1882). Ile then
studied in Berlin and GSttingen, after which he was
pastor in Omaha (1883‑86) and Chicago (1886‑97).
Since 1898 he has been professor of Christian ethics
in Union Theological Seminary. He has written
The Power of an Endless Life (Chicago, 1893); The
Social Significance o f the Evangelical Revival' in
England (New York, 1899); The Synoptic Gospels
(1900); and John Hall, Pastor and Preacher: A
Biography by his Son (Chicago, 1901).

HALL, SECT OF: A sect which appeared in 1248 at SchwAbisch‑Hall (in Wihttemberg, 35 m. n.e. of Stuttgart). Albert of Stale, the only authority, gives the following summary of its tenets: " The pope is a heretic, and all bishops and prelates are simoniacs and heretics; the entire clergy, taken captive in vices and mortal sins, has neither power to bind and to loose nor to celebrate the mass nor to impose an interdict. All monks, especially Franciscans and Dominicans, lead a bad life and seduce the people by their preaching. Only the members of the sect and their preachers have the truth and prove it by their works. The pardon of sin which they offer comes therefore not from men but from God. One should pay no attention to the pope, but should pray for Emperor Frederick and his son Conrad who are perfect and righteous." Though it is asserted that Conrad favored them, they had to migrate to Bavaria on account of the opposition of the clergy. The characteristic belief regarding
the clergy shows affinity with the views of the
Arnoldists and Waldensians, especially the Italian
group, and renders it probable that the Hall sect
had a similar character if not origin. V6lter has
shown a probability in favor of the view that the
EPistola fratris Arnoldi and the Le7iellus Anonymi
de Innocentio IV. Antichriato refer to this heretical
movement. In both of these writings there is
an apocalyptic and a social train of thought closely
akin to the prevalent Joachimistic notions, viz.,
the expectation of a judgment upon the hierarchy
and the demand for a restoration of church prop
erty to the poor. The connection of the Hall sect
with Arnold's ides is not demonstrated; and the
questions of the duration of the movement must
remain unsettled. 	E. LEmrr.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are Annalee Stadenaes, in MGR, Script., avi (1859), 371; Arnold De corrections eccleaim epiatola et anonymi de Innocentio IV., ed. E. Winkelmann, Berlin, 1885. Consult: C. Jager, Ueber die religibse Bewepung in den achmabiarhen Stddten, IV., i. 69‑107; V61ter, in ZKG, iv (1881), 360 sqq.; Welter, in Vierteljahrahe/te for Landeapeachichte, vi (1897), 147 sqq.; cf. Bossert in W9rttemberpische $ircherageachichte, pp. 179 sqq., Stuttgart, 1893.
HALLEL: A name applied to certain psalms. It is derived from the phrase Halleluyah, " Praise ye Yah (weh)," found at the beginning of the individual psalms of the principal group, or at the end, or in both places. It is commonly given to the group Ps. cxiii.‑cxviii.; less frequently it is applied to four groups, viz., civ.‑cvu., exi.‑cxvii. (cxviii.), exxxv.‑cxxxvi., cxlvi.‑,d., originally placed together, but later separated in the editing of the psalter. In later usage Pa. exix. was included among the Hallels. The name " Great Hallel " was sometimes given to Ps. cxiii.‑exviii., sometimes to Pa. exix.‑caxavi., sometimes to Ps. cxxxvi. alone. To Ps. exui.‑exviii. was also given the name " Egyptian Hallel " on the alleged ground that they were chanted in the temple while the lambs for the Passover were being slaughtered. The Egyptian Hallel was doubtless originally a single composition, according to internal evidence of late date, written for some occasion of thanksgiving (according to tradition, the Fast of Dedication) and subsequently divided for liturgical use, The ancient practise was to recite it every morning during the Feast of Dedication, on the first day of the Feast of Unleavened Bread, on Pentecost, at the Feast of Booths, and on the night of the Passover.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. A. Briggs, Commentary on Psalms, i.; pp•
blrviiiAama, New York, 1907; J. W. Thirtle, Old Tea‑
lament Problems, ib. 1907; DB, ii. 287; ED, ii. 1942‑43; JE, vi. 176‑178.
HALLELUJAH. See Lrl'uRmc8, III.
HALLER, ALBRECHT VON: Swiss botanist, physiologist, and poet; b. at Bern Oct. 16, 1708; d. there Dec. 12, 1777. After a thorough medical training, first with a physician at Biel and then at Tabingen and Leyden, he returned to his native city in 1729 and speedily attracted general attention both by his poems and by his scientific attainments. In 1736 he accepted a call to the University of Gbttingen, but returned in 1753 to Bern, where he held various offices of state. His verse is not devoid of the rationalism of his period, but the

Seller
Hamann
THE NEW SCAAFF‑HERZOG
antireligious attitude of the French freethinkers
became so offensive to him that he adhered more
and more closely to the objective facts of eccle
siastical creeds and institutions. He was pro
foundly interested in foreign missions, and, both as
a poet and a scientist, was impelled to set forth the
reasonableness of Christianity and the necessity of
religious convictions in moral and social life. In
this spirit he wrote his Briefe fiber die vornehmsten
Wahrheiten der Offenbarung (Bern, 1772; Eng.
transl., Letters from Baron Haller to his Daughteron
the Truths of the Christian Religion, London, 1780)
and his Briefs fiber einige Einwiarfe nosh lebender
Freigeistcr wider die Offenbarung (3 vols., 1775‑77),
while his repeated polemics against Voltaire were
comprised in the Antivoltaire ou diecours eur la relig
ion (Bern, 1755). His Tagebuch seiner Beobachtungen
uber Schriftsteller and fiber sick selbst was published
posthumously (2 vols., Bern, 1787), and reveals the
doubts against which he was obliged to contend, the
struggle finally leading to religious melancholy.
Haller's religion was moralistic rather than dog
matic, so that his faith was a belief in God and
providence, expressed in reverence for the Bible and
the Church, instead'of in redemption and the person
of Christ. 	(E. Bn68Cat.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Hirael. A. 90n Hailer's GBdkhte, nit bf0praphischer Binleitany, Frauenfeld, 1882; T. Henry, Memoirs o/ A. de Haller, M.D., Warrington, 1783; C. A. R. Baggeeen, A won oller ale Christ and Apolopet, Bonn, 1885; C. G. KBnig Peak‑ade auf A. von Holler, Bern, 1877; Guder A. von Haller ale Christ, Basel, 1878; A. Frey, A. von Holler and seine B®deutunp far die dsutede Ldteratur, Leipsic, 1879.

HALLER, BERTHOLD: Reformer of Bern; b. at Aldingen (60 m. s.w. of Stuttgart), W ilrttemberg, 1492; d. at Bern Feb. 25, 1536. In 1510 he entered the University of Cologne to study theology, but before he finished his studies, he took a position as teacher in Rottweil, and when Rubellus, his former teacher, was called to a school in Bern, he accompanied him as assistant. Here he advanced rapidly. In 1517 he became spiritual notary, and soon an assistant of Thomas Wyttenbach (q.v.) at the Church of St. Vincent. The daily association with this man, who had already influenced Zwingli and Leo Jud, undoubtedly had a considerable effect upon Haller's views. Through Myconius he became acquainted with Zwingli, whom he visited in 1521 and who became his friend and teacher. On the resignation of Wyttenbach in 1520, Holler received his position as canon and secular priest.
His chief efforts were now directed to the introduction of the Reformation in Bern, and in union with the Franciscan Sebastian Meyer he succeeded
in gathering a small circle of EvanThe Refor‑ gelically inclined men. The first pubmation in lie attack upon the Evangelicals was
	Bern.	made in 1522 when the chapter of
		Mtlnaingen accused the priest of Klein
h6chstetten, Georg Brunner, of blasphemy against
the Church and the clergy. A commission insti
tuted by the government acquitted Brunner, not
so much for the sake of Evangelicalism as to check
the encroachments of the clergy. Evangelical
preaching was also permitted until, in 1523, a man
date was issued to check the progress of heresy.
Haller was accused of heretical teachings on marriage of the clergy and on monastic vows and regulations, but was not found guilty. His clerical friends, however, were compelled to leave the city, so that Haller stood altogether alone, and the whole work of the Reformation rested upon his shoulders. But under the weight of responsibility his powers grew, and the consciousness of his position gave him a sagacity and courage which would hardly have been expected from his naturally timid nature. Under the influence of Zwingli, he ceased reading mass at the end of 1525, and laid the whole stress of his activity upon preaching. But in 1525 and 1526 edicts against the Evangelicals were issued, and a disputation took place in Baden (see BADEN, CONFERENCE OP) for the suppression of the heretical teachings of Zwingli, where Haller defended his cause to the best of his ability, although alone he could not prevail against the united force of his opponents. On his return to Bern he was requested to resume the reading of the mass, but he adhered to his former decision, and his firmness was not without effect upon the town council. He was allowed to remain and received a salary as preacher although he was deprived of his canonry. He resumed hiss preaching with new zeal and success, and under the constant encouragement of Zwingli the Evangelical cause began to assume larger and larger dimensions. In 1527 Haller received an important aid in Franz Kolb (q.v.) who some years before had left Bern on account of the unfavorable prospects of the Evangelical cause, but returned now when the tide had turned. The resentment of the people against the encroachments of the clergy induced the council to make more and more concessions to the Evangelical cause. Most of the Roman members of the council were converted to the new faith. Freedom of preaching was allowed, and a disputation was ordered to take place in Bern (see BERN, DISPUTATION OF).
With the introduction of the Reformation the proper work of Haller's life was completed; but he was prominently connected with the drawing up of the reformatory edict of Feb. 7, 1528, and, with the aid of theologians called from Zurich, continued his reformatory work through sermons, visitations, and examinations. He also held lectures for ignorant clergymen. A catechism which he
Later wrote at the request of the council, has Activity. not been preserved. Haller's reformatory efforts in Solothurn (1530) were without success. In the time of the unfortunate Kappel wars he strove for a peaceable settlement of the difficulties, and thus was involved in strained relations with his colleagues Kolb and Megander, who advocated war. In 1531 Haller disputed successfully with Hans Pfister Meyer of Aamu, but the other preachers of Bern were less successful in their disputation with the Anabaptists which took place in July, 1532, at Zofingen. In 1532 Haller became dean of the chapter of Bern. His last anxiety was caused by the dangerous position of Geneva, which was the ally of Bern and at this time hard pressed by the duke of Savoy. Haller feared a new war, which would have endangered the Evangelical cause in both cities, but he

127	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	maw
			an
lived long enough to witness the deliverance of
Geneva. He has left no writings. (E. BLOsCHt.)
BIBwoaBAmy: Many of Haller's letters are in vole. vii.
	and viii. of Zwingli's works, ed. Schuler and Schulthess,
	cf. A. L. Herminjard, Correspondancs des riforewteure, 9
	vols., Paris, 1878‑97 (consult the Indexes). Consult:
	M. Kirchhofer, B. Halter odor die Reformation won Bern,
	Zurich, 1828; G. J. Kuhn, Die Reformatmnn Beau, Bern,
	1828; C. Peetalosai, B. Haller, FIberfeld, 1867; S. M.
	Jackson, Huldreich Xwinpli, paweim, New York, 1903.
	HALLEY, ROBERT: English non‑conformist; b.
at Blackheath (5 m. s.e. of St. Paul's, London) Aug.
13, 1796; d. at Batworth Park, near Arundel (50
m. s.s.w. of London), Sussex, Aug. 18, 1876. He
was educated at the Maze Hill School, Greenwich,
and at the Homerton Academy, London, and on
June 11,1822, was ordained pastor of the independ
ent congregation at St. Neots, Huntingdonshire.
He was classical tutor in Highbury College during
1826‑‑39, returning then to the ministry as pastor
of the Mosley Street Chapel, Manchester. He was
principal and professor of theology at New College,
St. John's Wood, London, from 1857 to 1872, when
he retired to Clapton. His principal works are:
The Improved Version Truly Designated a Creed
(London, 1834), a reply to a defense by James Yates
(q.v.) of an " Improved Version " of the New Testa
ment issued by Unitarians, which secured Halley
the degree of D.D. from Princeton; An Inquiry into
the Nature of the . . . Sacraments (2 vols.,1844‑51),
the Congregational Lecture for. 1843 on baptism,
and that for 1850 on the Lord's Supper; Baptism
the Designation of the Catechumens (1847); sad
Lancashire : Its Puritanism and Nonconformity (2
vols., 1869; 2d ed., 1872).
BiauooaArar: A Short Biography. with Select Sawwna, ed.
	B‑ Halley, London, 1879; DNB, xxiv. 109‑110.
	HALLOCK, GERARD BENJAMIN FLEET: Pres
byterian; b. at Holiday's Cove, W. Va., Jan. 28,
1856. He was graduated from Princeton College
(A.B., 1882) and Princeton Theological Seminary
(1885). He was then pastor of the Wheatland
Presbyterian Church, Scottsville, N. Y., until 1890,
and since 1890 has been associate pastor of the Brick
Presbyterian Church, Rochester, N. Y. Theo
logically he is an orthodox member of his denomi
nation and accepts all its Scriptural teachings. He
has written Upward Steps (Philadelphia, 1899);
The Model Prayer (New York, 1900); Sermon Seeds
(Reacting, Pa., 1900); God's Whispered Secrets
(New York, 1901); Beauty in God's Word (Phila
delphia, 1902); The Homiletic Year (Cleveland,
1903); Journeying in the Land where Jesus Lived
(New York, 1903); Growing Toward God (New
York, 1904); The Teaching of Jesus concerning the
Christian Life (New York, 1907).
	HALLOCK, JOSEPH NEWTON: Congregation
alist; b. at Franklinville (now Laurel), N. Y., July
4, 1834. He was educated at Yale (A.B., 1857)
and at Yale Divinity School, which he left in 1859
at the end of the middle year. He then taught
school on Long Island until 1865 when he became a
book publisher in New York City. Since 1880 he
has been editor‑in‑chief of The Christian Work and
Evangelist, with which he has been associated edi‑
torially since 1876, In 1897 he declined the prof‑
fered presidency of Westminster University, Denver, Col. He has written: The Christian Life (New York, 1890); Family Worship (1892); What is Heresy t (1894); Mormonism (1896); and Life of D. L. Moody (1900).
	HALLOCg, WILLIAM ALLEN: American editor
and author; b. at Plainfield, Mass., June 2, 1794;
d. in New York City, Oct. 2, 1880. He was grad
uated at Williams in 1819, and at Andover Theo
logical Seminary in 1822. In the latter year he
became agent for the New England Tract Society.
In 1825 he took a prominent part in organizing the
American Tract Society and became its first corre
sponding secretary, a position which he filled till
1870. Under his care the publications of the so
ciety increased greatly in number and usefulness.
He edited The American Messenger for forty years,
and The Child's Paper for twenty‑five years. His
publications include a Memoir o f Harlan Page (New
York, 1835); Life and Labors of the Rev. Justin
Edwards (1856); and a number of tracts. Three
of these, The Only Son, The Mountain Miller, and
The Mother's Last Prayer, together reached a cir
culation of over a million copies.
Bn9woa8Apffr: Mrs. H. C. Knight, Memorial of Rev. W. A. Hallock, Boston, 1884.
HAM. See NOAH; TABLE of THE NATioNB.
HAMANN, ha'mdn, JOHANN GEORG: German author, called the " Magician of the North," one of the pioneers in the transition from the eighteenth to the nineteenth century; b. at Konigsberg Aug. 27,1730; d. at Milnster June 21,1788. He received a many‑sided but desultory and deficient education, and in 1746 entered the University of Konigsberg, but on account of a defect of speech gave up the study of theology, devoting himself to philosophy, antiquities, critical investigations, and belles‑lettres. He then became tutor in a private family and entered into friendship with Johann Christoph Berens, the son of a rich merchant in Riga. Under his influence he studied economics and gained such knowledge of commercial affairs that he was sent with an important secret mission to London. Here he fell in with bad company and lost his money. In his destitution he turned to the Bible and was converted. After fourteen months he went back to Riga, where he was kindly received by the family of Berens, and in 1759 he returned to Konigsberg to nurse his sick father. During this period his studies were of astonishing comprehensiveness. Above all he devoted himself to the Bible and Luther's works. Penetrated by the conviction of the high importance of classical antiquity, he strove to master its whole literary tradition and to grasp its leading ideas. He also studied Oriental and modern literature, thus acquiring the most comprehensive knowledge of literature in general of all his contemporaries. After the death of his father in 1766 Kant obtained employment for him in the excise office, which he exchanged in 1777 for an unremunerative office in the custom‑house. His life was full of hardships and embarrassments as he was always in financial difficulties and burdened with domestic troubles. His latter days were brightened by the friendship of F. H. Jakobi, with whom he lived during the

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	128
Hamburg
last year of his life, and by that of Franz Buchholz
of Wellbergen in Westphalia, who gave a consid
	erable fund for the education of Hamann's children.
	In 1784 the Princess Galitzin was won for the posi
	tive faith of Christianity by his writings and also
honored Hamann with her friendship.
	Hamann's importance lies in the fact that after
a dead orthodoxy he asserted the spontaneity of a
	personal religious spirit and, after the subjectiv
	ity of Pietism, pointed to the universally human.
	The real essence of his spiritual tendency is to be
	found in the Christianity of Luther, as expressed in
	his personal life of faith and in his works, especially
	in his catechisms and in the prefaces to the Epistle
	to the Romans and to the Psalms. Three periods
	in his literary activity may be distinguished‑first
	his period of storm and stress (1759‑64), in which
	he was confronted chiefly with classical and esthet
	ical subjects. In the second period (1772‑76) he
	occupied himself chiefly with the philosophy of
	language. The third period (1779‑86) was the
	glorification of Evangelical Christianity as the
	religion of the facts of revelation and the gifts of
	grace. His principal works (all of few pages) are:
	Sokratisehe Denkloiirdigkeiten (1759) and its apolo
	getico‑satirical postlude Wolken (1761), a combi
	nation of skepticism and childlike faith; Kleeblatt
	hellenistischer Briefs (1761); Esthetics in nuce
	(1761); Kreuzzuge des Philologen (1762); Ea8ai d
	la mosaique (1762); Des Bitters von Roaenkreuz
	letzte Willensmeinung iiber den gottlichen und menaeh
	lichen Ursprung der Sprache (1772); Philologische
	Einfdlleund ZweifelilibereineakademischePreisschrift
	(1772); Beilage zu den. Denkwurdigkeiten des 8eli
	gen Sokratea (1773); goyVl,rag (1779); Metakritik
	uber den Puriamum der reinen Vernunft (1781?),
	against the rationalism of Kant. His most mature
	theological work is Golgatha and Scheblimini [Pa.
	ex. 1], Erniedrigung urul Erhohung, Christentum and
	Luthedum (1784), which was directed against Moses
	Mendelssohn's Jerusalem oder religiose Macht and
	Judentum (1783). F. Rothe edited Hamann's
Sdmmtliche Schriften (8 vols., Berlin, 1821‑43).
	(F. ARNOLD.)
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Schlegel, in Deutschea Museum iii (1813),
	33‑52; C. H. Gildemeister J. G. Hamanm . . . Leben
	and Sehri/ten, 3 vole Gotha,,‑ 1857; idem Hamann‑Stu
	dien, ib. 1873; R. Rocholl, Johann Georg Hamann, Han
	over, 1869; A. Bramel, Johann Georg Hamann, Berlin,
	1870; J. Disaelhoff, Wepweieer zu J. G. Hamann, Elber
	feld, 1871; G. Poel, Johann Georg Hamann, 2 parts, Ham
	burg, 1874‑76; J. Clamsen, Johann Georg Hamanns Leben
	and Werke, 3 vols., GUteraloh, 1878‑79; G. C. B. Punier,
	GeschicAte der chriallichen Religionephilosophie, i. 451‑461,
	Brunswick, 1880; J. Minor, J. G. Hamann in seiner Bo
	deutung far die Sturm‑ and Dranpperiode, Frankfort, 1881;
	R. Gran. Hamann& Stellung zu Religion and Christentum,
	GUtereloh, 1888; Lettau, in Miaeilunpen der Comsnius
Gesallechaft, ii (1893), 201‑213.
HAMATS. See SYRIA.
	HAMBERGER, JULIUS‑ German Protestant;
b. at Gotha Aug. 3, 1801; d. at Munich Aug. 5;
1885. He was educated at Munich and Erlangen,
and in 1828 was appointed Protestant teacher of
religion at the military school and in the school for
pages at Munich, where he remained more than fifty
years He found time to develop, an extensive
literary activity. It had been his early desire to find the true relation between reason and revelation in order to prove that the divine truth as revealed in the Bible is at the same time the only truth of reason. He heard Schelling's lectures on the philosophy of mythology and on the philosophy of revelation; but it was not until he came into personal contact with Franz von Baader that he found what he had missed in Schelling‑the truth that the product of the evolution of the principle of nature in God is not the world, but God's own glory and corporeality, while the world itself is a freely created image of divine glory. The elements of Baader's theosophy Hamberger found in Jakob BShme (q. v.), and on the basis of Baader and Bbhme Hamberger wrote a great number of works in which he tried to show the fundamental unity of Biblical revelation and reason. His first important work was Gott and seine Otfenbarungen in Natur and Geschichte (Munich, 1836; 2d ed., Gtlteraloh, 1882), which he condensed and adapted in his Lehrbuch der chriatliehen Religion (1839; 3d ed., with the title Die bx7blische Wahrheit in ihrer Harmonie mit Natur and Geschichte, 1877). In 1844 appeared Die Lehre des deutschen Philosophen Jakob Bohme in which he tried to explain and popularize the writings of this obscure philosopher. With the same aim he edited the Selbstbiographie of the theosophist F. Christoph Oetinger (Stuttgart, 1845) and his Btblisches Worterbuch (1849) and translated his Theologia ex idea vine, with explanatory notes (1852). He also made special researches in Christian mysticism, the results of which may be seen in his collection Stimmen Gus dem Heiligtum der ehristlichen Mystik and Theosophie (2 vols., 1857) and edited a revised version of Tauler's sermons (1864). Of other works may be mentioned Phyaica sacra (1869), anthologies of the writings of F. H. Jakobi (1870) and Johannesvon Miiller (1870). Christentum and moderne Kulbur (3 vols., Erlangen, 1865‑75) is a collection of his numerous treatises and essays which appeared in periodicals.
(WILHELM PREGERt.)
BIHLroa8APH7: J. Hamberger, Erinnerungen Gus meinem Leben, Stuttgart 1882; Allgemeine euanpelisch‑luthaerische Kirchenzeitung, 1885, no. 49.
HAMBURG: A free city of Germany, forming one of the states of the German Empire. It lies on the Elbe, about 70 miles from its mouth, has a land area of 157 square miles, and a population (1906) of 886,798, of whom 90 per cent are Evangelical Lutherans. The Roman Catholics number about 35,000, the Jews some 20,000, the German Reformed about 10,000, and other denominations, including Baptists, Methodists, Anglicans, Mennonites, and French Reformed, about 10,000. There is now no formal connection between Church and State in Hamburg.
Hamburg became definitely Lutheran with the introduction of the Bugenhagen church order in 1529 (see BUGExHAGEN, JoHANN) and
	Church	remained such till its occupation by
	History	the French at the beginning of the
	to r86o.	nineteenth century. Church and State
		were so closely united that candidates
for the higher civil posts usually had to seek
promotion through the minor ecclesiastical offices;

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hamann
Hamburg
and the older officers of the Church (called Oberaken) were really the representatives of‑the people in the city council as distinot from the senate. According to article lix. of the recess of 1529, which was repeated verbatim in the recess of 1603,, Lutherans only were permitted to reside within the jurisdiction of the city. However, with the extension of commerce certain concessions were made to other denominations. In 1567 members of the Anglican Church, and in 1605 members of the Dutch Reformed Church were permitted to live in the city. They were denied citizenship and the right to hold public worship, but were allowed to hold services at the homes of their respective ambassadors. As a result of the Peace of Westphalia (1648) a degree of toleration was granted to Reformed Christians, Mennonites, and Roman Catholics; but non‑Lutherans usually.held their services in adjacent Altona, as the Mennonites still do. All Reformed Christians, Roman Catholics, and Mennonites were granted freedom of religious worship by the statute of Sept. 19, 1785, and after the War of Liberation they were given all the civil rights of the Lutherans, except the right of election ‑to the municipal collegia. The new civil constitution of Sept. 28,1860, secured complete religious liberty for all, and decrees that the enjoyment of civil rights shall not be conditioned on, or limited by, religious confession.
The present Constitution of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Hamburg came into being on
Dec. 9, 1870. At first it applied only Recent His‑ to the city, but in July, 1876, it was
tory of the amended and introduced into the six‑
Lutheran teen outlying country parishes. The
Church. Cloister of St. John, which had become
extremely wealthy by the sale of its real estate, was induced to present the Church with a large part of its fortune; and thus the claims of the Church on the State were satisfied. However, the income from this donation was found insufficient to meet the growing needs of the Church, and in 1887 a regular church‑tax was introduced. This is based on income and varies, through nine gradations, from one mark on an income of 1,500 marks to 300 marks on an income of 75,000 marks. This tax amounts to about 500,000 marks yearly, of which 40 per cent goes to the general treasury of the Church, and 60 per cent to the individual parishes.
As to the organization and government of the Church, there are thirty‑three parishes, forming
four church‑districts (Karchenkreise). Government The affairs of the individual parish are
of the managed by a board (KarclaenvorLutheran stand), composed of the pastors of the
Church. parish, three elders, who are elected
for life; twelve trustees (twenty‑four in the first church‑district), who are elected by the congregations for a term of ten years; and two Evangelical Lutheran members of the senate, who preside over the meetings of the board. In the third and fourth church‑districts the organization is similar, except that there are no elders. In each case the current business of a parish is left to an executive committee, composed of members of this governing board. The pastors of the first V ‑9
church‑district (the city) form the ministry; and the five so‑called head pastors compose the examining board. From their number the Patronat (the Lutheran members of the senate) selects the Senior, who presides over all ecclesiastical collegia. The clergy of the other .three church‑districts form collegia similar to the ministry. They have the power to discipline their members, and also have a voice in matters pertaining to changes in liturgy and church service. Corresponding to the four church‑districts are four convocations (Konvente), which are composed of the Senior, the two senators of the ecclesiastical council (in the third and fourth districts simply two specially appointed senators), and clerical and lay members of the parochial boards. The convocations of the first and second districts, together with nine representatives from the third and three deputies from the fourth, form the synod, which is composed of eighty members, viz., twenty‑four ecclesiastics. and fifty‑six laymen. The acts of this body, which usually meets twice a year, require the sanction of the Patronat. The administration of the entire Church is in the hands of the ecclesiastical council, which consists of nine members, viz., the Senior, two senators, and two ecclesiastics and four laymen elected by the synod. Ministers are elected by the parochial boards, though every election has to be approved by the Patronat.
The Evangelical Lutheran Church in Hamburg has about one hundred clergymen and some forty churches, besides the three so‑called
	Statistics.	chapels, the Anacharkapelle, estab
		lished 1856, the Stiftskirche (1852),
which grew out of the St. George Sunday‑school,
and the Kreuzkirche (1866). These were estab
lished privately in the overcrowded parishes of the
inner city to meet the needs of the time, and while
they are reckoned to the Lutheran Church, they 1 re
not represented in any of its ecclesiastical bodies.
It should be added that church attendance is very
poor, and that less than 10 per cent of the nominal
membership take tile communion. Similarly, a cer
tain indifference toward the Church is shown in
the matter of marriages and funerals. About 13
per cent of contracting couples neglect entirely the
church service, contenting themselves with the
civil marriage; and, though the attendance of a
Lutheran minister at a funeral is now gratis, inter
ments with clerical attendance are comparatively
rare. Sunday‑schools are now common throughout
the city. The oldest is the St. George Sunday
achool (1825; now the Stiftskirche), which is also
the oldest Sunday‑school on the Continent. The
first Sunday‑school organized in a church was that
established in St. James's in 1884. There are now
thirty‑two Sunday‑schools in Hamburg, twenty
five of which are conducted by pastors, seven by
state missionaries. The total attendance of chil
dren is about 10,000, and the number of teachers
and assistants is about 400. (A. voN BROECBER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. C. W. Sillem, Die Binfahrunp der Reformation in Hamburg, Halle, 1886; Stati8tik des Hamburger Staates (annual); Statisldachea Handbueh for don hamburp6arhen Stoat, Hamburg, 1891; A. von Broecker, in Zeitachrift fQr die evanpeliacWutherische Kirche Hamburpe, vols. i.‑iv., 1894‑98 (this periodical contains yearly returns in one of its numbers).

Hamburg, Archbishopric of Hamilton
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
HAMBURG, ARCHBISHOPRIC OF: The Saxon territory north of the Elbe made a stubborn resistance to Christianity. It is not till 780 that the Nordleudi submitted to baptism, and even then it was rather an act of submission to Charlemagne than the result of missionary labor. , The first church in Hamburg was certainly not built till after 804, for it was consecrated by Amalarius of Treves, who had been in charge of the mission there, and who entered on his episcopate ‑in that year. Later a priest named Heridac took his place in this district. When Louis the Pious completed the organization of the Saxon bishoprics, he divided the territory between Bremen' and Verden. Later, however, he conceived the idea of erecting an archbishopric on the northern frontier in connection with the Scandinavian nusaion, and in 831 he had Ansgar (q.v.) consecrated by his brother Drogo of Metz as the head of a diocese formed out of parts of Bremen and Verden. Christianity was still in a rudimentary stage here; there were only four " baptismal churches," at Hamburg, Heiligenstedten, Sch6nefeld, and Meldorf. The archbishopric of Hamburg at first had no suffragans. Gregory IV. named him papal legate for the north and east of Europe; but this was at first rather an empty title. After Hamburg was destroyed by the Northmen in 845, the existence of the bishopric was possible only by a union with Bremen (q.v.), which gave rise to a long controversy with Hermann of Cologne, to whose metropolitan jurisdiction Bremen had been subject. Pope Formosus decided in 892 that Hamburg and Bremen should be united until the former had suffragan sees of its own. These were not erected until 947, when Adaldag was consecrated bishop for Sleswick, Ripen and Aarhus; Oldenburg apparently came later. Bremen, however, still remained united with Hamburg, Bruno of Cologne renouncing his claims. Archbishop Unwan asserted metropolitan rights over Denmark, Norway and Sweden; but it was only a question of time when these countries should have national churches of their own, which was finally brought to pass when Paschal II. raised Lund to an archbishopric in 1104. Archbishop Adalbero succeeded in checking the progress of separation for the moment at the Lateran Council of 1123, and Innocent II. in 1133 confirmed the old rights of Hamburg; but the same pope in 1137 finally dissolved the connection of the northern countries with Hamburg, which, however, kept Oldenburg and increased its jurisdiction by the foundation of new dioceses of Mecklenburg (Schwerin) and Ratzeburg.
(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPB:7: The sources are: J. M. Lappenberl<, HambureiscAes Urkundenbueh, Hamburg, 1842; Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammaburpensia ecclesias yontifcum, in MGH, Script., vii (1846), 267; Series Bremenaium et Hammaburpenaium episcoporum, in the same, p. 389; Annales Hamburgensea, in MGH, Script., xvi (1859), 38o; P. Hasse, Regeaten and Urkunden Schleawig‑HolateinLavenburp, Hamburg, 1885 Bqq. Consult Rettberg, KD, ii. 490; K. Koppmann, Die 4lteaten Urkunden des Erzbistuma Hamburg‑Bremen, Hamburg, 1866; G. Dehio,Geachichte des Erzbiatums Hamburg‑Bremen, 2 vole., Berlin, 1878; Hauck, KD, ii. 675 aqq. et passim; T. Tamm, Die Anfringe des Embiseuma Hamburg‑Bremen, Jena, 1888; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 271‑290 et passim; and the literature under ADALBEaT and ANaaAR.
HAMBURGER, JAKOB: German Jewish rabbi; b. at Loslau (100 m. s.e. of Breslau), Silesia, Nov. 10, 1826. He was educated at the rabbinical schools of Rotzenplotz, Presburg, and Nikolaburg, and at the universities of Breslau and Berlin (Ph.D., Leipsic, 1852). He was then rabbi at Neustadt‑beiPinne (1852‑59), and since 1859 has been rabbi at Mecklenburg‑Strelit.z. He has written Geist and Ursprung der aramaischen Uebersetzung des Pentateuchs, bekannt enter dem Namen Targum Onkelos (Leipsie, 1852); Der Geist der Hagada, Sammlung hagadischer Ausspruchhe aus den Talmudim and Midraschim (1859); and the important Realencyclopadie des Judentums (3 vols., Strelitz and Leipsic, 1865‑91, n. e. completed 1901).

HAMEL, h8"mel', JEAN BAPTISTE DU: French Roman Catholic; b. at Vire (36 m. s.w. of Caen), Normandy, 1624; d. Aug. 6, 1706. He studied at Paris and in 1643 entered the congregation of the Oratory, which he left ten years later to become pastor at Neuilly‑sur‑Marne. He was secretary of the Academy of Sciences at Paris from 1666 till 1699. In 1668 he attended the peace negotiations at Aachen and then accompanied the French ambassador to England. He was held in high esteem by the leading scholars of his time. Aside from writings on physics and mathematics, his principal works are: De eonsensu veteris et nova= philosophice .(Paris, 1663); Philosophia vetus et nova ad usum scholm accommodata (4 vola., 1678); and Theologia speculatrix et practica juxta sanctorum patrum dogmata pertractata (7 vols.,1691), which he abbreviated as Theologia cleriaorum seminariis accommodates summarium (5 vols., 1694). All of these works have been frequently edited and reprinted. Other works are, Institutiones biblicte see scripturte sacrw prolegomena (2 vols:, 1698); and a large edition of the Vulgate, with notes (2 vols., 1706).
(R. SEEKER().)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Niceron, Mhmoiree, i. 265 eqq.; C. G. Heinrich, Geechichte der roerachitdanen Lehrarten der Ariatlichen Glaubsnewahrheiten, pp. 382 eqq., lApeic, 1780; Journal dea savane, 1707, supplement, pp. 88 eqq.; KL, v. 148081.

HAMEL, JEAN DU: Jesuit theologian of the second half of the sixteenth century. He taught theology at Louvain, where, on account of his SemiPelagian views concerning predestination and grace, he came into conflict with Michael Bajus (q.v.), then chancellor of the university. The result was that in 1587 thirty‑four theses taken from the lectures of Hamel and his Jesuit colleague, Leonardus Lessius (q.v.) were condemned by the theological faculty at Louvain. This action was indorsed by the University of Dousi. After the two Jesuits had received the support of several other universities, Rome interfered and declared that their teachings were dogmatically unobjectionable.
(R. SEEBERG.)
HAMELMA", ha'mel‑mall, HERMAN 1Y: German reformer; b. at Osnabrilek (74 m. w.s.w. of Hanover) 1525; d. at Oldenburg (24 m. w.n.w. of Bremen) June 26, 1595. He was educated at Osnabriick, Monster, Emmerich, and Dortmund, was ordained priest at Miinatcr, and at first signalized himself as a violent opponent of Luther. In

RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA	$ ~, Archbishopric of
	Hamilton
1552, however, he became a convert to Protestantism, and was deposed as parish priest at Camen and expelled from the town. After two years of wandering, partly spent at Wittenberg with Melanchthon, he was appointed preacher at Bielefeld. His savage opposition to the carrying of the Host in procession caused the Roman Catholics to require him to dispute at Diisaeldorf before the ducal court of Cleves, and there he was again deposed. From 1554 to 1568 he was at Lemgo, where he labored unceasingly for the establishment of Lutheranism as far as Antwerp, and in 1568 he was appointed superintendent of Gandersheim to further the progress of the Reformation in Brunswick, though the interference of the duke caused him to resign four years later. For the remainder of his life he was general superintendent of Oldenburg. Hamelmann'a numerous writings contain abundant material for the history of the Reformation in Weatphalia and lower Saxony, but can be used only with caution on account of his strong prejudices. His most noteworthy work was his Historia ecclesiastics renati Evangdii (Altenburg, 1586). The manuscripts of his books are preserved at Wolfenbuttel. (G. UHLHORNt.) BIRLIOGRAPRy: A. E. Rauachenbusch, H. Hamdmann's Lebea, Schwelm, 1830; J. G. Leuckfeld, Historia Hameh mann, Quedlinburg, 1720; M. Goebel, Gewhichte des chriab liden Ldena in der rheinaoaslphaliachen Kirchs, i. 449459, Coblena, 1849; A. D6ring, J. Zambaeh and das Gymnasium zu Dortmund, 164,3‑8,2, 64 eqq., 103 sqq., Berlin, 1875; KL, v. 1481‑84.
HAMILTON, EDWARD JOHN: Presbyterian; b. at Belfast, Ireland, Nov. 29, 1834. He emigrated to the United States in early life, and was graduated from Hanover College, Hanover, Ind. (B.A., 1853), and Princeton Theological Seminary (1858). He was ordained to the ministry (1858), was pastor at Oyster Bay, N. Y. (1858‑61), in charge of a congregation at Dromore West, Ireland (1861‑62), and chaplain of the Seventh New Jersey Veteran Infantry in the Army of the Potomac (18631865). He was then pastor at Hamilton, O. (18661868), professor of mental philosophy in Hanover College (1868‑79), acting professor of ethics, economics, and logic in Princeton College (1882‑83), and professor of philosophy in Hamilton College (1883‑91). He was then on the staff of the Standard Dictionary (1891‑94), after which he was professor of philosophy in Whitworth College (1894‑95) and of the same subject in the State University of Washington (1895‑1900), when he retired from active life. He has written: A New Analysis in Fundamental Morale (New York, 1870); The Human Mind (1883); The Modalist (Boston, 1883); The Perceptianalist : or, Mental Science (New York, 1899); and The Moral Law : or, The Theory and Practise of Duty (1902).
HAMILTON, JAMES: Church of Scotland; b. at Paisley (7 m. w.s.w. of Glasgow) Nov. 27, 1814; d. in London Nov. 24, 1867. He studied at the universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh, became assistant to Robert Candlish at St. George's, Edinburgh, in 1838, took charge of the parish of Abernyte in 1839, and early in 1841 removed to Roxburgh Church, Edinburgh. In July, 1841, he became pastor of the National Scotch Church,
Regent Square, London, and remained pastor of this congregation till his death. In 1849 he became editor of the Presbyterian Messenger, and in 1864 editor of Evangelical Christendom, the organ of the Evangelical Alliance. He was an incessant literary worker and the author of some of the most widely circulated books of his day. His beat known works are: Life in Earnest (London, 1845), of which 64,000 copies had been sold before 1852; The Mount of Olives (1846); The Royal Preacher (1851), homiletical commentary on Ecclesiastes; and Our Christian Classics (4 vols., 1857‑59). His Works were published in London (6 vols., 1869‑73); and his Select Works appeared in New York (4 vols., 1875).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Arnst, Life of James Hamilton, New York, 1871; R. Nasmith, Memoirs of Rev. James Hamilton, Glasgow, 1896; DNB, xciv. 188.
	HAMILTON, JOHN TAYLOR: Moravian bishop;
b. at Antigua, W. I., Apr. 30, 1859. He was edu
cated at Moravian College, Bethlehem, Pa. (A.B.,
1875), and the Moravian Theological Seminary in
the same town (B.D.,1877). He was then a teacher
in Nazareth Hall Military Academy, Nazareth, Pa.
(1877‑81), pastor of the Second Moravian Church,
Philadelphia, Pa. (1881,86), and professor of Greek,
church history, and practical theology in the Mora
vian Theological Seminary (1886‑1903). Since
1903 he has been the American member of the Mis
sion Board of the Moravian Church, Herrnhut,
Saxony, and in 1905 was made a Moravian bishop.
He was also a member of the administrative board
of the Moravian Church in 1898‑1903 and secretary
of the Society for Propagating the Gospel in 1886
1898 and 1902‑‑03. In theology he is conserva
tively liberal and is positive, not negative. He was
associate editor of The Moravian in 1883‑93 and
sole editor in 1893‑94 and 1897‑99, and alas written
History of the Moravian Church. in America (New
York, 1895); History o f the Moravian Church during
the eighteenth and nineteenth Centuries (Bethlehem,
Pa., 1900); and History of the Missions of the Mora
vian Church during the eighteenth and nineteenth
Centuries (1901).
HAMILTON, JOHN WILLIAM: Methodist Episcopal bishop; b. at Weston, Va., Mar. 18, 1845. He was graduated from Mount Union College, O. (1856) and from Boston University (1871), and was admitted to the Pittsburg Conference in 1868, being appointed to a pastorate at Newport, O. In the same year, however, he was transferred to the New England Conference, and in 1871 founded the People's Church in Boston, of which he was pastor until 1880. From that time until 1900 he held various positions in his denomination, and then was elected bishop. From 1892 to 1900 he was corresponding secretary of the Freedmen's Aid and Southern Education Society and also editor of The Christian Educator, and has written Memorial of Jesse Lee and the Old Elm (Boston, 1875); Lives o f the Methodist Bishops (New York, 1883); People's Church Pulpit (Boston, 1884); and American Fraternal Greetings (Chicago, 1899).
HAMILTON, PATRICK: Proto‑martyr of the Scottish Reformation; b. at Stanehouse, Lanark,

Hamilton	THE. NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	132
or Mncavel, Linlithgow, about 1503‑04; burned at the sake at St. Andrew's Feb. 29, 1528. His father, Patrick, was a natural son of the first Lord Hamilton, knighted for his bravery, and rewarded with the above lands and barony by his sovereign, James IV. His mother, Catherine Stewart, was a daughter of Alexander, duke of Albany, second son of James II.; so that he was closely connected with some of the highest families in the land. His cousins, John and James Hamilton, before the Reformation, rose to episcopal rank in the old church; and several others of his relatives attained high promotion. Destined himself for such promotion, Patrick was carefully educated and was in 1517 appointed to the abbacy of Ferne in Rossshire, to enable him to maintain himself in comfort while studying abroad. Like many of his aristocratic countrymen at that period, he went first to the University of Paris, and probably to the College of Montaigu, where John Major, the great doctor of his country, was then teaching with so much dclat, and gathering around him, as he did afterward at St. Andrew's, an ardent band of youthful admirers, who in the end were to advance beyond their preceptor, and to lend the influence of their learning and character to the side of the Reformers. Before the close of 1520 Hamilton took the degree of M.A. at Paris, and soon after left that university for Louvain, to avail himself of the facilities for linguistic study provided there, or to enjoy personal intercourse with Erasmus, the patron of the new learning. At this date he was probably more of an Emsmian than a Lutheran, though of that more earnest school who were ultimately to outgrow their teacher and find their home in a new church. He made great progress in the languages and philosophy, and was specially drawn toward the system of Plato. With " the sophists of Louvain " he had no sympathy. But there were some there, as well as at Paris, whose hearts God had touched, to whom he could not fail to be drawn. He may even have met with the young Augustinian monks of Antwerp, whom, so soon after his departure, these sophists denounced, and forced to seal their testimony with their blood. In the course of 1522 he returned to Scotland, matriculated at St. Andrew's on June 9, 1523, the same day that his old preceptor Major was incorporated into the university and admitted as principal of the Pmdagogium, or, as it came afterward to be called, St. Mary's College. Probably he heard there those lectures on the Gospels which Major afterward published in Paris. But his sympathies were more with the young canons of the Augustinian priory than with the old scholastic; and possibly it was that he might take a place among the teachers of their college of St. Leonards that on Oct. 3, 1524, he was received as a member of the Faculty of Arts. He was a proficient, not only in the languages and philosophy, but also in the art of sacred music, which the canons and the alumni of their collcge were bound to cultivate. He composed " what the musicians call a mass, arranged in parts for nine voices," and acted himself as precentor of the choir when it was sung. In 1526 the New Testament of Tyndale's translation was brought over from the Low Countries by the Scottish traders:
A large proportion of thp copies are said to have been
taken to St. Andrew's, and circulated there. Hamil
ton seized the opportunity to commend the holy
book and its long‑forgotten truths to those over
whom he had influence. His doings could not long
escape the notice of Archbishop Beaton, who, as in
duty bound, issued, or threatened to issue, a sum
mons charging him with heresy. Hamilton, yielding
to the counsels of friends and opponents, made his
escape to the Continent. He had much profitable
intercourse with Tyndale, as well as with Lambert,
and was urged to remain in Marburg. But, late in
the autumn of 1527, he returned to Scotland, deter
mined to brave death itself rather than prove faith
less to his Master where before he had shrunk from
an ordeal so terrible. Nor was it long ere his resolu
tion was put to a test. After he had labored for a
very short time in his native district, gained over
to the truth several of his relatives, and won the
heart of a young lady of noble birth, to whom he
united himself in marriage, he was invited (Jan.,
1528) by the archbishop to a conference with the
chiefs of the Church "on such points as might seem
to stand in need of reform." At first all displayed
a conciliatory spirit, and appeared to recognize the
evils existing in the Church; some even seemed, in
some points, to share his sentiments, and for nearly
a month all possible freedom in making known his
views was allowed to him. At length the mask was
thrown aside. On Feb. 28 he was seized, and on the
29th brought out for trial in the cathedral. Among
the articles with which he was charged, the more
important were " that a man is not justified by
works, but by faith; that faith, hope, and charity
are so linked together that he who hath one of them
hath all, and he that lacketh one lacketh all; and
that good works make not a good man, but a good
man doeth good works." On being challenged by
his accuser, he also affirmed it was not lawful to
worship images, nor to pray to the saints; and that
it was " lawful to all men that have souls to read
the word of God; and that they are able to under
stand the same, and in particular the latter will and
testament of Jesus Christ." These truths, which
have been the source of life and strength to many,
were then to him the cause of condemnation and
death; and the same day the sentence was passed
and executed. But, through all his excruciating
sufferings, the martyr held fast his confidence in
God and in his Savior; and the faith of many in the
truths he taught was only the more confirmed by
witnessing their mighty power on him. Nay, " the
reek of Patrick Hamilton infected all on whom it
did blow." 	(A. F. MITCHELLt.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: The notices in the Commen‑
tary of A. Alesius on Ps. xxxvii., 1554; in the Introduc
tion to F. Lambert's Commentary on the Apocalypse,
Marburg, 1528; J. Foxe, Acts and Monuments of the
Church, many editions, e.g., London, 1871; J. Knox,
Works, ed. D. Laing i 500‑515, Edinburgh, 1895; J.
Spottiewoode, Hiet. of Church of Scotland, ed. M. Russell,
3 vole., ib. 1851‑ D. Calderwood, Hint. of the Kirk of
Scotland, ed. T. Thomson, 8 vols., ib. 1842‑49; R. Lind
say, Chronicles of Scotland, ad. J. G. Dalyell, 2 vols., ib.
1814. The only formal biography is P. Lorimer , Patrick
Hamilton, the First Preacher and Martyr of the Scottish
Reformation: a Historical Biography, collected from orig
inal sources, Edinburgh, 1857. The story of Hamilton

133	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Hamilton
has been told by M. d'Aubignd, Reformation in Europe in the Time of Calvin, vi. 14‑Sb, London, 1875; recently it has been made the subject of a veritable drama by Rev. T. P. Johnston, Patrick Hamilton, a Tragedy of the Reformation in Scotland, Fdinburgh, 1882. Consult also DNB, xaiv. 201‑203.
	HAMILTON, THOMAS: Irish Presbyterian; b.
at Belfast Aug. 28, 1842. He was educated at the
Royal Academical Institution, Belfast, Queen's Col
lege, Belfast, and Queen's University (B.A., 1863),
and was ordained in 1865. From that year until
1889 he was a pastor in Belfast, and since 1889 has
been president of Queen's College. He has like
wise been a senator of the Royal University since
1890, and has written Faithful unto Death : A
Memoir o f Rev. David Hamilton (his father; Belfast,
1875); Irish Worthies (1875); Our Rest Day (prize
essay; Edinburgh, 1886); History of the Irish
Presbyterian Church (1887); and Beyond the Stars
(1888).
HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM: Scotch philosopher; b. at Glasgow Mar. 8, 1788; d. at Edinburgh May 6, 1856. He studied first in
	Life.	Glasgow University, where his father
		had been professor of anatomy and
botany; took a course in medicine at the Univer
sity of Edinburgh in 1806‑07; and in May, 1807,
entered Balliol College, Oxford (B.A., 1811; M.A.,
1814), where he concentrated upon classics and phi
losophy and gained the reputation of being the most
learned Aristotelian in the university. In 1813 he
settled in Edinburgh as an advocate, though he
never secured a large practise. In 1820 he estab
lished his claim to the baronetcy of Preston, and
was thenceforth known as Sir William. In the
same year he was defeated for the chair of moral
philosophy at the University of Edinburgh by John
Wilson (Christopher North), but was elected to the
professorship of civil history in 1821. About 1826
he took up the study of phrenology, and in 1826
and 1827 he read before the Royal Society of Edin
burgh several papers antagonistic to the alleged
science. He made his reputation as a philosopher
by a series of articles that began to appear in the
Edinburgh Review in 1829. In 1836 he was elected
to the chair of logic and metaphysics in the Uni
versity of Edinburgh, and held the position till his
death. In 1843 he contributed to the lively eccle
siastical controversy of the time (see PRESBY
TERIANS) by publishing a pamphlet against the
principle of non‑intrusion. He was answered by
William Cunningham. In July, 1844, he suffered
a stroke of paralysis, which made him practically
an invalid for the rest of his life.
Hamilton was an exponent of the Scottish common‑sense philosophy and a conspicuous defender and expounder of Thomas Reid (q.v.), Position in though under the influence of Kant he
Philosophy. went beyond the traditions of the common‑sense school, combining Rzth a naive realism a theory of the relativity of knowledge. His psychology, while marking an advance on the work of Reid and Stewart, was of the " faculty " variety and has now been largely superseded by other views. His contribution to logic was the now well‑knowm.theory of the quantification of the
predicate, by which he became the forerunner of the present algebraic school of logicians.
It is his law of the conditioned, with his correlative philosophy of the unconditioned, which comes into nearest relation with theology. This law is " that all that is conceivable in thought lies between two extremes, which, as contradictory of
His Law of each other, can not both be true, but the Con‑ of which, as mutually contradictory, ditioned. one must be true . . . . The law of the mind, that the conceivable is in every relation bounded by the inconceivable, I call the law of the conditioned." This involved his position as to the Infinite‑ti at the Infinite is " incog‑
iz
able and inconceivable." This doctrine on its philosophic side is a protest against Kant's skeptical result affirming that reason lands in hopeless contradictions; on its theological side it proclaims the impossibility, of knowing the Absolute Being. Only by taking first the philosophic aspect can we correctly interpret its theological relations. Kant had made a priori elements only forms of the mind: and accordingly, the ideas of self, the universe, and God, became only regulative of our intellectual procedure, and in no sense guaranties of truth. Accordingly, Kant has dwelt on " the self‑contradiction of seemingly dogmatical cognitions (thesis cum antithesi) in none of which we can discover any decided superiority." These were, that the world had a beginning, that it had not; that every composite substance consists of simple parts, that no composite thing does consist of simple parts; that causality according to the laws of nature is not the only causality operating to originate the world, that there is no other causality; that there is an absolutely necessary being, that there is not any such being. Hamilton's object was to maintain that such contradictions are not the product of reason, but of an attempt to press reason beyond its proper limits. If, then, we allow that the conceivable is only of the relative and bounded, we recognize at once that the so‑called antinomies of reason are the result of attempts to push reason beyond its own province, to make our conceptions the measure of existence, attempting to bring the incomprehensible within the limits of comprehension.
Thus far a real service was rendered by Hamilton in criticizing the skeptical side of Kant's Critique
o f Pure Reason. He estimated this re‑
	Agnostic	sult so highly as to say of it, " If I
	Conse‑	have done anything meritorious in
	quences.	philosophy, it is in the attempt to ex
		plain the phenomena of these contra
dictions." At this point Hamilton ranks Reid su
perior to Kant; the former ending in certainty,
the latter in uncertainty. But there remain for
Hamilton's philosophy the questions: If we escape
contradiction by refusing to attempt to draw the
inconceivable within the limits of conception, what
is the source of certainty as to the infinite? How are
knowledge and thought related to the existence and
attributes of the Infinite Being? Here Hamilton
is entangled in the perplexity of affirming that to
be certain which is yet unknowable. That there
is an Absolute Being, source of all finite existence, is,

Hamilton
Hammurabi end His Code
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
according to him, a certainty; but that we can have any knowledge of the fact is by him denied. Reid had maintained the existence of the Supreme Being as a necessary truth; and Hamilton affirms that the divine existence is at least a natural inference; but he nevertheless holds that the Deity can not be known by us. This is with him an application of the law of the conditioned‑a conclusion inevitable under admission that all knowledge implies the relative, the antithesis of subject and object. This doctrine of ignorance was developed by H. L. Mansel, and eagerly embraced by the experientialists, J. S. Mill and Herbert Spencer. This gave an impulse to Agnosticism (q.v.), the influence of which must be largely credited to Kant, who reduced the a priori to a form of mental procedure, and to Hamilton, who rejected Kant's view, yet regarded the absolute as incognizable. However, while insisting that " the infinite God can not by us, in the present limitation of our faculties, be comprehended or conceived," Hamilton adds that "faith‑belief‑is the organ by which we apprehend what is beyond our knowledge."
Hamilton's principal works are: Discussions on Philosophy and Literature, Education and University Reform (London, 1852), containing his articles published in the Edinburgh Review ; Notes and Dissertations, published with his edition of T. Reid's Works (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1846‑63); and his Lectures on Metaphysics and Logic (ed. H. L. Mansel and J. Veitch, 4 vols., 1859‑60), of which an abridgment of the metaphysical portion (vols. i. and ii.) was edited by F. Bowen (Boston, 1870).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For the life consult: J. Veitoh, Memoir of Sir William Hamilton, Edinburgh, 1869; idem, Sir William Hamilton the Man and his Philosophy, ib. 1883; articles in St. Paul's Magazine, iv. 685, Eclectic Magazine, lmaII. 570, and Living Age, eiii. 222; DNB, 224‑232. On his philosophy consult: J. 8. Mill An Examination of Sir William Hamilton 'a Philosophy, 2 vole., London, 1878; T. S. Baynes, in Edinburgh Essays, pp. 241‑300, London, 1857; H. Calderwood. The Philosophy of the Infinite, with special Reference to the Theories of Sir William Hamilton, Edinburgh, 1861; H. L. Mansel, The Philosophy of the Conditioned, London, 1866; J. McCosh, Scottish Philosophy, pp. 415‑454 New York, 1875; G. 8. Morris, British Thought and Thinkers, pp 25‑301, London, 188; W. i3. H. Monck, Sir William Hamilton, ib. 1881.

HAMLIN, CYRUS: Congregationalist; b. at Waterford, Me., Jan. 5, 1811; d. at Portland, Me., Aug. 8, 1900. He was graduated from Bowdoin College (A.B., 1834) and at Bangor Theological Seminary (1837). In the following year he went to Turkey under the auspices of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, and in 1840 opened Bebek Seminary on the shores of the Bosphorus, which he successfully conducted for twenty years, also finding an opportunity to aid the Protestant Armenians of Constantinople during the Crimean War. In 1860 he resigned from all relations with the American Board because of his theories on vernacular education, and founded Robert College, Constantinople, finally securing an imperial imde placing the institution under the protection of the United States. After a successful presidency of the new college for sixteen years, he returned to the United States in 1876 as professor of dogmatic theology in Bangor Theological Semi‑
134
nary, a position which he retained until 1880, when he was chosen president of Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vt. In 1885 he resigned this office and retired to private life. He wrote Among the Turks (New York, 1877) and the autobiographic My Life and Times (Boston, 1893), as well as numerous sermons, lectures, reviews, and similar brief contributions.
HAMMOND, CHARLES EDWARD: Church of England; b. at Bath (12 m. ex.e. of Bristol), SOmersetshire, Jan. 24, 1837. He was educated at Exeter College, Oxford (B.A., 1858), where he was fellow in 1859‑73, tutor in 1861‑73, and bursar and lecturer in 1873‑82. He was ordained priest in 1862, and was chaplain of the Oxford Female Penitentiary from 1$70 to 1882. From 1882 to 1887 he was rector of Wootton, Northamptonshire, and since 1887 has been vicar of Menheniot, Cornwall. He was likewise rural dean of East from 1889 to 1890 and from 1893 to 1899, and has been honorary canon of Truro since 1893, examining chaplain to the bishop since 1903, and proctor in convocation for the diocese of Truro since 1905. He has written: Outlines of Textual Criticism applied to the New Testament (Oxford, 1872); Liturgies, Eastern and Western (1878); and The Ancient LMcrgy of Antioch, and Other Liturgical Fragments (an appendix to the preceding volume; 1879).
HAMMOND, EDWARD PAYSON: Evangelist; b. at Ellington, Conn., Sept. 1, 1831. He was educated at Williams College (A.B., 1858), Union Theological Seminary (1858‑59), and the Free Church College, Edinburgh, where he completed his education in 1861. In 1862 he was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry, and since that time has devoted himself to Evangelistic work, particularly among the young, in the United States and Great Britain. He has written, among other works: Child's Guide to Heaven (Boston, 1863); The Better Life and How to Find it (1869); Jesus the Lamb of God (1872); The Conversion of Children (New York, 1878); Roger's Travels (1887); and Early Conversion (1901).
HAMMOND, HENRY: English Biblical critic; b. at Chertsey (19 m. w.s.w. of London), Surrey, Aug. 18, 1605 d. at Westwood (6 m. n. of Worcester), Worcestershire, Apr. 25, 1660. He was educated at Eton and at Magdalen College, Oxford (B.A., 1622; M.A., 1625; B.D., 1634; D.D., 1639), was elected a fellow of his college in 1625, and was presented with the living of Penshurst, Kent, in 1633. In 1640 he became a member of convocation, and in 1643 archdeacon of Chichester and a nominal member of the Westminster Assembly. The same year he helped to raise a troop of cavalry for the king's service, and when a reward of £100 was offered for his arrest, left Penshurst for Oxford, where he devoted himself to study. He was chaplain to the royal commissioners at the conference at Uxbridge (Jan. 30, 1645), at which he held a dispute with Richard Vives. A few months later he was made canon of Christ Church, Oxford, and chaplain to Charles I., and elected public orator of his university. He attended the king during his captivity until Christmas, 1647, when Charles was

135	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	IT‑iIton
Hamuaurabi and His Code
deprived of all his royal attendants. Returning to Oxford he was made subdean of Christ Church, but was quickly removed by the parliamentary visitors and thrown into prison for ten weeks. Afterward he resided in quasi‑confinement in the house of Sir Philip Warwick at Clapham, Bedfordshire, till early in 1650, when, having gained his liberty, he removed to Westwood, Worcestershire. He died just on the eve of his elevation to the see of Worcester. He was a man of great self‑denial, a tireless student, and an excellent preacher. Charles I. considered him the most natural orator he had ever heard. His most important works are: A Practical Catechism (Oxford, 1644; 15th ed., London, 1715); A Paraphrase and Annotations upon . . the New Testament (London, 1653; new ed., 4 vols., Oxford, 1845); and A Paraphrase and Annotations do the Book o f Psalms (London, 1659; new ed., 2 vols., Oxford, 1850). His Works were edited by W. Fulman (4 vols., London, 1674‑‑84), and his Miscellaneous Theological Works were edited in the Library of Anglo‑Catholic Theology by N. Pocock (3 vols. Oxford, 1847‑50).

HAMMURABI AND HIS CODE.
I.	Hammurabi.
	The Name. Identification with Amraphel (§ 1).
	His Date (§ 2).
	His Reign (§ 3).
II.	The Code.
	Description of the Stele (§ 1).
	Contents of the Inscription (§ 2).
	Character of the Legislation and Penalties (§ 3).
	Legal Status of Woman (§ 4).
	The Laws not New (§ 5).
	Relation to Pentateuchal Codes (§ 6).
I. Hammurabi was sixth king of the first dynasty of Babylon. The name is taken as a compound of
`Ammo and rabi, " (the god) Ammu is i. The flame. great." In the Assyrian period the
Identifica‑ name was not understood and was mistion with translated Kimta‑rapastum, " great of
Amraphel. family " or " the family is noble." This fact is a strong reenforeement of the argument for the foreign origin of the dynasty. By Assyriologists Hammurabi is quite generally identified with the Amraphel of Gen. xiv., though the final syllable of the latter word is hard to account for on philological grounds and some scholars dispute the identification. Apologetic ends, which have been a considerable element in the discussion, are not well served by the identification since the generally received date for this king (2250 B.C.) and the asserted contemporaneity with Abraham introduce serious difficulties into the Hebrew narrative. A millennium must on this basis have elapsed between Abraham and the Exodus, a gap impossible to fill with the Biblical material. As to the genealogy of the dynasty, it is noteworthy that neither Hammurabi, his son, nor his great‑grandson trace their descent from Sumu‑abi, the first king of the dynasty, but derive it from Sumula‑ilu, the second king. This fact is interpreted as suggesting that the second king was a usurper.
The date of the reign is disputed, being placed as early as 2340 B.C., and as late as c. 1900 B.C. For the date about 2250 B.C. the most direct testimony is derived from the statement of Aashurbanipal in
650‑649 B.C. that Kudur‑nahunti carried away to Elam an image of Nana 1,635 years earlier, i.e.,
2285‑84 B.C. This tallies well with the 2. His known fact that just before Hammu‑
Date.	rabi's reign the Elamites had conquered
Eastern Babylonia under a KudurMabug, who probably belonged to that dynasty or at least to its time. Kudur‑Mabug's son was the Rim‑Sin or Eri‑Aku whom Hammurabi subdued in the thirtieth year of his reign. Less reliable but somewhat confirmatory is the fixing by Stephanos of Byzantium of the foundation of Babylon 1,002 years before the siege of Troy, the latter date being fixed by Hellanikos at 1229 B.C. The date given by Nabonidus, 700 years before Burnaburiash, is uncertain, both because it is a round number, and because there were several kings named Burnaburiash. Ifit were the correspondent of Amenophis III., it would place Hammurabi about 2150 B.C. (see AMARNA Tesnwrs). Later dates are obtained by attempted rectification of the Chronicle and the King‑list (see AssymA, VI., 1; BABYLoNxA, VI., 1, § 1‑2). As to the length of Hammurabi's reign the two sources just named do not agree, the former assigning him forty‑three years and the latter fifty‑five. The difference is perhaps to be explained by the fact that some of the years had two names .and were counted in the King‑list as separate years. The Chronicle gives an abstract of the events of thirty‑eight years of his reign, the other years being lost.
The sources of knowledge of this king and his reign, besides those mentioned above, are fifty‑five letters written to his vassal Sin‑iddinam of Larsa; directions to various officials; his great inscriptions, ten in number; the prologue and epilogue to his Code; and a long series of business documents of the period. As a result of this mass of material a much clearer view of his times is obtained than of those of any early Babylonian ruler after Naram‑Sin.
The tenor of the earlier documents of his reign and of the prologue and epilogue agree with the implications of the Chronicle that the first part of his reign was passed not in warlike operations but in works defensive, religious, and administrative. These consisted in the building of fortresses and city walls, in the erection and decoration of temples
and providing them with images and 3. His endowments, in building granaries and
Reign.	digging canals (some of them of impor‑
tance, connecting the cities with the great streams), and in locating his people on lands thus reclaimed from the swamps. The change from this kind of activity to operations of war must have taken place about the thirtieth year of his reign, since the Elamite Rim‑Sin ruled in Larsa till that time. It is not likely that the latter was tributary during any part of his rule, for the conflict was sanguinary and apparently final which terminated the Elamitic rule, and Sin‑iddinam was Hammurabi's representative in Larsa thereafter. In succeeding years Hammurabi conducted further and successful operations against Elam, thus removed the great menace to the stability of his kingdom, and left a heritage of peace to his successors. The occupation by the Elamites had been disastrous, since Hammu‑
:. I	~.<,

nammurabi and His Code
THE NEW SCHAFT‑HERZOG
rabi was compelled as a result to collect the scattered folk and preserve them from famine and desolation. By the end of his reign he was king of all Babylonia, Assyria, Martu or Syria, and probably of the region between. The records of the times exhibit him as a wise administrator. The many notes for direction of affairs still extant reveal him discharging with effectiveness and decision the public business. His letters to Sin‑iddina, dealing, with,practical matters of administration, are clear, brief, and to the point. The hearing of causes by him is a fact referred to several times in extant documents. Several of the tablets make evident that the corv6e was in force and thoroughly systematized. The public works were at least in part carried on by forced labbr, and it is known that supplies for the support of the laborers might' be commandeered. That Hammurabi gave a great impulse to literature is much in evidence. It is most likely that the epics which have to do with Marduk were worked over at this time in the interest of the elevation of that god to the supreme place in the pantheon. The religious character of Hammurabi is beyond di:9pute; he was zealous in maintaining the religious institutions and in inculcating respect for the gods. In view of the times it is not surprising that he was deified and that ilu, °° the god," was often prefixed to his name; indeed he calls himself " the divine shelter " of his people. In this connection it is interesting that his name never appears in commercial transactions, purchases being made in his name by his atewardea marked departure from earlier practise. A sentence from one of his inscriptions is worth quoting:
" I am Hammurabi who is to his people as their father, who has made the words of Marduk to be held in reverence,
=triumph on highland and lowland has accomplished; who made glad the heart of Marduk, and has bequeathed prosperity for his people for all time, and proclaimed .order to the land."
The note struck in the above is that which appears in most of his inscriptions, solicitude for the temporal and spiritual welfare of his people and the honor of the gods. But great as Hammurabi was as a creator of empire, as an administrator, as a builder of temples and a redeemer of his land, and as a patron of literature, it is likely that he will henceforth be more famous as the maker of the earliest great code of laws yet known.
1I. The Code * : This exists on a stele of black diorite discovered by Jaques Jean Marie de Morgan at Persepolis Dec.,,1901‑Jan.,1902. It was intended for the temple E‑barra of Shamash at Sippar, and must have been carried away by a later r. Descrip‑ Elamite conqueror of the land. The tion of the stele, when discovered, was in three
	Stele.	fragments which fit together and make
		a tablet ‑with convex surfaces, seven
feet three inches in height, six feet two inches in
width at the bottom and five feet five inches at the
top. At the top of the obverse is a .bas‑relief repre
senting Hammurabi receiving the code from Sha
mash. Immediately underneath is the prologue to
the code, then the code itself, running partly on the

* in the following discussion M is used an the symbol for the Pentateuchal codes, H for the code of Hammurabi, and trite Arabic numerals reer to the sections in the latter.
188
obverse, partly on the reverse, . and finally an epi
logue, making altogether the longest Semitic cunei
form inscription yet known. The inscription was
originally in forty‑nine columns, of which five have
been erased and the surface smoothed, se though
the intention was to substitute an inscription by
the king who captured it. The rest of the text is
intact except for short blanks where the surface is
damaged. The original inscription is estimated to
have contained about 8,000 words in 282 sections,
of which thirty‑five sections were in the erased part,
and of these three have been recovered from other
sources. •A peculiarity of the inscription is that it
is written in horizontal columns so that as the stele
stood it co‑dd be read only by the reader's turning
his head across the body to the left so se to follow
the characters from the low®r side of the columns to
the upper. The stele found was evidently not the
only copy of the code, since a duplicate fragment
of the epilogue was found at Susa and parts of
the code were in Aashurbanipal's library. Indeed,
portions of the cone have been known for years
from fragments found in various places and hard
been assigned on internal grounds by Meissner and
Delitzseh to Hammurabi's times. The verification
of this assignment by the discovery of the code is a
rare testimony to Aseyriological and critical acumen.
	The epilogue states that Ilu (the supreme god)
and Bel, lord of heaven and earth, have entrusted
mankind to Marduk, and have called Hatnmurabi
to ,create justice, to destroy the wicked, and to make
men,happy. Then follows.a statement of Hammu
		rabi's achievements in which he refers
a. Contents three times to war, once to punishment
	of the In‑ of thieves, over a dozen times to
	scription. temples which he has built, restored,
		adorned or endowed, several times
to the digging and clearing of canals, and frequently
to his kindly rule over his people for whom he, like
a shepherd, has carefully provided. Then follows
the code, dealing with witchcraft (1‑2), trials (3‑b),
stealing and retaining lost property (G‑13), kid
napping (14), fugitive slaves (15‑20), burglary
and robbery (21‑26), duties and privileges of a
class of royal officers (26‑41), agriculture, gardening,
and ahelpherding (42‑65). Next comes the erasure,
supposed to have eliminated thirty‑five sections.
The obverse takes up commercial matters, the rela
tions of merchant and agent (100‑107), liquor and
saloon regulations (108‑111), debt and deposit (112
12G). Then a large section (127‑193) deals with
the family as follows: slander, infidelity, violation,
and suspicion of adultery (127‑132), desertion, sep
aration and divorce, remarriage and aoncubinage
(133‑149), woman's property (150‑152), various
crimes of unfaithfulness or incest (153‑158), the
bride's price and dowry, and laws of inheritance
(159‑184), adoption of children (185‑193). Then
follow laws concerning assault (194‑214), physi
cians' fees and responsibilities (215‑227), building
(228‑233), shipping (234‑240), damage and rates of
wages for various kinds of service (241_27?), and
slaves (278‑282). The epilogue follows, in which
the king reasserts his faithfulness to the task en
trusted to hum by Bel and Marduk, that of guarding
the people (" On my heart I fold the people of

137	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Hammurabi and His Code
Sumer and Akkad, in my spirit let them in peace repose "). He has written the stele, he continues, to bestow protection upon the weak, the widow and the orphan, and to further the cause of justice. Future kings are to observe the laws without change and are to receive blessing. The inscription closes with a series of imprecations on the king who shall obliterate, change, or annul the laws: " each day, month by month, may the years of his reign be filled with sighing and tears; as a burden may his royalty be prolonged, a life that is joined to death may God award him as his fate."
H is criminal and civil, prohibitive and prescriptive; it deals with offenses against the State, the person, and property. Novel facts are (1) that it includes among its provisions regulation of rates to be paid for loans of money or material, and establishes prices to be paid for several kinds of merchandise, for labor of various sorts, and for
3. Charac‑ the hire of animals and implements and ter of the boats; (2) that there is no intrusion Legislation of the priestly element. Moreover, H and Pen‑ recognizes and legislates for three alties. grades of society: (1) the Amelu, a word fairly represented by the English word " gentry," who are held to a high responsibility, paying and receiving enhanced consideration in damage cases; (2) Muskenu, " commoners," freemen, yet subject to the corv6e; and (3) Ardu, slaves. Along with this goes the further fact that H legislates also for classes of society: (1) For those holding lands of the crown on a sort of feudal tenure and apparently liable to service, military and civil, probably as underofficers. (2) For votaries of certain deities (Shamash and Marduk are names in the code, but almost certainly the votaries of Sin and Anunit were included, as indicated by sources other than H). To these certain employments and places were interdicted, as the keeping and entering of a beer‑shop. On the other hand they were protected from slander, were evidently respected in the community, and were not prostitutes, as they are so often designated. (3) For keepers of beer‑shops, generally women, who were made responsible for order in their shops, were enjoined to report treasonous talk, and seem to have had the power of arrest. (4) For physicians, evidently not a highly respected class, whose fees are regulated by the patient's social status, while penalties were attached for malpractise or failure. (5) For ‑agriculturists, gardeners, and shepherds, and (6) for various kinds of artisans and laborers duties, fees, wages and penalties are prescribed. The place of justice was the temple or temple gate, and in the temple the records were filed. The order of procedure in cases was first the filing of the briefs, on perusal of which within six months the court heard the case and rendered the decision, which decision might not be reversed by the court hearing it, though the case might be appealed to a higher court or even to the king. The parties to the case plead their own cause, no professional attorneys being in evidence. Where, from the nature of the case, testimony was lacking, the final test was the oath before deity with the death penalty for proved perjury. Litigation was discouraged by penalizing the un‑
successful complainant as heavily as the establishing of his case would have penalized the defendant. Penalties range from fine through multiple payment, mutilation, reduction to slavery, expatriation, death, to death in especially dishonorable form. The cases of fine are of course numerous, as when personal or property damage has been done (106‑109). Multiple payment is prescribed in many cases of trade transaction or fraudulent claim, and the rate varies from double to thirtyfold, ;he last in case of a gentleman stealing from a temple‑if a commoner committed such a theft, the penalty was tenfold restitution or death. Reduction to slavery, equivalent to hard labor for life, followed slander of a votary or a married woman (127). Expatriation was the punishment for incest with a daughter (154). The punishment by mutilation, which often appears in H, was either a case of lex talionis or of punishment by excision of the offending member. In the former case it was eye for eye, etc. (196198). Instances of the latter were loss of hands by the thief (253), by an unskilful surgeon (218), or by a son who struck his father (195); a wet nurse who substituted a changeling lost her breasts (194), a slave who repudiated his master lost his ear (the organ of obedience, 205, 282). The death penalty followed witchcraft or false accusation of it (1, 2), perjury in a capital cause (3), violent entry or theft or receiving goods stolen from mansion or temple (6, 21 ), purchase from unauthorized agents (7), appropriation or selling of things found (9,10 ), making false claim to property (11), kidnapping a free‑born child (14), instigating the flight of a slave (15), harboring a fugitive slave (16) or holding one for personal gain (19), highway robbery (22), neglect of duty by subofiicers (26), permitting disorder in a beer‑shop (109), rape of a betrothed maiden (130), striking and killing a pregnant gentlewoman (209), erasing the brand of slavery (227), defective building, causing the death of the occupant (229), oppression, bribery, misappropriation of public property or persons by magistrates (33‑34). In some cases the death penalty was carried out in a special manner; burning was for looting at a fire (25), for a votary's entering a beer‑shop (110), for incest with a mother (157). Death by drowning was the penalty for cutting the price of beer (109), adultery (129), being a bad wife (143), incest with daughter‑in‑law (155), and deserting a husband's house in his absence (133). Impalement was the punishment for procuring a husband's death (153), dismemberment for failing to keep an agricultural agreement (256). The ordeal (2,132) probably implies death by drowning. Examples of prescriptive measures are those which enabled a man who had suffered from highway robbery or, in case of his death his family, to recover from the governor or the city if the thief were not captured. Thus the responsibility for order was placed on the authorities. Damages were assessed for neglect of various sorts, as, neglect to care for the portion of a canal adjacent to one's property, to herd flocks properly, or to till the whole of a field rented on shares or to till it all properly. Similar prescriptive regulations require that certain commercial operations be conducted in the presence of

HHamm~enbi and His Code	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	138
witnesses under penalty of forfeiture. Such operations as purchase from a minor and deposit of goods or money were illegal if without witnesses.
The position of woman under the law is interesting. Her oath cleared her of the charge of adul‑
tery (131), repudiation by her husband 4. Legal gave her the right to her dowry (137‑
Status of 139), for open contempt of her hus‑
Woman. band she might be reduced to bondage
in her hqsband's house, provided she had been a slack housewife (141); if she had been a good housewife, she might leave him and take her dowry (142), if she were slack and slandered her husband, she was drowned (143). Concubinage was allowed under certain conditions (145); a woman whose husband had under those conditions married again might elect to stay with the husband or to take her marriage portion and go home (148‑149). Property deeded to a wife was hers absolutely (150). By making the agreement at marriage, she could not be seized for a debt contracted before marriage, but she might be held with the husband for one contracted afterward (151‑152). The dowry of a mother went to her children at her death, not to her father (162), but the father of a barren wife received back her dowry less the price paid for her (163‑164). The widow who remained with the family of her husband shared in the property equally with the sons; if she left she took only her dowry (172). A man was bound to support his wife and she to be faithful to him. Hence if he were captured by an enemy and had left for her means of subsistence, she was bound to remain in the home. If he had not done so, she was blameless if she married during his absence. When he came back, she returned to him, and the children followed the father. So a man who expatriated himself from his city could not hold his wife to marital duty.
Study of the code reveals that it was not a thing entirely new. Its provisions are such as would
naturally suggest themselves in a g. The developing civilization; they are often
Laws not the result of conservatism and insist‑
New.	ence on class rights and privileges,
and again as evidently modifications of nomadic custom. Yet the stage of advance is indicated by the facts that the era of blood‑revenge is past and that capital punishment is in the hand of the State except in the two cases of violent entry and looting at a conflagration. Another sign of the advanced stage is the protection afforded both to the person and to property, especially in the case of commercial transactions. The developed law might indeed be expected when it was remembered that the processes of justice were implied as in operation at least 2,300 years earlier, when the name of a judge is given on a tablet. Both Sargon and Naram‑Sin spoke of public justice, and Gudea named courts of law. That the code is gentler than earlier practise appears manifest, its processes and penalties being on the whole less savage than the custom‑code of contemporary peoples. Thus H appears as a register of progress; and this is the more noteworthy when there is taken into account the fact that it is only a code, not a pandect. Many of the provisions have the appearance of being
rather examples of procedure than ample statutes for all possibilities. The general trend of opinion among Assyriologists is that H is but the consequence of the centralization of power by a strong and keen‑eyed systematizer. The same grouping of factors appears in the administration of the empire as in this collection of statutes.
It was inevitable, in view of the discussion of Babylonian influence upon Hebrew life and literature, that as soon as the code was discovered, comparison should be made with M. It 6. Relation was found that a number of laws were to Pentateu‑ almost exact reproductions or parallels, chal Codes. there were many others in which there was an identity of principle but difference in detail of treatment, still others showing sharp contrast in principle and treatment, while whole groups of laws in one are not represented in the other. In accounting for these facts students find themselves in one of three positions. Since H is indisputably the older, if either is.dependent on the other, M must be the derived code. Accordingly some, emphasizing the influence of Babylonia on the West, derived parts of M at a late period from H. Others attribute the similarities in M to transmission from Abraham who had received the laws in Ur. A third view is that the similarities are best explained by regarding both codes as national developments under different environment from a common stock of Semitic custom. A decision is made more difficult because the Hebrew legislation is of at least three different periods, the early kingdom (Ex. xx.‑xxiii. 20), the seventh century B.c. (Deuteronomy), and the Exile or later (the Priest‑Code). Complicating the situation is the brevity of the earliest code, affording but few grounds of comparison. Moreover, the data obtained by comparison of the longer M codes are claimed by all three parties as favoring their individual contentions. Representative facts are, the following:
Correspondence exists in the case of assault upon a betrothed maiden (130; Deut. xxii. 25), of a slave concubine who had borne children (146; Deut. xxi. 14), of adultery with a daughter‑in‑law, betrothed or married (155‑156; Ex. xxii. 16‑17; Lev. xx. 12; Deut. xxii. 28), of false witness (3; Dent. xix. 19), of kidnapping (14; Ex. xxi. 16), witchcraft (1; Ex. xxii. 18), and of violence to a pregnant woman (109‑114; Ex. xxi. 22). The laws of deposit differ only in detail (100‑107; Ex. xxii. 7‑15). Divergences are that according to H a man may pledge his wife, son or daughter for payment of a debt for three years only, in M for six years (117; Ex. xxi. 2; Deut. xv. 12). In H no provision is made for absolute release of a slave pledged for debt; in M there was a jubilee release, though whether that was more than theoretical is one of the debated questions. The careful provisions.in H, on pain of forfeiture, for witnesses to deposits, loans, or property given or entrusted for purposes of trade or in barter or sale are lacking in M (122, 123). The actual ordeal by water is in H alone (2,123), though the oath (which is an ordeal and one of the most common) is used by both. Necessarily a series of prescriptions with reference to lands let on feudal ten‑

RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
8ammuraM and His Code
Samyden
ure is in H alone; similar are those sections which
deal with the features of the country peculiar to
Babylonia, such as the canals and the care of them.
	The probability seems to be in favor, therefore,
of the position that while in the earlier code of M
nothing beyond the most general influence of Baby
lonian culture is evident, in the later codes that
influence was intensified; but direct borrowing is
yet to be shown as the true solution of the agree
ments. Indeed the later codes of M seem to show
a knowledge of H or its equivalent of the time by
avoiding the specific treatment and substituting
that more in accordance, with its own genius. The
correspondences are as close, though not as nu
merous, in the earliest code of M, where the theory
of direct borrowing is hardly tenable. The agree
ment of the later codes of M with H are generally
of the same kind as that of the earliest and in the
same class of cases. 	GEO. W. GmnsoRm

BIBLIOGRAPHY: On Hammurabi, beside the literature given under BABYLONIA, consult: L. W. King, Letters and Inwriptiona of Hammurabi, 3 vols., London, 1898‑1901 (vol. iii. is the translation; as a source this series of letters is of the first rank); M. W. Montgomery, Bride aus der Zeit des . . . Hammurabi, Leipsic, 1901; G. Nagel, Die Bride Hammurabia an Sin‑iddinam, in BeW4ge cur Assyriolopie, iv. 434‑483, Leipsic, 1902; T. G. Pinches, The Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records of Assyria and Babylonia, London, 1902; W. St. C. Boseawen, First of Empires, pp. 162‑263, ib. 1903 (has also a tranal. and study of the Code); D. H. Miiller, in Zeitschrift far die %unde des Morgenlandee, xvii (1903‑04), 337‑342; W. H. Ward, Who was Hammurabif in The Century, lxvi (1903), 454‑460.
The literature on the Code is voluminous, the following are the most important contributions: V. Scheil, D& Uyation en Pores. MEmoiree publics sous la direction de M. J. de Morgan, vol. iv., Textes _*lamitiquss‑s6mitiques, deuxi~me s&ie, Paris, 1902 (the editio princeps of the Code, in photogravure, transliteration and translation; a magnificent volume); idem, La Loi de Hammourabi, ib. 1903; S. A. Cook, Laws of Moses and the Code of HammuraN, London, 1903 (full, but lacks the desideratum of clearness); H. Grimme, Das Geseb Chammurabis and Moses, Cologne, 1903, Eng. tranel., London, 1907; J. Jeremiae, Moses and Hammurabi, Leipsic, 1903 (notes connections of the codes); C. W. H. Johns, Oldest Code of Laws in the World, Edinburgh, 1903 (very brief); E. KSnig, in Die Grenzboten, lxii (1903), 59703; S. Oettli, Das Gesetz Hammurabis and die Thora, Leipsic, 1903; H. Winekler, in Der Alto Orient, ib. 1903 (with brief notes); idem, Die Gesetze Hammurabis in Umechrift and Ueberaetzung, Leipeie, 1904; R. D. Wilson, in Princeton Theological Review, Apr., 1903, pp. 239‑255 (philological); Dareste, in Journal des Savants, 1903, pp. 517‑528, 586596; R. F. Harper, Code of Hammurabi . . autographed Text, Transliteration, Glossary, Index, . , • Chicago, 1904 (as a source second only to Scheil's edition); E. Bests, in Rivista IM. de sociologica, viii (1904), 179‑236; S. Daichee, in Zeitachrift far Asayriolegie, xviii (1904), 202222; D. O. Dykes, in Juridical Review, xvi (1904), 7285 (from a lawyer's point of view); C. Edwards, The Hammurabi Code and the Sinaitie Legislation, London, 1904; A. H. Godbey, in Reformed Church Review, viii (1904), 469; D. G. Lyon, in JAGS, xxv. (1904'), part 2, pp. 248‑274; G. E. Vincent, in American Journal et Sociology, ix (1904), 737‑754; P. Berger, in Grande Revue, 1905, vol ii. 23‑48; Hammurabi and Moses, Cincinnati, 1905; O.,B. Jenkins, in American Law Review, xxxix (1905), 330‑341; J. A. Kelso, in Princeton Theological Review, iii. (1905), 399‑412; W. T. Pilter, The Law of Hammurabi and of Moses, London, 1907; M. Schorr, Altbabylonische Rechtsurkunden aus der Zeit der eraten babylonischen Dynastic (2800‑2100 B.C.), Vienna, 1907; M. Flugel, The Humanity, Benevolence, and Charity Legislation of the Pentateuch and the Talmud in Parallel with the Laws of Hammurabi, the Doctrine of Egypt, the Roman %11 Tables, and Modern Codes, Baltimore, 1908; C.
M. Cobern, in Methodist Review, da:xvi. 696‑703; G. Cohn, Gesetw Hammurabia, Zurich, 1903 (compares the Code with the old German laws); MOller, in Jahresbericht der iaraeY itisch‑theologiachen Lehrarbdalt, Vienna, 1903 (compares the Code with the twelve Roman tables). An excellent discussion by C. H. W. Johns may be found in DB, extra vol., pp. 584‑612. Further literature is given in C. F. Kent, Student's Old Testament, iv. 280, New York, 1907.
HAMON, JEAN: French physician and moralist; b. at Cherbourg 1618; d. at Port Royal Feb. 22, 1687. He studied medicine in Paris and quickly attained a prominent position in his profession. In 1651 he sold all his property, except his books, distributed the proceeds among the poor, and sought a life of penitence and solitude at Port Royal. He continued the practise of his profession among the poor of the country, administering to them both medicine and spiritual advice. He wrote a number of works, of which the most important are: Traitds de piiW (2 vols., Paris, 1675); Sur la pri&e et lee devoirs des paateurs (2 vols., 1689); Pratique de la pri&e continuelle (1702); and Explication du Cantiqlte des Cantiques (4 vols., 1708).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The most complete Life is in J. Beeoigne, Histoire de 1'abbaye de Port Royal, vol. iv., 6 vole., Paris, 1752‑53. Consult also: Charles Beard, Port Royal, ii. 423 aqq., London, 1861; Lichtenberger, ESR, vi. 78‑‑80.
HAMPDEN, RENN DICKSON: Bishop of Hereford; b. in Barbados Mar. 29, 1793; d. in London Apr. 23, 1868. He was sent to England in 1798 and entrusted to the care of the Rev. M. Rowlandson, vicar of Warminster, Wiltshire, by whom he was educated till 1810, when he entered Oriel College, Oxford (B.A., 1814; M.A., 1816; B.D. and D.D., 1833). At Oriel, where he became a fellow in 1814, Thomas Arnold and Richard Whately were among his intimate friends, and Keble, Pusey, and Hawkins were among his colleagues. After his ordination in 1816 he filled in succession the curacies of Newton, Blaydon, Faringdon, Hungerford, and Haley. Afterward he engaged in literary pursuits in London. He was appointed tutor in Oriel College in 1828, principal of St. Mary's Hall in 1833, professor of moral philosophy in 1834, and in 1836 canon of Christ Church and regius professor of divinity. Owing to alleged heretical views expressed by Hampden in his Bampton lectures in 1832 this last appointment was bitterly opposed by the High‑church party. The main point urged against him was his statement that the authority of the Scriptures is of greater weight than the authority of the Church. During the ensuing controversy some forty‑five books or pamphlets were published. As regius professor he held the living. of Ewelme from 1836 to 1847. On Dec. 28, 1847, he was elected bishop of Hereford, and was consecrated on Mar. 26, 1848, despite the remonstrance of,thirtsen bishops. He led an exemplary life, and in no way did he ever refer to the attacks of which he was the object. Aside from his sermons and charges his principal works are: An Essay on the Philosophical Evidence of Christianity (London, 1827); The Scholastic Philosophy Considered in its Relation to Christian Theology (Oxford, 1833), Bampton lectures for 1832; and The Fathers of Greek Philosophy (1862).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Henrietta Hampden, Some Memorials of R. D. Hampden, London, 1871 (by his daughter); G. V.

Hampton Court Conference Handicrafts, Hebrew
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Cox, Recollections of Oxford, pp. 284‑271, ib. 1871; T. Motley, Reminiscences, chiefly of Oriel College, pp. 850386, ib. 1882; DNB, xxiv. 264‑286.
HAMPTON COURT CONFERENCE: A meeting called by James I. of England at Hampton Court Palace (15 m. w.s.w. of London) in 1604 for the discussion of differences between the Puritans and the High‑church party. It was occasioned by certain petitions from the Puritans, particularly the " Millenary Petition " (q.v.), which was presented to James while he was on the way to London in Apr., 1603. The conference met on Jan. 14, 16, and 18. James, who presided, was supported by Archbishop Whitgift, eight bishops, seven deans, and two other clergy. The petitioners were represented by four Puritans of moderate views, John Reynolds, president of Corpus Christi College, Oxford; Laurence Chaderton, master of Emmanuel College, Cambridge; Thomas Sparks and John Knewetubs, ‑all of James's own selection. After the king had spent the first day in the discussion of various topics with his supporters, the four Puritan representatives were admitted to the second day's conference, and Reynolds, as spokesman, was allowed to present their grievances. He brought forward four headings: (1) purity of doctrine; (2) the ministry; (3) the reform of church government, and (4) the amendment of the Book of Common Prayer. He asked the incorporation of the nine Lambeth Articles (q.v.) with the Thirty‑Nine Articles, demanded an enlargement of the catechism and a new translation of the Bible, presented the objections of the Puritans to the Book of Common Prayer, and insisted on the need of a preaching ministry. When he came to speak of disciplinary questions an unfortunate use of the word " presbytery " threw James into such a rage that he broke up the conference for the day. On the third day of the conference James met his clergy, with whom were now associated the leading ecclesiastical lawyers, and later called in the Puritan representatives to hear his decision. The old ceremonies were to continue; there was to be no provision for a preaching ministry; and the existing church order was to be upheld. The following changes‑very unsatisfactory to the Puritans‑were made in the Prayer‑book: mention of baptizing of infants by women was omitted; in the rubric of absolution was inserted " remission of sins "; confirmation was termed " laying on of hands "; all the thanksgivings, except the general one, were inserted; to the catechism was annexed the whole of the latter portion relative to the two sacraments; and some words were altered in the lessons. Reynolds' request for anew translation of the Bible bore fruit in the so‑called Authorized Version, by far the most important result of the conference. See PuluTAxs, PinelTAlvlsM, 1 15.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Fuller, Church Hist. of Britain, book x., section i., London, 1837; W. Clark, The Anglican Re%rmation, pp 364 sqq, New York, 1897; J. H. Overton, The Church in England, ii. 4 sqq., ib. 1897; W. H Frere, The English Church (1668‑1686), pp. 198 sqq, ib. 1904; F. Procter and W. H. Frere A New Hiat. of the Book o/ Common Prayer, pp. 137‑140 et passim, ib. 1305.
HANDELI GEORGE FREDERICK (properly GEORG FRIEDRICH HAENDEL): Musician and composer; b. at Halls, Prussia, Feb. 23, 1685; d. in
140
London Apr. 14, 1759. At the age of seven he was a skilful performer on the piano and organ, and at nine he began to compose music. In 1702, in obedience to his father's wishes, he began the study of law at the University of Halle, but the following year he abandoned law for music and accepted a position as violinist in the orchestra of the operahouse at Hamburg. Here his first two operas, Almira and Nero, were produced early in 1705. Two other early operas, Daphne and Florindo, were produced at Hamburg in 1708. During the years 1707‑09 Handel traveled and studied in Italy. His Rodrigo was produced at Florence in 1707, and his Agrippina at Venice in 1708. Two oratorios, La Resurrezione and ll Trionfo del Tempo, were produced at Rome in 1709 and 1710, respectively. In 1710 Handel became Kapellmeister to George, elector of Hanover, afterward George I. of England. He visited London in 1710 and settled there per‑
t	manently in 1712, receiving a yearly income of £200 from Queen Anne. He was director of the Royal Academy of Music 1720‑28, and a partner of J. J. Heidegger in the management of the King's Theatre 1729‑34. He gave up operatic management entirely in 1740, after he had lost a fortune in the business. In 1751 he became blind. He was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Handel's compositions include some fifty operas, twenty‑three oratorios, and a large amount of church music, not to speak of his instrumental pieces. Though his operas were superior to those of his contemporaries, they have now been sup6rseded and largely forgotten, with the exception of certain detached arias. It is upon his oratorios that his fame rests. It was his peculiar service to create and perfect the oratorio; and in this field he is still supreme. His best known oratorios are: Esther (1720); Saul (1739); Israel in Egypt (1739); The Messiah (1742); Samson (1743); Judas Maccabceus (1747); and Jephthah (1752). His works were edited by S. Arnold (40 vole., London, 1786), and more recently by F. Chrysander, for the German Handel‑Gesellschaft (100 vols., Leipsic, 1859‑94). See Music, SACRED.
BIBLIOa8APH7: The best early biography is by J Mainwaring, Memoirs of the Life of . . . George Frederick Hander, London 1760. Consult further: W. S. Rocketro, Life of Handel ed. G. Grove, London, 1883; E. B. B. Ramsay, Lachaw on the Genius of Handel, ib. 1862; F. Crowest The Great Tone Poets, ib. 1881; A. Reise. Georg Friedrich Handel, sein Leben and seine Works, Berlin, 1882; Mrs. J. Marshall, Handel in Great Musicians Series, London, 1883; C. E. Bourne, The Great Composers, ib. 1888; J. C. Hadden, Handel, ib. 1888; L. Engel, From Handel to Hall, ib. 1890; J. F. Rowbotham Private Life of the Great Composers, New York, 1893; F. Volbach, Georg Friedrich Handel, Berlin, 1898; C. L. A. Williams, Handel, London, 1901; W. H. Cummings, Handel, ib. 1904; S. Taylor, The Indebtedness of Handel to Wors of Other Composers, Cambridge, 1908.

HANDICRAFTS, HEBREW.
The Beginnings Q 1) 	Pottery U 5)
Developed by City Life. Gilds The Stone‑Cutter (§ 6).
Metal Working (¢ 3).	W Carpenter (§ 7).
	Weaving (¢ 8).
The Goldsmith (§ 4). 	Other Trades (¢ 9).
Handicraft was for the ancients a gift of God like all other knowledge, so that the Israelites naturally placed its origin in the very earliest ages of hu‑

manity (Gen. iv. 17, 22). In the Code of Ham
murabi (see	HAmmuRABi "D His CODE) mention
	is made of fully developed gilds in
i. The Babylonia, and doubtless Syria and
Begin‑	Palestine also possessed them. It is
	nings.	probable that the Israelites, however,
		in their nomadic period had only the
most elementary knowledge of, perhaps, metal
working and the dressing of leather. The later
theory according, to which the Israelites in the
time of their wanderings in the desert were already
skilled craftsmen (Ex. xxv. and following chapters)
is altogether erroneous. Even after their settle
ment in Palestine their progress in this respect was
slow. Baking, spinning, weaving, and the sewing
of garments were for a long time the work of the
housewife; the husband knew how to tan leather
and to make leather bottles, sandals, and straps;
he could also build his simple dwelling and carve
his wooden tools. Only metal‑working and pottery
appear to have been special trades from the earliest
times.
With the consolidation of the kingdom of Israel under David and Solomon, the Israelites gained access to the cities of the Canaanites 2. Developed and became familiar with their civiby City Life. lization. Greater prosperity naturally
	Gilds.	brought greater requirements, and
		special trades were developed for their
satisfaction. Above all city life both required and
permitted a specialization of labor. In the cities
the artisans were grouped together in the bazaars
according to their trades. In the rural districts the
artisan went from place to place in the exercise of
his trade. The maker of agricultural implements
wandered from village to village; the goldsmith
went to the house of his customer; the armorer
always traveled about. The gathering of the work
men in gilds and the transmission of their art
from father to son took place in the same way as in
Babylonia; the organization was that of the family.
In the time of Nehemiah the gilds were put upon the
same plane as the great families (Neh. iii. 8). The
First Book of Chronicles (iv. 14, 21, 23) names the
gilds of the carpenters, byssus‑weavers, and potters,
who lived in separate localities. Usually people of
the same trade lived in the same place‑potters in
Gaza"and Ramleh; soap‑boilers in Nablus.
Metal‑working was already well known to the Babylonians about 3000 s.c. Their weapons were always of bronze or of copper, hard‑
3. Metal‑ ened by an alloy of tin. Since copper
	Working.	is found in Lebanon and was brought
		thence to the Babylonians, it is not
surprising that bronze arrow‑ and lace‑heads,
axes, knives, chisels, and nails, dating from about
2000 B.c. and later, have been found in Gaza, Me
giddo, and Taanach. Iron, on the other hand, was
known to the Canaanites and Babylonians only
from about 1000 B.c., and it only gradually took
the place of bronze. When the " iron " chariots
of the Canaanites are mentioned, the writer had in
mind the conditions of his own time; chariots
sheathed with bronze must be meant. According
to the results of the excavations and to the Biblical
accounts, bronze was the metal most in use during
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hampton Court Conferenoe Handicrafts, Hebrew
the earlier years of the monarchy. Helmet, shield, breast‑plate, greaves, and sword are of bronze (I Sam. xvii. 5‑7; II Sam. xxii. 35). Goliath's iron spear‑head is remarked as something unusual (I Sam. xvii. 7). Only later is there frequent mention of iron, as of doors sheathed with iron and iron bolts (Isa. xlv. 2), breast‑plates (Job xx. 24), axes, and hatchets (Deut. xix. 5, xxvii. 5). The ore came from Lebanon (cf. Jer. xv. 12), and furnaces for its smelting are mentioned (Deut. iv. 20; Jer. xi. 4; I Kings viii. 51). The Israelites did not advance as far as the casting of iron. For artistic work only bronze was used (cf. the vessels of Solomon's Temple, I Kings vii. 13 eqq.).
The Phenicians always had a, kind of monopoly of the fabrication of vases, dishes, etc., and it can
not be determined in the case of such 4. The Gold‑ objects whether they were made by
	smith.	the Israelites or were brought from
		Phenicia. The same may be said of
ornaments and other objects made of the precious
metals. The goldsmith (zoreph) is often mentioned.
That the people were familiar with his work is
shown by the metaphors referring to this craft used
by the prophets, such as the melting of gold in the
crucible, its purification with alkaline salt (bor, Isa.
i. 25), soldering (Isa. xli. 7), polishing, and the like.
Hammer and anvil, tongs and chisel, crucible and
bellows, and especially the graver are the gold
smith's tools. The art of appliqud in gold was in
great favor. Idols formed of wood or metal and
overlaid with gold were much fancied (Isa. xxx. 22;
II Hings :viii. 16). The golden calves of Dan and
Bethel were probably made in this style (I Kings xii.
28). Fine gold thread was also produced to be in
terwoven in costly garments (Ex. xxviii. 6). Gold
was brought from southern Arabia (Ophir, Havilah,
etc.) by the Sabeana (Ezek. xxvii. 22).
Information concerning the potter's art is quite full through the rich results of the excavations at
Tell el‑Hesy. From about 1400 B.c. 5. Pottery. can be traced the influence exercised
by the art of Mycenee, through the medium of Phenicians from Cyprus, upon the rude art of the Canaanites. This appears in the engraved and stamped patterns, consisting of wave lines, crosses, straight lines, curves, etc., and also in the painted decorations in the style of,,Mycenw; geometric figures (circles, wave lines, etc.) and representations of birds and ibexes, all executed in the very best manner. In the early Israelitic period Phenician influence is dominant both in the form and in the style of decoration. Later, about 700 B.c., Greek influence asserts itself and brilliant yellowish‑brown or black ware is found, usually decorated with concentric circles. It is, of course, difficult to determine what was made by the Israelites in their villages and what was brought in by Phenician merchants, but it is known that the Israelites quickly assimilated this art. The prophets took their metaphors from the potter's art, and they speak of kneading the clay (Jer.xviii.6),which was trodden by the feet (Isa. xli. 25), and of the potter's wheel, upon which the vessel was formed (Jer. xviii. 3). This wheel, as its name (obhnayim, dual) indicates, consisted of two disks, which re‑

Handicrafts. $e1reW Hannington
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
volved one above the other. It was worked by the feet (Ecclus. xxxviii. 29).
The stone‑cutter (hhdrash ebhen) was also a builder. He undertook the entire construction of the house.
As is shown by the excavations, the 6. The dwelling‑houses were always small Stone‑ huts, with walls made of mud‑bricks
Cutter. or of unhewn stones roughly built up;
even in the principal cities walls built of hewn stones were rare. As tools of the stonecutter, in addition to the hammer and chisel, the level (II Kings xxi. 13; Heb. mish4xleth, Eng. versions, " line "), the line (Isa. xxviii. 17, and elsewhere), and the plummet (Amos vii. 7) are mentioned.
The carpenter (1 Crash `e;) is entrusted with the fabrication of all wooden articles for the household,
and also plows, threshing‑carts, win7. The Car‑ nowing‑shovels, and the like. Some
penter. were able to execute fine work and
carved images of the gods (cf. Isa. xl. 20, xliv.13‑14). They worked with saws (Isa. x.15), axes, and hatchets (Deut. xix. 5), planes (Isa. xliv. 13), hammers (Isa. xliv.12), and compasses (Isa. xliv. 13); line and rule are also mentioned (Isa. xliv. 13).
Weaving was mostly done at home; finer fabrics were brought from abroad. The oldest method of
weaving is still used by the Bedouins; 8. Weaving. threads are stretched lengthwise along
the ground and the cross‑thread is pushed through with the fingers; the web is pushed together with a wooden reed. The Egyptians had two kinds of looms, and they were also known in Palestine. In the Middle Empire the loom is horizontal, the beams are fastened to the ground, and the weavers crouch down in working. This kind of loom is suggested in the story of Samson, where Delilah weaves his hair into the warp while he sleeps (Judges xvi. 13‑14). In the New Empire the loom is upright; above and below are Stationary beams; the weavers stood and wove from the bottom upward. Greek sources present a third kind of loom, in which the long threads of the warp hung from a beam above, held taut by stones attached to the ends; in this loom the weaving was from above downward. Many such stones have been found in the excavations, and suffice to show that this type of loom existed in Palestine. As early as ancient Egyptian looms, the shifting of the even and uneven threads of the warp, which must lie alternately above and below the woof, was accomplished as follows: the uneven threads were bound by strings to a stick so that they could be lifted up together; the thread of the woof was fastened to another stick and pushed through the warp. How early the shuttle (Job vii. 6) came into use, is not known. Variegated garments, striped or checked, were admired by the Israelites and in Syria generally.
It is only by chance that the tanners and dyers are not mentioned among other artisans in the Old
Testament. Bakers are found only in 9. Other the cities, in the country baking being
Trades. done at home. The fullers have a cer‑
tain importance, but also a bad repute. They made woolen fabrics waterproof by felting the wool and also cleaned old clothes. They were forced
142
to exercise their trade outside of the city of Jerusalem on account of the bad odors produced and because a good supply of water was needed (Isa. vii. 3).
1. BENZINGER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Delitzsch, Jadiechea Handwerkerleben
our Zeit Jesu, Erlangen, 1875, Eng. transl., Jewish Artisan
Lift, London, 1877, Philadelphia 1883, New York, 1883;
H.	Winckler, in Alttestamentliche Forschungen, eipsic,
1892• P. Rieger, Verauch einer Tschnologis and Termi
nologie der Handwerke in der Misnah, Berlin, 1894; E.
Day, Social Life of the Hebrews New York, 1901; DB,
iv. 807; ED, articles " Handicrafts," •• Metals," •` Pot
	„ .. Weaving."
HANDS, IMPOSITION OF; LAYING ON OF. See LAYING ON OF HANDS.
	HANER, hd'ner, JOHANN: Humanist; b. at
Nuremberg, date not known; d. at Bamberg c.1544.
He probably studied at Ingolstadt, and must have
been known in certain circles as a humanist by
1517. He gave personal advice to Leo X. in regard
to the Lutheran cause, and in 1524 addressed a letter
to Clement VII. recommending certain slight eccle
siastical reforms, in the manner of Erasmus. One
month later he urged Erasmus to come forward in
behalf of the threatened Church, but his addresses
seem to have made no impression. In 1525 he
became preacher of the cathedral church in Wilrz
burg, but his leanings toward the Reformation soon
compelled him to leave. As he had started from
Erasmus, he was more inclined toward Zwingli than
toward Luther. He attempted to bring about a
reconciliation on the question of the Lord's Supper.
At the Diet of Speyer in 1526 he became acquainted
with Landgrave Philip, who took him into his serv
ice. After giving up his position at Wili‑zburg, he
returned to Nuremberg and received a small prebend
there; but in consequence of mortified ambition,
dissatisfaction with the condition of the church in
Nuremberg, and deficient knowledge of the Lutheran
doctrine of justification, he went, in 1532, to Regens
burg and reentered the Roman Catholic Church. In
1533 he sent to Landgrave Philip and George of Sax
ony a manuscript treatise, directed against the Evan
gelical doctrine of justification, Prophetia tutus ac
nova hoc at, vera scriyturle interpretatio. De syneera
cognitione Christi, which Cochlmus published in 1534
against the will of the author. Haner was answered
by Thomas Venatorius, preacher of Nuremberg, in
his De sola fide iusti fieante nos in oculis dei (1534;
reprinted 1556). In the beginning of 1535 Haner
had to leave Nuremberg and went to Bamberg,
where he was accepted as preacher of the cathedral
church late in 1541. In 1535 he sent a treatise on
the council to Vergerio and in 1537 made new
propositions to the pope. In 1539 he published in
Leipsie Theses Joannis Haneri Noribergensis de
pwnitmtia, in which he attacked Luther and tried
to influence the antinomian controversy (see ANTI
NOMIANISM AND ANTINOMIAN CONTROVERSIES, II).
		(T. KGLDE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. J. 1. von D811inger, Reformation, i. 130 eqq., Regensburg, 1851; idem, Beitrage zur politiaden, kirchdichen and Kulturpeschichte der seeks letzten Jahrhunderte, iii. 105 sqq., Vienna, 1882; F. F. von Soden, Beetrape zurGesehichte der Reformation, p.354, Nuremberg, 1855; A. Baur, Zwinplis Theolopie, ii. 418 sqq., Halle, 1889; W. Friedensburg, in Beitrdpe zur baYereschen Kircheweschiehte, v. (1899) 167. Prof. Kolde purposes to write a biography.

143	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA		dicrafte, Hebrew
		Hannington
	HANNA, WILLIAM: Free Church of Scotland;
b. at Belfast, Ireland, Nov. 26, 1808; d. in London
May 24, 1882. He was educated at the universities
of Glasgow and Edinburgh, was ordained pastor of
the parish of East Kilbride, near Glasgow, in 1835,
and was translated to the parish of Skirling, Peeble
ahire, in 1837. He was an active supporter of
Thomas Chalmers in the ecclesiastical controversy
of the time; and at the disruption of 1843 he joined
the Free Church, taking his entire congregation
with him. In 1847 he was entrusted with the prep
aration of the official life of Chalmers, and in the
same year he was appointed editor of the North
British Review. In 1850 he became the colleague
of Thomas Guthrie (q.v.) in the St. John's Free
Church, Edinburgh, where he preached to many
devoted hearers till his retirement in 1866. His
principal works are Memoirs of the Life and Writings
of Thomas Chalmers (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1849‑52);
Wycliffe and the Huguenots (1860); and Our Lord's
Life on Earth (6 vols., 1869). He edited The Pos
thumous Works of Thomas Chalmer: (9 vols., 1847
1849); also A Selection from the Correspondence of
Thomas Chalmers (1853); and the Letters of Thomas
Erskine o f Linlathen (2 vols.,1877).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: DNB, asv. 300‑301.
	HANNAH (Hebr. Hannah, "grace, winsomeness ")
A Hebrew feminine name, occurring in the Bible
and Apocrypha in three instances: (1) The mother
of the prophet Samuel (q.v.). (2) The wife of
Tobit, of the tribe of Nephthali (Tobit i.9). Ac
cording to the Vulgate the wife of Raguel bears the
same name (Tobit vii. 2, 8, 14, 16, viii. 12; LXX.,
Edna). (3) A"prophetess" of the tribe of Asher
(Luke ii. 36‑38, where the English versions repro
duce the Greek form Anna). It is said in praise
of her that after seven years in marriage she had
continued in widowhood to her eighty‑fourth year.
Being at all times ready and receptive for divine
revelations, she could draw near, like Simeon, at
the right hour to greet in the infant Jesus the Re
deemer of Israel, prefiguring the widows described
in I Tim. v. 5.	ARNOLn RZfEQ(i.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: DB, ii. 299; JE, vi. 219‑220, and the litera
	ture cited under SAMUEL.
	HANNAH, JOSEPH ADDISON: Church of Eng
land; b. at Warrington (15 m. e. of Liverpool),
Lancashire, Dec. 1, 1867. He was educated at
Queen's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1890), and, after
being assistant master at Warrington Grammar
school in 1890‑91, was ordered deacon in 1892, and
ordained priest in the following year. He was
chaplain and tutor in St. John's College, Battersea
(1892‑95 ),and since 1895 has been principal of
the Norwich and Ely Diocesan Training College at
Norwich.
	HANRE, h8n'e, JOHAftN WII,HELM:German Prot
estant; b. at Harber (near Liineburg, 68 m. n.n.e.
of Hanover) Dec. 29, 1813; d. at Eppendorf (a sub
urb of Hamburg) Nov. 21,1889. He attended gym
nasiums at Hildesheim and Brunswick, and the uni
versities of GSttingen, Halls, and Berlin, receiving
his degree of Ph.D. from Jena in 1840, after having
devoted three years to private patristic studies at
Wolfenbiittel. From 1840 to 1848 he was at Brunswick, where he incurred the enmity of the rationalistic clergy of the city, who succeeded in debarring him from position after position, so that, in 1851, he was compelled to accept a country pastorate at the Hanoverian village of Betheln. He removed to a similar position at Salzhemmendorf in 1854. His fortune changed, however, in 1861, when he was called to Greifswald as pastor of St. James's and also as professor of practical theology at the university of the same city. He retained these positions until his retirement from active life in 1886, after which he spent the remainder of his life at Eppendorf.
Hanne's theological position was essentially positive, although his poetic.and philosophical tendencies brought him into frequent conflict with the strictly orthodox as well as with the rationalists. At a later period he entered the Protestantenverein, but in his concluding years he maintained a distinctly irenic attitude, particularly toward younger colleagues whose views differed essentially from his own. His writings comprise the following works:
	Rationaliamua and speculative Theolopte in Braunschweig
(Brunswick, 1838); Featreden an Gebaldete 41xr daa Weaen
ilea chriatLschen Glau6ena, %nbeaondere caber das VerhSltnia den
peach%chtZichenPeraon Christi scar Ides dee ChriatenEuma (1839):
Friedrich Schleiennacher ale relipro6eer Genius Deutachlanda
(1840); Sokratea ala Genius den Humaniffit (1841); Den
moderns Nih%Zatmua and die Strauaa'eche Glaubertalehre im
Verhiiltn%a our Ides den chriaUiehen Religion (Bielefeld, 1842);
Anti‑orthodox, oiler gepen BuchatabendienaE and P/aJjentum
and for den freien Geist den HumanitZst and ilea Chriatentuma
(Brunswick, 1848); Der freie Glaube in Xampf mrot den the
ologiadven Halbhe%dett unarer Tags (1848); ReZigiBae Mahn
unpen zur Siihne (1848); Yorhbfe sun Glauben, oiler daa
blunder ilea Chriatentuma %m Einklanpe mit Yernuntt and
Natur (3 parts, Jena, 1850‑51); Zeitapsepelungen (Hanover,
1852); Bekenntniaae, oiler drei BUCher vom Glauben (1881);
Die Ides den abaoluten PeraiinZichkeit, oiler Gott and aein Yar
httltnie scar Welt, inbeaondere zur menachlichen PeraonlicJr
ke%t (2 vols., 1861‑82): Die Zeit den deutachen Freiheita
kriepe in ihrer Bedeutung ffir die Zukunft ilea Reichea Gotten
and minor Gerechtipkeit (1883); Anti‑Henpatenberg (Elber
feld, 1887); Der Geist ilea Chriatentuma (1887); Die chriah
lithe Kirdu naeh ihrer Steldunp and Aufpabe sin Reichs den
Sittlielakait (Berlin, 1888); and Die Kirche im neuen Reiche
(1s71). 	(O. ZSc$LExt.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: His own Drei BiirJvar room Glauben, pp. 79
122, Hanover, 1885, contains autobiographical material.
HANNIlYGTOft, JAMES: Anglican missionary bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa; b. at Hurstpierpoint (8 m. from Brighton), England, Sept. 3, 1847; d. in Uganda, Africa, Oct. 29, 1885. He studied at St. Mary's Hall, Oxford (B.A., 1873; M.A., 1875; D.D., 1884); was ordained deacon and became curate at Martinhoe and Trentishoe 1874, and of St. George's, Huratpierpoint, 1875; was ordained priest 1876. In 1882 he offered himself to the Church Missionary Society for the Central Africa mission at Rubaga for a period of five years, was accepted, and reached Msahlla on the Victoria, Nyanza the same year, when a severe illness compelled his return. He resumed his duties at Hurstpierpoint but in 1884 was offered the bishopric named above, then newly created, accepted it, was consecrated June 24, 1884, and sailed the same year, reaching Mombasa Jan. 24, 1885. He determined to open up a new road by a healthier route through

Hanover
Hardenberg
the Masai country to Lake Victoria, Nyanza, which he reached Oct. 17. This approach from a new direction alarmed the natives, who feared encroachments from the whites, and the bishop and his company were seized by Chief Mwanga of Uganda, on Oct. 21, and were put to death eight days later.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. C. Dawson, James Hannington, First Bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa, London, 1887; DNB, xxiv. 307‑308.
HANOVER. See PRussIA.
HANSIZ, hdn'sits, MARCUS: Jesuit church historian; b. near V61kermarkt (47 m. s.w. of Graz), Carinthia, Apr. 23, 1683; d. at Vienna Sept. 5,1766. He was educated at Eberndorf and Vienna, and became a teacher of philqsophy and history, first at Graz and later at various other places. Inspired by special histories of the Church in France, Italy, and England, he began a comprehensive Germania sacra, commencing with the history of the church at Lorch the diocese of Passau, and the archbishopric of Salzburg, which formed the first two volumes (Augsburg, 1727‑29). After 1731 he occupied himself partly with minor works and partly with the collection of materials for the third volume of his great work, which was designed to comprise the history of the diocese of Regensburg, as well as with gathering data for the bishoprics of Vienna, Neustadt, Seckau Gu rk, Lavant, and the history of Carinthia. He was able, however, to publish only the introduction to this volume (Vienna, 1754), for the controversy in which his researches involved him with the canons of St. Emmeram led him to retire from all literary activity. Nevertheless, his interest in the work was unabated until his death. After his decease appeared his Analecta pro hiBtorid Carinthite (Klagenfurt, 1872). Even in its fragmentary state, the Germania sacra forms a noteworthy product of German industry and a valuable preliminary for the history of Germany and its Church; and its author was characterized not only by learning, diligence, and perspicuity, but also by love of truth and historical critical ability.
(O. ZSCKLERt.)
B133LIOGRAPHY: A. and A. de Backer Aerivains de la compapnie de JEsus, ii. 285, 7 vols., Lidge, 1853‑B1; H. Hur. ter, Nomenclator literarius recentioris theologise catholic, iii. 109‑111, Innsbruck, 1883.

HAPAX LEGOMENOft or EIREMENON (Gk. " Once said " or " spoken ") : An expression used in exegetical or text‑critical works signifying that the word, phrase, 9r combination is not known to exist elsewhere, or at least is singular in the book or author under discussion.

HAPHTARAH, haf‑ta'rd (" conclusion," pl. HaplN faroth): Reading lessons or paragraphs taken from the Prophets, read after the Law in the morning services of the synagogues on Sabbaths and feastdays, and in the afternoon services on fast‑days. The passage chosen has some relation, which, however, is often very indirect, to the section previously read from the Law. See BIBLE TExT, I., 2, 1 2; SYNAGOGUE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. A. Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, p. 179, New York, 1899.
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
144
RAPPER, ANDREW PATTON:, Presbyterian; b. near Monongahela City, Penn., Oct. 20, 1818; d. at Wooster, O., Oct. 27, 1894. He was graduated at Jefferson College, Canonsburg, Pa., 1835, at Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa., 1843, and in medicine at the University of Pennsylvania 1844. In 1844 he became a missionary of the Presbyterian Church in Canton, China. While on a visit to America in 1885‑86 he raised funds to establish the Christian College of China, now the Canton Christian College at Honglok opposite the city of Canton. In 1891 he returned to America to live.

	HAPPINESS: This is not a simple sensation, like
the enjoyment of a piece of good fortune; it is rather
a state of complete satisfaction; again, it is not,
like bliss, a part of some other‑worldly good, and
therefore to find its realization in the other life;
it rather belongs to the mundane, and is enjoyed in
the present life. In this sense the idea is often
utilized in ancient ethics as the ruling principle of
action. Plato alone regarded as the object of effort
participation in an other‑worldly good through the
knowledge of " ideas," especially of the highest
" idea," viz., God. Consequently, Plato's notion
approximates that of Christianity, but without be
ing able to bring this bliss into connection with the
ethics which has its motive force within. In the
development of Christian ethics, the connection of
ethics with the striving for happiness was restated
in the time of the " Enlightenment," but resulted
only in a refined Epicureanism. On the other hand,
Kant energetically opposed this eudemonism by
emphasizing the absolute and independent worth of
the moral law apart from its utilitarian bearing.
To be sure, he regarded as man's highest good the
union of virtue and happiness, and derived there
from the notions of immortality and God. But his
demand for morality, according to Kant, is to be
satisfied for its own sake without reference to these
moral postulates. Many efforts were made to
mitigate this vigorous legalism, and as a result
happiness was brought again into close relations
with morality. That happiness is not the highest
end of man is emphatically affirmed by that pes
simism whose extreme assertion is that man is des
tined to unhappiness‑a position which is at the other
extreme from that of a false optimism (see OrTI
mists; PEBsIMisM). The Christian doctrine rejects
both extremes. It teaches that man may obtain
full self‑satisfaction only as something other
worldly, as Blessedness (q.v.). By that bliss which
is established in his life and perfected in the life
to come, besides obtaining a relative mundane
blessedness (cf. Matt. vi. 33), he helps to usher in
the kingdom of God with its gifts of peace and joy
and its laws of love to God and to neighbor, and so
to further the complete development of humanity
in this world. 	F. SIEFFERT.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Massie, in Expositor, ser. 1 vols. ix.x.; idem in DB, ii. 300‑301; G. Hodges, The Pursuit of Happiness, New York, 1906; L. Abbott, Christ's Secret of Happiness, ib. 1907; DCl3, i. 702‑703.
HARAN, h6'ran (Hebr. ,Haran; Gk. Karrai): The name of the most important city in North Meso‑

145	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Tram°°er
Hardenberg
potamia, situated in the valley of the Upper Balich, early celebrated as a seat of worship of the moongod. Its ruins, three English miles in circuit, lie a day's journey southeast of Urfa‑Edessa. The etymology of the name is obscure; the Assyrian form of the word, Bdrranu, connects it with the word for road, end with its location on the caravan route between Syria end the East.
Sources for the pre‑Assyrian history of North Mesopotamia unfortunately still lie buried in the mounds of the valleys of the Chabor end the Balich. Slight investigations by Layard along the Chabor brought to light some pre‑Assyrian monuments. The course of Babylonian end Assyrian history shows that from prehistoric times North Mesopotamia was a region of great Babylonian‑Semitic states; end Winckler places here the state of Kisshati, a region which gave one of the titles much used by Babylonian kings, of which region Haran was perhaps the capital end most important city. The " land of Haran " of the Assyrian inscriptions had great importance both for the commerce of Assyria end Babylonia end for the religious development of Assyria. The oldest reports of North Mesopotamia are in the Amarna Tablets (q.v.), and show the region as being at the time under the control of the Mitanni. The rule of the mitanni was overthrown by Assyria 200 years later, when Shalmaneser I. assumed the title king of Kisshati. Tiglath‑pileser 1. hunted elephants in the land of Haran; Shalmaneser 11. built a temple to Sin in the city. Later the district took part in the revolt against Assyria, end paid a heavy penalty therefor. After the downfall of Assyria the region came under Chaldean control, after devastation by the UmmanManda, end Nabonidusrebuiltthecityof Haran end the temple for the moon‑god. In Christian times it was an important center of heathenism until the Middle Ages.
There are still indications in traces of roads of the importance of Haran for trade in early times, end Ezek. xxvii. 23 speaks of its commerce with Phenicia. Of its influence in religion over alarge region there are monuments from near Aleppo end Senjirli.
According to the Old Testament, Haran in Aramnaharaim was the place of the theophany which directed Abraham to leave his country and kindred, of Eliezer's wooing of Rebekah for Isaac, of Jacob's fourteen years of servitude, and the place of departure of the migrations of the Terahites to Canaan. According to another tradition, Harare is merely the second point of departure, the original place being Ur of the Chaldees. The version in P, giving the derivation from Ur, is probably based on earlier reports in E, since not without cogent reasons would a narrator of that time derive the Hebrew origins from the land of their foes. The two traditions have a connection in so far as both cities were noted seats of the same cult, though in Ur the moon‑god was called Nannar, in Harare, Sin. Laban is itself a poetical name for the deity of Haran, while Sarah recalls the Assyrian Sarratu, the consort of the moon‑god, end Milcah, the name of the wife of Nahor, is reminiscent of the Assyrian malkatu, " princess," a title under which Ihtr was wor‑
shiped in Harare, 	A. JEItEMIA9.
V.‑10
BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. A. Chwoleon, Die Saabier' and der Saabiamua,~part i.. $t. Petersburg, 1858; J. Ha16vy, Mdlangee d'EpipraP)<ie, Paris, 1874; idem, in Revue a6mrotique, 1894; E. Schrader, Keilinachrdftan and OascldCAEsforachung, Giessen, 1878; idem, in KAT, pp. 29 eqq., et passim; R,. Kittel, in Theologiacha 3Eudien sue WUraemberp, 1888, pp. 193 eqq.; idem. aeachichte der Habrtlar, pp. 135, Goths, 1888, Eng. travel.. London, 1895; Ainsworth, in PBBA, 1891, pp. 387 eqq.t A. Mea, Oeac7tichEe der Stadt Harran, Strasburg, 1892; H. Winokler, AtRorientatiacha Forachungen, parts i.‑ii., Leipeio, 1892; idem, Oeachichte Babylonians and Assyrians, pp. 148 eqq., ib. 1892; A. H. $syoe, The Higher Criticism end the Monuments, London, 1894; H. F. Helmolt, Wedtgeachichte, vol. iii., part 1, Leipaio, 1899; DB, 1301; EB, ii. 1981‑83.

HARBAUGH, HENRY: German Reformed Church; b. near Wayneaborough, Pa., Oct. 28, 1817; d. at Mercersburg, Pa., Dec. 28, 1867. After studying at Marshall College (1840‑43), he held pastorates at Lewisburg, Pa. (1843‑b0), Lancaster (1850‑60), end Lebanon (1860‑63). From 1863 till his death he was professor of theology at the Mercersburg Seminary. He was a man of indefatigable industry, and a prominent exponent of the Mercersburg theology (q.v.). He edited the Guardian 1849‑66, contributed to the Reformed Church Messenger 1861‑67, edited the Merceraburg Review for some time before his death, compiled numerous almanacs for the board of publication of the German Reformed Church, end wrote a number of books. His more important works are: Heaven, or the Sainted Dead (Philadelphia, 1848); Heavenly Recognition (1851); The Heavenly Home (1853); Life of Michael Schtatter (1857); Fathers of the German Reformed Church in Europe end America (2 vols.,1857); Hymns end Chants (Lebanon, 1861), of which the best known is the hymn, Jesus, 1 live to thee; and the collection of poems written in " Pennsylvania German," called Harbaugh's Harfe (Philadelphia, 1870), which enjoyed a wide popularity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lion Harbaugh, Life of Rev. Henry Harbauph, Philadelphia, 1900.
HARDEftBERG, ALBERT RIZAEUS: German Lutheran theologian; b. at Hardenberg (75 m. n.e.
of Amsterdam), Holland, 1510; d. Early Life. at Emden (120 m. w. of Hamburg)
May 18,1574. His name was assumed from his birthplace; possibly the family name was RiAus. At the age of seven he attended the school of the Brethren at Groningen, where Gesewin von Helen was his teacher (see Com>aort LzFz, BRETHREN OF THE). There he must have learned the views of Wessel. In 1527 he went to the 't red school " of the famous Aduard monastery, where he read diligently the classics, the Fathers, and, more than anything else, the Bible, end was also a close student of history. By 1530, when he entered the University at Louvain, he had become familiar with the writings of Wessel, end shrank from the quibbles of the scholastic theologians, though he had not consciously joined the Reformation. Although at Louvain the atmosphere was entirely against the Reformation, yet Hardenberg and his friends, through their private reading, became zealous advocates of the new ideas. When he had obtained his degree he left Louvain end turned his steps toward Italy, but, falling ill on the road, betook

Hardenberg Hardt
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
himself to Mainz. There he became a doctor of theology; he then returned to Louvain, where he lectured on the Epistles of Paul with great success. He openly taught the doctrine of justification by faith, without, however, ranging himself on the side of the Reformers. Still, his opponents roused themselves against him, and he would have been carried to Brussels and condemned as a heretic if it had not been for the opposition of the citizens and students. He withdrew to Aduard, where he remained three years (1540‑12 or 43). While there he visited Hermann of Wied (q.v.) archbishop of Cologne; he also had relations with Melanchthon, and with Johannes a Lasco, who persuaded him to leave Aduard, which meant for him openly to espouse the Reformation. On Melanchthon's advice he went to Wittenberg (June, 1543), where he met Luther; and he became an especial friend of Melanchthon and Paul Eber. Hardenberg was summoned by the archbishop of Cologne to aid in carrying out the Reformation (Feb. or Mar., 1544), with whom he attended the Diet of Speyer. The plan of Reformation, devised by Butzer and Melanchthon, and assented to by the archbishop, was warmly approved by Hardenberg, even in the interpretation of the Lord's Supper, which did not meet the approval of Luther. Hardenberg became very useful to the archbishop, who retained him in service until the archbishopric again became Roman Catholic by the archbishop's resignation (Jan. 25, 1547). Hardenberg was then for a short time pastor at Einbeck, afterward military chaplain to Count Christopher of Oldenburg; in the performance of his duties he distinguished himself at the battle of Drakenberg (May, 1547), and, although wounded, took part in the entry of the victorious army into Bremen.
At Bremen the count appointed him cathedral preacher despite the protests of the Roman Catholic archbishop. Hardenberg retained this
	Views	position till 1561, and these fourteen
	on the	years were the most fruitful period of
	Lord's	his life. His only official duties were
	Supper.	to preach twice a week and to conduct
		a course of lectures in Latin. At first
Jacob Propst and Johann Timann (q.v.), the most
noted preachers of the time in Bremen, seemed fully
in accord with him; whether they knew nothing of
his un‑Lutheran views of the Lord's Supper, or
whether they were willing to ignore them for the
sake of peace, can not be decided. This peace did
not last long, for in 1547 the differences concerning
the doctrine of the Lord's Supper were discussed,
but were smoothed over on the occasion of the first
declaration of Hardenberg regarding the Lord's
Supper (Jan., 1548), in which he says that Christ
is in truth given and received in the Eucharist, in
all his entirety both as God and man; that bread
and wine are visible, sacred signs which present and
impart to us the body and blood of the Lord; who
soever partakes in faith of the sacrament really
partakes of the substance of the body and blood of
Christ. Melanchthon approved of this, Johannes
a Lasco did not.
When the controversies on the subject broke out again outside of Bremen, and especially the one
between Westphal and Calvin, the colleagues of Hardenberg began to question more closely his
attitude toward the doctrines of Contro‑ Luther; Lasco also inquired into the vemy with difference between him and his col‑
Timanr. leagues; so it came about that, al‑
though Hardenberg still tried to maintain peace, the strife, at first hidden, came to an open rupture. Affairs in East Friesland also brought matters to a crisis; there Lasco had to leave Emden, partly on account of his relations with Hardenberg. Timann saw in these controversies a danger for the Bremen church, and so he published a tract proving that the opinions of all orthodox leaders of the church coincided with Luther's. Hardenberg, against whom the tract was directed, took offense chiefly at the doctrine of the ubiquity of the body of Christ. Timann was desirous that all the ministers at Bremen should sign his tract, and, when Hardenberg and two others refused, began to preach against them (Lent, 1556). The senate tried to allay the controversy by a conference (Easter, 1556). Then Hardenberg asserted that shortly before his death Luther had said to Melanchthon that the doctrine of the Lord's Supper had been too much discussed, and that he did not agree with Melanchthon's suggestion of publishing a pamphlet to assuage the controversy; however, he urged Melanchthon to do something about it after his death. This had been told Hardenberg. by Melanchthon in Wittenberg (July, 1554). It is not, to be doubted that Hardenberg so understood the declaration of Melanchthon, but he was mistaken; Luther cannot have given such advice to Melanchthon.
The strife was not ended by the conference; the council sent to Wittenberg for an opinion, also to
the ministers in Brunswick, MagdeOpinion of burg, Hamburg, Lfneburg, and Wittenberg; Liibeck. The opinion from Wittenberg Expulsion was not opposed to Hardenberg's, but of Harden‑ it warned against mingling irrelevant berg. subjects with the doctrine of the
Lord's Supper, and urged agreement with the form cum pane aumitur corpus; the answers of the ministers in the cities approved the creed of the preachers of Bremen, and warned against the sacramentarians. So the council decided fully to remove Hardenberg in order to obtain peace in the church. However, nothing decisive was done at that time. Later, Heshusius, who succeeded Timann at Bremen, advised an open debate, which was scheduled to take place on May 20, 1560. Hardenberg was forbidden to take part, and the archbishop referred the matter to the diet opened at Brunswick (Feb. 3, 1561). The diet decreed that Hardenberg should leave Bremen within fourteen days, which he did. He lived until 1565 in the monastery of Rastede, near Oldenburg, busied with literary labors; he was elected pastor at Sengwarden (1585), and afterward served at Emden, where he continued to find success as a preacher.
CARL BERTHEAU.
BIHLIOOaAPBT: In Bindeeil'e ed. of the CR is some oorre‑
spondenoe between Melanchthon and Hardenberg; oonsuit the index, x. 369, 449, and note, also, A. L. Hermin‑

147	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Hardenberg
		Hardt
	jard, Correapondance den r4jorrnateura, ix. 285. Paris, 1897.
	Consult: D. Gerdes, Hset. motuum acciesiasticorum in
	. Bressenti 1547‑61, Groningen, 1756; Q A* Selig,
*'lisUindig. Hiskrie dr ugeburgiaclk. Konfession, iii.
	o
	718‑783, Halls, 1735; E. Wagner, Dr. Albert Hmdan
	berpa im Dorn zu Bremen paFahretea Lehramt, Bremen,
	1779; W. Bohweckendieok, Dr. Albert Hardsnbsrp, Em
	den, 1859: B. 8piegel, Albert liiweua Hardenberp, Brem
	en, 1889; H. Schmid, Der ICampf der luthariachen %irehe
	um Luthaa Lehrc worn Abendmah7, pp. 188‑194, Leilmio
1873; ADB, a. 558 aqq.
	HARDING, STEPHEN: Third abbot of Meaux;
	b. of parents in good position at Sherborne, Doraet
	shire, England, early in the second half of the
	eleventh century; d. at Cfteaua Mar. 28, 1134.
	He was educated in the monastery of Sherborne,
	and received the tonsure at Molesme, near Dijon,
	taking the name of Stephen. He became a rigid
	ascetic, and was one of the party which left Molesme
	in 1078 to found a new monastery at Cftesux and
	the Cistercian Order. In 1110 he succeeded Alberic
	as abbot. The strictness of his rule repelled new
	members and the community steadily grew smaller,
	till in 1113 Bernard of Clairvaua (q.v.) with thirty
	of his friends came to the monastery and instituted
	the period of growth and prosperity of the order.
	Before Stephen's death the number of houses came
	to be about one hundred, of which he founded
	thirteen in person. His ability as an organizer was
	great he had influence with both ecclesiastical and
	secular rulers, and he was the real founder of the
	Cistercians. Stephen resigned his office the year
	before he died. He drew up the Carts caritatis,
	which was confirmed by Pope Calixtus II. in 1119,
	and made a fine copy of the Bible for use at Cf teaux,
	revising the Latin text by the help of certain Jews
	who explained the Hebrew to him. Two sermons
	are attributed to him, and two of his letters are
	preserved among the letters of Bernard (xlv., xlix. ).
See ClsxaaclAM.
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: William of Mabnoebury, De
	rebus pulls repum Anplorum, book iv., chaps. 334‑3x7,
	ed. T. D. Hardy, 2 vole., London, 1840, Eng. travel., in
	Church Historians o/ England, vol. iv., ib. 1855; A. Du
	oheene, xietorioi Norrrannorum acriptores, pp. 711‑714
	Paris, 1819: W. lhtgdale, Monaaticon Anplicanum, v.
	220‑228, London, 1849; ABB, Apr., ii. 498 eqq. Con
	suit: Histoire litt€raire do France, ai. 213 sqq.: L. Bour
	gain, La Chairs fmncaise au zii. sitcle, p. 389, Paris, 1879;
	HelYOt. Ordres ‑nasB9uca. vol. v., chap. ‑radii.: Heim
	buober, Orders and Konprepationan, i. 428 eqq., 429‑430,
	448, 452; Ceillier, Auteure sacr6a, aiv. 230‑2x2: %L, xi.
787‑788; DNB, asiv. 3x3‑336.
	HARDOU>IY, 8,r"dfl'sa', JEAN: French Jesuit;
	b. at Quimper (36 m. sxe. of Brest), in Brittany,
	1848; d. in Paris Sept. 3, 1729. He early entered
	the Society of Jesus, in which he remained sjxty
	seven years. He wrote at first on numismatics.
	In 1693 he stated in a treatise that nearly all the
	classics had been written in the thirteenth century
	by monks under the guidance of a certain Severua
	Archontius. In a treatise, De nummis Herodiadum,
	he held that Herod was au Athenian, a pagan, and
	Platonist, and in his commentary on the New
	Testament he stated that Jesus and the apostles
	had preached in Latin. The authorities of his order
	required him to recant his errors, and he submitted,
	but retained his convictions. He i8 most worthy
	of remembrance for his editions of Themistius in
	Greek and Latin (Paris, I884), and of Pliny the
Elder (1685, b vole., inusum Dellohini; revised, 1723, 3 vole.), which is still the most prized edition of this author. In his Conciliorum co7.leCtio regia maxima (12 vole., Paris, 1715), he described all the church councils from 34 to 1714, including more than twenty councils whose history had not been published before. Of his numerous other works may be mentioned Chronologies Veteris Testamertti ad vulgatam veraam>Rm exacta et nummis antiquis illuatrata (Paris, 1877); Paraphrase de l'Eeel6siaste (1729); Commentaries in Novum Teatamentum (Amsterdam, 1742). A part of his manuscripts was published after his death by the Abb6 d'Olivet, under the title Opera varies (Amsterdam, 1733).
(C. PFENDER.)
BratsoaaersZ: L. E. Dupin, BibliotAdqus des auEeura eccMaiaabquas, six. 109, 35 vole.. Paris. 1898‑1711; A. and A. de Backer, Bibtiofhlque den &xivaina de la compapnie do JEaus, ii. 32‑48, Li4ge, 1872; BL, v. 1501‑‑04; Lichten‑
bareer, Ess, vi. s5‑s7.
HARDT, hart, HERMARN VON DER: German orientsliat, exegete, and historian; b. at Melle (62 m. s.s.w. of Bremen) Nov. 15, 1680; d. at Helmstedt Feb. 28, 1748. His parents had settled at Melle as refugees from the religious persecution in Holland. He was educated at the gymnasia of Herfurt, Osnabriick, and Coburg, and at the University of Jens, where he studied theology and Oriental languages, and took his master's degree in 1683, when he was appointed privet‑docent. In 1686 he went to Leipaia, where he established himself as privet‑docent in Oriental and classical languages. There he came into contact with Valentin Alberti, who had interested a number of theological students in a deeper and more practical study of the Bible. In order to become better acquainted with the new movement, Hardt went to Dresden and spent a year with Philipp Jacob Spener, and be then resolved to become an expounder of the Scriptures. On the recommendation of Spener, he went to Kaspar Hermann Sandhagen, the famous superintendent of Liineburg, in order to prepare himself better for his vocation. There he met Rudolf August, duke of Brunswick, who took a lively interest in him, received him into his service as librarian and secretary in 1688, and had him appointed professor of Oriental languages at the University of Helmstedt in 1890. Their friendship ceased only with the duke's death in 1704.
This professorship opened an avenue to Hardt for an extensive literary activity. At the same time his attitude changed in regard to the Bible and Pietism; and under the influence of Thomasius (q.v.) his rationalism became so pronounced that he was censured by the official visitors to the university, sad in 1713 forbidden longer to deliver exegetical lectures on the Old Testament. He disregarded this order, however, and complications followed which ended in his retirement as professor (1727), altho he was permitted to act as sublibrarian for the university. A later publication on Job brought on him another and more severe censure, and this decided him to devote his energies thenceforth to investigations of the history of the Reformation and of the Council at Basel. These were never published, but the manuscripts are preserved in the

Hardwick	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	148
Harkavy
library at Stuttgart, had are valuable as containing
lists and criticisms of books now lost.
	Hardt was a genuine admirer and earnest student
of the great classical and Oriental scholars. .'Tia
literary activity resulted in the compilation of over
300 books, pamphlets, and treatises‑most of them
in advance of his contemporaries. His collection of
manuscripts on the Reformation, Antigua literarum
monumenta, autographa Lutheri aliorumque celebrir
orum virorum 1617‑16.¢6 (3 vols., Brunswick, 1690
1693), and on the Councils of Basel and Constance,
Magnum oecumenicum Constantiense conciJium (6
vols., Frankfort, 1700‑02), are still valuable because
of his diligent use of the principal archives.
		(P. TsCHAcgERT.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Limey, Hermann von der Hardt, Carls
	ruhe, 1891; A. Tholuck, Akademisches Leben des 17.
	Jahrhunderts, ji. 49‑61, Halle, 1854.
	HARDWICK, CHARLES: English church his
torian, archdeacon of Ely; b. at Slingsby (15 m.
n.n.e. of York), Yorkshire, Sept. 22, 1821; d. near
Bagnlres‑de‑Luchon (70 m. s.w. of Toulouse),
France, Aug. 18, 1859. He attended St. John's
College and Catherine's Hall, Cambridge, and
received a fellowship in Catherine's Hall in 1845.
In 1850 he was select preacher at Cambridge, and in
Mar., 1851, became preacher at the Chapel Royal,
Whitehall. From March to September, 1853, he
was professor of divinity in Queen's College, Bir
mingham. In 1855 he was appointed lecturer in
divinity at King's College, Cambridge, and Christian
advocate in the university. He was elected a
member of the newly established council of the
senate in 1856, and reelected in 1858. He became
archdeacon of Ely in 1859, shortly before his death
by a fall in the Pyrenees. He edited a number of
books for the Cambridge University Press and the
Percy Society, and wrote several scholarly and val
uable works, viz.: A History of the Articles of Relig
ion (Cambridge, 1851; 2d ed., largely rewritten,
1859); A History of the Christian Church, Middle
Age (Cambridge, 1853; 3d ed. by W. Stubbs,
1872); A History of the Christian Church during
the Reformation (1856), and the unfinished treatise,
Christ and Other Masters: an Historical Inquiry into
some of the Chief Parallelisms and Contrasts between
Christianity and the Religious Systems of the An
cient World (4 parts, Cambridge, 1855‑59; 2d ed.,
with Memoir‑ by F. Procter, 2 vols., London,
1863).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the Memoir by Procter, ut sup.,
	consult DNB, xxiv. 347‑348.
	HARDY, EDWARD JOHN: Church of England;
b. at Armagh, Ireland, May 7, 1849. He was
educated at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1871),
and was ordered deacon in 1874, and ordained priest
in the following year. He was curate of St. Sa
viour's, Brockley Hill, Kent, in 1874‑77, and in the
latter year became an army chaplain, being sta
tioned at Cork (1877‑79), Bermuda (1879‑‑82),
Dover (1882), Gosport (1882‑86), Netley (1886‑88),
Malta (1888‑90), Plymouth( 1890‑97), Dublin (1897
1901), Hongkong (1901‑05), and Cairo (since 1905).
In 1898‑99 he was Donnellan Lecturer at Trinity
College, Dublin. In theology he is an Evangelical
High‑churchman with liberal leanings. He has
written How to be Happy though Married (London, 1885); Manners Makyth Man (1887); The Five Talents of Woman (1888); The Business of Life (1892); Sunny Days of Youth (1893); In the Footprints of St. Paul (1895); Doubt and Faith (Donnellan lectures; 1899); Concerning Marriage (1901); Love, Courtship, and Marriage (1901); Pen Portraits of Our Soldiers (1902); and John Chinaman at Home (1905).
HARDY, ROBERT SPENCE: English Wesleyan missionary and Buddhist scholar; b. at Preston (28 m. n.e. of Liverpool), Lancashire, July 1, 1803; d. at Headingly (1 m. n.w. of Leeds), Yorkshire, Apr. 16, 1868. He was admitted to the British Conference in 1825, and subsequently appointed missionary to Ceylon. After a. faithful service of twenty‑three years in this field, he returned to England and served on several important circuits. He was a man of wide culture, and the author of several authoritative works on Buddhism in Ceylon and on Pali literature, viz.: The British Government and the Idolatry of Ceylon (London, 1841); Eastern Monachism: an Account of the Origin, Laws, Discipline, Sacred Writings . . . and Present Circumstances of the Order of Mendicants, founded by Gdtama Buddha (1850); A Manual o f Buddhism in its Modern Development, translated from Singhalese MSS. (1853); and The Legends and Theories of the Buddhists compared with History and Science (1866).
HARE, AUGUSTUS WILLIAM: Church of England; b. in Rome Nov. 17, 1792; d. there Feb. 18, 1834. At the age of five he was adopted by his aunt, the widow of Sir William Jones, and was brought up in her home near Basingstoke, Hampshire. He attended Winchester College and New College, Oxford, and in 1818, after a long visit to Italy, returned to the latter college as tutor. He incurred his aunt's displeasure by declining to qualify for the rich family living of Hurstmonceaux, but he received ordination in 1825, and in 1829 became rector of the small country parish of AltonBarnes. In 1833 failing health drove him to Italy. By his plain and fervent preaching and unselfish devotion to his duties he won the hearts of the people, and came to be justly regarded as a model rural clergyman. His important works are: Guesses at Truth (London, 1827), in collaboration with his brother, Julius Charles Hare (q.v.); and Sermons to a Country Congregation (2 vols., 1836), which have been widely read and often reprinted as The Akon Sermons.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. J. C. Hare, Memorials of a Quiet Life, 2 vole., London, 1872; DNB, xxiv. 364.
HARE, JULIUS CHARLES: One of the most influential of the English theologians of the first half of the nineteenth century; b. at Valdagno (14 m. n.w. of Vicenza) Italy, Sept. 13, 1795; d. at Hurstmonceaux (20 m. em.e. of Brighton), Sussex, England, Jan. 23,1855. He was sent to the Charterhouse School, London, in 1806; in 1812 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge; in 1818 was made fellow and tutor, and gathered about him a circle of admiring students, among them John Sterling, Richard Chenevix Trench, and Frederick Denison Maurice, whose sister he married in 1844. He was ordained

RELIGIOUS
in 1826, and in 1832 became rector of Hurstmonceaux, where he labored till his death, surrounded by a large circle of friends, and highly. esteemed. In 1840 he was appointed archdeacon of Lewes in the diocese of Chichester, and chaplain to the queen.
Archdeacon Hare combined thorough scholarship, original thought, noble character, harmless wit, and manly piety. He was as familiar with Luther, Schleiermacher, Neander, Olshausen, Nitzsch, Tholuck, and other German theologians as with Crammer, Hooker, Leighton, Pearson, and Tillotson. His love for German scholarship was intensified by his study of Coleridge's works, whom he profoundly esteemed as a Christian philosopher, and by his intimacy with Thomas Arnold of Rugby, and with Bunsen, whom he met in Rome in 1832. This visit to Rome formed an epoch in his life. In philosophy Archdeacon Hare was an independent disciple of Coleridge. In theology he had most sympathy with Dr. Arnold, but excelled him in the extent of his scholarship. He was one of the founders of the Evangelical Broad‑church school, which seeks to liberalize the Anglican communion by keeping it in friendly intercourse with Continental thought and learning. He was a sturdy champion of Protestantism against the encroachments of Romanism and Tractarianism, but he never exposed himself to the charge of disloyalty to the Church, nor forgot the personal respect due to his opponents. His strength lay in his combination of theological attainments with purity of character, and in his talent for stimulating others to study and investigation.
Archdeacon Hare first became known as an author through Guesses at Truth by Two Brothers (London, 1827; lasted., much enlarged, 1871; selections, ed. P. E. G. Girdlestone, 1897), written by himself and his elder brother, Augustus William Hare (q.v.). With Bishop Thirlwall he translated Niebuhr's history of Rome (2 vols., 1828‑32). His ablest theological work was The Mission of the Comforter, with Notes (1846), which contains five sermons preached at Cambridge in 1840 on the words of Jesus on the office of the Holy Spirit (John xvi. 7‑11). More than half of the work consists of learned notes and excursuses. His defense of Luther, originally the tenth note of this work, separately issued in an enlarged form shortly before Hare's death, is the ablest vindication of the Reformer against the attacks of Bossuet, Hallam, Sir William Hamilton, and the Oxford Tractarians. Hare also contributed the text for the English edition of Konig's illustrations of the life of Luther. In 1839 he delivered at Cambridge a series of instructive and inspiring sermons on I John v. 5, published in 1840 as The Victory of Faith (3d ed. by E. H. Plumptre, London, 1874). The sixth sermon contains one of the most eloquent descriptions of the conquering power of faith in the English language (pp. 225 sqq.), but the extreme length of the sermons elicited expressions of disapproval when they were delivered. The Contest with Rome (1851) is one of the most trenchant of the Anglican writings called forth by the controversy with Romanism and Puseyism. A collection of his Charges was published in 1856, a year after his death.
(PHILIP ScaeFFt.) D. S. ScHAFir.
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hardwick Harkavy
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. J. C. Hare, Memorials of a Quiet Life, London, 1872; the essay by F. D. Maurice prefixed to the Charges collected London, 1856, and A. P. Stanley, in Quarterly Review, July, 1855, both prefixed to The Victory of Faith, London, 1874; DNB, xxiv. 369‑372; and the Memoir by E. H. Plumptre, prefixed to the later editions of Gueaaea at Truth, e.g., London, 1871.
HARE, WILLIAM HOBART: Protestant Episcopal missionary bishop of South Dakota; b. at Princeton, N. J., May 17, 1838. He was educated at the University of Pennsylvania, but was obliged to leave at the close of his junior year. He then engaged in teaching while pursuing his theological studies, and was ordered deacon in 1859, and ordained priest in 1860. He was assistant at St. Luke's, Philadelphia, in 1859‑62, and rector of St. Paul's in the same city in 1862‑63. He then returned to St. Luke's for a year, after which he was rector of the Church of the Ascension, Philadelphia, from 1864 to 1870. He was secretary and general agent of the foreign committee of the Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society (1870‑73). He was nominated missionary bishop of Cape Palmas, West Africa, in 1871, by the House of Bishops, but the nomination was withdrawn at the request of the. House of Deputies, in view of his valuable services as secretary. In 1873 he was consecrated missionary bishop of Niobrara, which was enlarged in 1883, and renamed the diocese of South Dakota. Theologically he holds to the catholic faith, and also keeps his mind open to the thought of the present day.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. S. Perry, The Episcopate in America, p. 213, New York, 1895.

	HARING, JOHANN BAPTISTA: Austrian Roman
Catholic; b. at Wettmannstetten, a village of Styria,
Aug. 5, 1867. He was educated at the University
of Graz, where he took both the theological (DJ).,
1896) and the law (LL.D., 1902) courses. He was
ordained to the priesthood in 1891, and after a
brief term as curate in Leibnitz and Schladming
(1891‑92), was superintendent of studies in the
theological seminary at Graz from 1892 to 1900.
In 1900 he was appointed associate professor of
canon law in the theological faculty of the Univer
sity of Graz, and in 1906 was promoted to his
present position of full professor of the same subject
in that institution. He has written Der Rechts
und Gesetzmbegri ff in der katholischen Ethik and
modernen Jurfsprudenz (Graz, 1899); Die Schaden
ersatzp flicht des Erben fur Delikte des Erblassea mach
kanonischem Rechte (Vienna, 1903); and Grundxage
des katholischen Kirchenrechtes, i. (Graz, 1906).
HARKAVY, ALBERT (Abraham Yakovlevich)
Russian Jewish scholar; b. at Novogrudok (80 m. s. of Wilna) Oct. 27, 1830. He was educated at the rabbinical schools of Volozhin (1854‑58) and Wilna (1858‑63), and at the universities of St. Petersburg (1863‑‑68; doctor of history, IE7x), Berlin and Paris (1868‑70). Since 1877 he has been librarian of the Semitic department of the Imperial Public Library at St. Petersburg. He has written " On the Language of the Jews " (St. Petersburg, 1865); " Statements of Mohammedan Writers on the Slavs and Russians,, (1870); " On the Original Home of the Semites " (1872); '° Statements of

Harless	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	150
Harmony of the Gospels
Jewish Writers on the Chazar Kingdom " (1874);
" Catalogue of the Samaritan Manuscripts in the
Imperial Public Library " (2 vols., 1874‑75); Kata
log der hebrdischen Bibelhandschriften der kaiser
lichen Offentlichen Bibliothek in St. Petersburg (in
collaboration with H. L. Strack; 1875); Altjudische
Denkmdler aus der Krim (1877); Studien and Mit
teilungen aus der kaiserlichm offentlichen Biblio
thek zu St. Petersburg (8 vols.,1879‑1903); " On the
Language of the Jews living in Russia in Ancient
Times " (1886); Leben and Werke des Saadjah Gaon
(1892); " An Unedited (Hebrew) Version of the
Romance of Alexander " (1892); and Ozar Israel
(Warsaw, 1893). The titles in English are of
works written in Russian.
	HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH ADOLF
VON: German Lutheran; b. at Nuremberg Nov. 21,
			1806; d. at Munich Sept. 7, 1879. He
	Student	early devoted himself to music and
		Days.	poetry, and was attracted by ancient
			and German classical literature, espe
cially by Jean Paul. But he was indifferent to
Christianity, and even felt an aversion to it, and
firmly decided never to study theology. In 1823
he entered the University of Erlangen, at first
studying philology, and then law. But he was
interested in neither science, and finally tried theol
ogy. He was not decisively influenced by any of
the professors, except perhaps by Winer, and was,
indeed, in his spiritual development independent
of his teachers. His chief desire was to understand
the reasons for the objective power of the Christian
religion in the life of the people and the history of
the world. He thought the philosophy of Hegel
best adapted to the solution of this problem, but
later found that even this system did not satisfy
his .innermost needs. Thus he was at last led to
the philosophy of Spinoza, in whose system he
searched for the roots of Hegel's and Schelling's
philosophy. For this purpose he removed, in 1826,
to the University of Halle, where he was especially
attracted by Tholuck's personality. In the midst
of these philosophical studies he conceived the plan
of studying the whole literature of the ancient
philosophers, of the earlier teachers of the Church,
of the theologians of the Reformation, and of the
later theologians and philosophers from the stand
point of human freedom and evil, and to put the
results in writing. Although the work was never
published, it contributed much to his development.
Harless received a further impulse from his study of
Pascal's Pens~es, but about this time became con
vinced that his heart was not right with God, and
that his ways were perverse. He now turned to
the confessional writings of the Lutheran Church
and, to his surprise, found their contents in con
formity with the experience of his faith. The
chief attraction in the Lutheran confession was,
for him, the doctrine of justification, which hence
forth became the central point of his Christianity
and theology.
	In 1828 Harless returned from Halle to Erlangen
as privat‑docent in theology, and three years later
became professor of New Testament exegesis. The
appointment was important not only for the
history of the theological faculty at Erlangen, which owed its later conservative tendency and its flour‑
ishing condition chiefly to Harless, but Professor for Lutheran orthodox theology in at Erlangen general. In 1836 he became ordinary
	and	professor, and as such lectured also
Leipsic. on Christian ethics, theological ency‑
clopedia, and methodology. In 1836 he became preacher of the university. He declined calls to Rostock, Berlin, Dorpat, and Zurich. In 1840 he was appointed delegate of the chamber of states in Munich to defend the rights of the Lutheran Church against the violent measures of the ministry. Harless won great popularity by defending the interests of his church with ability and manliness, but the opposition party succeeded in removing him in 1845 to Baireuth as second councilor of the consistory. In the same year, however, he was appointed professor of theology in Leipsic, where his activity reached its highest development. In Saxony rationalism was still flourishing, but the brilliant personality of Harless and the earnestness and depth of his presentation of Evangelical truth soon conquered it, and his influence upon the students was not less powerful than in Erlangen. In Leipsic he lectured for the first time on dogmatics, and also developed into one of the most powerful and brilliant preachers of his time. Before the, end of two years he was appointed preacher at St.
Nicolai, in addition to his duties as professor.
In 1850 he removed to Dresden as court preacher, reporting councilor in the ministry of public in‑
struction, and vice‑president of the President state consistory, but two years later of the was called by King Max II. to his
Bavarian native state of Bavaria as president
Consistory. of the supreme consistory. Here the soil had been already prepared for the Lutheran confession. It was only Lohe and his adherents who opposed the existing condition of the State Church, and insisted upon an entire change, or, if this should be impossible, upon separation. Owing to the influence of Harless, however, who was a friend of Lohe from former days, the latter did not altogether separate himself from the State Church. Harless conquered the remaining opposition of rationalism in the congregations by his manly conduct and his personal spirit of reconciliation. A new hymn‑book in the spirit of orthodox Lutheranism was soon introduced. The introduction of a new order of church service was more difficult. Here the question of private confession, which was confused with auricular confession, occasioned a new revolt of the opposition, but the organization of the State Church, firmly established under Harless, finally achieved the victory.
Harless now became the universally acknowledged leader and faithful mentor of the whole Lutheran Church, and his advice was eagerly sought in all quarters of the world. He presided for a bng time over the missionary board at Leipsic. During the later years he was almost blind from cataract.
His three most important works were written while professor at Erlangen, as his later public activity left him little time for literary work. They are: Commentar iiber den Brief Pauli an die Ephesier