'THE NEW
SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
Editor‑in‑Chief
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
Editor‑in‑Chief
of
Supplementary Volumes
LEFFERTS A. LOETSCHER, Ph.D., D.D.
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF CHURCH HISTORY
PRINCETON THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
BAKER BOOK HOUSE
GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN

THE NEW

SCHAFF‑HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
EDITED BY
SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.
(Editor‑in‑Chief )
WITH THE AssIITANCE OF
CHARLES COLEBROOK SHERMAN

GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A.
(Associate Editors)
AND THE FOLLOWING DEPARTMENT EDITORf
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D.
(Department of Systematic Theology)

HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D.
(Department of Minor Denominations)

JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.
(Department of Liturgics and Religious Orders)
JAMES FREDERIC McCURDY, PH.D., LLD.
(Department of the Old Testament)

HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.
(Department of the New Testament)

ALBERT HENRY NEWNAN, D.D., LLA
	(Department of Church History)
FRANK HORACE VIZETELLY, F.S.A.
(Department of Pronunciation and Typography)
VOLUME II
BASILICA ‑ CHAMBERS
BAKER BOOK HOUSE
GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN
1952

EXCLUSIVE AMERICAN PUBLICATION RIGHTS
SECURED BY BAKER BOOK HOUSE FROM FUNK AND WAGNALLS
LITHOPRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY
CUSHING ‑MALLOY, INC., ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN, 1952

EDITORS
BAXQEL XACAQLEYY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D.

(EDrroa‑xN‑CHIEF. )
Professor of Church History, New York University.
ASSOCLkTE EDITORS

CHARLES COLEBROOK SHERHAN 	GEORGE WILLIAX GILICORE, Bz.s.
	Editor in Biblical Criticism and Theology on "The New Inter‑	New York, Formerly Professor of Biblical History and Lecturer
	national Encyclopedia," New York. 	on Comparative Religion, Bangor Theological Seminary.
DEPARTMENT EDITORS, VOLUME II.
CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D.
(Department of Systematic Theology.)
Professor of Systematic Theology, #01deago Theological
Seminary.

HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D.
(Department of Minor Denominations.)
One of the Corresponding Secretaries of the Board of Foreign
Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church, New York.

JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.
(Department of Liturgies and RdtpG)us Orders.)
President of St. Joseph's Seminary, Yonkers, N. Y.

HUBERT EVANS, Ph.D.
(Office Editor.)
Formerly of the Editorial Staff of the "Encyclopeedh Britan
nice" Company, New York City.
JAMES PIUME31LICK XCOURDY, Ph.D.,
	LL.D.
(Department or the Old Teutament.)
Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Toronto.

HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D.
(Department or the New Testament.)
Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New Ter
tamemt, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass.

ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D.
(Department of Church Bistorw.)
Professor of Church History, Baylor Theological Seminary
(Baylor University), Waco, Tex.
FRANK HORACE QIZETELLY, F.S.A.
(Department of Pronunciation and TypoprnphF.)
AMX$atB Editor Of tale STANDARD DICTIONARY, etc,
New York City.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME II.
ERNST CHRISTIAN ACHELIS,
Th.D.,
Professor of Practical Theology, Universtty.of Marburg.
SAMUEL JAMES ANDREWS (t), D.D.,
Late Pastor of the Catholic Apostolic Church. Hartford, Conn.
CARL FRANKLIN ARNOLD, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, Evangelical Theological Faculty.
University of Breslau.
FERENCZ BALOGH,
Professor of Church History. Reformed Theological Academy,
Debrexztn. Hungary.
EDUARD BARDE (t),
Late Professor of New Testament Exegesis, school of Theology,
Geneva
HERMANN BARGE, Ph.D.,
Gymnastal Professor in Leipsic.
SAMUEL JUNE BARROWS, D.D.,
Corresponding Secretary of the Prison Association of New York.
JOHANNES BELSHEIM,
Pastor Emeritus in Cbristiania. Norway.
EARL BENRATH, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of %Snigeberg.
IBXXANUEL GUSTAF ADOLF BENZIN
t#ER, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Formerly Prlvatdocent In Old Testament Theology, University of Berlin, Member of the Executive Committee of the
German Society for the Exploration of Palestine, Jerusalem.
SAXUEL BERGER (t), D.D.,
Late Librarlsn 6o the Faculty of Protestant Theology, Paris.

CARL sLBBECHT BERNOULLI, Th.Lic.,
Professor in Berlin.
CARL BERTHEAU, Th.D.,
President of the Society for Inhere Mission. and Pastor of
St. Michael's Church. Hamburg.
WILLIBALD BEYSCHLAG (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Halls.
AMY (ASTON BONET‑MAURY, D.D.,
LL.D.,
Professor of Church History, Independent School of Divinity.
Paris.

CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME IL
GOTTLIEB NATHANAEL BONWETSCH,
Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of GStttngen.
FRIEDRICH BOSSE, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Extraordinary Professor of Theology, University of Grettswald.

GUSTAF BOSSERT, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Pastor Emeritus, Stuttgart.
JOHANNES FRIEDRICH THEODOR
BRIEQER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Leipstc.

CHARLES AUGUSTUS BRIGGS, D.D.,
Litt.D.,
Professor of Theological Encyclopedia and Symbolics, Union
Theological Seminary, New York.

7RANTB PEDER WILLLAIW BURL, Ph.D.,
Th.D.;
Professor of Oriental Languages, University of Copenhagen.

KARL BURGER (t), Th.D.,
Late Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Munich.

WALTER CASPARI, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Professor of Practical Theology, Pedsgogica, and Didactics, and
University Preacher, University of Erlangen.

JACQUES EUGINE CHOISY, Th.D.,
Pastor in Geneva, Switzerland.

FERDINAND COHRS, Th.Lic.,
Condstorw Councilor, Llfeld. Hanover.
ALEXIS IB$N*E ~DU FONT COLEXAN,
Instructor in English, college of the city of New York.
CGQBTAF HERMAN DALMAN, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Lelpsic,
and President of the German Evangelical Archeo
logical Institute, Jerusalem.
SAXUEL MARTIN DEUTSCH, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Berlin.
FRANZ WILHELM DIBELIUS,Ph.D.,Th.D.,
Supreme Consistorlal Councilor, City Superintendent,' and Pas
tor of the Kreuzktrehe, Dresden.
JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D.,
President of St. Joseph's Seminary, Yonkers, N. Y.
HENRY OTIS DWIGHT, LL.D.,
Recording Secretary of the American Bible Society. Coeditor
of the " Encyclopedia of Missions." New York.
EXIL EGLI, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Zurich.
DAVID ERDMANN (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, Evangelical Theological
Faculty, University of Breslau.
ALFRED ERICHSON (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Strasburg.
CARL FEY, Ph.D.,
Pastor at COsseln, near Halle.
	JOHN	FOX, D.D.,
OorTeaponding Secretary of the American Bible Society, New
		York.
EXIL ALBERT FRIEDBERG, Dr.Jur.,
Professor of Ecclesiastical, Public. and German Law, University
of Leipsic.
THEODOR GEROLD, Th.D.,
President of the ConaieWry, Strasburg.
GEORGE WILLIAX GILMORE, X.A.,
Formerly Lecturer on comparative Religion, Bangor Theoiog.
lest Seminary, Associate Editor of the SCHAPr
HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA.
WILHELX GLAMANN,
Pastor at siebeneichen, near LSwenberg, Prussia.
WILHELM GOETZ, Ph.D.,
Honorary Professor of Geography, Technische Hocbschule, and
Professor, Military Academy. Munich.
CASPAB. REN$ GREGORY, Ph.D., Dr.Jur.,
Th.D., D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic.
PAUL GRUENBERG, Th.Lic.,
Pastor in Strasburg.
GEORG GILU33TZXACHER, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Extraordinary Professor of Church History and of the New
Testament, University of Heidelberg.
REINHOLD GRUNDEE<ANN, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Pastor at MOrz, near Belzdg, Prussia.

HERMANN GUTHE, Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipaic.
ADOLF HARNACK, X.D., Ph.D.,.Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Berlin, and General
Director of the‑Royal Library, Berlin.

ALBERT HAUCK, Ph.D., Dr.Jur., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Leipatc, Editor‑in
Chief of the HAUCK‑HERZOG REALKNCYKLOPADIE.
HERMAN HAUPT, Ph.D.,
Professor and Director of the University Library, Giessen.
JOHANNES HAUSSLEITER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of the New Testament, University of Greifswald.
CALL FRIEDRICH GE03ELG HEINRICI,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic.

EDGAR HENNECKE, Th.Lic.,
Pastor at Bethelu; Hanover.
HERXANN HERING, Th.D.,
Professor of Practical Theology, University of Halle.
HAX HEROLD, Th.D.,
Dean, Neustadt‑an‑derAisch, Bavaria, Editor of Stnna,,
JOHANN JAKOB HERZOG (t), Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Late Professor of Reformed Theology, University of Erlangen,
Founder of the HAUCK‑HERZOG REALENCYKLOP•DIE.
ALFRED HECKLER (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, University of TBbingen.
JOHANNES HESSE,
Former Editor of the Eroangelisehea miasinnx‑Magazin and
President of the Publishing society at Calw, W Iirttemberg.
PAUL HINSCHIUS (f ), LL.D.,
Late Professor of Ecclesiastical Law, University of Berlin.
HERMANN WILHELM HEINRICH HOEL
SCHER, Th.D.,
Pastor of the Nikolatkirche, Letpxia. Editor of the Allgematne
Evangelixch‑Luthdrixche Kircherizeftunp and of
the Theologischcs Ltcraturblatt.

CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME II.
KARL HOLL, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Berlin.
ALFRED JEREMIAB, Ph.D., Th.Lic.,
Pastor of the Lutherklrche, Lelpsic.

MARTIN SAEHLER, Th.D.,
Prufessor of Dogmatics and New Testament Exegesis, Univer
sity of Halls.
ADOLF HAMPHAUSEN, Th.D.,
Professor of'Old Testament Exegesis, University of Bonn.
PETER GUST" KAWERAU, Th.D.,
Consistorial Councilor, Professor of Practical Theology, and
University Preacher, University of Breslau.
RUDOLF KITTEL, Ph.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipeia.
FRIEDRICH IIER311ANN THEODOR
KOLDE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Erlangen.
HER MANN GUSTAF EDUARD KRUEGER,
Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Giessen.
JOHANNES WILHELM BUNZE, Ph.D.,
Professor of Systematic and Practical Theology, University of
Greffawald.
L. A. VAN LANGERAAD, Ph.D.,
Lekkerkerk. Holland.
LUDWIG LEMHE, Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Heidelberg.
EDUARD LEMPP, Ph.D.,
Superintendent of the Royal Orphan Asylum, Stuttgart.
AUGUST LESBIEN, Ph.D.,
Professor of Slavonic Languages, University of Leipsic.
FRIEDRICH ARMIN LOOPS, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Halle.
ANDERS HERMAN LUNDBTROH, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, Royal University of Upsala,
Sweden.
JAMES FREDERICK B;cOURDY, Ph.D.,
LL.D.,
Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Toronto.
PHILIPP HEYER, Th.D.,
Supreme Consiatorlal Councilor and Member of the Royal
Consistory, Hanover.
CARL THEOD03EL MIRBT, Th.D.,
Professor of Church History, University of Marburg.
ERNST FRIEDRICH KARL MUELLER,
Th.D.,
Professor of Reformed Theology, University of Erlangen.
GE03ELG MUELLER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Councilor for Schools, Leipsic.
JOSEF MUELLER, Th.D.,
Pastor in Eberedorf, Reuss.
NIKOLAUS EZUELLER, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Extraordinary Professor of Christian Archeology, University of
Berlin.
CHRISTOF EBERHARD NESTLE, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Professor in the Theological Seminary at mautbronn, Wtirttem
berg.
EARL JOHANNES NEVMANN, Ph.D.,
Professor of the History of Art, University of Kiel.
ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Church History, Baylor Theological Seminary (Bay,
lor university), Waco, Tex.
JULIUS NEY, Th.D.,
Supreme Consistorial Councilor in Speyer, Bavaria.

FREDERIK OHMHTIAN NIELSEN (t),
Th.D.,
Late Bishop of Aalborg, Denmark.

FRIEDRICH AUGUST NITZSCH Ph.D.,
Late Professor of Theology, University of Kiel.

HANS CONRAD VON. ORELLI, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and History of Religion,
University of Basel.

XARGARET BLOODGFOOD PEEKS,
Inspeetrees‑General of the Martindst Order for America.
CHARLES PPENDER,
Pastor of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, Paris.
BERNHARD PICK, Ph.D., D.D.,
Pastor of the First German Evangelical Lutheran Church,
Newark, N. J.
FREDERICK DQNGLIBON POWER, LL.D.,
Pastor of the Garfleld Memorial Church, Washington, D. C.
WILLIAM PRICE,
Formerly Instructor in French, Yale College and Sheffield Scien
tific School, New Haven, Conn.

FRANZ PRAETORIUS, Ph.D.,
Professor of Oriental Languages, University of Halle.

GEORG CHRISTIAN RIETSCHEL, Th.D.,
Professor of Practical Theology and University Preacher, Unt
verslty of Leipsic.
SIEGFRIED RIETSCHEL, Dr.Jur.,
Professor of German Law, University of Tfibingen.

HENDRIX CORNELIUS ROGGE (t), Th.D.,
Late Professor of History, University of Amsterdam.
EUGEN SACHSSE, Th.D.,
University Preacher and Professor of Practical Theology in the
Evangellcal Theological Faculty, University of Bonn.
DAVID SCHLEY SCHAFF, D.D.,
Professor of Church History, Western Theological Seminary,
Allegheny, Pa.
PHILIP SCHAFF (t), D.D., LL.D.,
Late Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary,
New York, Founder of the SCHAPF‑HzaZOo ENCYCLOP&DI•.
REINHOLD SOHMID, Th.Lic.,
Pastor at Oberholzheim, Wfrttemberg.
RICHARD KARL BERNHARD SCHMIDT,
Dr.Jur.,
Professor of Jurisprudence and Civil and Criminal Procedure.
University of Freiburg.

JOHANN SCHNEIDER,
Pastor at Neckar‑Steinach. Hesse
THEODOR SCHOTT (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Librarian and Professor of Theology, University of Stutt
gart.

JOHANN 3pRIzna.ICH BITTER VON
SCHULTE, Dr.Jur.,
Professor of German FocleslaWiCat Law and of the HUtory of
Law, Unlverdty o Boun.
VICTOR SCHULTZE, Th.D.,
professor of Church History and Christian Arebeology, Unfver
alty of Grelfawald.
HANB SCHULZ, Ph.D.,
GpmnasiW Professor at Steplttz, near Berlin.

LUDWIG SCHULZE, Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Rostock.
OTTO Sera, MD.,
Educator in Leipsic, Germany.
SEI~THOLD $EE810W, Thm.,
Professor of Systematic Theology. University of Berlin.

EMIL BEHLINGF, Dr.Jnr.,
Professor of Ecclesiastical and Commercial Law. University of
Eriangen

)RICH	ANTON EIM BIEFIFEHT,
	Ph.D., Th.D.,
Professor of Dogmatics and New Testament Exegesis, Univer
atY of Bonn.
NNOM ELIAS STEIDTIMYEE, Ph.D.,
Professor of German Language and Literature, University of
Erlangen.

G31ORG EDUARD STEM (t), Th‑D.,
Late Pastor in Frankfort‑on‑tbe‑Main.
ALFRED BTOECBIUS, Ph.D.,
Astor Library, New York.
'XRXA'N LEBERECHT BTBAC'S, Ph.D.,
Th.D.,
Extraordinary Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and Semitic
Languages, University of Berlin.
CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME II.
PAUL TBCHACEEBT, PhM, Th.D.,
of Church History, Univeretty of GaWcen.

JOHANN GzRXARDU3KLXORN`(f)1Th‑D‑1
Late conefetorial Councilor. Hanover.

HARvzs xICHARDSOH VINCENT, D.D.,
Professor of Blew Testament Exegesis and Orttlaism, Union
Theological Seminary, New York.

WILHELE< VOGT (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis. University of Hos
took.

STACY REUBEN WAXIMSTON,
AssistantEdftor of The Baptist MtastortaryXap=tne. Boston.

BENJAIKIN BzEC31Cnt8InGB WA'RYZELD,
D.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Didactic and Polemical Theology; Princeton The&
logical Seminary.

AUGUST WILHXLX WERNER, Th.n.,
Pastor Prlmarius, GubM Prussia.

HIS XETHERAL'L WHITLOCK,
Pastor of the Bethlehem Congregational Church. Cleveland. 0.

RICHARD PAUL WUELSEB, Ph.D.,
Professor of Engiifiih. University of leipsic,

AUGUST WURNBCHE, Ph.V., Th.D.,
Titular Professor in Dresden.

THEODOR ZAHN, Th.D., Litt.D.,
Professor of New Testamput Exegesis and Introduction, Uni
versity of Erlangen.
HEINRICH ZIMHEB4 rh.D.,
Professor of Celtic Philology, University of Berlin.

OTTO ZOECSLER (t), Ph.D., Th.D.,
Late Professor of Church History. University of Greilswald.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑VOLS. I AND II
The following list of books is supplementary to the bibliographies given at the end of the articles
contained in volumes I and 1I, and brings the literature down to November, 1908. In this list each
title entry is printed in capital letters.
ABRAHAM: F. Wilke, War Abraham sine histarische Peraonlichkeit I Leipsic, 1907.
ABULFARAJ: Bar Hebraeus, Buch der Strahlen. Die groasere Grammatik des Barhebraeus. Ueberaetzung nach einem krdiach berichtigen Texts mit textkritischem Apparat and einem Anhang: Zur Termino1oqie, by A. Moberg. Ein^ leitung and vol. ii., Leipsic, 1907 (the first part has not yet appeared).
AFRICA: J. D. Mullens, The Wonderful Story of Uganda, London, 1908.
A. H. Baynes, South Africa, London, 1908.
R. H. Milligan, The Jungle Folk of Afrmea, New York, 1908.
AGNosneisnr: HX. Sheldon, Unbelief in the Nineteenth Century, New York, 1907.
AORAPHA: C. R. Gregory, Das Freer‑Logion, Leipsic, 1908 (on the Logia‑fragments possessed by C. L. Freer, of Detroit).
B. Pick, Parali	Remains of Gospels and
	Sayings of Christ 		o, 1908.
ALEXANDER IV.. F. Tenekhoff, Papet Alexander IV., Paderborn, 1907.
ALEXANDER OF HALES: K. Heim, Das Wesen der Gnade and ihr Verhdltnis zu den naturlichen Funktionen des Menschen bei Alexander Halesius, Leipsic, 1907.
ALTAR: R. Kittel, Studien zur hebrtiiachen Arrhdologle, i.118‑158, Leipsic, 1908.
MOROSE, SAINT, OF MILAN: J. E. Niederhuber, Die Eschatologie des heiligen •Ambrvatus, Paderborn, 1907.
P. de Labriolle, S. Ambroise, Paris, 1908.
ANGELS: R. W. Britton, Angels, their Nature and Service, London, 1908.
	APOCRYPHA: L. Couard, Die religiosen and sittlichen
	Anachauungen der alltestamentlichen Apok
ryphen and Pa 	phen, Giiteraloh, 1907.
A. Fuchs, Te = UntersuAungen zum
hebrhiachen Ekklesiadikus, Freiburg, 1907
R. Smend, Grrieehiseh‑ayrisch‑hebraiseher Index zur Weisheit des Jesus Sirach, Berlin, 1907.
F. Steinmetzer, Neue Untemuchungen fiber die Gesehichtlichkeit der JuditherzdMung, Leipsic, 1907.
J. Miiller, Beitr*e zur Erkldrung and Kra& des Buches Tobit, Giessen, 1908.
AroLoGETies: W. H. Turton, The Truth of Chris. tianity: a Manual of Christian Evidences, Londont1908.
E. F. Scot, The Apologetic of the New Testament, New York, 1908.
H. Egerton, The Liberal Theology and the Ground of Faith; being Essays towards a con. aerroative Restatement of Apologetic, London, 1908.
APosTowc CONBTmOTIONs: F. X. Funk, Didascalia et constitutiones apostolorum 1.11., Paderborn, 1906.
ARABIA: R. Dusdsud, Les Arabes en Syrie avant l'Islam, Paris, 1907.
ARCHEOLOGY, BIBLICAL: I. Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie, Tiibingen, 1907.
ARCHITECTURE. A. K. Porter, Medieval Architecture, New York, 1908.
ARIANISM: 8. Rogals, Die Anfdnge des arianischen Streites, Paderborn, 1907.
ART: S. F. H. Robinson, Celtic Illuminative Art in the Gospel Books of Durrow, Lindisfarne and Kills, London, 1908.
J. R. Allen Celtic Art in Pagan and Christian Times, Philadelphia, 1908.
Margaret E. Tabor, The Saints in Art, New York, 1908.
Asezxicism: Bibliotheca Franciscans ascetics medii aim,, vol. iv., Quarrachi, 1907.
AsRERAH: F. Lund n, Die Benvtzung der P n• zenwelt in der sltteatamentlichen Rely, Giessen , 1908.
ASIA	MINOR: F. Stahelin, Geschichte der kleiri
	atiatischen Galater, 2d ed., Leipsic, 1907.
AssYRIA: A. T. Olmstead, Western. Asia in the Days
	of Sargon of Assyria, B.C. 7,1',_ 706, New York,
	1908.
AuGsBuia, Btsaormc or: A. Steichele, Dos Bisthum Augaburg , hiatofisch and atatistisch beschrieben, vol. vii., Augsburg, 1906 sqq
AUGSBURG CONFESSION AND ITS APOLOGY: Ada comiciarum Augudae ex litteria Philippc Jonae et allorum ad M. Luther, ed. G. Berbig, Leip. sic, 1907.
AUGUSTINE, SAINT, of HIPPO: B. Dombart, Zur Taxtoeschichte der Civitas Dei Augustine seit dim 1ntatehen der. ersten .Drucke, Lexpsie,1907.
O. Blank, Die Lehre des heiligen Augustinus vom Sakramente der Eucharistie, Paderborn, 1906.
F. X. Eggersdorfer, Der heiZige Augustinus ale Pddagoge and seine Bedeutung fur die Geschichte dEr Bildung, Freiburg, 1907.
P. Friedrich, Die Mariologie des heiligen Augus• tinus, Cologne, 1907.
O. Zknker, Der Primat ass WiZlena roor dim Intellect bei Augustin, Giitersloh, 1907.
Scripts contra Donatistas, part i., ed. Petschenig, Lelpsic, 1908.
Saint Augustine of Hippo, with Introduction by the Bishop of .Southampton (The Library of the Soul), London, 1908
H. Seeker Augustin. Studien zu seiner peis. Elud%Lei
		~~AVGV sCkpluus	E 3.
Augustini, vol. iii., Papiae (Rome), 1907.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑VOLUMES I AND II
BABYLONIA: M. Jastrow, Die Religion Babylonien8 and Assyriens, Giessen, 1907.
Early Sumerian Psalms; Texts in Transliteration with Transl., Critical Commentary and Introduction Lei Bile, 1908.
O. A. Toffteen, Researches in Assyrian and Babylonian Geograph ; part 1, Chicago, 1908.
H. Radau, Bel, the Gnat of Ancient Times, Chicago, 1908.
BACH, J. S.: H. Perry , Life of Johann Sebastian Bach, New York, 1908.
BAMBERG, BISHOPRIC OF: H. T. von Kohlhagen, Daa Domkapitel des alien Bisthums Bamberg and seine Canoniker, Bamberg, 1907.
J. Kiirber, Lose Blotter au8 meines Bruders Leben and SkriPten. Ein Snick Bamberger Geschichte als ScherjWn zum 9. Biathumecentenar, Bamberg, 1907.
J. Looshorn, Die Geschichte des Bisthums Bam.berg. Nach den Quillen bearbeitet, vol vii., Daa Bisthum Bamberg 1729‑1808, Bamberg, 1907 sqq
BANKS, L. A.. Sermons which have Won Souls, New York, 1908.
BAPTIsm: J. T. Christian, The Form o Baptism in SC7d ture and Art, Louisville, K , 1907
J. M. Lpupton, De baptismo, Cambri4e, 1908.
BAPTISTS: J. S. Flory, Literary Ad~vdy of the German Baptist Brethren in the Eighteenth Century, Elgin, Ill., 1908.
E. Y. Mullens, The Axioms of Reli~iorz; a New Interpretation of the Baptist Fauh, Philadelphia, 1908.
BARLAAM AND JOBOPHAT: Gui von Cambrai and Josophas, nach dem Handschriften von Paris and Monte Cassino, ed. Carl Appel, Halle, 1907.
BARNABAB: " Epistle," ed. Jos. Vizzini, Rome, 1907.
BEECHER, H. W.: S. M. Griswold, Sixty Years with Plymouth Church, New York, 1907.
BEECHER, W. J.: The Dated Events of the Old Testament: being a Presentation of Old Testament Chronology, Philadelphia, 1908.
BEET,	J. A.: The Church, the Churches, and the
	Sacraments, London, 1907.
A Shorter Manual of Theology, London, 1908
BEHAISM: Les Lefons de Saint‑Jean‑d'Acre d'AdOul‑Bgha; recueillQs par Laura Clifford Barney, traduit du persan par Hippolyte Drei 4% Paris, 1908.
Abdu,(u
B ha. Some answered Questions: Collected and Translated from the Persian by Laura Cliford, Philadelphia, 1908.
BENEDICT OF NuRSIA: L. Delisle, Le Livre de Jean de Stavelot our S. Benoit, Paris, 1908.
Studien and Mitteilungen au8 derv Benedidinerund dem Cidercienser‑Order, 28 Jahrgang, Raigen, 1907.
Die Regel dea. heiligen Benedidus erklart in ihrem geschickflichen Zusammenhang and mit besonderer Rucksicht auf das geistliche Leben, Freiburg 1907.
G. Meier, Der heal%ge Benedikt and aein Order, Regensburg, 1907
BENEDICTION: W. H. Dolbeer, The Benediction, Philadelphia, 1908.
BENNETT, W. H.: The Religion of the Post‑Exilic Prophets, Edinburgh, 1907.
The Life of Christ according to St. Mark, London, 1907.
BENTLEY, RICHARD: A. T. Bartholomew, Richard B1908entley, a Bibliography of his Works, London,
BERKELEY, G.: The Principle of Human Knowledge, new ed., London, 1907.
The Querist; containing Several Queries pro. posed to the Consideration of the Public, parts 1‑3, Dublin, 1735‑37, reprinted Baltimore, 1908.
BERNARD, SAINT, OFCLAIRVAUX: On Consideration. Translated by George Lewis, London, 1908.
BEBANT, A.: London Lectures of 1907, London, 1907.
BEZA, T.: A Tragedie of Abraham's Sacrifice, trans]. b Arthur Golding, ed. M. W . Wallace, Toronto, 1906.
BIBLE SOCIETIES: J. Fox, Round the World for the American .Bible Society, New York, 1908.
BIBLE	VERSIONS, A, III.: F. C. Burkitt, Early
	Eastern Christianity, lest. 2, New York, 1904.
The Four Gospels from the Codex Corbeienais
London,1908.
BIBLE VERSIONS, B, IV.: A. F. Gasquet The Old English Bible, and Other Essays, Rew York, 1908.
M. B. Riddle The Story of the Revised New Testament, Philadelphia, 1908.
J. I. Mombert, Handbook, 2d ed. London, 1907.
M. W. Jacobus, ed., Roman Catholic and Protestant Bibles Compared: the Gould Prize Essays, 2d ed., New York, 1908.
F. Vi&ouroux, Didwnnaire de la Bible, fasc. xxvlll. cols. 1549‑51, Paris, 1906.
BIBLICAL CRITICISM: J. R. Cohn, The Old Testament in the Light of Modern Research, London, 1908.
BIBLICAL INTRODUCT7oN: A. Schulz, Biblische
	Studien, ed. O. Bardenhewer, vol, xii., part 1,
	Doppemerichte im Pentateuch. Ein Heitrag
	zur Einleitung in‑das Alte Testament, Frel
	burg, 1908.,
C. Rbsch, Die heiligen Schriften des Alien Testaments; ausfiihrliche Inhalt&ubemicht mit kurzgefaaster ,spezieller Einleitung, Munster, 1908.
F. Barth Einleitung in das New Testament, GiiteWoh 1908
C. F. G. Ifeinrici, Der litterariache Charakter der neutestamentlichen Schrzjten Le Ipsic,1908.
BIBLICAL' HEOLOGY: R. S. Fran&s, ~he New Testament Doctrines of Man, Sin, and Salvation, London 1908.
BLACK, H.: Gi'hriat's Service of Love [Communion sermons and meditations), New York, 1907.
BLAVATSKY, H. V.: F. S. Hoffman, The Sphere of Relxgwn, New York, 1908.
BLISS, E. M.: The Missionary Enterprise, New York, 1908.
BOEHME, J.: The Supersensual Life or the Life which is above Sense, Eng. traQ. by W. Law, new ed., London, 1907.
BoETHivs: In 1sagogee Porph i comments, ed.
	S. Brandt, Vienna and 1~ psic, 1906.
BONET‑MAURY, G.: France, chridianisme et civilization, Paris, 1907.
BOOTH, W.: The Seven Spirits: or, What 1 teach

BoRRom'yEoO
	, mfficers, Nunt%atur~von Giovanni Fran
cesco Bonhomini 1579‑1581. Documents vol.
i., Die Nuntiaturberichte Bonhominis and seine
Carrespondenz mit Carlo Borromeo au8 dem
Jahre 1579, Solothurn, 1906.
BOSTON, T.: A General Account of my Life, ed. G. D. Low, London, 1908.
BOUSSET, W.: What is Religion? London, 1907.
BOYD, A. K. H.: Sermons and Stray Pa era.. With Biographical Sketch by Rev. W. W. Tulloch, London, 1907.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX‑VOLUMES I AND II
BRAHMANISM: J. C. Oman, The Brahmins, Theists, and Muslims of India, London, 1907.
L. D. Barnett, Brahma‑Knowledge, an Outline of the Philosophy of the Vedanta, set forth by the Upanishads and by Sankara, London, 1907.
M. Bloomfield, The Religion of the Veda, the Ancient Religion of Index, New York, 1908.
BRENT, C. H.: Leadership: The William Belden oble Lectures . . . at . . . Harvard, New York, 1908.
BRESLAU, BISHOPRIC OF: Geschichte des Breslauer Domes and Seine Wiederherstellung, Breslau, 1907.
Verofentlichungen aus dem fiirstbischofichen DxozesanrArchiv zu Breslau, Breslau, 1905

BREVIARY: A. Schulte, Die Psalmen des Breviers nebst den Cantica zum praktischen Gebrauche, Paderborn, 1907.
BRIDGET, SAINT, OF KILDARE: J. A. Knowles, St. Brigid, Patroness of Ireland, London, 1907.
BRIDGET SAINT, OF SWEDEN: K. rogh‑Tonning, Die heilige Birgitta in Schweden, Kempten, 1907.
BROOKE, S. A.: The Sea Charm of Venice, London, 1907.
Studies in Poetry, London, 1907.
BROWN, A. J.: The Forein Missionary, An Incarnation of a World Movement, New York, 1907.
BROWNE, ‑R.: C. Burrage, The ".Retractation " of Robert Browne, Father of Congregationalism, London, 1907.
BROWNE, SIR THOMAS: Works, ed. C. Sayle, 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1907.
BUDDHISM: Jataka, by E. B. Cowell, Vol. vi., New York, 1907.
P. L. Narasu, The Essence of Buddhism, London, 1907.
D. T. Suzuki, Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism, London, 1907 (Japanese).
Soyen Shaku, Sermons of a Buddhist Abbot, London, 1907.
Taba Kanai, The Praises of Amida. Seven Buddhist Sermons. Translated from the Japanese by Rev. A. Lloyd, London, 1907.
H. F. Hall, The Inward Light, 2d impression, London, 1908 (Buddhism in Burmah).
K. won Hase, New Testament Parallels in Buddhi8tic Literature, New York, 1908.
BULLINGER, H.: Bullingers Korrespondenz mit den Graubfndern, part iii., Oct., 1566‑June, 1575, ed. T. Schiess, Basel, 1906.
BURNET, G.: T. E. S. Clarke and (Miss) H. C. Foscroft, Life of Gilbert Burnet, Bishop of Salisbury; with Bibliographical Appendizes; and an Introduction by C. H. Firth, London and New York, 1908.
CABALA: Kabbala denudata. The Kabbalah Unr veiled: containing the following books from the Zohar: the Book of Concealed Mystery, the Greater Holy Assembly, the Lesser Holy Assembly, translated into English, New York, 1908 (republication of edition of 1887).
CAJETAN, T.: P. Kalkoff, Cardinal Cayetan auf derv Augsburger ReichsEaqa won 1518, Rome, 1907.
CALVIN, J.: A. Dide, Michel Servet et Calvin, Paris, 1907.
CAMBRIDGE PLATONISTS: E. A. George, The Seventeenth Century Men of Latitude; the Forerunners of the New Theology, London, 1908.
CAMPBELL, R. J.: Christianity and the Social Order, London, 1W8.
Thursday Mornings at the City Temple, London, 1908.
CANON of SCRIPTURE: J. Leipoldt, Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanona, 2 parts, Leipsic, 1907‑08.
CANONESSES: K. H. Schafer, Die Kanonissenstif ter im
	deutschen Mittelalter. Ihre Entwicklung and
	innere Einrichtung im Zusammenhang mxt dem
	altchristl. Sanktimonialentum, Stuttgart, 1907.
CAPITo, W.: P. Kalkoff, W. Canto im Dienste Erzbischof Albrechts won Mainz, Berlin, 1907.
CAPUCHINS: Veroffentlichungen aus dem Archiv der rhein‑westfdlxschen Kapuzinerordensprovinz, Mainz, 1907.
CARLSTADT, A. R. B. VON: K. Miiller, Luther and Karlstadt. Stiicke aus ihrem gegenseitigen Verhdltnis untersucht, Tiibingen, 1907.
CARMELITES: Monumenta historica Carmelitana, Vol. i., Lirin, 1905‑07.
CARTHAGE, SYNODS or: A. AIcais, Figures et recits de Carthage chr9tienne, Paris, 1907.
CATECHISMS: F. Cohrs, Die evangelischen Katechismusversuche vor Luthers Enchiridion, Berlin, 1907.
CATHARINE OF SIENNA: The Dialogue, tranal. by Algar Thorold, new and abridged ed., London, 1907.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
[Abbreviations in common use or self‑evident are not included here. For additional information concerning the works listed, see vol. i., pp. viii.‑ax., and theappropriate articles is the body of the work.]
Am ....
AMA.........
	ADB .		. . . . . I `Illge'^eine deutsche Biographic, Leipaie'
		1875 aqq., vol. 53, 1907
	Ado		adroersua, against
	AJP .	. . . . . . . . ~ American Journal of Philology, Balti
		more, 1880 sqq.
	AJT. . . . . ~ American Journal of Theology, Chicago,
		1897 sqq.
	AKR		Archiro ftir kathdiuhss Rirdenrscht,
		Innsbruck, 1857‑81, Mains, 1872 sqq.
		Archis fitr Littaratur‑ and Kirchonpo‑
	ALKG .	achichte do Mstfelaltsn, Freiburg,
		1885 eqq.
		AAW,~andluaspen der MUnchena• Akadern'se,
		Munich, 1783 sqq.
		'Ante‑Nicene Fathers American edition
	ANF .	~ by A. Cleveland doze, 8 vola. and in
		dex, Buffalo. 1887; vol. ix., ed. Allan
		Menzies, New York, 1897
	Apoc .		Apocrypha, apocryphal
	Apd .		Apolopia, Apology
	Arab 	Arabic
	Aram . . . . . . . . . . 	Aramaic
...article
...$chmalkaid Articles
Ads sanctorum, ad. J. Bolland and others,
. . . .: . .. . . . ~ Antwerp, 1843eq q
ASM	Acta Mnerum ordtnia S. Benadicti, ed.
	J. Mabillon, 9 vole., Marie, 1888‑1701
Am*',Assyrian
A. T... . . . . . . . ...Altee Testament, " Old Testament "
	Augs. Con .		Augsburg Confession
	A. V	..	..	...		Authorized Version (of the English Bible)
	AZ .					AUpemeine Zeitunp, Augsburg, Tubingen,
					Stuttgart, and ZnUbihgen, 1798 sqq.
	Baldwin,
Dictionary ... ~ J. M. Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 3 vole. to 4, New York, 1901‑05
Benzinger, ~ I. Bensinger, Hebrdiache Archaolopie,
	Archtsotapie... 7d ad.. Freiburg, 1907
Bertholdt, ~ L• BerthoIdt, Historiach‑Rritiache E%n‑
Einleitung ....		ng • . den Alters and Neuen Tts
	laments, 8 vole., Erlangen, 18I2‑19
..British and Foreign Bible Society
. ~ J. Bingham, Oripinea ecrlesaaa<ioz, 10
vats., London, 1708‑‑22; new ed.,
	Oxford 1855
M. Bouquet, Ruueil den hiaforiena des
cued	Gauia et de la Prance, continued by
	various hands, 23 vole., Paris, 1738‑78
	Archibald Bower, History of the Popes
	. to 1768, continued by $. H. Cox,
3 viols. Phihuiel his, 1845‑47
BQR . .. . . . . . . . . I BapM t	‑ ~~"t°' Phi]adelphis,
	1887 sqq.
BRG... ... . . .. ...See JsffB
	Cant .		Canticlea, Song of Solomon
	cap .		caput, chapter '
erAuteun~ R. Ceillier, His3oire den autcura sacra et
		. , tiquea, 18 vole. in 17, Paris,
		1858‑69
	Chron .		CAronicon," Chronicle "
	I Chron .		I Chronicles
	II Chron .		II Chronicles
	C1G .	..	..	. Col '~ ~ m Grm• Berlin,
	CIL .	. 		. Corpus ~'~pt'°num Latinarum, Berlin,

CIS . . ... . C°'~ "'"criptionum 3emiticarum, Paris. 1881 sqq.
	cod 			codex
	cod. D	............	coder Bercr
	cod. Theod		codez TAmdoaianua
	Col .		Epiatle to the Colossians
	cal	cols		column. columns
	Conf. . 	. . . . . .		Confesaiones. " Confessions •.
	I Car 	. . .		1•'irvt Epistle to the Corinthians
art ............
Art. $chmal....
ASB..........
BFBS .........
Bingham,
	Oripines .....
Bouquet, Re
Bower, Popes...
	II Cor .		$econd Epistle to the Corinthians
	COT .		$ee 8ohradw
CQR . . . . . . . . . . ~ T~ Church Quarterly Resieto, London, 1875 sqq.
C	refarmatarum, begun at Halls,
	CR .	..	.	1&34, vol. laaaiz., Berlin and Leipeie,

	1905 BE Craig ton. A History of the Papacy
Creighton,	from the Great Schism to the Sack of
	Papacy 	Rome, new ed., B vole., New. York and
		London, 1897
CSEL .... . . . . . . fC°pu° neriptorum ecclesioaticaum Laknoram, Vienna, 1887 eqq.
CSHB... . . .. . . . ~ Corpus scriptorum historic; Byzantina•., 49 vats., Bonn, 1828‑78
Carrier, Religious ~ C. W. Carrier, History of Religious Orders,
	Orders 	. . . New York, 1898
	D .	Deuteronomiet
	DACL .	. . ~ F• Csbrol, Dictiannaise d'orchioiopie chr6
		tienae d de liturgic, Paris, 1903 sqq.
	Dan 	Daniel
		j J. Hsati~ Dictionary of the Bible, 4
	DB .	vole. and extra vol., Edinburgh and
		New York, 1898‑1904
		W. Smith and $. Cheatham, Dictionary
DCA . . ... . . . . . . ~ of Christian Antiquities, 2 vole.. London,
		1875‑80
		W. Smith and H. Wane, Dictionary of
	DCB: .	Christian Biography, 4 vole., Boston,
		1877‑87
		J. Hastings, J. A. 9elbie, and J. C. Lam‑
DCG. . . . . . . . . .bent, A Dictionary of Christ and the Gor
pela,Fdinburgh and New York, 1906 sqq.
Dent . . . . . . . . . . . .. Deuteronomy
De t•ir, ill .... . . ...De rosria illuatn2ue
De Wette‑ ~ W. M. L. de Watts, Lekrbuch der hir
Schrader, Bin_ toriack‑kritiachen Einleitunp in die
	leitunp .	. Bilxl, ed. E. Schrader, Berlin, 1889
	DGQ .		.See Wattenbach
		L. Stephen and $. Lee, Dictionary
	DNB 	National Biopraphg, 83 vole. a
		supplement 3 vole., London, 1885‑1901
Driver, lnboduc‑~ $' R. Driver, Introduction to the Literature
		of the Old Teatanuat, 5th ad., New
	tion		~ 'York, 1894
	E .		Ebhiet
		T. K. Ch ey~ and J. $. Black, EneyeTo‑
	EB .	podia Biblica, 4 vats	London and
		Nedr York. 1899‑1903
	Eccl. , . . 	. . . . . 	Eeclesia. ' Ch usah :	ticaa, •. ee
			cleaiastical
	Eccles . . . 	. . . . . 	Ecclesiastes
	Ecclus .				Ecclesisaticua
	ed .				edition: edictst, ` edited by "
	Eph .		..	...	Epistle to the E heasne
	Epist . . . . . . : . .Epiatola, Epistald, ' Epistle," " E tetlea "
Etsch and Gru‑` J. $. Ereeh end J. G. Gruber, Alms
	bar, Encyklo‑j Encvklop6die der Wisserurhaften and
	ygdie .	..	. Renate, Leipeie. 1818 eq
	E.V	..	..	..	...		English versions (of the Bite)
	Ex 					Exodus
	Ezek 					Ezekiel
	fasc						faacicutua
Friedrich, KD.. .~ J• Friedrich, Kirchenpeschiehte Deutach
	landa, 2 vole., Bamberg, 1867‑89
Fritasche, Exe‑ `O• F. Fritasc6e and	C. L. W. Grimm,
	petisdua Hand‑ jl Kurzoafaaaka	ischea Handbuch
	buck		zu den Apoeryphen den AZten Tesfa
		""	meats, 8 parts Zurich, 1851‑60
	Gal 	.....		E iatle to the Galatians
Gee and Hardy, ~ ~ Z woe w'Ettpl%ahHardy, reh History,
	Docamenta .. .. London, 1898
	Gen .			Geneaia
	Germ	. . 	German
	GCA, 	J t"'Uingiache yelehrte Anzeipen, Gottingen,
11824 sqq.

Gibbon. Decline ~ E' Gibbon, History of the Decline and and Fall . . . . . . Fall of the Roman Empire, ed. J. B.
			Bury, 7 vole. London, 1898‑1900
	Gk		: 	Greek, Greciaec~
Gre Z, ~ C. R. Gregory, TeztL,•ilik des Neuen Testa~stik .. ... merle, 2 vole., Leipaic 1901‑02
C. Gross, The Sources and Literature of
Gross, Sources.. ~ English History'. . . to 1/,86, London,
			1900
	Hab .		Habakkuk
Haddanand		A. W. Haddon and W. Stubbs, Councils
	Stubbs, Coup‑		and Ecckswaticat Documents Relating
	. , • . ,		k Great Britain and Ireland, 3 vole.,
			Oxford, 1889‑78
		Refers to patristic works on heresies or
	Haw ....... . . . . .		heretics, Tertullian a Do pr aacriptione,
			the Pros hairssema of Irens;us, the
			Panarion of Epiphaniue, etc.
	Hag		Hegg si
HarduinCon‑ ~ J. Aarduin, Concfliorum collectio repia
	cilia		'. 	. . . . .	maxima, 12 vole., Paris, 1715
A. Harnack, History of Dogma . from
Harnaek, Dogma ~ the 3d Germdn edition, 7 vole., Boston,
			1895‑1900
			A. Harnack, Guchichk der alkhriah
			Eroehen Latteratur bia Euaebius, 2 vole.
			in 3, Leipeic 1893‑1904
			A. Hauck, fCirchenputhichk Deukch
			landa, vol. i., Leipeic, 1904; vol. ii.,
			1900; vol. iii., 1908; vol. iv., 1903
			'Realencyklopddie far 1roketantiache The
			' olopie and Kirtht, founded by~ J. J.
			Herzog, 3d pd. by A. Hauck, Leipaic,
.
	Heb	. . . 	E 1898 eqq.
		pistle to the Hebrews
	Hebr .		Hebrew
Hefele,Concilien‑ G• J.. von Hefele, Concilienpeachichk, con‑
gchichte*	tinued by J. Hergenr6ther, 9 vols.,
	so 	Freiburg, 1883‑93
Heimbucher, Or‑ M. Heimbuoher, Die Order and Konpre‑
den and Kon‑	pationen der kathol%achen Kirche, 2
	prepationen .	vole. Psderborn 1896‑97
Helyot, Ordru	P. Helyot, Hiatoire du ordrea monae
		tiques, relipieux et militai>‑u, 8 vole.,
		Paris, 1714‑19; new ed., 1839‑42
Henderson, Doe‑~ E. F. Henderson, Select Historical Docuumenta . . . . . . . merle of the Middle Ages, London, 1892
	Hiet .		Hietory, sstoire, hiatoria
	Hid. eul. 		j Hiatoria eccksiaetica, eakaio:. " Church
		1 History'
Hon .... . . . .. . ...HomiZia, homsliai. .. homily, homilies "
	Has 	Hoses
	lea 	Isaiah
	Ital 	Italian
	J		Jahviet (Yahwiet)
	JA 	...		Journal Aaiatiqua, Paris, 1822 eqq.
	Jaffd, BRG. . . . ~ P' Jaffd' Bibliotheca rerun Germani‑
carum, 8 vole., Berlin, 1884‑73
	(P. Jaff6, Regeata pontificum Romanorum
Jaff6, Repeats ... .	ad annum 1188. Berlin, 1851;
	2d ed., Leipsic, 1881‑88
JAOS . . . . . . . . . { Journal of the American Oriental Society,
		New Haven, 1849 eqq.
		Journal of Biblical Literature and Eupe
		sia, first appeared as Journal of the
	JBL .		Society of Bsblscal Literature end Eax
		puia, Middletown, 1882‑88; then Bos
		ton, 1890 eqq.
	JE	. . . . . . ~ The Jewish Encyclopedia, 12 vole., New
		York, 1901‑08
	JE .	........	..~ The combined narrative of the Jahciet
			(Yahwiet) and Elohiat
	Jer .			Jeremiah
Joesphus,Ant...~Flavrus Joeephue, "Antiquities of the
	Jews "
Joeephuq, APion.. .Flaviue Joeephua, " Against Apion "
Josephue. Lsfe,....Life of Flaviw, Joeephua
Joeephue, War .....Flsvius Josephus, The Jewish War"
	Josh 		Joshua
JPT..........
Hauck, KD .....
Hauck‑Herzog,
RE ......
	JQR .		,
JTS.........
Julian, Hym‑
JW~T.~.......
RAT.........
		~ Jahrbttchw fur prokstantische Thedopie,
		Leipeic. 1875 eqq.
		The Jewish Quarterly Review, London,
		Journal o7• Theological Studies, London,
		1898 eqq. t
		J. r vied ~tionnary don, o~90H7~r
		Jaarboakan your weknaehpyalijka Theo
		~op,~ Utrecht, 1845 eqq .
.			See~chrader
	KB .		l3ee Schrader
	%D .		See Friedrioh, HSU R.ettberg
		We' and Welfe'a Kirehenkxikos, 2d
	KL .	ed., by J. Hergenrbther end F.13sulen,
		12 vo~, Freibura, 1882‑1903
		G. 73rUger, Hya~y of Early Christian
HrOgs4 History	Likralun in •fhe lt'irat Three Csnlurlu,
	New York, 1897
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Krumbacher, ~ g' ~b~her, Guchichk der byzanGeschichk ..... bnLitteratur. 2d ed., Munich. 1897
'P. Lsbbe, Sacrorum concliorum nova Labbe, Conciiia j et ampliaaima collectio, 31 vole., Flor‑
		ence and Venice, 1759‑98
	Lam 	Lamentations
Lanigan, Ecc1. ~ J. Lanigan, Ecclesiastical History of
	Hut 	Ireland W the 13th Century, 4 vole.,
		Dublin, 1829
	Lat .		Latin, Latinized

LLeg ev . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Leviticus
Legm

Lichtenberger,	F' Lichtenberger, Encyclop6die du aci‑
ESR . . . . . . . .ences raligieuaea' 13 vole., Paris, 1877‑
1882
G. Lorenz, Deukchdanda Guchichkquch
Lorena. DGQ . . . i kn in Mittelalkr, 3d. ed., Berlin, 1887
	LXX .		The Septuagint
	I Mace 	I Maccabees
	II Mace 	II Maccabees
Mai, Nova cot‑ I A. Msi, Scriptorum roeterum nose coY lcctio. , , , , . . . . lectio, 10 vole., Rome, .182rYr38
Mai . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Mslachi
Mann, Popes.. , , ~ RCMann, Lieu of the Pope* in the
		EMiddle Ages, London, 1902 eqq.
		G:t; Msnsi, Sanctorum conciliorum
	Manei, Concilia	coiledio nova, 31 vole., Florence and
		Venice, 1728
	Matt 	Matthew y
McClintock and	M ~ub~ir~oc~ Theological, Strong, ~clo Epcclesi‑
$trong, Cyc(o‑	adicl Vie, 10 vole. and eupple‑
	Podm • • • 	' 	meat 2 vole., New York, 1889‑87
			Monuments Germanic: hiatorica, ed. G. H.
			Portz and others, Hanover and Ber
			lin, 1828 eqq. The following abbrevia
			tions are used for the sections and sub
			sections of this work: Ant., Ai_
			take, Antiquities ; Aud. ant., uc
			tore antiguiaaimi, " Oldest Writers ";
			Chron. min., Chronica minors, Lesser
			Chronicles'; Dip., Diplomala, Di
			plomaei Documents ; Epiet., Epia
			khe, Letters; Goof. port. Rom.,
			Geata pontificum Romanorum, ' Deeds
			of the Popes of Rome "• ~., Lepu,
			Laws"; Lib. de tile, Lice i de tile
			inter re Qnum et sacer<lotium aaculorum
			xi et zam conecrtpti, Books concerning
			the Strife between the Civil and Eccle‑
			siastical Authorities in the Eleventh
			and Twelfth Centuries Nee., Ne
~i		crokpia Oetmanim, 14e‑:of
			Germany"; Poi. Let. drri Car.,
			Poeto: Latirti aryl Carolini, " Latin
			Poets of the Caroline Time"; Poet.
			Let, med. anti, Poetd Latini medii dvi,
			Latin Poets of the Middle Aaee ";
Script.. Scrsptoru, Writers '• Sortpt:
rer. war", Scriptoru rerun tiermani
carum, . ' Writers on German Sub
jects "; Scrfipt. rer. Lanpob„ Scriptoru
rarum Lange bardicarum et ltalrocarum,
" Writers on Lombard sad Italian
Subjects "; Script. rer. Mom. Scrip.
toree rerum Merovinpicarum. ' Writers
on Merovingian Subjects'
Mimh
H. H. Milmsn History of Latin Chria‑
	Milman, Zs tin ~ tianity, Including dud of the Popes' to
	Christianity	.	iliclwlas ~., 8 • vole	London,
		C. Mirbt, Quaikn our Guchichk du Paprt
	Mirbt, Qusllen:	tuns xnd des rthnssa'<sn Kathdieiemxe,
		Ttlbingen, 1901
Mueller, Chris‑	W. Mueller, History of the Christian
	lion Church	Church, 3 vole., London, 1892‑1900
	MP(i .	J. P. Migne, Patrokpiaa cursua compktva,
arise	urea, 182 vole., Paris, 18578
	MPL .		J. P. Migne~ Patrolopioe curaue eompktus,
aeries Latino, 221 vole., Paris, 1844‑84
	M$	MSS .		Msnuacript. Manuscripts
Muratori, Scrip‑ L. A. MuWrit Rerun ltaiicarum scrip.
	tore	. . tore, 28 vole. 1723‑51
		~Nauu ArcAiv is; Geadlachaft W Alters
NAdeutsche GescAichtskxnds. Hanover,
		1878 eqq.
	Nah		Nahum
	n.d		no data of publication
Neander, Chris‑ ~ A• Nesnder. General History of the Christian Church. . . ~n Religion and Church, B vole. sad
				index, Boston, 1872‑81
	Neh .	. 	. . .		Nehemirh
	N i eerun		, 	MR. P. Nioeron, MEmoipour. s.srni.r1'histoirs des hommsa luatrea	43
d
	moi	vole	Paris 1729‑45
~Naua kirc~ Zeikchrift. Leipaic,• 1890
	NKZ .		11	sqq_
MGH ........
Mic ...........

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Nowaek, Archtt‑~W. Nowaek. Lehrbuch der hebrt'•.iachen
	ologie .	. . ArehBolopie, 2 vole	Freiburg, 1894
	n.p		no place of publication
		The Nicene and Post‑Nicene Fathers, Ices
NPNF .. . . . . . . .	aeries, 14 vole., New York, 1887‑92; 2d
	aeries, 14 vole., New York, 1890‑1900
N. T. . . . . . . . . . , ~ New Testament, Novum Teatamentum,
		Nouveau Testament, Neuee Testament
	Num . . . . . . . . 	Numbers
	Ob .		Obadiah
		(J. Wordsworth, H. J. White and others.
	OLBT	. . . . . Old‑Latin Biblical Texts, baford, 1883
		sqq
	O. $. B	. . . . . . . ~ O"d° .°ancti Benedicti• " Order of $t.
		Benedict "
	O. T		Old Testament
	OTJC .		See Smith
	P		Prieatly document
		L. Pastor, The History of the Popes from
pastor, Popes.. . ~	the Close of the Middle Ages, 8 vole.,
	London, 1891‑1902
	PEA . . . . . . . I Palree ., Anglieanw' ed. J. A. Giles,
			34 vole., London, 1&38‑48
	PEF .. 	.........		Palestine Exploration Fund
	I Pet 	. 	First Epistle of Peter
	II Pet .			$econd Epistle of Peter
Pliny, Hiat. nat..Plin . Hietoris naluraZia
Potthast, ' 1Veg‑~ A' ~otthaat, Bibliotheca histories medii
			a:vi. Wegoedaer lurch die Geechichta
	uxiaer .			we,.keBerlin, 1898
	Prov 		Proverbs
	Ps 		Psalms
PSBA. . . . .. . . . .) Proceedings of the Society of Biblical
f	Archeology, London. 1880 egg.
	W.V., qq.v. . . 	. quod (puss) vide, ' which see
	R .		Redactor Ranks, Popes. . . ~ L' von Ranks, History o/ the Popes,
3 vole., London, 1898
	RDM .		Revue dace deuz mondea, Paris, 1831 sqq.
	RE		See Hauck‑Herzog
Reich, Docu‑ ) F. Reich SeleclDocumands Illustrating Memento .. . . . ... . I diteval and Modern Hiatory, London, 1905
	REJ .		Revue rise 6tudee Juives, Paris, 1880 sqq.
RettbOrg, KD... 1 F' W. Rettberg, Kirchenpeachichte Dcutaclr
1	lands, 2 vole., Gottingen, 1848‑48
	Rev 	........		Book of Revelation
	RHR . . . . . ~ Revue do l hiatoire dace religions, Paris,
1880 Net
Richter, Kirchen‑~ A' L. Richter, Lehrbuch dace kaflaoliachen
	recht .			urn evattge7iachen Kirchenrechta, 8th
			ed. by W. Kohl, Leipaic, 1888
Robinson, R e‑ ( E. Robineon. Biblical Re‑searches in searches, and J Palestine, Boston, 1841, and Later Later Re‑ Il Biblical Researches in Palestine, 3d ed. searches.. . . . .. of the whole, 3 vole.. 1887
Robinson, Euro‑ J. H. Robinson, Readings in European peon History.. ~ History, 2 vols, Boston, 1904‑‑08
	Rom .	...	.......		Epistle to the Romans
RSE .. . . . . . . . . . ~ R‑ des sciences ecellsiaatiquea, Arias, 1860‑74, Amiena, 1875 sqq.
RTP. . . . . . . . . . . ~ Revue de th&logia ,. et de philoeophie,
				Lausanne, 1873
	8. V				Revieed Version (of the English Bible)
	sac .				eacuLum, ' century "
	I Sam 	. 	.I Samuel
	II Sam . 	...........	II Samuel
	SBA 		Sitaungaberichte der Berliner Akadtmie;
F1882 eqq.
~Berlin,
. Ilias IHOller and others The Sacred
i	Books of the East, Oxford, 1879 eqq.,
	vol. xlviii., 1904
Sacred Books o/ ribs Old Testament (" Rainbow Bible ), Leipaic, London, and Baltimore, 1894 eq '
P. Schaff, History of ~ Christian Church, vole. i. iv., vi., vii., New York 1882‑92, Vol. v., art 1, by D. $. $chajk, 1907
iP. Schaff, The Creeds of Christendom, 3 vole. New York, 1877‑84
E. Schrader, Cuneiform Inecriytions and the Old Testament, 2 vole., London, 188b‑88
Schrader, KAT . ~ E• Schrader, Die Kealinachriften and dace Alts Testament, 2 vole., Berlin, 1902‑03
; E. Schrader, KeilinsckrijUiche BibGioh,
Schrader, KB. .. 8 vole., Berlin, 1889‑1901
~E. $chflrer, Geachichte dace jiidiachen
S	ll Y olkes im ZeitalterJeau Christi, 3 vole.,
	Ghte		Leipaie, 1898‑1901; Eng. tranal., 5
		vole„ New York, 1891
	Script .		Scr_iptoree, ters . .
$orivener,	F. H. A. $criivwriener, Introduction !o Ness Tea
	Introductian , . ~ 	lament Criticism, 4th ed., 1.ondou,1894
	Sam .		3enkntid Sentences
	$. J. . . . . . 	. . .Societaa leeu, Society of Jesus "
		Theologiaehe 3tudien and Rritiken. Ham
	SK	. burg, 1828 sqq.
	BMA		:	Sitzu~to der Mqnchensr Aka
			demch, 1880 sqq.
$BE ..........
AYBOT ..........
Schaff Chris&# Church .......
Schaff, Creeds...
Schrader, COT. .
Smith, KinehiP.. ~ W Early Smitabh, labia Kinshipondand Marriage in
Smith, OTJC. . . ~ W' R. Smith, The Old Testament in the
	Jewish Church, London, 1892
Smith, Prophets W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel . . to
the Eighth Centurp, London, 1895
Smith, Rel. of W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites,
	Sem .		1 London. 1894
$. P. C. Ii. . , . , , ( $°eiety for the Promotion of Christian
Knowledge
$. P. G. . . . . . , , , ~ Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
		in Foreign Parts
	sq., eqq		and following
Strom . . . . . . . . . . ..Stromata, Miscellanies "
	e.v		aub voce, or sub verbo
Swete, Indroduc‑)H. B. Swats, Introduction to the Old Tea‑
	tion .. . . . 	torment in Greek, London, 1900
	Syr .		$yriac
	TB9. . . . 	.Trinitarian Bible Society
Thatcheaand oMcN,S~ O. J. Thatcher and E. H. McNeal, A
		Source Book for ‑Mediaeval History.
	Book		New York, 1905
	I Thesa .		Firat Epistle to the Thessalonians
	II These .		8econd Epistle to the Thessalonians
ThT . . . . . , , , , , Theolpgiddu Tijdachrift, Amsterdam and
Leyden, 1887 sqq.
Tillemont, M6‑~ L'. $• le Nain de Tillemont, Menwarea ecclearaatiquea dace six premiers m°q'~s"""" aikclea, 18 vole., Paris, 1693‑1712
	I Tim 	.........		First Epistle to Timothy
II Tim . . . . . . . ... . Second Epistle to Timothy
Theologiecher Jahreabericht, Leipaic, 1882‑
TJB ... ... . . .. . 1587. Freiburg, 1888. Brunswick, 1889‑
1897, Berlin, 1898 sqq.
	TLB			77 °Z°gi°ch" Lirblatt, Bonn. 1888
	TLZ			l q Litteratu'Teitu'g• Leipeio,

	Tob . . . . . . . . . 		. . Tobit
	TQ	..	. ~ Th°°logiacha Quarta7achrift, TBbingen,
			1819 sqq.
TS. . . .. .. . . . „ , J. A. Robinson, Texts and Studies,
			Cambridge, 1891 sq q~
	TSBA .			Transactions of the Societg of Biblical
			Arrhceologlt London, 1872 eqq
	TSK .. . . . . . . . ~ The°s Studien und Xratiken, Ham
				burg, 1828 sqq.
				(Texts and Unteraurhungen cur Geachichtt
	TU .	........	.	de'' altchnathchert Ls:kratur, ed. O. von
				Gebhardt and A. Harnack, Leipsic,.
				( 1882 sqq.
	TZT. . . . ~ Tabi°'ger Zeitaehrift /fir Theolopie, Tii
				bingen 1838‑40
Ugolin'i, Thesau‑~ B. Ugolinus, Thesaurus anlaquitatum
	rue 	aacrarum, 34 voleVieux Venice, 1744‑89
	V. T		VetuaTeatamentum, Teetamant. 'Old
		Testament '
Wattenbach,		W• Wattenbaeh, Deutachlanda Geaehichta
	. _ , llen, 5th ed., 2 vole., Berlin, 1885; gue
	ed., 1893‑94
Wellhausen,	) J. 	Wellhausen, Rests arabiachen Heidett‑
Heidentum .... f lama Berlin, 1887
Wellhausen,	J• R'ell6ueen, Prolegomena our Geachichte
	Prolegomena... ~ I"r°els8th ed., Berlin, 	1905, Eng.
tranal.; Edinburgh, 1885
Ztitaehrift	iir Aasyriologie, LeipeiR.
ZA . . . . . . . . . . . .; 1886‑88 lierlin 1889 sqq.
Zahn, Einlei‑ ~ T. Zahn, hinleitung in dace New Teata‑
	tunp . . . 	. . . 3d ed., Leipaic, 1907
		( T. Za~nl~ Geaehichte dace neututamenb
		lichen liariOnd 2 vole., Leipeie, 1888=92
	ZATiV .	~Znft far die aitteatamenUiche Wia
		aenachaft, Giessen. 1881 sqq.
ZDAL. . . . . . . . . ~ Zeitechritt ftir deutachea Alterthum and daub
scheLUemtw Berlin, 1878eqq
ZDMG ... . .. .. . ~ Zift rice deutachen morgenLSndischen
Geaellacha LeiPaie, 1847 sqq.
Zeitarhri/t far deutsche Phildopie, Halle.
1889 sqq.
Zeitachrift dace deuterhsn Paltktina‑Var‑
eina, Leipaic, 1878 eqq .
... Zephaniah
i Zeitachrift far die hiatoriache Theologie,
published successively at Leipai0.
Hamburg and Goths 1832‑75
iZeitaehrift jw' Kircherpeechichfe, Goths,
1878 eqq.
i Zeitechrijt igr Xirchenrxht, Berlin, Ta‑
bingen Freiburg, 1881eq q.
Zeitachrift fvr katkoliaehs Thaologie, Inns‑
bruck, 1877 sqq.
i Zeitadvrift fAr kirchliche Wieaenechajt and
kirchliehea Le6en. Leipeie. 1880‑89 .
Zeitaehrif! for Proteatantiamue and Kirche,
Erlangen, 1838‑78
i Zeitachntt~r uiassruchaf<lieha Thsoiopie,
Jena, 18$8‑80, Halle, 1881‑87, Leipai0. 1868 eqq.
Zahn, Kanon .
ZDP .........
ZDPV....... Zech.......... Zeph.......... ZHT.........
	ZKG		:
ZKR
ZRT..........
ZRW.........
ZPK...........
ZWT..........

SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION
The following system of transliteration hoe been need for Hebrew:
~ _ ' or omitted at the	1= z	p = .
	beginning of a word.	n=4	B=p
2=b	d=1	D=phorp
3=bhorb	`=y
		Y=T
'=g	~_><	P=V
t=ghorg	~=khork	1=r
~=a	5=1	m ‑_'S
~=dhord	n=m
;~=h	1=n	P1 =t
j=w	p=s	n=thort

The vowels are transcribed by a, e, i, o, n, without attempt to indicate quantity or quality. Aug* and other Semitic languages are transliterated according to the same system as Hebrew. Greek is written with Roman characters, the common equivalents being use&
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
When the pronunciation is self‑evident the titles are not respelled; when by mere division and atxentuation it can be shown sufficiently clearly the titles have been divided into syllables, sad the anted
syllables indicated.
	a	as in sofa	a VA	m	not		in	an in duration
		N rr arm	a tr	rr	nor		e =k	rt tr cat
	a	a sr at	a if	a	fall s		eh	" rt Aurch
		rt u fan	fl if	a	X18		eW ‑qu as in queen
	e	u sr phi	Q a	tr	but		dh (9h)	a tt As
	16	rr tr fate	Q "	tt	burn		f	« tt'a1W
	i	a N tin	yt	a	pi"	1	B (hard) rt	tt •90
		u rt machine	au a	is	put		g	u tt look (h)
		st re obey	ei if	n	oil		hw (u]<) a	rt why
		er a no	IQ Is	rr	f1w,		i 	u .r haw

	3 >'n accented syllables only: in unaccented ey ILibles it sppcorimatee the eoumd of a in over. The letter n, with a dot
beneath i mdicstee the Bound of a r in iok. Nasal n (ae in ~oh words) a rendered n,
~ In ~ and F=V names a approximates the wand d u in dune:

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE
	BASILICA: 1. Legal codes. Since the great
codification of the Roman law by Justinian, the
Corpus juria civilia, was written in Latin, it could
not meet the needs of the East, and required Greek
translations. To do away with the uncertainty
which had arisen from such versions, in $78 the
emperor Basil the Macedonian had a handbook
put together, covering forty titles, and put out a
revision in 885. A further revision and codifica
tion of the. older laws, edited once more under Leo
the Wine (888), bears the Greek name of to hasilika.
It is in sixty books, based on Justinian's compila
tion from the older versions and commentaries,
with extracts from his later constitutions known
as the Novella, and from Basil's handbook men
tioned above. 	(E. FHIEI)HERti:)
2. Early form of Christian churches. See Aacaxxrcrua.>e, Ecc~lesTlcal..
Bxszsoaasrar: C. E. Zachsris, Historic juris (1rmva‑Romani daiineoMo. PP 35‑aa. Heidelberg, 1839; Mortxeuil. Hisbiro du droit Bysanbin, part ii, pp. 1 B9Q.. Dart iii. PD. 230 mm., Pans. 1843‑48; Srumtaaher, Oeachirhts. pp. 171, 257‑258. 806, 607. 808, 610, 977.

	BA6ILIDEB, bas‑i‑lai'dfz, AND THE BASILID
IAlIS: Basilidea, a famous Gnostic, was a pupil
of as alleged interpreter of St. Peter, Glsucisa by
name, and taught at Alexandria during the reign of
Hadrian (117‑138). He may have been previously
a disciple of Menander at Antioch, together with
Saturnilna. The Acts Archelai state that for a time
he taught among the Persians. He composed
twenty‑four books on the Gospel, which, according
to Clement of Alexandria (Stromata, iv, 12), were
entitled " Exegetice." Fragments of xiii and xxiii,
preserved by Clement and in the Acta Archelai,
supplement the knowledge of Basilides furnished
by his opponents. Origen is certainly wrong in
		ascribing to him a Gospel. The oldest
Basilidea. refutation of the teachings of Basilides, by Agrippa Castor (q.v.), is lost, and we are dependent upon the later accounts of Irenseus, Clement of Alexandria, and Hippolytus. The latter, in his Phidosophu»xena, gives a presentation entirely different from the other sources. It either rests on corrupt accounts, or, more probably, on those of a later, post‑Basilidian phase of the system. Hippolytus describes a monistic system, in which Hellenic, or rather Stoic, conceptions stand in the foreground, whereas the genuine. IL‑i
Basilides is an Oriental through and through, who stands in closer relationship to Zoroaster than to Aristotle.
The fundamental theme of the Basilidian speculation is the question concerning the origin of evil and how to overcome it. The answer. is given entirely in the forma of Oriental gnosis, evidently influenced by Paraeeiem. There are two principles, untreated and self‑existent, light and darkness, originally separated and without knowledge of tech other. At the head of the" kingdom of light
stands " the untreated, unnamable His System. God." From him divine life unfolds in successive steps. Seven such revelations form the first ogdoad, from which issued the rent of the spirit‑world, till three hundred and aixtyfive spirit‑realms had originated. These are comprised under the mystic name Abraeaa (q.v.), whose numerical value answers to the number of the heavens and days. Being seized with a longing for light, darkness now interferes. A etruggIp of the principles commences, in which originated our system of the world as copy of the last stage of the spirit‑world, having an archon and angel at its head. The earthly life is only a moment of the general purification‑process which now takes place to deliver the world of light from darkness. Hence everything which is bad and evil in this system of the world becomes intelligible when regarded in its proper relations. Gradually the rays of light find their way through the mineral kingdom, vegetable kingdom, and animal kingdom. Man has two souls in his breast, of which the rational soul trite to master the material or animal. For the consummation of the process an intervention from above is necessary, however. The Christian idea of the manifestation of God in Jesus Christ is the historical fact which Basilides subjects to his general thoughts. God's " mind " (Gk. noun) descended upon Jesus as dove at the Jordan, sad he proclaimed salvation to the Jews, the chosen people of the archon. The suffering of Jesus, Basilides admitted as a historical fact, but he did not. understand how to utilize it religiously. The Spirit of God is the redeemer, not the crucified one. Jesus suffered as man, whose light‑nature was also contaminated through the matter of evil. But the belief in the redemption which came from above lifts man beyond himself to a higher degree of exist‑

Assuage Bathing
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
ante. How far the individual can attain it depends on the degree of pure entanglement in former degrees of the spirit‑world. In the perfected spirit‑world the place will be assigned to each which belongs to him according to the degree of his faith.
Among the Basilidians, Basilidea' son, Isidore, occupies a prominent place. Of his writings (" On the Excrescent Soul," " Exegetics," " Ethics ") some fragments are extant. The sect does not seem to have spread beyond Lower Egypt.
The Basi‑ In opposition to the rigid ethics of lidittna. their master, the Basilidiana seem often to have advocated libertinism. According to Clement of Alexandria they celebrated the sixth or the tenth of January as the day of the 'baptism of Jesus. On the importance of this fact for the origin of the ecclesiastical festival of the Epiphany, cf. H. Uaener, Rcligionageschichtlithe Untersuchungen, i (Bonn, 1889).
G. KRfT()ER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The fragments of Basilidea ere collected in
J. E. Grabs, Spicikyium $S. Palram, ii, 35‑43, Oxford,
1890; in A. 8tieren's edition of Irenerus, i, 901‑903, 907
909, Leipeic, 1853; and in A. Hilgenfeld, Ketaerpaschichte
dw Urchriatentums, pp., 207‑217, Leipeic, 1884. The
sources are Irenmua (Her., I, zxiv, 1; cf. ii, 18et passim),
Clement of Alexandria (Strom., ii, 8; iii, 1; iv, 12, 24, 28;
v, 1), Origen (Ham. i on Luke; oom. on Roinans, v), Eu
eebiua (Chron., an. 133; Hist. ecc1.. IV, vii, 7), the Acta
Arehelai (lv), Epiphanius (HaT., xxiii, 1; xaiv; aaxii, 3),
and Hippolytus (PAiloaophumena, vii, 2‑1b). Consult A.
Neander, Oenetiechs EnMaieklunp der oornehmaten pnoeti
schen Systems, Berlin, 1818 (the moat exhaustive treat
ment); F. C. Baur, Die christliche (#noeie, Ttibingen, 1835;
J. L. Jacobi, Basilidia philoeophi prwetici aeatentias ex Hip
polyti Zibri, Berlin, 1852 (valuable); G. Uhlhorn. Doe
bariiidianseehe System, GtSttingen, 1855: H. L. Maneel,
Gnostic Heresies, London, 1875 (has able lecture on Bss
itidea); Hart, in DCB, i, 288‑281 (very thorough);
A. Hilgenfeld, in ZWT, axi (1878), 228‑250; idem, Die
Ketzergeachichte des UrchrietenCuma, pp. 207‑218. Leipsic,
1884; G. Salmon, The Cross‑references in the PhilosoPhou
mesa, in Herniathena, xi (I885), 389 102; H. Stiihalin, Die
pnoatiachan QueZlen Hippolyta, in TU, vi, 3, Leipaic, 1890;
Schaff, Christian Church, ii, 488‑472; Harnsek. Lit
teratur, i, 157‑181; ii, 1, 289‑297 KriSger, History, pp.
70‑71; Moeller, Christian Church, i, 141‑144; J. Kennedy, in
the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1902, pp. 377‑415.
BASRAGE, ba"nezh': The name of a family of Normandy which has produced several men prominent in the history of French Protestantism.
1. Benjamin Bssnage was for fifty‑one years pastor at Saints‑MEre‑?;glue, near Carentan (27 m. s.e. of Cherbourg), where he was born in 1580 and died in 1852. During the religious ware he was repeatedly chosen by his coreligioniats, on account of the constancy of his character and his great learning, to represent them in political and ecclesiastical assemblies. He was president of the general synod at Alenqon in 1637 and as deputy at Charenton in 1644 he did much to defend the rights of the Protestants and to reconcile the theologians. In the year of his death he was ennobled by the government of Louis XIV. Of the many polemical tractatea which he wrote, the beat known is De l'dat viafble et invisible de l1glise et de la parfaits satisfaction de JEsus Christ, contra la fable du purgatoire (La Rochelle, 1812).
2. Hen~i Basnage, younger son of Benjamin, was born at Saints‑MEre‑tgliee Oct. 16, 1815; d.
at Rouen Oct. 20, 1895. He was one of the most eloquent advocates in the parliament of Rouen and one of the moat famous jurists of his time. He defended the cause of the Reformed Church courageously, and his reputation was such that after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes he was almost the only Protestant who could follow the profession of law in Rouen.
3. Samuel Basnage, son of Antoine, younger son of Benjamin, was born at Bayeux 1838; d. at Ziitphen 1721. He was first pastor at Vauxcellea, then at Bayeux till 1885. He went with his father to the Netherlands and became pastor there of the Walloon congregation at Zutphen. Of his theological writings the moat important are: Morale tUologique et politique our lea vertus et lee vices des hommea (2 vole., Amsterdam, 1703); and Annales politico‑ecclesiastici (3 vole., Rotterdam, 170G).
4. Jacques Basnage (de Besuval), son of Henri, was born at Rouen Aug. 8, 1653; d. at The Hague Dec. 22, 1723. He first studied the classical languages at Saumur under Tanneguy, father of the famous Mme. Dacier; afterward theology at Geneva under Turretin and Tronchin, finally at Sedan under Jurieu. In 1678 he was chosen pastor at Rouen; after the suppression of the church at Rouen in 1685, Louis XIV granted him permission to retire to Holland. In 1691 he was made pastor of the Walloon congregation at Rotterdam, and in 1709 of the French congregation at The Hague. The prime minister Heinsius respected him highly and employed him in different diplomatic missions. The fame of his diplomatic ability reached the court at Versailles, and when, in 1718, the Abby Dubois was sent to The Hague by the Duke of Orleans, then regent, in behalf of the triple alliance, he was instructed to associate with Basnage. When an insurrection of the Camisarda in the CEvennes was feared, the regent applied to Basnage. He supported energetically the zealous Antoine Court, . then twenty years old, in restoring the Protestant Church in Southern France, but, partial to the principles of passive obedience, as preached by Calvin, he severely condemned the insurrection of the Camisarda and even blamed the first preachers in the Desert. About this time the States General of the Netherlands appointed him historiographer. His numerous works are partly dogmatic or polemic, partly historical. The former include especially his writings against ~ Bosauet: Examen des methodes propoae,es par Messieurs de L'assemblt:e du clergE de France, en 168, pour la rEunion des Protestants a l1glise romaine (Cologne, 1882); R~qoonse h M. l'&4que de Meaux sur la lettre pastorale (1686). His historical works are: Histoire de la religion des ‑0glises r9f ormEes (2 vole., Rotterdam, 1690; 1725); Xistoire de l'9glise depuia Jesus Christ jusqu'd present (1699); Histoires du Vieux et du Nouveau Testament, reproerttees par des figures grav6ea en taalle‑dotit:e par R. de Hooge (Amsterdam, 1704); Histoire des Juifa depths J&ua Christ jttaqu'h present (1708). G. BONET‑MAURY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Aymon, Tom Us synods& nationaux des ' Wises rE(ormBea, The H‑ue, 1710; P. Bayle, Diction‑
naire hisWrique et eritiqu ,materdam, 1740: D. Houard,
Dietionnaire de la coutu..e do Normandis, Rouen, 1780;
Lamory, >tloys do Basnape, in Bulletin d'hisfoirs du prow

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
9ssnage Bathing
tantieme franfaia, vol. x, p. 42; aiii, pp. 41‑48; E. and )4. Hang, La France proteatante, 2d ed. by M. Bordier, 5 vols., Paris, 1877‑88; F. Puaux, Les Prbcuraeura /ranfaia de la td6rance, ib. 1881; J. Bianquia. La R6eocation de l'bdit do Nantes, Rouen, 1885.
BASSERMANIP, HEINRICH GUSTAV: German Lutheran; b. at Frankfort‑on‑the‑Main July 12, 1849. He was educated at the universities of Jena, Zurich, and Heidelberg in 1868‑73, but served in the campaign of 1870‑71 in the First Baden Dragoons. He was assistant pastor at ArolBen, Waldeck, from 1873 to 1876, when he became privatdocent of New Testament exegesis at the University of Jena. In the same year he was appointed associate professor of practical theology at Heidelberg, and full professor and university preacher in 1880. He wrote: Dreisaig chriatliche Prediglen (Leipaic, 1875); De loco Mtetthcei v, 17‑,t'D (Jena, 1876); Handbuch der geisdichen Beredsamkeit (Stuttgart, 1885); Akodemische Predigten (1886); System der Liturgik (1888); Geschichte der bttdiachen Gotteadienstordnung (1891); Sine ire et studio (Tiibingen, 1894); Der badische Katechismus erkldrt (1896‑97); Richard Rothe als praktiseher Theolog (1899); Zur Frage des Unionskatecltismua (1901); Ueber Reform des Abendmahls (1904); Wie studiert man evareyelisehe Theologief (Stuttgart, 1905); and Gott: Fiinf Predigtert (G&ttingen, 1905). From 1879 he edited the Zeitschrift fur praktische Theologie in collaboration with Rudolf Ehlers. Died in Samaden (70 m. B.B.e. of St. Gall), Switzerland, Aug. 30, 1909.
BASTHOLM, CHRISTIAN: Danish court preacher, and an influential representative of the prevalent rationalism of his time; b. at Copenhagen Nov. 2, 1740; d. there Jan. 25, 1819. He had a varied education, and was specially attracted to philosophy and natural science, but was persuaded by his father to embrace a clerical career without any real love for Christian doctrine or the Church. He was preacher to the German congregation at Smyrna from 1768 to 1771. His renown as a great orator won him in 1778 the position of court preacher, to which other court offices were Subsequently added. Full of the ideas of the " Enlightenment," he felt called upon to be a missionary in their cause to his countrymen, and published a number of works in popular religious philosophy and history which have long since fallen into oblivion. His greatest success was his text‑book of sacred oratory (1775), which so impressed Joseph II that he introduced it into all the higher educational institutions of the empire, though its recommendations seem laughable to‑day. He published a history of the Jews (1777‑82 ), attempting to " rationalize " it after Michaelis, and a translation of the New Testament with notes (1780). A small treatise on improvements in the liturgy (1785) aroused a storm of controversy; his idea was to make the
service " interesting and diversified," after the
model of belle and concerto; to exclude from hymnody not only everything dogmatic but all that was not joyous; and to eliminate from the sacramental rites whatever wag contrary to sound reason. In the days of the French Revolution, he offered so many concessions to the antireligioue spirit that he made himself ridiculous even in the
eyes of freethinkers; and his book on " Wisdom
and Happiness" (1794) taught a Stoicism only
colored by Christianity. In 1795 he lost his library
by fire, and with the new century withdrew from
public life and authorship to live quietly with his
eon, a pastor at.Slagelse, absorbed in the study of
philosophy and science. 	(F. NIEIBEN.)

	BATES, WILLIAM: English Presbyterian; b. at
London Nov., 1625; d. at Hackney July 14, 1899.
He was graduated at Cambridge 1647, and was
vicar of St. Dunstan'e‑in‑the‑West, London, until
1662, when he lost the benefice for non‑conformity;
he was one of the commissioners to the Savoy Con
ference (q.v.) in 1661 and represented the non
conformists on other occasions in negotiations
with the Churchmen; was chaplain to Charles II
and had influence in high places both under Charles
and his successors. He is said to have been a
polished preacher and a sound scholar. Perhaps
the beat known of his works is The Harmony of
the Divine Attributes in the Contrivance and Accom
plishment o f Man's Redemption (2d ed., London,
1675). A collected edition of his works, with
memoir by W. Farmer, was published in four vol
umes at London in 1815.
BATHING: The bath in the East, because of the heat and the duet, is constantly necessary for the preservation of health, and to prevent Bkindiseases. The bathing of the newly born is mentioned in Ezek. xvi, 4; bathing as part of the toilet in Ruth iii, 3; Ih Sam. xii, 20; Ezek. xxiii, 40, and elsewhere. As the Law attached great. religious value to the purity of the body, it prescribed bathing and ablutions for cases in which it was apparently impaired (Bee DEFILEMENT AND PURIFICATION, CEREMONIAL). Ablution was required when one approached the deity (cf. Gen.. xxxv, 2; Exod. xix, 10; Lev. xvi, 4, for the high priest on the Day of .Atonement). Bathing in " living" (i.e., running) water was regarded as most effective in every respect (Exod. ii, 5; II Kings v, 10; Lev. xv, 13). More accessible and convenient were the baths arranged in the houses. To a wellfurniBhed house belonged a courtyard, in which was: a bath‑according to II Sam. xi, 2, an open basin. Susannah (verges 15 eqq.) bathes in a hedged garden and uses oil and some kind of soap; the Hebrew women aged bran in the bath, or to dIy themselves, (Mishnah Pestthim ii, 7). The feet, being protected by sandals only, were exposed to dust and dirt, and no attentive host omitted to give to his. guests water for their feet before he entertained them (Gen. xviii, 4; xix, 2; I Sam. xxv, 41; cf. Luke vii, 44; John xiii, I‑10). The washing of hands before meals was customary for obvious. reasons; but it is not expressly attested before New Testament time, and then as a religious enactinent which the Pharisees rigidly observed (.Matt. xv, 2; Luke xi, 38); so in general with reference to washings and bathingB the punctilious were at that time more exacting. The efficacy of warm springs wag recognized at a very early period (cf. Gen. xxxvi, 24, R. V., and the name Hammath, Josh. xix, 35; xxi, 32). They were found near Tiberias (JoeephuB, War, II, xd, 6; Ant.,

Bath 801
Ban‑
XVIII, ii, 3; Life, avi; Puny, v, 15), Gadara, the capital of Persea, and Callirrho8, east of the Dead Sea (Josephus, War, I, xxxiii, 5; Pliny, v, 16). Public baths are mentioned in Josephus, Ant., X1X, vii, 5, but their existence in Palestine can not be proved before the Grew‑Roman time.
C. VON OaErii.
Abuses connects with the public baths in early Christian times called forth protests from many of the heathen and led some of the emperors to attempt restrictive precautions. The Church Fathers also raised their voices, but it is noteworthy that though therewsepubliccensure (e.g., of women, particularly of virgins who were immodest in the bath), there was no formal, ecclesiastical prohibition of the public baths. The use of the bath was remitted during public calamities, penance, Lent, and for the first wok after baptism. From the time of Constantine it was usual to build baths near the basilicas, partly for the use of the clergy, and partly for other ecclesiastical purposes.
Brsr.roossray: For J3ebr. custom consult DB, i, 257‑258. On the Christian. DCA, i, 182‑183: the article "Baden" in %L, i, 1843‑48, covers both subjects.

	BATH gOL: Literally" daughter of the voice,"
an expression which signifies in itself nothing
more than a call or echo, for which it is also
used. When the term is applied to a divine
manifestation, i6 implies that it was audible to the
human hearing without a personal theophauy.
In the Old Testament the notion is found in Dan.
iv, 28 (A. V. 31), " a voice fell from heaven." In
the New Testament similar ideas are the heavenly
voice at the baptism of Jesus (Matt. iii, 17; Mark
i,	11; Luke iii, 22), at his transfiguration (Matt.
xvii, 5; Mark ix, 7; Luke ix, 35), before his passion
(John xii, 28), and the voices from heaven heard
by Paul and Peter (Acts ix, 4; cf. axii, 7 and xxvi,
14; x, 13, 15). A voice from the sanctuary is
mentioned by Josephus (Ant., XIII, x, 3; cf. Bab.
Sotah 33a; Jeras. Sotah 24b), and was called bath kol
by the rabbis, who were of opinion that such heav
enly voices were heard during all the time of Israel's
history, even in their own time. According to
Bab. .Sotah 48b; Yomah 9a, this "voice" was the
only divine means of revelation after the extinction
of prophecy. They narrate legendary stories of
such divine voices which settled religious difficulties.
Different from the bath kol proper is the idea that
natural sounds or words heard by accident
are significant heavenly voices. This superstition
was not uncommon, as Jerus. Shabbat 8c shows.
Rabbi Joshua was of the opinion that such things
must not influence any legal decision (Bab.
Paba Meti'a 59b; Berakot 51b). Rabbi Johanan
lays down as general rule that that which was
heard in the city must be the voice of a man, in the
desert that of a woman, and that either s twofold
"Yea" or twofold "Nay" is heard (Bab. lkfegillah
32a). 	(G. DAL‑".)

Brsrroassrar: F. Weber. 8ysirw der alltynapapaka palbeh»ixAer Theotoyie. PR 187,194, Lei~ 1880: W. Bate. AOada der TanraiEsn, i, 88. note 3. 9traebaB,1884: ice. Ayada der pal"dmoa0e, i, 351, note 3, ii, 24, ib. 1892r98: 8. Loins, Ancisnt Trades' of 3~parnoterai Yoion: Bath %oi, in T3Bd, ix, 18; .7E, ii, bBB‑592.
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
BATIFFOL, PIERRE HENRI: French Roman Catholic; b. at Toulouse Jan. 27, 1861. He was educated at the Seminary of St. Sulpice, Paris (1878‑82), and the University of Paris (1882‑86; Docteur & lettres, 1892), and since 1898 has been rector of the Institut Catholique at Toulouse. He was created a domestic prelate to the Pope in 1899, and in theology is an orthodox Roman Catholic, inclining toward the critical school in matters of history. Since 1896 he has been the editor of the Biblioth6que de l'enseignement de t'histoire ecdksiastique, founded by him in that year, and since 1899 has also edited the monthly Bulletin de littkrature ecclsidstique. He has written L'Abbaye de Romano, contribution a L'histoire de la Vatieane (Paris, 1892); Histoire du breai,6re romain (1893); Six lel'ons sur lea .9varegiles (1897); Tractatus is in lnros sartarum scripttrarum (1900)~des d'histoire et de thtologie positive (1902); sad L'Enaeignement de J&us (1905).

	BATTER, LORING WOART: Protestant Epis
copalian; b. in Gloucester County N. J., Nov.
12, 1859. He was educated at Harvard Uni
versity, the Philadelphia Divinity School, and
the University of Pennsylvania. He was ordered
deacon in 1886 and ordained priest in the following
year, and was instructor and professor of the Old
Testament in the Philadelphia Divinity School from
1888 to 1$99, when he became rector of St. Mark's,
New York City. He is also lecturer on the Old
Testament in the General Theological Seminary,
New York City. In addition to numerous briefer
studies, he has written The 01d Testament from
the Modern Point o f View (New York, 1889) and
The Hebrew Prophet (London, 1905).

BATTERSOlY, HERMON GRISWOLD: Protestant Episcopalian; b. ax Marbledale, Conn., May 27, 1827; d. in New York City Mar. 9, 1903. He was educated privately, was rector at San Antonio, Texas, 1860‑61, and at Wabasha, DS'mn.,1862‑66. In 1866 he removed to Philadelphia and was rector of St. Clement's Church there 18691872, of the Church of the Annunciation 1880‑89; became rector of the Church of the Redeemer, New York, 1891, but soon retired. He published The Missionary Tune Book (Philadelphia, 1867); The Churchmans Hymn Book (1870); A Sketch Book of the American Episcopate (1878; 3d ed., enlarged, 1891); Christmas Carols and Other Verses (1877); Gregorian Music, a manual of plait, song for the offices of tile American Church (New York, 1884; 7th ed., 1890); Vesper Bells and Other Yeraes (i895).
BAUDISSIR, WOLF WILHELM, GRAF VON:
German Protestant; b. at Sophieahof, near Kiel, Germany, Sept. 26, 1847. He was educated at the universities of Erlangen, Berlin, Leipeic (Ph.D., 1870), and Kiel from 1866 to 1872, and was privatdooeat at Leipsic in 1874‑76, when he accepted s call to the University of Strasburg as associate professor of theology. Four years later he mss promoted to full professor, but is the following year meat to Marburg as professor of Old Testament exegesis. He remained at Marburg, where he

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bath Hot
	Baum
was rector in 1893‑94, until 1900, when he went to Berlin as professor of Old Testament exegesis, a chair which he still holds. In theology he is an adherent of the historical school of investigation, and seeks to elucidate the religion of the Old Testament by other Semitic faiths. He has written: Translatitmis trntiquw arabicte dt'(rri Jobi qua: suPersurtt nustc primum edits (Leipsie, 1870); Eulogies and Alvar, sin Abschniti spaniseher Kirehengeschichte aus tier Ze6t der Maurenherrschaft (1872); Jtlhve et Moloch, sine de rtrtiane inter ileum Israelitarum et Moloehum intercedente (1874); Studien zur semitischen Religitmsgeschichte (2 vole., 18761878); Die Geschichte ties alltestamentlichen Priesterthums utttersucht (1889); August Dillmtmn (1895); Eirtleitung in die Bueher ilea Allen Testaments (1901); and Eamun‑Asklepios (Giessen, 1906).

BAU'ER, BRUNO: A modern Biblical critic, of the most extreme radicalism; b. at Eisenberg (35 m. s. of Halls), in the duchy of Altenburg, Sept. 8, 1809; d. at Rixdorf, near Berlin, Apr. 15, 1882. He was educated in Berlin precisely in Hegel's most brilliant period. He took his place at first in the conservative wing of the Hegelian school, of which his teacher Marheineke was the leader, and reviewed the Leben Jesu of David Friedrich Strauss, who had been his fellow student, unfavorably, accusing Strauss of " entire ignorance of what criticism means." He undertook also to defend Marheineke's position by issuing (1836‑38) the Zcitschrift fur sPeku7atiroe Theologie. In 1838 he published the Kritik tier Geschichte der Off ertbarung (2 vole., Berlin). A year later Altenstein, minister of public worship and instruction, appointed him to a position is the University of Bonn, and his prospects seemed promising. But he was already in a fair way to break with his past, as shortly appeared in his Krilik der evangelischen Gesehichte des Johannes (Bremen, 1840) and Kritik der evtrngetischen Geschichte der Syno;Otiker (3 vole., Leipaie,1841), which went beyond Strauss, and, adopting the theory of Wilke that Mark is the original gospel, derived the whole story, not, with Strauss, from the imagination of the primitive Christian community, but from that of a single mind. This extreme carrying out of Hegelian principles naturally aroused wide‑spread excitement. Eichhorn, who had succeeded Altenstein as minister, put the question to the Prussian universities whether the holder of such views could be allowed to teach. The answers were not unanimous; but Bauer injured his own cause by a still more amazing and reckless onslaught on traditional theology (Theologiache Schamlosigkeiten, in the flallische Jti)trbucher fur deutsche Wissenschaft, Nov., 1841), and was deprived of his academic post in March, 1842. His literary activity continued incessant. Living on his small estate at Rixdorf, he poured forth a succession of volumes on the history of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries between 1843 and 1849. In 1850 he came back to his old field, and in the neat three years had renewed his attack on the gospels and included the Acts and the Pauline epistles, considering even the four admitted by the Tilbingen school as second‑century Western prod‑
ucts. In the place of Christ and Paul, to him Philo, Seneca, and the Gnostics appeared the real creative forces in the evolution of Christian conceptions. He continued his attempts to prove the connection between Greco‑Roman philosophy and Christianity in Christus and die Casaren (Berlin, 1877). Here he places the genesis of the Christian religion practically as late as the reign of Marcus Aurelius, sad the original gospel in that of Hadrian, after which " clever men " were busy for some forty years in the composition of the Pauline epistles. Only the framework of the new religion was Jewish; its spirit came from further west; Christianity is really " Stoicism becoming dominant in a Jewish metamorphosis." Bauer left practically no followers in Germany for such remarkable theories. His fantastic hypercriticism found a home for a time in Holland with Allard Pierson, Naber, and Loman; and still later it made some attempts to gain a foothold in Switzerland with Steck's assault upon Galatians. (J. HAU88LErrEx.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Holtamann, in Protutantiachs Kirdunzeitunp, 1882, pp. b40‑545; F. C. Baur, Rirehengeachichte ilea neunsehnten Jahrhunderta, Leipsie, 1882; O. PBeiderer, Die Entwiddung der proteatantiachen TheoTopit in Deutachiand sere Karat, pp. 295‑297, Freiburg, 1891. On the teaching of Bauer and the Opposition it around consult E. Bauer, Bruno Bauer and seine Gegrur, Berlin, 1842; O. F. Gruppe, Bruno Bauer and die akademiache Lehr/rsihsit, ib. 1842.

BAUER, WALTER FELIX: German Protestant; b. at Kiinigsberg Aug. 8, 1877. From 1895 to 1900 he studied at the universities of Marburg, Berlin, and Strasburg, and since 1903 has been privat‑docent for church history at the University of Marburg. He has written Mundige and Unmiindige bei dem A;OOatel Paulus (Marburg, 1902) and Der Aloostolos der Syrer in der Zeit von der Mitts des roierten JttJtrhunderta bis zur Spaltung der syri,schen Kirche (Giessen, 1903).

BAUM, baum, HENRY MASON: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at East Schuyler, N. Y., Feb. 24, 1848. He was educated at the Hudson River Institute, Claverack, N. Y., but did not attend a college. He received his theological training at De Lancet' Divinity School, Geneva, N. Y., and was ordained to the priesthood in 1870. He was successively rector of St. Peter's Church, East Bloomfield, N. Y. (I870‑71), missionary to Allen's Hill, Victor, Lima, and Honeoye Falls, N. Y. (18711872), rector of St. Matthew's Church, Laramie City, Wyo. (1872‑73), in charge of St. James's Church, Paulaborough, N. J. (1873‑74), rector of St. Matthew's Church, Lambertville, N. J. (187rr76), and rector of Trinity Church, Easton, Pa. (1876‑80). From 1880 to 1892 he was editor of The Church Review, and in 1901 founded the Records of the Past, which he edited until 1905. He has taken a keen interest in the preservation of the antiquities of the United States, and was the author of the act passed by the Senate in 1904 for the protection of these archeological remains. In that year he also founded the Institute of Historical Research at Washington, and has since been its president. In theology he is a firm believer in the historical accuracy of the Bible. He has written Rights arid Duties of Rectors, Church Wardens, arid Vestrymert ire

Baum
8aur
the American Church (Philadelphia, 1879) and The Law o f the Church in the United States (New York, 1886).

BAUM, JOHANN WILHELM: Protestant German theologian; b. at Flonheim (17 m. s.s.w. of Mainz) Dec. 7, 1809; d. at Strasburg Nov. 28, 1878. When he was thirteen years of age, he was sent to Strasburg to the house of his uncle, where he prepared himself for the ministry. Havingcompleted his studies, he was made teacher at, the theological seminary at Strasburg in 1835. his position he resigned in 1844 and accepted the position of vicar of St. Thomas's in that city, whose first preacher he became in 1847. At the close of the Franco‑Prussian war, the German government appointed him professor in the University of Strasburg. He belonged to the liberal Protestant party of his country, and made himself known by his writings on the history of the Reformation, as well as that of his own time, including Franz Lambent von Avignon (Strasburg and Paris, 1840); Theodor Beza nach handschriftlichen Quellen dargestellt (2 vole., Leipaic, 1843‑45); Johann Georg Stuber, den Vorganger Oberlins im Steinthale and VorkBmpfer einer neuen Zeit in Strassburg (Strasburg, 1846); Die Memoiren d'Aubigne's des Hugenotten von ahem Schrott and Tforn (Leipsic, 1854); Capito and Butzer, Strassburgs Reformatoren (Elberfeld, 1860), being the third part of Leben and ausgewdhlte SchrifRen den VBter and Begriinder den reformirten Kirche. Besides these works written in German,_ he published in French Lea tglisco rEformees de rance soul la, croix (Strasburg, 1869); Les MEmoires de P. Carriers lit Corteia (Strasburg, 1871); Le Proeea de Baudichon de la. Maisori‑Neuve (Geneva, 1873). For a number of years Baum assisted his colleagues Reuss and Cunitz in the edition of Calvin's works published in the Corpus reformatorum.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zur Erinnerunp an J. W. Baum, Roden,. Strasburg, 1878; M. Baum, J. W. Baum, sin proteatanlisches Clmakterbild aua den Blows, Bremen, 1880.

	BAUMGARTEN, MICHAEL: German theolo
gian and active promoter of free church life;
b. at Haseldorf, near Hamburg, Mar. 25, 1812;
d. at Rostock July 21, 1889. He was educated at
Altona, Kiel, and Berlin, becoming in the last‑Iialned
place an outspoken adherent of Hengstenberg.
But the study of Dorner during a period of seven
years (18396) spent at Kiel as a teacher con
vinced him that the traditional orthodox view
of the person of Christ was inadequate to explain
the mystery of redemption; be passed from Heng
stenberg to Schleiermaoher, with his principle that
Christianity is not a doctrine but a life, and then to
Hofmann, in whose Weissagung and Erfiillung
he saw a theology that could lead him further on
his road. In his treatise Lzturgie and Predigt
(Kiel, 1843) he lays down his programme, to which
as an old man he was still proud of having adhered.
Here he classes as stumbling blocks in the Church's
way a variety of ancient institutions, laws, and
customs, viz.: the misleading notion of a "•Chris
tian State"; the use of compulsion in the Church
(as in the case of baptism); the power of civil
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
rulers within the Church, in allowing which the
Reformers had brought back a Byzantine system;
the diversity of teaching among Protestants; and
the failure to recognize the menace of the Roman
errors. About the same time (1843‑44) appeared
his commentary on the Pentateuch, to which
Delitzsch appealed when in 1850 he recommended
his friend to succeed him in the Rostock professor
ship, but which none the less he sharply criticized
in some points. In the eventful years 1846‑50
he was pastor of St. Michael's church at Sleswick,
and was one of the leaders of the clergy of Sleswick
Holstein in their struggle for the German right
to the duchies. After the battle of Idstedt, he
was obliged to escape from Sleswick with his
family to Holstein, where his call to Rostock found
him. Here he was expected to take part in 'the
upbuilding of the Church of the duchy, which was
under Kliefoth's leadership; but two men more
diametrically opposed in their whole way of looking
at things could scarcely have been found. Baum
garten frankly expressed his own view of the earliest
history of the Church in his Apostelgeschichte (2
viols., Halls, 1852), and of its modern needs in his
Nachtgesichte Sacharjas (Brunswick, 1854). It
was not difficult to make a collection of heretical
propositions from the writings of a man who cared
so little to express himself in time‑honored formulas,
and who was wrestling with such modern problems;
and the attempt was soon made. The Grand Duke
dismissed him from the theological commission in
1856; the consistory examined his works, it must
be admitted without strict adherence to constitu
tional rules or to the principles of fairness, found
a whole series of departures from the received
doctrine, and deprived him of his position. He
declined au invitation to go to India as a missionary,
preferring to remain and carry on the struggle for
a complete reconstruction of the Evangelical Church
in Germany. With this aim he was for thirteen
years a zealous member of the Protestant Union
from 1863 to 1876, but left it when it showed
intolerance in the Heidelberg case. His life grew
more and more lonely, though he could always count
on a few faithful friends, like Studt, Ziegler, and
Pestalozzi. He was a member of the Reichstag
from 1874 to 1881, in which he showed himself a
determined opponent of Stocker and of the Jesuits,
and stood for his principles of religious liberty
and complete separation of Church and State.
He was a man of great natural endowment, fitted
for useful constructive work in theology, if the un
fortunate circumstances in his career had not forced
him to expend his energy in the combat to which
most of his numerous later writings have reference.
. 	(J. HAUBBLEITER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY‑ His autobiography was edited and published posthumously by K. H. 6tudt, 2 vole., Kiel, 1891.

BAUMGARTEN, OTTO: German Protestant; b. at Munich Jan. 29, 1858. He was educated at the universities of Strasburg, Gottingen, Zurich, and Heidelberg, and from 1882 to 1887 was pastor at Baden‑Baden and Waldkirch, while from 1888 to 1890 he was chaplain to the orphan asylum at Berlin‑Rummeleburg. In 1890 he became privet

?	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Baum
		Barer
	docent at the University of Berlin, and in the same
	year was called to Jena as associate professor of
	practical theology, where he remained until 1894,
	when he went to Kiel as full professor of the same
	subject. He is also university preacher and chap
	lain of the academic sanitarium at the same institu
tion of learning.	He has written: Yolksschule and
	Kirche (Leipsie, 1890); Der Seedsorger unserer
	Tags (1891); Predigten aus der Gegenwart (Tii
	bingen (1902); Neue Bahnen : Der Religions‑Unter
	richt vom Standpunkte der modernen Theologie aus
	(1903); Predigt‑Probleme, HauPtfragen der moder
	nen Evangeliuma‑Verkiindigungen (1903); and Die
	Yoraussetzungslosigkeit der protestantischen Theo
logic (Kiel, 1903).
	BAUMGARTEN, SIEGMUND JAKOB: German
	theologian; b. at Wollxnirsti3dt (8 m. n. of Magde
	burg), Saxony, Mar. 14, 1706; d. at Halls July
	4, 1757. He studied at the Halls Orphan Asylum,
	of which his father had been first inspector, and
	at the University of Halls. He became inspector
	of the Halls Latin School in 1726, assistant preacher
	to the younger G. A. Franks in 1728, associate on
	the theological faculty in 1730, and ordinary pro
	fessor in 1743. He was a good teacher and his
	lectures were usually attended by from 300 to 400
	hearers. His learning was vast and he was an
	industrious writer, publishing voluminous works
	on exegesis, hermeneutics, morals, dogmatics, and
	history, such as Auszug der Kirchengeschichte (4
	vole., Halls, 1743‑62); Evangelisehe Glaubenslehre
	(3 vole., 1759‑60); Geschichte der Religionsparteaen
	(1760); Noehricht von merkwurdigen Biichern (12
	vole., 1752‑57); and the first sixteen volumes in
	the Allgemeine Welthistarie (1744 sqq.). By adopt
	ing the formal scheme of the philosophy of Wolff
	and applying it to the theological ideas in which
	he was educated, Baumgarten came to form a
	transition from the Pietism of Spener and Francke
	to the modern rationalism. His enthusiastic dis
	ciple, J. S. Semler, who was called from Altdorf
	to Halls on his recommendation, edited many of
	his works and wrote his biography (Halls, 1758).
	(F. B089E.)
	BAUMGARTEft‑CRUSIUS, LUDWIG FRIED
	RICH OTTO: German theologian; b. at Merseburg
	(56 m. s.s.e. of Magdeburg), Prussian Saxony,
	July 31, 1788; d. at Jena May 31, 1843. He studied
	theology and philology at Leipaic and became i
	university preacher there in 1810; in 1812 extraor
	dinary professor of theology at Jena, ordinary
	professor, 1817. He gave lectures on all branches
	of so‑called theoretic theology except church his
	tory, especially New Testament exegesis, Biblical
	theology, dogmatics, ethics, and history of doctrine.
	Gentle and sympathetic, and shrinking from
	theological strife, he was misunderstood in his time.
	His exegesis was painstaking, free from prejudice,
	and acute; as historian of dogma he understood
	the origin and development of religious ideas and
	doctrines as few others have done; and as system
	atic theologian he was profound and truly evangel
	ical. His principal works were: Einleitung in das
	Stadium der Dogmatik (Leipeie, 1820); Lehrbuch
	der christlichen Dogmengeschichte (Jena, 1832);
Compendium der christlichen DogmengeschichEe (Leip
sic, 1840), completed by K. A. Hale (1846); Theolo
gische Auslegung der johanneiachen Schri ften (2 vole.,
Jena, 1843‑45). 	(F. Bosar.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. C. A. Eichatildt, Memoria L. F. O. Baum‑
partanii‑Crueaii, Jena, 1843; K. A. Haw's preface to his completion of the Kompendium der Dogmanpeachichk, Leipeia, 1846; ADB, ii, 181 aqq.
BAUR,	FERDINAND CHRISTIAN, AND THE
	LATER TUBINGEN SCHOOL.
I. The Period of the History of Dogma. Baur's Early Life sad Activity (§ 1). Baur's Relation to 9chleiermacher and Hegel (§ 2). II. The Period of Biblical Criticism. Hiatorico‑Critical Study of the New Testament (§ 1). Applied to the Writings of Paul (§ 2). The Fundamental Assumption of the School (¢ 3). Applied to the Gospels U 4). Developed by Schwegler (§ b). III. The Period of Church History. Political Complications (¢ 1). Baur's Works on Church History (§ 2). His Theories and Conclusions (¢ 3). Their Weakness and Decline (¢ 4).
The treatment of both Ferdinand Christian Baur and the Later Tiibingen School in the same article is justified by the fact that the period of distinctive theological and philosophical views which characterized the school in its palmy days really ceased with the death of its founder, or at least lost the former local identification. Considering the Tiibingen School in this strictly limited sense, its history, together with that of Baur himself, may be divided into three periods‑that of preparation, or of the history of dogma, before 1835; that of prosperity, or of Biblical criticism, 18351848; and that of disintegration, or of church history, after the latter date‑
I. The Period of the History of Dogma: Baur was born at Schmiden, near Cannstatt (4 m. n.e. of Stuttgart), June 21, 1792; he died at T(ibingen Dec. 2, 1860. He was the son of a Wurttemberg pastor and was educated first at Blaubeuren and then (1809‑14) at Tiibingen. Here, besides following the usual thorough course in philology, he was strongly attracted by the study of philosophy. Fichte and Schelling were then at the height of their influence; but that it did not draw the young student away from the standpoint of the older Tiibingen School (q.v.), in which he had been brought up, may be seen from his first published writing, a review of Kaiser's Bibliache Theologie in 1817, which condemned rationalistic
r. Baur's caprice in the treatment of the Early Life Old Testament. After a short em‑
end Ac‑ ployment as tutor in the Tiibingen tivity. seminary during the same year, he was named professor in the lower seminary which had grown out of his old school at Blaubeuren. The nine years of his stay here were active and happy ones. Though his work was mainly philological and historical, he showed his interest in the philosophical and theological movements of the time. The doctrines of Schleiermacher received his attention, and found an echo in his three‑volume work Symbolik and Mythologic (Stuttgart, 1824‑25). In this book, remarkable for its time, he indicated his future course in the phrase,

THE NEW BCHAFF‑HERZOG
« Without philosophy, history seems to me dumb and dead." The attention it attracted won Baur a place in the theological faculty of TUbingen on its reorganization (1826) after the death of his old teacher Bengal. His impressive and inspiring personality at once drew the young men to him, and his influence in tho faculty was contested only by Dr. Steudel, the solo survivor of the old school body.
The fact that in the course of his further intellectual development Baur gradually came into conflict with the theology of Schleier‑
s. Baut's masher may be partly explained by
Relation to the difference in the mental conatitu‑
$chleier‑ tions of the two men. There was
masher and no trace in Baur's method of the fusion Hegel. of sentiment and reason which characterized the other; only the intellectual aide was allowed to be heard. His strong point was his faculty of conceiving historical phenomena objectively, amid the surroundings and from the standpoint of ‑their age. His relation to the philosophy of Hegel is somewhat difficult to determine exactly; but it may be safely asserted that his fundamental views on the essence of religion and the course of history were taken from the Hegelian system. The transition from Schleiermacher to Hegel was a gradual process which took place between 1826 and 1835, in the nine years which have been called the period of preparation. It is probable that at first Baur was unconscious of its extent, and it was sot until he applied the Hegelian principles to the canon that they brought him into sharp conflict with traditional orthodoxy. His Symbodik was logically followed by his works on Manicheaniam and Gnosticism (Tubingen, 1831 and 1832)‑phenomena lying on the border between theology and philosophy, between Christianity and paganism. In his tractate on the opposition between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism, in answer to Mishler (Ttibingen, 1834), Hegelian terminology begins to appear distinctly, though the foundation still rests on Schlefermacher. The influence of the Hegelian system on Baur was a very fructi' Ang one. No department of history had suffered more from the leveling tendency of rationalism than the history of dogma. Since Hegel had taught the application of the iron rote of development to the phenomena of the intellectual life ass well as to other phenomena, he pointed the way to a profounder understanding of the beliefs which appeared frequently so haphazard and so arbitrary, to a knowledge of laws which prevailed over individual will. Thus, when Baur went on from the philosophy of religion to Christian dogma, and in that to the moat important parts (the Atonement, Tttbingen, 1838, the Trinity and the Incarnation, 1841‑43), he became a pioneer of the history of dogma in the modern sense. Even though the Hegelian categories proved a bed of Procrustes for Christian dogmas, and though the understanding of these suffered from the defects of the Hegelian conception of religion, the impulse had none the less been given to a profounder study. More recent historians of dogma have felt themselves entitled to correct Baur's views, as set forth
in the above‑mentioned works, in almost every point; but these views had won him, by the end of this first period, a prominent place in the ranks of those who were trying to strike out new lines in the study of Christian history; and when Schleiermscher's chair at Berlin ‑was vacant in 1834, the Prussian minister Altenstein thought for a time of appointing $aur to it.
II. The Period of Biblical Criticism: The second period, however, is the one which comes to mind when the Tubingen School is mentioned. Though certain books already named are of later date, the period may be properly begun with 1835, in which year Strauss's Lebm Jesu drew general attention to the questions to which Baur was already inclined to turn. The application to the canon of Scripture of the Hegelian laws of historical development was peculiarly appropriate to the place in which Baur carried on his work, since the distinguishing mark of the older Tubingen School had been a Biblical supernaturalism, for which dogma was nothing more than the teachings of Scripture, arrived at by means of exegesis. He felt himself driven to a consideration of this question by the need of a settlement with the school from which he had sprung and with his own past; by his studies in the history of dogma, since the source of dogma, in the last resort, unless it is a mere collection of irresponsible opinions, is the Bible; and by his investigation of Gnosticism, which could not fail to raise the question of the canon.
In 1835 appeared (at St ~~',gart and TVbingen) Baur'a work on the Pastoral Epistles. According to his own account of this and of his article on the Corinthian parties (TZT,1831), it was his lectures on the Epistle to the Corinthians which first opened up the vista of more far‑reaching hiatorico‑critical investigation into the controversies of the apostolic age, and led him to follow out, by means of New Testament and patriotic studies, his independent conception of the plash of heterogeneous elements in the apostolic and aubapoatolic days, their parties and tendencies, their conflicts and compromises‑‑to demonstrate the growth of a catholic Church as nothing but the result of a previous historical process. Dealing with Schleiermacher'a treatment of I Timothy, he considered z. Historicw the three pastoral epistles from the
Critical same historical standpoint, and defined Study of the the task of New Testament criticism Now Tests‑ by asserting that the origin of such
	meat.	writings (as to the authenticity of
		which more evidence was needed
than We accepted name of an author on their face
and a vague, uncertain, and late tradition) could
only be explained by a complete view of the whole
range of historical circumstances in which, accord
ing to definite data, they were to be placed. With
this character of historic objectivity, the new
criticism, which naturally could not but seem
merely negative and destructive in contrast with
the unfounded assumptions that it controverted,
intended to meet the arbitrary subjectivity of the
hypotheses which had, up to that time, played
so large a part in New Testament criticism. The
above statement, substantially in Baur's own

9	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	8anr
words, expresses fully the guiding principle of the Tubingen School. In the name of fidelity to fact, Baur was conducting a regular siege of the fortifications which, had been thrown up by his own predecessors around the Christian doctrines, when Strauss's assault upon the central bastion attracted general attention. It was not without value to him as a diversion, under cover of which 'he was able to pursue undisturbed for a while longer hits critical work. During the next decade the Tubingen School acquired an importance which seemed to threaten the foundations of dogma from a new quarter, relentlessly contrasting the accepted image of Christ, as drawn according to the subjective Christian mind by Schleiermacher, with the results of objective historical criticism. The main part of the task seemed to be left to Baur himself; be was not so fortunate as the leaders of the old Tubingen School, who had their allies in the other theological chairs. On the other hand, he had with him a large number of young and enthusiastic disciples, such as the talented Eduard Zeller, later his son‑in‑law, the still bolder and braver Schwegler, Kbstlin and Planck, Ritechl and Hilgenfeld, the last two the most prominent allies who came from outside of Wurttemberg.
Baur had begun his critical work with Paul, sad the same apostle engaged the attention of the school in its later publications. Searching investigations of the Epistle to the Romans appeared in the T ZT in 1836, and aroused alarm and opposition.
These, together with considerable mss. Applied to terial which he had published in the the Writings Theologische Jahrbiicher, begun in 1842
of Paul by Zeller and edited from 1847 to
1887 by himself and Zeller jointly, which became the organ of the new school, he put together in 1845 (Stuttgart) into a monograph on Paul. The result reached by this part of his work was the denial of the authenticity of all the letters passing under the apostle's name, except Galatians, I and II Corinthians, and Romans, of which last also the two concluding chapters were questioned. Finally, in agreement with Schneckenburger but still more radically, the poatapostolic origin of the Acts was asserted. It was not difficult to conjecture what would happen to the Gospels when they were thrown into the same crucible.
The theory of the " objective criticism," as it developed, was that the older apostles, with their original body of disciples, were differentiated from the other Jews only by their belief that the crucified Jesus was the Messiah. All the elements of a new religion contained in his life and teaching were
forgotten, or lay undeveloped in the 3. The Fun‑ apostles' memory, though a Stephen
damental attempted to enforce them and sealed Assumption his testimony by his death. When
of the Paul, by a wonderful divination, by School. a train of reasoning from the cross
and the resurrection, rediscovered these elements of universality and freedom, the Church stood suspiciously aloof. The older apostles, indeed, with a liberality difficult to understand in the premises, accepted Paul as an equal fellow laborer and admitted his right to the mission to the Gentiles. But a section of the Church re‑
mained obstinately hostile. Paul appears, therefore, constantly prepared for combat, and when an epistle presents him in any other mood, it is ipso facto unauthentic. In view of these facts, it became all the more necessary for the neat age to emphasize the unity of the Church; when, accordingly, there is perceived a conciliatory tone in an epistle, when it speaks much of the Church and its unity of belief, no further mark of a poatapoatolic origin is needed. The school believed itself able to prove from the Apocalypse, considered as a product not merely of Judaic narrowness but of positive opposition to Paulinism, and still more from the pseudo‑Clementine homilies, that no accommodation took place in the apostles' lifetime.
These views, for all their possible usefulness as against an exaggerated notion in the opposite direction, still left one question unanswered‑‑what really was the Christianity of Christ ? This led inevitably to the question, burning since Strauss, of the status of the Gospels; but it was nearly ten years before Baur brought his disciples to that. In the Jahrbuch for 1844 he attempted to use his critical principles to disprove the authenticity of the Gospel of John. This treatment he supplemented by further investigations on the canonical gospels, and published the whole result in substantive form in 184? (Tubingen). q. Applied In a certain sense it was favorable
to the to the traditional view. The order
	Gospels,	of the canon was approximately
		that of their composition. Matthew,
in whom the Judaic tendency is strongest, would
then be nearest to the source; Mark would show a
tendency to accommodation and minimizing of
differences; and this would show all the chore
clearly the Pauline tendency of Luke. The fourth
Gospel, finally, was supposed to display in every
feature the tendency to sink these differences in a
higher unity, and to take a stand for the conflicts
of the second century, Gnosticism, Montanism,
and the nascent Trinitarian controversy. This
work of Baur'a marks the close of the great period
of the school. His disciples were now ready to
come to his aid. Schwegler's book on Montanism
(Tubingen, 1$41), Ritschl's on Luke and the Gospel
of Marcion (Tubingen, 1846) and on the origin of
the primitive catholic Church (Bonn, 1850),
Kdatlin's on the Johannine system (Berlin, 1843),
were all important; but the moat significant was
Schwegler's on the subapoatolic age (Tubingen,
1846), which attempted constructive reasoning,
using the writings which had been declared unau
thentic as memorials of the development of Judaism
and Pauliniam into what came later.
According to Schwegler, Judaism had no need of further development; the impulse came from Pauliniem, in such a way that the Judaic party
g. Devel‑ decided, in order to preserve the unity
oped by of the Church (Gk. monarchia), to make
	Schwegler.	some concessions, requiring things of
		similar import with those demanded by
the pae2edadelphoi of the New Testament, but
more easily fulfilled by the Gentiles. If circum
cision had to be abandoned, so much the more
weight was laid upon baptism as the Christian

Maur elia	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	10
equivalent; if the works of the Law were dropped, works were still required; Israel's primacy vanished, but a general aristocratic tendency could be maintained in the episcopate; Paul could not be cast out, but he could be subordinated to Peter. Schwegler then watches this development and compromise in two places, Rome and Asia Minor. In Rome he traces the succession of writings of Judaistic origin thus: first the ,Shepherd of Herman and Hegesippua; then Justin, the Clementine Homilies, and the Apostolic Constitutions; then James, the Second Epistle of Clement, Mark, the Clementine Recognitions, and II Peter. On the Pauline aide he finds the conciliatory writings to begin under Trajan with I Peter; then follow Luke and Acts; then the Pastoral Epistles and the letters of Ignatius. Montanism being in his view only an offshoot of Judaism, the Pauline victory falls in the pontificate of Victor (189‑199), under whom Montaniem was condemned at Rome. The Pauline party, indeed, had already made no alight concessions, in order to ward off Gnosticism‑though the Gnostics and especially the Marcionitea ultimately were of great service to Pauliniam in securing the universality of Christianity.
He sees the process as somewhat different in Asia Minor, where the opponents of Paul rallied, not as in Rome around Peter, but around John; here the solution was the formation, of a body of Christian dogma, while in Rome it had been a unity of organization with a Roman primacy. While at Rome the supposed Ebionite works are more numerous than the Pauline, it is the contrary in Asia Minor; the Apocalypse is here the single Ebionite memorial, while on the other aide Galatiana, Colossians, Ephesiana, and the Johannine Gospel form an imposing aeries of steps in the development. Bold, however, and fascinating as are the combinations set forth in this work, and brilliant as is its execution, it may be pointed out (though apace does not permit of illustration) that there is scarcely a theologian to‑day who is disposed to accept this train of reasoning as even an approximately satisfactory solution of the problems suggested. And even in those days, the starting‑point of the whole process of development still remained to be discussed. It was already obvious that without tracing it back to the person and teaching of Christ, the question of how the primitive catholic Church came into existence was insoluble. Attempts in the direction of establishing the entire critical position by showing a genetic development of the earliest organization and dogma out of the gospel of Christ himself marked a third period in the history of the Tubingen School.
III. The Period of Church History: The political upheaval of 1848 had its influence on the future of the school. The attempts made here and there to introduce its conclusions, under cover of the political movements of the time, into the general life of the Church could not fail to bring up the question whether ecclesiastical activity was possible for adherents of the school. It was answered in the negative not only by opponents; some of Baur's own disciples felt that they must either modify the scientific conclusions they had learned from
him, or seek a secular calling, as M#rklin, whose life was written by Strauss, had done in 1840. It was not surprising, then, that the
:. Political German governments thought twice beComplica‑ fore appointing to academic positions dons. men whose influence was so disturbing, and that the younger generation hesitated to follow Baur further, after his most important disciple, Zeller, was obliged in 1849 to exchange a theological chair for that of philosophy at Marburg. Baur felt the isolation in which he thus began to find himself; but his temperament allowed him to hold fast longer than others to the illusion of the identity of church teaching and Hegelian speculation. He relaxed nothing of his zeal for the solution of the important problem which still remained, the establishment on a critical foundation of a positive story of the development of Christianity from its origin down through the centuries.
In 1852 Baur published a book (Leipaic), on the epochs of church history as a preliminary, containing brilliant and frequently sharp criticism of earlier historians. His own efforts in this direction began with the work Daa Chriatenthum ured die christliche Kirche der drew eratera
s. Baur's Jahrhunderte (Leipaic, 1853), and was Works on continued in Die christliche Kirchc Church vom Anfang den 4. his Ausgang den 6.
	History.	Jahrhunderta (Leipsic, 1859). After
		his death appeared (Leipaic, 1862 )
the third part, completed by himself, Die christ
liche Kirche den Mittelaltera in den Hduptmmnenten
ihrer Entwicklung ; and two further volumes were
published from his carefully prepared lecture
notes‑Kirchengeachichte den 19. Jahrhuriderta, ed
ited by Zeller (Leipaic, 1862), and Kirchenge
achichte der neueran Zeit von der Reformation bin
zum Ends den 18. Jahrhunderta, edited by his son
Ferdinand (Leipsic, 1863), thus completing the
entire survey.
If there is sought in these books an answer to the question as to the real primitive Christianity which lay back of Paul and back of Ebionitiam, as to the person of Christ himself, it may be put, once more substantially in Baur's own words (from the important controversial pamphlet against Uhlhorn, Die Ttlbinger Schu7e and %hre Stellung zur Gegenwnrt, Leipaic, 1859), as follows: The real inwardness of Christianity, its essential center point, may be found in what belongs to the strictly ethical content of the teaching of Jesus, in the Sermon on the Mount, the parables, and similar utterances; in his doctrine of the Kingdom of God and the conditions of membership in it, designed to place men in the right ethical relation to 3. His Theo‑ God. This is the really divine, the
	ries and	universally human element in it, the
Conclusions. part of its content which is eternal and
		absolute. What raises Christianity
above all other religions is nothing but the purely
ethical character of its seta, teachings, and require
ments. If this is the essential content of the con
sciousness of Jesus, it is one of the two factors which
compose his personality; it moat have a corro
sponding form, in order to enter, in the way of

historical development, into the general consciousness of humanity; and this form is the Jewish conception of the Messiah, the point of contact between the mind of Jesus and the world that was to believe in him, the basis on which alone a religious community destined to broaden into a Church could be built. We can, therefore, have no clear and definite conception of the personality of Jesus if we do not distinguish these two aides of it and consider them, so to speak, under the aspect of an antinomy, of a process which develops itself gradually.
If we try to get at the heart of Baur's whole view of the subject, stripping his presentation of its somewhat pathetic enthusiasm, it will appear not so very different from Kant's expression, that the faith of pure reason came in with Christ, indeed, but was so overlaid in the subsequent history that if the question were asked which was the best period in the entire course of church history, it might be unhesitatingly answered by the choice of the present, in which a nearer approach than ever before is made to pure religious doctrine. As long as Baur had gone no further into the really primitive essential import of Christianity than to cohsider the Pauline dogmatics as representing it, the development of the Church could perfectly well seem to him to have proceeded in a wholly rational manner. The dogmatic and ecclesiastical decisions of the early ages could, in their context, appear " reasonable," and Baur himself, in contrast Their with a writer like Gottfried Arnold
	Weakness	or with the unhistoric rationalism,
and Decline. almost an orthodox historian, always
		in harmony with the course of events
as it proceeded. Not only Athanasius and Augus
tine, but Gregory VII and Innocent III had full
justice at his hands. But this involved an equally
tolerant acknowledgment of the claims of the nine
teenth century. If the humanitarianism of Goethe
and Schiller seemed better adapted to the needs of
educated men in this age than the Church in its
older form, here also the living must take prece
dence; and suddenly the place of the old Church
was taken by a broad " communion " in which all
the heroes of the intellect, even the most modern,
took their place as saints. But when the question
came to be asked what this prevalent humanism
had in common with ancient Christianity, it became
apparent that the whole long process of devel
opment was really a totally unnecessary detour,
whose purpose it was difficult to discover. It
could scarcely be denied that a historical method
which saw the essence of Christianity in ethics
exclusively, which knew nothing of the need of
redemption, and which was unable to give any
positive account of the person of Christ, was one
in which the Hegelian conception of development
practically disappeared. Yet the distinguishing
mark of the school of Baur had been the application
of this very conception to Christian history, espe
cially that of the primitive age‑the attempt to
show the course oLhiatory as rational and necessary;
and thus, in the person of its head, the Tiibingen
School deserted the fundamental principle which
is its palmy days it had sought to enforce. It
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
was, then, not surprising that uncertainty showed itself among the members of the school on the question of the Gospels. The less a definite tendency could be proved in the synoptica, the more they were shown to offer at least a substratum of purely historical matter, so much the more pressing became the question how the school's view of his, tory could be reconciled with the actual course of events. When the attempt to construct the latter a priori, failed, an advantage was given to the " literary‑historical " method with which Hilgenfeld undertook to replace the criticism of tendency. In his Historiscltrkritische Einleitung in das neue Testament (Leipsic, 1875) the Tiibingen views were modified in a large number of points. Thus the results supposed to have been attained by the `° objective criticism " of Baur were called in question by his own fellow workers; and when he died, it is hardly too much to say that his school, at least in the narrower sense, died with him.
(J. Iieusar.El'rM. )
Bisrroassret:: Two of Ferdinand Christian Baur's books are accessible in English translation: Paul, the Apostle of Jeaue Christ, 2 vole., London, 1873‑75; The Church History o/ the First Three Centuries, 2 vole., ib. 1878‑79. Consult: A. B. Bruce, F. C. Baur and his Theory of the Origin of Christianity, New York, 1888; Worte der Erinneru»p a» Ferdinand Christian Baur, Tiibingen, 1881; H. Beekh, Die Tabinper historiache Bchuie, kritisch beleuehtet, in ZPK, zlviii (1884),1‑87, 89‑95; C. WeiasBeker, Ferdinand Christian von Baur. Reds our akademischen Feier seines 100. Geburtatapee, Stuttgart, 1892; O. Pfieiderer, Zu F. C. Baur'a GedBchtniaa, in Protestantiache Kirchenseitunp, 1892, No. 25; R, W. Mackay, The Tubingen School, and its Antecedents, London, 1863; s. Berger, F. C. Baur, Lea Originea de l'ecols de Tubingue et sea pri»cipea, Strasburg, 1887: C. H. Toy, The Tubingen Historical 3ehool, in BQR, iii (1889), 210 aqq. Works on N. T. Introduction usually discuss the Ti7bingen School, as do those on the church history of the nineteenth century.
BAUR, GUSTAV ADOLF LUDWIG: Lutheran; b. at Hammelbach (17 m. n.e. of Heidelberg), in the Odenwald, June 14, 1816; d. at Leipsic May 22, 1889. He studied at Giessen, where he became docent in 1841, professor extraordinary, 1847, ordinary, 1849; he became pastor at Hamburg, 1861, and professor of practical theology at Leipsic, 1870. He was a member of the commission for revising Luther's translation of the Bible. Besides numerous sermons he issued Erkl(Lrung des ProPheten Amos (Giessen, 1847); Crundxiige der Horniletik (1848); Geschichte der alttestartterttlichert Weissagung (first part, 1861); Boetitcs and Dame (Leipsie, 1874); Grundziige der Erziehungslehre (4th ed., Giessen, 1887); he wrote the greater part of the first volume of Schmid's Geschichte der Erziehung (Stuttgart, 1884), and Die christlic)ae Erziehung in ihrem Verhaltnisse zttm Judenthurrt and zur antiken Welt (2 vole., 1892).
BIHLIOaEAPH7: G. A. Bsur, Trauerftier bei dam BeprUbraiea G. A. L. Baws, Leipeie, 1889.
BAUSLIN, DAVID HENRY: Lutheran; b. at Winchester, Va., Jan. 21, 1854. He studied at Wittenberg College (B.A., 1876) and Theological Seminary, Springfield, O. (1878), and held pastorates at Tippecanoe City, O. (1878‑81), Bucyrus, O. (1881‑88), Second Lutheran Church, Springfield, O. (I888‑93), and Trinity Church, Canton,
O. (1893‑96). In 1896 he was appointed professor

B nyar~sas	THE NEW 9CHAFF‑HERZOG	12
of historical and practical theology is the Wittenberg Theological Seminary. He has been for several years a member of the " common service " committee for the General Synod of the Lutheran. Church, and was president of the General Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the United States 190:r‑07. He has written Is the Ministry an Attractive Vocation? (Philadelphia, 1901), and has been editor of The Lutheran World since 1901.

BAUSMAN, BENJAMIN: Reformed (German); b. at Lancaster, Pa., Jan. 28, 1824. He was educated at Marshall College (B.A., 1851) and the Theological Seminary, Mercersburg, Pa. (1852). He was ordained to the Reformed ministry in 1853, and held successive pastorates at Lewisburg, Pa. (1853‑61), Ghambersburg, Pa. (1861‑G3), First Reformed Church, Reading, Pa, (1863‑73), and St. Paul's Reformed Church, Reading, which he founded in 1873. He was president of the General Synod of the Reformed Church at Baltimore in 1884. He was editor of The Reformed Messenger in 1858 and of The Guardian from 1867 to 1882. In the year 1867 he founded Der reformierte Hausfreund, of which he is still the editor. He has written Sinai and Zion (Philadelphia, 1860); Wayside Gleanings in Europe (Reading, 1878); Bible Characters (1893); and Precept and Practice (Philadelphia, 1901); in addition to editing Harbaugh's Harfe, a collection of poems in Pennsylvania Dutch (Reading, 1870).

BAUSSET, bo"se;', LOUIS FRANCOIS DE: Cardinal; b. at Pondicherry Dec. 'l4, 1748; d. at Paris June 21, 1824. He studied in the Seminary of St. Sulpice; was appointed Bishop of Alais, 1784; emigrated in 1791, but returned in 1792 to Paris, and supported himself, after a short imprisonment, by literary labor. In 1806 he was made canon of St. Denys, and in 1815, after the second return of Louis XVIII, director of the council of the University of Paris, peer of France, and cardinal 1817. He wrote the Hiatoire de FEnelon (3 vole., Paris, 1808) and Histoire de Bosaver (4 vole., Versailles,. 1814).

BAUTAII(, b8"tan', LOUIS EUGENE MARIE: French philosopher; b. at Paris Feb. 17, 1796; d. at Virofiay, near Versailles, Oct. Ib, 1867. He became professor of philosophy at Strasburg in 1819. He was a pupil of Cousin and a student of German philosophy, and, his teaching not being acceptable to the church authorities, he was suspended in 1822. He modified his views and took holy orders in 1828, and resumed teaching. In 1834 he again fell into difficulty with the Bishop of Strasburg because of his teachings concerning the' relation of reason and faith; is 1838 he went to Rome and sought in vain to have his views approved there. In 1840 he submitted, became vicar‑general of Paris in 1849, and professor at the Sorbonne in 1853. He held that the human reason can not prove such facts as the existence of God and the immortality of the soul, and that the truths of religion are communicated purely by divine revelation. His most important works
were: Philosophic du Christianiame (2 vole., Strasburg, 1835); Psyc7wlogie experimeretale (2 vole., 1839; new ed., with title Esprit humairt et see faeultda, Paris, 1859); Philosophic morale (2 vole., Paris, 1842); La morale de l'A'roangile rvmpar(e aux divers sysfPmeade morale (1855). He had much repute as an orator and published an etude sur fart de parley en public (1856; Eng. tranal., The Art o f Extempore Speaking, London, 1858).

BIBLIOGRAPHY. E, de Rdgny. L'AbU Bautain, Paris, 1884.

BAUTZ, JOSEF: Roman Catholic; b. at Keeken (near Clever) Nov. 11, 1843. He was educated at Miiuster, where he became privet docent of apologetics and dogmatics in 1877, being promoted to the rank of associate professor in 1892. He has written Die Lehre vom Auferatehungsleibe (Paderborn, 1877); Der Himmel, spekulotiro dargestellt (Mains, 1881); Die H6Uz, im Anaehluss an die Scliolasta'Tc (I882); Des. Fegfeuer. I'm Anschlusa an. die Scholastik (1883); Weltgericht ured Weltende. Im Areachluss an die Seholastik (1886); Grundzuge der christliehen Apologetik (1887); and Grundzuge der katholisehen Dogmatik (4 vole., 1888‑93).

BAVARIA: A kingdom in the southern part of the German Empire, and, next to Prussia, the largest of the states of the Empire; area, 29,282 square miles; population (1900), 6,176,057, of whom 4,357,133 (70.5 per cent.) are Roman Catholics; 1,749,206 (28.3 per cent.) Protestants; 5,430 Old Catholics; 3,170 Mennonites; 54,928 (.9 per cent.) Jews; and 4,142 of various faiths.
The division of the chief confessions is based in great part on the historic conditions prevailing in 1624 and 1648, although the development of the cities has been the cause of many changes, the proportion of Protestants having increased in Munich and that of the Roman Catholics in Nuremberg. The old Bavarian circles of Upper and Lower Bavaria, as well as the Upper Palatinate,
have always been essentially Roman Protestant‑ Catholic. Upper Bavaria received its ism is first Protestant citizens in the early
Bavaria. part of the nineteenth century, but
in consequence of the rapid growth of Munich in recent years the Protestants of that city alone numbered 78,000 in 1900. Six pastorates and six immovable vicariatea are also contained in the district, and seven small churches have been built in market‑towns and villages. Since the sixteenth century Lower Bavaria has posed the Protestant enclave of Ortenburg with certain neighboring places, while more recently communities have been established in the larger cities, especially Passau. The Upper Palatinate was not completely converted to Roman Catholicism in 1622‑28, since the duchy of Sulzbach and the imperial city of Regensburg retained congregations of both confessions„who used the same churches; but with the increase in population the proportion of Protestants steadily declined. The district now has four desaenea with forty‑eight pastorates. In the three old Bavarian districts provision is made for the Protestant Diaspora by itinerant preachers, four of whom work in Upper Bavaria

13	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	$'°a"''n
Bavarians
and two in Lower Bavaria and the Upper Palatinate combined. Since 1805 Swabia has belonged in great part to Bavaria. It consisted originally of a group of territories belonging to free cities, the clergy, and knights of the empire. Only the first category was predominantly Protestant, and even here Roman Catholicism has gained steadily. Swabia contains the following Protestant deaneries: Augsburg, Ebermergen, Kempten (including Lindau and Kaufbeuren), Leipheim, Memmingen, Ntirdlingen, and Oettingen.
Frankish North Bavaria is composed, on the one hand, of the episcopal territories of the bishoprics of Eichstatt, Bamberg, Wiirzburg, and a portion of the electorate of Mainz, and, on the other, of the Protestant principalities of Ansbach and Baireuth, Nuremberg, Rothenburg, and other free cities, and enclaves of the orders. This entire region is strongly Roman Catholic, although Lower Francoma has a considerable number of Protestant communities (116 pastorates, exclusive of Wurzburg, Schweinfurt, and Aschaffenburg). In the larger section of Bavaria the historical divisions between Protestant and Roman Catholic, at least in the smaller towns, are still maintained, but in the minor portion, the Rhine Palatinate, there are few political communities which do not have a considerable minority of adherents of one or the other creed. In Speyer the proportions are almost equal, Roman Catholics numbering about 9,000 and the Protestants 8,000.
The legal position of the Protestant Church in Bavaria is regulated by an edict of Sept. 8,1809, while its foreign relations are governed by the constitution of 1818. Both Protestantism and Roman Catholicism are officially recognized, and controversies seldom arise between the two, except in regard to the creed in which children shall be brought up, methods of conversion, particularly in the Evangelical Diaspora, and the use of burial‑grounds in Roman Catholic communities. In 1824 the official designation of the Protestants was declared to be " Protestant Church."
The Reformed Ch‑arch in the Palatinate first regained official recognition together with the Lutherans at the general consistory at Worms in 1815, and the Bavarian government created a consistory at Speyer on Dec. 15,1818, for the "Protestant Churches of the Palatinate," a presbyterial and synodical constitution being introduced at the same time. In 1848 the Protestant Church of the Palatinate and the consistory of Speyer were placed directly under the jurisdiction of the ministry of state. The attempt to create a more definite confessional statue led, in the sixth decade of the last century, to a victorious agitation on the part of the liberal element. Since 1879 the presbyteries have had the right to propose candidates for vacant pastorates. In Bavaria proper diocesan synods are held annually, and general synods every four years.
There are few Protestants in Bavaria, except those who belong to the Evangelical Lutheran Church, nor are the professed adherents of sects numerous. A distinct organization was granted the Reformed in Bavaria proper in 1853, although
they are still under the control of the Supreme Consistory. The Greek .Church was recognized in 1826, but the Anglican Church is officially ignored like the Mennonites. The last‑named have six communities in the Palatinate and four in Bavaria proper. Until 1887 the Old Catholics were reckoned as Roman Catholics, but are now declared to be a separate body, though full recognition has.not bin granted them.
The Roman Catholic Church is Bavaria is highly organized and extremely active, while its wealth and political influence are constantly
Romaa increasing. The kingdom is divided Catholicism into two archdioceses with eight
in Bavaria. dioceses. The archdiocese of Munich
	Freising comprises the sufl'ragan dio
ceses of Augsburg, Passau, and Regensburg; and
the archdiocese of Bamberg includes the dioceses
of EichstAtt, Wurzburg, and Speyer. The educa
tion of the clergy, in agreement with the concordat
of 1817, is entrusted to the bishops. The develop
ment of orders has been very rapid, especially in
the sisterhoods for the education and the care of
the sick. The number of cloisters has also increased
rapidly, with a corresponding gain in real estate,
and this development is aided by the generous
gifts and foundations of the Roman Catholic popu
lation, the property of the 8,600 institutions being
valued at more than 150,000,000 marks; while
that of the 1,800 Protestant institutions is worth
only 19,600,000 marks. The Roman Catholic
clergy in Bavaria number some 4,900, or a pro
portion of one to 816 of the laity, while the Protes
tants have but about 1,300 clergymen, or one to
1,200 laymen. 	Wrr.xxrat Go=.
BssuoaaeraT: v. A. Winter, aeuh:abts der Sthickwle der tuangdisrhen Lehre in and dmhBayern, 2 vole., Munich, 1809‑10: E. F, li. Medicos, hse<huhte der eoanpelischen Kirche im KBniprcich Bayern, Erlangen. 1883; J. M. Mayer, Qeechichfa Bayeraa, Rat•ebon, 1874; J. Hergenr8ther, Handbwh der Kirchen®uehiclate, 3 vole., Freiburg, 1878‑BV (literature of the subject is given, iii. 183); 8. Riesler, Geschichte Baycma, 4 vole., Goths, 1878‑99; Wand, Handbwh der Ver/assunp and Vep der yrotestant%ach^ev.‑ehrietlichen Kirche der PAU, 1880: BeitrSpe zur 3tatietik des Kbnipreicks Bayern, Munich, 1892; Statiatischt MiUeidunpen sue den deutechen toangetiachcn Landeakirchen, Stuttgart, 1880‑98.
BAVARIANS, CONVERSION OF THE: The origin of the race later known as the Bavarians is uncertain. The older hypothesis that they came of Celtic stock is now generally abandoned. For a time it was thought that they were a conglomerate of the remains of several tribes belonging to the Gothic family; but the view put forward by Zeuss (Die Herkunft der Bayern, Munich, 1857) that they are to be identified with the Marcomanni is now almost universally accepted, and has strong support in the facts.
The Marco•np.*,*,i are first mentioned by Caesar (Bel. Gal., i, 51). In his time they lived on the upper Main. Tacitus knows of them as inhabiting what is now Bohemia (Germ., xlii; cf. gnnal., ii, 26 eqq.). Here they maintained their position for centuries, and here they took the name of Baiowarii or Baioarii. During this period, Christianity found an entrance among them. Paulinus, in his life of Ambrose (xxxvi), tells of a queen

Bavarians Baxter
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
of the Marcomanni named Fritigil who was converted by a wandering Italian Christian, and asked
Ambrose for written instructions in First Ac‑ the faith, which he gave in modem quaintance catechisms. The account goes on to with Chris‑ say that she thereupon came to Milan,
	tianity.	but found the bishop dead. As Am
		broae died Apr. 4, 397, she must
have crossed the Alps in the summer of that year.
If the queen was a Christian, it is hardly likely
that her religion would have been unknown to her
people. That Arianism also reached the Marco
manni through Gothic influences is not improbable.
However that may be, the bulls of the people were
pagan when they settled in 488 on the strip of
territory granted them by the Romans between
the Lech and the Enna.
The name of Bavarians is first applied in the Frankish list of tribes belonging to the first quarter of the sixth century. The territory which they occupied was no desolate wilderness. In the valleys and around the lakes there was a thin agricultural population which held to the Latin tongue and doubtless also to the Christian faith. Not all the cities were destroyed; Juvavum and Lauriacum lay in ruins; but neither Castra Batava nor Castra Regina was without inhabitants, and here also Christianity undoubtedly held its own with the Romanic population. Christians and heathens thus living as neighbors, a starting‑point was afforded for missionary efforts. The ecclesiastical organization had, it is true, been broken up; only in southern Bavaria a bishopric founded in Roman times maintained its existence at Seben, and the diocese of Augsburg stretched over a part of the Bavarian territory. Under these circumstances the fact was of decisive importance that the Bavarians no sooner occupied their new home than they came into a position of dependence on the Frankish kingdom. The first ducal family, that of the Agilulfings, was of Frankish origin and
professed Christianity, and the first
Labors outsiders who labored for the spread of IMis‑ of the faith in Bavaria came from the sionaries. Frankish kingdom. Eustasius of Lux‑
euil (q.v.), the successor of Columban, worked there, and left missionaries trained by him when he returned to Burgundy. Later, Rupert, bishop of Worms, found a wide field here for his activity; Emmeram and Corbinia,n (qq.v.) were Franks. Side by side with them there seem to have been at a very early period some ScotoIrish monks, but there is no record of their labors. The result of the combined operation of these imperfectly known factors was the acceptance of Christianity by the Bavarian race as a whole, which was completed in the course of the seventh century. It is a remarkable fact that it was not accompanied by the organization of a local episcopate; as far as can be told the direction of ecclesiastical affairs was in the hands of the dukes; it is Theodo who invites Rupert thither, and who treats with the pope in regard to church institutions. From this fact it would appear that the Christian profession of the dukes played a decisive part in the conversion of the people at large. The exist‑
ence of the Church without diocesan bishops was made possible by the fact that the wandering monks and missionaries were frequently in episcopal orders, and could thus perform the strictly episcopal functions.
The above‑mentioned Duke Theodo, acting in concert with the pope, endeavored to introduce a more regular organization. With this end in view, he visited Rome in 716, and had an agreement with Pope Gregory II as to the measures to be taken. At least four dioceses were to be founded corresponding to the divisions of the secular jurisdiction. The bishop of the moat
Orgsniza‑ important place was to be set as tion of metropolitan at the head of the
Bishoprics. Bavarian Church, the pope reserving
	the right to consecrate him, and if
necessary to name an Italian. Order was to be
brought into the ecclesiastical affairs by a general
visitation; the Roman use was to be taken as the
model in liturgical matters. But these plans
were never carried into execution, apparently by
reason of the death of Theodo. The organization
of the Bavarian bishoprics, involving the termina
tion of the missionary period, was only accomplished
by Boniface (q.v.), who paid a short visit to the
country in 719, and returned in 735 or 736 to make
a formal visitation by virtue of what was practically
s metropolitan jurisdiction over the whole of
Germany, for the purpose of acquiring full infor
mation as to the prevailing conditions. His
definite organizing work is introduced by a brief
(738 or 739) from Gregory III to the bishops of
Bavaria and Alemannia, enjoining them to receive
Boniface with fitting honors as his representative,
and to attend a synod to be held by him. In 739
Boniface undertook the settlement of diocesan
boundaries and institutions, and provided three
of the four bishoprics of Bavaria with bishops
consecrated by himself‑Erembrecht, brother of
Corbinian, at Freising, Gavibald at Regensburg,
and John, a newcomer from England, at Salzburg
while Vivilo, who had been consecrated by the pope,
remained at Passau. Gregory III confirmed these
arrangements on Oct. 29, and the subordinate
divisions of archdeaconriea and parishes were
soon organized. The decisions of the Synod of
Reisbach (799) show the parochial system in full
operation. 		(A. Heucg.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hauck, KD, vol. i; 8. Riesler, (#eachichts Bayerna, vol. i, Goths, 1873; Rsttberg, RD, 2 vole.;
Friedrich, KD, 2 vole.
BAVINCg, HERMAN: Dutch Reformed; b. at Hoogeveen (35 m. s. of Groningen), Holland, Dec. 13, 1854. He was educated at the gymnasium of Zwolle, the theological seminary of the Reformed Church at Kampen, and the University of Leyden (D.D., 1880); he was then pastor at Franeker, Friesland (1881,82), and professor of dogmatic theology in the theological seminary at Kampen (1882‑1903). Since 1903 he has been professor of dogmatics and apologetics at the Free University, Amsterdam. In theology he adheres to the principles of the Heidelberg Confession and the canons of the Synod of Dort. He has written De Ethiek van H. Zwingli (Kampen, 1880); De

lb	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bavarians
Batter
Wetenschap der htilige Godgeleerdheid (1883); De Theologie van Prof. Dr. D. Chantepie de la Sauasaye (Leyden, 1884); De Katholiciteit van Christendom en Kerk (Kampen, 1888); De algemeene Genade (1894); Gerefornxeerde Dogmatiek (4 vole., 18951901); Beginselen der Psychologie (1897); De Offerande des Lofs (The Hague, 1901); De Lebenheid des Geloofs (Kampen, 1901); Hedendaagsche lVloraal (1902); Roeping en Wedergeboorte (1902);‑Godsdienst en Godgeleerdheid (Wageningen, 1902); Christelijke Wetenschap (Kampen, 1904); Christelijke Wereldbeachouwing (1904); Podagogische Beglnaelen (1904); and Bilderdijk als Danker en Dichter (1906).

BAXTER, RICHARD: One of the greatest of English theologians; b. at Rowton (42 m. n.e. of Shrewsbury), Shropshire, Nov. 12, 1615; d. in London Dec. 8, 1691. Though without a university education, and always sickly, he acquired great learning. In 1633 he had a brief experience of court life at Whitehall (London), but turned from the court in disgust and studied theology. In 1638 he was ordained by the bishop of Worcester and preached in various places till 1641, when he
began his ministry at Kidderminster Ministry (18 m. s.w. of Birmingham), as at Bidder‑ " teacher." There he labored with
‑inster. wonderful success so that the place
was utterly transformed. When the Civil War broke out (1642) he retired temporarily to Gloucester and then to Coventry because he sided with the parliament, while all in and about Kidderminster sided with the king. He was, however, no blind partizan and boldly spoke out for moderation and fairness. After acting as an army chaplain he separated from the army, partly on account of illness, and returned to Kidderminster.
In the spring of 1660 he left Kidderminster and went to London. He preached before the House of Commons at St. Margaret's, Westminster, Apr. 30, 1660, and before the lard mayor and aldermen at St. Paul's, May 10, and was among those to give Charles II welcome to his kingdom. Charles made him one of his chaplains and offered him
the bishopric of Hereford, which he In London. declined. He was a leader on the Non‑
conformist aide in the Savoy Conference (1661) and presented a revision of the Prayer‑book which could be used by the Nonconformists. He also preached frequently in different pulpits. Seeing how things were going, he desired permission to return to Kidderminster as curate, but was refused. On May 16, 1662, three days before the Act of Uniformity was passed, he took formal farewell of the Church of England and retired to Acton, a west suburb of London. From this time on he had no regular charge and until the accession of William and Mary in 1888 he suffered, like other Non‑conformist preachers, from repressive laws often rigorously and harshly enforced. On Sept. 10, 1662, he married Margaret, daughter of Francis Charlton, of Shropshire, twentyfour years his junior, who possessed wealth and social position, and made him a devoted helpmeet,
cheerfully going with him into exile and prison and spending her money lavishly in the relief of their less fortunate fellow sufferers. She died June 14, 1681, and Baxter has perpetuated her memory in a singularly artless but engaging memoir (London, 1681).
	During all these years on the verge of trouble
because he persisted in preaching, he was actually
imprisoned only twice, once for a short period,
and again from Feb. 28, 1685, to Nov. 24, 1686.
The judge who condemned him the second time
		was George Jeffreys, who treated him
Imprison‑ with characteristic brutality. The meat. charge was that in his Paraphrase of the New Testament (1685) Baxter had libeled the Church of England. But insult, heavy and indeed ruinous fines, enforced wanderings, anxiety as to personal safety, and imprisonment had no power to daunt Baxter's spirit. He preached constantly to great multitudes, and addressed through his writings a still vaster throng. The Toleration Act of 1688 ended his sufferings and he died in peace.
Baxter was one of the moat voluminous of English authors, and one of the best. But there is no complete edition of his 1038 treatises, only of his practical works. A few of his works are in verse (Poetical Fragments, reprinted, London, 1821), though he has small claim to be called a poet, and one familiar hymn (" Lord, it belongs not to my care ") has been manufactured out of a longer one of his. The after‑world knows him by reputation as the author of The Reformed Pastor (1656),
	Writings.	a treatise on pastoral theology still
		usable; A Call to the Unconverted to
turn and live and accept o f mercy while mercy may
be had, as even they would find mercy in the day o f
their extremity; from the Living God (1657), uttered
as a dying man to dying men and impressive to‑day;
but chiefly because of The Saints' Everlasting Rest
or a treatise of the blessed state of the Saints in their
enjoyment of God in glory. Wherein is chewed its
excellency and certainty; the misery of those that
lose it, the way to attain it, and assurance o f it; and
how to live in the continual delightful foretaste of it,
by the help o f meditation. Written by the author
for his own use, in the time of his languishing, when
God took him off from all publike employment; and
afterwards preached in his weekly lecture (1650).
The "Saints' Rest " gained a reputation it has never
lost, but the 648 pages of the original edition have
proved too many for posterity and the work is
read nowadays, if at all, only in an abridgment
of an abridgment. The best brief characterization
of this faithful, fearless, and gifted religious teacher
is on his monument at Kidderminster, erected by
Churchmen and Non‑conformists, and unveiled
July 28, 1875: " Between the years 1641 and 1660
this town was the scene of the labours of Richard
Baxter, renowned equally for his Christian learning
and his pastoral fidelity. In a stormy and divided
age he advocated unity and comprehension, point
ing the way to everlasting rest." In many re
spects Baxter was a modern man.
Baxter's theology was set forth moat elaborately in his Latin Methodus theologies Chriatianre (London,

BOXW Ileach
THE NEW SCHAFP=HERZO(3
1681); the	Christian Directory (1673) contains
the practical part of his system; and Catholic
	Theology (1675) is an English ergo‑
		His	sition. His theology made Baxter
	Theology. very unpopular among his contempo
			raaies and caused a split among the Die
senters of the eighteenth century. As summarized
by ThomasW. Jenkyn, it differed from theCalvinism
of Baxter's day on four points: (i) The atonement
of Christ did not consist in his suffering the identical
but the equivalent punishment (i.e., one which would
have the same effect in moral government) as that
deserved by mankind because of offended law.
Christ died for sins, not. persons. While the hens‑ ~,
fits of substitutionary atonement are accessible I
and available to all men for their salvation; they
have in the divine appointment a special reference
to the subjects of personal elation. (2) The elect
were a certain fined number determined by the
decree without any reference to their faith as .the
ground of their election; which decree contemplates
no reprobation but rather the redemption of all
who will accept Christ as their Savior. (3) What
is imputed to the sinner in the work of justification
is not the righteousness of Christ but the faith of
the sinner himself in the righteousness of Christ.
(4) Every sinner has a distinct agency of his own
to exert in the process of his conversion. The Baz
terian theory, with modifications, was adopted by
many later Presbyterians and Congregationalists
in England, Scotland, and America (Isaac Watts,
Philip Doddridge, and many others).

Btsmoomr>n: Bantu's Practical Works were collected by w. Orme and published is 23 vole., London, 1830; vol. i contains Orme's Life and Times of Richard Baxter, published separately in 2 vole., the same year; a table of the contents of this edition of Banter's works is found in Darling's Cyciopddia Bi6liopraphica, pp. 205‑208, London, 1864; the Practical Works appeared also in 4 vole., ib. 1847; and Select Practical Writings, ed. L. Bacon, 2 vole., New Haven, 1844. An Annotated List of the Writings o/ R. Baxter is appended to the ed. of What Must we do to ‑6e Saved t by A. B. Gmeart, London, 1868. The chief source for a life is the antobiogiaphiod material left to M. Bylvester, who published it as ReLiquice Baxterianar, London, 1898, abridged by E. Calamy, 1702, this enlarged and republished in 2 vole., 1713. A notable paper on Baxter by Sir James Stephen, originally published in the Edinburgh Review, is to be found in his Essays, vol. ii, London, 1880. Among the biographies may be mentioned A. B. Grosw‑k Representative Nonconformists, 11, Richard Baxter, ib. 1879; G. D. Boyle, Men Worth Remembering, Richard Baxter, ib. 1883; J. Stalker, Richard Baxter, Edinburgh, 1883; DNB, iii, 429‑d37; J. H. Davies, Life of Richard Baxter, London, 1887. The account of his trial is given by Macaulay in his History of England, vol. ii. Consult also Banter's Making Light of Christ, with an Essay on his Lice, Ministry and Theology, by T. W. Jenkyn, London, 1848.

BAYhE, bbl, PIERRE: French Protestant; b. at Carts (li m. w. of Pamiers), department of Ariisge, Nov. 18, 1647; d. at Rotterdam Dec. 28, 1706. He was the son of a Calvinist clergyman, and, in 1666, began his studies at the Protestant Academy at Puylaurens, whence he went to the University of Toulouse in 1669. Not satisfied with the objections of the Reformed against the dogma of a divinely appointed judge in matters of faith, he became a Roman Catholic. He spent eighteen months at the Jesuits' College in Toulouse,
and then returned to Protestantism sad went to Geneva (1670), wham, living as a tutor in private families, he studied theology as well as the Cartesian philosophy. His friendship with Jacques Basaage sad Minutoli began there. Later he accompanied pupils to Rouen and in 1675 to Paris. Then he spent several years as. a lecturer on philosophy at $E3daa; when that academy was closed by order of the king (1681), he accepted an appointment as lecturer on philosophy at the " Acole illustre " of Rotterdam. In this refuge of liberty, Bayle wrote most of his works. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes raised his indignation, and several of the best Protestant works called forth by that disgraceful piece of policy proceeded from the pen of Bayle. The conclusion at which he arrives by his close reasoning is: that matters of belief should be outside the sphere of the State as such‑a dangerous principle for Catholicism, and the book was at once put on the Index. Even among Protestants Bayle had adversaries. Jurieu, his jealous and violent opponent at Rotterdam, considered toleration equal to indifference, and reproached Bayle with dangerous skepticism, which made his position very difficult. He tried for an appointment in Berlin. Brit the realization of this wish was prevented by the death of the great Elector Frederick William. Jurieu continued his attacks and even went so far as to represent Bayle as the head of a party working into the hands of Louis XIV by aiming at a split between the princes allied against France. William III gave credence to this and influenced the magistrate of Rotterdam to remove Bayle from his position (1693). From that time he lived for his literary work, chiefly bearing on philosophy and the history of literature. His Didionsaasire historique et critique [(2 vole. in three parts Rotterdam, 1697; 2d ed., 3 vole., 1702; 11th ed., 16 vole., Paris, 1820‑24; Eng. transl., 5 vole., London, 1734‑38)] was mast favorably received by all the learned men of Europe, though it brought on him a revival of the reproach of skepticism, of want of respect for the Holy‑Scriptures, even of Manicheism. Called to justify himself before a commission appointed by the presbytery of. Rotterdam, he was treated with great moderation, sad consented to change some of the offensive articles, which appeared in their new form in the second edition of his Dictionrtaare. Accusations against him came up again from time to time, and he tried to refute them in minor philosophical works. Besides the Dactiortnaire his works include: Lettres h M. L. D. A. C., dodetcr en Sorbo»rte, oic il est prouW qua lee comdes ne sont point Is pr&age d'aticvai matlaeur (Cologne, 1682); Critique g&z&ale de l'Histoire du Cahrinisme de M. Maimbourg (Amsterdam, 1682); ILecueil de qttelques pies concernant la ph%losophie de M. Descartes (Amsterdam, 1684); Nots‑ltea de la Rkpublique den ldtrea (16841687); Ce qua c'eat q><e to France touts catholiqire noun le r~gne de Louis‑lC‑la7rand (St. Omer, 1685); Commentaire philosophique our cea parolee de ,1. C.: "Contrains‑lesd'entrer" (Amsterdam,1686); Ites;oanse de l'atiteecr den Notsroetlea de la Rkpttblique den leteres en faveur du P. Malebranche sur lee pLxieira des aens ( R,otterdam, 1686) ; Avis imp aux ,61u‑

17	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	g
giks sur leer Prochain retottr en France (Amsterdam, 1690; 1709) ; Lettres choisies avec des remarqtiea (Rotterdam, 1714); Nouvellea Zettrea (The Hague, 1739). G. BONET‑MAURY.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: B. de is Monnoye (pseudonym for Du RRveat), Hiatoire du Mr. Basle et see ouvragea, Amsterdam, 1718; P. des Maizeaux, Vie de P. Basle, The Hague, 1730, reprinted from the 3d ed. of the Dictio»naire,Amaterdam,1730, reproduced in the Eng. tranel. of the " Dictionary, "ut sup.; E. and It. Haag, La France Proteatanfe, ii, 80‑83, 9 vole., Paris, 1846‑59; L. Feuerbach, P. Basle, ei» Beidnp ew Geachichfe der Philoaophie and der Meuachheit, Leipeic, 1848; J. P. Dsmiron, Memoirs our Basle et sea doctrines, Paris, 1850; C. A. 3t. Beuve, in Lundia, vol. ix, ib. 1852; F. Bouillier, Hiatoire de la Philoaophis cartEai.enne, ii, 476, ib. 1854; C. Lenient, dude our Basle, ib. 1855; A. Jeanmaire, Eaaai our la critique religieuae de Bayk, $traeburg, 1862; Voltaire, Siecle de Louis XIV, chap. 36; A. Deschamps, La Geni!ae du sceptieeame t?rudit chew Basle, Brussels, 1879; J. Denis, Boyle et Juriea, Caen, 1886; P. Janet, Hiafoire de la science politique dana sea rapporta suet la morale, Paris, 1887.

BAYLEY, JAMES ROOSEVELT: Roman Catholic archbishop of Baltimore; b. at Rye, N. Y., Aug. 23, 1814; d. in Newark, N. J., Oct. 3, 1877. He was a nephew of Elizabeth (Bayley) Seton (" Mother Seton "), founder of the order of Sisters of Charity in America; was graduated at Washington (Trinity) College, Hartford, Conn., 1835; rector of St. Peter's church, Harlem, New York, 1840‑41; received into the Roman Catholic Church at Rome, 1842; studied in Paris and Rome, and was ordained priest in New York, 1843; was professor in St. John's College, Fordham, New York, and its acting president, 1845‑46; became secretary to Bishop Hughes of New York, 1846, bishop of Newark, 1853, archbishop of Baltimore and primate of America, 1872. He published a volume of pastoral letters; Sketch of the History of the Catholic Church on the Island of New York (New York,1853); Memoirs of Simon Gabriel Brut, First Bishop of Vincennes (1861).

BAYLY, LEWIS: Anglican bishop; b. perhaps at Carmarthen, Wales, perhaps at Lamington (6 m. s.w. of Bigger), Scotland, year unknown; d, at Bangor, Wales, Oct. 26, 1631. He was educated at Oxford; became vicar of Evesham, Worcestershire, .and in 1604, probably, rector of St. Matthew's, Friday street, London; was then chaplain to Henry Prince of Wales (d. 1612), later chaplain to King James I, who, in 1616, appointed him bishop of Bangor. He was an ardent Puritan. His fame rests on The Practice of Piety, directing a Christian how to walk that he may please God (date of first ed. unknown; 3d ed., London, 1613). It reached its 74th edition in 1821 and has been translated into French, German, Italian, Polish, Romansch, Welsh, and into the language of the Massachusetts Indians. It was one of the two books which John Bunyaa's wife brought with her‑the other one being Arthur Dent's Plaint Man's Pathway to Heaven‑and it was by reading it that Bunsen was first spiritually awakened.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: A biographical preface by Grace Webster is prefixed to the Practice of Piety, London, 1842; oonavlt also A. i; Wood, Athena! Oxonienaes, ed. P. Bliss, ii, 525‑531, 4 vole., ib. 1813‑20.
IL‑2
BAY PSALM BOOK: A metrical translation of the Psalms, published by Stephen Daye at Cambridge, Mass., in 1640 and the first book printed in America. The work of translation was begun in 1636, the principal collaborators being Thomas Welds, Richard Mather, and John Eliot, the missionary to the Indians. The rendering, as the translators themselves recognized in their quaint preface to the book, was a crude specimen of English, and carrying to the extreme their belief in the inspiration of the Bible, they tortured their version into what they conceived to be fidelity to the original. The meter, moreover, is irregular, and the rimes are frequently ludicrous. The general spirit and form of the translation may be represented by the following rendering of Ps. zviii, 6‑9:

6. " I in my streighte, cal'd on the Lord, and to my God cry'd: be did hears from his temple my voyce, my crye, before him came, unto his ears.

7. " Then th' earth shocks, do quak't, do mofitaines recta mov'd, Ac were atird at his ire,
Vp from his nostrils went a amosk, and from his mouth devouring fire; By it the coalee inkindled were.
9. " Likewise the heavens he downs‑how'd, And he descended, do there was under his feet a gloomy cloud."

Of the first edition of the Bay Psalm Book only eleven copies are known to exist. In 1647 a second edition, better printed and with the spellitig and punctuation corrected, was published either by Stephen Daye or possibly by Matthew Daye or even in England, and this edition long remained in general use among the Puritans of New England. A reprint of the first edition (71 copies) was issued privately at Cambridge in 1862.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. F. Roden, The Cambridge Press, New York, 1908.

	BDELLIUM, deli‑um (Hebr. bedhola7.d) : One
of the products of the land of Havilah, mentioned
with gold and the ahoharn.‑stone (E. V. " onyx ")
in Gen. ii, 11‑12. In Num. xi, 7, manna is said
to have resembled it. It was, therefore, some
thing well known to the Hebrews, but the
exact meaning is uncertain. Some have thought
that it was a precious stone, perhaps the pearl;
others identify it with myrrh or with musk. The
most probable and generally accepted explanation
is that it was the gum of a tree, much prized in
antiquity and used in religious ceremonies. Pliny
(Hilt. net., xii, 35) describes it as transparent,
waxy, fragrant, oily to the touch, and bitter; the
tree was black, of the size of the olive; with leaves
like the ilex, and fruit like the wild fig; he desig
nates Bactria as its home, but statue that it grew
also in Arabia, India, Media, and Babylonia. It
probably belonged to the balsamodendra and was
allied to the myrrh. 	I. BENZtNVEn.
BEACH, HARLAN PAGE, Congregationalist; b. at South Orange, N. J., Apr. 4, 1854. He was

Ileard
Sebb	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	18
educated at Yale College (B.A., 1878) and Andover Theological Seminary (1883). He was instructor in Phillips Andover Academy 1878‑80, and was ordained in 1883. He was missionary in China. for seven years, and from 1892 to 1895 was instructor and later superintendent of the School for Christian Workers, Springfield, Mass. He was appointed educational secretary of the Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions in 1895, and held this position until 1906, when he was chosen professor of the theory and practise of missions in the Yale Divinity School. He has been a corporate member of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions since 1895 and of the cooperating committee of the same organization since 1906, as well as chairman of the exhibit committee and executive committee of the Ecumenical Conference in 1900, member of the Bureau of Missions Trustees since 1901, member of the executive committee of the Yale Foreign Missionary Society since 1903, member of the advisory board of Canton Christian College and trustee of the Hartford School of Religious Pedagogy since 1905. In theology he is a moderate conservative. He has written The Cross in the Land of the Trident (New York, 1895); Knights of the Labarum (1896); New Testament Studies in Missions (1898); Dawn on the Hills of Tang : or, Missions in China (1898); Protestant Missions in South America (1900); Geography and Atlas of Protestant Miscuons (2 vole., 1901‑03); Two Hundred Years of Christian Activity in Yale (New Haven, 1902); Princely Men of the Heavenly Kingdom (New York, 1903); and India and Christian Opportunity (1904).

	BEARD, CHARLES: English Unitarian; b. at
Higher Broughton, Manchester, July 27, 1827,
son of John Relly Beard, ales a well‑known Uni
tarian minister and educator (b. 1800; d. 1876);
d. at Liverpool Apr. 9,.1888. He studied at Man
chester New College 1843‑48, was graduated B.A.
at London University 1847, and continued his
studies at Berlin 18489; became assistant min
ister at Hyde Chapel, Gee Crone, Cheshire, 1850,
minister 1854, minister at Renshaw Street Chapel,
Liverpool, 1867. From 1864.to 1879 he edited The
Theological Review. Besides sermons, addresses,
etc., he published Port Royal, a Contribution to
the History o f Religion and Literature in France
(2 vole., London, 18G1); The Reformation in its
Relation to Modern Thought (Iiibbert lectures for
1883); and Martin Luther and the Reformation in
Germany until the Close of the Diet of Worms
(ed. J. F. Smith, 1889).

BEARD, RICHARD: Cumberland Presbyterian; b. in Summer County, Tenn., Nov. 27, 1799; d, at Lebanon, Tenn., Nov. 6, 1880. He was licensed in 182(1; graduated at Cumberland College, Princeton, Ky., 1832, and was professor of Greek and Latin there 1832‑38, and in Sharon College, Sharon, Mica., 1838‑43; president of Cumberland College 1843‑54; professor of systematic theology in Cumberland University, Lebanon, Tenu., after 1854. He published the following books. Why am 1 a Cumberland Presbyterian? (Nashville, 1872); Lectures on The‑
ology (3 vole., 1873‑75); Brief Biographical .Sketches of Some of the Early Ministers of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (1874).

BEARDSLEE, CLARK SMITH: Congregationalist; b. at Coventry, N. Y., Feb. 1, 1850. He was educated at Amherst College (B.A., 1878), Hartford Theological Seminary (1879), and the University of Berlin. He was instructor in Hebrew at Hartford Theological Seminary from 1$78 to 1881, and then held successive pastorates at Le Mars, Ia. (1882‑85), Prescott, Ariz. (1885‑86), and West Springfield, Mass. (1886‑88). In 1888 he was appointed associate professor of systematic theology at Hartford Theological Seminary, and four years later was made professor of Biblical dogmatics and ethics, a position which he still holds. In theology he is a Biblical Evangelical. He is the author of Christ's Estimate of Himself (Hartford, 1899); Teacher‑Training with the Master Teacher (Philadelphia, 1903); and Jesus the King of Truth (Hartford, 1905).

BEATIFICATION: An intermediate stage in the process of canonization. It is in modern usage itself the result of a lengthy course of inquiry into the life of the person under consideration, and is solemnly declared in St. Peter's at Rome. By it the title of " Blessed " is attributed to the subject, and a limited and partial cultus of him permitted, as in a certain country or order. See CANONIZATION.

BEATIFIC VISION: The direct and unhindered vision of God, which is part of the reserved blessedness of the redeemed (I Cor. xiii, 12; I John iii, 2; Rev. axii, 3, 4 ). The conception of its nature moat necessarily be very vague, but belief in its existence is said to be founded upon Scripture and reason. The only question concerns its time. This has been much disputed. The Greek Church and many Protestants, especially Lutherans and Calvinists, put the vision after the judgment day (so Dr. Hodge, Systematic Theology, iii, 860). Aecording to the view prevalent among Roman Catholic theologians, the vision, though essentially complete before the resurrection, is not integrally so until the soul is reunited to the glorified body (consult H. Hurler, Theologise dogmaticcE compendium, vol. iii, De Deo consummatore, chap. v, 10th ed., Innsbruck, 1900).

BEATON, bf'tea (BETHUNE), be‑than' or be‑ttin', DAVID: Cardinal‑archbishop of St. Andrews; b. 1494; assassinated at St. Andrews May 29,1546. He was the third son of John Beacon of Auchmuty, Fifeahire; studied at the universities of 9t. Andrews and Glasgow, and at the age of fifteen went to Paris and studied law; became abbot of Arbroath in 1523; bishop of Mirepoia in Languedoc 1537; cardinal Dec., 1538. He was made lord privy seal in 1528; succeeded his uncle, James Beaton, as archbishop of St. Andrews in 1539; was consecrated archbishop of Glasgow at Rome in 1552; became chancellor and prothonotary apostolic and legate a latere in 1543. He served his country in many important diplomatic missions.

19	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bears
		Bebb
In the bitter political contests of the time between
the French and English parties he aided with the
former, and fought with energy and courage for
the independence of Scotland against the plans of
	Henry VIII. In the religious contests between
Romaniata and Reformers he took as decidedly the
	part of the hierarchy and did not scruple to use
	intrigue and force when argument and persuasion
failed. His memory has been darkened by his
	severity against heretics and his immoral life.
The case of George Wishart (q.v.) is adduced as a
	particularly flagrant piece of religious persecution;
	but it moat be remembered that he lived in a rude
	country in turbulent times, and the Reformers were
	implicated in political intrigues and treasonable
	plots. The execution of Wishart was the imme
	diate cause of a conspiracy to put Becton out of
	the way, and certain members of the Reform
party murdered him in his bedchamber.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Chambers, Lives o/ Illustrious Scotchmen,
	ed. T. Thomson, b vole., Edinburgh, 1835; C. R. Rogers,
	Life of George Wiahart, ib.‑1878; DNB, iv, 17‑18; J. Herlr
	lees, Cardinal Becton, Priest and Politician, London, 1891.
	BEATTIE, FRANCIS ROBERT: Presbyterian;
	b. at Guelph, Ont., Mar. 31, 1848 ; d. at Louisville,
Ky., Sept. 4, 1906.	Ire was educated at the
	University of Toronto (B.A., 1875), Knox Theo
	logical College, Toronto (1878), Illinois Wesleyan
	University (Ph.D., 1884), and Presbyterian Theo
logical College, Montreal (D.D., 1887).	He was
	tutor in Knox College in 1876‑78, and held Cana
	dian pastorates at Baltimore and Coldspringa
	(1878‑82) and Brantford (1882‑88), in addition
	to being examiner to Toronto University in 1884
	1838. In the latter year he entered the Presbyterian
	Church, South, and was appointed professor of
	apologetics in Columbia Seminary, Columbia, S. C.,
	remaining there until 1893, when he became
	professc: of apologetics and systematic theology in
	the Presbyterian Theological Seminary of Ken
tucky at Louisville.	He published Utilitarian
	Theory of Morals (Brantford, Ont., 1884); Methods
	of Theism (1887); Radical Criticism (Chicago, 1894);
	Presbyterian Standards (Richmond, Va.,1896); and
	Apologetics (vol. i, 1903). He also edited the Me
	morial Volume of the Westminster Assembly Celebra
	tion at Charlotte, N. C. (Richmond, Va., 1897), and
	was associate editor of the Christian Observer
	from 1893 and of The Presbyterian Quarterly from
1895.
	BEATTIE, JAMES: Scotch poet; b. at Laurence
	kirk (70 m. n.n.e. of Edinburgh), Kincardineshire,
	Oct. 25, 1735; d. at Aberdeen Aug. 18, 1803. He
	studied at the Marischal College, Aberdeen (M.A.,
	1753), and, after seven years as a school‑teacher,
	became professor of moral philosophy and logic
	at that institution in 1760. In reply to Hume he
	wrote An Essay on the Nature and Immutability
	of Truth (London, 1770), which was popular and
	successful, but has little value as a philosophical
	work. Other works of his were: Dissertations,
	Moral and Critical (1783); Evidences of the Christian
	Religion (2 vole., Edinburgh, 1786); and Elements
	of Moral Science (2 vols., 1790‑93). His poems,
	of which the chief is The Minstrel (books i‑ii, 1771‑
1774), are much better than his philosophical writings; and it is for them that he is remembered.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir William Forbes, An Account of the Life and Writings o/ James Beattie, Edinburgh. 1806; DNB, iv, 22‑25.
BEAUSOBRE, bo"so'br, ISAAC DE: One of the moat distinguished preachers of the French Protestant Church; b. at Niort (220 m. s.w. of Paris), in the present department of Deua‑Scvrea, Mar. 8, 1659; d. in Berlin June 5, 1738. He was descended from a Protestant family of Gascogne, whose head took refuge in Geneva in 1578. He began his theological studies at the celebrated academy of Saumur, was ordained at the last synod of Loudun, and was called to be minister of the church at Chatillon, department of Indre, 1683. During the religious persecution, he fled in Nov., ~ 1685, to Rotterdam, where he was welcomed at the house of the princess of Orange and, through her, was appointed chaplain to her daughter, princess of Anhalt‑Deasau. In 1694 he was appointed chaplain to the elector of Brandenburg, Frederick III, and was called to Berlin as minister of the French Church. He stayed there for thirty‑six years, preaching with much success, and was loaded with favors by King Frederick II. Among other honorable missions, he was sent in 1704 to the Duke of Marlborough, and, in 1713, to the commissioners of the Treaty of Utrecht, to ask for the exchange of Huguenot galley‑slaves for French prisoners. He was privy councilor of the king of Prussia, director of the French House and of the French schools, and superintendent of all the French churches in Berlin.
His works are: D~fertse de la doctrine des REfornt6s sur la Providence, la pr6destinatio», la grdce, et l'Euehariatie (Magdeburg, 1693); Lea Psaumea de David mix en rime frangaise (Berlin, 1701); Le Nouveau‑Testament de J. C. traduit en frangais our 1'original grec, suet des notes littdrales (Amsterdam, 1718); Histoire critique de Manich6e et du ManieUisme (1739); Sermons (4 vole., Lausanne, 1755); Histoire de la R6forrnation ou origins et progr& du Luth6ranisme dons l'Empire de 1517 h 1556 (4 vols., Berlin, 1785‑86). G. BONET‑MAURP.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A life is prefixed by A. B. de la Chapelle to Besusobre's Remarquea . . sur to Nouveau Testament, 2 vole, The Hague, 1742. Consult J. H. 8. Formey, dope des acadEmiciens de Berlin, 2 vola., Berlin, 1757; E, and h. Haag, La Franc proteatante, ed. H. L. Bordier, ii, 127, Paris. 1877; C. J. G. Bartholmese, La Grand Beauaobre, in Bulletin de la eociktE d'hisWire du protaatantiame frangaie, ib. 1878.
BEBB, LLEWELLYN JOHN MONTFORT: Church of England; b. at Cape Town Feb. 16, 1362. He was educated at New College, Oxford (B.A., 1885), and was fellow (1885‑98), tutor (1889‑98), and librarian (1892‑98) of Brasenose College. He was examining chaplain to the bishop of Salisbury from 1893 to 1898, and to the bishop of St. Aeaph from 1898 to 1902, and was also curator of the botanical garden, Oxford, in 1896‑98 and Grinfeld lecturer on the Septuagint in the University of Oxford in 1837‑1901. From 1892 to 1896 he was vice‑principal of Brasenose College; Oxford, and since 1898 has been principal of St. David's College, Lampeter, Wales. He was select preacher

Bebeabnrg
Becket	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	20
at Cambridge in 1904, and has written Evidence of the Early Versions and Patristic Quotations on the Text of the New Testament, in Studio Biblica, ii (Oxford, 1890), and has edited Sermons Preached before the University of Oxford (1901) and U. Z. Rule's Graduated Lessons from the Old Testament (1902).

	BEBENBURG, LUPOLD VON: Bishop of
Bamberg, best known for his writings on eccle
siastico‑political subjects; d. 1363. He came of
a knightly Frankish family, and studied canon
law at Bologna. From 1338 to 1352 he was a
member of the chapters of Wiirzburg and Mainz
and dean of St. Severna at Erfurt. In 1353 he
was made bishop of Bamberg, and remained there
till his death. In the struggle between Louis the
Bavarian and Popes John XXII, Benedict XII,
and Clement VI, he was among the jurists who
took the emperor's side. His treatise De jvribus
regni et inaPerii Romanorum (ed. J. Wimpfeling,
Strasburg, 1508; S. Sehard, in De jurisdietione,
auctoritate, et prceeminentia imperiali ac potentate
ecclesiastics variis attetoribtes scripts, Basel, 1566,
and often), dedicated to Louis' supporter, the
elector Baldwin of Treves, deals less with abstract
ideas and Aristotelian politics than with historical
considerations. Two minor works of his have also
been preserved, one in praise of the devotion of the
old German princes to the Church (in Schard, ut
sup.), the other a lament over the condition of the
Holy Roman Empire (ed. Peter, Wiirzburg, 1842).
		(E. FRIEDBERG.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Looehorn, Die llesehiehte des Biathums Bamberg, iii, 248‑308, Bischoj Lupo7d 111 von 8ebenburp, Munich, 1891; A. Ueeermann, Epiacopatua Bamberpcnsia, pp. 178‑180, Ban Bias, 1802; 8. Riesler, Die literariachen Widersaclur der PGpate, pp. 107‑114, 180‑192, Leipeic, 1874; F. Joel, Lupold III von Bebenburp, vol. i, Sein Leben, Halls, 1891 (the result of diligent research).

BEC, ABBEY OF: Benedictine abbey of Normandy, situated at the present village of Le BecHellouin (7 m. s.w. of Rouen). It was founded about 1034 by Herluin, a noble Norman, who was first abbot. Mainly because of its great teachers, Lanfranc (who came to the abbey about 1042 and was prior 1045 or 1046‑66) and Anselm (entered the abbey 1060; prior 1063‑78; abbot 1078‑93; see ANBELM, SAINT, OF CANTERBURY), it became a famous center of learning for Normandy and, after the Conquest, for England. Among those who studied there were: Ansehn of Lucca, afterward Pope Alexander II; Aneelm of Laon; Gilbert Crispin, abbot of Westminster, author of the life of Herluin; Milo Crispin, biographer of Lanfranc and certain of the early abbots; Arnulf and Gundulf, bishops of Rochester; No of Chartres; Gutmund, archbishop of Aversa; and William, archbishop of Rouen. Its fifth abbot, Theobald, became archbishop of Canterbury (1139); and the seventh abbot was Vaca.~ius, who about the middle of the twelfth century introduced the study of the Roman law into England. The abbey was destroyed during the French Revolution
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Chronieon Bwceruis abbatias, with the lives by the Crispins above referred to, are in D'Aahdry's edition of t)ae works of Lanfrsna, Paris, 1818; reprinted
in MPL, cl; sad the Oeeta of seven Abbots of Bee, by Peter the Monk, written 1150, are in MPL, clxxxi.

BECAft (VERBEECg, VAN DER BEECS),
MARTIN: Jesuit; b. at Hilvarenbeeck (35m. n.e. of Antwerp), in Brabant, Jan. 6, 1563; d. in Vienna Jan. 24, 1624. He joined the Jesuits in 1583; taught philosophy and theology at schools of the order in Cologne, Wilrzburg, Mainz, and Vienna; and became confessor to the emperor Ferdinand II. in 1620. He engaged in controversy with Lutherans, Calvinists and Anabaptists, and in particular attacked the Church of England. In his Controversia Anglieana de Potestate pontificis et regis (Mainz, 1613) he defended the morality of assassinating a heretic king; and in Qwestiones de fide hcereticis servanda (1609) he declared that no promise or oath given to a heretic was binding. The former work was condemned at Rome. His collected works were published in two volumes at Mainz, 1630‑31.

BECK, JOHANN TOBIAS: German theologian; b. at Balingen (40 m. s.s.w. of Stuttgart), Wiirttemberg, Feb. 22, 1804; d. at Tubingen Dec. 2S, 1878. He studied at Tu~ingen 1822‑26, was pastor at Waldthann and Mergentheim, went to Basel as extraordinary professor in 1838, and in 1843 to Tiibingen, where he remained as professor and morning preacher till his death. He has been characterized as the most important representative of the strictly Biblical school of theology in the nineteenth century. He aimed to base all doctrine on the Bible, and allowed value to Church teachings only as interpretations of the Bible. He held an extreme view of revelation and inspiration, and hardly entered into critico‑historical questions. His life was plain and simple, and his kind heart won general affection. He published, besides several collections of sermons, the following works: Einleitung in das System der ehristlichen Lehre (Stuttgart, 1838, 2d ed., 1870); Die Geburt den ehristdichen Lebens, aein Wesen and sein Gesetz (Basel, 1839); Die christliche Lehrtvissensehaft nosh den biblischen Urkunden, i, Logik (Stuttgart, 1841, 2d ed., 1875); Die christliche Menschenliebe,,das Wont and die Gemeinde Christi (Basel, 1842); Umriss der bx'blisehen Seelenlehre (Stuttgart, 1843, 3d ed., 1873; Eng. transl., Biblical Psychology, Edinburgh, 1877 ) ; Left f aden der christlichen Glaubenslehre fair Kirche, Schtde and Hates (Stuttgart, 1862, 2d ed., 1869); Gedanken aus and nosh der Schrift fur ehristliches Leben and geistliches Amt (Frankfort, 1859; 2d ed., 1878). After his death were published commentaries on the epistles to Timothy (Giitersloh, 1879) and the Romans (2 vole., 1884), and on Rev. i‑xii (1883); Pastorallehren des Nettea. Testaments (1880; Eng. transl., Pastoral Theology, Edinburgh, 1882); Yorlesungen fiber christliehe Ethik (3 vole., 1882‑83); Briefs and Kernworte (1885); Vorlesungen fiber christliehe Glatibenslehre (2 vols., 1886‑87); Vollendung den Reiehes Gotten (1887). (A. HAUCg.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY! For his life consult: Worte der Erinnerung, TVbingen, 1879 (the part by WeiserYCker is especially valuable); B. J. Riggenbach, T. Beek, sin Schriftpelehrter sum Himmelreieh, Basel, 1888. On his theology consult: F. Liebetrut, J. T. Beck and mine Stellung sur Rirche.

21	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bebenbnrg
Becket
Berlin, 1858; C. 8turhaha, Die Bechtfertigunpslehre reach Beck nit Beriickaichtigung von E6rard'e So7a, Leipaic, 1890. On his work as a preacher: A. Brbmel, Homiletiache Charakterbiider, 2 vole., ib. 1874; A. Nebe, Geschichte der Predigt, vol. iii, Wiesbaden, 1879.

BECKET, THOMAS (commonly called Thomas a Becket): Archbishop of Canterbury 1162‑70, the most determined English champion of the rights and liberties of the Church in his day; b. in London between 1110 and 1120; assassinated at Canterbury Dec. 29, 1170. His parents were of the middle class. He received an excellent education, which he completed at the University of Paris. Returning to England, he attracted the notice of Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, who entrusted him with several important missions to Rome, and finally made him archdeacon of Canterbury and provost of Beverley. He so distinguished himself by his zeal and efficiency that Theobald commended him to King Henry II when the important office of chancellor was vacant. Henry, like all the Norman kings, desired to be absolute master of his dominions, in both Church and State, and could well appeal to the traditions
of his house when he planned to do Life before away with the special privileges of his Conse‑ the English clergy, which he regarded
cration. as so many fetters on his authority.
Becket struck him as an instrument well adapted for the accomplishment of his designs; the young man showed himself an accomplished courtier, a cheerful companion in the king's pleasures, and devoted to his master's interests with such a firm and yet diplomatic thoroughness that scarcely any one, unless perhaps it was John of Salisbury, could have doubted that he had gone over completely to the royal side. Archbishop Theobald died Apr. 18, 1161, and the chapter learned with some indignation that the king expected them to choose Thomas his successor. The election was, however, consummated in May, and Thomas was consecrated on June 3, 1162.
At once there took place before the eyes of the astonished king and country an unexpected transformation in the character of the new primate. Instead of a gay, pleasure‑loving courtier, he stood forth an ascetic prelate in simple monastic garb, ready to contend to the uttermost for the cruse of the hierarchy. In the schism which at that time
divided the Church, he declared for Archbishop, Alexander III (q.v.), a man whose
::6z.	devotion to the same strict hierarch‑
ical principles appealed to him; and from Alexander he received the pallium at the Council of Tours. On his return to England, he proceeded at once to put into execution the project he had formed for the liberation of the Church of England from the very limitations which he had formerly helped to enforce. His aim was twofold: the complete exemption of the Church from all civil jurisdiction, with undivided control of the clergy, freedom of appeal, etc., and the acquisition and security of as independent fund of church property. The king was not slow to perceive the inevitable outcome o£ the archbishop's attitude, and called a meeting of the clergy at Westminster
(Oct. 1, 1163) at which he demanded that they should renounce all claim to exemption from civil jurisdiction and acknowledge the equality of all subjects before the law. The others were inclined to yield, but the archbishop stood firm. Henry was not ready for an open breach, and offered to be content with a more general acknowledgment and recognition of the " customs of his ancestors." Thomas was willing to agree to this, with the significant reservation " saving the rights of the Church." But this involved the whole question at issue, and Henry left London in anger.
Henry called another assembly at Clarendon for Jan. 30, 1164, at which he presented his demands in sixteen constitutions. What he asked involved the abandonment of the clergy's in‑
	The Con‑	dependence and of their direct con
stitutions of nection with Rome; he employed all his
Clarendon. arts to induce their consent, and was
		apparently successful with all but the
primate. Finally even Becket expressed his will
ingness to agree to the constitutions; but when it
came to the actual signature he definitely refused.
This meant war between the two powers. Henry
endeavored to rid himself of his antagonist by ju
dicial process and summoned him to appear before
a great council at Northampton on Oct. 8, 1164, to
answer charges of contempt of royal authority and
maladministration of the chancellor's office.
Becket denied the right of the assembly to judge him, appealed to the pope, and, feeling that his life was too valuable to the Church to be risked, went into voluntary exile on Nov. 2, embarking in a fishing‑boat which landed him in France. He went to Sens, where Pope Alexander was, while envoys from the king hastened to work against him, requesting that a legate should
	Becket	be sent to England with plenary au
	Leaves	thority to settle the dispute. Alex
	England.	ander declined, and when, the next
		day, Becket arrived and gave him a
full account of the proceedings, he was still more
confirmed in his aversion to the king. Henry
pursued the fugitive archbishop with a series of
edicts, aimed at all his friends and supporters as
well as himself; but Louis VII of France received
him with respect and offered him protection. He
spent newly two years in the Cistercian abbey of
Pontigny, until Henry's threats against the order
obliged him to move to Sens again. He regarded
himself as in full possession of all his prerogatives,
and desired to see his position enforced by the
weapons of excommunication and interdict. But
Alexander, though sympathizing with him in theory,
was for a milder and more diplomatic way of reach
ing his ends. Differences thus arose between pope
and archbishop, which were all the more embit
tered when legates were sent in 1167 with authority
to act as arbitrators. Disregarding this limita
tion of his jurisdiction, and steadfast in his prin
ciples, Thomas treated with the legates at great
length, still conditioning his obedience to the king
by the rights of his order. His &rnlaesa seemed
about to meet with its reward when at last (1170)
the pope was on the point cf fulfilling his threats
sad excommunicating the king, and Henry, alarmed

8 Beecher
THE NEW aCHAFF‑HERZOG
by the prospect, held out hopes of an agreement which should allow Thomas to return to England and resume his place. But both parties were really still holding to their former ground, and the desire for a reconciliation was only apparent. Both, however, seem for the moment to have believed in its possibility; and the contrast was all the sharper when it became evident that the old irreconcilable opposition was still there. Henry, incited by his partizans, refused to restore the ecclesiastical property which he had seized, and Thomas prepared to issue the pope's sentence against the despoilers of the Church and the bishops who had abetted them. It had been already sent to England for promulgation when he himself landed at Sandwich on Dec. 3, 1170, and two days later entered Canterbury.
The tension was now too great to be endured, and the catastrophe which relieved it was not long in coming. A passionate word of the angry king was taken as authority by four knights, who immediately plotted the murder of the archbishop, and
	accomplished it in his own cathedral
Becket As‑ on Dec. 29. The crime brought its I
	eassinated.	own revenge. Becket was revered by
		the faithful throughout Europe as a
martyr, and canonized by Alexander in 1173; while
on July 12 of the following year Henry humbled
himself to do public penance at the tomb of his
enemy, which remained one of the most popular
places of pilgrimage in England until it was des
troyed at the Reformation (see CANTERBURY).
(CARL M=T.)

Bxai.toaaerar: The sources for a life were collected by J. C. Robertson in Materials for the Hiat. of Thomas Bucket, 8 vole., in Rolls Series, London, 1875‑8b (contains all the known contemporary lives, others of later date, the Episflea, and other material); d. the Vita, epiatohe at reliquia, ed. J. A. Giles in PEA, 8 vole., Oxford, 184b‑48, and J. A. Giles, Lite and Latteri of Thomas h Becket, 2 vole., London, 1848. For later discussions and lives consult: M. Cournier, L'Archev4qua de Cantorb&y, 2 vole., Paris, 1845; J. C. Robertson, Bucket, London, 1859; W. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury, ii, 354‑607, ib. 1882; E. d Freeman, in Historical Essays, aeries 2, ib. 1880; idem, in Contemporary Review, Mar.‑Apr., 1878; J. A. Froude, Life and Times of Beekd, in Short Studies, vol. iv, ib. 1883; idem, in Nineteen& Century, ii (1877) 1b‑27, 217‑229, 389‑410, 889‑891; C. P. Stanley, Historical Memorials of Canterbury, pp. b9‑125,189‑302, London, 1883; W. H. Hutton, St. Thomas of Canterbury, ib. 1889 (from contemporary lives); J. Morris, Lite and Martyrdom of St. Thomas Becket, ib. 1891 (Roman Catholic, deals with monasteries and churches associated with Becket); M. Schmitz, Die politiachen Ideun des Thomas Bucket. Crefeld, 1893; E. A. Abbott, 3t. Thomas of Canterbury: his Death and Miracles, 2 vole., London, 1898 (traverses the earlier accounts in a critical examination); DNB, Ivi, 16b‑173.

BECKWITH, CHARLES Mi1PRIGERODE: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Alabama; b. in Prince George Co., Va., June 3, 1851. He studied at the University of Georgia (B.A., 1873), was master of the $ewanee Grammar School, University of the South (Sewanee, Tenn.), 1873‑79, and was graduated from Berkeley Divinity School, Middletown, Conn., in 1881. He was ordered deacon and advanced to the priesthood in the same year, and was rector of St. Luke's, Atlanta, Ga. (1881‑$6), Christ Church, Houston, Tex. (1886‑92), and
Trinity, Galveston, Tex. (1892‑1902). In 1902 he was consecrated fourth bishop of Alabama. He has written The Trinity Course of Church Instruction (New York, 1898) and The Teacher's Companion to the Trinity Course (1901).
BECKWITH, CLARENCE AUGUSTINE: Congregationalist; b. at Charlemont, Mesa., July 21, 1849. He studied at Olivet College, Olivet, Mich. (B.A.,1874), Yale Divinity School (1874‑76), and Bangor Theological Seminary, from which he was graduated in 1877. He became pastor of the First Congregational Church, Brewer, Me., in 1877, of the South Evangelical Congregational Church, West Roxbury, Mass., in 1882, professor of Christian theology at Bangor Theological Seminary in 1892, and professor of systematic theology at Chicago Theological Seminary in 1905. He holds that " the realities of the Christian religion and the facts of Christian experience which we share with Christians of all ages are to be interpreted by us in terms of modern thought." He has written Realities of Christian Theology (New York, 1906).
BEC>i%, PIERRE JEAN: General of the Jesuits; b. at Sichem (33 m. s.e. of Antwerp) Feb. 8, 1795; d. at Rome Mar. 4, 1887. He entered the Society of Jesus at Hildesheim in 1819, and was professed in 1830. He was active as a pastor at Hamburg, Hildesheim, and Brunswick, and in 1826 was stationed at Kothen as the confessor of the newly converted duke and duchess of Anhalt‑Kiithen. From 1830 to 1848 he was in Vienna, where he exercised much influence, especially over Metternich, and was made procurator of the Society of Jesus in that country in 1847; when his Order was expelled from Austria in 1848, he was appointed rector of the University of Louvain. Four years later, however, the Jesuits were readmitted to Austria, largely through his unceasing activity, and in 1852 lie returned to Vienna as provincial of the Society. In the following yeas he was elected general, and held this office until 1883, when, on account of his advancing years, the vicar‑general Antoine M. Anderledy was appointed to assist him. In the following year Beckx resigned the generalahip in favor of Anderledy. The successful fortunes of the Jesuits during the attacks upon them both in Austria and Germany were due in great part to his ability and tact, and in his administration the numbers of the Society were almost doubled. He was the founder and editor of the famous Civilth Cattolica, and. also wrote the anonymous Der Monat Marid (Vienna, 1838; Eng. transl. by Mrs. Edward Hazeland, London, 1884).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. M. Veretraeten, Leven roan den hoopeerwaarden Paten Petrua Beckx, Antwerp, 1889.
BEDE or BEDA (called "the Venerable "): The first great English scholar; b. in Northumbria (according to tradition, at Monkton, Durham, 5 m. e. of Newcastle) 672 or 673; d. at the monastery of Jarrow (6 m. e. of Newcastle) May 25, 735. Almost all that is known of his life is contained in a notice added by himself to his Hiatorea eccleaiastica (v, 24 ), which states that he was placed in the monastery at ZV earmouth at the age of seven, that he became

83	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Becket
		Beecher
deacon in his nineteenth year, and priest in his
thirtieth. He was trained by the abbots Benedict
Biscop and Ceolfrid (qq.v.), and probably accom
panied the latter to Jarrow in 682. There he spent
his life, finding his chief pleasure in being always
occupied in learning, teaching, or writing, and zeal
ous in the performance of monastic duties. His
works show that he had at his command all the
learning of his time. He was proficient in patris
tic literature, and quotes from Puny the Younger,
Vergil, Lucretius, Ovid, Horace, and other classical
writers, but with some disapproval. He knew
Greek and a little Hebrew. His Latin is clear and
without affectation, and he is a skilful story‑teller.
Like all men of his time he was devoted to the alle
gorical method of interpretation, and was credu
lous concerning the miraculous; but in most things
his good sense is conspicuous, and his kindly and
broad sympathies, his love of truth and fairness,
his unfeigned piety, and his devotion to the service
of others combine to make him an exceedingly
attractive character. His works were so widely
spread throughout Europe and so much esteemed
that he won the name of " the teacher,of the Middle
Ages."
	Bede's writings are classed as scientific, historical,
and theological. The scientific include treatises
on grammar (written for his pupils), a work on
natural phenomena (De rerun notura), and two
on chronology (De temporibus and De temporum
rations). The moat important and best known
of his , works is the Historic eccteaiasticd genus
Anglorum, giving in five books the history of
England, ecclesiastical and political, from the time
of Caesar to the date of completion (731). The
first twenty‑one chapters, treating of the period
before the mission of Augustine, are compiled
from earlier writers such as Orosius, Gildas, Prosper
of Aquitaine, and others, with the insertion of
legend and tradition. After 596, documentary
sources, which Bede took pains to obtain, are used,
and oral testimony, which he employed not without
critical consideration of its value. His other his
torical works taste lives of the abbots of Wear
mouth and Jarrow, and lives in verse and prose of
St. Cuthbert. The most numero of his writings
are theological, and consist of ~mmentariea on
the books of the Old and New Testaments, homi
lies, and treatises on detached portions of Scripture.
His last work, completed on his death‑bed, was
a translation into Anglo‑Saxon of the Gospel of
John.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The collected editions of Bede's works.
	(such as by J. A. Giles, with Eng. travel. of the historical
	works and life, Patres ecclesia Anpiioana, 12 voh., Lon
	don, 1843‑44; in MPL, ac‑zev) leave much to be desired.
	Good editions of the historical works, particularly of the
	Hiatm•ia eedasiastica, have been issued by J. Smith, Cam
	bridge, 1722; J. Stevenson, Hint. accl., London, 1838,
	Opera hietorfca minors, 181; G. H. Moberly, Oxford,
	1889; J E. B. Mayor and J. R. Lumby, Hist. ecc1., books
	iii and iv, Cambridge, 1881; A. Holder, Freiburg, 1890;
	C. PI„mm.*, 2 vole., Oxford. 1898; Ecc7. Hint., travel.,
	introduction, life, and notes, by A. M. 8ellar, London,
	1907. The two works on chronology have been edited by
	T. Mommeen in MOH, Chron. min., iii (1898). There
	are English versions of the Ecclesiastical History by Bte
	vena, 1723, revised by J. A. Giles, London, 1840; J.
Stevenson, ib. 1863; and L. Gridley, Oxford, 1870. The
old Eng. version of the Hiat. eed., with trawl. and introduction, was ed. by T. Miller, in 4 parts, ib. 1870. For Bede's life cpneult the introduction and notes to the editions mentioned, particularly those of Stevenson and Plummer; G. F. Browns, The Venerable Beds, in The FatheratorEaplishReadara London, 1879,NewYork 1891; K. Warner, Beds der EhnoArdips and wine Zait, Vienna, 1881; J. B. Lightfoot, in Leaders o/ as Northern Church, London, 1890 (biographical sermons); F. Phillips, in Fathers of as English Church, vol. i, London, 1891 (simple, scholarly, fair); W. Bright, Early English Church History, pp. 387‑371 et passim, Oxford, 1897.
BEDELL, WILLIAM: Irish bishop; b. at Black Notley, near Braintree (50 m. n.e. of London), Essex, England, on or near Christmas day, 1571; d. at Drum Corr, near Kilmore, County Cavan, Ireland, Feb. 7, 1642. He studied at Emmanuel College, Cambridge (B.A., 1588; M.A., 1592; B.D., 1599), was ordained priest Jan.10,1597, and settled at Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk, in 1602. In 1607 he went to Venice as chaplain to Sir Henry Wotton, British ambassador at that city, and there he made the acquaintance of a number of noteworthy men, including Marco Antonio de Dominis and Father Paolo Sarpi, author of the History o f the Council of Treat, the last two books of which, as well as Sarpi's History of the Venetian Interdict, he afterward translated into Latin. He returned to Bury St. Edmunds in 1610, and removed to Horningsheath, a neighboring parish, in 1616. In 1627 he was appointed provost of Trinity College, Dublin; in 1629 he became bishop of the united dioceses of Kihnore and Ardagh (County Longford); in 1633 he resigned the latter see owing to conscientious objections to pluralities, and the belief that the proper administration of the diocese required a separate bishop. His position was difficult; the dioceses were in wretched condition, and his earnest efforts to effect improvement stirred up. opposition. Nevertheless he reformed many abuses and enjoyed great esteem among the people. He wrote a short summary of Christian doctrine in English and Irish (published, Dublin, 1631), and a translation of the Old Testament into Irish was made under his supervision (published, London, 1685). When the rebellion of 1641 broke out, he refused to leave his diocese, and, after suffering many hardships, died of fever brought on by the privations which he had undergone. His Life with the Letters between Waddeswarth and Bedell was published by Bishop Burnet (London, 1685), and has been rewritten several times. The best biography is one by his son (ed. for the Camden Society T. W. Jones, London, 1872).
BEECHER, CHARLES: Congregationalist, fifth eon of Lyman Beecher; b. at Litchfield, Conn., Oct. 7, 1815; d. at Georgetown, Mass., Apr. 21, 1900. He was graduated at Bowdoin College 1834 and at Lane Theological Seminary 1836; became pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church, Fort Wayne, Ind., 1844; of the First Congregational Church, Newark, N. J., 1851; of the First Church, Georgetown, Mass., 1857. He lived in Florida 18701877, and for two years was State superintendent of schools. He published: The Incarnation (New York, 1849); A Review of the Spiritual Manifestatiorta (1853); David arid his Throne (1855); Redeemer

Bescner
Beelzebub
and Redeemed (Boston, 1864); and Spiritual Manifestations (1879). With John Zundel he edited the music for The Plymouth Collection o f Hymns and Tunes (New York, 1855), and, alone, the Autobiography, Correspondence, etc. of his father (2 vole., 1865).
BEECHER, EDWARD: Congregationalist, second son of Lyman Beecher; b. at East Hampton, L. L, Aug. 27. 1803; ‑d. in Brooklyn July 28, 1895. He was graduated at Yale 1822; began his theological studies at Andover and continued them while acting as tutor at Yale 1825‑26; was pastor of the Park Street Church, Boston, 1826‑30; president of Illinois College, Jacksonville, Ill., 18304; pastor of the Salem Street Church, Boston, 1844‑55, and editor of The Congregationalist 18491853; pastor at Galesburg, Ill., 185rr71; after 1871 resided in Brooklyn. He was lecturer on church institutions at the Chicago Theological Seminary (Congregational) 1859‑66. In 1837 he defended the freedom of the press in the case of Elijah P. Lovejoy, an antislavery agitator at Alton, Ill. When Lovejoy's presses were destroyed by the mob, Beecher helped to obtain and secrete a new one, and was with Lovejoy and his brother, Owen, the night before the former was killed (Nov. 7, 1837). To resist the mob spirit he aided in founding the Illinois State Antislavery Society, drew up its constitution, and issued a Statement o f Antislavery Principles, and Address to the People of Illinois. He published a Narrative o f Riots at Alton (Cincinnati, 1838). His views as to the nature and cause of sin and on the atonement were set forth in two works, The Conflict of Ages, or the Great Debate on the Moral Relations of God and Man (Boston, 1853) and The Concord of Ages, or the Individual and Organic Harmony o f God and Man (New York, 1860), in which he expressed the belief that the present life is a continuation of a preceding existence as well as a preparation for a future one; that the material system is adapted to regenerate men, who have made themselves sinful in the previous state; and that ultimately the conflict between good and evil will disappear, and harmony be established. The doctrine of divine suffering he held to present the character of God in its moat affecting and powerful aspects, and to be essential to a true view of the atonement. He also published
On the Kingdom of God (Boston, 1827); Baptism
with Reference to its Import and Modes (New York,
1849); The Papal Conspiracy Exposed and Protes
tantism Defended in the Light o f Reason, History,
and Scripture (New York, 1W); History of Opinions
on the Scriptural Doctrine o f Retribution (1878).

BEECHER, HENRY WARD: Congregationalist, fourth son of Lyman Beecher; b. at Litohfield, Conn., June 24, 1813; d. in Brooklyn Mar. 8, 1887. He was graduated at Amherst 1834, and at Lane Theological Seminary 1837; became pastor of the Presbyterian Church at Lawrenceburg, Ind., 1837, at Indianapolis 1839, and of Plymouth Church (Congregational), Brooklyn, 1847. The congregation was newly formed at that time, but soon became famed for its numbers and its influence, while Beecher attained to the position of the most
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
popular and widely known preacher in America. As a public lecturer he was no less successful. In his sermons he disregarded conventionalities both in subject and manner. His wit and humor appeared in his preaching, which, nevertheless, was earnest and edifying, and revealed a great character, sincere and reverent; his public prayers in particular were truly devotional (cf. Prayers from Plymouth Pulpit, New York, 1867). No alight dramatic power, robust health and physical at:ength, and a striking personal appearance added to the effect of his eloquence. Personally he was. a most estimable and attractive man, of generous instincts, of rare humanity, and catholic sympathies. He was active in the antislavery contest, but deprecated revolutionary measures. In 1863 he publicly advocated the Union cause in a series of addresses in the cities of England at a time when the sympathies of the people of England were strongly with the Southern Confederacy, and his success at this time before bitterly hostile audiences is one of the greatest feats of intellectual and oratorical achievement (these addresses were published as The American Rebellion : Report of the Speeches delivered in Manchester, etc., Manchester, 1864, and are reprinted in Patriotic Addresses from 1860 to 1886 by Henry Ward Beecher, edited, with a review of Mr. Beecher's personality and influence in public affairs, by John R. Howard, New York, 1889).
In later life the development of Beecher's mind led him to desire a freedom which he thought could not be attained within strictly denominational lines, and, actuated ales by the wish not to compromise his brethren by alleged heresies, in 1882, with his church, he withdrew from the Congregational Association to which he belonged. The chief points of his divergence from the orthodox position o£ the time related to the person of Christ, whom he considered to be the Divine Spirit under the limitations of time, apace, and flesh; to miracles, which he considered divine uses of natural laws; and to future punishment, the endlessness of which he denied, inclining to a modification of the annihilation theory.
Beecher was regular contributor to The Independent from i~foundation in 1848 to 1870, and its editor for not quite two years (1861‑63). He was editor of The Christian Union (since 1893 known as The Outlook), 1870‑81, and made it the pioneer non‑denominational religious pager. He also wrote much for The New York Ledger. His sermons were published weekly after 1859 (under the title The Plymouth Pulpit), and have appeared in book‑form in numerous volumes. Sermons . . . selected from published and unpublished discourses and revised by their author, edited by Lyman Abbott (2 vole., New York, 1868), is a representative collection. His addresses, lectures, and articles were also gathered into many books, such as Lectures to Young Men (Indianapolis, 1844; rev. eds., New York, Boston, 18.50 and 1873); the Star Papers,
or experiences of art and nature (selections from
The Independent, so caned from his signature, *; 2 vo1a., New York, 1855‑b8); Eyes and Ears (reprinted from The New York Ledger, Boston, 1862):

28	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Beecher
		Beslsabnb
Lecture‑Room Talks (New York, 1870); A Summer
Parish (1875); Evolution and Religion (1885).
His books of moat permanent value were The Life
o f Jesus the Christ (i, New York, 1871; ii, left incom
plete at his death and supplemented by extracts
from his sermons, 1891), and the Yale Lectures on
Preaching (Lyman Beecher lectures before the
Yale Divinity School, 1872‑74; 3 vole., also col
lected edition in one volume, New York, 1881).
He compiled The Plymouth Collection of Hymns
and Tunes (1855); and wrote Norwood, or Pillage
Life in New England, a novel (1867).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lyman Abbott and S. B. Halliday, Henry
	Ward Beecher, Hartford, 1887; the Biography by his son
	William C. Beecher and Samuel Scoville, assisted by his
	wife, 1888; John Henry Barrows, Henry. Ward Beecher,
	the Shakespeare of the Pulpit, New York. 1893; the Auto
	biographical REmiaiacencea edited by T. J. Ellinwood, his
	private stenographer for thirty years, 1898; Lyman
	Abbott, Henry Ward Beecher, Boston, 1903; N. L. Thomp
	eon, The History of Plymouth Church, New York, 1873.
	BEECHER, LYMAN: Presbyterian; b. at New
Haven, Conn., Oct. 12, 1775; d. at Brooklyn Jan.
10, 1863. He was graduated at Yale 1797;
studied theology under President Dwight the fol
lowing year, and, after preaching on probation for
a year at East Hampton, L. L, was ordained as
pastor there, 1799; in 1810 he removed to Litch
field, Conn., and in 1826 to Boston, as pastor of
the Hanover Street Church (Congregational). In
1832 he became president and professor of the
ology at the newly formed Lane Theological Semi
nary, Cincinnati, where for the first ten years
he also served as pastor of the Second Presby
terian Church. In 1851 he returned to Boston,
and after 1856 lived in Brooklyn. He was a pro
found student of theology, but eminently practical
in his preaching, which was marked by an uncom
mon union of imagination, fervor, and logic. His
convictions were strong, his courage great, and
he acted with an impulsive energy which generally
succeeded in accomplishing what he thought should
be done. The death of Alexander Hamilton called
forth a sermon on dueling (preached before the
Presbytery of Long Island, Apr. 16, 1806; pub
lished in several editions) which did much to
awaken the popular conscience on the subject.
At Litchfield he took a decided stand in favor of
a	general reformation of public morals, and in
particular against the convivial habits of the time.
During his Boston pastorate he was a leader on
the conservative side in the Unitarian controversy.
In Cincinnati hard feelings evoked by the anti
slavery contest, and certain problems inevitable
during the formative period of the seminary and
in a new society, made his career a stormy one,
but he worked with characteristic energy and
retired with honor. During the earlier stages of
the differences which led to the disruption of the
Presbyterian Church in 1837 he was charged with
holding heretical views on the atonement, and was
tried and acquitted by both presbytery and synod in
1835; throughout the entire contest he was one of
the New School leaders. His seven sons all became
clergymen and his daughters, Catherine Esther
Beecher, Harriet Beecher Stows, and Isabella
Beecher Hooker, became well known for literary
and philanthropic work. During his second residence in Boston Lyman Beecher prepared a collected edition of his Works (i, Lectures on Political Atheism and Kindred Subjects ; Six Lectures on Intemperance, Boston, 1852; ii, Sermons, 1852; iii, Views of Theology as Developed in Three Sermons and on hts Trtals, 1853).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His Autobiography, Correspondence, etc. was edited by his son Charles Beecher, rev. ed., 2 vole., New York, 1865; consult also D. H. Allen, The Life and Services of Lyman Beecher, a Commemorative Discourse, Cincinnati, 1863; J. C. White, Personal Reminiscences of Lyman Beecher, New York, 1882; E. F. Haywood, Lyman Beecher, Boston, 1904.

BEECHER, THOMAS gINNICUTT: Congregationalist, sixth son of Lyman Beecher; b. at Litchfield, Conn., Feb.10,1824; d. at Elmira, N. Y., Mar. 14, 1900. He was graduated at Illinois College, Jacksonville, Ill., 1843; became school principal at Philadelphia, 1846, at Hartford, Conn., 1848; pastor at Williamsburg (Brooklyn), L. L, 1852, of the Independent Church (afterward called the Park Church), Elmira, 1854, where he served a long pastorate and became widely known for his eccentricities, but still more esteemed for his charities and respected for the practical good sense of many of his plans and ideas. He developed one of the first " institutional " churches, and his Sunday‑school was a model one. His chief publication was Our Seven Churches (New York, 1870), a volume of discourses upon the different denominations in Elmira. In Time with the Stars, a book of children's stories, appeared posthumously (1902).

' BEECHER, WILLIS JUDSON: Presbyterian; b. at Hampden, O., Apr. 29, 1838. He studied at Hamilton College (B.A., 1858) and Auburn Theological Seminary (1864), and was ordained to the ministry in 1864. After a pastorate at Ovid, N. Y., 1864‑65, he was appointed professor of moral science and belles‑lettres in Knox College, Galesburg, Ill. In 1869 he became pastor of the First Church of Christ in the same city. Two years later he was appointed professor of the Hebrew language and literature in Auburn Theological Seminary. In 1902 he delivered the Stone Lectures at Princeton Theological Seminary. He was a member of the Assembly's Committee on the Revision of the Confession of Faith (1890‑92), and in theology is a progressive conservative. Besides preparing the Old Testament Sunday‑school lessons for the Sunday School Times since 1893, he has written Farmer Tompkins and his Bibles (Philadelphia, 1874); General Catalogue of Auburn. Theological Seminary (Auburn, 1883); Drill Lessons in Hebrew (1883); Index of Presbyterian Ministers, 1706..1881 (Philadelphia, 1883; in collaboration with his sister Mary A. Beecher); The Prophets and the Promise (New York, 1905); and The Teaching of Jesus concerning the Future Life (1906).

BEELZEBUB, be‑el'ze‑bub (properly, in all the New Testament passages‑Matt. x, 25; xii, 24, 27; Mark iii, 22; Luke xi, 15, 18, 19‑Beelzeboul); The name of the prince of the demons; i.e., of Satan. The reading Beelzeboul has also this in its favor that the Greek oikodespot&, "master of the

Beelzebub
Beshards
house " (Matt. s, 25), seems to play upon be'e1 zebul (6e'el being the Aramaic form for the Hebrew ba`al). Nothing more than a play upon the word is to be sought in oikodespotea, which is not a translation of the Aramaic; " master of the (Satanic) kingdom " would be a meaningless designation of the prince of hell. In spite of the correctness of the reading Beelzeboul, it is justifiable to trace this name to the much older name Baal‑zebub, which is found in the Old Testament as that of an idol.
Baal‑zebub was honored in Ekron, where he had s temple and an oracle, which was consulted by Ahaziah, king of Israel (II Kings i, 2, 3, 16). The name as it stands means " lord of flies "; .the Septuagint calls the god directly " fly "; so also Joaephua (Ant., IX, ii, 1). In classical mythology, there was a god who protected from flies. It is related that Hercules banished the flies from Olympia by erecting a shrine to Zeus Apomuioa (" averter of flies "); and the Romans called Hercules Apomuios. A similar deity is mentioned as acting and honored in different places, the excuse for such worship being the plague which flies cause in those warm countries. Both the sending of flies and the driving them away were referred to the same divinity. As may be inferred from the name Baal, the Baalzebub of the Philistines was essentially identical with the principal god or gods of the Phenicians. He may have been lord of flies as sun‑god, because flies are moat numerous in midsummer, when the sun is hottest. And that he had an oracle is to be explained by a substitution of effect for cause. Flies come obedient to certain atmospheric conditions; hence the god was considered to have caused these conditions, and so at length his control was extended to other events, and accordingly he was consulted (see BAAL).
Beelzebul was early identified with Baal‑zebub, and, as was so often the case, was turned into a bad demon, in accordance with later Jewish ideas. Since Lightfoot (Horse Heb., s.v.), it has been common to say that the name of the demon Beelzebul was purposely made out of Beel‑zebub, in order to express contempt and horror; i.e., " lord of dung," instead of " lord of flies." But, inasmuch as such a name for Satan does not occur outside of the New Testament, it is better to seek its derivation in the old Ekronic worship, which might, in New Testament times, have still existed. Beelzebul may therefore be looked upon as the same name as Beef‑zebub, and therefore as having the same meaning.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: .Fi. C. A. Riehm, Handw6rterbueh den bibliachen Afterfhume, e.v., Bielefeld, 1893‑94 (revives the theory that the Syriac form may have meant simply " an enemy," of. RAT, p. 481); J. Belden, De die Syria, London, 1817; J. Lightfoot, Horn hebraicm on Matt. ME, 24, and Luke u, lb, ib. 1875; F. C. Movers, Die PhBnisier i, 280‑281, Bonn, 1841; idem, in JA, 1878, pp. 220‑225; P. Scholz, C38tzendienat and Zaubenoeaen bei den atten Hebroan, pp. 170‑173, Regensburg, 1877; Nowack. Ardsotooia. ii, ao4‑ao5; rB, i. 514‑515; JE, ii, 629‑MO.
BEER, bar, GEORG: German Lutheran; b. at 8chweidnitz (31 m. s.w. of Breslau) Nov. 12, 1865. He studied in Berlin and Leipsic (Ph.D., 1887), taught in Erbach 1889‑91, and became privat•docent at Breslau in 1892. Two years later he went in the
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
same capacity to Halls, and in 1900 to Strasburg as associate professor of the Old Testament. Became ordinary professor of Old Testament at Heidelberg, 1909. He has written Alr,Gazzdli's Makdaid al‑faldsifat, i, die Logik (Leyden, 1888); Indivi<lualund Gemeindo‑paalmen (Marburg, 1894); and Der Text des Buches Hiob untersucht {1897); besides preparing the translation of the Martyrdom of Isaiah and of the Book of Epoch for E. Kautzach a Apokryphen and PaeudepigraPhen des Alten Testaments (TVbingen, 1900).
BEER, RUDOLF: German Protestant; b. at Bielitz (40 m. w.s.w. of Cracow) Dec. 5, 1863. He was educated at the universities of Vienna and Bonn, and since 1893 has been reader in Spanish at the latter university, as well as a custodian at the Imperial and Roygl Library at Vienna since 1888. He is a collaborator on the Vienna Corpus patrum ecclesiasticorum latinorum. In theology he advocates " the scientific investigation of Christian revelation." Among his works special mention may be made of his Die Anecdotca Borderiana Atigustineischer Sermonen (Vienna, 1887); Heilige Htihen der Griechen and Ribner (1891); Die Quellen far den fiber diurnua concilii Basiliensis den Petrus Bruneti (1891); and Urkundliche Beilrtige au Johannes de Segovia (1896); in addition to editions of Wyclif's De compositions hominia (London, 1887); and De ente prcedicamentali qumtionea tredecim (1891), and of the Monumental cmtciliorum generalium (3 vole., Vienna, 1892‑96).
	BEET, bit, JOSEPH AGAR: English Wesleyan;
b. at Sheffield Sept. 27, 1840. He attended Wesley
College, Sheffield (1851‑56), and took up mining
engineering, but afterward studied theology at the
Wesleyan College, Richmond (18624). He was
pastor 1864‑85 and professor of systematic the
ology in Wesleyan College, Richmond, 1885‑1905.
He was also a member of the faculty of theology
in the University of London 1901‑05. He de
livered the Fernley Lecture on The Credentials of
the Gospels in 1889, and lectured in America in 1896.
Though long recognized as one of the ablest theo
logians and exegetes of his denomination, his
sympathy with the modern critical school of inter
pretation and particularly his views on eschatology
have occasioned much criticism. In The Last
Things (London, 1897; 2d ed., 1905) he opposed
the belief that the essential and endless permanence
of the soul is taught in the Bible and denied that
eternal punishment necessarily means endless tor
ment, holding that the sinner may suffer a relative
annihilation of his mental and moral faculties and
sink into a dehumanized state. He reiterated these
views in The Immortality o f the soul (1901). Charges
of heresy were brought against him at the Confer
ence of 1902, but he was reelected to his professor
ship on condition that he refrain from expressing
his opinions on immortality and future punish
ment. To regain liberty of speech in 1904 he gave
notice that he would retire from his chair in twelve
months. His other works are: Commentary on
Romans (London, 5877); Holiness as Understood
by the Critics of the Bible (1880); Commentary on
Corinthians (1881); Commentary on Galatians

27
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
8eelsebnb 84whards
(1883); Commentary on Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon (1890); Through Christ to God (1892); The Firm Foundation of the Christian Faith (1892); The New Life in Christ (1895); Nature and Christ (New York, 1896); Key to Unlock the Bible (1901); Transfiguration of Jesus (1905); and Manual of Theology (1906).

BEETS, bttz, HENRY: Christian Reformed; b. at Koedijk (a village near Alkmaar, 20 m. n.w. of Amsterdam), Holland, Jan. 5, 1869. He came to the United Staten at an early age, and studied at John Calvin College and Theological Seminary of the Christian Reformed Church, Grand Rapids, Mich. After graduation in 1895, he was pastor at Sioux Center, Ia., until 1899, and since the latter year has been pastor of the Lagrave Street Christian Reformed Church, Grand Rapids. He has been secretary of the Board of Heathen Missions of his Church since 1900, stated clerk of its synod since 1902, and a member of the joint committee of American and Canadian Churches for the revision of the Psalms in meter since 1902. In theology he is a firm Calvinist, adhering strictly to the creeds of the Synod of Dort and the Westminster Standards. He has been associate editor of De Gerefornleerde Amerikaan, a monthly, since 1898 and editor‑in‑chief of The Banner, a weekly, since 1904. He has written Het Leven van Pres. McKinley (Holland, Mich., 1901); Sacred History for Juniors (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1901); Sacred History for Seniors (1902); Compendium of the Christian Religion (1903); Primer of Bible Truths (1903; in collaboration with M. J. Boama); and Kerkenorde der Christelijke Gereformeerde Kerk (1905; in collaboration with W. Heyna and G. K. Hemkes).

BEGG, JAMES: Minister of the Flee Church of Scotland; b. at New Monkland, near Airdrie (10 m. e. of Glasgow), Lanarkshire, Oct. 31, 1808; d. in Edinburgh Sept. 29, 1883. He studied at Glasgow and Edinburgh; was ordained minister at Maxwelltown, Dumfries, May, 1830; became colleague at Lady Glenorchy's Chapel, Edinburgh. Dec., 1830, minister in Paisley 1831, at Liberton, near Edinburgh, 1835, and, after the Disruption in 1843, at Newington, a suburb of Edinburgh. In 1865 he was moderator of the General Assembly of the Free Church. He began his career as an ardent supporter of evangelical views and a decided opponent of the " moderate " party in the Church. He was strongly opposed to lay patronage and to voluntaryism. He strenuously resisted the aggressions of the civil courts on the jurisdiction of the Church and was disposed to continue the fight within the Establishment; but in May, 1843, he left with his brethren. (See the section on the Free Church of Scotland in the article PRF$BYmExl.Ns. ) In the Free Church he became the leader of a minority opposed to all change and when he was charged with standing in the way of progress he gloried in his steadfast adherence to the ideas of his youth; his followers were most numerous in the Highlands. He was an advocate and supporter of popular education and was interested
in a movement to secure better homes for the
working classes. He wrote much for periodicals
and edited several journals at different times (The
Bulwark, for the maintenance of Protestantism;
The Watchword, against the union with the United
Presbyterians; The Signal, against instrumental
music in worship). Among his larger publica
tions were A Handbook of Popery (Edinburgh,
1852); Happy Homes for Workingmen and How to
Get Them (London, 1866); Free Church Principles
(Edinburgh, 1869), and The Principles, Posi
tion, and Prospects o f the Free Church o f Scotland
(1875).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Smith, Memoirs of Jam" Beep, 2 vole.,
Edinburgh, 188b‑88; DNB, iv, 127‑128.

BEGHARDS, BEGUINES.

Origin (§ 1). The Early Communities (§ 2). Extension during the Twelfth Century (§ 3). Relation to the Mendicant Orders (§ 4). The Male Communities (§ b). Persecution as Heretics (¢ 8). Surviving Beguinagee in the Netherlands (§ 7).

	Beghards	and Beguines are the names applied
to certain religious communities which flourished
especially in the Middle Ages. The Beguines were
women and earlier in origin than the male sesociar
tions, the Begharda (also called in France Beguins).
As early as the thirteenth century the authentic tra
dition as to the origin of the Beguines had been
lost, so that it was possible in the fifteenth for the
belief to gain acceptance that they had been founded
by Begga, the canonized daughter of Pepin of Lan
		den and mother of Pepin of Heriatal.
	:. Origin.	This belief was supported by several
		scholars in the early seventeenth
century, and approved at Mechlin and at Rome.
In 1630 Puteanus (van Putts), a Louvain professor,
produced three documents supposed to date from
1065, 1129, and 1151, relating to a convent of Beg
uines at Vilvorde, near Brussels. The view as to
the date of their origin which these documents
supported was prevalent for two centuries, and is
presupposed in the modern works of Moaheim and
of Lea; but the researches of Hallmann proved
finally in 1843 that Puteanus's documents were
forgeries, probably belonging to the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries. The origin of these com
munities is now, accordingly, almost universally
placed in the twelfth century, and attributed to a
priest of Liege, Lambert le Bcgue (q.v.).
The scarcity of information about the earliest period has caused the significance of the movement to be underestimated or misconceived. As a matter of fact, the career of Lambert has many points of affinity with those of his younger contemporaries Peter Waldo and Francis of Assisi. Like them, he renounced his property, to endow with it the hospital of St. Christopher at Li€ge and the new convent of Beguinea there. He felt his special mission to be the preaching of repentance, which brought him into conflict with the ecclesiastical authorities when he attacked the vices of the clergy, but had an enduring influence especially on tile women of Lilge. By 1210 there is con‑

Heghards	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	28
temporary	testimony to the existence there of
" whole troops of holy maidens "; the ascetic spirit
	took hold also of the married women,
s. The Early	who frequently made vows of conti‑
Commuai‑ nence. Religious excitement did not
	ties.	fail to produce pathological phenom
		ena; stories are told of visions, proph
ecies, convulsions, incessant tears, loss of speech,
and the like. Probably between 1170 and 1180
some of Lambert's followers, to whom his opponents
gave the name of Beguines in mockery, had formed
a sort of conventual association on a suburban
estate belonging to him. By the analogy of the
later Beguinagea, they probably inhabited a num
ber of small houses grouped about the church and
hospital of St. Christopher, and shut off by a wall
from the outer world. The first inmates were
mostly women of position, who renounced their
property and supported themselves by their own
labors.
	The religious impulse given by Lambert contin
ued active after his death (probably 1187), and
familiarized the people of the Netherlands with
the idea of ascetic following of Christ long before
the advent of the mendicant orders. Throughout
the next century, the need o€ founding similar in
		stitutions for the large numbers of
3. Extension Beguines was felt, first in Flanders
during the and then in the neighboring French
Twelfth	and German districts. In France St.
	Century.	Louis showed them special favor, and
		erected a large Beguinage in Paris,
modeled after the Flemish, in 1264; others sprang
up, large or small, in all parts of France during the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The exten
sion of the system in the other Latin countries was
probably considerable, but exact data are wanting.
In Germany only a few towns on the lower Rhine,
such as Aix‑la‑Chapelle and Wesel, had Beguinages
in the strict sense. Here the usual rule was for
women who wished to renounce the world at first
to live separately in their own houses or in solitary
places; as time went on, they came together in
larger or smaller houses put at their disposal by
pious gifts, and formed communities of a monastic
type. The growth of these convents was remark
able, and continued from the first third of the thir
teenth century to the beginning of the fifteenth,
by which time the majority of German towns had
their convents of Beguines. The statutes varied
much in the different houses; the number of inmates
was between ten and twenty on an average. There
was no uniform dress, but most of the members wore
hoods and scapulars resembling a religious habit.
Sometimes those who had property retained full
control of it; in other cases a portion fell to the
convent when they died or left. Celibacy was re
quired as long as they stayed, but they were always
free to leave and marry.
The name of " voluntary poor," which many convents bore, and the regulations of such houses, show the continuance of Lambert's influence in favor of desertion of the world and penitential asceticism; but the Franciscan ideas, very similar in their tendency, which were widely spread not long after, found here a fruitful soil. As early as the
thirteenth century a large proportion of the Begherds or Beguines of France, Germany, and northern Italy were under the direction of Franciscans or Dominicans, and so closely related 4. Relation with the penitential confraternities to the Men‑ attached to both these orders that the dicant Or‑ members of these (tertiaries) were
	dens.	commonly known in the Latin coun
		tries as beguini and beguince‑‑a fact
which has caused much confusion in the study of
the history of the real Beguines. The disapproval
of these latter by the papal authorities brought
about, when it came, a still closer identification
with the tertiaries; many joined these for pro
tection, and in the fifteenth century numerous
Beguinages were transferred to the Augustinian
order. While the original Beguinea abstained from
begging, it became more common among them is
France and Germany by the beginning of the thir
teenth century. As in the Latin countries the Beg
uines are found among the extreme defenders of
the Franciscan ideal of poverty, so we find fre
quently among those of Germany the belief that
their strict poverty designated them as the true
followers of Christ. In accordance with this view,
they were apt to withdraw themselves from the
teaching of the clergy and listen rather to the ex
citing exhortations of their " mistresses " or of
wandering preachers in sympathy with their be
liefs. They developed a system of extreme cor
poral austerity, and lost themselves in mystic
speculations which increased their tendency to see
visions and to condemn the ordinary means of
grace; even the moral law seems at times to have
been regarded as not binding upon them. The
impulse of apocalyptic enthusiasm, given by Joa
chim of Fiore (q.v.) and spread by the " spiritual "
Franciscans among the laity, as well as the quietis
tic mysticism of the Brethren of the Free Spirit
(q.v.), found an entrance into their houses before
the end of the thirteenth century. Early in the
next century, the influx of women of high social
position declined more and more, and the new
foundations took on more of the modern character
of benevolent institutions. By the end of the fif
teenth century, in Germany at least, they had
almost completely lost their first religious fervor
and had forfeited much of the popular respect they
had formerly enjoyed.
As to the Beghards or male communities, the question whether the first associations known by this name can be directly connected with Lambert Is Bbgue, or sprang up after his death in imitation of the Flemish Beguinages, can not be decided with our present knowledge. They are first met with in Louvain (c. 1220) and Antwerp (1228). The names beguin and begard (Flemish usually bagard; Middle High German begehart and biegger) were given in mockery and are of Walloon origin; other names are Lollards (probably from the Mid‑
$. The	dle butch l6llen, to murmur; see
	Male Com‑ LOLLARDB), "voluntary poor," boni
munities.	pueri, boni vateti, etc. In the course
	of the thirteenth and fourteenth cen
	turies they spread throughout Germany, into Po
	land and the Alpine districts, and even into the

29	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Beehards
Latin countries; but their numbers were much smaller than those of the Beguinea. As early as the thirteenth century a number of their houses, too, connected themselves with the tertiaries of the two great mendicant orders. Like the Beguines, many of them were partizans of the views of the " spiritual " Franciscans and Fraticelli. They practised begging ostentatiously, frequently had no fi:ced abode, and wandered about in small groups, begging and winning adherents for their cause. They did not abandon this mode of life even after papal prohibitions were directed against them, but strengthened themselves by the adhesion of sympathizers who were expelled from the convents, and remained in close relations with the Beguinea, by whom they were regarded as martyrs to the Franciscan ideal of poverty and channels of mystical revelations. In the Netherlands the fifteenthcentury Beghards appear for the most part as regular Franciscan ternaries, organized from 1443 as a separate Congregatio Zepperensis beghardorurn tertice reguhe S. Franc%sci,, with the convent of Zepperen, near Hasaelt, as their mother house. Internal dissensions later split them into two branches. In the seventeenth century they were united with the Lombard congregation of regular ternaries, and did not survive the Revolution. The internal organization of their houses corresponded generally to that of the Beguines. The earliest Dutch Beghards were mostly weavers, who continued to follow their trade; later they frequently copied and sold manuscripts. The German Begharda followed a variety of occupations; but at the end of the Middle Ages begging was their main source of revenue. A special inner group was that of the " Voluntary Poor " (also called Poor Brothers, Cellites, Alexians; in the Netherlands Lollards, Matemana, Cellebroeders; see ALEXIANS), who required the entire abandonment of property by their members and bound them by permanent vows. Their strict organization, their enthusiasm for poverty, their zealous devotion to charitable duties, all point to a tradition reaching back to the beginning of the Beghard system. They are further contrasted with the ordinary Beghards by the fact that they held aloof for the most part from the Franciscan affiliations which have been seen to be so common. In the fifteenth century they associated themselves with the Augustinians. Public opinion, by the end of the Middle Ages, was even more unfavorable to the Begharda than to the Beguinea; popular satirists and preachers alike speak of them as hypocritical beggars with a tendency to deceit and immorality; and the Reformation swept away the last remnants of them, in Germany at least.
The persecution of Beghards and Beguines as a heretical sect began in the second half of the thirteenth century, probably as a consequence of their relation to the "spiritual" Franciscans (see FRANCIS, SAINT, OF ABaI$I, AND THE FRANCISCAN ORDER). By 1300 the name beguinus was commonly used in the Latin countries as the accepted designation for the heretical " spiritual " party and Fraticelli, which naturally prejudiced the general opinion of the orthodox convents of Beghards and Beguinea. Still more damaging was the fact that the German bishops,
about the same time, assumed that the panthe‑
istic heresy of the Brethren of the Free Spirit (q.v.)
found its chief support in their houses. Though,
		as a matter of fact, this was probably
6. Persecu‑ true only of a small section, the name
	tion as of Begharda was commonly adopted
	Heretics. in Germany for the adherents of that
		heresy. During the fourteenth cen
tury the belief spread that in some convents of
Beghards and Beguines there existed an inner circle
of " the perfect " who were alien from the doc
trines of the Church and the laws of morality, to
which the younger members were admitted only
after years of probation. Whether or not these
accusations were true, which it is now next to im
possible to determine, the bitter hostility shown
against the Beghards and Beguines probably finds
its simplest explanation in the conflicts which arose
at the end of the thirteenth century between the
episcopate and the secular clergy, on the one hand,
and the mendicant orders, especially the Francis
cans, on the other, since these latter gained their
lay following largely through the numerous houses
of Begharda and Beguinea. Several German pro
vincial councils (Cologne 1306, Mainz 1310, Trevea
1310) passed strong measures against them, and
the Council of Vienne (1311) struck at them even
harder, undertaking to suppress them entirely on
the charge of spreading heretical doctrines under a
cloak of piety. The execution of these decrees of
suppression, which took place under John XXII,
caused great confusion in the Church of Germany,
the mendicants and sometimes the magistrates at
tempting to defend the Beguines. Since their total
suppression appeared impracticable, John XXII
compromised by making a distinction and granting
toleration to the orthodox Beguinea. Persecution
did not, however, cease; and with the powerful
support of the Emperor Charles IV, it was taken
up once more by Urban V and Gregory XI. With
out regard to the varying senses of the names, all
Begharda and Beguines alike were condemned as
heretics, excommunicated, and outlawed. Their
property was to serve for pious purposes, for the
support of the inquisitors, or for repairing city
walls and roads. Between 1366 and 1378 remorse
less persecution raged against them throughout
Germany; but even then they found advocates,
especially among the secular magistrates, and Greg
ory XI was finally prevailed upon to repeat the
distinction between orthodox and heretical Beg
uinea and Beghards, and to tolerate the former.
About 1400 another storm broke out, aroused by
the attacks which the clergy of Basel, especially
the Dominican Johannes Mulberg made upon the
Beguines of that city. By 1410 the Beguines in the
dioceses of Constants, Basel, and Strasburg were
driven from their convents. At the time of the
Council of Constants (1414‑18), which showed
itself well disposed toward them, they won a vic
tory of some importance when they secured the
condemnation as heretical of a treatise directed
both against them and against the Brethren of the
Common Life by the Dominican Matthieus Grabo.
Attacks were still made upon them, none the less,
and that a general feeling inspired such attacks is

Bsegharde	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	30
shown by the fact that the name " Beghard " continued through the fifteenth century to be applied to the most various heretics, until it adhered permanently to the Bohemian Brethren or Picards.
In what is now Belgium and Holland, the example of Lambert's first followers was widely followed, as has been seen; here the Beguines flourished moat, and here they have maintained their existence to the present day. A long series of
accounts of mystical visions, hystericoSurviving ecstatic phenomena, and extreme
Beguinages austerities shows that the strong is the religious impulse of the beginning Netherlands. remained operative until after the
Reformation. Heretical mysticism was not without its adherents: in 1310 Margareta Porete, a Beguine of Hainault and the author of a book of apparently pantheistic libertinism, was executed in Paris, and the mystic Hadewich Blommaerdine (q.v.) of Brussels (d.1336) found adherents among the Beguinea of Brabant and Zealand. The bishops and princes, however, protected the communities in times of persecution. In the fourteenth century the contemplative life was largely given up in favor of diligent work for the sick and poor, and later for the education of girls. The French Revolution deprived these institutions of their religious character, which they regained in 1814. At present there are fifteen Beguinages in Belgium, only two of which are of any size, both at Ghent, numbering 869 inmates in 1896. The larger one, transferred in 1874 to St. Amandsberg just outside the city, is a complete model of a small town, with walls, gates, streets, and gardens. The total number of Beguines in Belgium was 1,790 in 1825, 1,480 in 1866, and about 1,230 in 1896. In Holland two houses have survived, one at Amsterdam with thirteen inmates and one at Breda
with forty‑nix. 	(HERMAN HAUPT.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Hallmann, Din Geachichte den Uraprunps der belpischen Beghiucn, Berlin, 1843 (perhaps the best book on the subject); J. L. von Moaheim, De Beghardia et 13epuinabw, Leipaio, 1790; F. von Biedenfeld, Urspnanp . . . e3tnUicher MBncha‑ and Kloater(rautn‑Order, Weimar, 1837; G. Uhlhorn, Die chriatliche Liebeathlltigkeit im Mittelalter, Stuttgart, 1884; H. Haupt, BeitrBge zur Geachichta den $ekle room freiern Geiete and den Bephardentuma, In Zeitachrift fir Kirchenpaachichte, vii (1884), 503 eqq.; H. C. Lea, History of the Inquisition, ii, 35o‑517, Philadelphia, 1888; P. Frdddr'icq. Les Documents de Glasgow concernant Lambent de BI!pue, in Bulletins de Z'acadbmie de Belgique, third series, xxix (189b), 148‑1f35, 990‑1008; Heimbucher, Orden undKonprepationsu, i, 501, ii, 422‑425; A. Neander, Christian Church, iv, passim, v, passim; W. Moeller, Christian Church, ii, 475‑478.

BEGIN, b9"gar', LOUIS ftAZAIRE: Roman Catholic archbishop of Quebec; b. at Lwis, Quebec, Jan. 10, 1840. He was educated at the Seminary of Quebec (1857‑62) and Laval University (B.A., 1863). He then began the study of theology at the Grand Seminary of Quebec, but was chosen to fill a chair in the newly established faculty of theology in the University of Laval, and was sent to Rome to study. He was ordained to the priesthood in 1865, and returned to Quebec in 1868, where he taught dogmatic theology and ecclesiastical history at Laval University until 1884, in addition to being prefect of the Little
Seminary and having charge of the pupils of the University during the last few years of this period. In 1884 he accompanied the archbishop of Quebec to Rome to defend the rights of Laval University, and on his return was appointed principal of the Normal School, remaining there until 1888. In the latter year he was consecrated bishop of Chicoutimi, and three years later was appointed coadjutor, with the title of archbishop of Cyrene, to Cardinal Taschereau. On the death of the Cardinal in 1898, he became archbishop of Quebec. He has written La PrdmauM et l'infaillibiliM des aouveraina 7wrttifea (Quebec, 1873); La Saints teriture et la r~gle de la foi (1874; English translation by G. M. Ward, London, 1875); Loo Cults eat)tolique (1875); Aide‑mftwire, au ehrortologie de fhiatoire du Canada (1886); and CtttEehiame de eontroverae (1902).

BEHAISM: A development of Babism (q.v.). The Bab had taught that the greatest and last of all manifestations of divinity was to appear and, through his teachings, wipe out all distinctions of sects. In 1862, twelve years after the Bab's execution, Beha Ullah, a high‑born Persian and Babite leader, claimed to be the fulfilment of this teaching. He was imprisoned and exiled and died in Acre, Syria, in 1892. His son, Abdul Beha Abbas, then became the leader and " Center of the Covenant." From his residence in Acre, where he lives under government surveillance, a far‑reaching propaganda has gone forth and pilgrims find their way thither even from distant America.
Behaist missionaries are not allowed to accept money, though they may be entertained by converts or others interested. Their message consists in a recital of the history of their religion and the lives of the Bab and Beha Ullah. The Old and New Testament prophecies and the sacred books of ethnic religions are studied in the belief that they establish the Behaist doctrines. Their sacred writings are the works of Beha Ullah, of which the most remarkable is the Book of Ighan. They are mostly short sentences called " communes," consisting of prayers or truths for the guidance of life. The explanation of the Book of Ighan and the " Hidden. Words " in Arabic and Persian is a part of the regular preaching. The beauty of service to the poor ‑and suffering is a cardinal precept. Simplicity in food and dress is another, and herein Abdul Beha is an example to his followers. Polygamy is not allowed and all goods are held in common. It is believed that God has manifested himself at different times according to the needs of the race, the chief manifestations having been three in number; viz., Jesus‑whose life and teachings are commended, the Bah, and Beha Ullah, who is the greatest and last; after him there will be no other manifestation, and whosoever does not believe on him after having heard his words will not have another chance to enter the kingdom. Certain feasts are observed commemorating events in the life of Beha Ullah, and one which was instituted by the Bab consists in a simple repeat such as fruits, nuts, and cool water, held at the home of a believer every nineteen days; a vacant

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
'Re
seat is left at the head of the table for the absent master, and passages from the " Hidden Words " are read as the food is passed.
	Behaist congregations are known as " assemblies."
The first in America was established in Chicago by
a Syrian, Ibrahim Iiheirallah, in 1894. There are
now thirty‑five in America, each independent of
the others and owning no authority but that of
Abdul r3eha. It is claimed t.tat the mission of
Behaiam is to unify the world ,r MARGARET bring all religions
into one.' 	MARGARET B. PEEHE.

Bratroaaera:: Consult the literature given under BAsreM; E. D. Roes, Babiam, in Great Reli7iona of the World. London, 1901; Mirza Husain Ali, Le Livre de la certitude .
traduit . . . par H. Dreyfus, Paris, 1901; Le Beyan arabe, 1e livre aacrlr du Babyame, trawl. b y A. Nicolas, Paris, 1905; Beha Ullah, Lea Pr6ceptea du B6haiame: Zes ornementalea parolee du paradia, lea aplendeura, lea rl=al;lationa, trawl. by H. Dreyfus and U. Chirazi, Paris, 1908.
BEHMEN, JACOB. See BoExaln.
BEIRUT. See PHENICIA, I, § 6.
BEISSEL, JOHN CONRAD. See CommuNism, II, 5; DUNSERB, I, 2.

	BEISSEL, STEPHAN: German Jesuit; b. at
Aachen Apr. 21, 1841. He was educated at the
universities of Bonn and Milnster and at the semi
nary at Cologne. He was ordained to the priest
hood in 1871 and lived two years in France, three
in England, fifteen in Holland, sad four in Luxem
burg, passing the remainder of his time at Aachen
and Cologne. He has written Bttttyeschichte der
Kirche des heiligen Yiktor zu Xaytten (Freiburg,
1883); Geldvxrt and Arbeitslohn im Mitlelalter
(1884); Yerehrung der Heiligen in Deutschland bis
zum Beginn des dreizehntert Jahrhurttlerta (1885);
Bilder der Handschrift des Kaisers Otto im Munster
zu Aachen (Aachen, 1886); Geschichte der Auastat
tung tier Kirche des heiligen Yiktor zu Xanten (Frei
burg, 1887); Geschichte der trierachen Kirchen and
ihrer Reliquien (2 parts, Trevea, 1889); Evange
lienbuch des hxiligen Berntoard von Hildeaheim
(Hildesheim, 1891); Yerehrurtg der Heiligen and
ihrer Reliquien in Deutschland wfthrend der zttreitert
Hrilfte des Mittelalters (Freiburg, 1893); Yatikani
sche Miniaturen (1893); Der heilige Bernward
van Ilildesheirn ttla Kiinstler (Hildeaheim, 1895);
Fra Giovanni Angelico da Resole, rein Leben oral
seine Werke (Freiburg, 1895); Die Yerehrung
Unserer Lieben Frau in Deutschland tvtihrend des
Mittelalters (1895); Bilder ants der Geachichte der
altchrtstlichen Kunst and Liturgic in Italien (1899);
Das Leben Jesu Christi, geschildert au f den Flitgeln
des Hochaltars zu Kalkctr (in collaboration with
J. Joest, Gladbach, 1900); Dcas Evangelienbuch
Heinricha 111 and die Dome zu Goslar i» der Biblio
thek zu UPsala '(Dusseldorf, 1900); Die Aachen
fahrE (1902); Betrachtungspunkte far alle Tape ties
Kirchexjahres (lOvola.,1904‑05); and Geschichteder
Evtasngelienbiicher in der ersten HtYlfte des Mittel
alters (Freiburg, 1906); in addition to two vol
umes of the Zur KenrUnia and lYurdigung der
tnitteltllterlichert Altdre Detttschhands (Frankfort,
189rr1905) begun by E. F. A. Milnzenberger.

t Requests for literature may be addressed to Mr. John Mason Ramey, Corcoran Building. Washington, D. C.
BEB:gER, BALTHASAR: Dutch precursor of rationalism; b. at Metalawier (4 m. n.e. of Dokkum) Mar. 30, 1634; d. in Friesland June 11, 1698. He studied at Groningen under J. Alting and in Franeker, where he was rector of the Latin school, was made doctor of theology, and preacher in 1666. Being an enthusiastic follower of the Cartesian philosophy, he published at Wesel in 1668 an Admonitio sincere et candida de philosophia Cartesians, and gave greater offense by his catechisms. in 1668 and 1670. He was accused of Socinianiam, although Alting and other theologians pronounced him to be orthodox. After many controversies, he accepted a call as preacher to Weeap, and, in 1679, to Amsterdam. The appearance of a large comet in 1680 induced him to issue a work against, popular superstition, which stirred up more commotion; and, in 1691, in De betoverde Wereld, published at Leeuwarden, he denied the existence of sorcery, magic, possessions by the devil, and of the devil himself. The consiatory of Amsterdam instituted a formal process against him, and he was deposed July 30, 1692. He went to Friesland, where he edited the last two books of his work.
H. C. RoaaEt.
BIaLIOaSAPHT: A complete list of Bakker's writings and
of the opposing works called out is given in A. van del Linden, B. Bakker, Bibliopraphie, The Hague, 1889. For his life consult J. G. Walch, Einleitunp in die Reliyionsatrei.• tigksiten auaaerhalb der lutheriachen Kirche, vol. iii, part 3, 499 eqq., J,ena, 1734; M. Schwager, Beitrap sur Osachichts der Intoleranz, oder Leben..~. B. Bekkera, mit einer Vor• rude Semiars, Leipaie, 1780; J. M. $chriickh, Kirchenpe. achichte #sit der Reformation, viii, 713‑722, ib. 1808; D. Lorgion, B. Bakker is Franeker, The Hague, 1848; idem, B. Bakker in Amsterdam, 2 vols., Groningen, 1850; w. P. C. Knuttel, Balthaaar Bakker, The Hague, 1908.
BEB%OS, JOHANNES. See JOHANNES (JOHN) BEBBOB.

BEL: A great Babylonian god, whose name, like the equivalent Hebrew Ba'al, originally and all through the history of the language was also used in the sense of " lord " or " owner " (see BAAL). The usage of the two words as namea.of deities alto ran through parallel courses; for Bel at one time in Babylonia was a local deity like each of the Baals of the Canaanitea. He was the patron deity of the city of Nippur in central Babylonia (the modern Nuffar), where his temple, of great antiquity, has been unearthed by the Pennsylvania expedition. The reason why there were not many Bela in Babylonia was that political union on a large scale was very early effected in that country, while it was always impossible among the Canaanites; and Nippur was the center of an extensive community in very remote times.
When, under priestly influence, Babylonian theology was systematized, to this great god Bel was assigned sovereignty of the earth, while Anu ruled in the highest heaven, and Ea over the deep. These formed the chief trinity with primary and universal dominion.
But it is not the Bel of Nippur whose name appears in the Bible and Apocrypha. On account of the rise and supremacy of the city of Babylon under Hammurabi (2250 B.C.), Marduk (Merodach), the god of that city, was invested with the prerogatives

y	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	32
and even with the name of Bel, so that in the comparatively modern Old Testament times "Bel" stands for " Merodach" and for him only (so in Ira. xlvi, 1; Jer. li, 44; in Jer. 1, 2 both names occur together, meaning practically "Bel‑Merodach ").
	The Babylonian Bel was not only adopted by the
Assyrians as one of their chief gods (of course lower
than Asshur), but like Ishtar (see ASHTORETH),
Sin, and Nebo, he seems to have obtained wor
shipers in the West‑land. Such, at least, is an
inference which has been drawn from the proper
names Bildad (" Bel loves "), Ashbel (" man of
Bel "), and Balaam. Moreover, " Bel " is found as an
element in several Phenician and Palmyrene names.
See BABYLONIA, VII. 	J. F. McCuRny.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. H. Sayce, Religion of the Ancient Babylonians, London, 1887; idem, Religion of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, Edinburgh, 1902; M. Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia, Boston 1898; idem, in DB, extra vol., pp. b38‑b39, 545; Schrader, KA T, pp. 354‑358.

BEL AND THE DRAGON. See APOCRYPHA, A, IV, 3.
BELGIC CONFESSION: A statement of belief written in French in 1561 by Guy de BrSs (q.v.) sided by H. Saravia (professor of theology in Leyden, afterward in Cambridge, where he died 1618), H. Moderns (for some time chaplain of William of Orange), and G. Wingen. It was revised by Francis Junius of Bourges (1545‑1602), a student of Calvin, pastor of a Walloon congregation at Antwerp, and afterward professor of theology at Leyden, who abridged the sixteenth article and sent a copy to Geneva and other churches for approval. It was probably printed in 1562, or at all events in 1.566, and afterward translated into Dutch, German, and Latin. It was presented to Philip II in 1562, with the vain hope of securing toleration. It was formally adopted by synods at Antwerp (1566), Wesel (1568), Emden (1571), Dort (1574), Middleburg (1581), and again by the great Synod of Dort, April 29, 1619. Inasmuch as the Arminians had demanded partial changes, and the text had becolhe corrupt, the Synod of Dort submitted the French, Latin, and Dutch texts to a careful revision. Since that time the Belgic Confession, together with the Heidelberg Catechism, has been the recognized symbol of the Reformed Churches in Holland and Belgium, and of the Reformed (Dutch) Church in America.
The Confession contains thirty‑seven articles, and follows the order of the Gallican Confession, but is less polemical, full, and elaborate, especially on the Trinity, the Incarnation, the Church, and the Sacraments. It is, upon the whole, the best symbolical statement of the Calvinistic system of doctrine, with the exception of the Westminster Confession.
The French text must be considered as the original. Of the first edition of 1561 or 1562 no copies are known. The Synod of Antwerp, in September, 1580, ordered a precise parchment copy of the revised text of Junius to be made for its archives, which copy had to be signed by every
new minister. This manuscript has always been regarded in the Belgic churches as the authentic document. The first Latin translation was made from Junius's text by Beza, or under his direction, for the Harmonic Confesaionum (Geneva, 1581). The same passed into the first edition of the Corpus et Syntagma Confessionuna (Geneva, 1612). A second Latin translation was prepared by Featus Hommius for the Synod of Dort, 1618, revised and approved 1619; and from it was made the English
I~	translation in use in the Reformed (Dutch) Church in America. It appeared in Greek 1623, 1653, and 1660, at Utrecht.
BIBLIOGRAPHY* An excellent description and abort history is given by Schaff in Creeds, i, b02‑508, with the text in iii, 383‑438, where the literature is given.

BELGIUM: A kingdom of northwestern Europe; area, 11,373 square miles; population, 6,800,000. After a revolt from Holland in 1830, Belgium was recognized with its present boundaries by the Powers in 1839, when it was declared to be neutral territory. The population belongs to two nationalities, the northern portion, which is the larger, being Flemish (Low German), and the southern Walloon (French); the vernacular of forty‑one per cent. is French. The boundary between these two components may be defined as running from Maastricht west to the French department Nord.
The prevailing religion is Roman Catholic, since the Dutch Protestants, who were numerous from 1815 to 1830 have, for the most part, emigrated. (The Protestants constitute less than one‑half of one per cent. of the entire population.) The Evangelical confessions are represented in many cities, however, by immigrants from Germany in recent decades, as well as by Anglicans and Methodists and converts to Protestantism. The most numerous of these Protestant communions is the Union. des tglises ‑Ovareggliques Protestantes de la
Belgique, which was founded in 1839 and consists of French, Dutch,. and German congregations, being represented in Lil=ge, Verviers, Seraing, Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, La Bouverie, Dour,
Paturagea, Jolimont, and Tournai. Protestants. The permanent bond of the Union
is a board of directors, chosen at the annual synod of the congregations interested. Recognition by the State as a legal ecclesiastical b,,dy assures state aid to its clergy, the usual salary being 2,220 franca, although it occasionally runs as high as 4,000 and 6,000. An " evangelization committee " of the Union cares for scattered members, and especially for the religious education of children by " evangelists " where Protestant schools do not exist. The Union has between 16,000 and 18,000 members. The Societe tvangEhque or 9glise Chr6tienne Missionnaire Belge is a free church consisting of converts from Roman Catholicism or their children. It is strongest in the Walloon districts and has numerous places of
worship, united into three districts, whose representatives (Conseils S'eetionnaires) meet four times annually. Over these three councils, to which each congregation sends a pastor and a layman,

RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bel
Bel>iamY
is the synod, of which the permanent executive body is the Co‑miU Adnainistrttteur. The clergy are trained chiefly in Switzerland and are subordinate to the synod. This Church possesses few schools of its own, but in public schools of one class with twenty Protestant children and in those of several classes with forty children it is entitled to give religious instruction through its own clergy. It has now about 11,000 members. There are English churches at Antwerp, Bruges, Brussels, and Ostend, and at Antwerp and Brussels there are Presbyterian congregations; in the first‑named city an agent of the American Seamen's Friend Society is also active. The Dutch Reformed and the Swedish Lutherans have small congregations in Brussels and Antwerp respectively.
The Roman Catholic Church of Belgium was organized in 1561, when the authority of the foreign bishops was abrogated, and in 1839 the system was readjusted to harmonize with the new boundaries. The most of the clergy receive their training at the episcopal seminaries and a small proportion at the University of Louvain. The State has no control over the appointment of priests, who are subject only to their bishops.
	The Roman Catholic Church, however,
Roman	receives from the State an annual
Catholic	stipend of more than 4,800,000 francs,
Church.	although it does not enjoy any eccle
	siastical prerogative. Its influence
on the life of the people is exerted chiefly through
the monasteries, of which there are more than 220
for monks, with some 5,000 members, and about
1,500 nunneries, with over 27,000 sisters. The
members are employed in large numbers in the pub
lic schools, the right being given the communities
by the law of 1884 to " adopt " private schools,
or schools conducted by the religious organizations.
A number of intermediate schools are also under
ecclesiastical control, as well as the University of
Louvain. Academic training is slap provided for
by the state universities of Ghent and Libge, and
by the free university of Brussels.
In its hierarchic organization, Belgium constitutes the province of Mechlin, and its dioceses are divided according to the political boundaries of the country. The archdiocese of Mechlin on the Dyle was created by a papal enactment of 1559, which first came into full operation in 1561. It contains fifty‑five parishes and over 600 chapels of ease in the provinces of Brabant and Antwerp. The suffragan bishoprics are those of Bruges, Ghent, Liege, Namur, and Tournai (Doornik). Bruges, founded in 1559, has forty parishes and 245 chapels of ease; Ghent, established in the same year, also has forty parishes
Diocesan and 310 chapels of ease; Li6ge, dating
Organize‑ from the fourth century, has an equal
	tion.	number of parishes and 570 chapels
		of ease; Namur, created in 1559
(1561), has the same number of parishes and 700
chapels of ease; and Doornik, the seat of a bishop
since 1146, controls thirty‑three parishes and 445
chapels of ease, its see comprising the Hennegau,
with the exception of five parishes belonging to
the French diocese of Cambrai.
IL‑3
The Jews of Belgium, who number about 5,000, are divided into twelve rabbinical districts.
Wua>ctrac Gonxz.
BIHLIOaHAPHT: Balan, Hiatoira contamporaine de la Bah pique, Lyons, 1891; Archives Balgea, revue critique d'hiatoriographie nationals, Liittieh, 1899 eqq.; La Belgique et Is Vatican. Documents et travaux f~,ielatifa, 3 vole., Brussels, 1880‑31; G. Veispeyen, Le Parti eatholiqua balpa, Ghent, 1893; J. Hoyois, La Politiqus tatholiqw an Beh gigue depuia 1814, Louvain, 1895; O. Coppin, L'Union aacerdotale, son hiatoire, son esprit et sea constitutions, Namur, 1898; U. Berlibre, Monaatieon beige, vol. i, Paris, 1897: La Beige eccl4eiaatique (an annual).
BELIAL, bi'li‑al (" worthlessness ") : A word which occurs once in the New Testament (II Cor, vi, 15; better reading Beliar) as the name of Satan, hardly as that of Antichrist; the Peshito has " Satan." In the Old Testament beliyya'al is not used as a designation of Satan, or of a bad angel; it is an appellation, " worthlessness " or " wickedness " in an ethical sense, and is almost always found in connection with a word denoting the person or thing whose worthlessness or wickedness is spoken of; as, " man of Belial," " son of Belial," " daughter of Belial," " thoughts of Belial," etc. In a few instances beliyya'al denotes physical destruction; so probably Ps. xviii, 4 (FI Sam. axii, 5), "floods of destruction" (A. V. "ungodly men"; R. V. "un,godliness "). To understand this passage to refer to the prince of hell is against Old Tester went usage. Occasionally the adjunct is omitted, as in II Sam. xxiii, 6; Job xxxiv, 18; Nahum i, 15, where the word means the " bad," the " destroyer," the " wicked." Although thus originally not a proper name, but dn appellatibn, in the later Jewish and Christian literature it passed over into a name for Satan, not as the " worthless," but as the " destroyer." It is so used in II Cor. vi, 15, where Paul asks: " What harmony is there between Christ and Belial?" "Belial ' stands for " Satan" also in Jewish epigraphs and apocalyptic writings, such as the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, the Book of Jubilees, and the Jewish interpolations in the Sibylline Oracles.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Hamburger, a.v., in Real‑Encyklopadie fur Bibel and Talmud, vol, i., Leipeic, 1891; W. Boueaet, Der Antichrist, pp. 88‑87, 99‑101, GSttingen, 1895; T. K. Cheyne, in Expositor, 1895, pp. 435‑439: F. Hammel, in Expository Times, viii. 472; ED, i, 525‑b27.
BELL, WILLIAM M'ILVIIY: United Brethren; b. in Whitley Co., Ind., Nov. 12, 1860; entered the ministry 1879; elected bishop 1905.

BELLAMY, JOSEPH: Congregationalist; b. at New Cheshire, Conn., Feb. 20, 1719; d. at Bethlehem, Conn., Mar. 6, 1790. He was graduated at Yale, 1735, and was licensed t0 pieaCh St the 8gC of eighteen; was ordained pastor of the church at Bethlehem Apr. 2,1740. During the Great Awakening he preached as an itinerating evangelist; later he established a divinity school in his house, where many prominent New England clergymen were trained. He was a disciple and personal friend of Jonathan Edwards, and the most gifted preacher among his followers, being thought by some to be equal to Whitefield. In his True Religion Delineated (Bo&.

BellarniLne	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	34
ton, 1750) besets forth in spirited style the plan of salvation and of the Christian life after the Edwardean conception, and he explicitly advocates the doctrine of a general atonement. In the Wisdom of God in the Permission of Sin (1758) he argues that, while sin is a terrible evil, God permits it as a necessary means of the beat good, and the universe is " more holy and happy than if sin and misery had never entered." God could have prevented sin without violating free will. On the whole his work was more general than specific, modifying the prevalent conceptions in the direction of greater simplicity and reasonableness. He sometimes approaches quite near subsequent forma of expression. A collected edition of his works appeared at New York (3 vole., 1811), and another (and better) at Boston, with memoir by Tryon Edwards (2 vols., 1850).
BELLARMINE, bel"lar‑min'.

In Louvain (¢ I). In Rome. The DiaPutationes (¢ 2).
New Duties after 1689. Controversial Writings (¢ 3).
Roberto Francesco Romolo Bellarmino, the famous Roman Catholic controversialist, was born at Montepulciano (26 m. s.w, of Arezzo), in Tuscany, Oct. 4, 1542; d. in Rome Sept. 17, 1621. He was a nephew of Pope Marcellua II, and came of a noble though impoverished family. His abilities showed themselves early; as a boy he knew Vergh by heart, and composed a number of poems in Italian and Latin; one of his hymns, on Mary Magdalene, is included in the Roman breviary. His father destined him for a political career, hoping that he might restore the fallen glories of the house; but his mother wished him to enter the Jesuit order, and her influence prevailed. He entered the Roman novitiate in 1560, remained in Rome three years, sad then went to a Jesuit house at Mondovi in Piedmont. Here he learned Greek, and taught it as fast as he learned, it. His systematic study of theology began at Padua in 1567 and 1568, where his teachers were Thomiata, the Jesuits not yet having had tire to develop a theology of their own.
• After a visit to Venice, where he increased his renown as a public speaker, Bellarmine was sent ‑by the general, Francis Borgia, in 1569, to Louvain, then the most famous Roman Catholic university. He was ordained priest at Ghent on Palm Sunday, 1570, by the elder Jansenius. A strict Augustinian theology prevailed among the teachers at Louvain, represented by Bajus, the precursor of Janeeniam (see Bnava, MICHEL). Bellarmine had not enough deep knowledge of his own nature or Christian experience to be able to appreciate the Augustinian doctrines of the corruption of man and the necessity of divine grace to any good movement of the win. He contended accordingly against
the propositions of Bajus, though
r. Fn his own views and expressions in Louvain. the great controversy on grace were
adwaye a little uncertain. He was the first Jesuit to teach at the university, where the subject of his course was the Summa of St. Thomas; he also made extensive studies in the Fathers and medieval theologians, which gave him the material for his book De scripton'bus eccleaias‑
ti.cis (Rome, 1613), which was later revised and enlarged by Sirmond, Labbeus, and Oudin. In the Netherlands he gained a knowledge of the great controversy with the Protestants which he could hardly have got in Italy, though he seems never to have come into personal contact with the evangelical leaders. Finally he learned Hebrew, and wrote his often reprinted grammar. His genius for teaching, clearness of thought, and adroitness in controversy were indisputable.
Bellarmine's residence is Louvain lasted seven years. His health was undermined by study and asceticism, and in 1576 he made a journey to Italy to restore it. Here be was detained by the commission given him by Gregory XIII to lecture on polemical theology in the new Roman College. He devoted eleven years to this work, out of whose activities grew his celebrated Diaputationea de eontrovereiia christidnce fidei, first published at
Ingolatadt, 4 vole., 1581‑93. It occua. In Rome. pies in the field of dogmatics the same The "Die‑ place as the Annales of Baroniua in putatlonea." the field of history. Both were the
fruits of the great revival in religion and learning which the Roman Catholic Church had witnessed since 1540. Both bear the stamp of their period; the effort for literary elegance, which was considered the principal thing at the beginning of the sixteenth century, had given place to a desire to pile up as much material as possible, to embrace the whole field of human knowledge, and incorporate it into theology. Bellarmine's exposition of the views and arguments of the Protestants is surprisingly full and accurate, 8o much so that the circulation of the book in Italy was for a time not encouraged. He fails, like moat of his contemporaries, in understanding the principle of historical development, and his belief in authority, pressed to an extreme, injured his sense of truth and allowed him to handle both the Bible and history in an arbitrary manner. The first volume; treats of the Word of God, of Christ, and of the pope; the second of the authority of councils, and of the Church, whether militant, expectant, or triumphant; the third of the sacraments; and the fourth of grace, free will, justification, and good works. The most important part of the work is contained in the five books on the Roman pontiff. In these, after a speculative introduction on forma of government in general, holding monarchy to be relatively the best, he says that a monarchical government is necessary. for the Church, to preserve unity and order in it. Such power he considers to have been established by the commission of Christ to Peter. He then proceeds to demonstrate that this power has been transmitted to the successors of Peter, admitting that a heretical pope may be freely judged and deposed by the Church since by the very fact of his heresy he would ease to be pope, or even a member of the Church; this is almost like an echo of the great councils of the fifteenth century. The third section discusses Antichrist; Bellarmine gives in full the theory set forth by the Greek and Latin Fathers, of a personal Antichrist to come just before the end of the world and to be accepted by the Jews and

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bellarmine
	Bells
enthroned in the temple at Jerusalem‑thus endeavoring to dispose of the Protestant exposition which saw Antichrist in the pope. The fourth section sets forth the pope as the supreme judge in matters of faith and morale, though making the concessions (confirmed indeed by the Vatican Council) that the pope may err 'in questions of fact which may be known by ordinary human knowledge, and also when he speaks as a mere unofficial theologian, doctor privatus. His assertions are much more unbounded in the last part, which treats of the pope's power in secular matters. While he says that the pope has no direct jurisdiction in such things, he yet stoutly contends for the power of deposing kings, absolving subjects from their allegiance, and altering civil laws, when these actions are necessary for the good of the souls committed to the charge of the chief pastor.
Until 1589 Bellarrnine was occupied altogether as professor of theology, but that date marked the beginning of a new epoch in his life and of new dignities. After the murder of Henry III of France Sixtus V sent Gaetano as legate to Paris to negotiate with the League, and chose Bellarmine to accompany him as theologian; he was in the city during its siege by Henry of Navarre. The next pope, Clement VIII (1591‑1605), set great store by him. He wrote the preface to the new edition of the Vulgate, and w1s made rector of the Roman
College in 1592, examiner of bishops 3. New Du‑ in 1598, cardinal in 1599, and in 1602
ties after archbishop of Capua. He had written :589• Con‑ strongly against pluralism and non‑
troversial residence, and he set a good example
Writings. himself by leaving within four days
for his diocese, where he devoted himself zealously to his episcopal duties, and firmly executed the reforming decrees of .the Council of Trent. Under Paul V (1605‑21) arose the great conflict, between Venice and the papacy, in which Fra Paolo Sarpi was the spokesman of the Republic, protesting against the papal interdict, reasserting the principles of Constance and Basel, and denying the pope's authority in matters secular. Bellarmine wrote three rejoinders to the Venetian theologians, and at the same time possibly saved Sarpi's life by giving him warning of an impending murderous attack. He anon had occasion to cross swords with a more prominent antagonist, James I of England, who prided himself on his theological attainments. Bellarmine had written a letter to the English archpriest Blackwell, reproaching him for having taken the oath of allegiance in apparent disregard of his duty to the pope. James attacked him in 1608 in a Latin treatise, which the scholarly cardinal answered at once, making merry with delicate humor over the defects of the royal Latinity. James replied with a second attack in more careful style, dedicated to the Emperor Rudolph II and all the monarchs of Christendom, in which he posed as the defender of primitive and truly Catholic Christianity. Bellarmine's answer to this covers more or less the whole controversy. In reply to a posthumous treatise of William Barclay, the celebrated Scottish jurist, he wrote another Tractattu de potentate eummi lOOntifrcia in rebus tem‑
poralibus, which reiterated his strong ass,~rtiona on the subject, and was therefore prohibited in France, where it agreed with the sentiments of neither the king nor the bishops. He was among the theologians consulted on the teaching of Galileo when it first made a stir at Rome. In his old age he was allowed to return to his old home, Montepulciano, as its bishop for four years, after which he retired to the Jesuit college of St. Andrew in Rome. He received some votes in the conclaves which elected Leo XI, Paul V, and Gregory XV, but only in the second case had he any prospect of election. Since his death the members of his order have more than once attempted to procure his canonization, but without success. The beat of the older editions of his works is that in seven vole., Cologne, 1617; recent ones are those of Paris, 1870‑74, and Naples, 1872. (A. HAUCH.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A Vet of the works of Bellsrmine is given in H. Hurler, Nomanclator literariua, i, 273 eqq., Innsbruck, 1892. His autobiography, written in 1813, was issued in Lat. at home, 1875. at Louvain, 1753, and in Let. sad (dorm., ed. J. J. I. von D511inger sad F. H. R.euech, Bonn, 1887; it was used in MS. by J. Fuligatti, Vita del Cardinals $. BeUarmino, Rome, 1824. The lives by D. Bartoli, Rome, 1877, N. Friaon, Nantes, 1708, and F. Heneo, Paderborn,.1888, are mere eulogies and add nothing of value; indeed it is said that the autobiography and the works founded upon it have done much to prevent Bellarmine'e canonisation. Consult Niceron, Mhnoirea, xxai, 1 eqq.; J. B. Coudero, Le V& n&,able Cardinal Bellarmdn, 2 vols., Paris, 1893.
BELLOWS, HENRY WHITNEY: American: Unitarian; b. in Boston June 11, 1814; .d. in New York Jan. 30, 1882. He was graduated at Harvard 1832, and at the Cambridge Divinity School 1837;: was ordained pastor of the First Congregational Society (Unitarian), Chambers Street, New York,. Jan. 2, 1838, and remained there till death; during: his pastorate the church was twice moved, to, Broadway between Spring and Prince Streets and the name changed to the Church of the Divine Unity, and again to 4th Avenue and 20th Street, where it took the name of All Souls' Church. Dr.. Bellows was the organizer, president, and chief administrator of the United States Sanitary Commission (1862‑78), and during the Civil War he superintended with rare efficiency the distribution of supplies valued at $15,000,000 and ;5,000,000' in money; at a later period he was president of the first civil service reform association organized in the country. He was president of the National Unitarian Conference 1865‑79. He wrote much for the periodicals of his denomination and was the chief originator of The Christian Inquirer (New York, 1846) and for five years its principal contributor. He also published a number of books, of merely personal and transient interest.
BELLS: The use of bells se adjuncts to Christian worship was not without precedent in preChristian times. Among the Jews the vestment, of the high priest was adorned with little bells (Ex. xxviii, $3); and among the pagans the priests of Proserpine announced the beginning of the sacrifice by ringing bells. There is no evidence of early Christian use of them to summon people to prayer; this seems to have been done by word of mouth, even as late as Tertullian and Jerome.

Bells
8embo
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
In the Egyptian monasteries the Old Testament use of trumpets still survived, and the sound made by knocking pieces of wood together served the same purpose; this custom is still sometimes used in the Roman Catholic Church on the last three days of Holy Week, when the ringing of bells is forbidden [and survives in some
	Early Use.	places in the East]. The first positive
		evidence of the use of bells in con
nection with Christian worship is found in Gregory
of Tours (d. 595), who speaks of them as being
rung at the beginning of the liturgy and the canon
ical hours. From the seventh century on, bells
are often mentioned in the inventories of Western
churches, and by 800 they were so common as to be
found even in village churches. A capitulary of
Charlemagne (801) prescribes that priests shall
ring their bells at the accustomed hours of the day
and night. In the ninth century some Eastern
instances occur; thus Orso I, Doge of Venice, pre
sented twelve bells to the Byzantine emperor,
who placed them in a tower near St. Sophia. But
outside of Russia they never attained the same
importance as in the `Vest. The Mohammedans
usually removed them in the countries they con
quered; and Zwingli attempted to abolish their
use in Switzerland, though most of the Reformers
only protested against superstition in the use of
them, especially their consecration.
	Walafrid	Strabo distinguishes two classes of
bells in his time, vase productilia and fusilier,
wrought and cast. Of the now rare examples of
the former class the best known is the " Saufang "
		at Cologne, so called because the
Material	legend ran that it had been dug up
and Form. by pigs about 613; it is made of three plates of iron fastened together with copper nails. Similar and perhaps older examples are in the Edinburgh Museum. For the casting of bells a mixture of copper and tin was employed in the Middle Ages; afterward lead, zinc, iron, and antimony were used with copper. At present the best bell‑metal is supposed to be a mixture of 77 to 80 per cent. of good copper with 20 to 23 per cent. of pure tin. The earliest cast bells resemble row‑bells in form, though there are some shaped more like a beehive or a pear. Their dimensions are small.
As far as can be judged from the extant examples, the custom of putting inscriptions on bells does not go further back than the twelfth century, and is by no mesas general even then. On cast bells the inscriptions are rarely incised; where this occurs, it is a sign of antiquity. Later they are more commonly, raised, and in either Roman or Gothic capitals down to the end of Inscriptions. the fourteenth century; then small letters were used until about 1550, and since then more modern types of letters have been usual, except in recent deliberate imitations of the old style. Until well into the fourteenth century Latin was the regular language; then the vernacular came into use. The earliest inscriptions were short; from the end of the sixteenth century much longer ones became usual, frequently almost filling the surface of the bell. They are mostly pious dedications or prayers, or declarations of the
purpose of the bell, such as Funera plango, fulgura frango, sabbata pango; exeito lentos, dissipo ventos, paco cruentos. Besides inscriptions, the sides of bells were adorned with pictures, coats of arms, seals, and various symbols, among the oldest being, besides the cross, the dove with the olive‑branch, and the Agnus Dei.
As early as the Frankish sacramentaries and the Pontifical of Egbert special formulas for the benediction of belle are mentioned. This practise was connected in those days with superstitious notions, so that Charlemagne was obliged to regulate it in 789. But the formulas of benediction themselves attributed a quasimagical effect to
	Bene‑	the bells thus consecrated. Accord
	diction.	ing to present Roman Catholic usage,
		the blessing of bells is an episcopal
prerogative, though priests may exercise it in case
of necessity with the pope's permission. The cere
monies somewhat resemble those of baptism,
which has given rise to the practise of naming bells,
sad in the Middle Ages of appointing sponsors
for them, from whom rich christening gifts were
expected. The Schmalkald Articles declared bit
terly against these practises as " popish jugglery "
and " a mockery of holy baptism."
The main use of bells has always been to announce the time of public worship. It is also a common Roman Catholic practise to ring the church bell at the consecration in the mass, as in some Protestant localities at the Lord's Prayer after the sermon, that those who are absent may unite themselves in spirit with the congregation. During the mass, moreover, a small bell (called the " Sanctus " or " saering " bell) is rung at Present the specially solemn parts‑the Sanc‑
	Use.	tus, the beginning of the canon, the
		consecration, and the Domine, non
sum dignus. Bells have been rung also at certain
regular times to call to mind some mystery, as
the passion and death or the incarnation of 'Christ
(see ANGELUS), or to bid to prayer for sinners, for
the faithful departed, or for peace. The ringing
of joyous peals at marriages, and the announcement
of a death by solemn tolling (originally intended to
move the hearers to prayer for the soul, either
before or after death) are ancient practises; the
latter existed, at least in the monasteries, in the
time of Bede. In some parts of England a special
bell was tolled with a similar intention before the
execution of a criminal. (NIgOLAUS Mt1LLEx.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Literature on the subject is given in H. T. Ellaeombe, Practical Remarks on Belfries and Ringers, with an Appendix on Chiming, London, 1859‑60; H. Otte, Gloekenkunde, pp. 1‑8, Leipeie, 1884; and F. w. Schubart, Die Glocken im Hersopthum Anhalt, pp. aiv‑xvii, Dessau, 1898. H. T. Ellacombe has a series of works treating of English bells, among which are: Sundry Words AtautBella, Easter, 1884; Church Bellaof Devon, ib. 1872; Church Belie of Somerset, 1875; Church Bells of Gloucestershire, 1881. Consult also: Joseph Anderson, Scotland in Early Times, let series, pp. 187‑215. Edinburgh, 1881; F. W. Warren, Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic Church, p. 92, Oxford, 1881; Margaret Stokes, Early Christian Art in Ireland, pp. 50 eqq., London, 1887; J. T. Ff)wler; Adamrwni Vita S. Cofumba pp xliii‑xliv, Oxford, 1894; K. H. Bergner, Zur Glockenkunde Thiirinpene, Jena, 1898; Encyelapoxlia Britannica, s.v., contains interesting mate. rio not easily found elsewhere; DCA, i, 184‑188.

RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bells
Bembo
BELSHAM, THOMAS: English Unitarian; b. at Bedford Apr. 26, 1750; d. at Hampstead Nov. 11, 1829. He finished his studies at the Dissenting Academy of Daventry and in 1770 became teacher there; in 1778 he became minister of an independent chapel at Worcester, but returned to Daventry as teacher and preacher in 1781. Having adopted Unitarian views he resigned in 1789, and was professor of divinity at the college of Hackney until it ceased to exist in 1796. In 1794 he succeeded Dr. Prieatleyas minister of the Gravel Pit Unitarian Chapel at Hackney, and in 1805 became minister of the Essex Street Chapel, London. He published much, sermons, controversial writings, and general theological works, including Elements of the Philosophy of the Mind and of Moral Philosophy (London, 1801); Letters to the Bishop of London in Vindication of Unitarians (1815); The Epistles of St. Paul Translated, with an Exposition and Notes (2 vols., 1822); he was principal editor of The New Testament in an Improved Version upon the Basis of Archbishop Newcome's New Translation; with a critical text and notes critical and explanatory (1808). American Unitarianism (4th ed., Boston, 1315) is extracted from his Memoirs of the Read. T. Lindsey (London, 1812).
131BLIOGRAPEET: J. Williams, Memoirs of Thomas Beleham, London, 1833; DNB, iv, 202‑203.
BELSHAZZAR. See BABYLONIA, VI, 7, 13; PERSIA.
	BELSHEIM, JOHANNES: Norwegian Protes
tant; b. at Valders (about 100 m. n.w. of Chris
tiania) Jan. 21, 1829. He received only an ele
mentary education in his early years, and from
1851 was a teacher in village schools until 1858,
when he was enabled to enter the University of
Christiania, and graduated three years later. He
was tutor at a teachers' seminary in 1863‑64, and
was then appointed pastor of a small parish in Fin
marken near the Russian frontier. Six years later
he was called to a parish in Bjelland, in the extreme
south of Norway, but resigned in 1875 and settled
at Christiania, where he was enabled to continue
his studies by his pension and a small additional
stipend, while a government subvention later
rendered it possible for him to visit foreign
libraries. Died at Christiania July 15, 1909. His
writings are Om Bibelen, dens Opbevaring, Over
acettelse, og Udbredelae (3d ed., Christiania, 1884);
Til Forsvsr for nogle omtvistede Steder i det Nye
Testaments (1876); Yeiledning i Bibelens Historie,
med udforligere Oplysninger om det Nye Testsmentes
Boger (Christiania, 1880); Den evangeliske His
tories Trovwrdighed og de Nytestamentlige Skriftera
Oprdndxlse (1891); De Gammeltestamentlige $krif
ters Trovcsrdighed og Oprindelse (1892); Om Mose
bogerne og nogle andre Gammeltestamentlige Skri f
ter : Et Ind1<sg imod den moderns Kritik (1896).
He likewise edited Codex nureus, sine quatuor Evan
gelic ex codice purpureo aureoque in Bx3liotheca Re
gis Halmensi asservata (Christiania, 1879); Die
Apostelgesehichte and die Offenbarung Johan,,, au,
dem Gigas Labrorum auf der kiiniglichen Bx3liothek
ate Stockholm (1879); . Das Evangelium des Mat
thmus aus dem lateiniachen Cod. ff 1 Corbiensis auf der
kaiaerlichen Bibliothek zu St. Petersburg, nebat dem Briefs Jacobi (1881); Der Brief des Jacobus in alter lateinischer Uebersetzungnach dem Cod. ff 1 Corbiensis in St. Petersburg (1884); Palimpsestus Vindobonensis : Antiquissima Veteris Testaments fragments (1885); Epiatuke Paulinee a Cod. Sangermaniense Petropolitano (1885); Evangelium des Marcus mach dem griechischxra Codex Theodorcs purpureus Petropolitanus (1885); Codex Vindobonenais purpureus antiquiasimus : Evangeliorum Lucre et Marci translationia Latino fragments (Leipsie, 1885); Fragments Yindobonensia : Bruchstiiclce der Apostelgeachichte, des Briefea Jacobi and ersten Briefes Petri each einxm Palimpsest auf der kaiaerlichen HofbibZiothek zu Wien (Christiania, 1886); Codex ft 2 Corbiensis, sive quatuor Evangelia . . . Latino translatio a codiee in BxMliotheca Nationals Psrisiensi asaeruata (1887); Appendix epistularum Paulinarum e codice Germanensi (1887); Codex Colbertinus Parisienais : Quatuor Evangelic . . Latino tranalatio post editionem Petri Sabatarii cum into CodiCt collata (1888); Evangelium secundum Matthcsum . . . Latina translatio a codice olim Claramontano, nunc Yaticano (1892); Libri TOW, Judit, Ester . . . Latino translations codice olim Freisingensi:, nuns Monachensi (Trondt~jem, 1893); Ada Apostolorum.
. Latino translatio a codice Latino‑Grow Laudiano Oxoniensi (Christiania, 1893); Codex Yercellensis : Quatuor Evangelic ex reliquiis codiais Yercellensis . . . et ex editions Juliana prineipi (1894); Evangelium Palatinum: Reliquite quatuor Evangeliorum cum Latino translations a Bodice purpureo Yindobanensi et ex editions Tischendorfiana (1896); Fragments Novi Testaments in trsnalatione Latino ex h3ro qui voeatur Speculum (1899);. and Codex Yeronenaia : Quatuor Evangelic a Bodice in bibliotheca episcopali Veronensi ssserrMto et ex editions Blanchini (Prague, 1904). Of these the first, second, fifth, sixth, seventh, ninth, tenth, eleventh, and fourteenth are editiones principes. Of his numerous translations, special mention may be made of versions of the catechism of Cyril (Christiania, 1882) sad the De Imitations Christi of Thomas h Kempis (1890).
BEMA: In classical literature a semicircular platform at the end of a basilica, which supported the official seat of the judge. When the basilicas style was adapted to Christian use (see ARCHITECKvxE, ECCLESIASTICAL), the apse, or similar semicircular termination of the building, was reserved for the seats of the bishop and clergy, sad the same name was sometimes applied to it. In a more restricted sense it signifies any elevated place in the church, such as that from which the gospel was read, and is thus synpnylnOlls With 8dllb0 (Q.V.).

BEMBO, PIETRO: Cardinal and humanist; b. in Venice May 20, 1470; d. in Rome Jan. 18, 1547. He was the son of a senator, and studied at Padua and Ferrara, in the latter place attracting the attention of Alfonso d'Eate and his wife, Lucrezia Borgia. He spent six years at the court of Urbino, where he became acquainted with Raffael. He then went to Rome, where Leo X recognized his ability as a Latinist by making him his secretary. As he held this office to the death of the

Benafah
Benedlot	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	38
pope (1521), the sixteen books of Latin letters of
Leo X are practically, as to their form, of Bembo's
composition. Returning to Padua, Bembo made
his house the meeting‑place of humanist circles.
In 1530 he was commissioned by the Venetian sen
ate to complete the history of the republic begun
by Marcantonio Sabellico. His part of the work,
covering the years 1487‑1513, has been justly criti
cized as to historic accuracy by Justus Lipsius
(Politico, i, Leyden, 1589, 9, note). On the other
hand, not only in the Rime, but also in his letters,
these is a regrettable tendency to a loose frivolity
strongly bordering on pagan morals. This tend
ency, shown also in his manner of life‑he was
the father of several illegitimate children‑was no
obstacle to his being made a cardinal (1539). From
that time on (he was now sixty‑nine), he is said to
have changed his life. He held. two bishoprics,
Gubbio and Bergamo, but he lived in Rome till his
death. His Opera were published in three vole. at
Basel, 1567; Strasburg, 1811‑52; four vole., Venice,
1729. His Rime (Venice, 1530) have often been re
printed; as has his Gli Asolani (1505), a dialogue
on the nature of love. 	K. BENRATH.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The first Vita was issued by Giovanni dells Case at Florence, 1567, a second is found in the Venice edition of his works, ut sup., while a third was published by L. Beeeadelli in Mo»umenti di varies letteratura, vol. i, Bologna, 1799, and also by W. P. Greawell, Memoirs of . Petrw Bembua, Manchester, 1801. Consult also V. Clan, Un Deannio dells vita di M. P. Bembo, 161‑31, Turin, 1885; J. P. Niceron, M6moirea, xi, 358, xs, 32, 43 vole., Paris, 1729‑15; W. W. Weetcott, Tabula Bembina* The laiac Tablet of Cardinal Bembo, its History and Sipni fi~ canoe, Bath, 1887.

BENAIAH (" whom Yahweh built"): The name of several Israelites. The most important of them is the valorous son of Jehoiada of Kabzeei, a city in the south of Judah (Josh. xv, 21). He is honorably mentioned (II Sam. xxiii, 20 ff.; cf. I Chron. xi, 22 ff.) among the mighty men of David, to whom he always faithfully adhered. Three heroic exploits of his are mentioned in justification of his rank: he slew the two sons of Ariel (according to the LXX), either a distinguished Moabite (so Joaephus, Ant., VII, mil, 4) or the king of Moab, in the war with that people (L1 Sam. viii, 2); he killed a lion which had fallen into a pit in time of snow; and, finally, he overcame an Egyptian giant, who carried a spear so large that it seemed like a tree thrown across a ravine (according to an addition of the LXX), or like a weaver's beam (according to I Chron. xi, 23); Benaiah disarmed his opponent and killed him with his own weapon. Being prominent among David's " thirty heroes," Benaiah was set over the Cherethites and Pelethitea, David's bodyguard (II Sam. viii, 18; xx, 23). In the beginning of Solomon's reign, to whom he became devoted at once (I Kings i, 8), Benaiah still held this office and executed the judgment of the king upon Adonijah and Joab (I Kings ii, 25, 30, 34), and became Joab'e successor as commander‑in‑chief (I Kings ii, 35). When, under David, the army was organized, besides his regular office he had command over one of the twelve divisions of 24,000 men (I Chron. xxvii, 5, 6, where his father, Jehoiada, Atrnnge to say, is called " the priest," which is no
doubt a mistaken gloss founded upon I Chron.
xll, 27). 	C. VON ORELLI.
BENDER, WILHELM (FRIEDRICH): German Protestant; b. at Munzenberg (10 m. s.e. of Giessen), Hesse, Jan. 15, 1845; d. at Bonn Apr. 8, 1901. He studied at GSttingeri and Giessen, 1863‑86, and at the theological seminary at Friedberg, 1866‑67; became teacher of religion and assistant preacher at Worms, 1868; ordinary professor of theology at Bonn, 1876; was transferred to the philosophical faculty, 1888. He belonged to the extreme Ritachlian school, and published Der Wunderbegriff des Neuen Testaments (Frankfort, 1871); Schleiermaehera Theologie mit ihrert philosophischen Grutldlagen (2 vole., NSrdlingen, 1876‑78); Friedrich Schleiermacher and die Frage reach dem Wesen der Religion (Bonn, 1877); Johann Konrad Dippel. Der Freigeist aus dem Pietismvs (1882); Reformation and Kirchenthum, sine akatlemische Festrede zur Feier des vierhundertjahrigen Geburtstags Martin Lathers (1883), which caused a great stir and many protests against Bender; Das Wese» der Religion used die Grundgesetze der KirchenMldung (1886); Der Kamp/ um die Seligkeit (1888); Mythologie and Metaphyaik, Grundlinien einer Geschichte der Weltanschauurtgen (Stuttgart, 1899).

BENEDICITE: The name given, from its first word in the Latin, to the canticle which stands in the Anglican Prayer‑book as an alternative to the Te Deum, commonly need in Advent and Lent, and in the Roman breviary as a part of the priest's thanksgiving after celebrating mass. It is taken from the apocryphal fragment of the Song of the Three Holy Children (verses 35‑65), which supplements the narrative of Dan. iii, and seems to have been used in public worship in the poatexilic Jewish Church, and in the Christian at least from the fourth century.

BENEDICT: The name of fourteen popes and one antipope.
	Benedict I: Pope 574‑b78. He was a Roman
by birth, the son of Boniface, and succeeded
John III, who died July 13, 573, but was unable
to be consecrated before June 3, 574, because the
Lombards had cut off communication with Con
etantinople and the imperial confirmation could
not be obtained. Owing to the troubles of the
barbarian invasion and a great famine, which
occupied his mind, the Leer poratificalis (ed. Du
chesne, i, Paris, 1886, 308) finds scarcely anything
to say of his sets. He died July 30 or 31, 578,
during the siege of Rome by the first Lombard
Duke of Spoleto. 	(A. Havcs.)

BIaLtoassrav: Paulus Diaconue, Hiatoria Lanpobardorars, ii, 10, iii, 11 in MOX Script, rer. Lanpob., pp, 12‑187, ed. Waits, Hanover, 1878; Jaff€, Repeeta, i, 137; Bower, Popes, i, 380‑382 F. Gregorovius, (feechidvte der Stadt Rom, ii, 19‑20 Stuttgart 1878, Eng. tranel., London,
1895: . M. Hattmann, Geachichte Italisw, ii, 48, 165, Goths, 1903.
Benedict II: pope sg3_ggg. He was elected after the death of Leo II, which took place on July 3, 683, though the imperial confirmation was delayed for almost a year. The Leber pontiTcalis (ed.

89	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Benedict
Duchesne, i, Paris, 1888, 363) asserts that the emperor Constantine Pogonatus conceded the right to proceed at once to consecration for the future; but this is very doubtful, as it would amount to a total renunciation of the right of confirmation, and it is certain that several successors of Benedict waited to obtain it either from the emperor himself or his representative, the Exarch of Ravenna. During the interval intervening before his consecration, Benedict signed himself with the designation presbyter et in Dei nomine electua sandte sedis aPostolicce. Like his predecessor, he had at heart the complete recognition by the Western Church of the sixth ecumenical council (Third Constantinople, 680). With this end in view, Leo II had sent the notary Peter to Spain, and immediately after his election Benedict wrote to Peter to carry out his commission. His wish was gratified by the condemnation of monothelitism in the fourteenth Council of Toledo (Nov., 684). Even before his consecration, which finally took place June 26, 684, he espoused the cause of Wilfrid of York (q.v.) and wrote in recognition of his innocence and his rights. Benedict died May 8, 685.
(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Vita is in ASB, 7th May, ii, 197‑198. Consult Vita Wilfridi, chap. zlii eqq., in T. Gale, Historio3 Anplscance ecriptoree quinque, i, 74 aqq., Oxford, 1891; Mann, Popes, vol. i, part 2, pp. b4‑63, Lond., 1902; Jaffc, Repeats, i, 241; J. Lsngen, Geechiehta der rtimiachen Kirche room Loo 1 bin Nikolaus 1, p 579, Bonn, 1895; Hefele, Concilienpeachichte, iii, 322, Eng. tranal., v, 215: Bower, Popes, i, 487‑489; L. M. Hartmann, Guchirkta Italiena, ii, 282‑283, Goths, 1903.

Benedict III: Pope 855‑858. He was chosen immediately after the death of Leo IV by the clergy and people of Rome, but owing to the setting up of an antipope, Anastasius, by the emperor Lothair and his son Louis II, was not consecrated for more than two months (Sept. 29). Soon afterward the Saxon king, Ethelwulf, and his eon Alfred, visited Rome and made liberal gifts to the Church. In his relations with secular powers and important prelates, Benedict displayed the same unbending principle which was carried out by his famous successor Nicholas I (q.v.), already a person of much influence. He confirmed the powerful Hinemar, archbishop of Reims, in his primacy, only on condition that the rights of the apostolic see should be safeguarded. In England he protested against the deposition of bishops by tyrannous lay nobles. The struggle with the Eastern Church in which Nicholas was involved had its origin in Benedict's pontificate, arising out of the case of the archbishop of Syracuse, who was deposed by the patriarch of Constantinople, Ignatius (q.v.), and appealed to Leo IV and after his death to Benedict. Before Ignatius was expelled by a faction and replaced by the famous Photius, Benedict died
(Apr. 7, 858). 	(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Libar pontittealia, ed. Duoheane, ii, 140, Paris, 1892; Epietola Nicolsi 1, in Manei, Conczlis, vol. av; Jsff6, Repeats, i, 339‑340; J. Hergenr5ther, Photiua, i, 358 eqq., Regensburg, 1887; R,. Baamsnn Die Pol£tsk der Pspate von Gregor I bin auf Gregor VII, i, 355 eqq., Elberfeld.1888; J. Lsngen, GescAichte der rtlmiaehen Kirclu roan Leo 1 bie Nikolaus I, p. 884, Bonn, 1885; Hefele, Conaititnpeschichta, iv, 201; Bower, Popes, ii, 227‑229.
	Benedict IV: Pope 900‑903.	Owing to the
scantiness of the sourcesforthe history of the papacy
at this period, the chronology is very uncertain;
the exact date of Benedict's elevation can not be
determined, though it is probably May, not later
than June, 900. Like his predecessor, John IX, he
recognized Formosus (q.v.), by whom he was himself
ordained priest, as a lawful pope at a Roman
synod in August. When Louis of Burgundy
(Louie III) made his victorious descent into Italy
and wrested it from Berengar, Benedict crowned
him as emperor in Feb., 901. He died in July or
Aug., 903. 	(A. HAUCK.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: 7nBer pontifioatia, ed. Duchesne, ii, 233, Paris, 1892; Jaffd, Repesta, i, 443; Hefele, ConciLiangeachichte, iv, 570‑571; .Bower, Popes, ii, 304‑305.

	Benedict V (called Gramma,ticus): Pope 964.
At the end of 963, the emperor Otto I deposed the
dissolute John XII in a synod.at Rome and caused
a prominent Roman layman to be put in his place
as Leo VIII, taking an oath of the people that they
would thenceforth choose no pope without his
consent and that of his son. He had scarcely left
the city when John XII returned and drove out
and anathematized Leo. The emperor came
back to chastise this rebellion, but before he arrived
John XII died (May 14, 964). A deputation met
Otto and begged him not to replace Leo, but to
permit a new election. In spite of his refusal,
the Romans chose the cardinal deacon Benedict,
a man of blameless life and great learning who had
been one of the opponents of John's unworthy rule.
He had pledged fidelity both to Otto and to Lad,
but the fear of imperial domination of the Church
had brought him to support John on the letter's
return. The people were firm in their intention
to defend Benedict against the emperor; but the
pressure of famine forced them to give him up
(June 23, 964). He was brought to trial before s
synod. After asking the pardon of Otto and of Leo,
and surrendering the insignia of his office to the
latter, he was deprived of his episcopal and priestly
functions, though allowed to retain those of deacon.
To avoid any possibility of his changing his mind,
he was sent to Germany, where he remained prac
tically a prisoner, in the charge of the archbishop
of Hamburg, until his death, which occurred not
earlier than July 4, 966. 	(A. HAUCK.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liber ponEiRoaIra, ed. Ducheene, n, 151, Paris, 1892; Jaff4, Rapesta, i, 489; J. M. Wstterich, Romanorum yontihcum . . . roils, i. 45, Leipeie, 1882; A. von )ieumont, Guchichte der Sfadt Rom, ii, 289, Berlin, 1888; W. von Gieeebrecht Gearhichta der deutsehsn Kaiseaeit, i, 488 Brunswick, 1873; F. Gregorovius, Goec)tich6e der Stadt Rom, iii, 384, Stuttgart, 1878; Bower, Popes, ii, 320‑321; Hefele, Concilienpatehichta, iv, 819, 828; Hauck, KD, iii, 23fY238.

Benedict VI: Pope 972‑974. He was elected immediately after the death of John XIII (Sept. 6, 972), but was not consecrated until the 19th of the following January, apparently waiting for the emperor Otto's confirmation. After the death of Otto I, the affairs of the empire fell into disorder. Crescentius, the son of Theodore, conspired with the deacon Boniface to overthrow Benedict, who

Benedios	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	40
was imprisoned and, after Boniface had assumed the papal authority, was strangled in July, 974.
(A. Haucx.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liter pontifirnlis, ed. Duchesne, ii. 255,
Paris, 1892; JaffB, Repeats, i, 477; J. M. Watterieh, Pon
tiftcum Romanarum . . vita, i, 85‑88, Leipeic, 1882;
Neander, Christian Church, iii, 330‑331 (reference to
a letter of Benedict, given Manei, ConciLia, xix, 63);
Hefele, Conci,Ziengeachschte, iv, 832; Bower, Popes, ii, 324.

	Benedict VII: Pope 974‑X983. He was a Roman
by birth, said to have been a kinsman of the powerful
Roman prince and senator Alberic. He was bishop
of Sutri when, on the flight of Boniface VII, he
was called to the papal throne, and confirmed by
the emperor Otto II. As far as we know, his first
act was to condemn Boniface in a synod at Rome.
He displayed a great desire to maintain friendly
relations with the German prelates; Archbishop
Willigia of Mains was appointed papal legate for
Germany and Gaul, with the right of crowning the
German kings. Benedict showed his subservi
ency to the emperor by agreeing to the suppression
of the bishopric of Meraeburg in a synod at Rome
(Sept. 10, 981), without regard to the arguments
brought against such a proceeding. He was a de
voted friend of monasticism, as is shown not only
by the numerous privileges bestowed upon monas
teries, but by the restoration of that of Saints Boni
face and Alexius on the Aventine and the building
of the monastic church of Subiaco. He supported
the reforming movement, condemning simony at
a synod in March, 981. That he upheld the claim
of the papacy to universal jurisdiction may be in
ferred from the fact that he sought to establish re
lations with places as distant as Carthage and Da
mascus, giving an archbishop once more to the
North African Church, and appointing the metro
politan of Damascus, who had been driven out by
the Arabs, abbot of St. Boniface. He died in Oct.,
983. 	(A. HAUCK.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Z.iber pontihcalia, ed. Duoheane, ii, 258,
	Paris, 1892: Jaffd. Repeats, i, 479; J. M. WatteriehRomarwrum pontificum . . . vita, i, BB, 888, Leipaic,

1882; A. von Reumont, Geachichte der Stsdt Rom, ii, 294,
Berlin, 1888: F. Gregorovius, Geaehiehte der Stadt Rom, iii, 372, Stuttgart, 1878; Bower, Popes, ii, 325; Hefele, Corn citienpeachichte, iv, 833; Hauck, RD, iii, passim.

Benedict VIII (Theophylact) : Pope 1012‑24. He was the son of Count Gregory of Tueculum, chosen by his brothers' influence, after they had defeated, by force of arms, the Creacentian party, who set up another Gregory as antipope (see GREGORY VI, antipope). Benedict was consecrated Apr. 20, 1012, and Gregory fled to the court of Henry II, who, however, recognized Benedict, and was rewarded by a promise of coronation in St. Peter's. He descended into Italy toward the end of 1013, and was crowned, with his wife Cunigunde, in the following February. Soon of terward a synod was held in his presence, at which, it is said at his suggestion, the Constantinopolitau Creed was made a part of the Roman liturgy; after this he left Pope Benedict to contend with his numerous enemies‑the Crescentian faction, the Arabs, and the Greeks. The first he suppressed; the Mohammedan invaders, who threatened Italy from
Sardinia, were defeated and driven out of the island
in June, 1016, by the aid of the Pisans and Genoese;
he supported those who were attempting to free
southern Italy from the Byzantine rule, and gained
them the help of a body of Norman knights, who
conquered the Greeks, though only temporarily. He
accepted Henry's invitation to meet him in 1020 at
Bamberg, where the emperor renewed the " Otto‑•
niaa privilege " to the Church, and gave up B.nl
berg to ecclesiastical rule. In the following year
Henry crossed the Alps for the third time; Bene
dict met him at Benevento in 1022, and was pres
ent when he conquered the Greek fortress of Troja
and broke the power of Pandulf IV of Capua, an
ally of the Byzautinea. These successes, again
temporary, are less important than the synod held
by the pope and emperor jointly at Pavia Aug. 1,
1022. Here Henry's reforming plane were ex
tended to Italy. After a strong exhortation from
the pope, the synod renewed the condemnation of
clerical marriage and took measures to prevent the
alienation of church property. Henry wished to
carry his reforms into France also, and with this
purpose met King Robert at Ivois in Aug., 1023.
Another synod at Pavia was projected, but before
it could be held both Benedict and Henry had died,
the former Apr. 9, 1024. 	(A. Hwcs.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liter pontiAcalia, ed. Ducheene, ii, 288, Paris, 1892; JaHd, Repeats, i, 508; J. M. Watterieh, Romanorum ponMficum . . . vita, i, 69, 700, Leipaic, 1882; A. von R,eumont, Geachichk der Sfadt Rom, ii, 329, Berlin, 1888; W. von Gieaebreeht, Geachichte der deutarhsn RaiaerzeiE, ii, 122 aqq., Brunswick, 1875; P, F. Ssdee, Die SteiZunp Heinrdcha 11 our Rsrche, Jena, 1877; Hefele, ConciZienpeachichte, iv, 870; Bower, Popes, ii, 33b‑337; Hartmann, in MittheiLunpen den lnatituta fiir Wterreichiache Geach%chte, av (1894). 482 eqq.; Hauck, RD, iii, 518 eqq.; P. G. Wappler, Papst Benedikt VIII, Leipeic, 1897.

Benedict IX (Theophylact): Pope 1033‑48. He was the son of Count Alberic of Tuaculum, and nephew of Benedict VIII and John XIX, the latter of whom he succeeded by his father's intrigues and violence, though he was only ten years old. His life was incredibly scandalous, and the strife of factions continued. A murderous assault upon him and his expulsion from Rome followed (the date can not be determined). He owed his restoration to the emperor Conrad II, who came into Italy in the winter of 1036. Benedict met him obsequiously at Cremona in the following June, taking no notice of the fact that he had broken the Church's laws by imprisoning Aribert, archbishop of Milan, and expelling the bishops of Piacenza, Cremona, and Vercelli from their sees; in fact, in Mar., 1038, he went so far as to excommunicate Aribert. By similar complaisancea he won the favor of Conrad's successor, Henry III, for whom, in 1041, he obligingly excommunicated the Hungarian nobles, who had driven out their king, Peter. The Romans bore with these conditions until the end of 1044, when they rose and drove Benedict out, afterward electing John, bishop of Sabina, in his stead, under the title of Sylvester III. Benedict succeeded in leading John back to Sabina inside of two months; but, doubting his own ability to maintain his position, he decided to abdicate, adding one more shameless

41	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Benedict
act of simony by selling the papacy (May 1,1045) to the archpriest John Gratian (who called himself Gregory VI,q.v.)forthesum of a thousand pounds of silver and the continued enjoyment of ‑the Peter's pence from England. Henry III came to Italy in the autumn of 1046, and decided to remove Gregory. He convened a synod at Sutri, which deposed Sylvester even from the priesthood and induced Gregory to resign his claims (Dec. 20, 1046); a few days later, another synod in Rome deposed Benedict also, and Suidger of Bamberg succeeded tc, an undisputed papacy as Clement II. When he died, however, nine months later, Benedict made an attempt to recover his see. He was soon put down by the imperial authority, and retired to Tuaculum. When and where he died is not known.
(A. Iinuc$.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jaffd, Repeats, i, 519; J. M. Watterieh, Romanorurri Pontificum . ~ . vita, i, 71, 711, Leipeic, 1862; A. von Rsumont, Geaehichte der Stadt Rom, ii, 338, Berlin, 1868; O. Lorenz, Papatwaht urul Kaiaertum, p. 69, Berlin, 1874; F. Gregorovius, Geachichte der Stadt Rom, iv, 39, Stuttgart, 1877; Bower, Popes, ii, 340‑343; Neander, Christian Church, iii, 375‑377, 409, 445, 448; Hefele, Concilienpeachschte, iv, 708‑707, 714; Hauck, KD, iii, 559. 589‑571.
Benedict % (Johannes Mincius): Pope 1058‑59. He was bishop of Velletri before, unwillingly, he was elected and enthroned in the night between Apr. 3 and 4, 1058, by the noble factions which had so long dominated the papacy and were soon to lose their power. Peter Damian and the other reforming cardinals fled; but before they left Rome they pronounced an anathema upon the new pope. Meantime Hildebrand was on his way back from Germany. At Florence he heard the news, and after conferring with the empress Agues, regent for her son Henry IV, arranged for the election of a pope acceptable to the strict churchmen. At Sienna in December Gerard, bishop of Florence, was chosen and took the title of Nicholas II. In January he held a synod at Sutri which pronounced the deposition and excommunication of Benedict X. The latter was driven from Rome by the forces set in motion by Hildebrand, ahd finally found it expedient to abdicate, which he did formally at a synod in the Lateran, Apr., 1060. He is said to have lived twenty years longer as a prisoner in the monastery of St. Agues. Gregory VII, in whose reign he died, permitted him to be buried with the obsequies of a rightful pope, as which, indeed, he was reckoned until the fourteenth
century. 	(A. HABes.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: fiber ponti.ficalia, ed. Duchesne,. ii, 279, Paris, 1892; Jaffd, Repeats, i, 556; J. M. Watterich, Romarwrum pontificum . ~ roils, i, 203, 738 Leipaic 1862; W. von Gieaebrecht, Geachichte der deutachen Kaiaeraeit, iii, 24, Brunswick, 1875; F. Gregoroviu6, GCEChBChIC der Stadt Rom, iv, 107, Stuttgart, 1877; J. Langen, Geachichte der rdmuclun Kirche von Nikolaus I bis Gregor VII, p. 500, Bonn, 1892; Bower Popes, ii, 340‑343; Neander, Christian Church iii 387; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, iv, 798, 828: Hauck, KD, iii, 879‑681.
Benedict XI (Niccolo Bocasini): Pope 13031304. He was born in 1240 at Treviso, entered the Dominican order in 1254, and spent fourteen years in diligent study, which enabled him to write several Biblical commentaries. He became prior of his
house, provincial of Lombardy, and in 1296 general
of the order. Boniface VIII made him a cardinal
priest in 1298, and soon after cardinal bishop of
Ostia and Velletri. In 1302 he went to Hungary
as papal legate. He remained true to Boniface
VIII, and on his death was elected (Oct. 22, 1303)
to succeed him. He found himself at once in dif
ficulties as the heir to the policy and the enemies
of Boniface (see BONIFACE VIII), but by a concilia
tory prudence he found his way out of them. First
he won back the powerful Colonna family, restor
ing to them their dignities and possessions under
certain limitations which marked his sense of their
misconduct. Frederick of Sicily was brought to a
sense of his feudal obligations toward the papacy,
which he had thought to escape. To Tuscany,
Benedict sent Nicholas of Prato, his successor as
cardinal bishop of Ostia, to make peace between
the Bianchi and Neri factions in Florence. This
mission was not very successful, but Benedict had
better fortune with the moat difficult task left to him
by his predecessor, the effecting of a reconciliation
with France. Philip the Fair was ready for peace,
but apparently made the condition that a general
council should be called to pass a post‑mortem con
demnation on Boniface. Benedict met him half way,
and on Mar. 25, 1304, released him from his excom
munication; then he annulled a number of other
measures of his predecessor which had been specially
felt as grievances in France, and on May 13 withdrew
the sentences passed against Philip and nie counsel
ors, even those who had taken part in the outrage
of Anagni, with the exception of the ringleader
William of Nogaret. He, together with all the Ital
ians who had taken part in the violence offered to
Boniface, was excommunicated on June 7, and
summoned to appear before Benedict to receive
sentence. A few weeks later, however (July 7),
Benedict died in Perughl, whither he had retired
on account of turbulence in Rome. The rumor
immediately spread that he had been poisoned, at
the instigation, it was variously asserted, of Philip
the Fair, of the Colonna, of the Franciscans (who
were jealous of the favor shown to the Dominicans),
of the opposition cardinals, or of William of No
garet, who had most to gain by a change, and who,
in fact, received his absolution from Benedict's
successor. 	(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ptolem[Bua of Lucca, Vitce ponti.fieum Romanoram, in Muratori, Scriptoraa. ri. 1224; B. Guidonie, Vitas anti fcum Romanorum, ib. iii, 672; W. Drumann, Geechichk Bonifaciua VIII, ii. 147, K&nigsberg, 1852; L. Gautier, Benoit XI, ihde our la pa9oauM au commsncement du xiro. sidcTe, Paris, 1883; C. Grandjean, Benoit %1, Paris, 1863; idem, Le Repiatra de Benoit X1, recueil do buiiae, Paris, 1884‑85; P. Funks, Papat Banedikt Xl, Master, 1891; Bower, Popes, iii, 58‑58; Neander, Christian Church, v, 19; Hefele, Co~Tienpeacki~yle, ri, 376‑ago.
Benedict RII (Jacques Fournier): Pope 13341342. He was a native of Languedoc, of humble origin, and as a boy entered the Cistercian monastery of Bolbonne in the diocese of Mirepoix, migrating later to that of Fontfroide in the diocese of Narbonne, of which his uncle was abbot. The latter sent him to the University of Paris. pope John XXII gave him the bishopric of Pamiers and later of Mirepoia, and made him cardinal in 1327.

Benedict	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	49
He was rather unexpectedly elected pope Dec. 20, 1334, and began his reign with reforming measures. The bishops and abbots who lingered at the court of Avignon were ~ sent home, the system of petitions was regulated, and care was taken to select worthy men for vacant benefices. Benedict planned to restore the strict discipline of the Benedictines and Cistercians, as well as of the mendicant orders, and entirely avoided the reproach of nepotism. Soon after his elevation, the Romans begged him to return to them, and he promised to do so, but was prevented by the French majority in the Sacred ~ College. Later he thought of removing to Bologna, but finally settled down in Avignon and began the building of a magnificent palace. His attitude toward theological and ecclesiastical controversies was a pacific one. He condemned the opinion so strongly held by his predecessor, that the souls of the just do not enjoy the Beatific Vision until after the last judgment. Negotiations took place with the Eastern Church looking toward reunion; in 1339 the emperor Andronicus sent ambassadors to Avignon, really with a view to gaining military aid against the Turks, but holding out prospects of ecclesiastical accommodation, which, however, came to little. He won a moral triumph is Spain by inducing Alfonso XI of Castile to break off his adulterous connection with Eleonora de Gu'sman, and rendered no slight service to the Christian cause in the peninsula by making peace between Castile and Portugal, and thus enabling the Christian forces to unite against the Mussulmans and to defeat them completely at Tarifa. The most difficult problem was the treatment of Louis of Bavaria. Benedict showed himself conciliatory, and Louis sent an embassy to Avignon (1335); but Philip VI, against whose interests this reconciliation would have been, prevented it then, and a second time in the autumn of the following year. This gave the alliance of Louis to Edward III of England against France. The electoral princess finally asserted their rights; on July 15,1338, they swore to defend the customs and liberties of the empire and to prevent any infringement of their electoral prerogative; the next day they declared that the king of the Romans chosen by them stood in no need of papal confirmation, and notified Benedict of their attitude. At the diet held in Frankfort (Aug. 8, 1338), Louis went even further, denying any connection between the coronation by the pope and the right to bear the title of emperor, at the same time asserting the invalidity of all the censures pronounced against himself and the empire by John XXII. None the less, in the following year he reopened negotiations with Benedict; sad when he had an opportunity of ooncluding peace with Philip VI, he deserted his English ally, hoping to gain Philip's support with the pope. He spoiled his own case, however, by his encroachments on the Church's law of marriage and its power in such matters. In order to marry his son, Louis, margrave of Brandenburg, to Mqrgaret, heiress of the Tyrol, he declared her previous marriage with Prince John of Bohemia null and void (following an opinion of Occam's), and on Feb. 10, 1342, in spite of the impediment of oonsan‑
guinity in the third degree between the couple, had the marriage performed. Benedict had no opportunity to pass judgment upon these acts, as he died on Apr. 25 of the same year. (A. HAUCK.)
Btsrloeaaray: Lilxr pontifimlie, ed. Ducheene, ii. 488, 527,
	Paris, 1892; eight accounts of his life are collected in.
	Baluae, Vitae paparum Avenonsnaium, i, 197‑244, Paris,
	1893; Muratori, scriptorae, iii, 527 eqq.; s. M. Watterich,
	Romanorum pontificum vita, i, 203‑204, Leipeic. 1882;
	A. Pichler, Oeechichte der kireAlie)un Trsnnunp ataiachen
	dera Orient and Occident, i, 388, Munich, 1884; C. Mailer,
	Der %amp/ Ludtoipe . . . mit der rtimiachen Curie, vol. ii,
	TBbingen, 1880; A. R.ohrmann, Die Procuratorien Lud
	toiga du Baiern, GtSttingen, 1882;‑ Bower, Popes, iii, 88
	92; Pastor, Popes, i, 8488; Benoit XII, Lettrea clone,
	patentee et curiaiee ea rapporfant d is Francs, ed. G. Dau
	met, Paris, 1899; 73etele, Concilienpeachichta, vi, 838‑853.

Benedict XIU: 1. The title was first borne by Pedro. de Luna from 1394 to 1417, in the Great Western Schism. He came of a noble family in Aragon, studied in France, taught canon law at the University of Montpellier, and was made cardinal by Gregory XI. When the schism broke out between the partizans of Urban VI and Clement VII, he took the latter's side, and went to Spain and Portugal as Clement's representative in 1379. In
Sides with 1393, again, he appeared at a meeting Clement of English and French dignitaries, in VII in the the hope of winning England away Great from the party of Boniface IX, the Schism. pope elected in Rome to succeed Urban VI. When the University of Paris in 1394 suggested three ways to end the sehiemthe resignation of both claimants, the submission of both to the decision of a tribunal agreed upon between them, or the calling of a general councilClement sent him to Paris to prevent the choice of the first; but in fact he declared in favor of it, possibly with an eye to his own chances. Clement died the same autumn, and the cardinals of his party nearly all agreed that whichever of them might be chosen pope should do all in 7lie power to end the schism, even by abdicating if necessary; and no voice was louder in this agreement than Pedro de Luna'e. He was unanimously chosen on Se
,pt. 28, consecrated and crowned Oct. 11. He reiterated his willingness to do anything for peace; but when the neat year an embassy representing the king of France, a national synod, and the University of Paris approached him to urge the abdication of both popes, he declined, recommending rather a personal meeting of both to discuss the question. To this he adhered in spite of the opposite view of all his cardinals but one and of the personal entreaties of the dukes of Berry, Burgundy, and Orleans. Charles VI held a second national council at Paris (end of Aug., 1398), and tried to gain the support of the European sovereigns for his plan. In June, 1397, the ambassadors of France, England, and Castile pressed the necessity of abdication upon Benedict, who declined for himself while recommending it to Boniface IX. No more success attended a joint embassy (1398) from Charles and Wenceslaus, king of the Romans, headed by Pierre d'Ailly, bishop of Cambrai.
Charles held a third council is May, 1398, which decided that France should withdraw from Benedict's obedience. When this decision received the

43	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Benediot
royal assent and was promulgated (July 27), all the cardinals but three ioraook Benedict, and open warfare broke out. Benedict, practically a.prisoner in his palace, yielded so far (Apr., 1399) as to sign a solemn undertaking to abdicate whenever his rival would do the same or should die or be expelled from Rome; but he secretly protested that his promise was null and void, as having been given under compulsion. France was now practically without a pope; and the longer this anomalous
condition continued, the more uneasiCourse of nesa it caused. Leading churchmen,
Events in such as Gerson and Nicholas de Cld‑
France. oranges, began to write in favor of a
return to Benedict XIII. Finally Charles called a meeting of bishops and nobles (May, 1403), to reconsider the question. Before they met Benedict had contrived to escape from Avignon, and the city had declared for him, once he was free. It is not surprising, therefore, that the assembled magnates declared for a restoration of France to his obedience, though on condition that he should renew his promise in regard to abdication, and undertake to submit the question how to end the schism to a general council within a year. This left things much as they had been in 1394 and 1395. Boniface IX died soon after (Oct. 1, 1404); but his successor, Innocent VII, showed just as little inclination to abandon his claims. Benedict, still attached to his own plan of a personal conference, undertook a journey to Genoa, without any result except to produce fresh irritation in France, whose clergy were taxed to pay the expenses of the experiment. Another national council (1406) declared in favor of withdrawing his right to present the bishoprics and benefices; but the Duke of OrMans stood out for complete obedience and hindered the execution of this decision. New hopes were aroused, on the death of Innocent VII, by the choice (Nov. 30, 1406) of Gregory XII, who at once declared himself willing to take any measures, even that of abdication, to end the schism. A meeting was planned between'the rivals for the autumn of 1407, but it fell through. In November Benedict lost a powerful friend by the murder of the Duke of Orleans, and was so unwise in 1408 as to attempt to enforce the observance of the French obedience by threats of excommunication. In May Charles proclaimed France absolutely neutral in the contest. Benedict, fearing for his safety, fled to his native Aragon.
The cardinals of both factions deserted their respective popes and in June took counsel together with a view to calling a general council. This met in 1409 at Pisa, summoned both claimants before it, proceeded to hear testimony when they did not
appear, and on June 5 declared both, The Coun‑ as heretics, schiematica, and percils of jurers, not only deposed but excom‑
Pisa sad municated. Benedict still asserted
Constance. his claims, and Spain, Portugal, and
Scotland adhered to him. New negotiations with him were undertaken by the Council of Constance in 1414, but he stubbornly refused to yield, even to the persuasions of the emperor Sigismund. Finally the patience of his own sgp‑
porters in Spain and Scotland was worn out, and
they renounced him in the Concordat of Narbonne
(Dec., 1415). He entrenched himself in the moun
tain fastness of Peiiiscola, near Valencia, which
belonged to his family, and proudly told the envoys
of the council that the true Church was there only.
On July 28, 1417, the Council of Constance once
more deposed and excommunicated him; and he
remained in his castle, with a court of but four
cardinals, until his death at the age of nearly ninety
in Nov., 1424. 	(A. HAUCK.)

		B, Benedict XIII was also the name borne by
	Pietro Francesco d'Orsini‑Gravina, pope 1724‑30.
He was born Feb. 2, 1649, at Gravina in the king
dom of Naples, and in 1867, renouncing his rights of
succession to the ducal estates, entered the Domini
can order at Venice, taking the name of Vincenzo
	Maria. He studied theology at Venice and Bologna,
	philosophy at Naples. In 1672 be was made a
	cardinal by Clement X, and archbishop of Bene
	vento in 1686. After administering his diocese
	admirably for thirty‑eight years, and spending
	his leisure in the composition of theological works,
	he was almost unanimously elected pope (May
	29, 1724), after the death of Innocent XIII. At
	first he took the name of Benedict XIV, but changed
	it to Benedict XIII in the conviction that Pedro
	de Luna was a schismatic and not a legitimate pope.
	His pontificate began with an attempt to restrain
	the pomp and luxury of the cardinals, which was
	as vain as his similar attempts to reform the rest of
	the clergy. Though the prescriptions of the Lateran
	council of 1725 in this direction were not much
	heeded, it is memorable because in it Benedict con
	firmed the constitution Unigenitus, and thus
	aided the Jesuits. He had the satisfaction of
	receiving in 1728 the unconditional submission of
	De Noaillea, archbishop of Paris, the head of the
	Gallican opposition. Weakness was the principal
	characteristic of his dealings with the secular powers
	of Europe. He left such matters almost entirely
	in the hands of his favorite Cardinal Coscia, whose
	interest it was to keep on good terms with the
	powers. Thus the emperor Charles VI obtained
	the privileges which he claimed in Sicily as the suc
	cessor of the older rulers, who had been legati. nati.
	of the Holy See. Thus also the king of Sardinia
	got the beat of a long contest with Rome; and
	only one state found the curia stubborn. The
	king of Portugal, John V, requested the red hat
	for Bichi, the papal nuncio at Lisbon, and when
	it was refused showed great hostility to the pope,
	even threatening in 1728 to break off all relations
	between the Church of Portugal and Rome, Bene.
	diet was unpopular in Rome, owing to the mis
	government of Coacia, who,, when the pope died
	(Feb. 21, 1730), was obliged to flee in disguise,
	and later was imprisoned for ten years by Clem
	ent XII. 	(A. HAUCK.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: 1. Pedro de Luna: A Vita is found is 1k.
Baluse, Vitm paparum Aroanonieneium, i, b81‑588, Paris,
1693; the Eng, travel. of several original documents
which.are pertinent is given is Thatcher and McNeal,
Sours Book pp. 325‑329; Theodorio of Nieheim Ds
Schiamate, ed. G. Erler, ii. 33 eqq.. Leipsic, 1890; Char
tularium Uniroereitatia Paris, ed. H. Denifle, iii. 652

Benedict	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	o	44
eqq.. Paris, 1894; Kehrmann, Frankreichs inhere Kirehsnpolitik, Jens, 1890; Bower, Popes, iii, 145‑149, 152, 162163, 205; Neander, Christian Church, v, 58, 82‑77, 84. 105‑107; Hefele, Concifiengeachichte, vi, 827‑1031; Pastor, Popes, i, 165‑201; N. Valois, La Prance at le grand schisms d'occident, 2 vols., Paris, 1898; Creighton, Papacy, i, 148‑315, 374. 2. Pietro Francesco: His works were issued in 3 vole., Ravenna, 1728, and the bulls are in the Bullarium Romanum, vol. xaii, Turin, 1871. For his life consult A. Borgia, Benedicti Xlll vita, Rome, 1752; A. von Reumont, Geaehichte der Stadt Rom, iii, 652‑853, Berlin, 1888; Bower, Popes, iii, 339; J. Chantrel, Le Pape Benoit Xlll, 1724‑30, Paris, 1874; M. Broach, Geachichte den Kirehenataata, ii, 61 eqq., Goths, 1882; Ranks, Popes, vol. iii, No. 158.

Benedict XIV (Prospero Lorenzo Lambertini): Pope 1740‑58. He was born [Mar. 31] 1675 at Bologna; at thirteen he entered the Collegium Clementinum at Rome, and after studies in theology and philosophy, took up the law, practising as advocate of the consiatory, and as promotor ftdei, in which office he laid the foundations of his famous work on beatification and canonization. Clement XI and Innocent XIII gave him several Roman dignities; Benedict XIII made him archbishop of Ancona (1727) and cardinal (1728); in 1731 Clement XII transferred him to the more important see of Bologna, where he found time to write his works on the mass, on the festivals, and Qumstiones canonicce. After the death of Clement XII the conclave was at a deadlock for six months between the French, Austrian, and Spanish factions, and finally agreed on Lambertini as a compromise candidate (Aug. 17, 1740).
Benedict was a man of great learning and piety, and did much for the welfare of the Pontifical States, by the promotion of agriculture, commerce, and manufactures and by a decrease in taxation. His expressed principle that in him " the pope must take precedence of the temporal ruler " was carried out both in the strenuous efforts which he made to raise the tone of the clergy and in his efforts to remove all the misunderstandings which had existed between the curia and the European powers, even at the cost of consWerable concessions. He was not able entirely to remove the antagonism
between the eighteenth‑century spirit Friendly and religion, but he composed more Relations than one difference temporarily.. Thus with Other he appeased John V of Portugal by the
	Rulers.	privilege of enjoying the revenues of
		vacant bishoprics and abbeys in his
kingdom, as well as by the title of Rex fcdelissimus.
In a concordat with Naples (1741) he went even
beyond the concessions which Benedict XIII had
made, and concluded another with the king of
Sardinia which was still less favorable to the ex
treme claims of the Church. Still another was
made with Spain in 1753, which went so far as to
allow King Ferdinand, VI the right of nomination
to all the ecclesiastical benefices in his kingdom
except fifty‑two. Friendly relations were also
maintained with the empire, and strict neutrality
observed in the war of the Austrian Succession,
although the contending armies not seldom crossed
the boundaries of the Papal States. When Albert
of Bavaria was elected emperor as Charles VII
and applied to Benedict for confirmation, he gave
him his hearty good wishes, but refused at first to recognize his successor, Francis I, who had neglected to observe this formality. He abandoned his opposition, however, and became an active ally of Austria in the contest with Venice over Aquileia. As a compromise measure, he finally divided the patriarchate into two dioceses, that of GiirZ, which was to be Austrian, and that of Udine, Venetian. Though he refused to confirm the guaranties which the landgrave of Hesse‑Cassel, on becoming a Roman Catholic, was obliged to give for the preservation of the rights of his evangelical subjects, Benedict showed none of the temper of a persecutor, and had friendly personal relations with many Protestants. He was the first pope to eoncede the title of king of Prussia to the ruler whom the curia had previously styled margrave of Brandenburg; and he yielded to Frederick the Great's wishes so far as to allow the bishop of Brealau to decide all Catholic causes in Prussia, appeals to the pope being forbidden. In the Gallican controversy he took a wise and tolerant part, reversing a decision of De Beaumont, the archbishop of Paris, which made formal assent to the constitution Unigenitus a condition for receiving the sacraments; in an encyclical of Oct. 16, 1756, he laid down the rule that the ministrations of the Church should be refused only to those who had publicly contemned the bull.
Benedict's conciliatory temper made him little likely to sympathize with the Jesuits, with whom he dealt at the very beginning of his reign in a way that did not please them, deciding against them, in the controversy over the " Chinese rites," the
question how far the principles of The Jesuits. Christianity might be accommodated
for the purpose of making more speedy conversions among,the heathen, in two bulls
the Ex quo singulars of 1742, and the O?nnium sollicitudinum of 1744 (see ACCOMMODATION, § 9). Though he was no partizan of the Jesuits, it was not until shortly before his death that he undertook (1758) the long‑planned reform of the order, at least in Portugal, entrusting its execution to Saldanha, the patriarch of Lisbon.
In 1750 Benedict celebrated a jubilee with great pomp, and invited the Protestants also to attendnaturally with no other result than to call out a number of polemical replies. To the end of his life he found his chief diversion in the company of learned men, of whom a circle assembled round him once a week. During his pontificate he composed his moat important work, De aynodo diceceaana. He had a catalogue of the Vatican library drawn up by the learned Asaemani, founded societies for the study of Roman and Christian antiquities and of church history, and cooperated in the foundation of the archeological academy with Winckehnann, who came to Rome in 1755. He died as he had lived, with cheerful, goodhumored words upon his lips, May 3, 1758.
(A. HAUCK.)

BIHIdOOAAPH7: His works were collected by Aaevedo in 12
vole., Rome, 1747‑51, more completely, 15 vole., Venice,
1767, and in 17 vole., Prato, 1839‑48; vole. 15‑17 of the Prato ed. contain the bulls; Briefs Benedicta XIV an Pier

45	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Franeeato Pegpi h Bologna, 1729‑58, ed. F. X. Kraus, Freiburg, 1888; Opera inedita, ed. F. Heiner, St. Louie 1904. Consult: R. de Martinis, Acta Benedicti XIV. 2 vols.. Naples, 1884‑85; A. Borgia, Vie de 'Benoit XIV, Paris. 1783; H. Formby, Life and Miracles of Benedict XIV, London, 1858; A. von Arneth, Geackichte Maria Thereaias, ii, 178, iv, 54 eqq., Vienna, 1864, 1870; M. Broach, Geachichte den Kirclumtaata, ii, 88, Goths, 1882; Ranks. Popes, ii, 433‑443, iii, No. 184.

BENEDICT OF AftIANE: The reformer of the Benedictine order in the Frankish empire. He was born about 750 in his father's county of Maguelone in Languedoc; d. at Inden (13 m. n.e. of Aix‑la‑Chapelle) Feb. 11, 821. His youth was spent at the court of Pepin and of Charlemagne, where, as a page, he had opportunity to distinguish himself in feats of arms. During Charles's first Lombard campaign, Benedict rescued his brother from drowning at the risk of his‑own life, and the shock brought to a head the resolve which had been slowly forming in him, to renounce the world and give himself to the service of God in the monastic life. This he entered in 773 at SaintSeine in the diocese of Langres. Returning home in 779, he built s small monastery on his own land near the little river Aniane (where the town of Aniane, 16 m. w.n.w. of Montpellier, later grew up), which was replaced by a larger one lower down when the number of his disciples increased, and by a third still larger about 792. This became the center of Benedict's efforts for the reformation of the monastic life in the south and southwest of France. King Louis of Aquitaine, who had favored him from the outset, entrusted him with the oversight of all the monasteries within his territory, and the greatest churchmen, such as Aleuin 'and Leidrad of Lyons, sought his counsel. He had a wide knowledge of patristic literature, and forwarded the cause of education with zeal. He stood out as a champion of the orthodox faith against Adoptionism (q.v.), and wrote two treatises against it, the first of which is specially interesting as showing how close was the practical connection between Adoptioniem and Arianism. His influence became still wider with the accession of Louis the Pious, who first brought him up to the Alsatian abbey of Maurmiineter, and then, to have him nearer at hand, founded another for him at Inden, giving him the general oversight of all the monasteries in tae empire. He could now hope to accomplish his great purpose of restoring the primitive strictness of the monastic observance wherever it had been relaxed or exchanged for the leas exacting canonical life. This purpose was clearly seen in the capitulariea drawn up by an assembly of abbots and monks at Aix‑la‑Chapelle in 817, and enforced by Louis's order throughout the empire.
Benedict's chief works are compilations of the older ascetic literature. The first of them is called by his biographer, Ardo, Liter ex regalia diversorum )vatrum collect‑ ; an enlarged edition of this was prepared by Lucas Holaten (published at Rome only after Holaten's death, in 1661, with the title Codex regtilaru»x). The other work, called Coacordia reguktrun by Benedict himself, is based on
the first; in it the sections of the Benedictine rule (except ix‑xvi) are given in their order, with parallel passages from the other rules included in the LtlSer regularum, so as to show the agreement of principles and thus to enhance the respect due to the Benedictine. The Concordia was first published in 1638 by H. Menard of the Congregation of St. Maur, with valuable notes (reprinted in MPL, ciii). A third collection of homilies, to be read daily in the monasteries, has not been definitely identified. Benedict's place is in the second rank of the men who made the reigns of Charles and Louis glorious. He had not the breadth of view possessed by Charlemagne himself or by Adalhard nor the lofty endeavor for a fusion of secular and spiritual learning of Paulus ‑Diaconus and Aleuin. He was primarily an ecclesiastic, who zealously placed his not inconsiderable theological learning at the service of orthodoxy, but gave the beat thing he had, the loving fervor of an upright Christian soul, to the cause of Benedictine monasticism.
(OTTO SEEBA$S.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Vita by Ardo Smaragdus, his successor as abbot, with preface by Heneehen, is in ASB, 12 Feb., ii, 808‑620, in MPL, ciii, and is edited by Waitz in MGH, Script., av, 198‑220, Hanover, 1887. There is a Fr. tranal., Montpellier, 1876. P. A. J. Paulinier, St. Benoit d'Axiiane et to fondation du monaattre de ee nom. Montpellier, 1871; P. J. Nicolai, Der heiliga Benedid, Grander son Anions, Cologne, 1885; R. Foss, Benadikt von Aniane. Berlin, 1884; O. $eebsea, in ZKG, zv (1895), 244‑280; Hauck. KD, ii. 528‑54b.

BENEDICT BISCQP: First abbot of Wearmouth and Jarrow; b. of noble family about 628; d. at Wearmouth (on the north side of the Wear, opposite Sunderland, Durham hire) Jan. 12, 689 or 690. Biscop was his Saxon name, his ecclesiastical name was Benedict, and he was also called Baducing as a patronymic. He was a thane and favorite of Oswy, king of Northumbria (q.v.), but in 653 decided to abandon the world and went to Rome. He became a monk at the monastery of Lerins about 665, and was appointed by Pope Vitalian to conduct Theodore of Tarsus (q.v.) to Canterbury in 668. In 674 be began to build the monastery of St. Peter at Wearmouth on land given by Egfrid, king of Northumbria. In 681 or 682 he founded the sister house, dedicated to St. Paul, at Jarrow (5 m. farther north, on the south bank of the Tyne). He made six visits to Rome, learned the Roman ecclesiastical usages and the rules of monastic life, and strove faithfully to introduce them in England; he also brought back a rich store of books, vestments, pictures, and the like. He induced John, the archchanter of St. Peter's at Rome, to accompany him to England and lllstIUCt his monks; and he brought skilled workmen from Gaul to build his monasteries, including the first glass‑makers in England.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The source for a biography is the life by his great scholar Bede, Vita beatorrsm abbatum, chaps. 1‑
14, beat cad moat accessible in the ad. of C. Plummer, i, 364‑379 with notes ii 366‑g66 Oxford 1896, Eng. tranal. by P. Witcoek Sunderland, 1818; of. also Bede, Hist. aecl., .iv, 18 r, 19: Hon., xxv. Consult also C. F. Moatslembart, Les oynea de Z'occident, iv, 456‑‑487, Paris, 1868; ,DNB, iv, 214‑216.

Benedict	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	48
BENEDICT OF NURSIA AND THE BENEDICTINE ORDER.
Z The Life of Benedict.		Organisation and Direction of the
	The Life of Benedict by Gregory			Monastic Life (§ 3).
		the Great (§ 1).	III. The Earlier History of the Bene
	Early Life (§ 2).			dictine Order.
	Monte Cassino (J 3).
7L The Rule of Benedict.
	General Characteristics (f 1).
Moderation (¢ 2).
Period of Growth to the Time of Charlemagne (1 1).
Period of Decline (§ 2).
IV. The History of the Order since the Ninth Century.
L The Life of Benedict: The only early authority on the life of Benedict, since the V%taPlacidi has been admitted to be untrustworthy ever since Mabillon, and the worthlessness of the Vita sancti Maori has been recently demonstrated by Malnory, is practically the single biography written by Gregory the Great. But the expectations aroused by a life written only fifty years after Benedict's death by so distinguished an author are disappointed when
he is found, in the spirit of his time, 1. The Life exalting the greatness of his hero by of Benediot the number and importance of his by Gregory miracles. This tendency has gone so the (treat. far that Grtltzmacher is inclined to age
nothing actually historical in all this mesa of legendary details except the names of the places where Benedict lived and worked, and the names of tun disciples. But this is going somewhat too far; Gregory expressly names four abbots, themselves among these disciples and one of them (Honoratue) still living at Subiaco, as witnesses to the truth of his story; and the tradition moat have been still full and clear among the monks who had migrated from Monte Cassino to the Lateran when he wrote.
According, then, to what is left of Gregory's account after removal of the legendary halo around the saint's head, Benedict came of a considerable family in the " province of Nursia," in the Umbrian Apennines, and was born toward the end of the fifth century. He received at Rome the education of his day, which, however, did not mean much acquaintance with the roman classical authors, and seems to have included no Greek. Shocked by the immorality around him, he left both the school and his father's house for a life of
solitary mortification. His first per‑
9. Early manent abode was a cave by the Anio, Life. not far from Subiaco, where a monk,
Romanus, provided him with the rough monastic garb and with scanty nourishment. Here Benedict spent three years of stubborn conflict with his lower nature, until the spreading of his fame by shepherds brought his solitude to an end. The monks of a neighboring monastery (perhaps at Vicovaro), whose head had just died, begged him to come and rule them. He accepted with reluctance, probably foreseeing what actually happened when he attempted strictly to enforce their rule. When their insubordination went as far as an attempt to poison him, he discovered the plot and gently rebuked them, then retired to his beloved cave. Here, as new disciples came around him, he established twelve small communities, each with twelve inmates and a " father " at their head.
Gregory does not may how long Benedict re‑ j
821‑1200. Ecumenical Activity. New Congregations (¢ 1).
1200‑IbfiB. Decay and Attempts at Reform (¢ 2).
1b83‑1800. Tridentine Reform. New Congregations (§ 3).
The Nineteenth Century ($ 4).
mained in the neighborhood of Subiaco as director of these pious groups; but the tradition of Monte Cassino ascribes his migration thither to the opposition of a jealous cleric named Florentius, and places it in 529. The new place was about halfway between Rome and Naples, the Castrum Casinum of the Romans, who had had a military colony there. On the summit of the mountain (now
Monte San Germano), which had been 8. Xonte dedicated to the worship of Apollo by
Owsino. a population still largely pagan, Bene‑
dict built two chapels, under the invocation of St. John Baptist and St. Martin, and then laid the foundations of the monastery which was to have such a long and renowned history. Though Gregory does not say so definitely, the traditional view may be accepted that he soon drew up his rule, the mature outcome of his experience in guiding and governing aspirants to the monastic life of perfection. The disturbances of the time, the ware between the Goths and the Byzantine empire from 534, probably helped to increase the numbers of those who sought a peaceful shelter at Monte Cassino; and a daughter house was established at Terracing. In the summer of 542; Totila, king of the Goths, on his way through Campania, desired to see the famous abbot. Gregory relates that, to test his prophetic powers, the king sent one of his officers in royal array to Benedict, who perceived the deception instantly, and, when the young king knelt before him, told him that he should enter Rome, cross the seas, and reign nine years‑which came to pass. Gregory mentions Benedict's sister, Scholastics, in connection with the last meeting between the two in a house near the monastery; she had been dedicated to the service of God from her earliest youth. The date of Benedict's death can not be determined from any of the authorities. His body was buried near Scholaetica's in the chapel of St. John Baptist, and, according to Paulus Diaconus, was translated about a century later to the monastery of Fleury on the Loire.
II. The Rule of *Benedict: Especially since the celebration of the fourteen‑hundredth anniversary of Benedict's birth in 1880, his rule has been made the subject of thoroughgoing studies, and it is everywhere recognized as a code which corresponded admirably to its purpose of regulating the common life of the western monks. In the concluding passage of the prologue, probably added later by Benedict, occur the words " Conetituenda eat ergo a nottla dominici achola aervitii." Under the later empire, the word ackola was commonly employed to designate the body of guards in the imperial palace under the magister qicii ; thence the name passed to the garrisons of provincial

47	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Benediot
towns, and was used sometimes for other bodies or associations existing in them. As these military organizations would have a defi1. General' ate code of regulations, so it was
Character‑ natural for Benedict (called " magisi®tias. ter " in the first line of the prologue) to lay down a rule that should serve for all who were enlisted in the spiritual army (" servitium dominicum ")‑priests or laymen, rich or poor. It separated the monks more absolutely from the world than Basil or Csesian had done. Besides the requirements of ~ poverty, silence, and chastity, others appear for the first time; that of " stability " or a permanent residence in one monastery as opposed to the wandering life of the earlier monks, and a specially designated habit. The aim of this life is complete surrender to the will of God, accomplished through entire obedience to the abbot and the rule. The abbot thus appears as an absolute ruler, responsible to God alone. It is true that in weighty matters he is to seek the counsel of the brethren, but the ultimate decision rests with him. Bjenedict seems to have hesitated in placing a prapoaitua or prior next to him as assistant and, if need were, representative.
In laying down the system of daily prayer, Benedict departed somewhat from the earlier practise by instituting the office of compline as the seventh of the canonical hours. The longest and fullest of all the offices was the nodurna vigidia (matins), recited at two o'clock. The day hours were much shorter‑laude at daybreak, not long after matins; prime; terce, with which at least on Sundays and festivals the Eucharist was connected; eext; none; vespers; and compline.: One of the principles on which the system of devotion was laid out was the weekly recitation of the entire Psalter. When this is compared with the requirement by Columban of the recitation of the whole 150 Psalms in the night office of Saturday and Sunday, a second principle is perceived which governed Benedict not merely in the arrangement of the devotional exercises but in all his rule‑a wise moderation 2. Xodera‑ and gentleness. It appears especially
	tion.	in the regulations for meals, of which
		he allows two daily, except at times
of fasting; it comes out in the rules for labor, which
show consideration for the, weaker brethren, and
also in the system of punishment. Small offenses,
as unpunctuality at meals or office, are to be pun
ished without harshness; more serious ones call for
two private warnings and one in public, after which
the offender is cut off from the society of the breth
ren at meals and prayers. If he is still obstinate,
corporal punishment is the next step, and finally,
if the prayers of the brethren have no effect, he is
to be expelled from the monastery. Penitents may
be twice taken back, but on a third lapse there is
no further possibility of restoration.
The fact that, in his provision for the clothing of the monks, Benedict took account of the conditions of more than one province has been made a ground for disputing the authenticity of the rule'
‑
but the climatic difference between the hill‑country of his first settlement and the Campanian plain on the banks of the Liris is sufficiently notable to find
some reflection in the rule. Benedict had lived as an anchorite and as a cenobite, in convents of varying sire and in different parts of Italy, at the head of a single small house and of a whole group of houses. When, therefore, with this manifold experience of what suited the monastic life of his
time, he drew up a rule for every 8. Organi‑ pate of it, in such a definite legislative nation and shape as none of his predecessorsDireotion of Bid Casaian, Pachomius, Jerome,
tic Lifethe ~onas‑ Augustine‑had given their prescrip‑
tions, we may well believe that he was acting to a certain extent with the consciousness that he was giving to Italian monasticism a new form, stronger and more consistent than had been known before. This is the special importance of Benedict's work, both for the Church and for. the world at large. About the time when the Roman See, vindicating and even increasing its independence of Arian kings and Byzantine emperors, was preparing to erect its universal empire on the ruins of the old, the monk appeared who knew how to apply the old Roman talents of legislation and organization to the growing but as yet. incoherent monasticism. Thus he became the founder of the great Benedictine Order which for centuries concentrated in itself the extraordinary spiritual force of the technically " religious " life,, and contributed in so marked a degree to the extension of the Western Church. The striking influence of the order would, however, be inexplicable if it had not early become the guardian of learning and literature. The rule required the brothers, in addition to their manual labor, to devote one or two hours daily to reading; it provided for a convent library from which the monks were to take certain books for study at appointed times; each brother was to have his tablet and stylus; Benedict himself undertook the education of the children of prominent Romans; and in at least one passage of the rule those who can not read are spoken of as an inferior class. All these things speak of learned and literary interests as belonging to the original foundation. Cassiodorus even goes further than Benedict, in whose lifetime probably he founded the double convent of Squillace, providing expressly for the study of classical literature‑though it is impossible to determine how far this influenced the Benedictine Order after the infusion with it of Cassiodorus's monasteries.
III. The Earlier History of the Benedictine Order: The history of the early extension of Benedict's society is only scantily told. According to the traditions of Monte Cassino, the third abbot, Simplicius, achieved great success in this work. Under the fifth, Bonitus, the mother house was destroyed in 589 by the Lombards, the monks fleeing to Rome (the universal refuge of those days), carrying with
	them the copy of the rule written by
Growth Period to Benedict's own hand. 	There was
the Time of probably already a monastery there Charle‑ which followed this rule‑that of St.
Andrew, founded by the future Pope Gregory the Great is 575; but Gregory's attachment to the order was presumably increased by the coming of the fugitives, who settled

Benedict	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	48
Benediction
in a place given them at the Lateran by Pope
Pelagius. The mission of Augustine to the Anglo
Saxona from the monastery of St. Andrew in
598 (see ANGLO‑SAXONS, CONVERSION OF THE)
opened a new field to the order. The Latin
rules of the Spanish bishops Isidore of Seville
(d. 638) and Fructuoaus of Bragara show distinct
traces of an acquaintance with that of Benedict.
But more important was its introduction into the
Frankish kingdom in the first half of the seventh
century, since the attempt was there made to sub
mit to it the entire monastic body. However it was
introduced, it soon become predominant, and took
the place of the rules of Columban and Caesarius.
At a Burgundian synod of 670 it was designated, with
the canons, as the only standard for monasteries;
and similarly in the synods held under the auspices
of Carloman and Boniface in 742 and 743 it is called
the norm for convents both of monks and of
nuns. The language of the capitularies of 811,
implying that only obscure traces of the prior
existence of other rules remained, shows how
completely it had occupied the field by the time of
Charlemagne.
	In spite, however, of this supremacy, and of the
glory reflected on the order by such men as Ald
helm and Bede, Alcuin and Paulus Diaconus, an
acute observer could already perceive traces of de
cay. In some places the abbots abused the power
given them by the rule; in others laxity had begun
		to creep in. There was thus room for
2. Period the reforming activity of Benedict of
of Decline. Aniane (q.v.), who attempted not
		only to restore the pristine strictness,
but to supplement the rule by special ordinances
for the purpose of securing uniformity in the daily
life of the Frankish monasteries. His success;
powerfully seconded as he was by the emperor
Louis the Pious, was not lasting. The ninth cen
tury saw a considerable number of new founda
tions, especially in Saxony, and the literary activ
ity promoted by Charlemagne continued; but
there were many complaints not only of the giving
of monasteries to laymen but of decay in morality
and strict monastic discipline. In addition to
these things, grievous havoc was wrought in many
different quarters by the irruptions of the barbar
riana‑in England by the Danes, in northern Ger
many and France by the Normans, in the south of
Germany and the north of Italy by the Huns, and
on the Mediterranean coast by the Saracens.
			(OTTO SEEBABa.)
	IV. The History of the Order since the Ninth
Century: The palmy days of the order, from Bene
dict of Aniane to Innocent III (821‑1200) may be
designated as the time of ecumenical activity.
The family of monks which proceeded from Monte
Cassino controlled with its influence the civilization
of the entire Christian West. The Basilian monas
teries of South Italy and Sicily, as well as the monks
and hermits of the Celtic Church in the British
isles, were able only for a time to maintain the
independence of their institutions. Patronized
and at the same time monopolized by Rome, the
Benedictine monastic character made itself the
standard of monasticism throughout Latin Chrieten‑
dom. True, from the ninth century on there were marked departures from the founder's ideal, in consequence of which, even after the reform by Benedict of Aniane (q.v.), a number of similar efforts at reform became necessary; but the call to return to the original vigor of the rule ever proved its purifying power, and the total influence of the order was rather enhanced than
1. 821‑ decreased by the growing number of 1200. Ecu‑ these reform congregations. The moat
	menical	important of them after the tenth
	New con‑	century was the reform of Cluny (from
eregationa. 910), with which were gradually blend
		ed more or leas the smaller reforms of
a like tendency originating almost simultane
ously in Flanders under Gerard of Brogne
(d. 959), in Lorraine under John of Gorze (d.
974), in England under Dunstan of Glaston
bury (d. 988), from the monastery of St. Benignua
at Dijon (c. 990) under William of Volpiano (d.
1031) and in southern Italy by Alferiua of Cava
(d. IOSO) (See CLUNY, ABBEY AND CONGREGATION
OF; JOHN OF GORZE; GERARD, SAINT, 1; DUNaTAN).
More independent of the Benedictine institutions,
though proceeding from the order, were some reform
ing movements of the eleventh century. Among these
were the famous congregation of Hirschau (q.v.),
c. 1060, which was distinguished by the rigor of its
discipline; that of Vallombrosa (see GUALBExTO,
GIOVANNI), 1038, which, like Hirschau, devel
oped with especial care the institution of lay brothers
(fralres conversi), thus setting an, important ex
ample for later orders (see MONAaTICIBM); those
of Camaldoli, 1000; Grammont, 1076; Fontkvraud,
C. 1100; (see CAMALDOLITEa ; GRAMMONT, ORDER
OF; FONTEVRAUD, ORDER OF); and finally that of
Giteaux,1098. The last of these reforms, the ripest
and noblest fruit of the older Benedictine ideal, grew
so rapidly, and, especially under the influence of St.
Bernard, showed such power in the field of mission
ary and civilizing effort that it was obliged to leave
the Benedictine family and form, not a new congre
gation but a new order, in spite of its adherence
to the fundamental form of monastic discipline
as delineated in the Regina Benedictro (see Crs
TExCIANB). By this separation of the youngest
daughter from the mother, the latter ceased to be
regarded as the only normal type for western
monasticism. The ecumenical period of Bene
dictine history ends with the last decades of the
twelfth century. It moat thenceforth be traced
as the history of one order among several in the life
of western civilization.
	The period from Innocent III to the Council
of Trent (1200‑1563) is a time of increasing inner
decay and of futile efforts at reform. The first
attempt to restore discipline in the monasteries
		of the order, which had become very
2. 1200‑ worldly, was made in 1215 by the 1688. Decay Fourth Lateran Council under Inno‑
and At‑ teat III. It ordered that eve three
At‑

	tempts t	yearn a general chapter should be
		held, and that the viaitatiors pre
scribed by this chapter should be made by GSater
cian abbots. Under this regulation the archbishops
of Canterbury. and York introduced the triennial

visitations into the Benedictine monasteries of England, and enforced them in repeated provincial councils. For the monasteries of the Continent, special importance attached to the edict of Benedict XII, himself a Cistercian, who, after introducing a stricter discipline into his own order (1335), issued in the following year an edict concerning the Benedictines. This qonstitution, known as Summa Magistri or Conatitutio Benedictine, decrees that in each monastery a general chapter is to be held annually. For each of the thirty‑six provinces into which the order is divided by it, triennial provincial chapters are prescribed. But in spite of this measure, which had a temporarily beneficial effect, spirituality constantly declined. The reforms introduced afterward by the Council of Constants (1415), by a provincial chapter of the Mainz province of the order held at Petershausen (1417), by the congregation of Burafelde (q.v.) organized for the North‑German territories of the order, as well as by many Spanish congregations (e.g., the Observance of Valladolid under Ferdinand the Catholic, 1493), brought about merely a temporary improvement in the conditions.
The Tridentine reforming period (1563‑1800) was introduced by the decree De regularibvs et monialibus passed in the twenty‑fifth session of the Council of Trent (Dec. 3, 1563), which opposes the mischievous excess of exemptions (q.v.), puts the female members of the order without exception and the male members for the most part under the supervision of the bishops, and insists upon strict observance of the older regulations concerning the holding of general
$• 1683‑ chapters, visitations, etc. Several new
1800. Tri‑ Benedictine congregations sprang up
dentine Re‑
form.	under the influence of the Tridentine
	C oncreff& decrees; in South Germany one for
		bona.	Swabia (1564 ), one at Strasburg (1601),
			one at Salzburg (1641), one for
	Bavaria (1684); in Flanders the congregation of
St. Vedast near Arras, founded about 1590; in
	Lorraine that of St. Vanne and St. Hydulph,
which Abbot Didier de la Cour founded in 1600
and Pope Clement VIII confirmed in 1604. An
	outgrcwth of the latter was the congregation of St.
Maur, founded in 1618 under the direction of the
same Abbot Didier, which spread all over France,
	attaining the number of 180 monasteries, and
raised the work of the order in the direction of
	learning to a prosperity which it never had before
	(see ST. MAUR, CONGREGATION OF). But after
about 1780, first the forcible secularization under
	Joseph II, and then the storm of the Revolution
in France and the neighboring countries to the south
	brought about the ruin of the order.
The epoch of restoration, which coincides with the nineteenth century, has been able to save only about 500 houses (with about
4. The 4,300 monks), out of the 37,000 houses Nineteenth (abbeys or priories) which the order
Century. numbered before the catastrophes of the eighteenth century. Yet in some of the congregations there is at present a healthy and vigorous life as far as the morale and discipline IL‑a
RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
8enediot
Benedio~ofl
are concerned and also as to achievements in
theological learning and Christian art (painting,
sculpture, etc.). In the latter respect the South
German congregation of Beuron is especially dis
tinguished. The two other South‑German con
gregations (the Bavarian and the Swabian) and
those of northern France and Belgium (especially
in the monasteries of Soleames and Maredsous)
have recently produced eomt; able scholars and
theologians. The Benedictines of the mother
house of the order at Monte Camino (q.v.) and the
American congregations connected with it have
also rendered considerable services in the same
lines. 	O. ZtSc>iL>cllt.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The somewhat voluminous early literature
	on Benedict in the shape of poems and lives may be found
	in part in MGH, Pod. Let, med. aroi, i, 38‑42, Berlin, 1881
	(the Carmine of Paul the Deacon); MGH, Script., vol. av,
	part 1, pp. 480‑482, 574, Hanover, 1887 (Ex adventv corv
	poria S. Benedicti in aprum Floriaanaem); four works on
	the Miracles are published in MGX, Script., vol. av, part
	1, pp. 474‑500, part 2 (1888), 883, 888, is (1851), 374
	378. The Vitor by Gregory and other writers as well
	as the poems and relations of miracles may be found
	in ASM, asst. i, pp. 28, 29‑38, and sic. ii, pp. 80, 353‑358,
	389‑394; in ASB, Mar., iii, 278, 288‑297, 302‑357; and in
	MPL, lxxa, xev, exxiv, caxvi, exxxiii, exxxiv, dx. Con
	sult: P. K. Brandes, Leben des heiligen Benedikt, Eineie
	deln, 1858; P. Leehner, Leben des heiligen Benedict, Re
	genaburg, 1859; C. de Montalembert, Los Moines d'Occi
	dent, ii, 3=92 (on 6t. Benedict), 7 vole., Paris, 1880‑79,
	Eng, travel., 7 vole., London, 1881‑79, new ed., with in
	troduction by Dom Gasquet on the Rule, 8 vole., 1898;
	P. Htigli, Dar heilipe Benedik6, in Studies and MitAei7un
	pen sue dam Btnedict.‑Orden, year VI, Vol. i(1885), 141
	182; J. H. Newman, Mission of St. Benedict, inHkatorical
Sketches, vol. ii, London, 1885; F. C. Doyle, Teaching of 3t. Benedict, London, 188?; G. Gretamneher, Die Bedeutunp Banedikts . . . and seiner Repel, Berlin, 1892; L. Toeti, St. Benedict, Historical Discourse on his Life, travel. from the Ital., London, 1898 cf. St. Benedict and Orotfaferra, Essays on Toati'e Life of St. Benedict, ib. 1898.
On the order: BibZiopraphiadeaBenbdictinade France, $oIeames,1889; the fundamental work is J. Mabillon, Annalu ordiriia S. Benedicti,8 vols., Paris,1703‑39; Montalembert, ut
sup.; Sir Jas. Stephens, The French Benedictines, in Essays
in Ecclesiastical Biography, London, 1887; $. Branner, Bin
Benediktiver6ueh, wUrsbutg, 1880; Scriptorea ordinia s,
Benedicti in impaio AuaMiaco‑Hunparico, Vienna, 1881;
B. Weldon, Chronicle of English Benedictine Mocks, Lon
don, 1882 (covers the period from Mary to James II);
H. C. Lea, History o/ Sacerdotal Celibacy, Philadelphia,
1884, and of. his History of the Inquisition, new ed., New
York, 1908; J. H. Newman, Benedictine Schools, in His
torical Sketches, ut sup.; F. tE. Ranbek, Saints of the Order
of St. Benedict, London, 1890; E. L. Taunton, English
Black Monks of St. Benedict 2 vole., ib. 1897; Heim
bucher, Orden and Konprepationea, i, 92‑283. Of the Rule
among old editions the best is by L. Holatenius, Codex
repularum monastioarum, i, 111‑135, Augsburg, 1759; an
other is by E. Martt;ne in his Commentariue in regulam
$. Benedicti, Paris, 1890. The best edition is by E. Woe18
lin. Benedieti regale monachorum, Leipeie, 1895; serv‑
iceable are E. Schmidt, Die Repel du heilipen Banadich, R.egensburg, 1891, and . K. BFandes, Lebeo and Revel des . Bettedtkt, Vole. ii W, Einsiedeln 1858‑83. The
Latin and Anglo‑Saton Intelinear Trauelaticn was editAd by H. Logeman, London, 1888. The Rule was published in Eng travel., London, .1888 ib. 1898 in Thatcher and McNeal, Sours Book, pp, 4$~.4g5 in 'Henderson, Dacw. . PP. 274‑313; and by D. O. A. Blair, London,
1908. A bibliography of commentaries is in KL, ii, 324‑32b.
BEftEDICTIftES. ,gee BENEDICT OF NBRBIA.
BENEDICTION‑ In the Roman Catholic Church a part of every liturgical act, belonging to the clue of sacramentals (q.v.)‑i.e., thiap which wen

Benadiotioa	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	50
8eas11ee
instituted, foot by Christ but by the hierarchic
Church with divine authority, and which are sup
posed, is their application to persons and things,
to communicate quasi ex opera oPerato through or
dained priests the grace of God insisting in purifi
cation, supernatural revivification, and sanctifi
cation. The higher the hierarchical position of
him who bestows the blessing, the more power
ful it is. Benediction and exorcism are always
connected; the latter breaks demoniac influences
and drives away the demons, while the former
communicates divine powers, not only positively,
but also negatively in the way of purification,
by blotting out sins of omission and the tem
poral punishment of sins, and removing satanic
influences, thus having itself a sort of exorcism
though not explicit. Where exorcism alone takes
place, it is in an imperative manner, whereas the
benediction is preeative, yet with an effective di
vine power quasi. ex opera operato by means of the
sign of the cross. The personal benediction effects
either a lasting habitttia (e.g‑, anointing at baptism),
or a forma gratiee actualis for a passing object and
condition (e.g., benediction for travelers, and the
sick); both kinds work either in the main negatively
by the removal of satanic influences or positively
in illumination and bestowal of supernatural
strength in body and soul. Benedictions of things
are always primarily negative, and positive only
in the second place, that the use and enjoyment
of the objects may conduce to the welfare of man's
body and soul. The supernatural powers are
attached to the things by means of the benediction,
and in their effect they are independent of the con
duct of man; either they make the things perma
nently tea eacrce, affecting men in a purifying and
sanctifying manner (baptismal water, holy water,
rosaries, etc.), or they are of transient effect as
conveying God's grace and protection. Some
times they are also connected with indulgences.
If anointing is applied, the benediction becomes
a consecration, whereby the thing is dedicated to
the service of God (e.g., monstrances, crosses,
pictures, flags, organs, etc.).
	As to the Evangelical conception of the bene
dictions, the words of Johann Gerhard give the
proper point of view: " The priests [in the Old
Testament] blessed by praying for good things;
God blessed by bestowing the good thin. Their
blessing was votive, his effective. God promises
to confirm this sacerdotal blessing on condition
that it is given according to his word and will."
Thus it is only God who effectively blesses; that is,
communicates divine powers ‑of his grace and his
spirit; all human blessing is only intercession with
God for his blessing. [According to the Roman
Catholic view, the objective difference between
liturgical and extraliturgical, ecclesiastical and
private benediction is that in the former the efficacy
emanates from the Church as a body by whose
authority the rite was instituted and in whom name
it is conferred and, in consequence, is supposed to
be greater than in the latter where the effect de
pends on the intercession of an individual.] Accord
ing to the Evangelical idea, there exists no objective
difference between liturgical and eatraliturgical,
ecclesiastical and private benediction; it is only in a psychological way that the former may be more efficacious for the fulfilment of the subjective conditions of the hearing of prayer. Again, only persons, not things, can be blessed with God's spirit and grace. If things are nevertheless blessed, it means that they are net apart for ritual use; and so long as they are thus employed, they will be sacred, while they are desecrated when used lightly apart from ritual purposes. The benediction of things takes place only by metonymy; the things are mentioned, but the persona are meant who use them. Thus, e.g., a cemetery is dedicated to its special use and handed over to the reverential protection of the living; a church edifice is dedicated by its being used and offered to the living congregation as a valuable religious possession because of its use. But the Roman Catholic traditions still in many ways influence the ideas held even among Protestants on the subject of benediction.
E. C. AcaElla.

B:hr.ioaawra:: J. Gretaer, Do banadictionibw, Ingoletadt, 1615; J. Gerhard, Do bsrudictione sccleriaetioa, pp. 12521290, Jena, 1655; E. Martkne. De antiquie eecteries ritibua, vol. iii, Rouen, 1700; J. C. w. Augueti, DenkwArdigkeitea ava der chrisUiehen Archdofopia, iii, 392‑393, z, 186 eqq., 12 vole., Leipeie,1817‑31; A. J. Binterim, 3epen and Flush, in Denfrwardipksitan, vol. vii, part 2, Main:, 1841; L. Coleman, Apoatoliaot and Primitive Church, chap xiv, London, 1844; V. Thalhofer, Hand6wh der katholiechen Liturpik, ii, b23‑824, Freiburg, 1890; Bingham, Oripinea, XIV, iv, 18, XV, iii, 29; DCA, i, 193‑200 (elaborate).
BENEFICE.
Meshing of the Term (§ 1). Appointment to a Benefice Remuneration of Clergy (§ 2). (§ 4).
Provisions Affecting Bane‑ Rights of s Benefice (§ b). ,
fioee (§ 3.) 	Tenure (§ 8).

	Benefice (beneftcium eccleaiasticum) is a term
which includes two meanings: the spiritual, relating
to the ecclesiastical duties attached to it; and the
temporal, relating to the income and other worldly
advantages of the office. The latter is more strict
ly the meaning of the word, though the connection
o: the two was early recognized in the phrase
bane ficium dotur Propter off'tcium. Indeed, the term
beneficitsm is not generally used where there is only
		the temporaM aide, with no corre
:. Meaning spending duties. Such a case may be
of the Term: a commends, whose holder has a right
		to the revenues of a church without
any responsibilities; or a prcestimonium, which is
a charge for support on the revenues of the church;
or a peenaio, the use of a part of the revenues.
These relations, however, when they are perma
nent fall under the general rules applicable to
benefices. The benefice proper is ordinarily per
manent, though sometimes founded for a specified
time.
Historically in the primitive Church all the property of a diocese formed one whole, administered by the bishop; its purpose was primarily the support of the poor‑bishop and clergy.lived se belonging to that class, and were supposed, if they had no private means, to support themselves by their own labors. Those who had no other means of support received a monthly stipend from

61	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Benediction
BeneSce
the general fund. With the recognition of the Church under Constantine, and the consequent
accession of considerable property s. Remu‑ and state subventions, the system aeration of changed. But in law the episcopal Clergy. church was still the unit in any con‑
sideration of diocesan property, and the bishop still its exclusive custodian. This remained the case when church property was divided into three or into four parts (see CHURCH BUILDING, TAXATION FOR) and one part destined for the support of the clergy. While, however, it was long before the theory changed, in practise there was a tendency to decentralization, and the individual parishes began to be recognized as separate unite. This arose largely from donations and endowments destined by the donor for a particular church, whose clergy were to be supported out of their returns. After the fifth century it became customary for the bishops, instead of paying their clergy out of a central fund, to assign pieces of land for their support and that of the poor and of public worship. These assignments became gradually irrevocable, and thus finally the diocesan unity was dissolved, and the separate churches came into permanent possession of these properties.
The intimate connection between officium and bane flcium is shown by a review of the provisions affecting benefices. They are divided into regular and secular, according as they are served by incur antic or secular clergy; into beneTccia curate, those to which the cure of souls is attached, and non
curate, such as those of chaplains, 3. Provisions canons of cathedrals, and the like.
	Affecting	The Council of Trent forbade changing
	Benefices.	a bane fecium curatum into a non
		curatum or simplex. The erection
or constitution of a benefice, the permanent attach
ment of certain revenues to the performance of
certain duties, was held to be reserved to the eccle
siastical authorities. The foundation of bishoprics
was originally a function of provincial synods,
but later came to the pope, who also had power
alone to found collegiate churches. The bishop
has power to found other benefices within his dio
cese, and his officials decide whether the endowment
is sufficient and whether the proposed foundation
will be useful and not injure any other party.
The founder has certain rights of imposing con
ditions for the tenure of his benefice, which, once
confirmed, are perpetual.
The appointment to a benefice (Provisio, inatitutio canonise) includes the choice of the person (designatio) and the conferring of the benefice (codladio, conceaaio, inatitutio in the narrower sense). The
designation to the greater benefices 4. Appoint‑ (bishoprics and the like) is sometimes went to a by election, sometimes by nomination Benefice. of the sovereign; to the lesser, by the choice of the bishop, frequently on the nomination of a patron. The collation is the act of ecclesiastical superiors‑of the pope .to bishoprics (con firmatio), of the bishop to the lesser benefices.
The conditions of a proper canonical appointment to a benefice are several: (1) A vacancy
must exist, and that a real one, not such as would be caused by the forcible expulsion of the incumbent. Thus expectancies (q.v.) are forbidden; but the election of a coadjutor‑bishop cum jure aucceasionis is allowed. (2) The person appointed must be a persona regularis and idonee, i.e., properly qualified to hold the benefice. Under this head comes the possession of the qualifications necessary for ordination (q.v.), though, where it is required, a delay of a year or other specified time may be granted. Intellectual qualifications are included, to be determined, according to the Council of Trent, by examination; and the law has sometimes required native birth also, other things being equal. (3) The appointment must be made within the legal time, the rule being that no benefice shall remain vacant more than six months; otherwise the right of presentation is lost (see DEVOLUTION, LAw OF). (4) There must be no simony involved. (5) What are called subreption and obreption are also forbidden; this affects especially cases where a person obtains a benefice without letting it be known that he already holds another. The church law forbids plurality of benefices, except, for example, in cases where a bane ficium simplex is held concurrently with a bane ficium curatum, these being held to be compatible. This rule was often violated by papal dispensation, which caused great dissatisfaction. (6) The proper forms, both in the designation and in the collation, must be observed (Bee BISHOP; INVESTITURE; etc.).
The rights and duties connected with a benefice are partly matters of universal law, partly special to the particular case. The incumbent has a right to the usufruct of any property belonging to the benefice, tithes, fees, oblations, ate.
g. Rights All this is his absolutely; but the
of a view that he ought only to use so Benefice. much of it as will suffice for his support, devoting the rest to ecclesiastical purposes and especially to the poor, influenced legislation very early, so that what came from the Church was supposed to revert to the Church, if it had not been used, at the cleric's death. This rule, which at one time was positive, has been very much relaxed, within certain limits. Of course the incumbent's power over church property is limited by the rights of his successor, arid no arrangements can be made lasting beyond his lifetime, unless by the concurrence of the proper authorities.
A benefice is supposed to be conferred for life, and is normally vacated only by the death of the incumbent, but it may be vacated earlier by resignation, either express or tacit. Resignation can not be arbitrary with the incumbent, as he has by his acceptance of it incurred certain obligations from which he moat be released‑bishops by the pope, the lower clergy by their bishops. There must also be a valid ground for it‑
6. Tenure. Tacit resignation may come about through any act which ipso facto dissolves the relationship: the taking monastic vows by the holder of a beneficium stvculare, the aeeeptance of a secular office, marriage (see CELIBACY), the acceptance of another incompatible benefice,

8eneficium
Bennett	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	52
change of faith, etc. Vacation as a penalty may occur through deprivation or remotion; this includes the transfer of a priest, as a disciplinary measure, to a smaller charge.
[The technical use of the word benefice in Protestant Churches is largely confined to the Church of England where a great part of the prescriptions given above is still in force. In the statute law of England the term is practically restricted to a benefice with cure of souls, as distinct from cathedral preferment. In the State Churches of Germany also the distinction between beneTtcium and offccium is still maintained, and the erection and alteration of benefices is a matter concerning jointly the ecclesiastical and secular authorities. Here the ordinary collator to a benefice is the conaistory. The tendency of the most modern legislation is toward giving the congregation a voice in the selection of the pastor.
(E. FRIEDBERCL)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bingham, Originea, book v; L. Thomsesin, Vetaa et nova eccleaia diaeipLina, II, iii, 13, § 5, Paris, 1698;
C. Gross, Dan Recht an der Pfrfande, Gras, 1887; Galarite,
ll beneficio eccleaiastico, Milan, 1895; U. 6tuts, Oeachichte
den kirchlirhen Bsnefizialuxaens van aeinen Anfttnpan bie
auf die Zeit Alexandere 111, Berlin, 1895.
BEIIEFICIUM COMPETEftTIE: The privilege by which a condemned debtor is allowed to retain so much of his income as is absolutely necessary to his maintenance. Such a privilege exists in many places, in the interest of the public service, for officials and also $or clerics. For the latter the custom is usually referred to the decree of Gregory IX (1271‑76) De solutionibtta (iii, 23). This passage, however, only establishes the principle that an unbeneficed clerical debtor can not be forced to pay by spiritual penalties, and that the creditors are to be content with sufficient security for payment when the debtor's circumstances improve. The glosses, and common practice following them, base the privilege upon the decree, and statute law has confirmed it, restricting any levy upon the salary or other income of such a. cleric so that a certain sum is left to him as congrua (sustentatio). This privilege can not be pleaded in the case of debts arising from unlawful transactions or of public
taxes. 	(E. FRIEDBER(i.)
BENEFIT OF CLERGY: A privilege claimed by the medieval Church; as part of its general plea of immunity from secular interference. It allowed members of the clergy to have their trial for offenses with which they were charged, not before any secular tribunal, but in the bishop's court. In England thin covered practically all cases of felony except treason against the king, and by the reign of Henry II it had given rise to great abusers. In many eases grossly criminal acts of clerics escaped unpunished, sad other criminals eluded the penalty of their acts by declaring themselves clerics. The question was one of those on which the quarrel between the king and Becket reached its acute stage; and by the Constitutions of Clarendon (1164; see Bxetzr, TsoasAS) Henry attempted to deal with it by decreeing that clerics accused of crime were to be first arraigned in the king's court, which might at its dis‑
cretion send them to an ecclesiastical court. If convicted here and degraded (see DEGRADATION), the clerk was to lose his benefit of clergy and be amenable to lay justice. Edward III extended the privilege in 1330 to include all persons who could read (see CLERK); and it was not until the fifteenth century that any very definite regulation of thin dangerous latitude was arrived at. Later statutes guarded against the evasion of their provisions by expressly declaring that their operation was " without benefit of clergy," and the privilege was finally abolished in 1827. There are a few early cases of its use in the American colonies, especially the Carolinas and Virginia; but an Act of Congress put an end to it here in 1790.

	BENEZET, ben"e‑zet', ANTHONY: Quaker
philanthropist; b. at St. Quentin, France, Jan. 31,
1714; d. at Philadelphia May 3,1784. He belonged
to a Huguenot family which settled in England in
1715, joined the Quakers there, and came to Phila
delphia is 1731. He was a cooper by trade, but
gave his life after coming to America to teaching
and to philanthropic efforts, against slavery and
war, in behalf of the American Indiana, and the
total abstinence cause. In 1742 he became Eng
lish master in the Friends' School at Philadelphia
and in 1755 established a girls' school there. In
1750 he undertook an evening school for slaves.
He wrote many tracts against the slave trade
and printed and distributed them at his own ex
pense; he also published A Short Account of the
People Called Quakers (Philadelphia, 1780); The
Plainness and Innocent Simplicity of the Christi
Religion (1782); Some Observations on the Situation,
Disposition, and Character o f the Indian Natives
of this Continent (1784).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Vsux, Memoir of Anthony Beneaet, Phi. delphia, 1817, revised by w. Armistead, London, 1859.

BENGEL, JOHANN ALBRECHT: German Lutheran; b. at Winnenden (12 m, n.e. of Stuttgart), Wiirttemberg, June 24, 1687; d. at Stuttgart Nov. 2, 1752. He studied at Tiibingen, and devoted himself especially, to the sacred text; he was also intent upon philosophy, paying particular attention to Spinoza. After a year in the ministry as vicar at Metzingen, he became theological repetent at Tiibingen in 1708; and in 1713 was appointed professor at the cloister‑school at Denkendorf, a seminary for the early training of candidates for the ministry. During this year he traveled through Germany, visiting the schools, including those of the Jesuits, to learn their methods. At Denkendorf he published in 1719 his first work, an edition of the Epistolte Cicermtia ad familaares, with notes; then Gregorsi panegyricua grtsoe d Wing (1722), and Chrysostomi h'bri. vi de stleerdotio (1725), to which he added Prodromvs Novi Teatamenti recte cauteque ordintrndi. His chief work, however, was upon the New Testament. While a student, he was much perplexed by the various readings in the text, and with characteristic energy and perseverance he immediately began to investigate the subject. He procured all the editions, manuscripts, and ‑translations possible, and in 1734 published his text and an Apparatus criticua, which became

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Beseflcinm Bennett
the starting‑point for modern text‑criticism of the New Testament. His famous canon was: " The more difficult reading is to be preferred." This critical work was followed by an exegetical one, Gnomon Nova Teatamenti (Tiibingen, 1742), which has often been reprinted in Latin, and was translated into German by C. F. Werner (1853, 3d ed., 1876) and into English in Clark's Library (5 vole., Edinburgh, 1857‑58) and in an improved edition by Lewis and Vincent (2 vole., Philadelphia, 18601861). As a brief and suggestive commentary on the New Testament, the Gnomon is still of use.
Bengel's chief principle of interpretation, briefly stated, is to read nothing into the Scriptures, but draw everything from them, and suffer nothing to remain hidden that is really in them. His Gnomon exerted considerable influence on exegesis in Germany, and John Wesley translated moat of its notes and incorporated them into his Annotatory Notes upon the New Testament (London, 1755). In 1740 appeared Bengel's Erklarte O ff enbarung Johannis, often reprinted (Eng. transl. by John Robertson, London, 1757); in 1741 his Ordo temporum, and in 1745 his Cyclus sine de anno magno consideratio. In these chronological works he endeavored to fix the " number of the beast " and the date of the " millennium," which he placed in the year 1836. In 1741 he was made prelate of Herbrechtingen; in 1749 member of conaiatory and prelate of Alpirapach, with residence at Stuttgart; and two years later Tiibingen honored him with the doctorate.
(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The best life is by O. Wachter, J. A. Bengel. Lebaruabriaa, Stuttgart, 1885; of. idem, Benpel and Otinpcr, Gtiteraloh, 1883; a life was written by his eon and included in the Introduction to the Gnomon, where it is usually found; in more complete form by his great‑grandson J. C. F. Burk, J. A. Benpela Lebsn and Wirken, Stuttgart, 1831, Eng. traasl. by Walker, London, 1837; E. Nestle, Bengel ale Gclehrter, T>76ingen, 1893.

BENHAM, WILLIAM: Church of England; b. at Weatmeon (16 In. n.e. of Southampton), Hants., Jan. 15, 1831. He was educated at St. Mark's College, Chelsea, and King's College, London (Theological Associate, 1857), and was a village schoolmaster from 1849 to 1852, and a private tutor from 1853 to 1858. He was ordered deacon in 1857 and ordained priest in the following year, and after acting as tutor in St. Mark's College from 1857 to 1864, was editorial secretary of the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge from 1864 to 1867, and professor of modern history in Queen's College, London, from 1864 to 1871. He was successively curate of St. Lawrence, Jewry, London (18657), vicar of Addington (1867‑73), St. John the Baptist, Margate (1873‑80), and Marden, Kent (1880‑82), as well as Six‑Preacher of Canterbury Cathedral from 1872 to 1888, and Boyle Lecturer in 1897. From 1882 he was rector of St. Edmund's, Lombard Street, and was honorary canon of Canterbury from 1885. He was also rural dean of East City from 1903. In theology he was a Broad‑church disciple of F. D. Maurice. Died at London July 30, 1910. His works are: The Gospel of St. Matthew, with Notes and a Commentary (London, 1862); English Ballads, with
Introduction and Notes (1863); T;se Epistles for the Christian Year, with Notes and Commentary (1864); The Church of the Patriarchs (1867); Companion to the Lediortary (1872); A New Translation of Thomas a Kempis' " Imitatio Christi " (1874); Readings on the Life of our Lord and His Apostles (1880); How to Teach the Old Testament (1881); Annals of the Diocese of Winchester (1884); A Shod History o f the Episcopal Church in America (1884); The Dictionary of Religion (1887); and Old St. Paul's Cathedral (1902). He collaborated with R. P. Davidson and with C. Welsh in Meditevad London (1901); and edited the Life of Archbiat.op Tait (London, 1891); The Writings of St. John, in the Temple Bible (1902), and the Ancient and Modern Library of Theological Literature.
BENJAMIN OF TUDELA (a town of Navarre, on the Ebro, 160 miles n.e. of Madrid): Properly Benjamin ben Jonah, a Spanish rabbi, who in 1160 (or 1165; cf. Gratz, Geschichte der Juden, vi, note 10) left home and traveled through Catalonia, southern France, Italy, Greece, the islands of the Levant, Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia to Bagdad; thence he proceeded to Egypt by way of Khuziatan, the Indian Ocean, and Yemen; and finally returned to Spain in 1173. The information which he gathered with great diligence not only concerning the places visited, but also of adjoining lands, was written down in a Hebrew work (Massa'oth steel rabbi Binyamin, " Itinerary of the Rabbi Benjamin "), which is one of the most famous of early booksof travel. Benjamin was credulous, perhaps deficient in general information, and interested primarily in things Jewish; his book abounds in errors and absurdities, but it does not, justify the charge of deliberate falsification, and it
i	contains much that is true and valuable not only concerning the numbers, status, and dispersion of the Jews of the twelfth century, but also concerning general history, political conditions, trade, descriptions of places, and the like.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The " Itinerary " was first published at Constantinople in 1543; then Ferrara, 1558; Freiburg, 1583; and many times subsequently. Arise Montanus end C. 1'Empereut issued the text with a Latin translation, the former at Antwerp, 1575; the latter at Leyden, 1833. An English translation (from the Latin of Arise Montanus) was published in Purchas's Pilgrims, London, 1825, and is given in Bohn's Early Travels in Palestine, London, 1848. Others (with text) are by A. Aaher, 2 vole., London, 1840‑41, and M. N. Adler, London, 1907, the latter based on a British Museum MS. which differs considerably from other copies. A Germ, travel., with text, notes, etc., by L. Grtinhut and M. N. Adler, was published at Frankfort, 2 vole. 1903‑04. Consult also M. N. Adler, in the Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, Oct., 1894.
BERAE1f, JAMES: Congregationalist; b. in London May 22, 1774; d. there Dec. 4, 1862. He studied for the ministry at Gosport under the Rev. David Bogus; was ordained at Romaey, Hamshire, 1797, and was minister there till 1813, when he became theological tutor of the Rotherham Independent College, and minister of the church there; pastor of the church in Silver Street (afterward removed to Falcon Square), London, 1828‑60. He was an associate of the Haldanes in some of their tours, was a secretary of the London Missionary

y	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	54
Society, was chairman of the Congregational Union
1840, and attracted much attention by his defense
of Christianity against the unbelief of his time.
His publications include The History of Dissenters
from the Revolution to 1808, is collaboration with
Dr. Bogus (4 vole., London, 1808‑12; 2d ed., 2
vole., 1833), continued in The History o f Dissenters
during the Last Thirty Years (1839); The Star of
the West, being memoirs of R. Darracott (1813);
Lectures on the History o f Jesus Christ (3 vole.,
1825; 2d ed., 2 vole., 1828), supplemented by Lec
tures on the Preaching of Christ (1836); Memoirs of
the Life of David Bogus (1827) An Antidote to In
fidelity, lectures delivered in 1831, and A Second
Antidote to Ire f delity (1831); Justification as Re
vealed in Scripture in Opposition to the Council of
Trent and Mr. Newman's Lectures (1840); The The
ology o f the Early Christian Church Exhibited in
Quotations from the Writers of the First Three Cen
turies, Congregational lecture, 1841; Lectures on
the Acts o f the Apostles (1846).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Memorials of the Late James Bennstt, D.D.,
including Sermons Preached on the Occasion o/ his Death,
London, 1883; DNB, iv, 242‑243.

BENNETT, WILLIAM HENRY: English Congregationalist; b. at London May 22,1855. He was educated at Lancashire Independent College (1873‑82) and Owens College, Manchester, London University (B.A.,1875), and St. John's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1882), and was professor in Rotherham College from 1884 to 1888 and lecturer in Hebrew in Firth College, Sheffield, in 1887‑88. He has been professor of Old Testament exegesis in Hackney College, London, since 1888 and in New College, London, since 1891. He was also first secretary to the Board of Theology in the University of London in 1901‑03, and has been examiner in the Old Testament to the University of Wales since 1904, se well as s recognized teacher in the same institution niece 1901. He has edited Chronicles and Jeremiah in The Expositor's Bile (London, 1894‑95); Joshua in The Sacred Books of the Old Testament (1895) and in The Polychrome Bible (NewYork,1899); General Epistles and Genesis in The Century Bible (London, 1901, 1903); and Joshua is The Temple Bible (1904). He hen also written Theology of the Old Testament (London, 1898); Primer of the Bible (1897); and Biblical Introduction (1899; in collaboration with W. F. Adeney).

BENNO: Bishop of Meissen; b. at Hildesheim or Goslar 1010; d. at Meissen June 18, 1108, according to the traditional accounts. The first certain fact in his life is that he was a canon of Goelar. He was made bishop of Meissen in 1086, and appears as a supporter of the Saxon insurrection of 1073, though Lambert of Herefeld and other contemporary authorities attribute little weight to his share in it. Henry IV imprisoned him, however, but released him in 1078 on his taking an oath of fidelity, which he did not keep. He appeared again in the ranks of the king's enemies, and was accordingly deprived of his bishopric by the Synod of Main$ in 1085. Benno betook himself to Guibert, the antipope supported by Henry as Clement III, and by a penitent acknowledgment of his
offenses obtained from him both absolution and a
letter of commendation to Henry, on the basis of
which he was restored to his see. He promised,
apparently, to use his influence for peace with the
Saxons, but again failed to keep his promise, re
turning in 1097 to the papal party and recognising
Urban II as the rightful pope. With this he dis
appears from authentic history; there is no evi
dence to support the later stories of his missionary
activity and zeal for church‑building and for
ecclesiastical music. His elevation to the fame
of sainthood seems to have been due partly
to the need of funds to complete the cathedral
of Meissen, and partly to the wish to have‑ a
local or diocesan saint. He was officially can
onized by Adrian VI in 1523, ae a demonstration
against the Lutheran movement, which Luther
acknowledged by a fierce polemical treatise. His
relics were solemnly dug up and venerated in 1524;
but as the Reformation progressed they were no
longer appreciated in Meissen, and Albert V of
Bavaria obtained permission to remove them in
1578 to Munich, of which city Benno is considered
the patron saint. 	(A. Hwucg.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Several early .accounts in prose and verse of Benno's life and miracles were collected in ASB, June, iii, 148‑231. Consult: O. Longer, Biecho/ Benno von Meissen, in Mittheilunpen den Vereine far Geachiehte der Stadt Meissen, i. 3 (1884). DD. 70‑9b. i, b (1888), pp. 1‑38, ii, 2 (1888), pp. 99‑i44; E. Msebatechek, Oeechiclvte der Biach6fe des Horhatiftes H. PP. 85‑94. Dresden, 1884; R. Doebner, AktenetUcke sur Oeachichte der Vita Bsnno‑his, in Neuss Archiv far edcheiache Oeachichte, vii, 131‑144, Dresden, 1888; %. P. Will, Sand Banns, Biaclwf van Meissen, Dresden, 1887.
BENOIST (BENOIT), be‑nwd', ELIE: French Protestant; b. at Paris Jan. 20,1840; d. at Delft Nov. 15, 1728. His parents were servants of the Protestant family La Tremoille. He early displayed fondness for the classics, studied at Montaigu College and at La Marche (Paris), and taught privately in divinity at Montauban. In 1664 he was ordained, and the following year was called to Alenpon, where he served for twenty years as Protestant minister, with as much prudence as capacity. He met with much opposition from the Roman Catholics, especially from the Jesuit De Is, Rue, who attacked him and even incited a riot against him. After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Benoist went to Holland, and was called as minister to the church of Delft, near The Hague, where he stayed thirty years. He wrote Lettre d'un Pasteur banni de son pays h use ‑Oglisa qui n'a pas fait eon devoir daps la dernie're PeraPcrctiora (Cologne, 1888); Histoire ct aPologee de la retraite des pasteura d cause de la perse=cution de France (Frankfort, 1887); H%atoire de l'‑0dit de Nantes (b parts, Delft, 1693‑95; Eng. travel., London, 1894).
G. Borra"1‑Mevxy.
BIHLIOaaAP87; P. Pascal, lie Banoiat at d'Epliss rE/ormEe d'Alenron, Paris, 1892; E. and t. Hsag, La Franca proter (ante, ii, 289 eqq., 2d ed. by Bordier Paris, 1877 eqq.; Bulletinde 2a aocikt8 d'hiAtoire du yrotatantiams fransaia, 1878, p. 259,1884, pp. 112, 182.
BENOIST (BENOIT), RERE: Roman Catholic theologian; b. at 8avenicres, near Angers, in 1521; d. at Paris Mar, 7, 1608. He accompanied Mary

66	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	~tley
Stuart to Scotland se her confessor in 1581; after his return to France was appointed pastor of the church of St. Eustache in Paris in 1569, and played a conspicuous part in the controversies of the Ligue as one of the leaders of the opposition to the Guises and the Ultramoatanes. In 1566 he published a translation of the Bible, which, however, was little more than a reprint of the Geneva translation; it has been said that he knew little of either Hebrew or Greek. The translation was condemned by . the theological faculty of the University of Paris in 1567 and by Pope Gregory XIII in 1575, and Benoist was expelled from the Borbonne in 1572. He was reinstated by Henry IV and, to reenter the faculty, subscribed his owe condemnation. He exasperated the Ultramontsnes still more by maintaining that the king did not forfeit his right to the throne by professing the Protestant faith. He had influence in bringing about Henry's change of faith, and the latter made him his confessor and appointed him bishop of Troyes, but the pope refused confirmation, and in 1604 he had to renounce the office. He was a voluminous writer.
B133LIOGRAPRT: J. C. F. Hoefer, Biopraphie pEnlrala, v, 395,
	48 vole., Paris, 1852‑88; C. du Pleesie d'Argentr6; Colleetio
	judiciorum, II, i, 392‑393, b33‑584, 3 vole., Paris, 1728‑38.

BENRATH, KARL: German Protestant theologian; b. at DQren (22 m. s.w. of Cologne) Aug. 16, 1845. He was educated at the universities of Bonn, Berlin, and Heidelberg (18647), and taught in his native city until. 1871. From 1871 to 1875 he studied in Italy, chiefly in Rome. In 1876 he became privet‑docent at Bonn and associate professor in 1879. In 1890 he was called to Kdnigsberg as professor of church history. He has written Bernardino Ochino von Siena (Leipsic, 1875); Die Quellen der italieniachere Reformationageschichte (Bonn, 1876); Geschichte der Reformation in Venedig (Halls, 1887); and Julia Gonzaga (1900). He has also edited Die Summa der~heiligen Schrift, sin Zeugniss aua dam Zeitalter der Reformation (Leipsie, 1880); Luther's Schrift an den christlichen Adel deutscher Nation (Halls, 1884); and K. R. Hagenbaeh's Lehrbuch der Dogmengeachiehte (6th eel., Leipsic, 1889).

	BEftSLY, ROBERT LUBBOCK: Orientalist;
b. at Eaton (2 m. s.w. of Norwich), Norfolk, Eng
land, Aug. 24,1831; d. at Cambridge Apr. 23, 1893.
He was educated. at King's College, London, and
Gonville and Cius College, Cambridge; studied
in Germany; was appointed ,reader in Hebrew
at Gonville and Caius College 1883; elected fellow
1876; became lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac in
his college; was made professor of Arabic 1887;
examiner is the Hebrew text of the Old Testament
in the University of London; was a member of
the Old Testament Revision Company; accom
panied Mrs. Lewis and Mrs. Gibson on the trip to
Sinai on which the palimpsest of the Syriac Gospels
was discovered (see B1BLE V>casloNS, A, 111, 1, § 2).
He has edited The Missing Fragment of the Latin
Translation o f the Fourth Book o f Ezra, discovered
and edited with an Introduction and Notes (Cam
bridge, 1875); contributed The Harklean Version
of lleb. xi, BS‑ziii, 25 to the Proceedings of the
Congress o f Orientaliata of 1889; assisted in the editing of the Sinaitic palimpsest; edited IV Maoaabees (to which he devoted twenty‑seven years of labor), published posthumously (Cambridge, 1895); wrote Our Journey to Sinai, Visit to the Conroant of St. Catarina, with a chapter on the Sinai Palimpsest (London, 1896); edited St. Clement's Epistles to the Corinthians in Syriac (London, 1899).
Brsuoossra:: H. T. Francis, 1» Memoriam R. L. Benaly. Cambridge, 1893: DNB; Supplement, vol. i, 171.

BENSON, EDWARD WHITE: Archbishop of Canterbury; b. at Birmingham July 14, 1820; d. at Hawarden (6 m. e. of Chester) Oct. 11, 1896. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge (BA., 1852); became master at Rugby 1852; was ordained priest 1857; in 1859 was appointed first head master of Wellington College (on the border of Windsor forest, near Wokingham, Berkshire); was appointed examining chaplain by the bishop of Lincoln (Christopher Wordsworth) in 1868, prebendary of Lincoln 1889, and chancellor and reaidentiary canon 1872, when he resigned his mastership and took up his residence at Lincoln. In 1877 he was consecrated first bishop of Truro (Cornwall); and was translated to Canterbury in 1883. He was a man of great energy, determined, and self‑reliant. His industry was unremitting, and he found time for reading and study, the (nuts of which appeared in the posthumous publications Cyprian, his Life, his Times, his Work (London, 1897) and The Apocalypse (1899). His administrative ability was shown in the development of Wellington College, which was practically his creation, and the thorough and efficient organization of the new diocese of Truro, where he formed a divinity school to train candidates for holy orders, began the erection of ~ a cathedral, and founded and strengthened schools. He was the first bishop to appoint a canon miesioner. As archbishop he strove for legislation effecting reforms in church patronage and discipline; opposed and prevented the disestablishment of the Church of Wales; created, in 1886, a body of laymen to act in an advisory capacity with the avocation of his prowince; cultivated cordial relations with the Nestoriane and other Eastern Christians, but repelled what may have been intended as an advance to his own Church from Rome. He sat as judge in the trial of Bishop.King of Lincoln, charged with certain ritual offenses (1889‑90), and in the judgment which he delivered produced a masterly exposition of the law of the prayer‑book, based upon the entire history of the English Church. Besides the works already mentioned, a volume of Prayers, Public and Private appeased posthumously (1899), and he published during his lifetime several volumes of sermons and addresses.
Bisntooasra:: A. C. Benson, Life of B. W. Benson, 2 vole., London, 1899, abridged eel., 1901 (by his eldest eon); J. H. Bernard. Arc)<bielbp Benson in Ireland, London, 1898; DNB, Supplement, vol. i, 17l‑179.
BENTLEY, RICHARD: English theologian and scholar; b. at Oulton, near Wakefield (25 m. sm. of York), Yorkshire, Jan. 27, 1862; d. at Cambridge July 14; 1742. He was the eon of a black‑

CB ntley
	rengar	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	56
smith, was grounded in Latin by his mother, studied at the grammar‑school at Wakefield, and was admitted at the age of fourteen (the usual age of matriculation was seventeen or eighteen) to St. John's College, Cambridge. He took his first degree in 1680 with honor in logic, ethics, natural science, and mathematics, and became schoolmaster at Spalding in Lincolnshire. But Stillingfleet, the wealthy and learned dean of St. Paul's, soon called him to London to superintend his son's studies. He took his pupil in later years to Oxford and reveled there among the manuscripts in pursuance of his researches in profane and especially Biblical literature, entering on his life's work of treating and publishing texts. He had taken his M.A. at Cambridge in 1684 and received the same degree from Oxford probably in 1689. Before his twenty‑fourth year he had started for himself a hexapla dictionary; in the first column stood every Hebrew word in the Bible and in the other five all the different translations of these words in Chaldee, Syriac, Latin, and Greek (both the Septuagint and Aquila). His Latin letter of ninety‑eight pages to John Mill appeared in 1691 as an appendix to an edition of the chronicle of Malalas and presented a mass of critical research, including much drawn from manuscripts; he moved over the field of classical literature as if it were his library of which he knew every inch, and showed himself a master in criticizing the origin of books, in following up etymological rules, in explaining their use, and in dealing with meter. In this, his virgin effort, he gave explanations and corrections for some sixty Greek and Latin authors. He wrote like an authority, and in the happiest manner. He published Callimtxchva (1693), Phalaris (1699; the debate is still interesting), Menander arid Philemon (1710), Horace (1711), Terence (1726), and Manili2ts (1739); his edition of Milton's Paradise Lost appeared in 1732.
Ordained 1690, probably at once StillingHeet's house‑chaplain, he became canon of Worcester in 1692, librarian to the king in 1694, chaplain in ordinary to the king in 1695, D.D. from Cambridge and Master of Trinity in 1699, vice‑chancellor of the University 1700, archdeacon of Ely 1701. His intrigues secured his election as regiua professor of theology in 1717. His apparent love of power led the academic senate, Oct. 17, 1718, to deprive him, illegally, of his academic degrees, which a decree of court restored to him in 1724. He was almost always in hot water either in literature, in his college, or in politics. Legally deprived of his mastership in 1734, he kept it, simply because the man who should oust him did not choose to move.
He delivered the first Boyle lectures (see BOYLE, ROBERT) in 1692, his intimate friend Isaac Newton helping him. He wrote against the freethinker Collins in 1713. Sterns quoted in Tristram Shandy his sermon on papistry, 1715. In 1691 he wrote to John Mill about the text of the New Testament, in 1713 he discussed the readings, and in 1720 he published his proposals for a new edition. At least from 1716 on, sad apparently as late as 1732, he caused collations to be made in the libraries from
London to Rome. But he did not publish an edition, probably because he found it impossible to give what he wished to give. His collations are in the library of Trinity College.
CASPAR RENi L' GREGORY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY; The best life is by R. C. Jebb, in English Men of Letters, London, 1887. Consult also J. H. Monk, Life of Richard Bentley . . with an Account of his Writings, 2d corrected ed., ib. 1833; A. A. Ellis, Bentleii critics #a‑era, Cambridge, 1862; DNB, iv, 306‑314.

BENTON, ANGELO AXES: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Canes (Khania), on the island of Crete, July 3, 1837. He studied at Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. (B.A., 1856) and the General Theological Seminary, New York city (1860). He held various parishes in North CaroTina from 1860 to 1883, when he was appointed professor of mathematics and modern languages at Delaware College, Newark, Delaware, being transferred to the chair of Greek and Latin two years later. In 1887 he accepted a call to the University of the South as professor of dogmatic theology, where he remained until 1894, being likewise rector of the Otey Memorial Church, Sewanee, from 1893 to 1895. He was then rector at Albion, Ill., in 1895‑1904, this being interrupted by a temporary charge at Tarentum, Pa. Since 1905 he has held a temporary charge at Foxburg, Pa. His chief literary work has been the editing of the Church Encyclopedia (Philadelphia, 1884).

BEftZINGER, EMMANUEL (GUSTAV ADOLF):
German Orientalist; b. at Stuttgart Feb. 21, 1865. He was educated at the University of Ttibingen (Ph.D., 1888; licentiate of theology, 1894), and after a pastorate at Neuenatadt, Wiirttemberg, from 1894 to 1898, was privat‑docent for Old Testament theology at the University of Berlin until 1901, when he retired, and has since resided in Palestine. In theology he belongs to the hiatoricocritical school. He has been a member of the Deutacher Palkstintxverein since 1888, editing its journal in 1897‑1902, and has also been on the executive committee of the Deutscher Yerein zur Erforschung PalCistinaa since 1897. He has written Hebrdische ArchBoloyie (Freiburg, 1894, 2d ed.1907); CommentarzudenKBrtigsbuchem(1899) and Ctrmmentar zu der Chronik (1901), both in the Rurzer Hard‑Kommentar ztem Alter Testament; and Geachichte des Yolkes Israels (Leipaie,1904). He likewise collaborated with R. J. Hartmann in Paldstina (Stuttgart, 1899), and with Frohnmeyer in Bilderatlas zur Btbelkunde (1905), and has edited Baedeker's Palfiatina und. Syrian since the third edition (1889).

BERZO: Bishop of Alba, a zealous partizan of Henry IV; b. about the beginning of the eleventh century; d. not earlier than 1085 or 1086. Little that is definitely attested can be related of his life; but it may be reasonably conjectured that he came originally from southern Italy, that he gained some sort of a position at the German Court, possibly as one of the chaplains of Henry III, and that before 1059 he was rained to the bishopric of Albs by Henry's influence. He was one of the moat devoted upholders of the Italian claims of the

67	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
German kings, and a bitter opponent of the Hildebrandine party. His most prosperous days fell in the period of the schism between Honorius II and Alexander II, when he went to Rome (at the end of 1061) charged by the empress Agnes with the mission of supporting the former, the imperial candidate for the papacy, to whom he remained faithful even after Alexander's supremacy was assured. Later, he was a victim of the Patarene movement (see Dl ATARENES), when in 1078 or 1077 popular disturbances drove him from his see. Ill luck followed him during the rest of his life. Though he may have taken part in Henry IV's first expedition to Rome, we never again find him in an important political position; and the latest indications to be gathered from his writings leave the picture of a man broken by poverty and illness, and still waiting for the emperor to reward him for long and faithful services. His Libri vii ad Henricum IV do not make up a single work, but are a collection of separate writings in both prose and verse which he put together into a sort of mosaic shortly before his death. Their special interest flea is the fact that they give an admirable insight into the views of the extreme imperialists, who were carried away by boundless hatred of Gregory VII. Benzo puts forth original views on the constitution of the State and on ecclesiastical politics from the standpoint of a convinced supporter of the empire. His Panegtfrictts, since the time and manner of the composition of its several books have been definitely determined, is now more highly regarded as an authority on the period of
the schism. 	CARL MIRBT.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benao's Ad Henricum IV imgxratorem Iibri aeptem, ed. K. Perta, is in MGH, Script., xi, b91‑881, Hanover, 1854. On his life and work consult: W. von Gieeebrecht, Anualea Altahenaea, pp. 123, 213‑227, Berlin, 1841; idem, Geachiehte der Kaiaerzeit, ii, 535, Brunswick, 1975 (in opposition to the work of K. J. Will, next mentioned); K. J. Will, Benzoa Panepyrikua, Marburg, 1867; H. LehmgrGbner, Bauxo von Albs, . . . aein Leben uad . . . " Panegyric"," Berlin, 1887; .idem, Benzo von Albs, . . wine Quellenuuterauchung, ib. 1888; T. Lindner, Benzoe Panepyricua auJ Heinrich IV, pp. 497‑526, Gbttingen, 1888; O. Delarc, in Revue dea questions hiatoriquea, xliii (1888), 5‑80; E. Steindorff, in GDttiagerGelehrte Auzeiper, No. 18, 1888, pp. 593 eqq.; Wattenbaeh, DGQ, ii (1888), 202, ii (1894), 328‑329; C. Mirbt, Die Publiziatik im ZeitalterGrepora VII., Ixipsic, 1894; Hauck, KD, vol. iii.
BERERGAR OF POITIERS: A younger contemporary and zealous adherent of Abelard (q.v.). Practically nothing is known of his life except what may be learned from his few brief writings. These, however, are not without interest, partly because (in spite of their being by no means completely trustworthy) they are among the authorities for the history of the Council of Sens in 1141, and partly for the light which they throw on the mental attitude and literary tone which prevailed among the disciples of Abelard and opponents of Bernard about the middle of the twelfth century. There are three of them extant: an APologeticus against Bernard, an Epistola contra Carthttsienses, and an Epistola ad epiaeopum Mimettensem, the bishop of Mends. The first was written not long after the Council of Sens, but not until the sentence of Innocent II against Abelard was known. Toward
the end of it Berengar points out that other teach
ers, such as Jerome and Hilary of Poitiers, had
made mistakes without being deposed; but a large
part of the tractate is a personal attack on Ber
nard, accusing him of having made frivolous songs
in his youth, taught the preexistence of the soul,
and made up his commentary on the Canticles of
a lot of heterogeneous material, partly borrowed
from Ambrose. Especially bitter are his accusa
tions of duplicity and unfairness in connection with
the Council of Sens. The shorter but equally ma
licious letter against the. Carthusians, who had
taken a stand against Abelard, accuses them of
breaking their vow of silence to speak calumny,
and, while abstaining from the flesh of beasts, de
vouring their fellow men. The third letter is written
in a different tone. Berengaa's boldness had appar
ently stirred up so much hostility that he feared
for his safety, left home, and sought an asylum in
the CE;vennea, whence he wrote to beg the bishop's
protection, not exactly as a penitent, though he im
plies that he has approached more nearly to Ber
nard's standpoint. Whether he succeeded in set
ting himself right cannot be told, as nothing is
known of his later life. 	(F. N1TZSCBt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Berengsr's works are usually printed among Abelard's, e.g., in Cousin's ed., ii, 771 eqq., 2 vols., Paris, 1849‑59; also in MPL, clxxviii. Consult also Hiatoira litteraire de la France, xii, 254 aqq., Paris, 1783; Hefele, Concilienpeachichte, v, 427‑428; S. M. Deutsch, Die Synods von Sera, 11.¢1, and die Verurteilung Abtilarda, pp. 37‑40, Berlin, 1880.
BERERGAR OF TOURS.
Early Life ($ 1). Controversy over the Eucharist (§ 2). Berengar Submits at Rome (§ 3). Reasserts his Views in France (§ 4). Berengar's Significance (§ b).
Berengar of Tours was born perhaps at Tours, prob‑
ably in the early years of the eleventh century; d.
in the neighboring island of St. Cosme Jan. 6, 1088.
He laid the foundations of his. education in the
school of Bishop Fulbert of Chartres, who repre
sented the traditional theology of the early Middle
Ages, but did not succeed in imposing it upon his
pupil. He was less attracted by pure theology
than by secular learning, and brought away a
knowledge of the Latin classics, dialectical clever
ness, freedom of method, and a general culture•sur
prising for his age. Later he paid more attention
		to the Bible and the Fathers, espe
	r. Early ciadly Gregory and Augustine; and it
	Life. is significant that he came to formal
		theology after such preparation. Re
turning to Tours, he became a canon of the cathe
dral and about 1040 head of its school, which he
soon raised to a high point of efficiency, bringing
students from far and near. The fame which he
acquired sprang as much from his blameless and
ascetic life as from the success of his teaching. So
great was his reputation that a number of monks
requested him to write a hook that should kindle
their zeal; and his letter to Joscelin, later arch
bishop of Bordeaux, who had asked him to decide
a dispute between Bishop Isembert of Poitiers and
his chapter, is evidence of the authority attributed
to his judgment. He became archdeacon of An‑

8ereassr
8orgier	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	a8
gers, and enjoyed the confidence of not a few bishops and of the powerful Count Geoffrey of Anjou.
Amid this chorus of laudation, however, a discordant voice began to be heard; it was asserted that Berengar held heretical views on the Eucharist. In fact, he was disposed to reject the teaching of Paechssius Radbertus, which dominated his contemporaries. The first to take formal notice of this was his former fellow student Adehnann
(q.v.), then a teacher at Liege, who a. Contro‑ wrote to question him, and, receiving veay over no answer, wrote again to beseech him
the Eu‑ to abandon his opposition to the
chariat.	Church's teaching. Probably in the
early part of 1050, Berengar addressed a letter to Lanfranc, then prior of Bee, in which he expressed his regret that Lanfranc adhered to the eucharistic teaching of Paeehsaius and considered the treatise of Ratramnus (q.v.) on the subject (which Berengar supposed to have been written by Scotus Erigena) to be heretical. He declared his own agreement with the supposed Scotus, and believed himself to be supported by Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and other authorities. This letter found Lanfrane in Rome, after it had been read by several other people; and as Berengar was not well thought of there, Lanfranc feared his association with him might be prejudicial to his own interests, and laid the matter before the pope. The latter excommunicated Berengar at a synod after Easter, 1050, and summoned him to appear personally at another to be held at Vercelli in September. Though disputing the legality of his condemnation, he proposed to go, first passing through Paris to obtain permission from King Henry I, se nominal abbot of St. Martin at Tours. Instead of granting it, however, the king threw him into prison, where Berengar occupied himself with the study of the Gospel of John, with a view to confirming his views. The synod was held at Vercelli without him; two of his friends, who attempted to defend him, were shouted down and barely escaped personal violence; Ratramnus's book was destroyed; and Berehgar was again condemned. He obtained his release from prison, probably by the influence of Geoffrey of Anjou; but the king still pursued him, and called a synod to meet in Paris Oct., 1051. Berengar, fearing that its purpose was his destruction, avoided appearing, and the king's threats after its session had no effect, since Berengar was sheltered by Geoffrey and by Bishop Eueebius Bruno of Angers, and found numerous partisans among less prominent people.
In 1054 Hildebrand came to France as papal legate. At first he showed himself friendly to Berengar, and talked of taking him back to Rome to get Pope Leo's authority with which to silence his fogy. But when he found that the latter could
do more to disturb the peace of the 3• Beren‑ Church than Berengar's friends, he
gar Sub‑ drew back. Under these circum‑
mits at stances Berengar decided to concede
Rome.	as much as he could, and the French
bishops showed that they wished a speedy settlement of the controversy, when the Synod of Tours declared itself satisfied by Beren‑
gar's written declaration that the bread and wide after consecration were the Body and Blood of Christ. The same desire for peace and the death of Pope Leo were reasons why Hildebrand did not press for Berengar's going to Rome at once; later he did so, confident of the power of his influence there, and accordingly Berengar presented himself in Rome in 1059, fortified by a letter of commendation from Count Geoffrey to Hildebrand. At a council held in the Lateran, he could get no hearing, and a formula representing what seemed to him the most cararl view of the sacrament was offered for his acceptance. Overwhelmed by the forces against him, he took this document is his hand and threw himself on the ground in the silence of apparent submission.
Berengar returned to France full of remorse for this desertion of his faith and of bitterness against the pope and his opponents; his friends were growing fewer‑‑Geoffrey was dead and his successor hostile. Eueebius Bruno was gradually
4. Reas‑ withdrawing from him. Rome, how‑
serts his ever, was disposed to give him a chance;
Views is Alexander II wrote him an encour‑
	France.	aging letter, at the same time warning
		him to give no further offense. He
was still firm is his convictions, and about 1069
published a treatise in which he gave vent to his
resentment against Nicholas II and'hie antagonists
in the Roman council. Lanfranc answered it,
sad Berengar rejoined. Bishop Raynard Hugo
of Langres also wrote a treatise De corpora et
sanguine Christi. against Berengar. But the feel
ing against him in France was growing so hos
tile that it almost came to open violence at the
Synod of Poitiers in 1076. Hildebrand as pope
tried yet to save him; he summoned him once more
to Rome (1078), and undertook to silence his ene
mies by getting him to assent to a vague formula,
something like the one which he had signed at
Tours. But his enemies were not satisfied, and
three months later at another synod they forced
on him s formula which could mean nothing but
transubstantiation except by utterly indefensible
sophistry. He was indiscreet enough to claim the
sympathy of Gregory VII, who commanded him
to acknowledge his errors and to pursue them no
further. Berengar's courage failed him; he con
fessed that he had erred, and was sent home with
a protecting letter from the pope, but with rage in
his heart. Once back in France, he recovered his
boldness and published his own account of the pro
ceedings in Rome, retracting his recantation. The
consequence was another trial before a synod at
Bordeaux (1080), and another forced submission.
After this he kept silence, retiring to the island of
Saint‑COsme near Tours to live in ascetic solitude.
Apparently his convictions were unchanged at his
death, and he trusted in the mercy of God under
what he considered the unjust persecutions to which
he had been subjected.
Berengar's real significance .for the development of medieval theology lies in the fact that he asserted the rights of dialectic in theology more definitely than most of his contemporaries. There sae propositions in his writings which can be under.

69	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	=.r r
stood in a purely rationalistic sense. But it would be going quite too far to see in rationalism Beren‑
gar's main standpoint, to attribute to S. Baran‑ him the deliberate design of aubvertgar's Sig‑ ing all religious authority‑Scripture, nificance. the Fathers, popes, and councils. This
would be to ascribe to a man of the eleventh century views of which his age knew nothing, which it even had no terms to express. The contrast which he seta forth is not between reason and revelation, but between rational and irrational ways of understanding revelation. He did not recognize the right of the prevailing theology to claim his assent, because it made irrational assertions; the authorities to which he refused to submit were, in his judgment, only human authorities. He spoke bitterly and unjustly of popes and councils, unable to forgive them for making him untrue to himself; but this meant no rejection of the Catholic conception of the Church. His opposition was limited to the eucharistic doctrine of his time, and he controverted the theory of Paschaeius not least because he believed it was contrary to Scripture and the Fathers, and destructive of the very nature of a sacrament. (A. Haucg.)
BIBIdOa6AP87: An edition of Berengar'e works was begun by A. F. and F. T. Viecher, vol. i only was published containing his De sacra cayw, Berlin, 1834; cf. Manei, Cottectio, xix, 781 aqq.; the works are also in Bouquet, Recueil, uv, 294‑300. A collection of letters relating to him (one of his own) was published by E. Bishop in Historisehes Jahrtwch der OWrea‑Cisseilachaft, i, 272‑280, Miineter, 1880. For his life consult H. E. Lehmann, Bereaparii. Twoneneis vitae ex tontibua Iwuatm, part i, Rostock, 1870 (no more published); J. Hehmitaer, Berenpar von Tours, aei» Leben and seine Lehre, Munich, 1890. Consult the works of Bernold of San Bias, in Labbe, Conciiia, ix, 1050, in Bouquet, Recueii, aiv, 34‑37, and in MPL, exlviii; B. Haurdau, Hiatoirs de la philosophic ecotaatique, i, 225 eqq., Paris, 1872; Hefele, Cancilieapeschichts, vole. iv, v; KL, ii, 391‑404; Neander, Christian Church, iii, 502‑b21, iv, 84, 88, 92, 335, 337, 35b.
BERENGOZ: Abbot of St. Maximin's at Trevea in the twelfth century; d. about 1125. In the records of the abbey he is first mentioned as abbot in 1107, and for the last time in 1125. The register of deaths contains his name against the date of Sept. 24, without naming the year; but as his successor, Gerhard, was installed in 1127, he must have died either in 1125 or 1126. He rendered considerable services to the monastery by procuring from Henry V the restitution of a number of alienated fiefs, and, besides five sermons for saints' days, wrote two ,larger works: three books De laude et inventions aandta crucis, and a aeries of discourses De mysterio ligni dominici et de lace trisibili et invistbili per quam antiqui patres olim meruerunt illustrari. In the former he treats of the legend of the discovery of the cross of Christ by Helena, the mother of Constantine the Great, adducing a large number of Old Testament types of the cross. The latter deals with Christ under the aspect of the light of the world, shining from the beginning of its history. Whether the commentary on the Apocalypse which the Benedictines of St. Maur printed as an appendix to the second volume of their edition of St. Ambrose, ascribing it to a certain Berengaudua, is his or not moat remain un‑
certain.	(A. HAUCK.)
Brsrroassrar: Berengos'e works were edited by Cbriatophorue, Cologne, 1565, and appear in M. de la Bigne, Magna bibliotheca, vol.. vii, ib. 1818, also in bfPL, clz. Consult J. Mars, l3eschichts des Brastifts Trier, ii, 95, Trier, 1880: H. V. t3suerland, Trieror (lsachichtaquelTsn, Trier, 1889; Hauck, KD, iii, 971‑072.
BERGEN FORMULA (Doe bergiache Buch). See FORMULA OF CONCORD.
	BERGER, DANIEL: One of the United Brethren
in Christ; b. near Reading, Pa., Feb. 14, 1832. He
studied privately at Springfield, O., taught school
1852‑58, and served as pastor 1858‑64. From
1864 till 1897 he was editor in the publishing house
of the United Brethren in Christ at Dayton, O.,
having charge of the denominational Sunday
4chool literature 1869‑93, and was a member of
the International Sunday‑School Lesson Committee
from 1884 to 1896. In theology he is an Arminian.
He wrote the History o f the Church o f the United
Brethren in Christ for the American Church History
Series (New York, 1894), and a larger work with
the same title (Dayton, 1897), which is the official
history of the denomination.

BERGER, blir"zh5', SAMUEL: French Lutheran; b. at Beaucourt (10 m. s.s.e. of Belfort), France, May 2, 1843; d. in Swrea July 13, 1900. He studied at Strasburg and Tilbingen; in 1867 became assistant preacher in the Lutheran Church in Paris; in 1877, librarian to the Paris faculty of Protestant theology. He was the author of F. C. Baur, lee origines de I'9eole de Tubingtte et sea principes (Paris, 1867); La Bible au seixidrne aikcle, etude our lea on'gines de la critique (1879); De glossariis et compendiis btblicis quibuadam medii cetri (1879); Du rule de la dogmatique daps la predication (1881); la Bible /ran.: raise au moyen Bge (1884); De l'histoire de la Vulgate en France (1887); Le Palimpsests de Floury (1889); Quam notitiam linguca Hebraicte habuerint Chriatiani medii tetri temTortbtts in Gallic (1893); L'Hiatoire de la Vulgate pendant lee premiers sipclea du moyen dge (1893); Notice sur quelques textea Wine in6alits de l'Ancien Testament (1893); Un Ancien Texts lrstin des Ades des Ap6tres (1895); Una Bible copies d Porrentruy (etudes de Theologie et d'Hiatoire, 1901, 213‑219); and Lea Prefaces jointes aux livrea de la Bible dana lee manuserits de la Vulgate, memoire posthume (1902).

BERGIER, bor"zhyb', NICOLAS SYLVESTRE: French Roman Catholic; b. at Darnay (18 m. s.e. of Mirecourt), Lorraine, Dec. 31, 1718; d. at Paris Apr. 19, 1790. He gained repute while a teacher at the college at Besangon by essays in philology and mythology; abandoned this line of study to devote himself to Christian apologetics, and polemics against the Encyclopediata. In 17658 he published at Paris Le DEisme refute par luirmtme (2 vole.) and in 1768 the Certitude des preuves du christianisme (2 vole.), which achieved a great success and called forth replies from Voltaire and Anacharaia Cloota. 'In 1769 followed Apologia de la religion chretienne (2 vols.) against Holbaeh, in 1771 Examen du mathriaZiame (2 vole. ), and in 1780 Traitk historique et dog»xatique de la 2raie religion times la refutation des erreura qui lui ont m opposes dam lea diftrana sipclea (12 vole.). He also wrote a Diction‑

8ere3ns
Bernard of Botone	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	80
naire theologique (3 vole., 1789), which formed pare of the Encyclopedic, but has several tunes been separately edited (latest by Le Noir, 12 vole., 1876). As a reward for his services he was made canon of Notre Dame in Paris and confessor to the aunts of the king, with a pension of 2,000 livres.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bioprap)afe nouvelle des contemporains, ii,
375, Paris, 1821; BiograpAie genErale, v, 14.
BERGIUS, JOHANNES: Reformed theologian; b. at Stettin Feb. 24, 1587; d. at Berlin Dec. 19, 1658. He studied at Heidelberg and Strasburg; in 1615 became professor at Frankfort‑on‑the‑Oder, where the theological faculty represented the Reformed faith; 1623 court preacher at Berlin. He was present at the Colloquy of Leipsic (1631) and the Thorn Conference (1645), but declined to attend the Synod of Dort (1618), as he wished for union rather than the establishment of Calvinism. He was emphatically a mediator, and showed himself temperate and dignified in controversy. He published many sermons.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. H. Hering, Beitrdpe zur Geachichte der evanpeliach‑reformirten Kirche in den preueaiach‑brandenburpiachen Lldadern, i, 16 eqq., ii, 82, Breslau, 1784‑85; H. Landwehr, Die Kirchenpolitsk Friedrich WilheZma des Groasen Kurftiraten, pp. 150 eqq., Berlin, 1894.
	BERKELEY, GEORGE: Bishop of Cloyne (in
County Cork, about 15 m. e.s.e. of the city of Cork);
b. probably at Dysert Castle, near Thomastown
(90 m, s.w. of Dublin), County Kilkenny, Ireland,
Mar. 12, 1685; d. at Oxford Jan. 14, 1753. He
studied at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1704;
M.A. and fellow, 1707; B.D. and D.D., 1721), and
filled variouscollege offices from tutor (1707) to ju
nior dean (1710) and junior Greek lecturer (1712).
He lived there in an atmosphere "charged with the
elements of reaction against traditional scholasti
cism in physics and metaphysics." His Common
place Book (first printed in the Oxford ed. of his
works, 1871, iv, 419‑502) shows how the stimulus
worked upon a mind naturally inclined to inde
pendent investigation. Very early he adopted the
		idea that no existence is conceivable,
	Berkeley's and therefore none is possible, which
Philosophy. is not either conscious spirit or the
		ideas (i.e., objects) of which such
spirit is conscious. Locke had affirmed secondary
and primary qualities of the material world; the
secondary qualities, such as color and taste, do
not exist apart from sensations; primary qualities
exist irrespective of our knowledge. Berkeley de
nied this distinction, and held that external ob
jects exist only as they are perceived by a subject.
Thus the mind produces ideas, and these ideas are
things. There are, however, two classes of ideas:
the less regular and coherent, arising in the imagi
nation; the more vivid and permanent, 'learned
by experience, " imprinted on the senses by the
Author of nature " which are the real things‑a
proof for the existence of God. According to
Berkeley matter is not an objective reality but a
composition of sensible qualities existing in the
mind. " No object exists apart from the mind;
mind is therefore the deepest reality; it is the
pries, both in thought and existence, if for a mo
ment we assume the popular distinction between
the two." Berkeley appeared as an author with this theory already developed, and from it he never wavered. In 1709 he published an Essay toward. a New Theory of Vision, an examination of visual consciousness to prove that it affords no ground for belief in the reality of the objects apparently seen. In 1710 appeared a Treatise concerning the Principles o f Human Knowledge, in which his theory received complete exposition.
Meanwhile Berkeley had taken orders, and, in 1713, he left Dublin, went to London, formed many desirable acquaintances, and gained an enviable reputation for learning, humility, and piety. The same year he published Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous (ed. in Religion of Science Library, No. 29, Chicago, 1901), " the finest specimen in our language of the conduct of argument by dialogue." He visited the Continent in 1713‑14 and again in 1716‑20. In 1721 he returned to Ireland, again filled college offices at Dublin (divinity lecturer and senior lecturer, 1721; Hebrew lecturer, 1722; proctor, 1722), and was appointed dean of Dromore (1722) and dean of Derry, " the best preferment in Ireland " (1724).
Berkeley now became devoted to a plan of establishing a college in the Bermuda Islands, went to London to further the project in 1724, and in 1725 published A Proposal for the Better Supplying of Churches in our Foreign Plantations, and for converting the savage Americans to Christianity by a college to be erected in the Summer Islands, otherwise called the Isles of Bermuda. By his enthusiasm and persuasive powers he won many
Berkeley's expressions of sympathy, and came to American believe that the government would
	Scheme. support the plan. In Sept., 1728, he
		sailed for America and landed at New
port, R. L, Jan., 1729. Three years of waiting con
vinced him that his hopes were futile, and in Feb.,
1732, he returned to London. He published im
mediately Alciphron or the Minute Philosopher, the
result of his studies in America and probably the
moat famous of his works. It is a powerful refuta
tion of the freethinking then popular and fashion
able. In 1734 he was made bishop of Cloyne, and
there he lived, happy in his family and beloved for
his goodness and benevolence, till 1752, when he
went to Oxford to end his days with his son, a senior
student at Christ Church. He kept up his studies
after his appointment as bishop and published a
number of books, including the curious Philosoph
ical Reflections, and Inquiries concerning the Virtues
of Tar‑water (1744; three eds. the same year, the
second called Siris, a Chain o f Philosophical Re
flections, etc.), in which he set forth a revision of
his philosophy, and expressed his faith in tar‑water
as a universal medicine, good for man and beast;
it was the most popular of his works.
On first coming to America Berkeley bought a farm near Newport and built there a house, still standing, which he called " Whitehall " after the English palace. The shore is about a mile from the house, and a cleft in the rocks is still pointed out as a retreat whither he was wont to go and where he wrote much of Alciphron. This book is indeed a permanent record o£ his life at Newport, and not

81	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bergtna
		Bernard of Botoae
a little of its charm is due to this fact.	He helped
found a philosophical society at Newport and
	preached there in Trinity Church, a fine old wooden
structure, which is still standing.	He made at
least one convert, the Rev. Samuel Johnson (q.v.),
	episcopal missionary at Stratford, Conn., and after
ward first president of Columbia College, New
York.	Attempts to show that he directly influ
enced the early idealistic thought of Jonathan
Edwards have not proved successful.	His Ameri
can plans and dreams inspired the poem, written
at uncertain date, which ends with the stanza:
Westward the course of empire takes its way;
The four first acts already past,
A fifth shall close the drama with the day;
Time's noblest offspring is the last.
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: The standard edition of Berkeley's com
	plete works is by A. C. Fraser, 4 vole., Oxford, 1871, re
	issued 1901, of which vol. iv includes his Life and Letters
	and An Account of his Philosophy. Prof. Fraser has also
	edited a volume of Selections from Berkeley, 5th ad.,
	London, 1899, and contributed Berkeley to the Philo
	aophical Classics series, Edinburgh, 1881. There is an
	edition of The Works of George Berkeley, by G. Sampson,
	with biographical introduction by A. J. Balfour, in Bohn's
	Philosophical Library, 3 vole., London, 1897JB8. An
	American edition of the Principles, by C. P. Ktauth,
	Philadelphia, 1874, presents a valuable epitome of opin
	ions concerning Berkeley. The sources for a biography
	are a Life by Bishop Stock first published 1778, reprinted
	in the Biopraphia Britannira, vol. ii, 1780, and prefixed
	to the first edition of Berkeley's Collected Works, 1784,
	the details being obtained from Bishop Berkeley's brother,
	Dr. Robert Berkeley; S. A. Allibone gives interesting de
	tails of Berkeley's residence at Newport in Critical Dic
	tionary of English Literature, i, 174‑177, Philadelphia,
	1891; DNB, iv, 348‑358 adds a list of the works chrono
logically arranged.	Consult further D. Stewart, Philo
	sophical Essays, Edinburgh, 1810; vol. v of his Collected
	Works, 11 vole., ib. 18b9‑80 (on the idealism of Berke
	ley); $. Bailey, A Review of Berkeley's Theory of Vision,
	London, 1842 (adverse in its pronouncement); J. 8. Mill,
	Dissertations and Discussions, ii, 182‑197 and of. vol. iv,
	Boston, 1865; F. Fredericha, Der phenomenale Idealiamua
	Berkeley's and Kant's, Berlin, 1871; W. Graham, Ideal
	ism, an Essay, London, 1872 (connects Berkeley and
	Hegel)‑ G. 8picker Kant, Hums and Berkeley, Berlin,
	1875; A. Penjon, itude our la vie et our lea o:uvrea phi
	loeophiquea de George Berkeley, Paris, 1878; J. Janitseh,
	Kant's Urtheile fiber Berkeley, Strasburg, 1879; T. Loewy,
	Der Idealiamua Berkeley's, in den Grundlagen untereudat,
	Vienna, 1891; T. H. Huxley, Collected Essays, vi, 241
	319, New York, 1894; M. C. Tyler, George Berkeley and
his American Visit, in Three Men of Letters, ib. 1895.
BERLEBURG BIBLE.	See BIBLES, ANNOTATED,
I,§3.
	BERN, DISPUTATION OF: The decisive point
	in the contest which definitely established the
Reformation at Bern.	At first the movement
	made slow progress there, as both the character of
	the people and their manner of life rendered them
	little susceptible to new ideas; even after a reform
	ing party arose; for several years things continued
in an lmdecided and vacillating condition.	The
	somewhat violent and domineering manner in
	which the Roman Catholic authorities attempted
	to use their victory at the Conference of Baden
	(1526; Bee BADEN, CONFERENCE OF) brought on
	s crisis which, after the fashion of the time, it was
	attempted to meet by means of a disputation.
	Some of the Reformers invited to participate
	declined, having in mind the result at Baden, and
	the Roman Catholic dignitaries and celebrities
generally refused to attend. But a great number of delegates and clergy appeared from Switzerland and the South German states, including Zwingli, (Ecolampadius, Butzer, Capito, Ambrose Blaurer, and others. The opening session was held on Jan. 6, 1528, and the discussions lasted from the following day till Jan. 26. They were based on ten theses carefully prepared by Berthold Hailer and Franz Kolb and revised by Zwingli. The outcome was that the ten theses were subscribed to by most of the clergy of Bern, the mass was done away with, the images were quietly removed from the churches, and on Feb. 7 the Reformation edict was issued, which gave the theses force of law, annulled the power of the bishops, and made the necessary regulations concerning the clergy, public worship, church property, ate. The majority of the country congregations soon gave in their adherence. The influence of the disputation was felt even in France, the Netherlands, and England.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The acts of the disputation were published at Zurich, 1528. and again in 1808 and 1701; the Ten Theses are given in English in Schaff, Creeds, i, 364‑366, and Christian Church, vii, 104‑105, in German and Latin, Creeds, iii, 208‑210. Consult S. Fischer, Geachirhte der Disputation and Reformation in Bern, Bern, 1828; S. M. Jackson, HutdreieA Zurongli. pp. 280‑283, New York, 1903.

BERN, SYNOD OF: The name given to the first Reformed synod at Bern (1532). The Reformation was established at Bern by the Disputation and the edict of Feb. 7, 1528 (see BERN, DISPUTATION OF), but much remained to be done in the way of consolidation and to finish the building af the new Church. This task was entrusted to a general synod, to which all the clergy of the land, 220 in number, were invited. It met on Jan. X14; Capito from Strasburg was the principal figure, and he collected the results of the discussion with much care and labor. They form a church directory and pastor's manual which is noteworthy, even among the monuments of the Reformation time, for its apostolic force and unction, its warmth and sincerity, its homely simplicity and practical wisdom.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The acts of the synod were officially printed at Basel, 1532, again in 1728 sad 1778. Both the original and a modernised tent were issued by Lauener, Basel. 1830. Consult M. Kirehhofer, Bert7wld Halter, pp. 189 sqq., Zurich, 1828; Billeter, in the Berner Beitrage, ed. F. IJippold, Bern, 1884 (especial y useful); E. Bloesch, Geaehichte der achweizeriechyreforntierten Kirchen, i, 74‑81, Bern, 1898.

BERNARD OF BOTONE: Canonist of the thirteenth century; b. in Parma c. 1200; d. at Bologna May, 1263. He studied law at Bologna, where he became professor and canon; then spent some time in Rome in an important official position at the papal court, but toward the end of his life returned to Bologna to lecture, especially on the decretals. He is best known as the author or compiler of the Glossa ordinaria (see GLOSSES AND GLOaSATORB OF CANON Lww) on the decretala of Gregory IX., but wrote also Casus longi and a Summa super titulis decretalium (cf. J. F. von Schulte, Die Gesehiehte der Quellen des kanonischen Rechts, ii, Stuttgart, 1877, pp. 114 sqq.
(E. 'IRIEDBERO.)

Bernard of Clairvanz	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	62
BERNARD OF CLAIRVAU%.
I. Life and Far‑reaching Activity.
Bernard's Importsnoa ($ 1).
Early Career. Abbot of Clairvauz (¢ 2).
Activity for Innocent II and against Anacletue
II (¢ 3).
The Second Crusade III. Writings.
(¢ 4).	IV. Hymns.

L Life and Far‑reaching Activity: St. Bernard of Clsirvaux (Bernardua Clarsruallia) is one of the most prominent personalities of the twelfth century, of the entire Middle Ages, and of church history in general. He gave a new impulse to monastic life, influenced ecclesiastical affairs outside of monasticism in the most effective manner, and contributed not a little toward awakening an
inner piety in large circles. As he :. Bernard's knew how to inspire the masses by his Importance. powerful preaching, so also he under‑
stood how to lead individual souls by his quiet conversation, to ease the mind, and to dominate the will. It was said in his time that the Church had had no preacher like him since Gregory the Great; and that this was no exaggeration is proved by Bernard's orations, which in copiousness of thought and beauty of exposition have few equals. Revered by his contemporaries as saint and prophet, his writings, which belong to the noblest productions of ecclesiastical literature, have secured him also a far‑reaching influence upon posterity. Praised by Luther and Calvin, Bernard's name has retained a good repute among Protestants, though he represented many things which the Reformation had to oppose.
Bernard was born at Fontaines (20 m. n.e. of Dijon), France, 1090; d. at Clairvaux (in the valley of the Aube, 120 m. s.e. of Paris) Aug. 20, 1153. He wen the third eon of the knight Tecelin and Aleth, a very pious lady, whose influence decided his future. While yet a boy he lost his mother, and, not being qualified for military service, he was destined for a learned career. He was educated at Chatillon and for a time seemed to be influenced by the world (cf. MPL, clxaviu, 1857; Vita, I, iii, 6). But this period can not have been of long duration; the memory of his mother and the impressions of a solitary journey called him back, and he resolved quickly and firmly to break entirely with the world. He induced some of his brothers, relatives, and friends to follow him, sad, after spending half a year together at Chatillon, they entered the " new monastery" at Cltesua
(seeClsxa$crANe). In 1115 a daughter s. Early Ca‑ monastery was founded at Clairvaua reer. Abbot and Bernard became abbot. He gave of Clairvaua. all his energies to the foundation of
the. monastery, and spent himself in ascetic practises, which the famous William of Champesua, then bishop of Chalons, checked from time to time (Vats, I, vii, 31‑32). Bernard soon became the spiritual adviser not only of his monks but of many who sought his advice and always left Clairvsux impressed by the spirit of solemnity and
II. Ecclesiastical sad Theological significance. Asceticism (¢ 1). Study of the Bible (¢ 2). (,trace and Works (¢ 3). Bernard's Mystidsm(14). Doctrine of the Church (¢ s). Monasticism (16).
peace which seemed to be spread over the place
(Vita, I, vii, 33‑34). His sermons also began to
exercise a powerful influence, which was increased
by his reputation as prophet and worker of mira
cles (Vita, I, a, 46). According to the constitution
which the new order adopted, Clairvaux became
the mother monastery of one of the five principal
divisions into which the Cistercian community was
organized, and Bernard soon became the most in
fluential and famous personality of the entire order.
As early as the pontificate of Honorius II (1124‑30)
he was one of the most prominent men of the
Church in France; he enjoyed the favor of the
papal chancellor Haimeric (Epist., av), commu
nicated with papal legates (Epist., xvi‑as, xxi),
and was consulted on important ecclesiastical
matters. At the Synod of Troyes (1128), to which
he was called by Cardinal Matthew of Albano, he
spoke in favor of the Templara, secured their recog
nition, and is said to have outlined the first rule
of the order (M. Bouquet, Hiatortena des Gaules
et de la France, xiv, Paris, 1806, 232). In the
controversy which originated in the same year with
King Louis VI, who was not antagonistic to the
Church but jealously guarded his own rights, Ber
nard and his friars defended the bishop before the
king (Epist., xlv), afterward also before the pope
(Epist., xlvi, ef, xlvii), though at first unsuccessfully.
	With the schism of 1130 Bernard enters into the
first rank of the influential men of his time by
espousing from the very beginning the cause of
Innocent II against Anacletus II. This parti
zanship of Bernard and others was no doubt in
duced by the fear that Anacletus would allow him
self to be influenced by family interests. On this
account they overlooked the illegal procedure in
the election of Innocent, regarding it as a mere
violation of formalities, defending it with reasons
of doubtful value, and emphasizing the personal
worth of that pope. At the conference which the
king held at Etampea with spiritual and secular
		grandees concerning the affair, Ber
g. Activity nard seems to have taken the part of
for Innocent reporter. He also worked for the
	II and pope by personal negotiations and
against Ana‑ by writing (Epist., cxxiv, cxxv).
	Cletus B. When Innocent was unable to main
		tain his ground at Rome and went
to France, Bernard was usually at his aide. Later,
probably in the beginning of 1132, he was in Aqui
taine, endeavoring to counteract the influence of
Gerhard of Angoul6me upon Count William of
Poitou, who sided with Anacletus (Vita, II, vi, 36).
His success here was only temporary (Epist., cxxvii,
exxviii), and not until 1135 did Bernard succeed,
by resorting to stratagem, in changing the mind of
the count (Vita, II, vi, 37‑38). When in 1133
Lothair undertook his first campaign against Rome,
Bernard accompanied the pope from his temporary
residence in Pisa to Rome, and prevented the re
opening of the proceedings concerning the rights
of the opposing popes (ElOist., cxxvi, 8 eqq.). He
had previously visited Genoa, animated the people
by his addresses, and inclined them to an agreement
with the Pisans, se the pope needed the support of
both cities (cf. Epiat., cxxix, cxax). It was also

83	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bernard of Glairvaus
Bernard who in the spring of 1135 induced Frederick of Staufen to submit to the emperor (Vita, IV, iii, 14; Otto of Freising, Chron., vii, 19). He then went to Italy, where in the beginning of June the Council of Pisa was held; according to the Vita (II, ii, 8), everybody surrounded him here, so that it looked as if he were not in parts aollicitudinis, but in plenitudine potestatis. Nevertheless, resolutions were passed at that time regarding appeals to the papal see, which could hardly have been to the liking of Bernard. After the council he succeeded in inducing Milan and other cities of Upper Italy to submit to the pope and emperor (Epist., cxxix‑cxxxiii, cxxxvii, cxl). In Milan they, attempted to elevate him almost with force to the see of St. Ambrose (Vita, II, ii‑v). During the last campaign of Lothair against Rome, Bernard went to Italy for the third time, in 1137; he worked there successfully against Anaeletua, and after the Pentecost of 1138 he finally brought about the submission of his successor to Innocent and thus ended the schism (Epiat., ecexvii). After this he left Rome. How great Bernard's influence in Rome was at this time may be seen from his successful opposition to Abelard (q.v.).
The ecclesiaatico‑political affairs of France soon made a new claim upon Bernard's attention. The young king, Louis VII, by making reckless use of his royal prerogatives, caused friction, as when he refused to invest Peter of Lachdtre, whom the chapter of Bourgea had elected archbishop. The pope consecrated him, nevertheless, and thus provoked a conflict which was enhanced by the partizanahip of Count Theobald of Champagne. After a while Bernard was asked to mediate; he faithfully performed this difficult task and enjoyed the confidence of the king to the end of his life (cf. EPiet., ccciv), whereas his relations to the pope appear to have been troubled toward the end (EPist., eexviii; cexxxi, 3).
	A very unexpected event was the election of
Bernard, abbot of Aquae Silvise near Rome, for
merly a monk in Clairvaux, as Pope Eugeniua III
(1145‑53). Bernard writes a little later (Epiat.,
cexxxix) that all who had a cause now came to
him; they said that he, not Eugenius, was pope.
And it is true that he exercised a remarkable influ
ence in Rome especially at first, but Eugeniua did
not always follow his counsels and views; he had
to consider the cardinals who were envious of
Bernard. About thin time Bernard, at the request
of Cardinal Alberic of Ostia, undertook a journey
to Languedoc, where heresy had advanced greatly
and Henry of Lausanne (q.v.) had a large following.
Bernard's presence there, especially at Toulouse,
was not without effect, but to win permanent
success continual preaching was required. A
more important commission was given to him in
the following year by the pope himself, to preach
		the crusade. At Vezelay, where the
4. The Sec‑ king and queen of France took the
ond Cru‑ cross, Mar. 21, 1146, Bernard's address
	sade.	was most effective. He then trav
		ersed the north of France and Flanders,
and the officious doings of the monk Radulf induced
him to go into the regions of the Rhine; he suc‑
ceeded in checking the persecutions of the Jews at Mainz, which Radulf had occasioned. His journey along the Rhine was accompanied by numerous cures, of which the Vita (vi) contains notices in the form of a diary. But he regarded it as the wonder of wonders that he succeeded on Christmas day, 1146, in influencing King Conrad in favor of the crusade, in the face of all political considerations. During the crusade Eugenius sought a refuge in France. Bernard accompanied him, and was present at the great council in Reims, 1148; in the debates against Gilbert of Poitiers (see GILBERT DE LA PoaxAE) following the council, Bernard appeared as his main opponent; but the jealousy of the cardinals brought it about that Gilbert escaped unhurt (Vita, III, v, 15; Otto of Freiaing, De gestia Frid., i, 55‑57; Hint. pont., viii, MGH, Scrip., xx, 522 sqq.). About this time the first unfavorable news of the crusade became known, and tidings of its complete failure followed. No one felt the blow more keenly than Bernard, who with prophetical authority to speak had predicted a favorable issue (De corasid., ii, 1). In the last years o£ his life he had to experience many things which caused him sadness. Men with whom he had had a lifelong connection died; his relations with ‑Eugenius III were sometimes troubled (Epist., ccevi); the frailty and the pains of his body increased. But his mental vitality remained active; his last work, De considerations, betrays freshness and unimpaired force of mind.
II. Ecclesiastical and Theological Significance
Bernard's entire life was dominated by the resolution he made while a youth. To work out the salvation of his soul, and‑which meant the same thing to him‑to dedicate him‑
i. Asceti‑ self to the service of God, was thencecism. forth the sum of his life. To serve God demanded above all a struggle against nature, and in this struggle Bernard was in earnest. Sensual temptations he seems to have overcome early and completely (Vita, I, iii, 6) and an almost virginal purity distinguished him. To suppress sensuality in the wider sense of the word, he underwent the hardest castigations, but their excess, which undermined his health, he afterward checked in others (cf. Vita, I, xii, g0). He always remained devoted to a very strict asceticism (Epist., eccxlv; Cant., xxx, 10‑12; Vita, I, xii, 60), but castigation was to him only a means of godliness not godliness itself, which demands of man still other things. The new life comes only from the grace of God, but it requires the moat serious work of one's own nature. How much importance Bernard attached to this work, whose preliminary condition is a quiet collection of the mind, may be learned from the admonitions which he gives on that point to Eugeniua. That he prefers the contemplative life to the active is nothing peculiar in him; and he doubtless had the dire to devote himself entirely to it.. He may have believed that only duty and love ipelled him to act. .And yet, as he was eminently fitted for action, ouch work was probably also is harmony with his inclinations. From his own experience he received the strength to work, the thorough education of the personality, by which he exercised an almost fas‑

Bernard of Clatrvani	THE NEW BCHAFF‑HER,ZOG	84
cinating power over others; on the other hand, his practical activity excited in him a stronger desire for contemplation and made it the more fruitful for him (De diversis, sermo iii, 3‑5).
Of Bernard's quiet hours, in spite of the many pressing claims on him, one part was devoted to study, and his favorite study was the Holy Scripture. His knowledge of the Bible
s. Study of was remarkable; not only does he the Bible. often quote Bible‑passages, but all his orations are impregnated with Biblical references, allusions, and phrases, to pay regard to which is often essential for the correct understanding. It is true that bra exegesis did not go beyond the average of his time, yet he allows the great fundamental thoughts and vital forma of the Holy Scripture to influence him the more. As lie was nourished by them he also knew in a masterly manner how to bring them near to others. All qualities of the great preacher were united in him; besides being vitally seized by the grace of God, he had a hearty desire to serve his hearers, an impressive knowledge of the human heart, and a wealth of thoughts and fascinating exposition, which was indeed not free from mannerism, What is missing in his sermons is reference to the variety of the relations of life, and this is intelligible, because he bad monks as his hearers.
	Religious	geniality is the moat distinguishing
quality in the whole disposition of Bernard; his
other rich gifts serve it, to it is due the impres
sion which he made upon his time, and the im
portance which he obtained in the history of the
Church. At the same time, Bernard is also a child
of his time; above all, of the Church of his time, in
which his religious life could develop without con
flict. In this respect Bernard is related not to
Luther, but to Augustine, and between Augustine
and him stand Leo I. Nicholas I, and Gregory VII.
Thus elements are found in Bernard which point to
future developments combined with those which
belong only to the ecclesiastical consciousness of
the time. Bernard is most deeply permeated by
the feeling of owing everything to the grace of
God, that on the working of God recta the beginning
and end of the state of salvation, and that we are
		to trust only in his grace, not in our
3. Grace and works and merits. From the for=
	Works.	givenesa of sin proceeds the Christian
		life (De diversia, ser»xo iii, 1). Faith
is the means by which we lay hold of the grace of
God (In vigil. nativ. domini, v, 5; In Cant., aermo
xxii, 8; cf. also In Cant., lxvii, 10; In vigil. net.
dom., aermo ii, 4). Man can never be sure of salva
tion by resting his hope upon his own righteousness,
for all our works always remain imperfect. On
the other hand, Bernard does not deny that man
can and should have merits, but they are only
possible through the preceding and continually
working grace of God; they are gifts of God, which
again have rewards in the world to come as their
fruit, but without becoming a cause of self‑glory.
Before God there is no legal claim, but an acqui
sition for eternity through the work of the pious,
made possible and directed by God's grace.
A characteristic contrast to these thoughts,
which lead man again and again to humility, is the excessive glorification which Bernard devotee to the saints, above all to the Virgin Mary. Though he opposes (Epist., cLxsiv) the new doctrine of her immaculate conception, he nevertheless uses expressions concerning the mother of Jesus which go very far (e.g., In nativ. Beat. Virg. Marie, v, 7; In assumpt. Beat. Virg. Maria, i, 4; In adv. dom., ii, 5). The same concerns also other saints (e.g., In vigil. Petri et Pauli, § § 2, 4, and at the end of the second oration In tranaitu B. Malachia). But the importance of such expression which a Protestant consciousness will never be able to adopt is restricted by this, that they are only used on special occasions, such as a feast of the saints. Otherwise the saints stand in the background, Christ alone stands in the foreground.
Bernard has always been regarded as a main representative of Christian mysticism, and his writings have been much used by later mystics and were the main source for the Imitat%o Christi. But just here becomes evident how different the phenomena are which are comprised under the name of mysticism. With the Neoplatonic‑Dionyaian mysticism that of Bernard has some points of contact, but it differs from it as to its religious character. It is known how depreciatingly Luther speaks of the Areopagite, but this animadversion does not concern Bernard's mysticism. It is not man who soars to divine height, but the grace of God in Christ, which first pardons the sin and then lifts up to itself the pardoned sinner. On this account 4. Bernard's the whole mysticism of Bernard
	Mysticism.	centers about Christ, the humbled
		and exalted one; it likes to dwell
upon his earthly appearance, his suffering and death,
for it is the " work of redemption " which more
than anything else is fit to excite love in the
redeemed (In Cant., xx, 2; De grad. hum. in its
first chapters). At the same time Bernard per
ceives that a sensual devotion, as it were, to the
suffering of Christ is not the goal with which one
must be satisfied; the thing necessary is rather to
be filled with the spirit of Christ and through it
to become like Christ. By Christ's work of redemp
tion the Church has become his bride. To it, i.e.,
to the totality of the redeemed, belongs this name
first and in a proper sense, to the individual soul
only in so far as it is a part of the Church (In
Cant., axvii, 6, 7; Lyvii; Lxviii, 4, 11). What it
receives from him is in the first place mercy and
forgiveness of sins, then grace and blessing. The
climax of grace is the perfect union, but in the
earthly life this is experienced by the pious at the
utmost in single moments (De conaid., V, ii, 1; De
grad. hum., viii; De dilig. Deo, x). When Bernard
speaks of becoming one with Christ and with God,
his thought is clothed with Biblical expressions;
but that Bernard in point of fact does not intend
to go beyond the meaning of these words can be
seen by reading the explanations (In Cant., Lei, 7
aqq.), where the union with God, to which the pious
soul attains, is most keenly distinguished from a
consubstantiality, as it exists between father and
Son in the Trinity. Bernard is entirely free from
pantheistic thoughts, and that mysticism does not

68	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Bernard of Claisvsna
bring him in opposition to the Church his entire ecclesiastical attitude shows.
The Church as organized, with its hierarchy, at whose head stands the Roman bishop, as successor of Peter and vicar of Christ, is to Bernard the exhibition of the kingdom of Christ on earth. On this account it must enjoy perfect autonomy, having a right of supervision over everything in Christendom, even over princes and states. It even has a right over the worldly sword (De consid., IV, 7; cf. Epist., cclvi, 1). Nevertheless Bernard is no blind adherent of the views of Gregory VII.
In the first place Bernard demands g. Doctrine a perfect separation between secular of the and spiritual affairs; the secular as
Church.	such is to be left to the secular govern‑
ment, and only for spiritual purposes and in a spiritual sense is the pope to have supervision (De cmeaid., i, 6). But Bernard is also an opponent of the absolute papal power in the Church. As certainly as he recognizes the papal authority as the highest in the Church, so decidedly does he reprove the effort to make it the only one. Even the middle and lqwer ranks of the Church have their right before God. To withdraw the bishops from the authority of the archbishops, the abbots from the authority of the bishops, that all may become dependent on the curia, means to make the Church a monster (De consid., iii, 8).
Notwithstanding Bernard's many‑sided activity, he was and remained above all things a monk, and would not exchange his monachism either for the chair of St. Ambrose or for the primacy of Reims. Monachism is to him the ideal of Christianity. He acknowledges indeed that true Christianity is also possible while living in the world (Aiool., iii, 6; In Cant., Lyvi, 3; De div, ix, 3), but such a life compared with monastic life seems to
him a lower, and in spiritual relation, 6. Moms‑ a dangerous position (De div., xxvii,
ticism.	2), a partition of the soul between
the earthly and heavenly. Monasticism itself he regards in an ideal manner; it appeals to him also not so much from the point of view of merit as from that of the safest way to salvation. To this the whole order of the monastery is subservient, aside from this it is of no value. Besides, Bernard had relations with the different monasteries and monkish associations and was interested in them (cf. with regard to the Premonstratensians Epist., viii, 4; lvi; and especially ccliii; concerning other regular canons, Epist., iii; xxxix, 1; lxxxviixc; and elsewhere). In his many relations with the Cluniaceneiana, frictions were not wanting (cf. EPist., i; clxiv; cclxxxiii; etc., and especially the Apologia ad t"ruilelmum), for the rise of the new order took place partly at the expense of the old. Nevertheless Bernard was highly esteemed by the Cluniacensians, and close friendship associated him with their head, the noble Peter the Venerable. That it was not interrupted is .mainly due to Peter, who knew how to bear occasional lack of consideration by his great friend (cf. Epist., cLxvi, l; eLyviii, 1) without resentment (Epist., ccxxix, 5). There existed a mutual true affection and admiration; the letters which they exchanged with each other
IL‑5
are an honorable monument for both men, and without regard to differences of times and confessions modern readers can appreciate them.
III. Writings: The works of Bernard include a large collection of letters; a number of treatises, dogmatic and polemic, ascetic and mystical, on monasticism, and on church government; a biography of St. Malachy, the Irish archbishop; and sermons. Hymns are also ascribed to him (see below). The most important are the letters, which constitute one of the most valuable collections of church history; and the sermons, of which those on the Song of Songs furnish the chief source of knowledge of Bernard's mysticism. The first and fifth books of his De conaideratione are also of a mystic character, whereas ii, iii, and iv contain a .critique of church affairs of his time from Bernard's point of view and lay down a programme for papal conduct which a contemporary pope would have found it difficult to follow.
S. M. DEUI9CH.
IV. Hymns: Five hymns are ascribed to Bernard, viz.: (1) the so‑called Rhythm= de contemlutu mundi, " O mirandu vanitcas ! 0 divitiarum I " (2) the Rhythmics oratio ad unum quodlibef membrorum Christi patientis, a series of salves addressed to the feet, knees, etc. of the Crucified; (3) the Oratio devota ad Dominum Jesum et Beatam McH rimm matrem ejus, "Summe summi to patris unite "; (4) a Christmas hymn, " Lcetabundus exultet ftdelis chorus "; (5) the Jz<bilus rhythmieus de nomine Jesu, " Jesu dulcis memoria," on the blessedness of the soul united with Christ. All these poetical productions, besides being beautiful in form and composition, are distinguished ‑ by a tender and living feeling and a mystic fervor and holy love. If they are really Bernard's, he deserves the title of Doctor mellifluus devotusque. An addition to the Salve regind, closing with the words, " 0 clemens, 0 pia, 0 dulci.,s virgo, Maria," is also ascribed to him. Mabillon denies Bernard's authorship of all these hymns in spite of the ancient and prevalent tradition. But one is inclined to accept the tradition, especially since the scholastic Berengar, in his Apologia Abelardi contra S. Bernardum, states that Bernard was devoted to poetry from his youth. German adaptations of the last section of (2) by Paul Gerhard (1659), " O Haupt voll Blut and Wunden," and of (5), " O Jesu sties, wer dein gedenkt," are in common use; there are several English versions‑as by J. W. Alexander, " O Sacred Head, now wounded " and " Jesus, how sweet thy memory is," and Ray Palmer's "Jesus, the very thought of thee."
M. HEROLD.
BraLrooasrar: A very accurate list of the literature (2,781
entries, arranged chronologically) is given by L. Janau
echek, in Bibiiopraphia Barnardina, Vienna, 1891. 'the
best edition of the works of Bernard is by J. M. Hore
tius, revised and enlarged by J. Mabillon, Paris, 1887,
corrected and enlarged 1890 and 1719, reprinted in
MPL, cluxu‑clszsv, of which the last vol. contains the
old Vita, and some valuable additions not found in Ma
billon. A new critical ed. of the 3ernwnea de tempore, de
Wachs, and de diroerais has been published by B. Gsell
and L. Janauschek in vol. i of Xenia Bernardino, Vienna,
1891. An Eng. trawl. by 8,. J. Ealea of the Lice and
Works of Bt. Bernardat Clairvaux from the ed.of Msbillon,
4 vole. only completed, , London, 1888‑97, contains

Bernard of Qlairvanz Bernard, Claude
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
the preface of Mabillon to his second edition of the Opera,
s Bernardino Chronotopy, List and Order of the Letters,
sad transl. of the Letters, Sermons, and Cantica Canli
tarum. Of the early biographies the moat important in
the Vita prima, MPL, clrav, 225‑468, the first bookof
which, by William of Thierry, was written during Ber
nard's lifetime, the eeaond, by Ernald, abbot of Bona
Value. the other books by Gsufrid of Clairvsua, cf. G.
Htiffer, Voratudien su . . . Bernhard van Clairnauz,
Miineter, 1888. Of later literature note J. Pinio, Com
rnentarius de S. Bernardo, in ASS, Aug., iv, 101 eqq., and
in MPL, clauv, 843‑944 (still very useful); and Me,
billon'e Prafatio (translated in Esles, ut sup.). Of modern
lives the following deserve mention: A. Nesnder, Dar
lYeilips Bernhard and aein Zeitalkr, Berlin, 1813, ed. 8. M.
Deutsch, in BiblioYuk theolopiechsr Klaseiker, vole. aai
syii, Goths, 1889 Eng. transl. of let ed., Life of St.
Bernard, London, 1843; J. C. Morrison, Lice and Timex

con Ciairoaernaux~, No. don, 1877; e Kirche Christi urd
Zsugen, Leipeic, 1878; $. J. Esles, St. Bernard, in The
P'afJrna for English Readers, London, 1890 (Roman Cath
olic); A. C. Benson and H. F. W. Tatham, in Men of
Might, ib. 1892; R. $. Storrs, Bernard of Clairnaua, the
Times, the Man, and his Work, New York, 1892; W. J.
Sparrow‑$impaon, Lectures on 8t. Bernard of Clairvaux,
London, 1898 (Roman Catholic); E. Vacandsrd, Via de
Saint Bernard Paris, 1895 (displays knowledge of the
subject and good taste and judgment so far as the ultra
montsne point of view of the author allows). Consult
farther: W. von Gieeebreo6t, Oeaclaichte der deutechen
Haiserssit, vol. iv. Brunswick. 1874; W. Berahardi. Jahr
bOtka do@ deutaehen Reirhs enter Lothab van Supplin
berp. Leipai0. 1879, and unfer Konrad 111, ib. 1883; B.
Kugler, Arwlekten our t3esehiehts des stoeiten Kreuaaupes,
TQbingen, 1879; idem, New AnoierEfsn, ib. 1883; K. F
Neumann, Bernhard van C(airroavz and die Anfanpe des
SWUM Kreuasupea, Heidelberg, 1882; G. Hilffer, Die
An/8npe des sweiten Kreuzsupss, in Hiatoriac)Aes JahrburA
der (16naa‑()esetlachatt, Vol. viii, Bonn. 1887. On Ber
nard's relation to Abelard: $. M. Deutsch, Die Synods cu
Sans 111/, and die Verurkelunp AIMlarde, Berlin, 1880;
E. Vscsadsrd, Aboard, as lofts avac 3. .Bernard, Paris,
1881. On Bernard as a preacher: A. BrSmel, Homile
	'. PP. b3‑98, Berlin, 1889: E. Va
aandard. S. Bernard, orateur, Rouen, 1877; R. Rothe,
OucAichde der Predipt, pp 218 eqq., Bremen, 1881; A.
Nebe, Zur (ieaehichte der Predipt, i, 250 eqq., Wiesbaden,
1879; E. C. Dargan, Hiat, of preaching, pp. 208 aqq.,
New York. 1905. Oa Bernard's teaching: A. Ritaobl,
Die Chriatlicha Lehra van der Rechlfertigung and Veraehn
unp, i, 1 17, Bonn, 1870; idem, LeaefrOchta Gus don
hailipen BernAan3, in TSK, 1879, pp. 317‑335; H. Renter,
in ZKfi, vol. i, 1878; G. Thomaeius, Dopmanpaachichte, ed.
8eeberg ii, 129 eqq, Leipeic, 1889; A. Harnack, Dogmen
paachiehts. vol. iii, Freiburg, 1898. On Bernard se s hym
niat: R. C. Trench, Sacred Latin Poetry, pp. 138‑141, Lon
don, 1884; 8. W. huffield, English Hymns, pp. 299, 300,
317 430, 800, New York, 1888; idem, Latin Hynn
TVriters, Passim, especially pp. 18(f‑193, ib. 1889; Julian,
Hymnology, pp. 131i‑137: P. Schaff, Literature and Poetry,
ib. 1890. Discussions of $t. Bernard from various points
of view will be found in the Church Histories dealing with
his period and also in works on the History of Philos
ophy.
For Bernard's hymns: H. A. Daniel, Thesaurus hymrwlopicw, b vole., Halls, 1841‑58; C. J. $imrook, Lauds Swn, Cologne. 1850; J. F. H. Schlosser. Die Kiiche in Aron Liedern durch alls JaArhunderta. Freiburg, 1883; P, Schaff, Christ in Song, New York, 1888; J. Pauly, Hymni brsroiarii Romani, 3 vole.: Aachen, 1888‑70: F. A. March, Latin Hymns with English Notes, pp 114‑125, 278‑279, New York, 1874; W. A. Merrill, Latin Hymns Selected and Annotted, Boston, 1904.

BERNARD OF CLUNY (Bernmdus Morlartetlais, often called Bernard of Morlaia, Morlartensis being improperly rendered Morlaix instead of Murlss): Monk of Clung; b. probably at Morlas (5 m. n.e. of Pau, and then the capital of the province of Barn); d. at Clung probably about the middle of the twelfth century. Nothing more is known of him, except that
he wrote a satirical poem of 2,991 lines, divided into three books, and entitled De contemptu mundi, dedicating it to Peter the Venerable. The theme is a monastic and ascetic commonplace, but its handling reveals vigor and satirical power. The meter is a medieval adaptation of the dactylic hexameter, so difficult that Bernard believed he had divine assistance is keeping it up for so many lines; each pair of lines rimes and the first third of each line rimes with the second, thus (lines 1‑2):

.. Hors novieeims, tempors peseima aunt, vigilemus.
Eooe minaoiter imminet arbiter ills eupremus."

	As to contents the poem is a satirical arraignment
of the twelfth century for its vices in Church and
society, sparing not even monks and none, but so
exaggerated that it can not be accepted as history.
The opening of the first book and the concluding
part of the third are on spiritual themes of uncom
mon beauty. The poem exists in at least nine
contemporary manuscripts and so must have been
popular in its day. But it was forgotten until
Matthias Fhlcius Illyricus discovered it and, with
a view of showing that the evils of medieval Roman
i8m of which the Protestants complained were
already pilloried by Rome's faithful sons, printed
a few lines from its third book in his Catalogue
testiurit veritatis qui ante nostram tetatem redamaratttt
papa (Basel, 1556), and the next year the entire
poem in the collection of similar poems which he
entitled Varia doctorum p%orltmque virorum de
eorruluto Ecrlesite state poemata ante rtostram tetotem
eonscwipta. This collection was reprinted in 1754,
probably at Frankfort. The first to bring Ber
nard's poem out separately was Nathan Chytraeus
(Bremen, 1597), and he was followed by Eilhard
Lubin (Rostock, 1610), Petrus Lucius (R,inteln,
1626), and Johann and Heinrich Stern (Lune
burg, 1640). Finally Thomas Wright reprinted it
in his Anglo‑Latin Satirical Poets of the Twelfth Cen
tury (London, 1872, Rolls Series, No. 59). The
first complete translation, in prose, was published
by Henry Preble (AJT, Jan.‑July, 1906). In 1849
Trench published in his Sacred Latin Poetry (Lon
don) ninety‑six lines from its first book, and
these attracted the delighted attention of John
Mason Neale, who translated them in his Medi
eval Hymns and Sequences (London, 1851). His
translation from Bernard leaped into wonderful
popularity and was separately printed along with
other 'lines not in Trench, as The Rhythm of
Bernard de Morlaiz, Monk o f Clung, on the Celestial
Country (London, 1859; often reprinted). One of
the hymns made by division out of this translation,
" Jerusalem the golden," is found in all hymn
books. Other pieces in prose and poetry are also
attributed to Bernard.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: $. M. Jackson, The Source of "Jerusalem
the Golden" and Other Pietas Attributed to Bernard at Clung, Chicago, 1909 (contains Preble'e translation of the De contemptu rnundi, and an elaborate introduction and bibliography).
BERNARD OF CONSTANCE: German teacher and author of the eleventh century; d. at Corvey 1088. He was a Saxon by birth, and about the middle of the century presided with notable sue‑

87	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bernard of Clairvanz
Bernard, Claude
cess over the school at Constants, which he left to teach at Hildesheim. During his residence here he was asked by his teacher Adalbert and his pupil Bernold (q.v.) to write on the questions raised by the Roman synod of 1078, and answered in a lengthy treatise against the opponents of Gregory VII. His standpoint comes out even more clearly in his Liber canonum contra Henricum IV, which on its first publication (M. Sdralek, Die Streitschriften, Altmerns von Passauund Wezilos von Mainz, Paderborn, 1890) was erroneously ascribed to Bishop Altmann of Passau. It was written after the Synod of Quedlinburg at Easter, 1085, when the Gregorian party was in great difficulties, and is an uncompromising declaration of fidelity to the papal cause. Bernard was, in short, as his pupil Bernold describes him, not only " a most learned man " but also " moat fervent in the
cause of St. Peter." 	CARL M1aBm.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The two works mentioned above have been
edited by F. Thsner in MGH, fib, do lite, ii (1892), 2947, and i (1891), 472‑b18 respectively. Consult C. Mirbt, Die PubZiaroatik im ZeitoUer Grapora Yll, Leipeic, 1894 F. Thaner, Zu swsi StrsiterArsZten du II. Jahrhundsrta, in Neu" Archiv far Zflteradeu::chsGeaehichts,:oi (1889), b29540; Hauck, KD, vol. iii.

BERNARD OF MENTHON: Founder of the hospices on the Great and Little St. Bernard. Little is known of his life, as modern criticism has hardly touched it, and the older biographies are untrustworthy and legendary. According to them he was born at Menthon, near Annecy (25 m. s. of Geneva), Savoy, in 923, and studied the liberal arts, law, and theology. To avoid a marriage planned by his parents, he fled to Aoata, where he was ordained and later became archdeacon. In addition to the most faithful performance of his priestly duties, he founded the two hospices and placed them in charge of canons regular, finally dying at Novara in 1007. A sequence preserved in the Acta Sanctortcm, and dating probably from the end of the eleventh or beginning of the twelfth century, speaks of a meeting between him and Henry IV, which may possibly have occurred. It is known that in the ninth century there was a hospice under clerical auspices on the Moos Jovis, the present Great St. Bernard, which may later have fallen unto decay. First in 1125, and often after that date, we find mention of the church of St. Nicholas on the Mons Jovis; in 1145 of the hospitals, which in 1177 is called dmnus hospitalia SS. Nicolai et Bernardi Montia Jovis. It is thus not improbable that Bernard restored the older foundation; but it is more likely that this took place at the beginning of the twelfth than at the end of the eleventh century. The date of 1081 for Bernard's death is no better attested than that of 1007. Innocent XI canonized him in 1881. The larger hospice, on which till 1752 the smaller depended, was reformed during the Council of Basel, receiving a very original constitution in 1438. Napoleon, pleased by his reception there, placed the hospice founded by him on the Simplon pass under the care of the same community, and endowed the foundation, which had lost a great part of the rich possessions formerly held by it in fourteen dioceses.
It is now supported by voluntary offerings from all the Swiss cantons. A statue of Bernard was erected near the hospice in 1905. (A. HAVes.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The old lives are in ASB, lb June, ii, 10711089; Alban Butler, Lives of the Fathers, June lb, 2 voln., London, 1857‑80; an old text Le Mgsttre do 3t. Bernard do Menthon was published by A. L. de la Marche, Paris, 1889. Consult L. Burgener, Der heilipe Bernhard von Menthon, Lucerne, 1870; Wmoirea et documents publics par la soci€tb d'hiatoire do la Suisse, vol xxix Lausanne, 1875; A. Ltitolf, Ueber daa vrahre Zeitalter des heilipen Bernard von Msathon (888‑1081), is TQ, lxi (1879), 179207; J. A. Due, in Miscellanea di etoria Itaiiara, xzxi, 343‑388, Turin, 1894; Wattenbach, DGQ, ii (1888), 214, ii (1894), 241.
BERNARD OF MORLAItg. See BERNARD or CLUaYY.
	BERNARD OF TOLEDO: Archbishop of To
ledo 1086‑1125; b. at Agen (73 m. s.e. of Bor
deaux), France, c. 1050; d. in Spain 1125. His
significance in the history of Spain lies in the fact
that from him dates the emergence of the Spanish
Church from its isolation and its dependence on
Rome. He became a monk in the monastery of
Cluny, whence he was sent to Spain with others
to assist the cause of the reforms of Gregory VII.
Here he was made (1080) abbot of St. Fscundus
at Sahagun in the diocese of Leon, and finally
named by Alfonso VI for the archbishopric of
Toledo. Gregory's plane for Spain included (be
sides a general crusade against clerical marriage,
simony, and lay investiture) the substitution of the
Roman liturgy for the Mozarabic and the recog
nition of the obligations of tribute from the Spanish
Church. The former point had been practically
gained before his death, in spite of strenuous oppo
sition. Urban II, by raising Bernard's see to
primatial dignity, gave him the power necessary
to prosecute the work of Romanizing. His co
operation made possible Urban's intervention at
the Synod of Leon (1091) and ignoring of the royal
right of investiture when Alfonso attempted to
appoint a Spaniard to the see of St. Jago, apparently
in order to counterbalance the influence of the
French Benedictines with whom the primate was
filling the episcopal sees. His career was through
out that of a devoted adherent of the papacy.
Some reminiscences of his youthful days as s knight
appear in his forcible seizure of the Mohammedan
mosque at Toledo in his first year as archbishop
and in his plane for a crusade against the Saracens
of the East, which both Urban II and Paschal II
forbade, in view of the tasks which Spanish Christian
chivalry had at home. Four of his sermons, on
the Salve Regina, are included among those of the
great Bernard. 	CARL M1xsT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Asehbaeh, Geachichte Spaniena and Portupats our Zeit der Herrsehaft der AZmoraviden and Almohaden, i. 129 eqq.. 339. 358 eqq.. Frankfort, 1833; Hiataria Compostellana: Eapiifia saprada, ed. H. Flores, ac. 1‑598, 815, Madrid, 1791; A. F. GfrSrer, Payat Greporius VII and aein ZeitaZter, iv, 484, b00‑,601, Schaffhausen, 1864; Hefele, Concilienpeachichte, v, 200, 251, 328‑327; idem, DerKardinal %inunes, pp. 150 eqq., Arnheim, 1853.

BERftARD, CLAUDE: Called the "poor priest" and " Father Bernard "; b. in Dijon Dec. 23, 1588; d. at Paris Mar. 23, 1641. He was the son of a jurist, studied law himself, and for a time led a life

Bertiufn
Bernard	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	68
of pleasure, but was converted by what he believed was a vision of his departed father. He became a priest and made Parse his residence, where he spent his time preaching and visiting the poor and sick, not shrinking from the most disgusting diseases. He gave away all that he had, including an inheritance of 400,000 francs.
BERNARD, JOHN HENRY: Church of Ireland, dean of St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin; b. at Raniganj, Bardwan (126 m, n.w. of Calcutta), India, July 27, 1860. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1880), where he was elected fellow and tutor in 1884, retaining his fellowship until 1902. In 1886 he was ordained to the priesthood, and was chaplain to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland from 1887 to 1902. Since 1888 he has been Archbishop King's lecturer in divinity in the University of Ireland, and has been dean of St. Patrick's since 1902, where he had already been treasurer from 1897 to 1902. He was examining chaplain to the bishop of Down in 1889, and was select preacher to the University of Oxford in 18931895 and to the University of Cambridge in 1898, 1901, and 1904. He has repeatedly been examiner in mental and moral philosophy for the India Civil Service, and has been a member of the Council of the University of Dublin since 1892, as well as a commissioner of national education for Ireland from 1697 to 1903. He was likewise a member of the General Synod of the Church of Ireland in 1894, and of the Representative Church Body in 1897, while in 1902 he became a warden of Alexandra College, Dublin, a commissioner of charitable donations and bequests for Ireland in 1904, and a visitor of Queen's College, Galway, in 1905. He has written or edited the following works
Kant's Critical Philosophy for English Readers (2 viols., London, 1889; in collaboration with J. P. Mahaffy); Kant's Criticism of Judgment (1892); From Faith to Faith (university sermons, 1895); Archbishop Benson do Ireland (1896); Via Domini (cathedral sermons, 1898); The Irish IRber Hymnortcm (1898; in collaboration with R. Atkinson); The Pastoral Epistles, in The Cambridge Bible, (Cambridge, 1899); The Works of Bishop Butler (2 viola., London, 1900); The Second Epistle to the Corinthians, in The Expositor's Bible (1903); St. Patrick's Cathedral (1904); The Prayer o f the Kingdom (1904); and 1><1s translated and edited The Pilgrimage of St. Silvia (1896) and other publications of The Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society.

BERNARD, THOMAS DEHANY: Church of England; b. at Clifton (a suburb of Bristol), Gloucestershire, Nov. 11, 1815; d. at Wimborne (21 m. n.e. of Dorchester), Dorsetshire, Dec. 7, 1904. He was educated at Exeter College, Oxford (B.A., 1838), was ordered deacon in 1840and priest in the following year, and was successively curate and vicar of Great Baddow, Essex (1840‑46), vicar of Terling, Essex (1848), and rector of Walcot, Somerset (1863‑86). He was prebendary of Haselbere and canon resident of Wells Cathedral from 1868 to 1901, and chancellor of the same cathedral after 1879, while from 1880 to 1895 he was proctor for the dean and chapter of Wells.
He was also select preacher at Oxford in 1855, 1862, and 1882, and was Bampton Lecturer in 1864. He wrote The Witness of God (university sermons, London, 1862); Progress of Doctrine in the New Testament (Bampton lectures, 1864, 4th ed., 1878); The Central Teaching of Jesus Christ (1892); and The Songs o f the Holy Nativity (1895).

BERftARDIN OF SIENNA: Franciscan; b. of noble parents at Massa (33 m. s.w. of Sienna) Sept. 8, 1350; d. at Aquila (58 m. n.e. of Rome) May 20, 1444. He entered the Franciscan order 1402; became its vicar‑general 1437, and effected many reforms in discipline and government. He was the moat famous preacher of his time and spoke to great crowds in all parts of Italy with wonderful effect. Three times he refused the offer of a bishopric. He was canonized by Nicholas V in 1450 and his day is May 20. His writings were first printed at Lyons (1501), afterward at Paris (4 vols., 1636; 5 vols., 1650) and at Venice (4 vols., 1745). The first volume contains his life by his scholar, St. John of Capistrano. Bernardin's writings are for the moat part tractattea aeu aennones, which are not so much sermons according to the modern view as formal treatises upon morals, asceticism, and mysticism.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The older accounts of his life are collected in ASB, 20 May, vi, 282‑318. Consult: P. Thureau‑Dangin, Un Pr6dicateur populaira . . . St. Bernardin de Sieant (138a‑1I,.1,.!), Paris, 1896, Eng. transl., London, 1908; Berthaumier, Histoira de S. Bernardin de Sienae, Paris, 1862; J. P. Toussaint, Lebe>a du heiligen Bernardin, Regensburg, 1873; F. Apollinsire, La vie et lea aeurne de S. Bernardin, Poitiers, 1882; E. C. Dargan, Hilt. of Preaching, pp. 317 eqq., New York, 1905.
BERNARDINES. See CISTERCIANS.
BERNICE, ber‑nai'st or ber'nis (for I:ERF.NICE): Eldest daughter of Herod Aprippa I. See HEROD AND 8I6 FAMILY.
BERNO (BERN, BERNARD) OF REICHENAU:
Abbot of Reichenau (Benedictine	abbey on as
island in the Untersee of Lake Constance, 4 m. w.n.w.
of Constants) 1008 till his death,	June 7, 1048.
He was monk in a monastery at Prum near Treves
when appointed abbot; under his	rule Reiclienau
regained its prosperity, which had been lost under
his predecessor, the abbot Immo; the library was
enriched, scholars were attracted	to the school,
and the church of St. Mark was rebuilt. He was
renowned personally as scholar, as poet, and, above
all, as musician; he accompanied the emperor,
Henry II, to Rome in 1014 for his	coronation and
after his return introduced reforms in German
church music. Besides lives of saints and theolog
ical and liturgical treatises he left a number of
letters and works upon music, which are published
in Gerbert, Scriptorea ecclesiastics de musica, sacra,
ii (St. Blaise, 1784). His writings are	in MPL, cxliii.
	(A. HAUCH.)
BERNOLD : German ecclesiastical author; b. probably in southern Swabia c. 1054; d. at Schaffhauaen Sep. 16, 1100. He was educated at Constance under Bernard (q.v.), with whom he continued in close relations. He began writing early, and was present is Rome at the great synod of

89	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bernaxd
Nerquin
1079 when Berengar was condemned. The neat certain date is his ordination by the cardinal‑legate Otto of Ostia at Constance in 1084., From 1086 to 1091 he was certainly an inmate of the monastery of St. Blaise in the Black Fort; in the latter year he migrated to Schaffhausen, where he remained (though not without interruption, se his presence at the battle of Pleichfeld shows) until his death. He was a versatile author. His Chronicon (ed. G. Waitz, in MGH, Script., v, 1844, 385‑467) is a valuable source for his own lifetime, though colored by his partizan support of Gregory VII. His treatise De Berengarii hceresuarcha damnatione mti7tiplici is interesting for the light which it throws on the attitude of German theology before the beginning of the strictly scholastic period. Moat of his extant works, however, are of a practical nature, dealing with the vexed questions of the church life of his time. Though a zealous upholder of the reforming papacy, he was not a fanatic.
CARL MIRHT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Mirbt, Die Publiziatik im Zeitaiter Gropcrs Yll, Leipaic, 1894; A. Ueaermann, Gerynanim sacra p; odromua, ii, 432‑437, Freiburg, 1792; E. 8trelau, lebsn and Werka des M bndvea Berrcold von St. Bkleien, Jena, 1889; G. Meyer von Knonsu, Jahrbtecher du deutschen Rei,cha unter Heinrich IV and Heinrich V, Leipeie, 1890‑1904.

BERNWARD: Bishop of Hildesheim 993‑1022. He came of a noble Saxon family, being the grandson of the count palatine Adalbero and the nephew of Bishop Folkmar of Utrecht. He was educated at the cathedral school of Hildesheim by ThangEgar, later his biographer, and ordained by Willigis of Mainz. In 987 he became chaplain at the imperial court and tutor to the young Otto III. On Jan. 15, 993, he was consecrated bishop of Hildesheim He protected his diocese vigorously from the attacks of the Normans, and only once took a wrong step as a temporal magnate‑when, at the accession of Henry II, he took the side of Margrave Ekkehart, whose death, however, saved him from the consequences of his mistake. He rendered great services to literature and art. He died Nov. 20, 1022, a few weeks after the consecration of the magnificent church of St. Michael which he had built. Celestine III canonized him in 1193.
(A. HAUCE.).

BratsooasraT: The Vita by Thsagmar is in MGH, Script., iv, 754‑782, the Msracv7a, ib. pp. 782‑788, Hanover. 1841; the continuation of the Vita by wolfheriua, ib. a, 185187, 1854. Consult: A. Schultz, Der luilips Bernroard . and seine Yerdienste, Leipaie, 1879: w. A. Neumann , Berntaard van Hildeaheim and seine Zeit, in Mi#htilunpan des kaiaeriichen Geterreichiachen Museums fitr Banal, v,
730, 97‑104, 124‑130, 141‑152, 188‑173, Vienna, 1890: B. Sievers, Der hei7ige Bernward, in Studien and Mih
"unpen aua dem Benedict‑ and dem Ciatera.‑0rden x*1V (1893), 398‑420; Wsttenbavh, DfiQ, i (1893). 318, 348‑
350, ii, 25, 360, 511; $. Beissel, Der Wigs Bernuxird van Hi7deaheim, Hildeeheim, 189b.
BERDEANS OR BARCLAYITES. See BARCLAY, JoaN.

BERQUIN, bfir"kan', LOUIS DE: French Reformer; b. at Passy Paris June, 1490; d. at Paris
Apr. 17, 1529. He belonged to a noble family of Artois and was lord of the estate of Berquin, near
Abbeville. In 1512 he came to Paris to finish his studies, became acquainted with Lefcvre dttaples and the publisher Josse Badius, and was introduced to Marguerite of Valois, sister of Francis I, through whom he gained the king's favor. He belonged to that group of godly humanists who wished a reformation of the Church, but without a rupture with Rome. He hated equally the ignorance of the monks and the coarseness of Luther. Erasmus seemed to him the true Reformer; with him therefore he opened correspondence and translated several of his tracts, as well se Luther's De votis monastieis. The doctors of the Sorbonne denounced him as a heretic and on May 13, 1523, the trial was held before the. Parliament. Seven of Berquin's writings and one of his translations from Luther and Melanchthon were condemned by the theological faculty and by the Parliament. On Aug. 1, he was made prisoner, but was set free by order of the king, Aug. 8. The Parliament had already burned his papers and books. The siege of Pavia and the captivity of the king (Feb., 1525) increased the Parliament's power, and the queen regent, Louise de Savoie, established (May 20) an extraordinary court to judge the heretics. On the same day three of Erasmus's treatises were censured. Berquin would have been permitted to retire and live on his estates if he had consented to keep silence. But he could not help speaking the truth and (Jan. 8, 1526), being denounced by the bishop of Amiens, he was again imprisoned. His books were again judged and forty of his propositions were declared heretical. He defended himself by saying that his propositions were taken from Erasmus and nobody adjudged the latter a heretic. His books were nevertheless condemned and he would have been burned with them if Marguerite of Valois had not invoked the clemency of her brother. Aug. 17 Francis sent a letter to the Parliament commanding them to take no definite steps without his advice. Although Erasmus advised silence, Berquin, confident of the king's favor, tamed the struggle and quoted from Noel Beda's writings against Erasmus, against the Sorbonne, and Lefwre dttaplP.s, twelve propositions as false and heretical, and asked the king to allow the Parliament to give judgment. From July, 1528, until March, 1529, Berquin lived in security. He was then again imprisoned and Parliament condemned him " to have his tongue branded with a red‑hot iron and to remain a prisoner for the rest of his life." Apr. 16 Berquin appealed to the king, and the neat day Parliament, taking advantage of the king's absence at Blois, ordered Berquin to be burned at the Place de Grove. He was the first Protestant martyr of France. Theodore Beza said of him: " If Francis had upheld him to the last, he would have been the Luther of France." Berquin's original works are all lost, only a few of his translations being left: Enehiridion du chevalier chreatien (Antwerp, 1529); Le vray moyen de bier et cat)wliquentent se eonfesaer, par grasme (Lyons, 1542); Paraphrases atrr Is Nouveau Testament, and Le aymbola daa ap8trea (both from Erasmus, n.p., n.d.).
G. BON1'1‑MADRY.

33ermyer	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	70
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources for a biography are in T. Base, Hisfoire ecclteiaatique des Egiiau Hforn&a de France, i, 7, Paris, 1882; A. L. Herminjard, Corrupondanu des R& fosmateura, vol. ii and viii, especially vol. ii, containing letters by Erasmus to Berqnin, ii, 155‑157, 159‑180, sad the letter of Erasmus to C. Utenhoviue, ii, 1893, 193, ib. 1878, 1893; a brief but lucid account of Berquin's life is contained in A. Cbevillier, L't7rigina de i'imprimerie de Paris, ib. 1894. Consult: Hiatoire du proteatantiame Frangaia, xi, 129, ib. 1848 Journal d'un bourgeois de Paris ed. L. Lalanae, ib. 1894; Haur,6au, in Revue den deux monde&, Jan. 15, 1869; H. M. Baird, Rise of the Huguenots, i, 128‑158, London, 1880.

BERRUYER, bar"ril"y6', JOSEPH ISAAC
French Jesuit; b. at Rouen Nov. 7, 1681; d. at Paris Feb. 18, 1758. He served as teacher of his order for many years and won notoriety from an attempt to rewrite the Bible in French in the form of a romance fitted to the taste of his time; in carrying out the idea, however, he introduced much that was unfitting, heretical, and even blasphemous and obscene. He published the first part, Histoire du people de Dieu degntis son origins jusqu'h la venue du Meaeie, in seven volumes at Paris, 1728. It was put on the Index in 1734, but reissued in expurgated shape in 8 vole. 1733‑34. The second part included the Gospels, 4 vole. 1753, also put on the Index in 1755. The third part included the Epistles, in 2 vole. 1757, but was condemned by the pope in 1758. The whole work has appeared in Italian, Spanish, Polish, and German transls., and was reissued (expurgated) in 1851 in 10 volumes.
BIBLIOGRAPHT: E. H. Landon. Ecclesiastical Dictionary. ii. 204, London, 1853; A. de Backer, Bibdiothkua du ~6erivaina dada compopnie de J&ua, iv, 340.7 volr.. Paris, 18531881; F, H. Rinsch, Der lndex der roerbotenen Busker, ii, 804, Bonn, 1885,
BERRY, JOSEPH F.: Methodist Episcopal bishop; b. at Aylmer, Can., Map 13, 1856; received his education at Milton Academy, Ontario; entered the ministry of his denomination, 1874; was associate editor of the Michigan Christian Advocate, 1884‑90; editor of Hepworth Herald, 1890‑1904; and was elected bishop 1904.

BERSIER, b5r"sy6', EUGENE ARTUR FRAN_ CjOIS: French Reformed; b. at Morges (7 m. w. of Lausanne), Switzerland, Feb. 5, 1831; d. at Paris Nov. 19, 1889. He came of Huguenot parentage, took elementary studies at Geneva and Paris; visited America, 1848‑50; studied theology at Geneva, Gottingen, and Halls; became pastor in Paris 1855‑in the Free Church until 1877 (until 1861 over the Faubourg St. Antoine Church; until 1874, assistant of Pressens6 in the Taitbout Church; until 1877, over the toile Church), when he and his congregation joined the Reformed (established) Church of France. He was the author of several popular volumes of sermons, some of which have been translated into English: in the Protestant Pulpit series (2 . vole., London, 1869); Oneness of the Race in its Fall arid its Future (translated by Annie Harwood, London, 1871); Sermons, with Sketch of the Author (London, 1881; 2d aeries, 188b); St. Paula Vision (translated by Marie Stewart, New York, 1881; new ed. 1890)•,. The Gospel in Paris; Sermons, with personal Sketch of the Author by Rev. Frederick Hastings
(London, 1884). There are translations also into German, Danish, Swedish, and Russian. He wrote also Solidarity (Paris, 1869); Hietoire du Synods de 187i° (2 vola., 1872); Liturgie (now used in the Reformed Church of France, 1874); Mes atlas et men principea (1878); L'Immutabilitg de Jesus Christ (1880); Royautk de Jesus Christ (1881); Coligny avant lea gtterru de religion (1884; 3d ed., 1885; Eng. transl., Coligny : the Earlier Life of the Great Huguenot, London, 1885); La Revocation, diacoura . . . our l'€diL de revocation (1886); Lea Rgfugi6a frangaia et leer industries (1886); Projet de rtviaion de la liturgie den Eglises REformEes en France (1888); Quelques pagan d'hiatoire den Huguenots (1890) .
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. 8tapfer, La Predication d'Eug&a Beraier, Pixie, 1893; J. F. B. Tinting, Beraier'a Pulpit: Analysis of Public Sermons of . . . Eupe~ne Beraier, London, 1900; w. C. Wilkinson, Modern Masters of Pulpit Discourse, pp. 251‑281, New York, 1905 highly laudatory).
$ERTHEAU, b8,r"to', CARL: German Lutheran; b. at Hamburg July 8, 1836. He was educated at the universities of Gottingen (185rr57, 1858‑b9) and Halls (1857‑58), and after teaching in the schools of his native city became pastor of St. Michael's Church there in 1867. Since 1897 he has been president of the Hamburg Verein fur inhere Mission. In theology he belongs to the positive evangelical school. He prepared the third volume of K. Hireehe's Prolegomena zu Thomas d KemPia (Berlin, 1894) and edited Luther's catechisms (Hamburg, 1898).

BERTHEAU, ERNST: German Lutheran; b. at Hamburg Nov. 23, 1812; d. at Gottingen May 17, 1888. He studied in Berlin and Gottingen (Ph.D., 1836) and became repetent at Gottingen 1836 extraordinary professor of Oriental languages and Old Testament exegesis 1842, ordinary professor 1843. From 1870 he was a member of the commission to revise Luther's Bible. His publications include: Carminza Ephraemi Syri textus Syriacua secundum codicem bibliothem ArEgelicte dertuo editus ac veraione et bretn: annotations instructus (Gottingen, 1837); Die sieben GruFpett mosaiacher Geaetze in den dyed mittleren Biiehern des Perttateucha (1840); Zur Geschichte der leraeliten, ztoei Abhartdlungen (1842); an edition of the Syriac grammar of Bar Hebra;ua (1843); and commentaries upon Judges and Ruth (1845; 2d ed., 1883), Chronicles (1854; 2d ed., 1873), Ezra, Nehemiah, and Father (1862), and Proverbs (1847; 2d ed., 1S83), in the Kurzgefaastu ezegetiaehea Xaruibuch zum Allen Testament. (CARL BERTHEAU.)

BERTHIER, bar"tyd', GUILLAUME FRAN_ COIS: French Jesuit; b. at Iasoudun (130 m. s. of Paris), department of Indre, Apr. 7, 1704; d. at Bourgea Dec. 15, 1782. He joined the Jesuits in 1722: He added six volumes (Paris, 1749) to the twelve already completed by Longueval, Fontenay, and Brumoy of the Histoire de l'9glise gnllicane, bringing the narrative down to 1529; from 1745 to 1762 he edited the M&rtoirea de Trevoux and displayed much moderation as well as learning under attacks from the Encyclopedists and Voltaire. After the expulsion of his order

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	=1d
from France in 1762 he was appointed tutor to the princes afterward Louis XVI and Louis XVIII, but had to leave the country in 1764; after an absence of ten years he returned to Bourges. He translated the Psalms (8 vols., 1785) and the Book of Isaiah (5 vole., 1788‑89) into French with notes. His tEuvres spirituelles were published at Paris in five volumes in 1811.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. de Backer, Biblioth?que du &rivairu de la
corwpapnie do JEsue, ex., 7 vole., Paris, 18b3‑81.

BERTHOLD OF CHIEMSEE. See PtYRBTIN(iER, BL''RTHOLD.
BERTHOLD OF LIVONIA: Early missionary and second bishop among the Livonians. He was abbot of the Cistercian monastery in Lokkum, and was consecrated bishop to succeed Meinhard about 1196 by Hartwig II, bishop of Bremen. After he had failed to win the heathen by mild means with peril of his life, he went to Saxony and returned with a body‑guard in 1198. The Livonians gathered and were defeated in battle, but the bishop was slain July 24, 1198. His successor was Albert of Riga (q.v.).

BERTHOLD OF REGENSBURG: Franciscan friar, the greatest popular preacher of the Middle Ages in Germany; b. at Regensburg probably earlier than the traditional date of 1220; d. there Dec. 14, 1272. He was a member of the Franciscan community founded at Regensburg in 1226. His novitiate was passed under the guidance of David of Augsburg; and by 1246 he is found in a position of responsibility. By 1250 at the latest, he had begun his career as an itinerant preacher, first in Bavaria, where he endeavored to bring Duke Otto II back to obedience to the Church; then he appears farther westward, at Speyer in 1254 and 1255, then passing through Alsace into Switzerland. In the following years the cantons of Aargau, Thurgau, Constance, and Grisons, with the upper Rhine country, were the principal scenes of his activity. In 1260 he went farther afield, traversing after that date Austria, Moravia, Hungary, Silesia, Thuringia, and possibly Bohemia, reaching his Slavonic audiences through an interpreter. Some of his journeys in the East were probably in the interest of the crusade, the preaching of which was specially entrusted to him by Pope Urban IV in 1263.
The German historians, from Berthold's contemporary, Abbot Hermann of Niedernaltaich, down to the middle of the sixteenth century, speak in the most glowing terms of the force of his personality and the effect of his preaching, which is said to have attracted almost incredible numbers, so that the churches could not hold them; and he was forced to speak from a platform or a tree in the open air. The gifts of prophecy and miracles were soon attributed to him, and his fame spread from Italy to England. He must have been a preacher of great talents and success. Although the manuscript reports of his sermons, which began to circulate very early, are by no means to be trusted se literal productions, we can still form from them a tolerably accurate idea of the matter and manner
of his preaching. It was always of a missionary character, based formally on the Scriptures for the day, but soon departing from them to apply the special theme which Berthold wished to enforce. This generally finds its point in the insistent call to true sorrow for sin, sincere confession, and perfect penance; penance without contrition has no value in God's sight, and neither a crusade nor a pilgrimage has any good result unless there is a firm purpose to renounce sin. From this standpoint Berthold criticizes the new preachers of indulgences. The extremely mixed character of his audiences led him to make his appeal as wide and general as possible. He avoids subtle theological questions, and advises the laity not to pry into the divine mysteries, but to leave them to the clergy, and content themselves with the credo. The weighty political occurrences of the time are also left untouched. But everything that affects the average man‑his joys and his sorrows, his superstitions and his prejudices‑is handled with intimate knowledge and with a careful clearness of arrangement easy for the most ignorant to follow. While exhorting all to be content with their station in life, he denounces oppressive taxes, unjust judges, usury, and dishonest trade. Jews and heretics are to be abhorred, and players who draw people's minds away to worldly pleasure; dances and tournaments am also condemned, and he has a word of blame for the women's vanity and proneness to gossip. He is never dry, always vivid and graphic, mingling with his exhortations a variety of anecdotes, jests, and the wild etymologies of the Middle Ague, making extensive use of the allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament and of his strong feeling for nature.
(E. sTE1NMEYER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sermons in Geretsn of Berthold were edited or given in abstract by C. F. Kung, Berlin, 1824, on which cf. J. Grimm in Wiener Jahrbfiaker der likratw, zzzii (182b), 194‑Zb7, and the R7einere 3chriften by J. Grimm, Vienna, 1889. A complete edition of his Predipfen, ed. F. Pfeiffer, appeared vol. i, Vienna, 1882 (cf. K. Schmidt in T31L, aaavii, 1884, pp. 782), vol. ii, ed. J. Strobl, Vienna, 1880 (d. A. SohBabsch, in Anuiper far deuteehsa Aitertum, vii [18811, 337‑38b). On the Latin sermons consult H. LeYeet. Deutsahe Predipten des 13. and ib. Jahrhunderta, Leipeic, 1838; G. Jacob, Die lateinischea Redea des aeiipera Berthold von Regensburg, Regensburg, 1880; 6srmonea ad retipiosos vipinti., ed. P. de a. Hoetsel, Munich, 1882. On his life and work consult: K. Hoffmann, 3ifaurpabericMe der MUacherer Akademie, ii (1887). 374 eqq., ii (1888), 101; L. Ilockinger, Berthold van Regensburg and Raimund von Peniafort, in Abhandlunpen der M4nchener Akademie, hiatoriache Closes, ziii. 3 (1877). 186 eqq.; K. Unkel, Berfho7d roan Regensburg, Cologne, 1882. For his preaching consult: W. Wackerasgel, Alb deutaehe Pfsdiptsn, Basel. 1878; R,. Cruel, Geachichts der deulachen Predipt im Mi!&fafter, pp. x‑322. Detmold, 1879•, A. Lineenmayer, Qeschichte der PradipE in DevtacAland, pp. 333‑3b4. Munich. 1888; E. C. Dargan. A History of Preaching, New York, 1905.

BERTHOLD OF RORBACH: Heretical mystic; d. 1356. He appears first in Wiirzburg, where be was tried on a charge of teaching heresy, but saved himself by recantation of the doctrines attributed to him. He was. again brought to trial at Speyer in 1356, but this time refused to recant and was burned. The accounts of his teaching show him as an adherent of the quietistic mysticism of the

Berthold
Bestmana
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Brothers of the Free Spirit, sharing their disbelief in the meritoriousness of prayer and asceticism; those who are " enlightened by God," laymen as well as priests, may preach the Gospel and change bread and wine into the divine substance. The strange and shocking views attributed to him on the passion of Christ can scarcely be reconciled with his other teachings, and have probably come down in a distorted form. (HERMAN HAUPT.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Jundt, Histoire du panthEiame populaire du moyen age, p 105, Paris, 1875; H. Haupt, Die relipisaen Sektan in Franken, p. 8, iirzburg, 18$2.

BERTHOLD THE CARMELITE. See CARMELITES.
BERTHOLDT, LEONHARD: Professor at Erlangen; b. at Emakirchen (14 m. w.n.w, of Nuremberg), Bavaria, May 8, 1774; d. at Erlangen Mar. 22, 1822. He studied at Erlangen and became professor extraordinary on the philosophical faculty 1805; full professor of theology 1810, in recognition of his work upon Daniel (2 vole., Erlangen, 1806‑08). His principal work was the Hzstorischkritische Einleitung in die sdmmtlichert kanonischen and apokryphischen Schriften des Alters and Neuen, Testaments (6 vole., 1812). Of less interest is his Einleitung in die theolog£schen TVissenschaften (2 vole., 1821‑22); and of still leas, his Handbuch der Dogmengeschichte (2 vole., 1822‑23). As a teacher, however, and as editor of the Kri:isches Journal der neuesten theologischen Litteratur, one of the principal organs of the rationalistic party, his activity was stimulating in many ways.
BERTHOLET, bar"t8"lb', ALFRED: Swiss Protestant; b. at Basel Nov. 9, 1868. He was educated at the universities of his native city, Strasburg, and Berlin, and, after being FrancoGerman pastor at Leghorn, in 1892‑93, became privet‑docent for Old Testament exegesis in the university of his native city in 1896. In 1899 he was appointed associate professor of the same subject, and in 1905 was promoted to his present position of full professor. He was general secretary of the Second International Congress for the History of Religion held at Basel in 1904, and has prepared the commentaries on Leviticus, Deuteronomy, Ruth, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Ezekiel in K. Marti's Kurzer Handkommentar zum Allen Testament (5 vols., Freiburg and Tiibingen, 18971902), and has written Der Yerfassungsgesetzent‑
wurf des Heaekiel in seiner religionsgeachichtlichen Bedeutung (Freiburg, 1896); Die Stellung der Israelites and der Juden zu den Fremden (1896); Zu Jesaja 63 (1899); Die israelitischen Yorstellungen vom Zustand sash dem Tode (Tiibingen, 1899); Bnddhismus and Christentum (1902); Die Ge Tilde der Seligen (1903); Seelentoanderung (galls, 1904); Der Buddhismtis and seine Bedeutung fur unser Geistesleben (Tiibingen, 1904); and the section on the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha in K. Budde's Geschichte der althebraischen Literatur (Leipeie,1906).

BERTRAM: The name by which R,atramnua (q.v.) was formerly sometimes quoted.
13ERTRAN , ROBERT AITKIY; English Con_ gregationalist; b. at Henley (147 m. n.w, of Lon‑
72
don), Staffordshire, Nov. 8, 1836; d. in London Nov. 14, 1886. He ended his .studies at Owens College (Victoria University), Manchester, 1858; was pastor at Lymm, Cheshire, at Openshaw (Manchester), and at Barnstaple, Devonshire; edited The Christian Age, 1880‑‑83. He compiled The Cavendish Hymnal (Manchester, 1864), and published Parable or Divine Poesy, Illustrations in Theology and Morals Selected from Great Divines and Systematically Arranged (London, 1866); A Dictionary of Poetical Illustrations (1877); A Homiletical Encyclopedia of Illustrations in Theology and Morals, d Handbook of Practical Divinity and a Commentary on Holy Scripture (1878); A Homiletical Commentary on the Prophecies of Isaiah (i, 1884; ii, jointly, with Alfred Tucker, 1888).
BERULLE, PIERRE DE. See NERI, PHILIP.
BERYLLUS OF BOSTRA. See MONARCHIwlJlsaa.
BESANT, bes'ant, ANNIE (WOOD): Theosophist; b. at London Oct. 1, 1847. She was educated by private tutors at Clearmouth, Doraetshire, London, Bonn, and Paris, and later passed B.Sc. and M..B. at London University. Originally a member of the
Church of England, she married Rev. Frank Besant, vicar of Sibaey, Lincolnshire, in 1867, but was divorced from him six years later and renounced Christianity altogether. She then joined the National Secular Society, and as a scientific materialist worked with Charles Bradlaugh, with whom she edited the National Reformer. She was also prominent in socialistic and labor movements, and was a member of the Fabian Society and the Social Democratic Federation. In 1887‑90 she was a member of the London School Board for Tower Hamlets, but declined reelection. Meanwhile, her views had undergone further change as a result of psychological study, and in 1889 she joined the Theosophical Society, of which she has since been a distinguished member, and its president in 1907. She has made extensive journeys to all parts of the world in the interests of theosophy, but has of late years resided chiefly in India. In 1898 she founded the Central Hindu College, Benares, and is still the president of its council, while in 1904 she established the Central Hindu Girls' School in the same city. 1n addition to a large number of briefer articles and pamphlets, she has written Natural Religion Versus Revealed Religion (London, 1874);
History of the Great French Revolution (1876); The
Law of Potion : Its Consequences and its Bearing
upon Human Conduct and Morale (1877); The
Gospel o f Christianity and the Gospel o f Free Thought
(1877); Heat, Light, and Sound (1881); Legends
and Tales (1885); The Sins of the Church (1886);
Reincarnation (1892); Seven Principles o f Man
(1892); Autobiography (1893); Dea!h and After

(1893); Building of the Cosmos (1894); In the Outer Court (1895); Karma (1895); The Self and
its Sheaths (1895); The Path of Discipleship (1896); Man and his Bodies (1896); Four Great Religxona (1897); The Ancient Wisdom (1897); Evolution
of Life and Form (1899); Dharma (1899); Story of the Great War : Lessons from the Mo1~Fbhigrata (1899); Avaticras (1900); Ancient Ideals in Modern

73
Life (1901); Esoteric Christianity (1901); Thought Power: Its Control and Cultivation (1901); The Religious Problem in India (Madras, 1902); The Pedigree of Man (Benarea, 1903); Study in Consciousness (London, 1904); and Theosophy and New Psychology (1904). She has also translated a number of free‑thought works as well as the Bhagavadgit8 (London, 1895), and has edited Our Corner (London, 1883‑8$), and, in collaboration with G. R. S. Mead, The Theosophical Review.
	BESS, BERNHARD: German librarian and
historian; b. at Nenterahauaen (near Cassel) May
19, 1863. He was educated at the universi
ties of Marburg and Giittingen, and, after being
privat‑docent at the former university for several
years, was appointed to his present position of li
brarian of the University of Halls in 1896. In 1902
1903 hawse also entrusted with the organization of
the library of the Prussian Historical Institute at
Rome. He has written Frankreicha Kirchen
politik and der. Prozesa lea Jean Pent (Marburg,
1891), and Luther and das landesherrlirhe Kirchert
regiment (1894). Since 1891 he has been the
editor of the Zeitachri, ft fur Kirchengeschichte.

BESSARIOft, bea.Wri‑en, JOHANNES or BASILIUS: Cardinal; b. at Trebizond 1395; d. at Re, venna Nov. 19, 1472. He studied at Constantinople and at Misithra in the Peloponneeus under Gemiatoa Plethon; entered the Basilian order; became archbishop of Nicma in 1437. As such he labored at Ferrara and Florence, 1438‑39, for the union of the Greek and Roman Churches (see FEaxnawFLOHENCE, COUNCIL OF). Having been made a cardinal, he remained in Italy, by voice and pen working for the union. His house at Rome became the center not only for hiafugitive countrymen, but also for the cultivation of Greek literature in the Went; and during his activity as legate in Bologna, 1451,55, he worked in the same interest at that ancient gymnasium illuatre. At the papal election in 1455 he lacked only a few votes of being chosen pope, and his influence in the curia may be seen from the numerous diplomatic missions with which he was entrusted. While returning from a missionary tour to France, which he had undertaken for the sake of reconciling Louis XI and the duke of Burgundy, he died at Ravenna.
K. BENRATH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the works of Besearion consult: Fabriciuo‑Harles, Bibliotheca Grieca, a, 491, xi, 480, Hamburg, 1807‑08; MPG, alai. On his life and activities consult: Pastor, Popes, vol. iv, passim (well worth using); Creighton, Papacy, vole. ii‑v, passim (gives an excellent treatment of the subject); G. Voittt, Die Wia3erbeGsbuny lee clwaiachen Alterthurna, Berlin, 1859; J. Burekhardt, Kuttur der Renaissance ix Italian, Basel, 1880, Eng. trawl., 2 vole., London, 1878; H. Vast, La Cardinal Beaeotion, Paris. 1878: R. Rocholl, Beaaariou, Leipaie, 1904.
BESSEL, GOTTFRIED: Abbot of GSttweig, near Vienna; b. at Buchhain, near Mainz, Sept. 5, 1672; d. at G6ttweig Jan. 20, 1749. He studied at Salzburg, entered the Benedictine order in 1693, was ordained priest 1696, and was employed in various diplomatic negotiations by the elector of Mains. In 1707 he converted the princess Elizabeth Christine of Brunswick to the Roman Catholic
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Berthold
Be	11
faith, and, in 1710, her grandfather, the duke Anton Ulrich, at which time he published Quinquaginta Romanocatholicam f dam omnibus aliis lorceferendi motiva (Mainz, 1708). In 1714 he became abbot of Gottweig. He prepared a chronicle of the monastery, of which only the first part, Prodromus, has been published (2 vole., Tegernaee, 1732).
BESSER, WILHELM FRIEDRICH: German preacher and theological writer; b. at warnstedt, in the Harz, Sept. 27, 1816; d. near Dresden Sept. 26, 1884. He studied at Halls under Gesenius and Tholuck (1837), then went to Berlin, where he was influenced by Neander and Twesten, but still more by Hengstenberg, Otto von Gerlach, and others. He returned to Halls in 1838 as secretary to Tholuck, but a year later went as private tutor to the house of Major von Schenkendorf at Wulkow near Puppin. This had a decisive influence on his life, through his intercourse there with a persecuted Lutheran pastor, a guest in the house, who had such an effect on him that, at his ordination in 1841 as pastor at Wulkow, he refused to sign the Union formula except with the reservation that the Union related to common ecclesiastical organization without prejudice to the authority of the Augsburg Confession. In 1845 he withdrew his subscription, and after long negotiations was deprived of his office in 1847. Connecting himself with the Lutheran Church of Prussia, he became pastor of Seefeld in Pomerania, and zealously supported the movement to obtain equal rights for the Lutherans with the Union. In 1853 he was called to assist Graul in the direction of the Evangelical Lutheran mission‑house; but the strain of continuous teaching was not suited to his vivacious and impulsive nature, and sharp controversies broke out over the then burning question of the Indian castes, so that he returned willingly to pastoral life in 1857, becoming minister of Waldenburg in Silesia and also (1864) a member of the Lutheran superior council of Breslau. Failing health compelled him to resign his offices at Easter, 1884. His Bibelstunden, which he began to write in 1843 and continued at intervals till he had covered most of the New Testament, have had a salutary influence far beyond Germany. The list of his minor writings is a long one, and includes a number of controversial tractates against what he thought a hollow and deceiving compromise, popular biographies, devotional works, and sermons. (H. HOI$CHER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A sketch of Besser's life appears in his Prodipteu and Predigtauaziipe, Breslau, 1585. His autobiography (uncompleted) was continued to the year 1850 by Grave. Aua Beeasra Lebau, in Gotthdd, year 20, 18941895, and completion is promised; cf. AL%G, 1884, pp.
1038‑39.
BEST)1!<ANR, best"miqn', HUGO JOHANNES
German Lutheran; b. at Delve, Holstein, Feb. 21, 1854. He studied in Leipsic, Tiibingen, Kiel, Berlin, and Erlangen (lie. theol., 1877), and was privat‑docent in theology at Erlangen 1877‑83. He was then instructor in the gymnasium of the orphan asylum at Halls 1883‑84 and at the Missionary Seminary in Leipaic 1884‑86. Since the latter yeas he has been pastor in M&lln

Beth
Bethune‑Baker
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
74
(Lauenburg). He has been a member of the committee of the Mtilln conference for theological studies since 1896, and has written Qua rations Auguatinus notiones philosophic; graces ad dogmata anthropologica deacribenda adhibuerdt (Erlangen, 1877); Geschichte der chriatlichen Sine (2 vole., NtSrdlingen, 1880‑85); Die theologische Wissenachaft and die Ritachl'sche Schule (1881); Die Anfange des katholiachen Christentuma and des lalama (1884); Der Protestantiamus and die theologischen Fakultdten (Kiel, 1891); and Geschichte des Reichs Gottea im Alten and Neuen Bunde (2 vole., Leipaic;18961900). He edited also J. C. K. von Hofmann's Theologische Encycloptidie (Nilrdlingen, 1879) and Der christliche Herold (Hamburg and Mtilln, 18981899).
BETH, KARL: German Protestant; b. at Ftirderatiidt (15 m. s. of Magdeburg) Feb. 12, 1872. He studied in TQbingen and Berlin (Ph.D., 1898), and was privet‑docent in Berlin 1901‑06. Since 1906 he has been professor of systematic and symbolic theology at the University of Vienna. He has written Die Grundanschauungen Schleiermachera in seinem eraten Entuurf der philoaophiachen Sittenlehre (Berlin, 1898); Did orientalische Kirche der MittelmeerlZtnder, Reiseatudien cur Statiatilc and Syrnbolik der griechischxn, armenischen und koptiachen Kirche (1902); Des Wesen des Christentuma urui die moderns hiatoriache Denkweise (1904); and Die Wunder Jean (1905).

BETHLEHEM: A town in southern Palestine, in the territory of Judah, often called Bethlehem Judah (e.g., Judges xvii, 7, 8; cf. Matt. ii, 1, 5). Its significance for the Judah of Davidic times or earlier is as the home of Jesse (I Sam. xvi, 1), of Joab, Abiahai, and Asahel (II .Sam. ii, 32), of Elhanan (II Sam. xxi, 19), and as a place of sacrifice (I Sam. xvi, 3, 5). It was occupied by the Philietines in their war with David (II Sam. sxiii, 14).
Rehoboam made of it a city of defense
Old Tests‑ (II Chron. xi, 6), as it commanded
meat His‑ the roads south and west. Though in
tory.	early times it was a place 'of impor‑
tance because of its situation on caravan routes, it became overshadowed by the growth of the capital. After the exile it was reckoned to the Jewish community (Ezra ii, 21), and was inhabited by Calebitea who were driven north by the Edomites pressing up from the south. This possession is explained by the Chronicler on genealogical grounds, regarding the town as founded by Salma, a eon of Caleb. The district of Ephratah, which extended from Kirjath‑jearim to Bethlehem, became a possession of the Calebitea and gave occasion for the name Bethlehem Ephratah, used Micah v, 2. The inhabitants were engaged in agriculture, viticulture, and cattle‑raising.
For the Hebrews its fame recta upon its being the home of David (Luke ii, 4, 11); to Christians everywhere its name is familiar as the birthplace of Jesus, according to the accounts in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. It has retained its name unchanged to the present. Bait‑7alam lies five and $ half miles south of Jerusalem, a little east of the central watershed, at a level above the sea of about
2,500 feet. The elopes above it have been terraced from early times, and their fertility rewards richly
the labor of the inhabitants in pro‑
Present ' ducing olives, almonds, figs, and grapes.
Condition. The numerous trees of the terraces
give the place a refreshing appearance, especially to the traveler from the bare heights of Jerusalem. There is a spring some fifteen minutes eastward from the town, and water is taken from the aqueduct on the south leading into Jerusalem. For the rest of the water‑supply, dependence is had upon cisterns. The population is about 8,000; 3,827 are Roman Catholics, 3,662 Greeks, 260 Mohammedans, 185 Armenians; the rest are Copts, Syrians, and Protestants. Two‑thirds are engaged in various handicrafts, the rest in husbandry, and all are oppressed by burdensome taxes. Attempts have been made at various times to connect particular parts of the town with David, naming for him a house, a tower, and a well, but the traditions are insecurely founded. The "Well of David" is the name given since the fifteenth century to three large cisterns in the northeast.
More secure is the tradition about the birthplace of Jesus, covered by the celebrated Church of St. Mary, a basilica mentioned as early as 334 as built
',	by Constantine's order. Eusebiua (" Life of Conatantine ") confirms thin report; Socrates and Sozomen ascribe its erection to the empress Helena; and 1';utychiua to Justinian. De VogiiE! supports
I	the first hypothesis on the, ground of the unity
of plan, conformity of extent of choir
The Church and grotto, and absence of architec‑
of St. Mary. tural marks of the Justinian period.
In this opinion he is supported by the architect T. Sandel, who made a new examination in 1880. This may well be the oldest church in the world. It was thoroughly restored by the emperor Manuel Comnenus, who adorned it with mosaics, of which work but little remains, though a description by F. Quareamio (1616‑26) with what is left suffices to give a good idea of the whole. In 1478 (or 1482) the roof was repaired by Philip of Burgundy and Edward IV of England, sad renewed in 1672 by the Greek patriarch Dositheos. In the latter year the Greeks obtained possession, which the Latins had had since the crusades. In 1852 Napoleon brought it about that the Latin, were given a share in holding it. The church, now in decay, can not be restored for fear of renewing outbreaks among Latino, Greeks, and Armenians.
From the southeast the church rises prominently like a fortress; the north, east, and south sides are leas pleasing to one approaching from those directions because of the cells of the monks of the different communions. It has a nave and. double aisles, sad its floor apace is about ninety‑eight feet by eighty‑seven between the cross aisles. The transept and apes are unfortunately concealed by a wall built by the Greeks in the seventeenth or eighteepth century. The entire length of the present church, including the entrance hall, is about 230 feet. Two flights of steps to the north and south lead from the choir to the chapel of the nativity, the walls of which are marble‑lined and hung with tapestries. The place of birth is marked

75	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	chB uae.8akar
by a silver star in the floor of a niche. Opposite is the place, a marbled hollow, of the old " genuine " manger. A passage westward leads to the tomb and chapel of Jerome.
This subterranean room, according to tradition continuous since Constantine, is accepted as the place of Jesus's birth. A tradition
The Tradi‑ can be traced back to Justin Martyr tional Place that Jesus was born in a cave, since
of Jesus's Joseph could find no accommodation Birth. in the village. But it has been disproved that the present chapel is a [natural] cave, while it must be noted that as early as 728 it was reported that the form of the cave was changed and an oblong room hewn out. The use of caves as adjuncts to inns or " shelters " is in Palestine a peculiarity of the country.
Five minutes southeast from the church of St. Mary is the so‑called " Milk Grotto " of the Latino, in which Joseph, Mary, and the child are said to have concealed themselves from Herod's fury before the flight into Egypt. The white of the limestone is attributed to the fall of a drop of milk from Mary's breast. Ten minutes northeast from Beth Sahur (itself fifteen minutes east from Bethlehem) is shown the "Grotto of the Shepherds," inwhich the angels are said to have announced to the shepherds the birth of the Holy Child. The underground chapel is reached by a passage between two ancient olive‑trees.
	One of the fruits of modern missions is the honor
ing of Jesus in his birthplace, not by sanctuaries
in stone, but by provision for the education of the
young. Since 1860 there have been a number of
Protestant and Roman Catholic schools and estab
lishments, the founding of which has spurred the
Greeks and Armenians to accomplish something
for the instruction of children belonging to their
communities. 	(H. GumsE.)

B133LIGGRAPHY: Robinson, Researches, vol. ii; T. Tobler, Bethlehem in Paipetina, Bern, 1849; V. Gudrin, Description de la Palestine, Judge, i. 120 eq9., Paris, 1889; Survey of Western Palestine, 14femoirs, vol. HL sheet z<vii, London, 1883; P. Palmer, Dos jetsjpe Bsthidurn, in ZDPV, zvii (1894). 89 eqq.; Baedeker, Palestine and Syria, pp. 119127, New York, 1898; DB, i, 281; EB, i, 58Q‑b82. On the church consult M. de VogVd. Lu gGiiees do la terre saints. Paris. 1880: Quareamius. Elucidatio tarroJ aandcc, ii, 843 eqq.. Antwerp, 1839, reissued Venice, 188082; G. Ebere and H. Goths, Paldsdna in Bild and Work 2 vole., Leip_ sic, 1883‑84.

BETHLEHEMITES : The name of three religious orders. (1) An association of BetJtleentitte, known only from Matthew Paris (Hilt. maj., 839), who states that they existed at Cambridge, England, about 1257 and wore the Dominican habit, with a red ,star, referring to Matt, ii, 9‑10. (2) The Knights and Hospitalers of the Blessed Mary of Bethlehem (Religio militaria ac hospitalis beatce Maria Bethlemitante), founded by Pius II in 1459 to fight against the Turks. They wore a white habit with a red cross, were given the island of Lemnos as their seat, and did not survive the capture of the island by the Turks in the year of their foundation. (3) More important are the Bethlehem Brothers (Fratres Bethlemitee ; Spanish, Orden de Belemitaa) of Guatemala (Central America), founded
there about 1650 by Pierre de Bethencourt and after his death (1687) under the leadership of the brothers Rodrigo and Antonio de la Cruz. Originally entrusted only with the care of the hospital of Mary of Bethlehem in Guatemala, the order was confirmed by Innocent XI in 1687 and given a constitution and dress like that of the Capuchins. Clement XI in 1707 granted them the privileges of the mendicant orders. A society of Sisters of Bethlehem was founded in Guatemala by Anna Maria del Galdo in 1668, and both the male and femala branches spread in Mexico, Peru, and elsewhere. A secularization‑decree of the Spanish Cortex in 1820 suppressed both branches.
O. ZSest,>utt.
Biwaoaswruy: Heimbuoher, Order and Ronpregafionsn, i, 497‑498; G. Voigt~ Enea Silvio . . ale Papal Pius, ii, 652, Berlin, 1883; Karl vom heiligen Aloye, Die ktlwliaehe Births in ihrer pepeaobrcipen Auabraihanp, pp. 510 ‑fill, Regensburg, 188b; Helyot, Ordreamonasliyues, iii, 3473b7, viii, 386 eqq.; RL, ii, 640‑b44 (contains list of literature in Spanish).

BETHPHANY: A name sometimes given to the festival more commonly known as the Epiphany. It is a barbarous invention of the echoohnen, from the Hebrew both, " house," end the Greek ‑phaneia, " manifestation," which forms the latter part of the word Epiphany; and was intended to emphasize the miracle (in the house) at Cane in Galilee, which is the third event commemorated by the festival of the Epiphany (q.v.).
BETHSAIDA. See Gwv1ANlTre.
BETHUWE, be‑than', GEORGE WASHINGTON: Reformed (Dutch) clergyman; b. in Greenwich, now a part of New York City, Mar. 18, 1805; d. at Florence, Italy, Apr. 27, 1862. He was graduated at Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa., 1823; studied at Princeton Seminary 1823‑25; served for a year as missionary among the negroes and sailors at Savannah, Ga.; was ordained Nov., 1827, and was pastor of Reformed (Dutch) churches at Rhinebeck (1827‑30) and Utica (1830‑34), N. Y., Philadelphia (First Church, 1834‑37; Third Church, 1837‑49), and Brooklyn (1851‑59); was associate minister at the Twenty‑first Street Church, New York, 1859‑61. He was famed as a preacher and orator, as a poet, and as a wit. Of his numerous publications, perhaps that of most permanent value was his edition of Walton's Complete Angler (New York, 1847; new ed., 2 vole., 1880).
Bxsnxoaswrar: A. R,. Van Nest. Memoirs of Rev. (fexpe W. Bethune, 2 vole.; New York, 1880.

BETHUNE‑BAgER, JAMES FRANKLIN: Church of England; b. at Birmingham Aug. 23, 1861. He was educated at Pembroke College,Cambridge (B.A., 1884), and was head master's assistant at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and assistant curate of St. George's, Edgbaston, from 1888 to 1890. In the fouowing year he was elected fellow and dean of Pembroke College, and since 1905 has also been examining chaplain to the bishop of Rochester. He has been the editor of the Journal of Theological Stuiliea since 1903, and has written The 1»fluenes of Christianity on War (Cambridge, 1888); The Sternness of Christ's Teaching (1889); The Meaning

Betkiuet
Beyeohlag
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
of Homoousios in the Constantinopolitan Creed (1901); An Introduction to the Early History of Christian Doctrine (London, 1903); and Christian Doctrines and their Ethical Significance (1905).
BETKIUS, b6t'ki‑ta BETgE), JOACHIM: Lutheran preacher and forerunner of the Pietistic movement; b. at Berlin Oct. 8, 1601; d. at Linum, near Fehrbellin (33 m. n.w. of Berlin), Dec. 12, 1663. After finishing his course at Wittenberg, he became associate rector at Ruppin, then was for more than thirty years pastor at Linum. He wrote several theological and devotional works, by the reading of which Spener said he had profited. They contain edifying exhortations against forgetting the need of sanctification in addition to justification, but are marred by intemperate fanaticism; Betkius holds the clergy responsible for all the anti‑Christian phenomena of his time, and for the divine judgments of the Thirty Years' war.
(F. `V. D1sErlus.)
BETRAYAL OF PILATE. See APOCRYPHA, NEw TESTAMENT, B, I, T.
BEURLIf1, bei"er‑lin, JAKOB: German Lutheran theologian; b. at Dornstetten (35 m. s.w. of Stuttgart) 1520; d. at Paris Oct. 28, 1561. In Nov., 1533, he entered the university of Tiibingen. When the Reformation was introduced in 1534, he remained faithful to Catholicism, but diligently studied philosophy and the writings of the Church Fathers, so that his transition to the new doctrine took place quietly. In 1541 he was made governor of the Ma,rtinianum, and at the same time lectured on philosophy. In 1549 he accepted the pastorate of Derendingen near Tiibingen, and in 1551 he was called as professor to Tubingen. On June 2, 1557, he examined and signed, together with other theologians, the Confessio Wirtembergica, which had been prepared for the Council of Trent, and in the month of August, together with Brenz's friend Johann Isenmann (q.v.), he went to Langensalza and afterward to Saxony to come to an understanding with the theologians and councilors of the elector Maurice concerning the Wiirttemberg Confession as compared with the Saxon, which bad also been prepared for the Council of Trent. In Nov., 1551, in company with Luther's former steward, Jodocus NeuhelIer, pastor at Entringen, he was sent as theological adviser of the Wiirttemberg delegates to Trent, where they took notes of the disputations. On Jan. 13, 1552, both returned home, but on Mar. 7, Beurlin, Brenz, Heerbrand, and Vannius again started for Trent to oppose the erroneous decisions of the council, and to defend the Confessio Wirtembergica before it; but the council would not hear them in a public session, and they returned home. Beurlin now devoted all his time to his academic duties. He lectured on Melanchthon's Loci, the Gospel and First Epistle of John, and the Epistles to the Romans sad Hebrews, and drilled the young theologians in admirably conducted disputations. In May, 1554, the duke sent him to Prussia to pacify those who had been stirred up by Osiander's teaching. He was unsuccessful, however, and, disgusted with the behavior of the factions, he declined the bishop‑
ric offered to him by Duke Albert, and returned home. In the interest of his academic office he now retired in favor of Jakob Andrea, who was a more willing interpreter of the theology and ecclesiastical policy of Brenz (q.v.). In Oct., 1557, Beurlin and his father‑in‑law, Matthaeus Alber, went to the religious conference at Worms in place of the Thuringian theologians. At the Stuttgart synod Beurlin also remained in the background, but he assisted Brenz in the defense of the Confeasio Wirtembergica against Peter a Soto, and his attack upon the central point of the Roman system is still worthy of consideration. Vice‑chancellor of the university after 1557, Beurlin was the leader of the Swabians at the Erfurt Conference, Apr., 1561, and was still more prominent on his last journey made in the service of the Evangelical Church. King Antony of Navarre sought both at Stuttgart and Heidelberg for a theologian to advise him in the controversy which‑arose in Sept., 1557, at the religious conference in Poisay between the cardinal of Guise and Beza concerning the relation of the French Protestants to the Augsburg Confession. Duke Christopher sent three theologians, Jakob Beurlin, Jakob Andrea, and Balthazar Bidembach. Before leaving, Beurlin was made chancellor of the university and provost of the Collegiate Church (Sept. 29). The theologians left Oct. 3, and arrived at Paris Oct. 19. Meanwhile the conference at Poissy had been broken off, and the theologians bad to wait till the king called them. On Oct. 24 Beurlin fell ill with the plague and died in Paris. G. BOSSERT.
BIHLIOaRAPHT: The sources are: T. Schnepffiue, J. Beuriinw rediviroua et immortaiie, T>3bingen, 1813; J V Andrea, Fama Andreana, Strasburg, 1530. Consult G. C. F. Fischlia, Memoria theoloporum Vitteberpenaium reawcitata, i, 82‑87, Ulm, 1710; C. F. Rattler, Ceackichte von Wttrttemberp unter der Regiertcnp der Herzope, Ulm, 1771; H. F. Eiaenbaeh, Beachreibung and Geechichte der $tadt and Univeraitdt Tiibinpsn, pp. 108‑‑112, TUbingen, 1822; H. L. J. Hoppe. Geecluchk dea deukchen Proteetantismue. Vol. i, Marburg, 1852‑59; C. von Weizs$cker, Lehrer and Unterricht an der evanyeliach‑theologiachen Fakult8t . . Tie‑. binpen, TVbingen, 1877; C. A. Hase, Herzog Albrecht von. Prauasen and sein Hofprediper, Leipeic, 1879; G. Boseert, Die Reiae der wllrttembergiachen Theolopen nach Paris 1561, in Warttemberpisehe Vierteljahrahefte, 1899, pp. 387‑412.

BEVAN, bev'an, ANTHONY ASHLEY: Church of England layman; b. at Trent Park, Barnet (11 m. n.n.w. of London), Herts, May 19, 1859. He was educated at the Gymnase littkraire, Lausanne (1877‑79) and the University of Strasburg (18811883), and in 1884 became a member of Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected fellow in 1890. Since 1893 he has been Lord Almoner's reader in Arabic in the University of Cambridge. In addition to minor studies, he has written A Short Commentary on the Book of Daniel (Cambridge, 1892) and the Hymn of the Soul Contained in she Syriac Acts of St. Thomas, Reedited xirith an English Translation, in Cambridge Tents and Studies, v (i89?).

BEVAN, LLEWELYA DAVID: Congregationalist; b. at Llanelly (15 m. d.e. of Carmarthen), Carmarthenshire, Wales, Sept. 11, 1842. He

??
RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
studied at New College, London (B. A., University of London, 1881; LL.B., 1866), and after being assistant minister to Thomas Binnvy (q.v.) at the King's Weigh‑House Chapel, London (1865‑69), held pastorates at Tottenham‑Court Road Chapel, London (1869‑76), the Brick Presbyterian Church, New York City (1876‑82), and Highbury Quadrant Church, London (1882‑86). Since 1886 he has been pastor of the Collies Street Congregational Church, Melbourne, Victoria. While in England, he was associated with F. D. Maurice (q.v.) in the Workingmen's College, London, and was for several years a professor in New College.

BEVERIDGE, WILLIAM: Bishop of St. Asaph; b. at Barrow (8 m. n. of Leicester), and baptized there Feb. 21, 1637; d. in London Mar. 5, 1708. He was educated at Cambridge; was rector of Ealing, a west suburb of London, 1661‑?2; of St. Peter's, Cornhill, London, 1672‑1704, when he became bishop. In his day he was styled " the great reviver and restorer of primitive piety " because in his much admired sermons and other writings he dwelt so affectionately upon the Church of the early centuries. His collected works (incomplete) are in the Library of Anglo‑Catholic Theology in 12 vole. (Oxford, 1842‑‑48) and embrace six volumes of sermons; The Doctrine of the Church of England Consonant to Sertloture, Reason, and the Fathers: A Complete System of Divinity (2 vole.); Codex canoxtcm ecclesi.m prlmitivce trindicatus ac illustrates, with the appendices, I. Prolegomena in .1ovoJrKdv, sine paxdectas canoreum ; and' II. Prcefatio ad annotationea in canonea aposcoliooa (2 vole.); and the still read Private Thoughts on Religion, and Church Catechism Explained. His I restitutionum chronotogicarum h7mi duo, nets cum totidem arithmdicea chranotogico libellis (London, I6G9) was once an admired treatise on chronology. ‑
BaL:oeswexr: T. H. Horse, Memoir o) the Life and Writinfle of iV. Beveridge. London, 1824, also prefixed to his works in the Library of AmpIo‑Cafholic Theology, ut sup.; DNB, iv, 447‑448.

BEYER, barer, HARTMtR,Blf : Reformation preacher of Frankfort, where he was born Sept. 30, 1516, and died Aug. 11, 1577. In 1534 he went to Wittenberg as student of philosophy and theology, and received the master's degree there in 1539 and became private teacher of mathematics. He, returned to his native city as preacher in 1548. The Reformation, introduced in Frankfort in 1522 by Hartmann Ibaeh, had been carried on in the earlier years by compulsion and rash seal on the part of its adherents, and in later time was marked by doctrinal controversies between the Lutheran and Reformed tendencies. Beyer came with the determination to win the victory for Lutheranism, and to his activity was it due that by 1554 a compact Lutheran congregation stood opposed to all insinuations of Calvinism, while the earlier democratic and radical tendencies had been suppressed. In the year named, three congregations of Protestants from the Netherlands, who had first taken refuge in England but fled that country after the accession of Mary, came to Frankfort under the lead of Velerandus Polanus and Johannes a Lasso
8etkins
8eysohlaR
(qq.v.), bringing with them a Reformed creed and Reformed practises. Beyer was the soul of an opposition which induced the city council to deprive them of the church they had used for worship in 1561. In 1596 even the right of holding services privately was forbidden.
The success of the emperor in the Schmalkald war and the promulgation of the Augsburg Interim (May, 1548) brought the Frankfort Reformers face to face with dangers which for the time quieted doctrinal disputes. The council accepted the interim cautiously, but its attempts to forbid preaching against the new law and against Roman teachings and practises, to reestablish church festivals, to prohibit the eating of meat on fastdays, and like measures met with determined and courageous resistance from Beyer and his colleagues. The former repeatedly expressed his conviction that church ordinances could be established only with the consent of the congregation. The struggle went on till 1577, but the preachers gained the victory.
	Beyer issued two pseudonymous writings against
the Roman Catholics in 1551 and while in Witten
berg prepared a treatise on mathematics. His
sermons are preserved in forty‑nine volumes in
manuscript in Frankfort. They are marked by a
beauty and force of language which make them
powerful even to‑day. 	(G. E. STEITZt.)
BisLrooaw:s:: d. E. 8teits, Der tutherischs PrOdikant,
Hartmann Beyer, Frankfort, 1862.

BEYSCBZAG, bai'sh18a, WILLIBALD : German Protestant; b. at Frankfort Sept. 5, 1823; d. at Halls Nov. 26, 1900. He studied at Bonn and Berlin 1840‑44; became vicar at Coblenz 1849; assistant pastor and religious teacher at Treves 1850; court preacher at Carlsruhe 1856; ordinary professor of theology at Halls 1860; and after 1876 editor of the Deutsche Evangetische Bldtter, as organ. of the so‑called Mittelfxirtei, whose leader he was till the end of his life. To oppose the ultramontane aggressions in Germany, he founded in 1886 the EtxirigClidCht9' Bte7ed (am BLIND, EVwNGELl$CRER). Of his very numerous writings, besides sermons, the following are worthy of mention: Die ChriaLologie des Netten Testaments (Berlin, 1866); Die pauliniache Theodieee Rom. ix‑xi. (Berlin, 1868, 2d ed., 1895); Die chriatliehe Gemeindeverfassung im Zeitalxer des Nettett Testaments (Haarlem, 1874); Zur Johanneiacheta Frage (Goths, 1876); the biographies of his brother, F. W. T. Beyschlag (Aus dem Leben einea Friihvollendetetl, 2 parts, Berlin, 1858‑59, 6th ed., 1889), of Carl Ullmann (Goths, 1867), of Carl Immanuel Nitzsch (Halls, 1872, 2d ed., 1882), and of Albrecht Wolters (1880); Zur deutachchriatiiche» Bildung (1880, 2d ed., 1899); Daa Leben Jesu (2 vole., Halls, 1885‑86, 4th ed., 1902); Der Frieden8achlusa sterische>t Deutschland and Rom (Halls, 1887); Reeten in der Erfurter YorConferenz des evartgeliachen Bundea (1888); Godofred, sin Mdrchen fiira deutsche Haul (1888); Leather's Hauaatand in select reformatorischxn Bedeutureg (Barmen, 1888); Die Reformation in Ilalien (1888); Die rmniach‑katholischert AnaPruche an die preuaaiache Yolksschule (1889); Zur Yerstdn‑

Bets	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	78
digung vber den christlichen Yorsehungaglauben (Halls, 1889); Erkenntnisspfade zu Christo (1889); Die evangelische Kirche als Bundeagenoasin wider die Socialdemokratie (Berlin, 1890); Neuteatamentliche Theologie (2 vole., 1891‑92, 2d ed., 1896; Eng. transl., New Testament Theology, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1895, 2d ed., 1896); Christenlehre (Halls, 3d ed., 1903).
BIHLIOdRAPHY: Consult his autobiography, Aua meiaem Lebsn, 2 vole., Halls, 1898‑98; K. H. Pahnoke, WilLibald
Beyachlap, sin Gedenkbtatt, Tiibingen, 1906.
BEZA, bf'za, THEODORE.
Early Life ($ 1). Teacher at Lausanne (¢ 2). Journeys in behalf of the Protestants (¢ 3). Settles in Geneva (¢ 4). Events of 1580‑63 (¢ 5). Calvin's Successor (16). Course of Events after 1684 (§ T). The Colloquy of Milmpelgart (§ 8). Lest Days (¢ 9). Humanistic and Historical writings (¢ 10). Theological works (§ 11). Besa's Greek New Testament (§ 12).
Theodore Beza (Theodore de Nze or de Besze), Genevan Reformer, was born at Vkzelay (8 m. w.s.w. of Avallon), in Burgundy, June 24, 1519; d. at Geneva Oct.13, 1605. His father, Pierre de Bt3ze, royal governor of V6zelay, descended from a Burgundian family of distinction; his mother, Marie Bourdelot, was known for her generosity. Theodore's father had two brothers; one, Nicholas, was member of Parliament at Paris; the other, Claude, was abbot of the Cistercian monastery Froimont in the diocese of Beauvais. Nicholas, who was
z. Early unmarried, on a visit to V6zelay was
	Life.	so pleased with Theodore that, with
		the permission of the parents, he took
him to Paris to educate him there. From Paris
Theodore was sent to Orleans (Dec., 1528) to enjoy
the instruction of the famous German teacher
Melchior wolmar. He was received into wohnar's
house, and the day on which this took place
was afterward celebrated as a second birthday.
Young Beza soon followed his teacher to Bourges,
whither the latter was called by the duchess Mar
garet of Angoul6me, sister of Francis I. Bourgea
was one of the places in France in which the heart
of the Reformation beat the strongest. When, in
1534, Francis I issued his edict against ecclesias
tical innovations, wolmar returned to Germany,
and, in accordance with the wish of his father,
Beza went back to OrIE`ana.to study law, and spent
four years there (1535‑39). This pursuit had little ',
attraction for him; he enjoyed more the reading of
the ancient classics, especially Ovid, Catullus, and
Tibullus. He received the degree of licentiate in
law Aug. ll, 1539, and, as his father desired, went
to Paris, where he began practise. His relatives
had obtained for him two benefices, the proceeds
of which amounted to 700 golden crowns a year; and
his untie had promised to make him his successor.
Beza spent two happy years at Paris and soon gained a prominent position in literary circles. To escape the many temptations to which he was exposed, with the knowledge of two friends, he became engaged in the year 1544 to a young girl of humble descent, Claudine Denoese, promising to
make this engagement public as soon as his circumstances would allow it. He published a collection of Latin poems, Juvenilia, which made him famous, and he was everywhere considered one of the beat Latin poets of his time. But he fell ill and his distress of body revealed to him his spiritual needs. Gradually he came to the knowledge of salvation in Christ, which he apprehended with a joyous faith. He then resolved to sever his connections of the time, and went to Geneva, the French city of refuge for the Evangelicals, where he arrived with Claudine Oct. 23, 1548.
	He was heartily received by Calvin, who had
met him already in wolmar's house, and was at
once publicly and solemnly married in the church.
Beza was at a lose for immediate occupation, so
he went to Tilbingen to see his former teacher
wohnar. On his way home he visited Viret
		at Lausanne, who at once detained
	s. Teacher	him and brought about his appoint
at Lausanne. went as professor of Greek at the
		academy there (Nov., 1549). In spite
of the arduous work which fell to his lot, Beza
found time to write a Biblical drama, Abraham
Sacrifeant (published at Geneva, 1550; Eng.
transl. by Arthur Golding, London, 1577, ed.,
with introduction, notes, and the French text of
the original, M. w. Wallace, Toronto, 1906), in
which he contrasted Catholiciatn with Protes
tantism, and the work was well received. In June,
1551, he added a few psalms to the French version
of the Psalms begun by Marot, which was also very
successful. About the same time he published his
Passavantius, a satire directed against Pierre Lizet of
ill repute, formerly president of the Parliament of
Paris, and principal originator of the " fiery cham
ber " (chambre ardente), who, being at the time
(1551) abbot of St. Victor near Paris, was eager
to acquire the fame of a subduer of heresy by pub
lishing a number of polemical writings. Of a more
serious character were two controversies in which
Beza was involved at this time. The first con
cerned the doctrine of predestination and the con
troversy of Calvin with Bolaec (see CALVIN, JoaN;
BOIBEC, J19RBME H>;xnsI:s). The second referred
to the burning of Michael Servetue (q.v.) at
Geneva Oct. 27, 1553. In defense of Calvin and
the Genevan magistrates, Beza published in 1554
the work De heereticia a civili magiatratu puniendis
(translated into French in 1560).
In 1557 Beza took a special interest in the waldenaians of Piedmont, who were harassed by the French government, and in their behalf went with Farel to Bern, Zurich, Basel, Schaffhausen, thence to Strasburg, Mtimpelgart, Baden, and GiSppingen. In Baden and GSppingen, Beza and Farel had to declare themselves concerning their own 3. Journeys and the waldensiana' views on the in behalf of sacrament, and on May 14, 1557, they the Protes‑ presented a written declaration is tents. which they clearly stated their position. This declaration was well received by the Lutheran theologians, but was strongly disapproved in Bern and Zurich. In the autumn of 1557 Beza undertook a second journey with Farel to worms by way of Strasburg to bring

79	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
about an intercession of the Evangelical princes of the empire in favor of the persecuted brethren at Paris. With Melanchthon and other theologians then assembled at Worms, Beza considered a union of all Protestant Christians, but this proposal was decidedly negatived by Zurich and Bern. False reports having reached the German princes that the hostilities against the Huguenots in France had ceased, no embassy was sent to the court of France, and Beza undertook another journey in the interest of the Huguenots, going with Farel, Johannes Buddaeus, and Gaspard Carmel to Strasburg and Frankfort, where the sending of an embassy to Paris was resolved upon.
Upon his return to Lausanne, Bess, was greatly disturbed. In union with many ministers and professors in city and country, Viret at last thought of establishing a consistory and of introducing a church discipline which should infiiCt excommunication especially at the celebration of the communion. But the Bernese would have no Calvinistic church government. This caused many difficulties, and Beza thought it best 4. Settles in (1558) to settle at Geneva. Here
	Geneva.	he occupied at first the chair of
		Greek in the newly established acad
emy, and after Calvin's death also that of theology;
besides this he was obliged to preach. He com
pleted the revision of Olivetan's translation of the
New Testament, begun some years before. In 1559
he undertook another journey in the interest of
the Huguenots, this time to Heidelberg; about the
same time he had to defend Calvin against Joachim
Westphal in Hamburg and Tileman Hesshusen
(qq.v.). More important than this polemical activ
ity was Beza's statement of his own confession. It
was originally prepared for his father in justifica
tion of his course and published in revised form
to promote Evangelical knowledge among Beza's
countrymen. It was printed in Latin in 1560 with
a dedication to Wohnar. An English translation
was published at London 1563, 1572, and 1585.
Translations into German, Dutch, and Italian
were also issued.
In the mean time things took such shape in France that the happiest future for Protestantism seemed possible. King Antony of Navarre, yielding to the urgent requestsof Evangelical noblemen, declared his willingness to listen to a prominent teacher of the Church. Beza, a French nobleman and head of the academy in the metropolis of French Protestantism, was invited to Castle Ndrac, but he could not plant the seed of Evangelical faith in the heart of the king. In the year following (1561) Beza represented the Evangelicals at the Colloquy of Poissy (q.v.), and in an eloquent manner defended the principles of the Evangelical faith. g. Events of The colloquy was without result,
	:560‑63.	but Beza as the head and advocate of
		all Reformed congregations of France
was revered and hated at the same time. The
queen insisted upon another colloquy, which was
opened at St. Germain Jan. 28, 1562, eleven days
after the proclamation of the famous January edict
which granted important privileges to those of the
Reformed faith. But the colloquy was broken off
when it became evident that the Catholic party was preparing (after the massacre of Vassy, Mar. 1) to overthrow Protestantism. Beza hastily issued a circular letter (Mar. 25) to all Reformed congregar tions of the empire, and with Condo and his troops went to Orleans. It was necessary to proceed quickly and energetically. But there were neither soldiers nor money. At the request of Condo, Beza visited all Huguenot cities to obtain both. He also wrote amauifesto inwhich he showed the justice of the Reformed cause. As one of the messengers to collect soldiers and money among his coreligionists, Beza was appointed to visit England, Germany, and Switzerland. He went to Strasburg and Basel, but met with failure. He then returned to Geneva, which he reached Sept. 4. He had hardly been there fourteen days when he was called once more to Orleans by D'Andelot. The campaign was becoming more successful; but the publication of the unfortunate edict of pacification which Condo accepted (Mar. 12,1563) filled Beza and all Protestant France with horror.
For twenty‑two months Bess, had been absent from Geneva, and the interests of school and Church there and especially the condition of Calvin made it necessary for him to return. For there was no one to take the place of Calvin, who was sick and unable longer to bear the burden resting on him. Calvin and Beza arranged to perform their duties jointly in alternate weeks, but the death of Calvin occurred soon afterward (May 27, 6. Calvin's 1564). As a matter of purse Beza was
	Successor.	his successor. Until 1580 Beza was
		not only modkrateur de la eompagnie
den pasteurs, but also the real soul of the great
institution of learning at Geneva which Calvin had
founded in 1559, consisting of a gymnasium and
an academy. As long as be lived, Beza was inter
ested in higher education. The Protestant youth
for nearly forty years thronged his lecture‑room to
hear his theological lectures, in which he expounded
the purest Calvinistic orthodoxy. As a counselor
he was listened to by both magistrates and pastors.
Geneva is indebted to him for the founding of a
law school in which Franpois Hotman, Jules Pacius,
and Denys Godefroy, the most eminent jurists of
the century, lectured in turn (cf. Charles Borgeaud,
L'Acadftie de Calvin, Geneva, 1900).
As Calvin's successor, Beza was very successful, not only in carrying on his work but also in giving peace to the Church at Geneva. The magistrates had fully appropriated the ideas of Calvin, and the direction of spiritual affairs, the organs of which were the " ministers of the word " and " the ooneistory," was founded on a solid basis. No doctrinal controversy arose after 1564. The discussions concerned questions of a practical, social, or ecclesiastical nature, such as the supremacy of the magietrates over the pastors, freedom in preaching, and the obligation of the pastors to ruby. Course of mit to the majority of the campagnie Events after des ;oaateura. Beza obtruded his will in
	1564.	no way upon his associates, and took
		no harsh measures against injudicious
or hot‑headed colleagues, thoughsometimes he took
their cans in hand and acted as mediator; and yet he

Siaeza
	nchini
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
80
often experienced an opposition so extreme that he threatened to resign. Although he was inclined to take the part of the magistrates, he knew how to defend the rights and independence of the spiritual power when occasion arose, without, however, conceding to it such a preponderating influence as did Calvin. His activity was great. He mediated between the compagnie and the magistracy; the latter continually asked his advice even in political questions. He corresponded with all the leaders of the Reformed party in Europe. After the massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572), he used his influence to give to the refugees a hospitable reception at Geneva. About this time he wrote his De jure magistratuum, in which he emphatically protested against tyranny in religious matters, and affirmed that it is legitimate for a people to oppose an unworthy magistracy in a practical manner and if necessary to use weapons anddeposethem. Tosumup: Withoutbeing a great dogmatician like his master, nor a creative genius in the ecclesiastical realm, Bess, had qualities which made him famous as humanist, exegete, orator, and leader in religious and ;political affairs, and qualified him to be the guide of the Calvinists in all Europe. In the various controversies into which he was drawn, Beza often showed an excess of irritation and intolerance, from which Bernardino Ochino, pastor of the Italian congregation at Zurich (on account of a treatise which contained some objectionable points on polygamy), and Sebastian Castellio at Bawl (on account of his Latin and French translations of the Bible) had especially to suffer. With Reformed France Beza continued to maintain the closest relations. He was the moderator of the general synod which met in April, 1571, at La Rochelle and decided not to abolish church discipline or to acknowledge the civil government as head of the Church, as the Paris minister Jean Morel and the philosopher Pierre Ramua demanded; it also decided to confirm anew the Calvinistic doctrine of the Lord's Supper (by the expression: " substance of the body of Christ ") against Zwinglianism, which caused a very unpleasant discussion between Beza and Ramus and Bullinger. In the following year (May, 1572) he took an important part in the national synod at Nimes. He was also interested in the controversies which concerned the Augsburg Confession in Germany, especially after 1564, on the doctrine of the person of Christ and the sacrament, and published several works against Westphal, Hesshusen, Selnecker, Johann Brenz, and Jakob Andrea. This made him, especially after 15?l, hated by all those who adhered to Lutheranism in opposition to Melanchthon.
The last polemical conflict of important Beza encountered from the exclusive Lutherans was at the Colloquy of Miimpelgart (q.v.), Mar. 14‑27, 1586, to which he had been invited by the Lutheran Count Frederick of Wiirttemberg at the wish of the French noblemen who had fled to Mumpelgart. As a matter of course the intended union which was the purpose of the colloquy was not brought about; nevertheless it called forth serious developments within the Reformed Church. When the
edition of the acts of the colloquy, as prepared by J. Andrea, was published, Samuel Huber, of Burg near Bern, who belonged to the
8. The Col‑ Lutheranizing faction of the Swiss
loquy of clergy, took so great offense at the
lsiimpel‑ supralapsarian doctrine of predesti‑
	gart.	nation propounded at Miimpelgart
		by Beza and Musculus that he felt
it to be his duty to denounce Musculua to the
magistrates of Bern as as innovator in doctrine.
To adjust the matter, the magistrates arranged a
colloquy between Huber and Musculus (Sept. 2,
1587), in which the former represented the uni
versalism, the latter the particularism, of grace.
As the colloquy was resultless, a debate was ar
ranged at Bern, Apr. 15‑18, 1588, at which the
defense of the accepted system of doctrine was
at the start put into Beza's hands. The three
delegates of the Helvetic cantons who presided at
the debate declared in the end that Bess, had
substantiated the teaching propounded at Miim
pelgart as the orthodox one, and Huber was dis
missed from his office.
After that time Bess's activity was confined more and more to the affairs of his home. His faithful wife Claudine had died childless in 1588, a few days before he went to the Bern Disputation. Forty years they had lived happily
g. Last together. He contracted, on the ad‑
	Days.	vice of his friends, a second marriage
		with Catherine del Piano, a Genoese
widow, in order to have a helpmate in his declining
years. Up to his sixty‑fifth year he enjoyed ex
cellent health, but after that a gradual sinking
of his vitality became perceptible. He was active
in teaching till Jas., 1597. The saddest experience
in his old days was the conversion of King Henry I V
to Roman Catholicism, in spite of his most earnest
exhortations (1593). Strange to say, in 1596 the
report was spread by the Jesuits is Germany,
France, England, and Italy that Beza and the
Church of Geneva had returned into the bosom of
Rome, and Beza replied in a satire that revealed
the possession still of his old fire of thought and
vigor of eapreasion. He was not buried, like
Calvin, in the general cemetery, Plain‑Palms (for
the 8avoyards had threatened to abduct his body
to Rome), but at the direction of the magistrates,
in the monastery of St. Pierre.
In Beza's literary activity as well as in his life, distinction must be made between the period of the humanist (which ended with the publication of his Juvenilia) and that of the ecclesiastic. But later productions like the humanistic, biting, :o. Human‑ satirical Passavantius and his Cotn‑
istie sad plaints de Messire Pierre Lizet . . .
Historical	prove that in later years he occasion‑
	Writinge,	ally went back to his first love. In
		his old age he published his Cato
cenaorius (1591), and revised his Poemata, from
which he purged ~ juvenile eccentricities. Of his
historiographical works, aside from his Icones (i580),
which have only an iconographical value, mention
may be made of the famous Histoire eccl6aiastique
des ‑4glises ‑4forWea au Royaume de France (1580),
and his biography of Calvin, with which must be

81	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bianohiai
named his edition of Calvin's Epittoka et response (1575).
But all these humanistic and historical studies ire surpassed by his theological productions (contained in Tractationes theologicca). In these Bess,
appears the perfect pupil or the alter
rr. Theo‑ ego of Calvin. His view of life is logical deterministic and the basis of his Works. religious thinking is the predestinate
recognition of the necessity of all temporal existence as an effect of the absolute, eternal, and immutable will of God, so that even the fall of the human race appears to him essential to the divine plan of the world. In most lucid manner Beza shows in tabular form the connection of the religious views which emanated from thin fundamental supralapsarian mode of thought. This he added to his highly instructive treatise Summa totius Christianismi.
Of no less importance are the contributions of Beza to Biblical science. In 1565 he issued an edition of the Greek New Testament, accompanied in parallel columns by the text of the Vulgate and a translation of his own (already published as early as 1556). Annotations were added, also previously published, but now he greatly enriched and
enlarged them. In the preparation of
ra. Beza's this edition of the Greek text, but much Greek New more in the preparation of the second Testament. edition which he brought out in 1582,
	Beza may have availed himself of the
help of two very valuable manuscripts. One is
known as the Codex Bezes or Cantabrigenazs, and
was later presented by Beza to the University of
Cambridge; the send is the Codex Claromontanus,
which Beza had found in Clermont (now in the
National Library at Paris). It was not, however,
to these sources that Beza was chiefly indebted,
but rather to the previous edition of the eminent
Robert Stephens (1550), itself based in great meas
ure upon one of the later editions of Erasmus.
Beza's labors in this direction were exceedingly
helpful to those who came after. The same thing
lriay be asserted with equal truth of his Latin
version and of the copious notes with which it was
accompanied. The former is said to have been
published over a hundred times. It is to be re
gretted that the author's view of the doctrine of
predestination exercised upon the interpretation
of Scripture too preponderating an influence.
However, there is no question that Beza added
much to a clear understanding of. the New Testa
ment. 		EU(ikNE CH()18y.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. w. Baum, T. Beta aQCh halldeChT6ftf6fh6n and anderenpleiehzsitipen tZuelZen, LeiPeia. 1843‑52 (masterly, but extends only to 1b83); his life by Heppe is in vol. vi of Le6en and auapewttAite Sehriften der Vbter der Te/ormierten Ifirehe, Elberfeld 1881 (complete and excellent, inferior only to Baum); A. de is Faye, De vita et obitu T. Bum, Geneva, 1808 (by a favorite pupil of Bose);
Jdr6me Bolaee, Xistoire de la vie, maws, doctrine et d!bordementa de T. de Base. Paris. 1582. republished Geneva, 1835 (Roman Catholic, a scurrilous and malignant libel); F. C. Schlosser, Lebsn des Theodor Beta and dea Pacer Martyr Vermipli. HeidelberR, 1809: E. and ~. Hang. La France proteatante. 2d ed. by Bordier, ii. b2(hb40. Paris, 1879; H. M. McCracken, Lives of the Leaders of Our Church Universal, from the Germ. of F. Piper, pp. 352‑‑382, Philadelphia. 1879: Schaff, Christian Church, vol. vii. PeeIL‑6
aim, especially chap six; Mueller, Christian Church, wol. iii, passim; C. v. Prooadij, T. Besa medsarbeiter en opvolger van Calvijn. Leyden, 1895; H. M. Baud; Theodore Bexa, the Counaellar o/ the French Reformation, New York, 1899 (the one book in English, and s worthy treatment of the subject), cf. his Rise of the Huguenots, passim, ib. 1879; A. Bernus, T. do Bdse d Lausanne, Lausanne, 1900; E. Choisy, L1*tat chretien calviniate d Genwe au tamps do T. do Bhze. Geneva, 1902: Cambridge Modern History, vol. ii, The Reformation, prim, vol. iii, London, 1904; A Theodore de Bpze (1806‑1906). Geneva, 1908.
BEZOLD, b6"zold', CARL ERNST CHRISTIAN:
German Orientalist; b. at Donauwiirth (25 m. n.n.w. of Augsburg), Bavaria, May 18, 1859. He was educated at the universities of Munich (1876‑79), Leipaic (1879‑80; Ph.D., 1881), and Strasburg (1881), and became privet‑docent at Munich in 1883. He continued his studies at Rome in the spring of 1884 and at London in the summer of 1882 and 1887, while from 1888 to 1894 he was employed in the British Museum. Since the latter year he has been professor of Oriental philology and director of the Oriental seminar at the University of Heidelberg. ):n 1884 he founded, at Leipaic, the Zeitschrift fur' Keilschriftforachung, which was continued in the following year as the Zeitschrift fur Assyriologie, sad which he has edited to the present time. He likewise edited the second edition of C. F. A. Dilimann's Gram‑matik der tlthiopischen Sprache (Leipsic,1899) and the Orientaliache Studien in honor of the seventieth birthday of T. Nbldeke (2 vole., Giessen, 1906), and was the founder and editor of the Semitistische Studixn (Berlin, 1894 sqq.). In 1904 he became one of the editors of the Archiv fur Religionaurisaenachaft. He has also written Die groast: Dariuainschrift am Felaen van Behistun (Leipsie, 1881); Die Aehlimxnitlertinsehriften (1882); Die Sehatxhohle, syriach and deutach (2 vole., 1883‑88); The Ordinary Canon of the Mass according to the Use of the Coptic Church,
in C. A. Swainson's Greek Liturgies (London, 1884);
Kurzgefasster Ue6erblick fiber die babyloniscit‑aasyrisehe Literatur (Leipsie, 1886); Catalogue of the Cuneiform Tablets an the Kouyunjik Collection of the British Museum (5 vole., London, 1889‑99); The Tell‑el‑Arnarna Tablets in the British Museum (1892); Oriental Diplomacy (1893); Ninive and Babylon (Bielefeld, 1903); Die babylonisch‑8yrischen Keilinsch*iften and ihre Bedeutung fiirdaa Alte Testament (Tiibingen, 1904); Babyloniach‑Asayriaehe Texts uberaetzt : i. Die Sch6plung8legende (Bonn, IM); and Kebra Nagast, die Herrlichkeit tier Kiinige (Ethiopic text and German translation, Munich, 1905).

BL?1ftCHI1PI, bf"an‑ld'ni (BLAftCHINUS), GIUSEPPE: Italian Biblical scholar; b. at Verona Sept. 9, 1704; d. after 1760. He was a member of the Congregation of the Oratory, and the author of two works beating on the history of the Itala: Psalterium duplex juxta antiquam italica‑ versimtem (Rome, 1740) and Eroangaliarium quadru)ulez Lalinte veraionis antique aeu txteris Italics (2 vole., 1749). The detailed statements in the first volume are valuable, but the text is inferior to Sabatier's Bibliorum aacrorum latinm roersiortia antique (Reims, 1739 sqq.). The second, containing some older ood:ces, supplements Sabatier. K. BENxe'rs.

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Bible
BIBLE.
The Bible is the Early Church (¢ 1).
In the Middle Ages and Reformation Period (§ 2).
Modem Views and Criticism (¢ 3).
Wherein the Bible is Unique (5 4).
The word " Bible " (from Gk. bi6lia, " books ") or " Holy Scripture" is the customary term in Church and theology for the ecclesiastically acknowledged collection of the Old and the New Testament writings. As the writings of the Old Testament canon are indicated in the New Testament by the term " The Scriptures" or " The Scripture," so in the Middle Ages the whole was designated by " The Books." By a misunderstanding of the Greek form, the word was received into the modern languages as a singular of feminine gender.
The separation of these writings from all other literature as " the Book of Books " is derived from the practise of Jesus, who, with his contemporaries, acknowledged the authority of the Old Testament literature (M. Kashler, Jeans and das Alts Testament, Leipaic, 1895). The Old Testament was conveyed, in the Greek translation of the Septuagint, as the Word of God, to the Gentile Christians by the followers of Jesus. At the latest in the beginning of the third century, the New :. The Bible Testament canon was added to the Old in the Early Testament, as is witnessed by the Syr‑
	Church.	iac version (see CnxoN OF ScRIrrURE).
		And from that time the bipartite col
lection was always treated as a whole, although the
uncertainty about some books (the so‑called Anti
legomena) was not forgotten during the Middle Ages,
was recognized by Luther and other Reformers,
and was treated from a dogmatic standpoint
by Martin Chemnitz (Examen concilii Tridentini,
Frankfort, 1598). The controversy about the Old
Testament Apocrypha has never been settled.
What esteem the Bible enjoyed in the ancient
catholic Church is seen from its controlling position
in divine service, in the reading of Scripture, and in
the delivery of sermons founded on it, but especially
from the labor spent in translating it (see BIBLE
VERSIONS, A).
It must not be imagined that the Middle Ages did not rightly appreciate the Bible. It is necessary to take into account the great difficulties which confronted the Church at that time in forming an ecclesiastical language, sad even a literary language, for the Germanic and Slavic nations. In the absence of modern philology the efforts made are worthy of acknowledgment. The
2. In the hierarchical development of the Church
Middle tended to paralyze it by enforcing Ages and uniformity in use of the church‑lan162eforma‑ guage at the expense of intelligibility, lion Period. and in the interest of an easier management put the " heretical book " into the keeping of the ecclesiastical magistracy. But the Reformation introduced a new epoch of wide propagation and appreciation of the Bible. The efforts of the Reformers to make this book accessible to all Christians were taken up by Pietism under Spener; the founding of the Canstein Bible Institute (see BIBLE Socnerns, II, 1; CsxsxEZrr,
82
KexL HILDERRAND, BARON OF) and the sending out of the first missionaries opened the double way by which the Bible, especially in the nineteenth century, has obtained its commanding position in the world; knowledge of the Bible has been spread by the Bible Societies (q.v.) through hundreds of new translations (a work in which Englishmen and Scotchmen, well read in the Scriptures, have distinguished themselves). The Bible has become in the fullest sense the people's book in all Protestant countries of the Old World, and the same process is being repeated among the non‑Christian nations, to which missionary cooperation gives the Bible sad with it often also an alphabet and a literary language.
This zeal for the propagation of the Bible has its root in the unique importance which the theology of the Reformation ascribes to it. In opposition to the ecclesiastical position of Rome, the Evangelicals developed their doctrine of the " normative or decisive authority of Scripture" on the basis of the unoontrovel'ted character of the Scripture as revelation. This high regard has as its foundation the doctrine of " verbal inspiration " (see INSPIRATION), which ascribes to the Bible all requisite qualities, such as " perfection " in communicating the " knowledge necessary for salvation," " transparency," and the " power of interpreting itself by itself." Unobserved, the body of pure doctrine, by the help of which the renewal of evangelical activity had been accomplished, became transformed into a set of doctrines which were mechanically combined, regardless of their historical origin. In opposition to the adulterated tradition of Rome, Protestantism 3. Modern could happily refer to the bulwark Views and of Scripture, in which Roman Catho‑
	Criticism. lice also acknowledged divine reve
		lation. But evangelical theology first
succumbed to the attack which the " Enlighten
ment " (Au fklarung), about the middle of the eight
eenth century, made upon all history and tradi
tion and especially upon historical revelation. In
vain the effort was made to prove dogmatically
the immediate divine origin of the Bible‑letter,
while proof was also given in an ever‑cogent man
ner .hat the Bible is a production of human
authorship and tradition. This crisis was. gradu
ally overcome by the victory gained for the
" historico‑critical " method of treating the Bible,
but the right of historical revelation was estab
lished over against " natural morality and re
ligion:' As in earlier times historical development
within the Bible was now and then perceived
(e.g., by Cocceius and Bengel), so now students
see in its writings documents of divine revelation
which entered into the human world as historical
facts (so the Erlangen School). Only one group
of theologians of the nineteenth century (e.g.,
Hengstenberg and Rudelbach) went back again to
the old doctrine of verbal inspiration; most investi
gators assumed a new attitude toward Scripture.
Documents to have value moat be shown to be an
cient and to be derived from a time near the events
they relate; there must be testimony to their genu
ineness and credibility. But such merely histor‑

83	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible
lest consideration of the Bible proved insufficient and dangerous in the next period. " Liberal theology, endowed with technical skill," showed error in Biblical tradition from a critical point of view, and in place of the Biblical evidences it substituted conjecturally the details of a natural history of religion, which it composed after the Hegelian formula to the effect that in the " historical revelation " there is to be seen the development of a religious idea, an act in the drama of the natural development of humanity (so F. C. Baur, E. Reuse, and Wellhausen). The results of this modern criticism were propagated among the people through the press and by pamphlets in a wild confusion along with the older, would‑be enlightening defamations of the Bible (so by Reimarus, Venturini, and Bahrdt). Over against this sprang up a comprehensive literature which sought to gain those who were estranged from the Bible and to reassure disquieted readers. It was based on an acknowledgment of the part the revelation of God has played in the education of the race, and in a scientific manner discarded the unjustified conclusions of the so‑called constructive criticism, at least as far as the New Testament is concerned. In this intellectual battle it became evident that the estimate of the Bible stands in an indissolubly reciprocal relation to the position tan toward positive Christianity in general.
It is therefore absolutely necessary (especially for the ministry and for ecclesiastical instruction) to have a clear insight into that which makes our Bible the unique " Book of Books." This is obtained by observing what it is that has given the Bible its historical position. Throughout the whole course of its working in the human race the Bible appears only in close connection with the Church, the essential activity of which, according to the Augsburg Confession (vii), is the preaching of "the Word." The common object of both is to convey the revelation of the living God. Whoever has become a believer in the Gospel and recalls his experience perceives also that the service of the Church by which he was led to it was inspired by the Bible, and further observation of life and history teaches that the efficacy of the work of the Church is dependent on the use it makes of the Bible. For only in the Scripture is found the unchangeable and therefore authoritative form of 4. Wherein preaching which first induced faith the Bible is in Christ and continues so to do. On
	Unique.	the other hand, the Christian also
		recognizes that his personal relation
to the Bible is due to the " living voice of the Gos
pel " and that through the Church he comes into
personal relation with the Bible. He understands
also that the Bible is the book of the Church (so
Luther), but not a text‑book or devotions] book
which in all its parts is immediately useful to the
individual Christian. In it are found productions
which are far remote from one another in date,
which originally were intended for entirely different
circles with quite peculiar wants. On this account
only the cooperation of different gifts and the dili
gence of generations working on a scientific basis
can bring out its full content. Under the assump‑
tion of this service of the Church each living Christian has the possibility of coming thus through his Bible into immediate touch with the historical revelation of his God from the promise of the covenant to the beginning of the mission to the Gentiles. While histories] inquiry establishes the historical continuation, and divides the whole Bible into single histories,] accounts and documents, the view of most Bible‑readers is directed only to the Bible as a whole, and seeks in every fragment a word of God applicable to immediate questions and wants. These divergent interests must be united by observing that the individual parts, by being comprehended as " the Bible," receive a new worth, and that in this very form they obtain an imperishable, effective continuity, instead of being merely individual monuments of past times. The collection is not an accidental one, but transcribes in characteristic features the life of the human race zis it developed under the influence of the history of revelation. To him therefore who sees in reliance on God the stay of human life, the Bible will also be the book of the human race. For Christian belief the Bible appears thus as the great fact in which God has inseparably interwoven the faith‑awakening knowledge of his revelation with the history of the human race, and in it is discerned the clear testimony to the goal of the human race and the conquering offer of God's grace.
M. KAEHLER.
Brsrroassre:: M. Arnold, Literature and Dogma, latest ed.,
	Now York, 1902 (s, rich book, but on rationalistic basis;
	it called forth many replies which wale answered in Cod
	and the Bible, 1884); J. H. Crocker, The Now Bible and
	ifs Now Uses (Unitarian, ultrarakionslistie); G. J. Mets
	ger. Dar sits Bibetplaubs and der maderna Vsrnunftplaube,
	Stuttgart, 1893 (evangelical); J. T. Sunderland, The
	Bible . . , its Place among the Sacred Books a/ the World,
	Now York, 1893 (Unitarian); J. Denney, Studies %n Tlu
	olopy, London, 1896 (by a leader in English evangelical
	thought); A. M. Fsirbairn, Plate of Christ in Modem
	Theology, London, 1898 (moderate in its theological posi
	tion); P. Willer, Freis%nn and Bibaiplaube, Hamburg
	1898; W. &snday, Inspiration, London, 1898 (advanced
	in the O. T. part, conservative in treating the N. T.):
	R. L. Ottley, Aspects of the Old Testament, London, 1898;
	T. Zahn, Die bteibends Bedeutunp den neuteatmnentl%chen
	Ranone tar die Rirche, Leipaie, 1898; 8. Bernfeld, Dan
	Btuh der Bflcher, Berlin, 1899; C. A. Briggs, General In
	boduction to the Study of Holy Scripture, New York, 1899
	(comprehensive and scholarly); R. B. MacArthur, Bible
	D%l5eut<iee' and their Allsviative Interpretations, Boston.
	1898; idem. The Old Book and the Old Faith, ib. 1899 (de
	cidedly conservative); L. W. Batten, The Old Testament
	from !he Modern Point o/ View, New York, 1901 •, R. G.
	Moulton, Short Introduction to the Literature of the Bible.
	Boston, 1901; P. Gardner, Historic View of the Now
	Testament, London, 1904 (from a scientific standpoint);
	F. Bettex, Die Bibel Gotten Wort, 3d ed., Stuttgart, 1903,
	Eag. trsnsl., Cincinnati, 1904; J. E. Carpenter, The Bible
	in the Nineteenth Century, London, 1903 (scholarly and
	reverent, but on scientific basis); J. Haueeleiter. Die Auto
	rife! der B>bsl, Munich [1904]. 1906: M. Rods, The Bible,
	its Origin and Nature, New York, 1905 (Dr. Dods is welt
	known se s conservative critic); J. M. McMullen, The
	Supremacy of the Bible, ib. 1906; W. Barry, The Traditim,
	o/ Scripture, its Origin, Authority, and Interpretation, Lon
	don. 1908: C. F. Bent, Origin and Permanent Value of the
	O. T., New York, 1908; A. T. Pierson, The Bible and
	Spiritual Criticism, ib. 1908; G. F. Wright, 3rientifte
	Con>Tnaations a/ O. T. History, ib. 1908; W. C. Sellegt.
	Now Appreciation of the Bible, Chicago. 1907: H. F. W& ‑
	ring, Christianity and its Bibl, ib. 1907.
BIBLE CHRISTIANS. See METHODISTS, L, &

Bible Christians	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	$4
Bible Beading
BIBLE CB7tISTIANS (BRYA1fITES).

William O'Bryan (§ 1). Early Organisation and Growth (§ 2). Dissension Q 3). Extension to America and Australia f § 4)• Union with the Methodists in Canada (§ 5). Union in Australia and England (§ B).
Bible Christians or Bryanites are popular names of a body of Christians officially known as the Bible Christian Connection. The designation " Bryanites " is from their founder, William O'Bryan; that of " Bible Christians " was due to the persistent use of the Bible in private devotions and public services by a peasantry in. general but scantily provided with the book, and to the consistent practise of its precepts by their early ministry. The sect has usually been classed with the Methodists and is now united with them.
William O'Bryan, the founder, was born in Gunwen (near Loatwithiel, 23 m. w. of Plymouth), Cornwall, England, Feb. 6, 1778. He was the son of a yeoman, was possessed of a vigorous mind and retentive memory, and, having a good elementary
education, was, intellectually, con:. William siderably above his class. His home
0'Bryan. influences were devoutly religious
and resulted in his conversion at eighteen, when he began at once to exhort. He was licensed shortly after as a " local preacher " with the hope of entering the Wesleyan itinerancy; meanwhile he engaged in business.
Serious illness (1804) reawakened in him a profound conviction of his call, which delay sad opposition had weakened for a time. For five years more he was content to work on the Bodmin circuit as a local preacher of the Wesleyana, while still in business. His fine presence, courteous maimer, great magnetism, and above all his fervent godliness gave him much popularity as a preacher. In his keen hunting for souls, he grew restive under restraint, overstepped the boundary of the circuit and plunged into the " wild wastes of Cornwall and North Devon," where the voice of Methodism had never been heard.
This in the mind of the Wesleyan authorities was a "dangerous irregularity" of method, against which Mr. O'Bryan had been cautioned, and, when he appeared at the district meeting as a candidate for the itinerancy, caused his " first " rejection; the financial responsibility which would be incurred by accepting a married man, as he now was, was named as the " second " cause for his " final " rejection. He at once entered unoccupied fields in a new campaign. His unquestioned moral uprightness, indefatigable labors, and unsparing self‑sacrifice made his evangelical message remarkably successful; and the generosity which prompted him to urge all his converts to enter the Church that had rejected him from its highest office of ministry compels admiration. A tendency to despotic rule, to which by nature and force of circumstances he was inclined (see below, § 3h led to a separation in 1829 from the Connection which he had founded, and in 1835 to his emigration to the United States with residence in New York City. He revisited his spiritual children more than once
and was heartily welcomed. A generous pension was provided for his support by the body. He died in Brooklyn, Jan. 8, 1868, sad was buried in Greenwood Cemetery.
The germ of the Bible Christian denomination consisted of twenty‑two persons, converts of Mr. O'Bryan, who were organized into a society on Oct. 9, 1815, in the house of John Thorns, Shebbear. Devonshire, England. Within a year this number became eighteen ministers and 1,500 members; and at the sixth year seventy‑eight ministers and 6,200 members. To carry forward a work extend‑
ing so rapidly, Mr. O'Bryan adopted
z. Early John Wesley's plan and " chose and
Organize‑ appointed " both men and women as
tioa sad itinerants. The proportion of women
Growth. was large in the early history of the
Church, and their work was eminently successful; yet their number steadily declined and ultimately none remained in the itinerancy. With this working force evangelism was extended into Devonshire and Cornwall, the Scilly and Channel Islands, and later by emigration (1820‑30) to America.
Organization into societies and circuits required meeting‑places and chapels‑at first preaching was mostly in the field, the village green, in hired halls, and in houses‑and all property acquired for such purpose was held in Mr. O'Bryan's name. He also presided over the conference, the first being held at Launceston (1819), and composed of ministers
only. To all this absolutism, there
3. Dis‑ was serious objection, and an effort
session.	to secure as amended deed by which
all property should be held in trust for the Connection was begun in 1826. A crisis was reached at the eleventh conference (1829), when opposition to Mr. O'Bryan's expressed intention " that if all the conference were opposed to his views, his single vote was to determine every case," resulted in his adjourning the conference, and withdrawing with comparatively few sympathizers. The conference refused to recognize his authority, elected Andrew Cory president in his stead, and proceeded with business. It was resolved " that the conference be the organ of government; its membership, ministers and laymen; and its next place of meeting annually fixed." The conference thus declared against an episcopacy, as it also decided again#t ecclesiasticism by admitting laymen to church government in equal numbers with clerical members. Eight years later these separatists negotiated terms of reunion, but Mr. 0'Bryan never again united.
Many members of the infant Church emigrated to the colonies and the United States. In 1831 the Missionary Society of the Bible Christians in
England sent John Glass and Francis
4. Exten‑ Metherall as missionaries to Canada
sion to West and Prince Edward Island
America	respectively. They also organized
and Aus‑ missions (1846) in the States of Wie‑
tralia	oonsin, Ohio, and Michigan. In 1850
James Way and James Rowe were
asst out to Australia, and later work was begun in New Zealand. For the next quarter of a century

$!!	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Christians
Bible Reading
the Church enjoyed undisturbed prosperity, establishing three publishing houses, and a denominational college at Shebbear, Devonshire, England. In 1882, 300 ministers and 34,000 members were re‑ ~i ported. This was the high‑water mark numerically. These years of extension had awakened, in a much divided Methodism, a sense of the advisability of " union," in both England and the colonies. The center of discussion was Canada, where five Methodist sects wasted their energy in vigorous, if not unseemly, rivalry. As early as 1866 the Bible Christians and Methodist New Connection approached the Methodist Protesg. Union tents of the United States upon the with the question of union, but the overture Methodists ended in friendly expressions only. in Canada. In 1870 the Methodist New Connection made overtures to the Bible Christians, and in 1874 the former were absorbed by the Wesleyan Methodists of Canada. The Bible Christians announced as their policy‑a policy consistently held since organization‑" That any basis of union to be acceptable to this Conference must assure to the laity their full share of privileges in the government of the Church." In 1882 a committee was appointed by the Bible Christians to meet with three other committees, representing the Wesleyan Methodists, the Primitive Methodists, and the Methodist Episcopal Church of Canada. This committee was explicitly instructed to reaffirm " That no union would be possible for their Church that did not provide for a representation of the laity in all church courts." A basis of union was provided acceptable to all parties, voted upon by every society, and in 1884 union was fully and legally perfected. The uniting churches chose as a name " The Methodist Church of Canada." The parent body graciously consented to the separation, which affected the work in Canada and the United States only.
The energy and resources of the English and Australian conferences were now devoted to an enlargement of home missions and 6. Union in the establishment of a foreign mission Australia in China, which has been successful. and Eng‑ A union of the Australian conference land. with other Methodist sects in that colony left but the parent body bearing the name; and in Aug., 1906, this Church voted unanimously to unite with the Methodist New Connection and the United Methodists, the union to be formally and legally consummated in 1907. The name of " United Methodist Church " was chosen for the new organization. At the time of approving the union the Bible Christians had 638 chapels, 202 ministers, and 30,000 members. h'RANCI6 ML‑ra$s,err, Warrrocg.

BIHLIO(iaAP87: J. Thorns, A Jubilee Msnsorial of as Rise and Progress of the Bible Christian Connexion, London
1888; J. G. Heyman, A Hiat. of the Methodist Revival of the Last Century %n Relation to North Devon, ib. 1885; [John Thorne], James Thorns of 3hebbear, a Menwir . . . from hit Diary and Legere, by his Son, ib 1873; F: W. Bourne, The Centenary Life f James Thorns, ib. 189b; Brief BiotlraRhirnl Sketches of Bible Christians, Jersey, 1905; The Book of Discipline for the People Known as Bible Chris. liana, London, the Bible Christian Book Room.
BIBLE READING	BY THE LAITY, RESTRIC
	TIONS Oft.
I. The Ancient Church. II. The Middle Ages. III. The Roman Catholic Church since the Reformation.
Action by the Council of Trent (§ 1).
Rules of Various Popes (§ 2).
Rules and Pretties in Different Countries (¢ 3). IV. The Greek Church. V. The Evangelical Churches.
I. The Ancient Church: It is indisputable that in Apostolic times the Old Testament was commonly read (John v, 47; Acts viii, 28; xvii, 11; II Tim. iii, 15). Roman Catholics admit that this reading was not restricted in the first centuries, in spite of its abuse by Gnostics and other heretics. On the contrary, the reading of Scripture was urged (Justin Martyr, xliv, ANF, i, 177‑178; Jerome, Adv. libros Rtt fcni, i, 9, NPNF, 2d ser., iii, 487); and Pamphilus, the friend of Eusebius, kept copies of Scripture to furnish to those who desired them. Chrysoetom attached considerable importance to the reading of Scripture on the part of the laity and denounced the error that it was to be permitted only to monks and priests (De Lazaro cortCio, iii, MPG, xlviii, 992; Honi.ii in Matt., MPG, lvii, 30, NPNF, 2d ser., x, 13). He insisted upon access being given to the entire Bible, or at least to the New Testament (Hom. ix to Col., MPG, lxii, 361, NPNF, xiii, 301). Thewomen also, who were always at home, were diligently to read the Bible (Hom. axxv on Gen. xia, MPG, liii, 323). Jerome recommended the reading and studying of Scripture on the part of the women (Epzat., esxviii, 3, MPL, xxii, 1098, NPNF, 2d ser., vi, 259; Epist., Lea, 9, MPG, xxii, 730‑731, NPNF, 2d eer., vi, 167). The translations of the Bible, Augustine considered a blessed means of propagating the Word of God among the nations (De door. chriat., ii, 5, NPNF, 1st sex., ii, 536); Gregory I recommended the reading of the Bible without placing any limitations on it (Hom. iii in Exek., MPL, lxxvi, 968).
II. The Middle Ages: Owing to lack of culture among the Germanic and Romanic peoples, there was for a long time no thought of restricting access to the Bible there. Translations of Biblical books into German began only in the Carolingian period and were not originally intended for the laity. Nevertheless the people were anxious to have the divine service and the Scripture lessons read in the vernacular. John VIII in 880 permitted, after the reading of the Latin gospel, a translation into Slavonic; but Gregory VII, in a letter to Duke Vratislav of Bohemia in 1080 characterised the custom as unwise, bold, and forbidden (Epist., vii, 11; P. AV, BRG, ii, 392 sqq.). This was a formal prohibition, not of Bible reading in general, but of divine service in the vernacular.
With the appearance, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, of the Albigenses and Waldenses, who appealed to the Bible in all their disputes with the Church, the hierarchy was furnished with s reason for shutting up the Word of God. The Synod of Toulouse in 1229 forbade the laity to have in their possession any copy of the books of the Old and the New Testament except the Psalter and

Bible Reading	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	88
each other portions as are contained in the Breviary or the Hours of the Blessed Mary. " We most strictly forbid these works in the vulgar tongue " (Harduin, Concilia, xii, 178; Manai, Concilia, xxiii, 194). The Synod of Tarragona (1234) ordered all vernacular versions to be brought to the bishop to be burned. James I renewed thin decision of the Tarragona synod in 1276. The synod held there in 1317 under Archbishop Ximenea prohibited to $eghards, Beguines, and ternaries of the Franciscans the possession of theological books in the vernacular (Manai, Concilia, xxv, 627). The order of James I was renewed by later kings and confirmed by Paul II (1464‑?1). Ferdinand and' Isabella (1474‑1516) prohibited the translation of the Bible into .the vernacular or the possession of such translations (F. H. Reuach, Index der verbotenen Bueher, i, Bonn, 188.3, 44).
In England Wyclif's Bible‑translation caused the resolution passed by the third Synod of Oxford (1408): " No one shall henceforth of his own authority translate any text of Scripture into English; and no part of any such book or treatise composed in the time of John Wycliffe or later shall be read in public or private, under pain of excommunication" (Hefele, Conciliengeschiclate, vi, 984). But Sir Thomas More states that he had himself seen old Bibles which were examined by the bishop and left in the hands of good Catholic laymen (Blunt, Reformation of the Church of England, 4th ed., London, 1878, i, 505). In Germany, Charles IV issued in 1369 an edict to four inquisitors against the translating and the reading of Scripture in the German language. Thin edict was caused by the operations of Beghards and Beguines. In 1485 and 1486, Berthold, archbishop of Mainz, issued an edict against the printing of religious books in German, giving among other reasons the singular one that the German language was unadapted to convey correctly religious ideas, and therefore they would be profaned. Berthold's edict had some influence, but could not prevent the dissemination and publication of new editions of the Bible. Leaders in the Church sometimes recommended to the laity the reading of the Bible, and the Church kept silence officially as long as these efforts were not abused:
III. The Roman Catholic Church since the Reformation: Luther's translation of the Bible and its propagation could not but influence the Roman Catholic Church. Humanism, through such men as Erasmus, advocated the reading of the Bible and the necessity of making it accessible by translations; but it was felt that Luther's translation must be offset by one prepared in the interest of the Church. Such editions were Emser's of 1527, and the Dietenberg Bible of 1534. The Church of Rome silently tolerated these translations.
At last the Council of Trent took the matter in hand, and in its fourth session (Apr. 18, 1546) adopted the Deeretum de editions et usu lx7xorum eocrorum, which enacted the following: " This synod ordains and decrees that henceforth sacred Scripture, and especially the aforesaid old and vulgate edition, be printed in the most correct manner possible; and that it she'll not be lawful for any one
to print, or cause to be printed, any books whatever on sacred matters without the name of the
author; or in future to sell them, r. Action or even to possess them, unless they by the Coun‑ shall have been first examined and apcil of Trent. proved of by the ordinary." When
the question of the translation of the Bible into the vernacular came up, Bishop Acqui of Piedmont and Cardinal Pacheco advocated its prohibition. This was strongly opposed by Cardinal Madruzzi, who claimed that " not the translations but the professors of Hebrew and Greek are the cause of the confusion in Germany; a prohibition would produce the worst impression in Germany." As no agreement could be had, the council appointed an index‑commiaeion to report to the pope, who was to give an authoritative decision.
The first index published by a pope (Paul IV), in 1559, prohibited under the title of Biblia prohibits a number of Latin editions as well as the publication and possession of translations of the Bible in German, French, Spanish, Italian, English, or Dutch, without the permission of the sacred office of the Roman Inquisition (Reusch, ut sup., i, 264). In 1584 Pius IV published the index prepared by the commission mentioned above. Herein ten rules are laid down, of which the fourth reads thus: "Inasmuch as it is manifest from experience that if the Holy Bible,
translated into the vulgar tongue, a. Rules of be indiscriminately allowed to every.
Various	one, the rashness of men will cause
Popes.	more evil than good to arise from
it, it is, on this point, referred to the judgment of the bishops or inquisitors, who may, by the advice of the priest or confessor, permit the reading of the Bible translated into the vulgar tongue by Catholic authors, to those persona whose faith and piety they apprehend will be augmented and not injured by it; and this permission must be had in writing. But if any shall have the presumption to read or possess it without such permission, he shall not receive absolution until he have first delivered up such Bible to the ordinary." Regulations for booksellers follow, and then: " Regulars shall neither read nor purchase such Bibles without special license from their superiors." Sixtus V substituted in 1590 twenty‑two new rules for the ten of Pius IV. Clement VIII abolished in 1596 the rules of Sixtus, but added a " remark " to the fourth rule given above, which particularly restores the enactment of Paul IV. The right of the bishops, which the fourth rule implies, is abolished by the " remark," and the bishop may grant a dispensation only when especially authorized by the pope and the Inquisition (Reuach, ut sup., i, 333). Benedict XIV enlarged, in 1757, the fourth rule thus: " If such Bible‑versions in the vernacular are approved by the apostolic see or are edited with annotations derived from the holy fathers of the Church or from learned and Catholic men, they are permitted." This modification of the fourth rule was abolished by Gregory XVI in pursuance of an admonition of the index‑congregation, Jan. 7, 1836, " which calls attention to the fact that according to the decree of 1757 only such versions in the ver‑

87	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible 8eodias•
nacular are to be permitted as have been approved by the apostolic see or are edited with annotations," but insistence is placed on all those particulars enjoined by the fourth rule of the index and afterward by Clement VIII (Reusch, ut sup., ii, 852).
In England the reading of the Bible was made by Henry VIII (1530) to depend upon the permission of the superiors. Tyndale's version, printed before 1635, was prohibited. In 1534 the Canterbury convocation passed a resolution asking the king to have the Bible translated and to permit its reading. A folio copy of Coverdale's translation was put into every church for the benefit of the faithful, and fastened with a chain. In Spain the Inquisitor‑General de Valdes published in 1551 the index of Louvain of 1550, which prohibits " Bibles (New and Old Testaments) in the Spanish or other vernacular " (Reusch, ut sup., i, 133). This prohibition was abolished in 1778. The Lisbon index of 1824 in Portugal prohibited quoring in the vernacular in any book passages from the Bible. In Italy the members of the order of the Jesuits were in 1596 permitted to 3. Rules and use a Catholic Italian translation of Practise is the Gospel‑lessons. In France the
Different SorMnne declared, Aug. 26,1525, that
	Countries. a French translation of the Bible or of
		single books moat be regarded as
dangerous under conditions then present; extant
versions were better suppressed than tolerated. In
the following year, 1528, it prohibited the trans
lation of the entire Bible, but permitted the trans
lation of single books with proper annotations.
The indexes of the Sorbonne, which by royal edict
were binding, after 1544 contained the statement:
" How dangerous it is to allow the reading of the
Bible in the vernacular to unlearned people and
those not piously or humbly disposed (of whom
there are many in our times) may be seen from
the Waldensians, Albigenses, and Poor Men of
Lyons, who have thereby lapsed into• error and
have led many into the same condition. Con
sidering the nature of men, the translation of the
Bible into the vernacular must in the present be
regarded therefore as dangerous and pernicious"
(Reusch, ut sup., i, 151). The rise of Jansenism in
the seventeenth century, and especially the appear
ance, under its encouragement, of Quesnel's New
Testament with moral reflections under each verse
(Le Nouveau Teatamest en franFais aver des re f leximva
moroles our chaque vers, Paris, 1699), which was
expressly intended to popularize the reading of the
Bible, caused the renewal, with increased stringency,
of the rules already quoted. The Jesuits prevailed
upon Clement XI to publish the famous bull Umi
genitus, Sept. 8, 1713, in which he condemned
seven propositions in Queenel's work which advo
cated the reading of the Bible by the laity (cf. H. J.
D. Denzinger, Enchiridion, WUrzburg, 1854, 287).
In the Netherlands, Neercaseel, bishop of Emmerich,
published in 1677 (in Latin) and 1680 (in French)
a treatise in which he dealt with the fourth rule
of the Tridentine index as obsolete, and urged the
diligent reading of the Bible. In Belgium in 1570
the unlicensed sale of the Bible in the vernacular
was strictly prohibited; but the use of the Ant‑
werp Bible continued. In Poland the Bible was translated and often published. In Germany papal decrees could not very well be carried out and the reading of the Bible was not only not prohibited, but was approved and praised. Bitluart about 1750, as quoted by Van Ess, states, "In France, Germany, and Holland the Bible is read by all without distinction." In the nineteenth century the clergy took great interest in the work of Bible Societies. Thus Leander van Ess (q.v.) acted as agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society for Catholic Germany, and the society published the New Testament of Van Ees, which was placed on the Index in 1821. The princes‑bishop of Breslau, Sedlnitzki, who afterward joined the Evangelical Church, was also interested in circulating the Bible. As the Bible Societies generally circulated the translations of heretics, the popes‑Leo XII (11fay 5, 1824); Rum VIII (May 25, 1829); Gregory XVI (Aug. 15, 1840; May 8, 1844); Pius IX (Nov.'9, 1846; Dec. 8, iR49)issued encyclicals against the Bible Societies. In the syllabus of 1884 " socialism, communism, secret societies, . . . and Bible Societies" are placed in the same category. As to the effect of the papal decrees there is a difference cf opinion within the Catholic Church. In theory the admonition of Gregory XVI no doubt exists, but practise often ignores it.
IV. The Greek Church knows of no such restriction of use of the Bible as that of the Roman Church. Nevertheless the Synod of Jerusalem of 1672 answered the first of the four questions: " Whether the Holy Scripture can be read by all Christians," in the negative. Nicholas I of Russia abolished in 1826 the Bible Society founded by Alexander I for the propagation of the Bible in the Russian vernacular.
V. The Evangelical Churches: Luther strove to open the Bible to all, and his version served that purpose. The principle that every Evangelical Christian is at liberty to read the Bible remained uneontroverted, though Semler (De antiquo ecclesim atatu commentalio, 37, 60, 88) makes the assertion that the sacred writings, especially the apostolic epistles, were not intended for the use of the people abd the congregations; that in the ancient Church no universal use of the Bible existed, and that the catechumens especially were prohibited from using the Bible. Bible‑compendiums for special purposes and separate circles also came into use in the Evangelical Church. Veit Dietrich published in 1541 his Summarium of the Old and the New Testament; Cromwell's :soldiers had The Soldier's Pocket Bible of 1643 (facsimile edition, Cromwell's Soldier's Bible, London, 1895). The restriction upon Bible‑reading in the Evangelical Church became of practical importance only in the schools. For didactic purposes Amos Comenius recommended compendiums and special manuals of Scripture, which the scholar was to use till he could read the Gospel in the original. The didactic needs were gradually satisfied by the introduction of teat‑books of " Biblical history," the Catechism, and collections of Bible sentences. From time to time the quea‑

Bible Societies	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	88
Lion has been agitated whether the whole Bible or so‑called school Bibles should be used in the schools. The principal reason adduced in favor of the latter is that certain passages are objectionable because they deal with sexual relations. But these reasons are not well founded, since reading of the Bible has never bin a cause of demoralisation. The moral earnestness which without veiling calls things by their right names is to be preferred to a careful paraphrasing and veiling of the sense which only the more excite impure desires.
(GEOA(3 RlxxecaEn.)
Brsnroorarai: T. G. Hegehnaier, Ouehiehte ilea Bibefroerbots, Ulm. 1788; N. 1.e Maire, 3anehbrium prafanis oeelu‑
swe Ave do sandorum bibliorum in lingua roulpari ssu roeN
L British Bible Societies.
1. Precursors of the British and For‑
eign Bible Society.
2. The British and Foreign Bible So‑
ciety. Origin and Constitution (¢ 1). Present Organisation (§ 2). Foreign Work (§ 3). Dissensions. Seceding Societies (¢ 4).
8. The National Bible Society of 8cot‑
land.
macula tractatua, WUrsburg, 1862 (from the Fr. of 1651), this was reproduced in substance in Die Be'be1 kein Leasbuch fltr Jeder»iann, M>Znster, 1845; A. Arnauld, De la lecture de 1'6Criture saints, Paris (c. 1890); C. W. F. Welch, Rritisehe UnteraucAunpsn room aebrauch der Iseilipen Schrift untsr den alten Christen in den eraten drei Jahrhunderten, Leipaie, 1779; F. von Ess, Der heilipe Chrysoatomus oiler die Somme der kalhofischan Ruche uber das niitzZicht, heilsams and erbauliche Bibelieesn, Darmstadt, 1824; J. B. Melon, La Lecture de la saints Bible an longue vulyaire, 2 vole., Louvain, 1848: Vom Leaen der heilipen Bchrift, Mains, 1848; F. H. Reuaeh Die Indices librorum prohibitorum ilea aachssehnten Jahrhundarta, Tiibingen, 1888; W. Walther, Die deutsche BibaZtibcreetzsap lee Mitteialtera, Braunschweig, 1889; J.‑ H. Kurtz, Church Hi gory, §§lOb, 3; 185, 1, New York, 1890; the text of the bull Unipenilua may be found in Reich, Documents, pp. 388‑389, and the authoritative statement of the Grew‑Russian Church in Schaff, Creeds, iii, 438‑984.
BIBLE SOCIETIES.
4. The Hibernian Bible Society.	III. Bible Societies in America.
b. The Trinitarian Bible Society.	1. The American Bible Society.
8. The Bible Translation Society.	Organisation (¢ 1).
II. Bible Societies on the Continent of	Constitution and Management (¢ 2)
Europe.
1. Germany.
2. France.
8. The Netherlands.
4. Scandinavia
5. Russia.
8. Switzerland.
Bible societies are benevolent associations formed to increase the circulation of the Bible and making special efforts to supply the Scriptures to those who from poverty or other causes are destitute of them. Printing the Bible or New Testament in suitable styles, translation into all important languages and even into the less important dialects, and some effective system of distribution in all accessible places are commonly regarded as essential features of the work of such societies. In some cases the books are given without price; but it is not usual to give away a large proportion. The test of manufacture and of distribution, however, has to be provided by voluntary contributions.
The Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge (q.v.), founded in London in 1698, was the first to undertake to provide the common people with the Bible. It continues this beneficent work as one branch of its publication enterprise, and has been the means of providing fairly good translations of the Scriptures in many obscure languages of Axis, Africa, and the Pacific Islands. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (q.v.), founded in 1701, has also done and is still doing a good work is circulating the Scriptures in connection with its extensive missions. The Scottish Society for Propagating Christian Knowledge, founded in 1709, added the work of circulating the Bible to its missionary enterprises in Scotland and in America. The first society formed for the exclusive purpose of publishing the Bible at a low price seems to have been the Canstein Bible Institute, established in 1710 at Halls in Germany by Baron Canstein (see below, II, 1).
L British Bible Societies.‑1. Precursors of the British sad Foreign Bible Society: In the last half of the eighteenth century several societies sprang up in Great Britain which had Bible distribution as
Summary of Work (¢ 3). Foreign Work (§ 4). Controversies (¢ 5).
2. The American and Foreign Bible Society and the American Bible Union.
8. The Bible Association of Friends in America.
part of their programme; such as the Book Society for Promoting Religious Knowledge among the Poor (1750), the Bible Society, later known as the Naval and Military Bible Society (1780), the Society for the Support and Encouragement of Sunday Schools (1785), the Association for Discountenancing Vice and Promoting the Knowledge and Practise of the Christian Religion (established in Dublin, 1792), the French Bible Society (established in London for printing the Bible in France, 1792), and the Religious Tract So nety (London, 1799; see TRACT SOCIETIES).
2. The British and Foreign Bible Society: These enterprises, however, did not supply the need. The Rev. Thomas Charles (q.v.) of Bala in Wale became much impressed with the need of the common folk about him, who could not obtain the Bible except by persevering effort and much self‑denial; the Bible was not only scarce but costly. Mr.
1. Origin Charles finally devoted himself to find‑
and Con‑ mg some effective means of supplying
Con‑
	stitution.	his people with the Scriptures. At
		a meeting of the Religious Tract
Society in London in 1802, he aroused great
interest by his vigorous presentation of the
need of the people of Wales. The Rev. Joseph
Hughes, secretary of the Religious Tract Society,
exclaimed, " Surely a society might be formed
to provide Bibles for Wales; and if for Wales, why
not for the world?" This remark contained the
germ from which grew the British and Foreign
Bible Society.
The ides of a Bible Sodety for the world led to discussion and to study of the destitution of the people. The Rev. C. F. A. Steinkopf, pastor of the German Lutheran Church in London, gave effective information of the situation in European countries. Members of the Religious Tract Society,

89	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Societies
although they did not publicly appear, had much to do with the preparatory work. On Afar. 7, 1804, a public meeting was held at the London Tavern, on the call of Mr. Hughes. Three hundred persons attended the meeting. It was quickly evident that a society for increasing the circulation of the Bible presented common ground, upon which all sects and parties could stand. Dissenters met churchmen, and in their interest in the needs of the masses, they forgot for a time their divergent interpretations of the same book. The sole condition necessary to union of action was that a text accepted by all should be issued without note or comment.
At this meeting a hastily drawn up set of by‑laws was adopted. An executive committee of thirtysix laymen was chosen, fifteen from the Church of England, fifteen from the Dissenting bodies, and six foreigners residing in London. The Rev. Joseph Hughes (Baptist) and the Rev. Josiah Pratt (Church of England) were elected secretaries. Seven hundred pounds were subscribed for the work of the society, and the Bishop of London, Dr. Porteus, was elected President.
The constitution of the society was soon afterward prepared; the Rev. John Owen, of the Church of England, was added to the staff of the society as a third secretary, and on nomination of Lord Teignmouth, a former governor‑general in India, the Rev. C. F. A. Steinkopf was appointed secretary for foreign lands. Besides the Bishop of London, the Bishops of Durham, Exeter, and St. Davids, and many other influential persons, among whom were William Wilberforce and Granville Sharp, long known as antislavery leaders, joined this movement.
As at present organized, the business of the society is directed by a committee made up as indicated above. Every subscriber of five guineas annually is a governor, and every subscriber of one guinea annually is a member of the society.
Every governor, and every minister
2. Present who is a member; has the privilege Off‑ of attending and voting at all meetings
	tion.	of the committee. The president,
		the vice‑presidents (numbering more
than a hundred), and the treasurer are considered
ex officio members of the committee. There are
two secretaries and three superintendents charged
with different departments of the work besides
several assistant secretaries. To excite wider
interest and to facilitate the distribution of the
Bible, auxiliary and branch societies are formed,
which pay their collections into a common fund and
receive back a certain proportion of the sum
collected in Bibles for distribution. There were
in 1906 more than 5,800 of the auxiliary and branch
societies and associations in England and Wales
alone.
The society began its career by first meeting the wants of Wales. Twenty thousand Welsh Bibles and five thousand Testaments were printed. Providentially but a short time before this, the art of stereotyping had been invented. When in 1806 the first wagon‑load of Bibles came into Wales, it was received like the ark of the covenant; and the
people with shouts of joy dragged it into the city. The society also distributed the Bible in an improved Gaelic translation in the Highlands of Scotland, and turned its attention to the Irish; in short, it undertook to supply Great Britain and Ireland with Bibles.
But the society did not forget that it is a foreign as well as a British Bible Society. When it began operations Europe was convulsed with war and not so much was done as would otherwise have been accomplished in the way of supplying the destitute in European countries. Mr. Steinkopf and Robert Pinkerton made extensive tours through Germany, Switzerland, and Russia, and everywhere local
Bible societies sprang into existence S. Foreign in their wake. Many of these societies,
Work.	formed in 1812 and later, have done
good work, being aided with funds and with grants of Bibles by the British Society About the time of the formation of the British Society two Seotcbmen, John Paterson and Ebenezer Henderson, went to Copenhagen, intending to go out as missionaries to India under the DanishHalle mission at Tranquebar. Their plan fell through, but they met an Icelander, Thorkelin, in Copenhagen, who told them of the destitution of his countrymen. There were said to be only fifty Bibles in Iceland for a population of fifty thousand. The two Scotchmen laid the matter before the British and Foreign Bible Society, which promised to pay half of the expense of printing five thousand Testaments in Icelandic. The printing was stopped by the outbreak of war. But in 1812 Mr. Henderson received permission to remain in Copenhagen to complete the printing of the whole Bible in Icelandic, and, notwithstanding the war, to correspond with the Bible society in England regarding this work. The confidence thus shown in the motives of the society was certainly remarkable at that epoch; and it had much to do with the founding of the Danish Bible Society in 1814.
The British Society extended its work gradually to the British colonies, where it works through auxiliary societies. In Canada, the Canadian Bible Society, which has united a large number of local auxiliaries in one, is a society auxiliary to the British Society, and has a secretary appointed by the parent society in London. In Australia the society has fifty‑two auxiliaries with nearly 500 branches. In India, with the exception of Burma, the society carries on its work through six strong auxiliary societies. In Cape Colony the SouthAfrican auxiliary has for its field the whole territory south of the Orange River. The whole number of auxiliaries and branch societies affiliated with the British Society outside of the United Kingdom exceeds 2,200. The whole number of these local societies, in Great Britain and abroad, which the British and Foreign Society aids and from which it receives donations, is over 8,160. Besides these auxiliary societies the parent society makes use of agencies, each in charge of a special agent, devoted to the increase of the circulation of the Bible in his own field. These agencies cover the continent of Europe, and Turkey, Siberia. China, Korea, and Japan in Asia. In the three last‑named coun‑

Bible Societies	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	90
tries special arrangements with the American Bible Society and the National Bible Society of Scotland prevent clashing and secure combination for the translation of the Scriptures. Agencies of the British society also promote the distribution of the Bible in Egypt and North Africa and in nearly all of the colonies of East and West Africa. Where neither auxiliary nor agency has been established the society works through the missions which are in occupation of the ground in any part of the world.
This wide‑spread work has not been brought to its present extension without hindrances and difficulties. The High‑church party in the Church of England has at times opposed the Bible Society, preferring to work through the Society for the Promotion of .Christian Knowledge, which takes care to have the Bible supplemented‑ by the Book of Common Prayer. Others have insisted that the Bible is a dangerous book to put in the hands of ignorant men without note or comment, and for this reason have opposed the Bible Society. In 1825 dissension arose within the Bible Society, which continued during two years, over the question of the Apocrypha. It was formally resolved in 1827 that the fundamental law of the society forbids its circulating the Apocrypha, and that therefore no persons or societies that circulate the Apocrypha can receive aid from
4. Dissen‑ the society. This decision led to the sions. 8ece‑ separation of a considerable number
	ding Bo‑ of European societies from the British
		cieties. society which had founded them.
The discussion also resulted in the secession of the
Scottish societies which originated the agitation
against the publication of the Apocrypha (see below,
3). In 1831 another agitation was raised against
the presence of Unitarians on the Board of Man
agers. The society having refused to alter its
constitution so as to exclude non‑Trinitarians,
a separate society called the Trinitarian Bible
Society was formed (see below, 5). With the
growth of foreign missions, a question as to trans
lation of the words relating to baptism became
acute; and the controversy finally led to the for
mation of the Bible Translation Society, which
was supported by Baptists who preferred to trans
late " immerse " rather than to transfer the Greek
word baptizein (see below, 6).
But there has been a continuous and remarkable growth of the society in spite of all obstacles and opposition. In 1904 the centenary of the society was celebrated in almost all countries of the Christian and non‑Christian world. " Bible Day " in Mar., 1904, will long be remembered not only as a day of an immense popular declaration of faith in the Bible as the revelation of God's will to men, but as a time for expressing the warmest love and sympathy, and gratitude withal, to the society which then completed a hundred years of selfsacrificing service of the nations. Not only were special gifts sent into the treasury for the general work of the society, but a special centenary fund of $1,256,000 was raised in that and the following year to be used as a reserve for more firmly planting the outposts of the society. The total issues of the
British and Foreign Bible Society, in the year ending Mar. 31, 1908, amounted to 5,416,569 copies of the Bible or its parts. The total issues of the society from its organisation to Mar. 31, 1907, amount to 203,931,788 copies, of which more than 80,000,000 copies were in the English language. The president of the British and Foreign Bible Society is the Marquis of Northampton. Its headquarters are at 146 Queen Victoria St., London, E. C.; its periodicals are The Bible in the World and The Bible Society Gleanings.
8. The National Bible Society of Scotland: In 1809 the Edinburgh Bible Society was formed, in 1812 the Glasgow Bible Society, and in 1821 the Glasgow Auxiliary Bible Society. As mentioned above, these societies seceded from the British and Foreign Bible Society in consequence of the controversy about circulating editions of the Bible containing the Apocrypha. In 1859 the National Bible Society was formed, and in 1861 all these Scottish eoaeties,combined to form a new organization which was incorporated as the National Bible Society of Scotland. The fields of this society are in Europe and Asia. One‑fifth of its issues in 19061907 were in Roman Catholic countries and about one‑half in China. Its issues in the year ending Mar., 1907, amounted to 1,671,900 copies.
4. The Hibernian Bible Society: This society was organized in 1806 as an auxiliary to the British and Foreign Bible Society. It is now independent, and devotes its attention mainly to the needs of Ireland. In the year ending Mar., 1907, it circulated 37,258 copies, which were purchased by the society. The headquarters are in Dublin.
6. The Trinitarian Bible Society: Formed in 1831 as a protest against Unitarianism, this society issued in the year ending Dec. 31, 1907, 89,214 copies of the Bible or its parts. The headquarters of the society are at 7 Bury St., London, W. C.
8. The Bible Translation Society: This society wan organized in 1843 to serve the special interests of the British Baptist missions. It is now a part of the Baptist Missionary Society, making no separate publication of its issues, and having its headquarters at the Mission House, 19 Furnival St., London.
II. Bible Societies on the Continent of Europe. ‑:. Germany: The first German Bible Society was the Oaaeteia Bible Institute, founded in Halls in 1710 by Karl Hildebrand, Baron Canstein (q.v.), with the definite purpose of placing the Bible within reach of the poor. The Institute has issued up to the beginning of 1907, over 7,000,000 copies of the Bible and its parts. The issues for 1907 were 38,696 copies. The (first) Nuremberg Bible Society was formed in 1804,‑and received aid from the British and Foreign Bible Society. In 1806 it was removed to Basel in Switzerland and took the name of the Basel Bible Society. Its issues during the year 1906 amounted to 32,708 copies. The Berlin Bible Society was formed in 1806 as a result of the energy of Father JS,nicke, a Moravian pastor, and was aided by the British and Foreign Bible Society in its early years. In 1814 it was
averted into the Prussian Bible Society. It now has many branches and devotes its attention

91	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Societies
mainly to the circulation of the Bible in Germany. In the year 1906 its issues amounted to 212,911 Bibles and Testaments. The headquarters of the society are Kloateratrasae 71, Berlin C. The Wurttemberg Bible institute was formed in 1813 under the influence of Messrs. Steinkopf and Pinkerton, of the British and Foreign Bible Society. Its issues reported in 1906 were 334,953 copies. The headquarters are at Christophatraeae 6, Stuttgart. The Berg Bible Society was formed at Elberfeld in the old Duchy of Berg in 1814. It furnishes Scriptures for use abroad in some small quantities. The total of its issues in 1906 was 151,558 copies, and the total of its issues in the 93 years of its existence are 2,228,353 copies. The headquarters of the society are at Marienstraese 28, Elberfeld. The Saxon Bible Society was formed in the year 1814. It has forty‑two branches, and besides its publications in German, it has published an edition of the New Testament in the Chagga language, spoken in the northern part of German East Africa. Its total issues in 1906 amounted to 48,065 copies. The headquarters are at Zinzendorfatraese 17, Dresden. The BavarianProtestantBible Society was formed in 1823. It is also called the Central Bible 8ocliety. Its issues in 1906 were 12,930 copies. The headquarters of the society are at Nuremberg. There are also many local and state societies, of which those of Hamburg, Sleswick, and Strasburg print as well as distribute Bibles. A Roman Catholic Bible Society, the Regensburg Bible Institute, was organized in 1805 by G. M. Wittmann, head of the seminary at Regensburg, with the assistance of some bishops and many laymen. A translation of the New Testament was prepared and 60,000 copies were distributed in ten years, but in 1817 the Institute was suppressed by Pope Pius VII. In 1815 another Roman Catholic Bible Society was founded at Heiligenstadt, which connected itself with the Prussian society and organised auxiliaries. Leander van Ess (q.v.) at Marburg was especially interested and his translation of the New Testament was widely disseminated. He also founded the Christian Brotherhood for Disseminating the Holy Scriptures with the support of the British and Foreign Bible Society. The Heiligenstadt society flourished till 1830 and maintained an existence till 1864, but received its support chiefly from Protestants after the former date. The translation of the New Testament made by J. E. Gosener (q.v.) was also circulated by the English society.
2. France: The Breach Bible Society (London) referred to above began the Bible movement in France, but the outbreak of the Revolution prevented the circulation of French Bibles printed with English money. The Protestant Bible Society of Paris was formed in 1818, and received aid from the British and Foreign Bible Society for a time. The subsidy was withdrawn after a few years because the Paris Society included the Apocrypha in its Bibles. The issues of this society in 1906 were 8,061 copies. A sharp controversy among the French Protestants respecting the French version led in 1864 to the formation of the Bible Society of France. This society excluded the
Apocrypha from its Bibles and held to the version of J. F. Oaterwald (q.v.) of which it is now publishing a new revision. It has received aid from the American Bible Society, and it circulates the Bible in the French colonies in Asia and Africa. Its issues in 1906 were 34,556 copies.
3. The Netherlands: The Netherlands Bible Society was formed in 1814. Its issues in the year 1904 amounted to 93.977 copies, of which 57,573 copies were sent abroad to the Dutch East Indies, Dutch Guiana, and South Africa. The headquarters of the society are at Heerengracht 366, Amsterdam.
4. Scandinavia: The Danish Bible Society was organized in 1814. Its circulation in 1906 amounted to 45,289 copies. The Norwegian Bible Society was formed in 1816 under the influence of the British and Foreign Bible Society. Its issues in 1904 were 6.3,300 copies, of which 751 copies were sent to Denmark, and 11,041 copies to the United States of America. Its total issues in eighty‑eight years ending Dec. 31, 1804, were 1,153,260 copies. The headquarters of the society are at Christiania. The Swedish Bible Society was organized in 1814. Its circulation in 1906 was 12,414 copies and its total circulation from the beginning, 1,242,515 copies, of which 666 were in the Lapp language.
5. Russia: The Russian Bible Society with Imperial Sanction was formed in 1863. It circulates the Bible in Russian and other languages under the supervision of the Holy Synod. Its reports show the contributions of the czar and czarina and the grand dukes, but do not specify clearly the circulation. It makes use of colportevrs and seems to do serious work. A Russian Bible Society formed in 1812 did an important work in Bible translation, but was suppressed by imperial ukase in 1826. The Russian Evangelical Bible Society was organized in 1831 for the purpose of circulatirg the Bible among Lutherans and in the German language. Its circulation in 1904 was 22,279 copies. The Finnish Bible Society was formed in 1812 and its issues in 1903 were about 30,000 copies.
	6. Switzerland: The Basel Bible Society, trans
ferred to Basel from Nuremberg, has been men
tioned above (II, 1). Local Bible societies exist
in many of the cantons of Switzerland. They
seem, however, to be merely ‑agents of distribution
receiving Bibles from other societies, notably from
the British and Foreign Bible Society. Theit
circulation is therefore included in that of the other
societies. 	HENRY OTIS INVIGHT.
III. Bible Societies in America.‑1. The American Bible Society: The Revolutionary War produced a great scarcity of Bibles in the United States, One year after the Declaration of Independence Congress was memorialized to authorize the printing of an edition of the Bible. This memorial was referred to a committee, who found the difficulties, especially, of procuring proper material, type, and paper, to be so great that Congress ordered the importation at its own expense of 20,000 English Bibles from Holland, England, or elsewhere. The scarcity still continuing, in 1782 Congress recommended to the people of the United States an edition of the Bible printed by Thomas Aitken, of Phila. delphia, " being satisfied of the care and accuracy

Bible Societies	THE 1VEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	92
of the execution of the work." It was not until 1808 that the first Bible Society was organized in Philadelphia. In 1809 societies were organized in Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York, and New Jersey in the order named and by 1816 there were 128 such societies.
The idea of uniting these societies is one organization was a natural one and was much discussed. The missionary travels of the Rev. Samuel J. Mills (q.v.) in the West and South, reported in religious periodicals, increased the desire for a national organization, which he strongly advocated. On Jan. 1, 1816, Elias Boudinot (q.v.), the president of the New Jersey Bible Society, made a public communication on the subject, and on Jan. 17 he issued
a circular letter appointing Wednea‑. 1. Organ‑ day, May 8, 1816, as the time for
ization. holding a convention for, this pur‑
pose in New York. Sixty delegates representing twenty‑eight Bible societies (besides several other persons admitted to seats in the convention) met on the day named in the Garden Street Collegiate Reformed Dutch Church, representing the Presbyterian, Congregational, Methodist, Episcopal, Dutch Reformed, and Baptist Churches, and the Society of Friends. The convention was in session for two days, adopted a constitution and in accordance therewith elected managers, who met in the City Hall, May 11, and elected officers, Elias Boudinot being made president.
Under this constitution " the sole object shall be to encourage a wider circulation of the Holy Scriptures without note or comment" (art. i;. The board of managers is composed of thirty‑six laymen, one‑fourth of whom go out of office
2. Consti‑ every year, but are eligible for retution and election. Every clergyman who is a
life member may meet and vote with went. the board of managers, provided he
receives no salary or compensation for services from the society. The managers meet regularly every month, consider and act on all matters presented by ten standing committees besides other matters originating in the board itself and report all their proceedings to the annual meeting of the members of the society held on the second Thursday of May and usually in New York.
The society was incorporated in 1841. The societies which already existed became for the most part auxiliary to the national organization and in addition many other auxiliary societies were organized under its direction, the number at one time reaching 2,200. Many of these, however, have ceased to exist, the number now being 541. The " Bible House," Astor Place, N. Y., the society's headquarters, was erected in 1852 and was paid for by funds contributed for the special purpose end not from current receipts for benevolent work.
The ninety‑first annual report of the board of managers was presented May 9, 1907. The
total cash receipts were $575,820.94.
$' $"n`'
mary of The total issues of that year were
1,910,853, of which 1,010,777 were issued fpm the Bible House in New York, sad 900,076 from the society's agencies abroad, being printed on mission presses in China.
Japan, Siam, Syria, and Turkey. The total issues of the society in Bibles, Testaments, and portions amount to 80,420,382 copies, distributed se follows: Bibles 20,293,636 Testaments and portions 58,215,889.
The efforts of the society were at first directed mainly to meeting the needs of the people of the United States, but from the very first it was in spirit and intention a foreign as well as a home mission society. Bibles at the very beginning were supplied to the North‑American Indiana. The third annual report shows that steps were already taken for sending Spanish Bibles to Buenos Ayres and the newt year the society was reaching out to West Africa. In 1836 the first foreign agency was instituted in Constantinople, and in 1864 the agency for the La Plats region in South America.
During the past thirty years this 4. Foreign work has largely increased and regular Work. agencies have been established in
Japan, China, Brazil, Mexico, Korea, i Cuba, Siam and Laos, Central America, Porto Rico and the Philippines, besides Venezuela and Colombia, where the agencies have been temporarily discontinued. These agencies have distributed a total of 9,453,918 Bibles, Testaments, and portions in China alone. Besides this the society has continually cooperated with missions and missionaries in countries in all quarters of the globe. It has stimulated Bible translation, initiating it in some cases, cooperating with others more frequently and securing needed revisions under its patronage and partly or wholly at its expense. It has been thus interested in about 100 translations and revisions in all.
The labors of the society have been broken twice by serious differences among its friends and supporters. In 1835 missionaries in Burma published at the expense of the society a translation of the New Testament which rendered the Greek word baptizein and its cognate terms by the English " immerse " or an equivalent. After much discussion the managers resolved that they felt at liberty " to encourage only such versions as conform in the principle of their translation to the
common English Version‑at least 6. Contro. so far as that all the religious denom‑
versies. inations represented in , this society
can consistently use and circulate such versions in their several schools and communities," and missionary boards were requested in asking aid to state that the versions they proposed to circulate were in accordance with this resolution. The Baptists took offense and a controversy ensued, the consequence of which was the formation of the American and Foreign Bible Society (see below, 2).
In 1847 the committee on versions was instructed to undertake a careful collation of different editions of thg English Bible with a view to perfecting its text in minutiae. Their final report, made May 1, 1851, stated that in collating five standard copies of English and American imprint with the original edition of 1611 nearly 24,000 variations were found solely in the text and punctuation, not one of which marred the integrity of the text or affected any doctrine or precept of the Bible. A standard then

98	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Societies
determined upon with the unanimous approval of the board of managers was accepted generally by the public and for several years Bibles printed accordingly circulated without the slightest objection. But in 1856, and more decidedly in 1857, the right of the society to circulate such an edition was sharply challenged. Considerable public excitement followed; the matter was debated in religious and even secular journals as well as in ecclesiastical bodies, and the board of managers after long consideration, and debate finally took action, Jan. 28, 1858, as follows:

Resolved, that this society's present standard English Bible be referred to the standing committee on versions for examination; and in all cases where the same differs in the text or its accessories from the Bibles previously published by the society, the committee are directed to correct the same by conforming it to previous editions printed by this society, or by the authorized British presses, reference being also had to the original edition of the translators printed in 1811; and to report such corrections to this board, to the end that a new edition, thus perfected, may be adopted as the standard edition of the society.
The committee reported in 1859 and 1860; and from this "standard edition" all the society's English Bibles are now printed.
	The constitution of the society originally re
stricted it to circulating only " the version now
in common use," in the English language. In
1904 at the annual meeting of the society on the
recommendation of the board of managers the
constitution was amended so as to permit the
publication of the Revised Version of the English
Bible, either in its British or American form, and
under this permission some editions of the Amer
ican Standard Revised Version are now published
by the society under an arrangement with the
publishers. 	JoHN Fox.
2. The American andForeiga Bible Society and the American Bible Union: The American and Foreign Bible Society was organized at Philadelphia in April, 1836, by Baptists who felt aggrieved at the action of the American Bible Society concerning the translation of the Greek baptizein, referred to above (see III, 1, § 5). Rev. S. H. Cone was made president. The society was declared to be " founded upon the principle that the originals in the Hebrew and Greek are the only authentic standards of the Sacred Scriptures, and that aid for the translating, printing, or distributing of them in foreign languages should be afforded to each versions only as are conformed as nearly as possible to the original text; it being understood that no words ass to be transferred which are susceptible of being literally translated.,' The constitution adopted declared (art. ii) " that in the distribution of the Scriptures in the English language, the commonly received version shall be used until otherwise directed by the society." Dissatisfaction with this policy led to the secession of certain members and the formation in 1850 of the American Bible Union, which demanded that the principle of circulating " such versions only as are informed as nearly as possible to the original teat " should be applied to the English version, and avowed as its cbject " to procure and circulate the moat faithful versions of the Sassed Scriptures
in all languages throughout the world." The Union secured the services of a number of Baptist and other Biblical scholars, especially the Rev. Drs. H. B. Hackett, A. C. Kendrick, and T. J. Conant. The entire New Testament and portions of the Old were revised and published. Italian, Spanish, Chinese (Ningpo colloquial), Siamese, and SgauKaren New Testaments were also prepared. The Union ultimately reunited with the American and Foreign Bible Society, and in 1882 the latter passed over its work and good‑will to the American Baptist Publication Society (Philadelphia), which since then has performed the duties of the Bible Society, and is carrying on the work of revision inaugurated by the earlier societies. The revision has now (1907) reached the Book of Ezra, and will be completed; it is hoped, by the end of 1908.
3. The Bible Association of Friends in America
was organized in 1830. It has been, in the main, a distributing agency, circulating the Scriptures printed by others, but in 1905‑06 printed an edition of 2,925 Testaments and Psalms. In 1906 it reported total receipts of $3,930.59 and payments of $2,412.06. Its distribution in that year was 8,534 volumes, of which 2,030 were Bibles. The headquarters are at 207 Walnut Place, Philadelphia, Pa.

Brsrroonwrnrf: On the general question consult: Abrisa der Geahirhte den Urayrunpa and Warhathuma der Bibelpeadlachaften, Barmen, 1870; Summary Notice concerning Bible Societies in General and Thou of Francs in Particular, from the Fr., Northampton, 1827; W. H. Wyckoff, A Sketch of As Origin, History . . . of Bible Societies, New York 1848.
On the BFB$ consult: W. Canton, Hint. of the BFBS, 2 vole., London, 1904; idem, Story of the Bible Society, ib. 1904; J. Owes, HieE, of the Origin and First Ten Years of the BFBS, 2 vole., ib. 1818; Papers Occasioned by the Attempts to Form Auxiliary Bible Societies in Various Parts of the Kingdom, ib. 1812; Jubilee Memorial of the BFBS, ib. 1854; G. Browse, HiaE. of the BFBS, 2 vole., ib. 1859; La SociEtJ bibliqua britannique et dtrangbre, 1804‑89. Notice au point do vue Aiatorique, ph%loeophique, et rel%pieuz, Nantes, 1889; H. Morris, Founders and President* of the Bible Society, London, 1895; Bible House Papers, ib. 1899 eqq. (in progress); Behold a Sower. Popular . . . Report of BFB3 for 1800‑01, ib. 1902; T. H. Darlow and H. F. Moule, Catalogue of the Printed Editions of Holy Scripture in the Library of the BFBS, 2 vols., ib. 1904;. T. H. Darlow, There is a River, ib. 1908; Bible Association Reports. By Helen Plumptre, Worksop, 1843.
The organs of the society are the Monthly Reporter of the BFBS, London, 1858‑88, succeeded by the Bible Society MonUrly Reporter, 1889 aqq. The other British Societies issue various publications, such as Annual Reports, Quarterly Records, and Occasional Papers, in which their history may be traced.
For the foreign societies there are also available their reports, besides which the following may be insulted: C. F. Hezekiel, Geachichta der Canateinachen Bibal Anatalt, ed. A. H. Niemeyer, Halls, 1827; 0. &rtram, lisrchirhta der Canateinadun Bibelanatalt, ib. 1883; W. Thilo, Go. achichte der preuas%achen Hauyt‑BibelgeaeUachaft, 1811,‑8.4, Berlin 1884; E. Breeat, Die Enluhckelunp der preueaiachen Haupt‑B%belpesellachd/t, 18Bk‑81, ib. 1891.
For the American Bible Society consult: The American Bible Society's Manual, containing a Brief Sketch of the Society, New York 1885, revised ed., 1887; W. P, Strickland, Hilt. of Lie American Bible Society, ib. 1849; American Bible Society's Reports, 1818‑71, 4 vole., ib. n.d. (a reprint); American Bible Society. Report o/ the Trance.. ference of the Library of the Society to the New York pub_ lie Library, ib. 1897. The organ is the Bible Society Reoord (a monthly).

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
94
81b1e Text.
i. The Old Testament.	II.
1. The Premseoretio Period.
The Maeoretic Teat (¢ 1).
The Earlier Text (¢ 2>.
Change in Style of writing (¢ 3).
Attempts to Fix the Teat (¢ 4).
The Pronunciation Fixed, but the Teat Still Unvocalised (¢ b).
Word‑Division (¢ 8).
Division into Verses (¢ 7).
Division into Sections (18).
2. The Maeoretio Period.
The Maeoretes (¢ 1).
Their Work (¢ 2).
Codices (¢ 3).
3. The Poatmaeoretio Period.
The Chapter‑Division (11).
Old Testament Manuscripts (; 2).2.
The Printed Teat (¢ 3).
Critical Works and Commentaries (¢ 4).
	L The Old Testament.‑I. The Premasoretfo
Period: The extant Hebrew text of the Old Testa
ment text is commonly called the Masoretic, to dis
tinguish it from the text of the ancient versions
as well as from the Hebrew text of former ages.
This Masoretic text does not present the original
form but a text which within a certain period was
fixed by Jewish scholars as the correct and only
authoritative one. When and how this official
Masoretic text was fixed was formerly a matter
of controversy, especially during the seventeenth
century. One party headed by the Buxtorfs
(father and son), in the interest of the view of
inspiration then prevalent, held to the absolute
		completeness and infallibility, and
	1. The hence the exclusive value, of the
	>!!<saoretio Masomtic text. They attributed it to
	Text. Ezra and the men of the Great Syna
gogue, who, under the inspiration of the Holy
Spirit, were supposed to have purified the text
from all accumulated error; added the vowel
points, the accents, and other punctuation‑marks
(thus settling the reading and pronunciation);
fixed the canon; made the right division into verses,
paragraphs, and books; and, finally, by the provi
dence of God and the care of the Jews, the text thus
made was believed to have been kept from all
error, and to present the veritable Word of God.
This view of the text prevailed especially when
Protestant scholasticism was at its height, and may
be designated as the orthodox Protestant posi
tion. It was opposed by another party headed
by Jean Morin and Louis Cappel, who, in the
interest of pure historicity or in Antiprotestant
polemics, combated these opinions, maintained
the later age of the Masoretic text, and sought
to vindicate value and usefulness for the old
versions and other critical helps. They fell into
many errors in respect to the details of the history
of the text and overrated the value of Extra
masoretic critical helps; but their general view was
supported by irresistible arguments and is now
universally adopted. This view, instead of deriving
the existing text from a gathering of inspired
men in Ezra's time, assigns it to a much later date
and quite different men, and, instead of absolute
completeness, claims for it only a relative one
BIBLE TEXT.
The New Testament.
History of the Written Test.
The Autographs of the New Testament Books (¢ 1).
The Manuscripts (¢ 2),
Their Material and Form (¢ 2).
The Ammonian Sections (14).
Early Divisions of the Teat (¢ 6).
Divisions for Liturgical Reading (¢ 8).
Early Corruption of the Teat (¢ 7).
Varieties of Text Produced by Early Criticism (¢ 8).
The Uncial Manuscripts (¢ 9).
The Cursive Manuscripts, Evangelistarie& etc. (¢10).
History of the Printed Text.
Compluteneian and Eraemian editions (¢ 1).
Editions of Stephens and Bea& (12)
Editions between 1857 and 1830 (¢ 3). Grieebach and his Followers (¢ 4) Lachmann (¢ 5). Tieohendorf (¢ 8). Tregelles (¢ 7). weatcott and Hort (¢ 8). Other Critics of the Text (¢ 9). More Recent Tendencies (§ 10).
3. Principles of Textual Criticism. The Basal Rule (¢ 1). Other Canons (¢ 2).
4. Results of the Textual Criticism of the New Testament.
IIL Chapter and Verse Divisions. Chapter Divisions (¢ 1), Verse Divisions, Old Testament (¢ 2). Verse Divisions, New Testament ($ 3).
with a higher value than other forms of the text. A glance at the history of the text will show how this agreement has been brought about.
Concerning the oldest history of the text of the Old Testament writings there exists almost no positive information. The books were written probably upon skins, perhaps also on linen;
R. The as paper was used from very early
Earlier times in Egypt, it is possible that
Text. it was emple; parchment appears to have been used later. The roll seems to have been the usual form (Ps. xl, 8; Jer. xxxvi, 14 sqq.; Ezek, ii, 9; Zech. v, 1); the pen was a pointed reed (Jer.viii, 8; Ps. x(v, 1); the character was the Old Hebrew, which was almost identical with the Phenician and Moabitic (on the Moabite Stone, q.v.). Specimens of this writing are also preserved in the Siloam inscription (c; 700 s.c.), on gems (of the eighth or seventh century), on coins of the Hasmoneans and those belonging to the time of the Jewish‑Roman war, and, in somewhat different form, in Samaritan writings. Like the Phenicians and Moabites, the Hebrews separated the words by a point or stroke, but these signs do not seem to have been used regularly, since the Septuagint often makes word‑divisions different from those of the Masoretic text. Jewish tradition mentions several passages in which the separation of words was regarded as doubtful.
The difference between ancient and modern texts consisted in this, that the former were written without vowels and accents. The Hebrew writing, like Semitic writing in general, was essentially consonantal; vowels were not written. While the language lived, this occasioned no difficulty to the speakers or readers. No details are at hand concerning the way in which the text was multiplied and preserved; but inasmuch as the writings did not then have in popular estimation the character they came later to possess, it is likely that they were less carefully handled, and that the same amount of pains was not taken in copying them. This statement rite upon the fact that those parts of the Old Testament which we possess in double forms vary in ways that indicate a corruption of the text reaching back to precanonical times when copies were neither made nor corrected so laboriously.

gs	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Te3d
	A new epoch commenced after the Exile,
when the holy writings were raised to canonical
dignity and as holy writings were venerated and
handled with ever‑increasing care and conscientious
ness. This veneration was not accorded to all Bib
lical writing at once, but only to that part of the
canon called the law. The epoch begins with Ezra,
and extends to the close of the Talmud, c. 500 a.».
During this period not only were the form of writing
and the text fixed, but also the pronunciation and
division; in short, the major part of the present
Masorah was collected in verbal form. A change of
an external kind was the development of a sacred
writing, under the influence of the Aramaic char
acter, the so‑called " square " or " Assyrian "
character. Jewish tradition ascribes the intro
duction of the square character to Ezra, and calls
it expressly an Aramaic writing that the Jews
adopted in place of their Hebrew, which they left
to the Samaritans. A study of Assyrian, Persian,
and Cili«an seals and coins, of the Aramaic monu
ments from the third to the first century s.c., and
of the Pahnyrene inscriptions from the first to the
	$. ~~ third century A.D. has permitted the
	is Style of tracing of the development of the
		ttue, present Hebrew alphabet through a
		thousand years, back to the eighth
century. Ezra, therefore, may have influenced
the use of the Aramaic alphabet, but the
square character was not developed in his day,
nor for centuries afterward; nor wad the Aramaic
alphabet then used outside of the narrow circle
of the scribes. For not only did the Samaritans
retain the ancient script for their Pentateuch, but
among the Jews also it moat have been used for
a long time, since it is found on coins down to the
time of Bar Kokba. Matt. v, 18 proves that
the Aramaic writing had become popular by the
time that Gospel was written, since in the ancient
Hebrew the letter " yodh " was by no means the
smallest. Taking all in all, it may be assumed
with certainty that the use of the new alphabet
in Bible‑manuscripts of the last Prechriatian
centuries was general, a result which is also con
firmed by a careful examination of the Septuagint
with reference to the manuscripts used by the
translators (especially must this have been the case
with the Tetragrammaton retained in many copies
of the Greek translation, which was no doubt
written in the Aramaic script, since it was read
erroneously by the Christians). Considering this
development it may be assumed that the latest
Old Testament writings were written, not in the
ancient Hebrew but in Aramaic, by the authors
themselves. After the Aramaic writing was once in
use among the Jews, it soon took the form in which
we now have it. The descriptions which Jerome
sad the Talmud give of the different letters fully
harmonise with the form which is still found in
manuscripts. The minute rules laid down by the
Talmud as to calligraphy and orthography made
further development of the square writing im
possible, and therefore the writing of the manu
ecripts varies scarcely at all through centuries
(excepting Perhaps that the German sad Polish
Jews have the so‑called Tare script, which is some‑
what angular, whereas the Spanish Jews have the Welsh or more rounded script).
The veneration shown for the canonical writings during this period naturally led to a greater care in treatment of them and above all to perception of the necessity of critically fixing the text. As soon as the ancient writings obtained canonical authority, were used in divine service, and became the standard of doctrine and life, the necessity of having one standard text naturally asserted itself. The preparation of such a text began with the law; the other two divisions (the prophets and the hagiographa) became authoritative only in the course of centuries (see CANON OF Scntrruxm, I), and naturally their text did not receive attention in the earlier period. However, criticism during that period was of little value. There is no doubt that faithful and correct copies ex‑
isted, especially of such books as were 4. Attempts publicly read, but this could not
to Biz the prevent errors and mistakes from Tezt. cF
p~g ntopiewhich were generally circulated. When Josephus (Contra Apion, I, viii) and Philo (cf. Eusebius, Prceparatio euangelica, VIII, vi, 7) speak of the great care bestowed by the Jews upon their sacred writings, this can not be referred to earlier centuries, and concerns more the contents than the linguistic minutiae of the text. In the oldest critical documents‑the Samaritan Pentateuch and the Septuagint‑‑there is evidence (about 500‑100 s.c.) to show that the manuscripts most approved and moat widely diffused contained many verbal differences. And these variations are not to be charged, as was formerly done, to carelessness of wilfulness on the part of the Hellenistic Jews and Samaritans, but are explained by the lesser importance attached to exact uniformity of text and to the existence of mistakes in the current copies. And when the Septuagint and the Samaritan Pentateuch agree in good readings, and still oftener in bad ones, against the Maaoretic text, it may be concluded that these readings were spread by many copies current among the Palestinian Jews, and are therefore not to be regarded as offensive. But after the destruction of Jerusalem, when Judaism was subject to the authority of the rabbis, it became possible to prepare a uniform standard text, although this idea was not realized until many generations had worked upon it. The Greek versions of the second century had already fewer variations from the Masoretic teat. Still nearer the latter text is the Hebrew text of Origen and Jerome. The Talmud itself bears witness, by the agreement of its Biblical quotations with the Masoretic teat, that the consonantal text was practically finished before the Talmudic era closed. It is not possible to say upon what principles the text was treated; but the way in which the custodians presented the individuality of the several authors, books, and periods is remarkable, and proves that intentional and arbitrary changes of the text were not made by these critics. That they changed passages for dogmatic, especially for Antichristian, reasons, as has sometimes been asserted, has long ago been acknowledged to be a

Bible Tent	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	98
baseless accusation. Where they mention changes, they make clear than they followed the testimony of manuscripts, the number of which was probably not very great. The fact that in the first centuries after Christ the text approximates our present Maeoretic reading shows that a certain recension became authoritative which was possible only after a certain manuscript had been taken as the norm. Of such a standard codex, copies could easily be made, or one could correct his own copies in accordance with it. Scholars like Olshausen and Lagarde speak therefore of some such archetype, which was slavishly followed in every respect. The critical apparatus of the time is concealed in dissociated fragments in the later Masorah, but can not be separated from the other matter. The Talmud and the older midrasbim allow a little insight into the‑ critical efforts of the time. Thus mention is made of the " corrections of the scribes," of the " removals of the scribes" (meaning that in five passages a falsely introduced " and " was removed), and of the points in the Hebrew text over certain words to show that these words were critically suspected, such as the inverted "nun," Num. x, 35, and the three kinds of reading (keri ; see KERI AND KETAisa), viz., " read but not written," " written but not read," and " read [one way] but written [another]." The three kinds of reading have, it is true, for the most part only exegetical value; e.g., they give the usual‑ instead of the unusual grammatical forms, show where one must understand or omit a word, or where the reader should use a euphemistic expression for the coarse one in the text; they are therefore scholia upon the text. It is possible that these " readings" are also fragments of the critical apparatus. However this may be, it is evident that at that period the text was fixed and that the matter in question concerned only subordinate details of the text.
The development of the pronunciation or of the vocalization and the division of words, verses, and sections kept pace with the settlement of the text. That the ancient writing had no vowel‑points has already been stated; but even during this entire period to the close of the Talmud the sacred text was without vowels and other points. The old versions, particularly the Greek, and Joaephus depart so widely from the Masoretic text that they could not possibly have used the present pointed text. The expedient which charges the translators with these differences is of no avail, since it is not any one version which alone shows such differences; they all differ. Origen, too, published a Hebrew text in the Hexapla which differed from the Maeoretic. Jerome knew nothing about vowel‑points, not even the diacritical point making
6. The the difference between "s" and "ah."
Pr,,‑	The Talmud and the modern eccleaias‑
oistion	tical or ritual manuscripts of the Jews
~thee Teat t peat an unpointed text. There is
Still Un‑ no doubt that, as Elias Levita
	vocalized.	stated, the Masoretic system of punc
		tuation is of later origin, and that
during this entire period the seared text was
without points. But this does not mean that
during the same period the reading of the unvoweled text was still unsettled among the Jews; it must rather be assumed that with the official fixing of the text there was developed also a certain mode of understanding and reading it. Of course time was required to bring it into vogue; but before the end of the period it was so firmly established that Jerome's pronunciation differed very little from the Masoretic, and he was so sure of its correctness that he appeals to it against the text of the versions; and the Talmud gives it throughout correctly. Before the Masoretes the pronunciation was fixed, not yet written, but handed down by word of mouth, although some scholars may have used signs in their books to assist their memory.
Closely connected and mutually dependent were pronunciation and the division of words. The latter must have been finally settled at this period.
e. Word‑ The sign of division was the small
Division. space between words. The final let‑
ters, being limited in number, can not be regarded as word‑separating signs. Jerome used a text with a division of words and knew the final letters; in the Talmud, Menahot 30a states how large moat be the space between the words; the synagogue‑scrolls, though still without vowels, have nevertheless the division by spaces, following the custom of the ancient manuscripts from Talmudic time; and the fact that a number of " readings " correct the traditional division of words speaks again in favor of the high antiquity of the division of words in the present texts.
The division into verses is by no means contemporary in origin with the vocalization,
but much earlier. The verse‑divi7. Divi‑ sion depends in poetry upon the paral‑
sioa into lelism, in prose upon the division
verses. of sentences and clauses. That the latter were not marked in oldest timesis certain; in poetical texts the .members may have been distinguished either by space or by breaks of the line. This mode of writing poetical texts was formerly general, and is found in the older Hebrew manuscripts; for the poetical texts, Ex. xv; Deut. xxxii; Judges v; and II Sam. xxii, it is even prescribed (Shabbat 103b; Sopherim xii), and is therefore still customary. With the introduction of the Masoretic accents, poetry was written close, like prose. This versodivision was taught in the schools; but no rules are given for its writing, nor did any punctuationmarks indicate it in this period.
Earlier than the division into verses is that into larger or smaller sections; these were more necessary for the understanding of the Scriptures and for their reading in divine worship. Perhaps some of them were in the original text. The sections of the law
were at least Pretalmudic; for they a. Division are mentioned in the Mishnah sad
into see‑ frequently in the Gemara; in the tions. latter they are traced to mosaic origin; in Shahbcat 103b. Menohot 30 care is enjoined .as to the sections in copying the law, and therefore they occur also in synagoguerolla. They are indicated by spacing; the larger sections by leaving the remainder of the line at

97	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Tezb
their close unfilled, the next great section beginning with a new line, on which account they were called "open "; the smaller sections were separated from each other by only a small space, and were therefore called " closed " or " connected." Thus not only the law but also the other two parts of the canon were divided. For the division o€ the whole canon, and the arrangement of the books, see CANON OF SCRIPTURE, I.
From what has been said, it follows that the reading of the text, the vocalization, the division into words, verses, and sections depend upon the gradual settlement by the scribes; their reading can claim neither infallibility nor any absolutely binding power; and though their labor betrays a thorough and correct understanding of the text, the necessity may yet arise when the exegete must deviate from tradition. Extraordinary pains were taken to perpetuate in its purity the text thus divided and vocalized. Signs of this care, such as the rules for calligraphy and for writing the extraordinary points, have already been mentioned. The Posttalmudic treatises Mosseket sopJterina and Masseket sepher torah contain full details for copying. Nevertheless fluctuations are met with in the Masoretic period, and it must therefore be assumed that learned labor had not yet covered all details or made final settlement.
2. The Masoretio Period: The third period of the textual history is usually reckoned as extending from the sixth until the eleventh Christian century (when Jewish learning was transferred from the East to North Africa and Spain); it embraces the age of the Masoretes proper, and has for the Bible text in general the same importance as the. Talmudic period had for the law. The efforts of the scholars to fix the reading and understanding of the sacred text were overshadowed somewhat by the study of the Talmud. After the close of the Talmud the work was resumed and cultivated in
Babylonia and Palestine (at Tiberias).
1. The In hot. schools the work of former
generations was continued; but the
rates. Pales, who acted more independently than the more Tabnudically inclined Babylonians, finally got the victory over the Babylonian school. In both schools they were no longer satisfied with a mere oral transmission of rules and regulations, but committed them to writing. There is no continuous history of the men of the Masorah and of the progress of their work preserved; but the marginal notes in. ancient Biblemanuseripts and the fragments of other works show that the oldest Mseoretes can be traced back to the eighth century. The main effort of this period (as the name Maaorcah, `° tradition," indicates; see MASORAa) was to collect and to write down the eaegetico‑critical material of the former period; and this makes sufficiently clear the one part of their work. But the Masoretes also added some new matter. Anxiously following the footsteps of the older critics in their effort to fix and to guard the traditional text, they laid down more minute rules of a linguistic and grammatical character, and in this respect a great part of the contents of the Msaorah is indeed new.
IL‑7
They took the consonantal textua receptua just as it stood, and finally settled it in the minutest details, as is seen from the variants which became
2. Their a matter of controversy between the
Work.	Eat and the West, the Babylonians and
the Palestinians, which to the number of 216 Jacob hen Hayyim published for the first time in the second edition of the Bomberg Rabbinic Bible; these have reference mostly to the vowel‑points. This list of variants, as is now known, is by no means complete. They also appended critical notes to the text, in part derived from the Talmudic period, in part new (especially the "grammatical conjectures "), showing that where, according to the grammar and the genius of the language, one should expect another reading, nevertheless the text must stand. Finally the great majority of the alternative " readings " date from the Maeoretes.
The Masoretes fixed the reading of the text by the introduction of the vowel‑signs, the accents, and the signs which affect the reading of the consonants (daghesh,. mappik, raphe, and the diacritical point to distinguish between the letters " sin " and "shin "). The pronunciation they thus brought about‑was no invention, but embodied the current tradition. Nevertheless, one can not accept every Maeoretic reading as infallible and unchangeable, especially when one considers that the tradition no doubt often fluctuated and that with such fluctuation the less correct reading may often have come into the text. Besides the system found in the majority of manuscripts, there exists another which has only recently become known called the " superlinear " system, because the vowel‑signs are placed above the letters; this is found in some Babylonian and South Arabian manuscripts. The namo is also the case with the accents.
The division of the text into verses, introduced by the Maeoretes, was neither Babylonian nor Palestinian, but . one which the Masoretes themselves seem to have established. At the beginning of this period the end of the verses was marked by soph paauk, and, when the accents mere introduced, by ailluk, besides. The old sections were retained, though not recognized as entirely correct, and the old traditional sign for the section, the smaller spacing (the little bin printed teats), was respected. The closed sections were marked in manuscripts and prints by a D, the open ones by a bin the empty space before the initial word. In addition there were introduced the Babylonian division into sections or parashiyoth. (in the law) and hcaphtaroth (in the prophets), for Sabbath public reading. As these sections generally agree with the beginning and the end of an open or closed section, they were marked by a threefold p [i.e., D m p] or D [D D D] in the empty space before the beginning.
But even these efforts could not entirely remove variations. Hence, before the end of this period,
the learned either attempted to find out by an elaborate comparison the correct punctuation and
to fix it, or marked the important variations in the punctuation, or added s caution to each apparently

Bible Teat	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	98
strange and yet correct punctuation. The greater mass of notes which the Masoretes added to the text
relate to these matters. Besides some
8. Codices. other Masoretfe manuscripts of the
Bible which are quoted in the Masoretic notes of the codices or in the writings of the rabbis as authoritative, such as the codex Hilleli, the Jericho‑Pentateuch, and others, two codices were especially famous as model codices of the Old Testament, the codex of Naphtali (Moses ben David ben Naphtali) and the codex of Asher (Aaron ben Moses ben Asher), both from the first half of the tenth century. (Aaron lived at Tiberias, Moses in Babylon; but the latter can not be regarded as a representative of the " Babylonian " text‑tradition.) They were once much examined by scholars; many of their variants are noted in the hlasoretic Bible‑manuscripts; a list of 864 (better 867) variants, which refer almost exclusively to vowels and accents, has been published after Jacob ben Hayyim in Bomberg's and the other Rabbinic Bibles, as well as in the sixth volume of the London Polyglot; but these variants are neither correct nor complete. On the codex of Asher finally rests the whole Masoretic teat of the Occidentals; of the variant readings comparatively few were received into it.
As the older scribes had already shown extraordinary solicitude for the preservation of the text and its correct reading by counting its sections, verses, words, letters, and by noting where and how often and when certain words, letters, or anomalies occur in the Bible, which verse is the longest and which the shortest, and like minutiae, the Masoretes of course continued this work, wrote it down, and preserved it in manuscripts.
The punctuation of the text as developed by the Masoretea proved itself so useful and met so well an essential need of those later times that it soon went over into manuscripts and, with the exception of synagogue‑manuscripts, almost none were written which did not contain either the pointed text alone or the pointed beside the unpointed. The other Masoretic material was written either beside and below the text of the Biblical books on the margins and at the close of the same, or in separate maeorahcollectiona (see Me$oxna).
3. The Postmasoretic Period: After the completion of the Masoretic textual work and the collection of the notes having reference to it, no essential change was made in the text; consequently this period is the time of the faithful preservation, multiplication, and circulation of the Masoretic text. An essential innovation was the introduction of the now customary division into
1. The chapters, which was invented by
Chapter‑ Stephen Langton at the beginning of
Division. the thirteenth century, and applied
to the Vulgate. Isaac ben Nathan adopted it for his Hebrew concordance (1437‑38, published 1523), on which occasion the verses of the chapters were also numbered. The chapterdivision was first applied to the Hebrew in tlu: second edition of Bomberg's Bible, 1521; the numbering of verses was first adopted for the Sabionetta Pentateuch, 1557, and that of the whole
Bible in Athiara's edition of 1661 (see below, III, §§ 1‑2).
Another feature of this period is that a sufficient number of manuscripts is preserved to give an immediate knowledge of the text. The Hebrew Bible‑manuscripts may be divided into two classes, the public or sacred and the private or common. The first were synagogue‑rolls,
and have been prepared so carefully 2. Old Tee‑ and watched so closely that the
tament intrusion of variants and mistakes
Manu‑
scripts.
was hardly possible. But they contain only the Pentateuch or the Pentateuch with the five Megilloth or "Rolls" (i.e., Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastea, Esther), and the haphtaroth (see above, 2, § 1) in the text of the Masoretes without their additions. These manuscripts are, for the most part, of recent origin, although antique in form, being written on leather or parchment. The private manuscripts are written on the same material, and also upon paper in book form, with the Masoretic additions more or less complete. It is often difficult, indeed impossible, to determine the date and country of these manuscripts. But none of those now known are really very old. The oldest authentic date is 916 A.D. for the codex containing the prophets with Babylonian punctuation, and 1009 A.D. for an entire Hebrew Bible, both of which belong to the Firkowitach collection in the Imperial Library at St. Petersburg. According to the moat recent investigation the MS. orient. 4445 in the British Museum (containing Gen. xxv, 20‑Deut. i, 33) may be a little older. As a rule the oldest manuscripts are the more accurate. The number of errors that crept in, especially in private manuscripts, which were prepared without any official oversight, awakened solicitude and led to welldirected efforts to get a pure text by means of collating good Masorah‑manuscripts (cf. B. Kennieott, Dissertatio generalis, Oxford, 1780, I‑lvi; J. G. Eichhorn, Einleitung, Leipaic, 1803, 136b). In this line the labors of Melr ha‑Levi of Toledo (d. 1244) in his work on the Pentateuch called "The Masorah, the Hedge of the Law" (Florence, 1750; Berlin, 1761) are celebrated.
	The art of printing opened a way of escape from
copyists' errors, and it was taken very early. The
Psalter was printed first, at Bologna in 1477 [on
the earlier prints, cf. B. Pick, History of the Printed
Editions o f ,the Old Testament, in Hebraiea, ix (1892
1893), 47‑116], the first complete Bible at Soncino
8. The m 1488; Gerson's edition (the edition
Printed which Luther used for his translation)
	Teat.	followed (Brescia, 1494). Substan
		tially the same text is contained in
the first edition of Bomberg's Rabbinic Bible
(1517; see BIBLES, RABBINIC), also in the editions
of Robert Stephens (1539 sqq.) and of Sebastian
Munster. The second independent edition derived
from manuscripts is that in the Complutenaian
Polyglot (1514‑17; see BIBLES, POLYGLOT, 1). The
text has vowels but no accents. The third impor
tant recension is contained in the Biblia Rabbinica
Bombergiana, ed. 11., carts R. Jacob ben Ciiajim
(Venice, 1525‑26); it is edited according to the

99	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Teat
Maeorah, which the editor first revised, and contains the entire Masoretic and Rabbinic apparatus. It is more or less reproduced in prints published during the sixteenth and in the beginning of the seventeenth centuries. Besides these original recensiona, editions were published having a mixed text; the Hebrew .text of the Antwerp Polyglot (1569‑72), which is followed by the small editions of Plantin, the Paris and London Polyglots, and the editions of Reineccius, is based upon that of the Complutensian and Bomberg. Another recession is represented in the editions of Elias Hotter (1587), Buxtorf, and Joseph Athias with preface by J. Leusden (1661 eqq.), for which some very ancient manuscripts were collated. Athias's edition became also the basis of later editions like that of Jablonski (1699), Van der Hooght (1705), Opita (1709), J. H. Michaelis (1720), Hahn (1832), and Theile (1849).
None of these editions presents the Masoretic text in its original form. The large collections of variants by B. Kennieott, Vetva Teatamentum Hebraicum cum variia lectionibus (2 vole., Oxford, 1776‑80), more especially by De Rossi, Varice lectionea Yeteria Twtamenti (4 vole., Parma, 178488) and Supplentertta ad varies sacri, texttta lectionea (1798), are valuable for some Extramgaoretic readings which they offer, but they are less valuable for critical purposes. More important for textcritical purposes are (besides the work of Meir haLevi, ut sup.) the " Light of the Law " of Mena‑
hem de Lonzano (Venice, 1618) and 4. Critical particularly the critical commentary
Works and on the Old Testament by Solomon
O~amsa‑ Minorzi (Mantas, 1742‑44; Vienna,
1813), the works of Wolf ben Samson Heidenheim, and especially the thorough work on the Masorah by S. Fiensdorff (Massora magna, part I, Hanover, 1878, and Oklah we‑0khth, 1864). Of great service were the publication of the works of the oldest Jewish grammarians and lexicographers and the discovery of fragments and publication of codices like that on the prophets of the year 916 (published by Strack, Prophelarum posteriorum codex Babylontcu8 Petropolitantts, St. Petersburg, 1876). The fruits of these preliminary works are contained in the correct editions of the Masoretic text by Baer and Ginsburg. Beer, who was assisted by Delitzsch, published the Old Testament with the exception of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy [both editors died without completing their work], Ginsburg's edition is entitled The New Masaoretieo‑Critical Text of the Hebrew Bible [2 vols., London, 1894. It should be studied with the same author's indispensable Introduction to the Masaoretieo‑critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible (London, 1897)).
Valuable as such correct editions of the Maeoretic text are, they represent only s single recession, whose source is the textua receptua mentioned above, which was fixed in the first Christian centuries. With this recession the text‑critical and exegetical treatment of the Old Testament can not be satisfied. Before the received text was made canonical there existed different forma of the text, which in many stood nearer to the original than that
sanctioned by the Jews. The main witness here
is the Septuagint, a correct edition of which is
an absolutely necessary though extremely difficult
	task. But Old Testament textual criticism can
	not be satisfied with a comparison even with this
	older form of the text. In many cases the cor
	ruption of the text is so old that only a criticism
	both cautious and bold can approximate to the
	genuine text. In modern times some very impor
	tant contributions have been made, such as J.
	Olshausen, Emendationen zum Allen Testament
	(Kiel, 1826); idem, Beitrage zur Kritik den iiberlie
	ferten Textes im Bttche Genesis (1870); J. Well
	hausen, Text der Biicher Samuelis (Gbttingen,
	1871); F. Baethgen, Zu den Psalmen, in JPT
	(1882); C. H. Cornill, Da$ Buch des Propheten Eze
	chiel (Leipsic, 1886); S. R. Driver, Notes on dha
	Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel (London,
	1890); A. Klostermann, Die Bother Samttelia and
	der Klinige (Munich, 1837), idem, Deutero‑Jesaita
	(Munich, 1893); G. Beer, Der Text den Bathes
	Hiob (part i, Marburg, 1895); the Sacred Books of
	the Old Testament (the so‑called Polychrome or
	Rainbow Bible), ed. P. Haupt (Baltimore, London,
	and Leipsic, 1894 sqq.); and Kettel's edition, Leip
	sic, 1905‑06. 	(F. BUHL.)
Brnrroosern:: Besides the introductions to the Old Testament (especially of J. G. Eichhorn, 4th ed., GSttingen, 1823‑2b; W. M. L. de Wette, 8th ed. by E. Schrader, pp. 111‑158, Berlin, 1889; C. H. Cornilh $§ 49‑53, Freiburg, 1905; F. E. KSnig, $§ 3‑30, 92, Bonn, 1893; C. H. H. Wright, London, 1891, and W. H. Bennett, ib. 1900) and the works mentioned in the text consult: J. Morinus, Exarei(ationum biblicarum de Hebrasi lsraeique teztua ainaritate Libri duo, Paris, 1889; L. Capellus, Critics sacra, Paris, 1860, new edition with notes by Vogel and $charfenberg, Halle, 1775‑$8; H. Hody, De bibliorum tertibua oripinalibue, Oxford, 1705; H. Hupfeld, in TSK, 1830, 1837; A. Geiger, Urachrift arid Ucbaraetzungen der Bibef, Breslau, 1857; L. Loew, Beitrtige Sur jildiachen ALterldumskunde, Leipsic, 1870 (deals with materials and products of writing); H L $traek, Prolegomena critics in Vetua Teatamentum Hebraicum, Leipsie, 1873 (very full upon extant and lost MSS., and on the testimony of the Talmud to, the text); A. Kuenen, Lea Originea du texts maaorbtique (from the Dutch), Paris, 1875; Palaaopraphical Society, Oriental Series, Facsimiles of MSS. and Inscriptions, London, 1875‑$3 (deals with many important codices of the O. T.): A. HarkavY. Neunutpefundens hebrBiaehe BiLelhandachri/ten, $t. Petersburg, 1884 (characterises fifty‑one Hebrew M$$. and fragments); V. Rysael, Unterauchunpen fiber die Testgeatalt and die Echtheit den Bathes Micha, Leipeic, 1887 (198 pages concern the text); G. C. Workmen, The Text of Jeremiah, a Critical Investigation of the Greek and .He6rew Edinburgh, 1889: T. K. Abbott, Essay& chiefly on the Original Texts of the Old and New Testaments, London 1891 (on Masoretic and Premasoretic text); F. Buhl, Ranon and Text den Alten Testaments, Leipsic, 1891, Eng. travel., Edinburgh, 1892 (useful for beginners); A,
Logy. Histoire critique du texts et den versions de la Bible, 2 Yoh., Paris, 1892‑95; F. G. Kenyon, Our Bible and me Ancient MSS., Being a History o/ the Text and its TraneJations, London, 1898 W. A. Copinger, The Bible and its Transmission, View of the Hebrew and Greek Texts, London, 1897; E. Kautseeh, Abrine der Geachichte de,
1ffaata>nenUsrhen Schri/teams, in appendix to his edition of Die Wigs Schrift, Freiburg, 1898, Eng tranal. as a
separate work, New York, 1899; T. H. Weir, A Short History of the ebrew Text of the Old Testamen, London,
1899; R. Kittel User die Notwendipkeit anal MJiglfchkeit
11n@r	`4th' hebpgiachea BU Leipsic. 1902;
P. Kahle, Der maaoretiacha Text den often Testaments nacla der Ueberlielerunp der 6abylonisck; n Judea, Le. 1902; T. K. Cheyne. Crilica biblica parts 1‑b. London 19031906: F. W. Mosley, Psalter et the Church • Septuagint Psalms Compared oath as Hebrew, ib. 1905, On the ancient Hebrew and square writing consult: D. von Muralt. Bei‑

Bible Test	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	100
trope zur hebrlliachere Palrloprapleie and zur (ieadeichfa der Punktuation, in TSK, 1874; 8. R. Driver, Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel, pp. xi‑xxxv, London, 1890; Vollers, in ZATW, 1883, pp. 229 eqq.; L. Blau, Zur Einleitunp in die )eeilige Schrift, pp. 48‑$0, Strasburg, 1894; R. Butin, The Tan Nequdoth of flee Torah; or the Meaning and Purpose of the Extraordinary Points of the Pentateuch, Baltimore, 1906 (an important and scientific discussion of textual critical value). On the Meaoretio material in the Talmud and Midrash consult: H. L. Strack, Prolegomena oitica in Vetua Teatamentum, ut sup.; L, Bleu, Maaoratiache Unteraucltungen, Strasburg, 1891; idem, Zur Einkdtung in die hailipe Schrift, 100 sqq., ut sup. On the vowels and accents (especially on the auperlinear system) of. Strack'e edition of the Babylonian codex of the prophets p vii, ut sup.; idem, Zeitechvsft fur die goaammde LutheriacAa Theolopie and Kirche, 1877, pp. 17‑52; idem, in Wienenachaftliche Jahreatxrichte fiber die neorpenl8ndisdeere Studien, 1879, p. 124; J. Derenbourg, in Revue critique, 1879, pp, 453 eqq.; W. Wickes, A Treatise on !he Accentuation of flea Three Poetical Books, 1881; A Treatise on the Accentuation of the twenty‑one so‑called Prose‑Books, pp. 142 sqq., London, 1887; G. F. Moors, in Proceedings o/ the American (Mental Society, 1888; D. S. Margoliouth, The Suyerlinear Punctuation, in PSBA, 1893, pp. 184‑205; A. Biichler, Unterauchungen sur Enlstehunp and Entwickeiunp der hebrdiachen Accents, Vienna, 1892. On the division into sections, chapters, etc., cf. REJ, iii, 282 aqq., vi. 122 sqq., 250 sqq., vii, 148 eqq.; Theodor, in Monateachrift fiirGeschichfa and Wieaenechaftdea Judanthuma, 1885, 1888, 1887; O, Schmid, UeZrer verachiedene Einteilungen der heiZigen Schrift, Gras, 1891. The catalogues of Hebrew MSS, are mentioned in H. L. Strack, Prolegomena, pp. 29‑33, 119‑121, ut sup.; idem, in Einleitunp in das A. T., p. 182, Munich, 1898; and with special fulness in Ginsburg, Introduction, ut sup.
	II. The New Testament.‑1. History of the Writ
ten Text: The autographs of the New Testament
very early disappeared, owing to the constant use
of the perishable papyrus; for this appears to have
been the material (II John 12). If they were
really not in the handwriting of the apostles, but
in that of their amanuenses, as Paul's Epistles
generally were (Rom. xvi, 22; II Thess. iii, 17),
it is easier to account for the phenomenon. The
papyrus rolls preserved to the present day were
never much used; indeed, the moat of them have
been found in‑sarcophagi, and so, of course, were
never used at all. 'The ink was lampblack mixed
		with gum dissolved in water, copperas
1. The An‑ (sulphate of iron) being sometimes
toeraphs of added. The pen was of reed (calve
the New
	Testament mtts). The writing was entirely in
		Books. uncials (capitals), with no separation
		of the words (except rarely to indicate
the beginning of a new paragraph), no breathings,
accents, or distinction of initial letters, and few, if
any, marks of punctuation. The evangelists may
have denominated their compositions " Gospels,"
although Justin regularly speaks of the " Memoirs
of the Apostles "; but all addition to the name is
later, and presupposes a collection of the Gospels.
In the case of the Epistles the brief address, e.g.,
" To the Romans," was probably added by the
original sender, and other marks of genuineness
given (cf. II Theas. iii, 17). The Muratorian Canon
(second half of the second century; see Muxe
TORIAN CANON) calls Acts and the Apocalypse by
these names, and so proves the early use of these
designations. The designation " Catholic (i.e., Gen
eral) Epistle ‑is first met with at the close of the sec
ond century (Apollonius, in Eueebius, Hilt. eccl,, V,
aviii, b, where the First Epistle of John is probably
meant). The application and limiting of the term to the whole of the present collection is of later date; for even in the third and fourth ceitury it was customary to give this term to epistles, like that of Barnabas or those of Dionysius of Corinth, which were not specially addressed.
The external history of the New Testament text for a thousand years prior to the invention of printing can be traced by means of manuscripts. Before the formal close of the canon (end of fourth century) there were probably few single manu‑
scripts of the entire New Testament. 2. The Of the three thousand known manu‑
Mann‑ scripts of the New Testament, only
scripts. about thirty include all the books. Some of those of the fourth and fifth century now preserved contain not only the Greek Old Testament (id, A, B, C), but also writings which, though not canonical, were read in churches and studied by catechumens. Thus, attached to the Codex Sinaitictcs (N) were the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Herman; to the Codex Alexandrinua (A), two " epistles " ascribed to Clement of Rome (q.v.) and the so‑called Psalteriurrx Salomonis. The four Gospels were most frequently copied, the Pauline Epistles oftener than the Catholic Epistles or the Acts, least often the Apocalypse. The Gospels were usually arranged in the present order, then came the Pauline Epistles, the Acts, and the Catholic Epistles; the Apocalypse always last. The arrangement of the Epistles differed; indeed, there was no model. (On the various arrangements cf. C. A. Credner, Geschichte dea neutestamentlichen Kanorxs, ed. G. Volkmar, Berlin, 1860; C. R. Gregory, Prolegomena, Leipsic, 1884, pp. 131 sqq.; T. Zahn, Geschichte den neutesttt7rterttliehen Kanona, Erlangen, 1883, ii, 343 sqq.)
After papyrus had gone out of use, parchment or vellum came in and was used from the fourth to the eleventh century; then came in cotton paper, and afterward linen paper (cf. W. Wattenbach, Daa Schriftwesen im Mittelvlter, Leipaie, 1896, pp. 139 aqq.). The growing scarcity of parchment led to the reuse of the old skins, the former writing being erased or washed off; and unfortunately it oftener happened that it was a Biblical manuscript which was thus turned into a patristic one than the reverse. Such manuscripts are termed Codices
palimpsesti (palimpsests) or rescripti. 8. Their By the use of chemicals the origi‑
Material nal text has often been recovered in and Form‑ modern times. The moat famous
New Testament palimpsest is the Codex Ephraemi (C), of the fifth century, rewritten upon in the twelfth. As papyrus disappeared from use, the book form was generally substituted for the rolls, in manuscripts written on parchment or paper. The books were mostly made up of qtlaternions, i.e., quires of four sheets, doubled so as to make sixteen pages, less frequently of five, though later quires of six sheets were common. The division of the page into columns .was at first retained, two being the usual number (e.g., Cod. Alex.); but in many manuscripts (e.g., Cod. Ephraemi) the lines ran across the page. [Exceptionally, Lt has four columns, B three.] From the

101	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Text
seventh and eighth centuries the present accents were more or less used, but very arbitrarily and irregularly. The uncials gradually changed their earlier simple round or square forms, and from the tenth century yielded to the cursives. The earliest punctuation was by means of a blank apace and a simple point. Euthalius, a deacon in Alexandria, in the year 458 published an edition of the Epistles of Paul, and soon after of the Acts and Catholic Epistles, written atichometrically, i.e., in single lines containing only so many words as could be read, consistently with the sense, at a single inspiration. This mode of writing was used long before in copying the poetical books of the Old Testament. It involved, however, a great waste of parchment, so that, in manuscripts of the New Testament, it was superseded after a few centuries by punctuationmarka.
Divisions of the text were early made for various purposes. In the third century Ammoniac of Alexandria (q.v.) prepared a Harmony of the Gospels, taking the text of Matthew as the basis.
Eusebius of Cmsarea, in the early 4. The Am‑ part of the fourth century, availin
monian 	g
	Sections.	himself of the work of Ammoniac,
		divided the text of each Gospel into
sections, the length of which, varying greatly
(in John xix, 6 there are three, and in twenty
four other instances two, in a single verse), was
determined solely by their relation of parallelism
or similarity to passages in one or more of
the other Gospels, or by their having no parallel.
These sections (often erroneously ascribed to
Ammoniac) were then numbered‑ consecutively
in the margin of the Gospel in black ink; Matthew
having 355, Mark 233 (not 236), Luke 342, and
John 232. They were distributed by Eusebius
into ten tables or canons prefixed to the Gospels,
and containing the sections corresponding in‑
I. Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, 71.
II. Matthew, Marl, Luke, 111. III. Matthew, Luke, John, 22.
IV. Matthew, Mark, John, 26.
V. Matthew, Luke, 82.
VI. Matthew, Mark, 47. VII. Matthew, John, 7.
VIII. Luke, Mark, 14.
IX. Luke, John, 21.
X. Sections peculiar to Matthew 62, Mark 21, Luke 71, John 97.
Under the number of each section in the margin of the several Gospels was written in red ink the number of the canon or table to which it belonged. On turning to its place in this table, the number of the corresponding section or sections in the other Gospels stands with it, so that the parallel passages may readily be found. For example, the first verse of Matt. iv forma the fifteenth Eusebian section; the number two under this refers to the second canon or table, where it appears that section fifteen in Matthew corresponds to six in Mark, and fifteen in Luke; i.e., to Mark i, 12, and Luke iv, 1. In some manuscripts the parallel sections are indicated at the bottom of the page. They thus correspond to our marginal references. Cf. Euae‑
bias, Epist. ad CarPianum ; J. Burgon, The Last
Twelve Verses o f S. Mark (London, 1871), pp. 295 aqq.
Wholly different in character and purpose from the Euaebian sections, and probably older, is a division of the Gospels into sections called tillai, also kephalaia majors (in Latin manuscripts, breves), found in most manuscripts from the Alexandrine and the Ephraem (A, C) of the fifth century onward. Of these sections Matthew
6. Early contains gg, Mark 48, Luke 83, John
Divisions 18. The numbers by which they are of the Text. designated in the margin of manuscripts refer to the titles describing their contents at the top or bottom of the page, or in a list prefixed to each Gospel, or often in both places. A certain portion at the beginning of each Gospel is not numbered; for example, the first chapter in Matthew corresponds with our chap. ii, 1‑15, and is entitled peri tbn magan, " Concerning the Magi." There is a similar division in the Acts and Epistles, to which Euthalius (about 458 A.D.), though not its inventor, gave wide currency by his etichometric edition of these books. The Apocalypse was divided by Andrew, bishop of Caeasrea in Cappadocia (about 500 A.D.), into twenty‑four logoi, or chapters, and each of these chapters into three kephalaia, or sections, the former number answering to the twenty‑four elders spoken of in the book (Rev, iv, 4); the latter suggested by the threefold division of human nature into body, soul, and spirit (comp. I Theca. v, 23), as the author himself declares. In the Vatican manuscript (B), there is a division of the Gospels into much shorter chapters (Matt. 170, Mark 62, Luke 152, John 80), very judiciously made. This has been found in only one other manuscript, the Codex Zacynthius (_"). In the Acts and Epistles the Vatican manuscript has a twofold division into chapters,‑one very ancient, the other later, but both different from the Euthalian. In the older division, the Pauline Epistles are treated as one book. (For further details see Tiechendorf, Novum Testamentum Yaticanum, Leipsie, 1867, p. xax; Scrivener, Introduction, i, London, 1894, pp. 56 sqq.) Other ancient divisions of the New Testament into chapters were more or less widely current, especially in Latin and Syriac manuscripts.
The superacriptiona, " Epistle of Paul," " Catholic Epistles," etc., cannot be earlier than the fourth century, since they imply a canonical collection. The subscriptions at the end of the Pauline Epistles in many manuscripts are generally ascribed to Euthaliun. At least six of these are untrustworthy (I Con, Gal., I and II Theas., I Tim., Tit.). For the modern divisions of the Bible into chapters and verses see III below.
An ancient division of the text is the lessons, or lections, from the Gospels on the one hand, and the Acts and Epistles on
‑ the other, read in the public services
sions for of the Church. The history of these
L'turff'°‑ is obscure, and they varied much at
	`i Read‑	different periods and in different
		regions. The lessons for the Sundays
and chief festivals of the year seem to have been
the earliest; next were added lessons for the Sate

Bible Teat	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	102
urdayy, and finally for every day in the week, with special commemoration of saints and martyrs. Euthaliua marked, in the Acts, 18 of these " lessons "; in the Catholic Epistles, 10; in the Pauline Epistles, 31; in all, 57. Ile was probably not, ay many have supposed, their inventor. The system of lessons which ultimately prevailed in the Greek Church appears in our evangeliytariey and lectionariea (more properly praxapoatoli), containing the lessons from the Gospels and the Acts and Epistles respectively. The ordinary manuscripts of the Greek Testament were often adapted for church service by masking the beginning and end of each lesson, with a note in the margin of the time or occasion for reading it, and by prefixing to them a Synaxarion, or table of the lessons in their order; sometimes also a MenoIogion, or calendar of the immovable festivals and the saints' days, with their appropriate lessons.
Turning to the internal history of the New Testar ment text, it is evident that its original purity was early lost. The quotations of the latter half of the second century contain readings which agree with later texts, but are not apostolic. Irenaeus alludes (Hasr., V, xxx, 1) to the difference between the copies; and Origen, early in the third century, ~eepresaly declares that matters were growing worse (in Matt., xix, 19, vol. iii, p. 671, ed. De la Rue, Paris, 1733‑59), ay is proved by the quotations .of the Fathers of the third and fourth centuries. From this time onward we have the manuscript text of each century, the writings of the Fathers, and the various Oriental and Occidental versions, all testifying to varieties of reading for almost every verse, which undoubtedly occasioned many more
	or less important departures from the
7. Early	sense of the original text. How came
Corrup
tion	this ? The early Church did not know
the Teat. tion of	anything of that anxious clip
to the letter which characterizes the scientific rigor and the piety of modern times, and therefore was not so bent upon preserving the exact words. Moreover, the first copies were made rather for private than for public use; copyists were careless, often wrote from dictation, and were liable to misunderstand. Attempted improvements of the text in grammar and style; proposed corrections in history and geography; efforts to harmonize the quotations in the New Testament with the Greek of the Septuagint, but especially to harmonize the Gospels; the writing out of abbreviations; incorporation of marginal notes in the text; the embellishing of the Gospel narratives with stories drawn from non‑apostolic though trustworthy sources, e.g., John vii, 53 to viii, 11, and Mark xvi, 9 to end,it is to there causes that we must attribute the very numerous " readings," or textual variations. It is true that the copyists were sometimes learned men; but their zeal in making corrections may have obscured the true text as much as the ignorance of the unlearned. The copier, indeed, came under the eye of an official reviser; but he may have sometimes exceeded his functions, and done more harm than good by his changes.
Attempts were made by learned Fathers to get
the original text; and three men of the third century‑Origen, the Egyptian Bishop Heaychius, and the Presbyter Lucian of Antioch‑deserve mention for their devotion to this object. The last two undertook a sort of recension of the New Testament (cf. Jerome, Epist. ad Damastsm); but it is not known exactly what they did, and their influence was small. In regard to Origen, while he did not make a formal recension of the New Testament text, his critical work was of the highest importance. Notwithstanding these diversities, there were, as early as the fourth and fifth centuries, affinities between manuscripts prepared in the same district, which seem to betray certain tendencies, as is proved by the Fathers, the versions, and the Greek manuscripts themselves. Thus critics are justified in speaking of an Oriental and Occidental, or, more correctly, an Alexandrian or Egyptian, and a Latin, as also of an Asiatic or Greek, and a Byzantine or' Conetantinopolitan text. According to this theory, the Alexandrian was used by those Jewish Christians of the East who already used the Septuagint; particularly was this text preserved and spread by the
e. Varie‑ learned Alexandrian school. The ties of Latin text characterizes not only the
Teat Pro‑ manuscripts prepared by Latins, but Early the Greek manuscripts they used.
Criticism. The Asiatic manuscripts were used chiefly by native Greeks in Greece, or in the Asiatic provinces having intercourse with Greece. The Byzantine manuscripts belonged to the Church of that empire. The latter alone had a certain official uniformity, and were, in the latter centuries, almost the only manuscripts circulated in the empire. This class of manuscripts is also the only one perfectly represented in existing documents, and is the result of the gradual mixture of older recensions under the predominance of the Asiatic or Greek. Each of these recensions is more or less altered and corrupted; so that it is often wore difficult to assign a particular reading to its proper class than to find out the original. Finally, the differences and relationships are by far most strongly marked in the Gospels, least so in the Apocalypse, and again are more distinct in the Pauline Epistles and the Acts than in the Catholic Epistles. (Cf. C. Tiaehendorf, Novum Testamentum Greece, editio academics viii, Leipyie, 1875, pp. xw yqq.)
The number of uncial manuscripts of the New Testament, ranging in date from the fourth to the tenth century, is 114. This does not include eight psaltery containing the text of the 9. The Un. hymns in Luke i, 4fi‑55, 68‑79, ii,
cial Mann‑ ~ designated by Tiachendorf
ao ript®.
O •‑", nor the lectionariea, evangeliytaries, and praxapoytoli. About half of there 114 are mere fragments, containing but a few verses or at most a few chapters. They may be arranged as follows with reference to their probable date:

Cent. IV, 2: to with the whole New Testament; B, Gospels, Acts, Catholic, and Pauline Epistles (mutilated).
Cent. V, 15: A C h•' • lb Q, Qy T°e T"°t ~~ '17no ie,
Cent. VI, 24: D, D2 Ey Hs h .' Nl N• Oy Ob, p,•R, T"°eh z 0^•f` 2 0 ail.

RELICaoUB ENCYCLOPEDIA
Cent. VII, 17: F° G9 Is•s R9 Tdtmpq Wumn e.n w.
Cent. VIII, 19: B9 E, Ll $2 Ttnor. Wwt y ga g .p p ic.e_
Cent. IX, 31: E, Ft.' G, Gb Hj Kt.1 Ls MIA Nf Ci Ps Tfk Vw°"'X"roese11‑19.
Cent. X, 8: G, Hl $, U X 7,.

Of these only one, lt, hen the New Testament entire, and only four others, ABC', the greater part of it. The remainder are distributed, according to the principal divisions of the New Testament, as follows:
Gospels, 81: Complete or nearly so, 12: D E K L M $ U V r o u d2 ; containing considerable portions, 14: F G H N P Q R X Z 0 S $ 0 7 ; containing at moat a few chapters or verses, ii5: F'° 11.3.4.7 It, N° O T°_t. n_r .rwot W°‑o gn gr>a '%s‑t4.
Acts, 13: Complete or nearly so, 5: D E L P $; the rest with larger (H) or smaller portions (G Gb F° I'.s.s 3).
Catholic Epistles, b: Complete or nearly so, 4: K L P $, and the fragment 7.
Pauline Epistles, 20: Complete or nearly so, 7: D E F G K L P; containing larger oremallerfregmente, 13: F° H I' M N O O° Q R $ Tg• '1".
Apocalypse: besides g A C, B9 contains the complete teat; P has some small gape.
In reference to the character of their text, Tiaehendorf classifies the uncials as follows: in the Gospels the oldest form of the text, predominantly Alexandrine in ire coloring, is found, though with many differences, in bt A B C D I I° L P Q R T""` X Z A A•a _w; next to these stand F' N O W,',, Y A•"•t. A later form of the text, in which the Asiatic coloring prevails, is presented by E F G H K M 8 U V T A lI 9t, among which E K M t A II 8t incline moat toward the first class. For the Acts and Catholic Epistles, tt A B C give the oldest text, to which, in the Acts, D I approach, and, less closely, E G; also, in the Catholic Epistles (except I Pet.), P; while in the Acts, H L P, and, in the Catholic Epistles, K L, come nearest to the later form of the text. In the Pauline Epistles the oldest text is represented by tt A B C H I 0 Q, with the Grew‑Latin manuscripts D F G; M P approach this; while K L N stand nearest to the more recent text. The text of the Apocalypse appears in its oldest form in it A C, to which P comes nearer than B (of. Gregory, Prolegomena, pp. 185 aqq.). Tregellea exhibits the " genealogy of the text " and affinities of the manuscripts in the Gospels in the following form:
Western		Akzandrine	Byzantine
	BiiZ
CLgI.33
PQTRIN	A
Xd69	KM11
EFGBU,etc.
Weatcott and Hort attach a superlative value to B, Tiechendorf to t4. The same manuscript may differ in character in different parts of the New Testament: thus, A is not so excellent in the Gospels as elsewhere; A is especially good in the Gospel of Mark; tt and D agree most closely in the Gospel of John; the cursive 1 is remarkably valuable in the Gospels, but not so in the rest of the New Testament.
The following is a complete list of the 114 uncial manuscripts:
Bible Text
tt: Codex Binaiticue, found by Tischendorf (1844 and 1859) in the Convent of $t. Catherine at the foot of Mount Sinai, now preserved in $t. Petersburg. Forty‑three leaven of the Old Testament portion of the manuscript, known as the Codex Friderico‑Augustanus, are in the library of Leipeie University. Besides twenty‑six books of the Old Testament, of which five form the Codex Fridenco‑Augustsnus, the manuscript contains the entire New Testament without the least break, the Epistle of Barnabae, and the first third of the Shepherd of Hennas. The Alexandrian copyist has frequently shown his imperfect knowledge of Greek, and his haste. The license in handling the teat, common in the first three centuries, is greater than in B A C, though much lees than is D. Nevertheless, the superiority of the Codex $inaiticus to all other New Testament manuscripts, with the single exception of B, is fully proved by the numerous places in which its reading has the support of the oldest quotations or the moat ancient versions. The teat is in four columns, which is s unique arrangement. The Pauline Epistles, among which is Hebrews after II Theses, lonians, come directly after the Gospels: the Acts and the Catholic Epistles, then the Apocalypse, follow. The date of the codex is the fourth century. It has s special value from the fact that, owing to the corrections it received in the math and seventh centuries and later, its pages represent, after a fashion, the history of the changes in the New Testament teat. The codex was published (1882) in facsimile type from the Leipeic press, in four folio volumes, at the expense of the emperor of Russia, Alexander II. The edition was limited to three hundred copies. The New Testament part was published separately in a critical edition by Tischendorf, Nosum Tcatamentum Sinaiticum sum epistoda Barnabcc et fragmentis Pastoria etc.. LeiPsio. 1883, and in a more popular form, Novum Testamentsm Griscs ex Sinaitico codia omnium antiquisaimo, Leipeic, 1886 (of. C. Tiachendorf, Die Sirwibibel. Ihre Enfdeckung, Xerouegaba, and Erwcrbunp, Leipaio, 1871; C. R. Gregory, Prolegomena, pp. 18‑17; F. H. A. Scrivener, A Full Collation of the Codex Sinaiticua, Cambridge 1887).
A: Codex Alesandrinus, now in the British Museum, proseated in 1828 by Cyril Lucar, patriarch of Constantinople, to Charles I. The New Testament begins with Matt. xav, 8; and contains the whole except John vi, 60‑viii, 52, and II Car. iv, 13‑xii, 8, with the First Epistle of Clement and part of the second. It was printed in facsimile by C. G. Woide, London, 1788, in ordinary type by B. H. Cowper, ib. 1880, who corrected some mistakes of Woide, and in photographic facsimile by the trustees of the British Museum, ed. E. M. Thompson (4 vole., London, 1879‑83). Tiachendorf places it about the middle of the fifth century; Scrivener at the end of the fourth or very little later.
B,: Codex Vaticanue, no. 1209, in the Vatican Library. The manuscript contains, besides the Old Testament, the entire New Testament, with the exception of Heb. ix, 14 to end and II Timothy, Titus. Philemon, and Revelation. Juan Sepulveda, writing to Erasmus about 1533, mentions it. The first collation of the manuscript, made in 1889, by Bartolooci, then librarian of the Vatican, exists only in manuscript in the Parts library. Another was made by Birch, 1788‑1801. The collation made for R. Bentley by an . Italian named Mioo was published by Ford, 1790. J. L. Hug wrote a learned Commentatio de anliquitate codicil vaticani (Freiburg, 1810). The manuscript was then in Paris, but it was later restored to Rome, when it became DIY inaccessible. An inaccurate and critically worthless edition of the whole manuscript wee issued by Cardinal Mai (5 vole., Rome, 1828‑38). C. Vercellone, J. Coos, and G. Sergio published an edition of the entire codes in 8 vole. (New Testament is vol. v) in Rome, 1888‑81, and a photographic reproduction was published by the Vatican (18%). The age of the manuscript is about the same se that of the Sinaitic, and Possibly corrections are by the same first hand in both;. and in the Vatican by a second hand contemporary with the first.
B': Codex Vatiasnus 2088 (eighth century), formerly Baeilisa Codex 105, contains Revelation, wee first imper featly edited by Tisohendorf in Monuments sass :nedita (Leipeic, 1848), and more completely in Appendix Novi Teatarnesti vaticani Gb. 1889>. By 1regeues the manuscript was designated Q.
C: Codex EPhraemi (fifth century), now no. 9 in the National Library at Paris; its text was altered in the sixth century and again in the ninth. In the twelfth century the original writing was washed off to make room for the Greek

Bible Text	THE NEW SCH"F‑HERZOG	104
text of several ascetic works of Ephtxm Syrua (d. 373). Pierre Allix, at abort the aloes of the seventeenth century, noticed the traces of the old writing under the later characters. Wetstein in 1718 collated the New Testament part so far as it was legible. In 1834 and 1$35 the librarian Carl Hass revived the original writing by the application of the Giobertine tincture (prueaiate of potash). Tieohendorf, after great labor, brought out in 1843 an edition of the New Testament part of the manuscript, and in 1845, of the Old Testament fragments, representing the manuscript line for line, in facsimile. The codes contains portions of the Old Testament on sixty‑four leaves, and five‑eighths of the New Testament.
D,: Codex Bezas (about 550 A.D.), from the monastery of $t. Irenaeus in Lyons, now in the University Library at Cambridge, a present in 1581 from Theodore Bea&. It contains, with few lacuna., the Greek and Latin text of the Gospels and Acts and III John 11‑15, atichometrically written, perhaps in Gaul. Edited by Kipling in 1793, but in a far better manner by Scrivener (Berm Codex Cantabrigienaia) in 1864. No known manuscript has so many and so remarkable interpolations. Much study has been given to it, e.g., d. R. Harris, Codex Bezee (Cambridge, 1891).
D9: Codex Claromontanua of the Pauline Epistles, including Hebrews (second half of sixth century). Bass, found it in the Monastery of Clermont, hence the name; now in the Paris Library. Contains the Greek and Latin text written stichometricslly. It was retouched at different times, and exhibits especially two periods of the teat. The Latin teat represents the oldest version,‑that of the second century. It was collated by Tregellea in 1849 and 1850, and edited by Tischendorf in 1852 in facsimile.
Ei: Codex Basilienaie A. N. III, 12 (750 A.D.), in Basel, a nearly complete manuscript of the four Gospels, collated by Tregelles (1848), also by Tischendorf and J. C. Willer (1843).
E.: Codes Laudianua (end of sixth century), in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, a present from Archbishop Laud in 1838; was brought to England in 888; Bede (d. 735) used it when writing his Expoaitio retractata of the Acts. It contains an almost complete Grew‑Latin text of the Acts; edited in 1715 by Hearse, and in 1870 by Tischendorf in Monumen#a sacra inedita, nom coliectio, vol. ix.
Es: Codex Sangermanenais, a Grew‑Latin manuscript of the Pauline Epistles (end of ninth century), now in $t. Petersburg, the Greek text being s clumsy copy of the Codex Claromontanus. Of no critical value except for the Latin text. $abatier published it in the third part of his Bibliorum aacrorum Lat4na roeraio (1749).
F,: Codes Boreeli (ninth century), now in Utrecht University, contains the four Gospels, but with many lacunae. Full description is given in J. Heringa, Diaputatio de dice Boreediano, ad. H. E. Vinke (Utrecht, 1843>.
Fa: Codes Augieneis (ninth century), contains Pauline Epistles in Greek and Latin, Hebrews only in Latin, and the Latin is not an exact translation of the Greek. Richard Bentley, bought it at Heidelberg and his nephew presented it to Trinity College, Cambridge. It was collated by Tixhendorf (1842), Tregelles (1845), and edited by Scrivener (1859).
F•: Designates those passages from the Gospels, Acts, and Pauline Epistles written on the margin of the Coislin Octateuch in Paris early in the seventh century. It was edited by Tischendorf in Monumaata sacra inedita (1848).
G,: Codes Harleisnue (tenth century), contains the Gospels, defective, now is the British Museum, brought by A. Seidel from the East in the seventeenth century. It was collated by J. C. Wolf (1723), Griesbaah, Tiechendorf, and Tnsgellee.
G': A seventh century fragment of the Acts (ii, 45‑iii, 7), brought by Tischendorf from the East in 1869 (see L').
Gb: Six leaves of a ninth century manuscript now in the Vatican, five leaves edited by Cosaa in 8acrorusl bibfionsm vetuatiaaima Jragmerda, iii (Rome, 1877). The ninth leaf was discovered by C. R. Gregory, in 1888.
Gz: Codex Boernerianua (ninth century), contains the Pauline Epistles, is now in the Dresden Royal Library, is in Greek and Latin. The Greek text agrees closely with that of F•. It was edited by Matthaei in 1792, partly collated by Tregelles and others (see under o).
Hl: Codex 8eidelii (tenth century), contains the Gospels, but defectively, now in the Hamburg Public Library, wan collated by '1'regelles.
H.: Codex Mutineasis (ninth century), contains Ants
;_, . ,.'ii;e
except about seven chapters, now at Modem, collated by Tischendorf (1843) and Tragellee (1845).
H': Fragments of a sixth century manuscript of the Pauline Epistles in the edition of Euthalius, of which fortyone leaves have been found; twenty‑two are in the National Library at Paris, eight in the Laura. Monastery on Mt. Athos, two in the Synodal Library at Moscow, one in the Rumjanzew Museum there, three in the Imperial Library at $t. Petersburg, three in the Ecclesiastical Academy at Kief, and two in the University Library at Turin. (Cf. H. Omont, Notice our un Ws ancieuynanuacrit prat, Paris, 1889.)
h‑1: Codex Tiechendorfianua II, twenty‑eight palimpsest leaves from the fifth, math, and seventh centuries, under the Georgian language, in a text related to that of CtABC. Seven leaves contain parts of Matthew; two, parts of Mark; five, parts of Luke; eight, parts of John; four, of Acts; two, of Pauline letters. They were discovered by Tisohendorf in the East, and by him published in the Monu»tanta cans inedita, nov. cot., vol. i (1855).
ID (formerly Nb): Four palimpsest leaves (early fifth century), containing sixteen verses from John ziii, avi; now in the British Museum; deciphered by Tischendorf and Tregelles, published by the former in Monuments sacra inedita, nov. cot., vol. ii (1857).
Kl: Codes Gyprius of the Gospels, complete (middle or end of ninth century); now in the National Library in Paris. Collated by Tischendorf (1842) and Tregellea (1849 and 1850).
K2: Codex Moaquenais of the Catholic and Pauline Epistles (ninth century); brought from Mount Athos to Moscow. Lacks a part of Romans and I Corinthians. Collated by Matthaei.
L;: Codes Regius of the Gospels (eighth century), now in the National Library in Paris, almost complete. Closely related to at and B and the teat of Origen. Published by Tischendorf in Monuments sacra 4uedita (1848), in facsimile.
L9: Codex Angelicas of the Acts and Catholic Epistles (formerly G), and of the Pauline (formerly I) (ninth century), now in the Angelica Library of the Augustinian monks at Rome. Contains Acts viii, 10, to Heb sill, 10. Collated by Tischendorf (1843) and Tregellea (1845).
Mj: Codex Campianua of the Gospels, complete (end of ninth century), now in the National Library in Paris. Copied and used by Tischendorf (1849).
Ms: Codex Ruber of the Pauline Epistles (ninth century). Two folio leaves at Hamburg (Hen. i, 1‑iv, 3, xii, 20‑xiii, 25), and two at London (I Cor. xv, b2‑II Cor. i, 15; II Cor. a, 13‑ail, b). Written in red, hence its name. Edited by Tischendorf in Anecdote sacra et yro/ana (1855, corrected, 1881).
N,: Codes Purpureus (late sixth century), a manuscript of the Gospels on purple parchment in silver letters. Fortyfive leaves were early known: thirty‑three are in the Monastery of $t. John at Patmos, sic in the Vatican, four in the British Museum, two in the Imperial Library at Vienna. One hundred and eighty‑four leaven more were discovered in a village near Cassaiea in Cappadocia and bought by M. Nelidow, Russian ambassador at Constantinople (of. C. R. Gregory, in TLZ, 1898, pp. 393‑394). The Vienna, London, and Vatican leaves were edited by Tischendorf is his Monuments sacra inedita (1848), who used the leaves from Patmoa (as collated by John $akkelioa) in his Naoum Teatantentum, ed. viii, critics major. Theca last were also edited by Duohesne in Archives den missions sciantifquea (3 series, iii. 388 eqq.).
N•: Two fragments of a manuscript very much like N„ assn by Tischendorf in the collection of Bishop Porfiri of St. Petersburg; they contain a portion of Mark ix, and came from the library of the Alexandrian patriarch in Cairo.
Ny: Two leaves (ninth century), containing Gal. v, 12‑vi, 4, and Heb. v, 8‑vi, 10, brought by Tischendorf to $t. Petersburg.
Ol: Eight leaves (ninth century) containing a part of John i and xa, with scholia. Now in Moscow ($. Syn. 29, formerly 120). Edited by Matthaei (1785), and, after him, by Tregellea, with Codes Zacinthius (see below, S), Appendix (1881).
Oy: Two leaves (sixth century) containing II Cor. i, 20‑ii, 12. Brought from the East to $t. Petersburg by Tischendorf in 1859.
O•b: Fragments (sixth century to ninth) containing the hymns from Luke i, 48 eqq., 88 eqq., ii, 29 eqq., now (O•) in WolfenbUttel, (Ob) Oxford, (Oc) Verona, (Oa) Zurich, (Oe) 8t. Gall, (00 Moscow, (Os) Turin, end (Oh) Paris. O• was edited by Tischendorf in Anaadota soma d profawa (185b),

108	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Text
and Oil in Monununta sacra fined%ta, won. ool., vol. iv (1889), and Obc by Bianchini (1740).
Ob: Pauline Epistles, a single leaf (sixth century), contains part of Eph. iv, 1‑18, collated by Tischendorf at Moscow in 1888.
P,: Codex Guelpherbytsnua I (sixth century), spslimpeeat at Wolfenbiittel, contains s part of all of the Gospels, was edited by Tischendorf in Monuments sacra inedita, nov. Col., Vol. vi (1889).
Pa: Codex Porphyrianua (ninth century), B palimpsest, contains Acts, Catholic and Pauline Epistles, and Revelation, but with lacunas; the text of the Apocalypse is especially good. It was brought to $t. Petersburg by the Russian bishop Porfiri, and edited by Tischendorf in Monuments sacra %ned%ta, roc. tol., vole. vai (188b‑69).
Ql: Codex Guelpherbytanua II (filth century), a palimpeeat containing fragments of Luke and John, now at WolfenbOttel; was edited by Tischendorf in Monuments sacra inedifa, vol. iii.
Q9: Papyrus fragments (fifth century) of I Cor. i, vi, vii, in the collection of Bishop Porfiri, collated by Tischendorf in 1892.
R,: Codex Nitriensie (sixth century), a palimpsest containing parts of Luke, came from a monastery is the Nih rian desert, now in the British Museum, collated by Cureton, then by Tregellee (1854) and Tischendorf (1855), and edited by the last in Monuments sacra iuadit6, nor. col., vol. ii (1857).
Ra: Codex Cryptoferratenais (late seventh century), s palimpsest fragment containing II Cor. xi, 9‑19, published by Cozza in Sacrorum bibliorum roesuatisaima fragmantd, ii (Rome, 1867).
$1: Codex Vaticanus 354 (949 A.D.), containing the Gospels complete, collated by Tischendorf for his ed, ‑viii.
$9: Codex Athous Laurae (eighth or ninth century), containing Acts, Catholic Epistles, and Rom., I Cor. i, 1‑v, 8, xiii, 8‑xvi, 24, II Cor. i, 1‑n, 23, Eph. iv, 20‑vi, 20, in the Laura Monastery on Mt: Athos, examined by Gregory in 1888.
T•: Codes Borgianus I (fifth century), fragments ooataining Luke xxii, 20‑xaiii, 20. and John vi. 28‑87, vii, 8viii, 31, now in the College of the Propaganda at Rome, the first collated by H. Afford (1888), the second by Tiachendorf and published by Giorgi (1789).
Tn: Fragments (sixth century) of John (i, 25‑42, ii, 9iv, 14, 34‑50), now at St. Petersburg.
T‑: Fragments, similar to T•, containing Matt. xiv, 1927, 31‑34, xv. 2‑8.
Td: Fragments (seventh century) of a Grew‑Coptic evangeliatary (Matt, avi, 13‑20, Mark i, 3‑$, xii, 35‑37, John six, 23‑27, ax, 30‑31) discovered by Tischendorf in the Borgian Library at Rome.
Td: A fragment (sixth century) containing Matt iii, 1318, found in Upper Egypt, now in the University Library at Cambridge, England, used by Hort, and copied by Gregory in 1883.
Tt: Another fragment (ninth century), also from Upper Egypt, of s Greco‑Coptic evangelistary, containing Matt. iv, 2‑11, copied by Gregory in 1883, now in the Bodleian Library at Oxford.
TR: Two fragments (fourth to sixth century) containing I Tim. iii, 15‑18, and vi, 2, now in the Egyptian Museum of the Louvre; published by T. Zahn is Forachunpsn, iii. 277 eq4. (Leipaic, 1884).
Te: Three leaves (sixth or seventh century) containing Matt. xx, 3‑32, xai, 4‑18, found in Cairo by A. Papadopulos‑Kerameue.
Ti‑r: Fragments‑(seventh to teeth century) of six GrecoCoptic and three Greek manuscripts, containing parts of the Gospels, found in the 9chnudi Monastery near Akhmim, Egypt, now in the National Library at Paris, published by E. Amdlinesu in Notices U axtraite, vol. xxziv, part ii (Paris, 1895), 383 eqq. The text is related to that of T•.
T•: Two leaves (eighth to tenth century), also from the $chnudi Monastery, containing I Cor, i. 229.
Tw^1: Nine leaves (fifth century) with Greoo‑Coptic text of Luke xii, 15‑aiii. 32, John viii, 33‑42, formerly owned by Woide, now in the library of the Clarendon Press at Oxford, published by Ford, 1799.
U: Codex Naniapus (ninth or tenth century), contains the Gospels, now in the Library of $t. Mark, Venice, collated by Tischendorf and Tregellea.
V: Codes Moequensis (eighth or ninth century), contains the Gospels nearly complete to John vii, 49, written at Mt. Athos,collated by Matthaei (178b).
W•: Two leaves (eighth century) containing parts of
Luke ix‑s, now in the National Library at Paris, edited by Tischendorf in Mosunwsta sacra inedita (1848).
Wb: A palimpsest, probably originally belonging with W•, of fourteen leaves, containing fragments of Matt., Mark, and Luke, found by Tischendorf at Naples and by him deciphered in 1888.
W‑: Three fragments (ninth century) of a Grew‑Latin manuscript of the Gospels from Mark ii and Luke i, now at $t. Gall, edited by Tischendorf in Monmnenta sacra inedita, nov. Col., Vol. iii (1880).
Wd: Fragments of four leaves (ninth century) containing parts of Mark vii, viii, ix, now in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge, published by Scrivener, Adroarxiaia aitica sacra (Cambridge, 1893), pp. xi aqq.
We: Twelve leaves (ninth century) containing parts of John ii‑iv, seven leaves in the monastery of $t. Dionysius on Mt. Athos (collated by Pussy for Afford), three in the library of Christ Church College, Oxford (examined by Tiachendorf), and two in the National Library at Athens (discovered by Gregory in 1888).
Wf: A palimpsest (ninth century) containing part of Mark v, in the library of Christ Church College at Oxford.
W g: Thirty‑six leaves of a palimpsest (ninth century) containing part of the four Gospels, now in the British Museum.
W11: Two leaves of a palimpsest (ninth century) containing parts of Mark iii, discovered by Gregory in 1883.
WI: Two leaves (seventh or eighth century) with parts of Luke iv, copied by Gregory in Paris in 1884.
Wk: Two leaves (eighth or ninth century) with parts of Luke xx and xxiii, also copied by Gregory in Paris, 1884.
W4 Two leaves of a palimpsest (seventh century) containing Mark aiii, 34‑xiv, 29, discovered by Gregory in the National Library at Paris, 1885.
Wm: Four leaves of a palimpsest (seventh or eighth century) containing parts of Mark, in the National Library at Paris, discovered by Gregory, 1885.
Wc: Four leaves (seventh century) containing John vi, 71‑vii, 48, in Vienna
Wo: Sixteen leaves of s palimpsest (ninth century) containing parts of the Synoptic Gospels, in the Ambrosias Library at Milan.
X: Codes Monsceneie (ninth or tenth century) containing numerous fragments of the Gospels and a commentary, in the University Library at Munich. Collated by Scholz, Tiachendorf, and Tregellea.
Xb: Fourteen leaves (ninth or tenth century) containing Luke i. 1‑ii. 40, incomplete, in the Court and State Library at Munich.
Y: Codex Bsrberini 225 (eighth century), six leaves containing parts of John, published by Tischendorf in Morasmenta sacra inedita (1848).
Z: Codex Dublinenaie reecriptua (sixth century), an important palimpsest with numerous fragments of Matthew, in Trinity College, Dublin. Published in facsimile by Barrett (1801), accurately deciphered by Tregelles (1853), newly edited by T. K. Abbott (Dublin, 1880).
r: Codes Tiachendorfianus IV (ninth century) contains large parts of Matthew and Mark. Luke and John are complete. It was found by Tischendorf in the East, part of it is in the Bodleian.Library at Oxford, and the larger part at $t. Petersburg. It strongly resembles Kr.
A: Codex Sangalleneis (ninth century), s, nearly complete copy of the Gospels (one leaf lacking) with interlinear Latin translation approximating the Vulgate text. It is in St. Gall, possibly copied there, and is possibly the same (for the Gospels) manuscript as Ga (Pauline Epistles). (Cf. J. R. Harris, Codex 3angal7anaia. Cambridge. 1891. )
9•: Codes Tiachendorfianua I (seventh century), four leaves with parts of Matt. air‑xv, found by Tischendorf in the Fast is 1844 and 1853, now in the library of the University of Leipsic, edited by Tischendorf in Monuments sacra %nedita, nov. col., vol. ii (1857).
6b: Six leaves (seventh century) containing fragments of Matt. xxii‑xxiii and Mark iv‑v, brought by Tischendorf to $t. Petersburg in 1859.
w: Two folio leaves (sixth century) containing Matt. axi, 19‑24 and John aviii, 29‑35, brought by Tischendorf and Bishop Porfiri to $t. Petersburg.
9d: A fragment (eighth century) containing Luke ai, 374b, brought by Tischendorf to 8t. Petersburg.
9•: A fragment (sixth century) containing Matt. xavi, 2‑7. 9.
9t: Four leaves (sixth century) containing parts of Matthew and Mark. .

Bible Text	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	108
Bs: A fragment (sixth century) containing John vi, 1324. similar to Oq.
eb; Threefragments (ninth century) of a Greco.Anbio manuscript of the Gospels. @‑‑b are all in the collection of Bishop Porfiri at $t. Petersburg, and wen collated by Tisahendorf.
A: Codex Tischendorfianua III (ninth century) containing Luke and John complete, with occasional scholia in uncials on the margin, partly of a critical kind. Now in the Bodleian Library, Oxford; collated by Tieohendorf (who brought it from the East) and Tregelles.
8: Codes Zaoynthius (eighth century), s palimpsest oontaining Luke i, 1‑xti 33, with some gape; brought from the Island of Zante, and presenter in 1821 to the British and Foreign Bible Society, London; deciphered and published by Tregelles in 1881. The text, which is very valuable, is surrounded by a commentary.
B: Codex Petropolitanue (ninth century) of the Gospels complete, excepting seventy‑seven verses. Brought to $t. Petersburg by Tiechendorf from Smyrna.
I: Codex R.oseaneissie (sixth century), containing Matt. i, I‑Mark zvi, 14 and belonging to the chapter of the Csthednl Church at Rosanna, written on very fine purple vellum in silver letters, with the three first lines in both columns at the beginning of each Gospel in gold. It is adorned with eighteen remarkable pictures in watercolors, representing scenes is the Gospel history, with forty figures of the prophets of the Old Testament. Its miniatures )xesr s striking resemblance to those of the celebrated Vienna purple msnuecript of Genesis. It numbers s hundred and eighty‑eight leaves, some of which have been much injured by dsmpnese. It originally contained the four Gospel& The text, as well as the writing, resembles that of Codex N, of the Gospels. It was discovered in the spring of 1879, at R.oeeano in Calsbris (Southern Italy), by Dr. Gebherdt of Gottingen and Professor Harasck of Giessen, who have published s full ds ecription of it with two facsimiles of the writing and outline sketches of the miniatures, is an elegant quarto entitled ErooapeZiorum codex Ordcw Purpureua Rossaasnria (Leipsi0. 1880). The illuminations are reproduced in exact facsimile by Antonio Munoz (Rome, 1907). The text seems to hold a position about midway between that of the older uncials and those of the ninth and tenth centuries, agreeing most remarkably with Nl, often with A011, or with D and the Old Latin, against the mass of later manuscripts.
0: Codex Bentinue (probably sixth century), containing Matt. vi, 3‑Mark xiv, 82, with some lacuna, on purple vellum and in possession of the Church of $t. George at Bent, Albania, made generally known by P. Bstitfol in 1886.
i: Codex Athous‑Esur® (eighth or ninth century), aontsixung the New Testament except Matthew, Mark i, 1‑ix, 4, Heb. vin, II‑ix, 19, and Revelation, is in the Laura Monastery on Mt. Athos, was examined by Gregory in 1588.
O: Codex Athoue Dionyeii (eighth or ninth century), containing the four Gospels, is in the Monastery of Bt. Dionyeius on Mt. Athos, was examined by Gregory id 1888.
>>: Codex Athoue Andrew (ninth or tenth century), aontsining the four Gospels but with Isounee, is in the Monas tery of $t. Andrew on Mt. Mhos, was examined by Gregory in 1888.
‑1s: Codex Patirieneie (fifth century). [twenty‑one pslimpeest leaves containing fragments of Acts and of the Catholic and the Pauline Epistles, now in the Vatican Library, was doscribed by BatiHol (1891), partly read by W. tisaday (189b).
r The sign attacked by Gregory to s fragment of N, before he knew its relationship.
'I'll, 11: Small fragments (fifth to ninth century) of the $ynoptice and I Corinthians is the convent of $t. Catharine on Mt. Sinai, discovered by J. R,. Harris and published in Biblical Fragments from M6. Sinai (London, 1890).
	Besides the uncials, there are known for the
	Gospels over 1,200 cureives designated by Arabic
	numerals, over 950 evangelistaries of
	lo. The which about 100 are in uncial wri
Cnrsive ting,	in date from the tenth to
scripts,	the twelfth century. For the Acts
	and the Catholic Epistles there are
	tsries, eto. over 400 cursives, for the Pauline
	Epistles about 500, and for the Apoc
	alypse 180. Of lectionaries there are known over
	260, only a very few of which antedate the tenth
century. The following are noteworthy, either because of the value of their readings or for the influence they have had on the text:
	1 Gospels. Acts, Catholic sad Pauline Epistles: Codex
Baeiliennie (teach or twelfth century), especially valuable
for the text of the Gospels, contains the apparatus of Eu
thsHue on the Ants and EpieWes. Kindred to it in the Gospels
are 209, 118, 131.
1 Apocalypse: Codex Reuchlini (twelfth century), used by Erasmus (ibi8), is the University Library at Basel
13 Gospels: Codex Parieiensie (thirteenth century), has some Isaunm, was collated by Weteteia, Griesbsah, and W. H. Farrar, and is closely related to 89, 124, and 348, while b43, 788. cad 828 belong to the same group.
13 Acts and Catholic Epistles, 17 Pauline Epistles, and 33 Gospels are all parts of the same manuscript (ninth, tenth, or eleventh century), and the text agrees often with
j	that of the best uneisle; collated by Griesbach, and Tro
	Belles (1860).
14 Apocalypse, 31 Acts and Catholic Epistles, 37 Pauline Epistles sad 69 Gospels are parts of the same manuscript (Leicester Codex, fourteenth or fifteenth century), collated by TregaVes, Scrivener, and Abbott (of. 13 supra).
34 Ants and Catholic Epistles, 40 Pauline Epistles, 81 Gospels, and 92 Apocalypse are parts of the same manuscript (Codex Montfortisnus, sixteenth century), at Trinity College, Dublin, collated by O. T. Dobbin (1854).
47 Pauline Epistles (eleventh or twelfth century), in the Bodleian Library, collated by Tregellee.
95 Apocalypse (Codex Parham, eleventh or twelfth century), belongs among the beet witnesses to Revelation, collated by Scrivener.
b&5 Gospels (ninth or tenth century) in letters of gold on purple parchment, with especially ancient readings in Mark; designated 81 by Weetaott and Hart, now in St. Petersburg.
8. History of the Printed Text: For more than half s century after the invention of printing, the original teat of the New Testament remained unpublished. The credit of first printing it belongs to Cardinal Ximenea de Cisneros, archbishop of Toledo, who made it vol, v.of his Polyglot Bible (see BI8LE8, PorxaroT, I). The manuscripts de‑
pended upon were comparatively modi. Complu‑ em and of inferior value. Though tad the volume is dated June 10, 1514, the
elditions. New Testament was not published be‑
fore 1521 or 1522, and thus was preceded by the Greco‑Latin New Testament of 1516, published by Froben of Basel, and edited by Erasmus, who used as the basis of his text, in the Gospels, an inferior Basel manuscript of the fifteenth century (cod. 2), and one of the thirteenth or fourteenth century in the Acts and Epistles (cod. 2). With these he collated more or less carefully one more manuscript of the Gospels (cod. 1), two in the Acts and Catholic Epistles (cold. 1 and 4), and three in the Pauline Epistles (codd. 1, 4, 7). The oldest of these (cod. 1, tenth century) has a good text in the Gospels; but Erasmus made very little use of it; the others are comparatively modern, and poor. For the Apocalypse he had only a single manuscript of the twelfth century, wanting the last six verses, which he translated into Greek from the Latin Vulgate. In various other places in the Apocalypse he followed the readings of the Vulgate in opposition to the Greek, as he did in a few ewes elsewhere. The first edition of Eras‑in was sped through the press with headlong haste (prmcipitatum fuit roerius quam editum, as Erasmus himself says) is order that the publisher, Froben, might get the start of the Complutensian. It consequently swarms with errors.

107 ~ 	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Tent
A more correct edition was issued in 1519: Mill observed about four hundred changes in the text. For this and later editions, one additional manuscript (cod. 3) was used in the Gospels, Acts, and Epistles. In the third edition (1522) the changes were much fewer; but it is noted for the introduction of I John v, 7, from the Codex Montfortianua (sixteenth century). In the fourth edition (1527) the text was altered and improved in many places, particularly in Revelation, from the Complutensian Polyglot. That of the fifth (1535) and last (Erasmus died in 1536) hardly differs from the fourth.
The next editions which call for notice are those of the great printer and scholar Robert Stephens (Estienne, Stephanus; see STEPHENa), three published at Paris (1546, 1549, and 1550; the first two, in small 12mo, are known as the 0 miri ficam editions, from the opening words of the preface, which is the same in both; the last, a magnificent folio, is called the editio regis), and one at Geneva (l6mo, 1551), in which the present division into verses was first introduced into the Greek text (see below, III, § 3). The edition of 1550, notwithstanding its various readings in the margin from fifteen manu‑
	scripts and the Complutensian Poly
2. Editions glot' is mainly of Stephens 	founded on the fourth or
and Beza. fifth edition of Erasmus. Scrivener has
noted a hundred and nineteen places in which it differs from all of the manuscripts used. The text of the edition of 1551 varies but slightly from thatof1550. The fourfolioeditionsofTheodore Beza (Geneva, 1565, 1582,1588 or 1589, and 1598), as well as his five 8vo editions (1565, 1567,1580,1590, 1604) follow, for the most part, Stephens's editions of 1550 or 1551, with changes here and there, many of which are not improvements. Stephens's edition of 1551 is commonly spoken of in England as the textus receptvs ; but on the Continent the first Elzevir edition, printed at Leyden in 1624, has generally received that designation. The expression is borrowed from the preface to the second Elzevir edition (1633), in which occur the words, Teztum ergo babes, none ab omnibus receptum. The text of the seven Elzevir editions (1624, 1633, 1641, Leyden; 1656, 1662, 1670, 1678, Amsterdam), among which there are a few alight differences, is made up almost wholly from Beza's smaller editions of 1565 and 1580; its editor is unknown. The textus receptus, slavishly followed, with alight diversities, in hundreds of editions, and substantially represented in all the principal modern Protestant translations prior to the nineteenth century, thus resolves itself essentially into that of the last edition of Erasmus, framed from a few modern and inferior manuscripts and the Complutensian Polyglot, in the infancy of Biblical criticism. In more than twenty places its reading is supported by the authority of no known Greek manuscript.
The editions from 1657 to 1830, with the exception of that of Griesbach (see below, § 3), are important, as regards the text, mainly for their accumulation of critical materials. In Walton's Polyglot (London, 1657; see BIBLES, POLYGLOT, IV), Stephens's Greek text of 1550 was accompanied by the Vulgate, Peshito‑Syriac, Ethiopic,
Arabic, and, in parts of the New Testament, other ancient versions, with a critical apparatus including the readings of Codd. A, pt, D9, Stephens's margin, and eleven cursive manuscripts collated by or for Archbishop Ussher. In Bishop Fells edition (Oxford, 1675), which reproduces substantially the Elaevir text, other authorities, including readings of the Coptic and Gothic versions, are given in the notes, though the title page (ex plus 100 MSS. codicibus), is very misleading. The edition of John Mill (Oxford, 1707, fol.; improved and enlarged by Ludolph Kuater, Amsterdam, Leipaic, and Rotterdam, 1710), the work of thirty years, marks an epoch in the history of textual criticism by its vast additions to the store of critical material through the colS. Editions lation of the new manuscripts, the collection of readings from the ancient
	lei8 o d versions, and especially from the
	quotations found in the writings of
	the Christian Fathers, and by its very learned and
valuable prolegomena.	Mill gave his judgment
on many reading in his notes and prolegomena,
	but did not venture to form a text of his own,
	reprinting Stephens's text of 1550 without inten
	tional variation. The projected edition of the
	Greek Testament and Latin Vulgate in parallel
	columns, by the illustrious critic Richard Bentley
	(q.v.) deserves a brief notice. Proposals for printing
were issued in 1720, and a large amount of materials
	was collected at great expense, including a collation
	of cod. B (published by Ford in 1799); but the
	work was never completed. It was to have been
	founded on the oldest Greek and Latin manuscripts
	compared with the principal ancient versions and
	the quotations in the Fathers of the first five cen
turies.	(Cf. A. A. Ellis, Bentleii critics sacra,
	Cambridge, 1862; R. C. Jebb, Bentley, London,
	1882.) The edition of Johann Albrecht Bengel (q.v.;
	Tubingen, 1734, 4to), while it had the advantage
	of some new manuscripts, was specially valuable
	for its discussions and illustrations of the principles
	of criticism, and its classification of manuscripts;
	but, except in the Apocalypse, Bengel did not
	venture to introduce any reading, even though
	he believed it unquestionably genuine, which had
	not previously appeared in some printed edition.
	His judgment of the value of different readings
	was, however, given in the margin (cf. E. Nestle,
	Bengel ale Gelehrter, TUbingen, 1893, pp. 39 sqq.).
	The magnificent edition of Johann Jakob Wetstein
	(q.v.; 2 vole. fol., Amsterdam, 1751‑52), the work
	of forty years, greatly enlarged the store of
	critical material by extensive collation of manu
	scripts and researches into the quotations of the
	Fathers, and by his description of this material in
	very valuable and copious prolegomena (reprinted,
	with additions by Semler, Halls, 1764). He gives
	also the readings of the chief printed editions which
	preceded him, and describes them fully. He in
	troduced the present method of denoting the
	uncial manuscripts by Roman capitals, and the
	curaivea and lectionaries by Arabic figures. Besides
	the critical matter, Wetstein's edition is a the
	saurus of quotations from Greek, Latin, and
	Rabbinical authors, illustrating the phraseology of

Bible Text	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	108
the New Testament, or containing passages more or leas parallel in sentiment. His publisher insisted on his reprinting the textus recePtus (substantially that of the Elzevirs); but he gives his critical judgment in the margin and the notes. Other editions to be briefly mentioned are those of F. C. Alter (Vienna, 1786‑87), giving the readings of twenty‑two Vienna manuscripts and of four manuscripts of the Slavonic version; of Andrew Birch (Quatuor Evangelic Grace, Copenhagen, 1788, 4to, and Yarice lectiones, 1798, 1800, 1801), exhibiting the readings of many manuscripts collated in the libraries of Italy, Spain, and Germany, by himself and others; and of C. F. Matthaei (Nmram Tester mentum Greece et Latine [the Vulgate], 12 vole., 8vo, Riga, 1782‑88; also Novum Testamentum Groee, 3 vole., 8vo, Wittenberg, etc., 1803‑07), for which over a hundred manuscripts were used, mostly from the library of the Holy Synod at Moscow. Matthai was a careful collator, but a very poor critic; and his manuscripts generally were of inferior quality.
The first edition of Johann Jacob Grieabach (q.v.) was published in 1774‑75 (the first three Gospels in synopsis); but it was only in the second edition (2 vole., 8vo, Halls, 1796‑1806) that be first made really good use of the materials gathered by his predecessors, and augmented by his own collections. A manual edition was issued at Leipaic in 1805, the text of which, differing somewhat from that of the larger edition, expresses his
4. fries‑ later critical judgment. Following
bh 8 Fond in the track of Bengel and Semler,
	lowers.	CTrieabach sought to simplify the proc
		ess of criticism by classifying his
manuscripts and other authorities. He made
three classes or recensions‑the Alexandrian, the
Western, and the Constantinopolitan or Byzantine
‑to the latter of which the mesa of later and in
ferior manuscripts belongs. Though his system is
not now accepted in its details, much truth lay
at the bottom of it. His principles of criticism
were sound; and in his application of them he dis
played rare tact and skill. In 1827 a third edition
of the first volume of his Greek Testament was
published, with important additions, under the
editorship of Dr. David Schulz. Griesbach's
Symboke eritiece (Halls, 1785‑93), and Cammen
tarivs criticus on Matthew and Mark, parts i, ii,
with Meletenaata critics prefixed to part ii, Jena,
1798, 1811, are still valuable. A number of manual
editions founded on that of Griesbaeh, but inclining
more to the textus recelotus, as those of H. A.
Schott (Leipsic, 1805,1813, 1825,1839), with a good
Latin translation; G. C. Knapp (Halls, 1797,
1813, 1824, 1829, 1840), with a useful Commentatio
isagogica, or introduction, and carefully punctuated
and divided; J. A. H. Tittmana (ster., Leipsic,
1820, 1828, 16mo; 1824, 1831, 8vo); A. Hahn
(Leipsic, 1840, 1841, revised ed. 1861; reprinted
at New York, 1842, by Edward Robinson);
K. G. W. Theile (eter., Leipsic, 1844, 11th
ed. 1875, by O. von Gebhardt), with the vari
ations of the chief modern editors, parallelpaesagea,
etc.; also S. T. Bloomfield's Greek Testament
with English Notes (London, 1832, 9th ed., 1855,
2 vole., 8vo), mark no progress in criticism beyond Griesbach, but rather a retrograde movement. The same is true of the large edition of the Catholic scholar J. M. A. Scholz (2 vole., 4to, Leipsic, 18301836), whose extensive travels and researches in libraries enabled him to add a very large number of new manuscripts (according to Scrivener, 616) to the list of those previously known. But of these only thirteen were collated entire; a few others in the greater part; many in only a few chapters; many more simply inspected, or only enrolled in the list. Scholz was a poor critic, and as an editor and collator incredibly careless. He divided his manuscripts into two classes or recensions‑the Alexandrian and the Conatantinopolitan, giving the preference to the latter. But in applying his system, he was happily inconsistent, particularly in his second volume, and at a later period of his life (1845) abandoned it. His edition met with no favor from intelligent scholars; but in England, where Biblical criticism was at its lowest ebb, it was welcomed and praised by many, and its text reprinted.
A new period in the history of textual criticism was inaugurated by the appearance (Berlin 1831) of a small edition of the Greek Testament by the distinguished classical scholar Carl Laehmann (q.v.), followed by a larger edition, in which the authorities for the Greek text were supplied by Philipp Buttmann, with the Latin Vulgate in the lower margin, critically edited from codd. FuldenHis, Amiatinus, and other manuscripts (2 vole., 8vo, Berlin, 1842‑50). Lachmann's aim in these editions was not to reproduce the original
text according to his beat judgment 6. 7.aoh‑ (for this he deemed conjectural criti‑
	mana.	ciam to be necessary in some cases),
		but to present as far as possible on
purely documentary evidence the text current
in the Eastern churches in the fourth century
as a basis for criticism. He paid no attention
to the textus receptus, and used no cursive manu
scripts, but founded his text wholly on ancient
authorities; viz., codd. A B C D P Q T Z of the
Gospels, A B C D E in the Acts and Catholic Epistles,
A B C D G in the Pauline Epistles, and A B C in the
Apocalypse, with the Latin Vulgate, and codd.
a (Vercelleneis, fourth century), b (Veronensis, fifth
century), and c (Colbertinus, eleventh century)
of the Old Latin, for the Gospels, besides the Latin
versions of the Grew‑Latin manuscripts in the
above list; of the Fathers he used Irenaeus, Cyprian,
Hilary of Poitiers, Lucifer of Cagliari, and, in the
Apocalypse, Primasius. His attempted task was
not fully accomplished, partly because the text of
some of the most important manuscripts which he
used (B C P (a, and the Latin Codex Amiatinus)
had been but very imperfectly collated or edited,
partly because the range of his authorities was
too narrow, and partly because he was sometimes,
apparently at least, inconsistent in the application
of his principles. But he was the first to found
a test wholly on ancient evidence (Griesbach dis
regarded what he deemed unimportant variations
from the received text); and his editions, to which
his eminent reputation as a critic gave wide cur‑

109	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Text
rency, especially in Germany, did much toward breaking down the superstitious reverence for the textus receptus which had long prevailed.
Next to be noted are the editions of Tischendorf and Tregellea. Through their combined labors we have a solid basis for a completely critical edition of the Greek Testament in the accurate knowledge, not possessed before, of all manuscripts of the oldest class (not including lection‑
aries), comprising many newly dice. Tischen‑ covered, among them the Sinaitic of
	dorf.	the fourth century. Lobegott Fried
		rich Constantin Tiechendorf (q.v.)
spent about eight years of his life in travels in
search of manuscripts (for which he visited the
East three times‑in 1844, 1853, and 1859), or
in collating with extreme care or transcribing
and preparing for publication the most im
portant of those in the various libraries of
Europe which were before known, but had not
been published or thoroughly examined. The
following uncial Creek manuscripts (see the list
above) were discovered by Tischendorf: ii G, I
N, O, T"'d r e•‑d a n; first used by him: F° I" N,
O°‑' O", P, Q, R,,, T".° Wb‑° 6•‑°; published: 8! B,,,
C D, E, F° I Ib L, M, N, O• P,., Q, R, W‑° Y e•
(cf. C. R. Gregory's Prolegomena to Tischendorf's
Novum Testamentum Grtece, ed. viii, i, Leipsie,
1884, p. 31). His editions of the texts of
Biblical manuscripts (including some of the Sep
tuagint) comprise no less than seventeen large
quarto and five folio volumes, not including the
Anecdota sacra et profane (1855, new ed. 1861),
or the Notitia editiemis Codicia Sinaitici (1860), two
quarto volumes containing descriptions or col
lations of many new manuscripts; and many
of his collations, or copies of manuscripts, remain
unpublished.
The titles of Tiachendorf's various writings, most of them relating to Biblical criticism, fill pages 7‑22 of Gregory's Prolegomena. His first edition of the Greek Testament (Leipsic, 1841) was promising as a first essay, but of no special importance except for the refutation, in the prolegomena, of Scholz's theory of recessions. In the Editio Lipsisns seconds (1849) the critical apparatus was much enlarged, and the text settled on the basis of ancient authority, generally with good judgment. In 1859 appeased the Editio septima critics maior (2 vole.), in which very large additions were made to the critical apparatus, not only from manuscripts, Greek and Latin, but from the quotations in the writings of the Christian Fathers, and the evidence was for the first time fully stated, both for and against the readings adopted. In the first volume, Tischendorf, influenced perhaps by Scrivener, showed a tendency to allow greater weight to the later uncials and curaives than he had done in his edition of 1849; but he soon found that he was on the wrong track; and on the whole, if orthographical changes are included, his edition of 1859 differs more widely from the textus receptus than that of 1849. Its publication was immediately followed by Tischendorf's third journey to the East, and the discovery of the great Sinaitic manuscript, together with the
acquisition of much other new critical material. After the publication of the Codex Sinaiticus in 1862, in a magnificent edition of four volumes folio, in facsimile type, with twenty‑one plates of actual facsimiles, at the expense of the Russian Government, the edition being limited to three hundred copies, he issued in 1863, in 4to, his Novum Testsmentum Sinaiticum, in ordinary type, but representing the manuscript line for line, with full prolegomena; and his Novum Testamentum Greece ex Sinaitico Codice, Vaticans itemque Elzeviriana leetione notats, in 1865, 8vo, with a supplement of additions and corrections in 1870. After some other publications, particularly the second edition of his Synopsis evangelics in 1864, in which the Sinaitic manuscript was first used, he undertook his last great critical edition of the Greek New Testament, _Novum Testsmentum Greece, editio octavs critics maior (issued in eleven parts, i, Leipsic, Oct., 1864, xi, at the end of 1872; collected into two volumes, 8vo,1869‑72). This edition far surpassed all that had preceded it in the richness of its critical apparatus, and, as compared with that of 1859, rests much more on the authority of the oldest manuscripts, particularly the Sinaitic. The preparation of the prolegomena by Tischendorf himself was prevented by his sudden illness and subsequent death, and was entrusted to an American scholar residing in Leipsic, Caspar Rend Gregory (q.v.), who had also the valuable assistance of Ezra Abbot (q.v.). In the interest of the work Dr. Gregory made special journeys through Europe and into the Orient, and was thus enabled to give first‑hand descriptipns and collations of many manuscripts. It was published in three parts at Leipsic,1884‑94. Besides the works mentioned, the most important publications of Tischendorf pertaining to the textual criticism of the New Testament are: Codex Ephraemi Syri re.scriptus (1843, 4to; Old Testament part, 1845); Monuments sacra inedits (1846, 4to); Evangelium ineditum (1847, 4to); Codex Amieetinus (Vulgate; 1850, new ed.1854); Codex Clsromontanus (1852, 4to) ; Monuments sacra inedits, nova eollectio, vole. i‑vi, ix (1855‑70, 4to); Novum Testamentum Yaticanum and Appendix Novi Testaments VeUieani (1867‑69, 4to); cf.Responsaad cclumnias ftomanss (1870, 8vo), also Appendix codicum celeberrimorum, Sinaitici, Vatieani,. Alexsndrini (1867, 4to); Die Sinsibibel, ihre Entdeckung, Herausgabe, and Erwerbung (1871, large 8vo). His Novum Testamentum triglottum, Greece, Latine, Ger»xsnice (Leipsie, 1854, 2d ed., 1865) is a convenient book, the three parts of which were also issued separately, and in various combinations. The Greek is his own text, with the variations of the Lextus receptus ; the Latin, the Vulgate critically revised from the oldest manuscripts, with the variations of the Clementine edition; the German the genuine text of Luther, though in modern orthography. Tischendorf also issued many manual editions of the Greek Testament, the three latest in his lifetime being published in 1875 by Tauchnitz, Brockhaus (to match his edition of the Septuagint), and Mendelssohn (Editio academics septima), respectively. His large editions of 1859 and 1869‑72 were issued with the

Bible Text	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	110
critical apparatus greatly abridged, but giving the chief authorities for all the important various readings, with the titles Editio aeptima critics minor (1859) and Editio ocEava critics minor (1872‑77).
Samuel Prideaux Tregelles (q.v.) ranks next to Tischendorf in the importance of his critical labors, and in single‑hearted devotion to his chosen task. In 1848 he issued a Prospectus for a critical edition of the Greek Testament, the‑text of which was to be founded solely on the authority of the oldest Greek manuscripts, the ancient versions to the seventh century, and the citations of early
7. Tre‑ writers, including Eueebius. No ac‑
	aelies.	cost was made of the " received
		text," or of the great mesa of cursive
manuscripts. Completeness and accuracy in the ex
hibition of the evidence of the witnesses used were
especially aimed at. Like Tiachendorf, Tregelles
visited (in 1845‑46, 1849‑50, and 1862) the prin
cipal libraries in Europe for the purpose of collating
manuscripts the text of which had not before been
published. These were the uncials B8 D$ E, F' G,
III.. I" K, L$ M,,z R, U X Z r A, the cureivea
1, 13, 17, 31, 37, 47, 61, 69, and also Codex Zacyn
thius (~). In many cases Tregellea compared
his collations with those of Tiachendorf, and settled
the differences by a reexamination of the manu
script. In 1861 he edited the Codex Zacynthius
(a), republishing in an appendix the fragments
of O. His edition of The Greek New Testament,
Edited from Ancient Authorities, with their Various
Readings in Full, and the Latin Version of Jerome,
was issued in London in seven successive parts:
i, Matthew, Mark, 1857; ii, Luke, John, 1861;
iii, Acts and Catholic Epistles, 1865; :v, Romans to
II Thessalonians (iii, 3), 1869; v Hebrews (with
II These. iii, 3‑18) to Philemon, 1870; vi, Revelation,
1872. Part vii, Prolegomena and Addenda and Cor
rigenda, appeared in 1879, four years after his death,
edited by Dr. Hort and A. W. Streane. Though Tre
gelles added far less than Tiachendorf to our store of
critical material, he did more to establish correct prin
ciples of criticism, and his various writings had a
wide and moat beneficial influence in England.
He also published, in 1854, An Account of the
Printed Text of the Greek New Testament, with
Remarks on its Revision upon Critical Principles,
and, is 1856, Introduction to the Textual Criticism
of the New Testament, forming part of vol. iv of
the tenth and later editions of Home's Introduc
tion. This volume was also issued separately,
and in the eleventh edition of Home's Introduction
(1861) appeared with " Additions " and a " Post
script."
In 1881 appeared The New Testament in the Original Greek. The Text Revised by Brooke Foss Weateott . . . and Fenton John Anthony Hurt (Cambridge and London). The American edition (New York) has s valuable introduction by Philip Schaff, with the cooperation of Ezra Abbot. Dr.
8. West‑ Schaff also prepared a compact man‑
oott sad ual of New Testament criticism, A
	Mort.	Companion to the Greek Testament and
		the English Version (New York, 1883),
which embodies the substance of this introduction,
thoroughly revised. The teat of Weatcott and
Hort is accompanied by an Introduction and Appendix (1882) in which the authors discuss the need of criticism for the text of the New Testament, the methods of textual criticism, the application of its principles to the text, the nature and details of their edition, and add notes on select readings and orthography, with orthographical alternative readings, and quotations from the Old Testament. In 1895 the text appeared in larger form, and, in 1896, the Introduction in finally revised form. This edition is not accompanied with any critical apparatus; it rather was the object of the authors, by a careful study of the materials furnished by their predecessors, augmented somewhat, however, by their own researches, to trace the history of the teat as far as possible; to distinguish its different types, and determine their relations and their comparative value; to investigate the special characteristics of the most important documents and groups of documents; and, finally, to apply the principles of criticism which result from these studies to the determination of the original teat. Their view of the genealogical relations of the chief ancient texts excited strong opposition in certain quarters, but their work was recognized as the moat important contribution to the scientific criticism of the New Testament text which had yet been made. They distinguish four principal types of text: the Western, characterized by a tendency to paraphrase or to modify the form of expression, and also to interpolate from parallel passages or from extraneous sources, represented especially by D and the Old Latin versions, also in part by the Curetonian Syriac; the neutral represented by B and largely by fit, preserving beat the original form; the Alexandrian, much purer than the Western, but betraying a tendency to polish the language; and the Syrian, the latest form, a mixed text, borrowing from all, and aiming to be easy, smooth, and complete. They regard B as preeminent above all other manuscripts for the purity of its text; the readings of bt and B combined as generally deserving acceptance as genuine, their ancestries having " diverged from a point near the autographs"; and they attach great weight to every combination of B with another primary Greek manuscript, as L C T D ~ A Z 33, and, in Mark, D. Weatcott and Hort (see WEaTCOTT, BROOKE Foss; HoaT, FENTON JOHN ANTHONY) began their work in 1853. Their method of cooperation was first independent study, then comparison. The Introduction is chiefly the work of Dr. Hort, whose name is one of the greatest in the history of textcriticism. He carried into the study of the text a large knowledge of church history and patristic theology, and it was this breadth of historical knowledge which made the Introduction the great work it is. The genealogical theory, suggested by Bengel and elaborated by later scholars, was here worked into a truly monumental form. A thorough acquaintance with this book is necessary to the student if he would have a clear insight of the deepest tendencies in the teat studies of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries or an understanding of the course taken by text‑study in the

111	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Text
present. Conscious agreement with it or' dfnscioua disagreement and qualification mark all work is this field since 1881.
Of the many other scholars whose labors have aided in the establishment of the text of the Greek New Testament, the Anglican scholar Frederick Henry Ambrose Scrivener (q.v.) deserves mention especially for his editions and collation of
9. Other manuscripts. His Plain Introduction
Orifice of t° the Criticism of the New Testament
the Text. (Cambridge, 1861; 4th ed., by E. Mil‑
ler, 2 vole., London, 1894) is s standard work. Scrivener was an able defender of the later manuscripts as witnesses to the original text against Tiachendorf, Tregelles, and Westcott and Hort. In this contention he had the doughty support of John William Burgon (q.v.) in The Revision Revised (London, 1883). Among Americans, Ezra Abbot and Joseph Henry Thayer; among Hollanders, W. C. Van Manen, J. Cramer, and J. J. Prins; among Frenchmen, P. Batiffol, J. P. P. Martin, and E. Am6lineau; among Italians, Angelo Mai, Carlo Vercellone, and J. Cozza; and among Germans, F. Blare, E. Nestle, B. Weiss, E. Riggenbach, and O. von Gebhardt have made important contributions to textual criticism.
When Weatcott and Hort published their text in 1881 and when, in 1882, Hort's masterpiece on introduction followed, there was a disposition in some quarters to believe that New Testament scholarship had come somewhere near a critical texlus receptor. The genealogical theory first broached by Bengel seemed, after a century and a half of toil, to have led the student into a definite path which would surely lead to a final goal. But significant changes, in feeling if not in opinion, are beginning to manifest themselves. Weatcott
and Hort mark a main epoch in text10. lore study. More clearly than their pred=
Recent ecessors, they showed that the stud
Tenders‑ 	Y
oies.	of the text was inseparable from the
study of church history. But the hypothesis which Hort so powerfully worked out has to some extent wrought its own undoing. The lines of study that it suggested have brought to light so many new facts and so many serious problems that the tone of certitude at one time in fashion has passed away. To Scrivener's description of Weetoott and Hort's text as a splendidum Peccatum few will assent. Yet, beyon$ question, the situation has materially changed. The " Western Text " or, to call it by a safer name, the " SyroWestern Text," which Weatcott and Hort took to be a fairly well delineated fact, has become an imperious problem. The genealogical theory has fulfilled the chief function of a good working hypothesis by introducing order into chaos and pointing to the promising lines of attack upon the vast body of data awaiting the student. But genealogical certitude has declined. With its decline has come a growing disposition to concede to exegesis a certain right against the overweening authority of any group of manuscripts, however imposing. The good text‑critic should also be an accomplished exegete. In liernnard Weiss the two
qualities are in a measure blended. Hence, at s critical point like Rom. v, 1, the exegete in him goes against the authority of A B C D E K L, Vulgate, Peehito, etc., and adopts tXotiev instead of EXorpev.
Monumental work is not at present the order of the day. The searching investigations of the versions, the detailed and comprehensive study of patriotic quotations, larger and clearer knowledge of the mental conditions under which an entire group of texts are likely to have undergone perceptible, even if inconsiderable, changes‑‑in a word, a vast amount of labor lies ahead. The doing of it will require a very considerable time. Meanwhile the confidence and finality of a quartercentury ago are to be replaced by a restrained skepticism.
	S. Principles of Textual Criticism: It is im
possible, within the limits here allowed, to state
and illustrate the principles of criticism applica
ble to the text of the Greek Testament. A few
hints may, however, be given. The object, of
course. is to ascertain which, among two or more
variations of the text presented by our manu
scripts or other authorities, is the original. No
kind of evidence, external or internal, is to be
		neglected. The problem is to be
1. The solved by a process of reasoning
	Bass,
		upon probabilities; and what has
		to be considered, in every case, is
which hypothesis will best explain all the phe
nomena. This fact is sometimes partially stated
under the form of the rule that that reading
is to be accepted as genuine which will best explain
the origin of the other variations. This is an impor
tant rule; but there must be taken into account
not merely the nature of the variations, but the
number, independence, and character of the wit
nesses that support them. The process of criti
cism is not a mechanical one. Authorities must be
weighed, not counted. One good, very early
manuscript may be worth more than a thousand
copies derived from a late and corrupted arche
type. Again, though the presumption is in favor
of the oldest manuscripts, mere antiquity does not
prove the excellence of a copy.
One of the essential prerequisites to intelligent criticism is a thorough study of the occasions of error in manuscripts. This involves a knowledge of paleography and of the history of pronunciation. The similarity of certain letters or abbreviations in their older forma gave occasion to errors which can be only thus explained; and in the corruption of the Greek language, vowels and diphthongs originally distinct in sound
2. Other were pronounced alike (itacism). A
	Canons.	study of the tendencies and habits of
		transcribers is also involved. Many
manuscripts, in the alterations they have re
ceived from later hands, illustrate the manner
in which the text was corrupted. Among the
maxima resulting from such a study, in connection
with the consideration of external testimony, are
these: (1) The more difficult reading is to be pre
ferred (Bengel's great rule). This applies to those
variations which are to be ascribed to design.

Bible Tent	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	112
Transcribers would not intentionally substitute a harsh, ungrammatical, unusual, Hebraietic expression, one that caused a difficulty of any kind, for an easier one. (2) The shorter reading is to be preferred (Poreon'e "surest canon of criticism"). The tendency of scribes was almost always to add, rather than to omit. They did not like to have their copies regarded as incomplete. It was common to insert in the margin of manuscripts, or between the lines, glosses; or explanations of unusual or difficult expressions, also words or clauses which served to supplement the language of one Gospel from the parallel or similar passages in another, or to complete abridged quotations of the Old Testament from the fuller text of the Septuagint. Words accidentally omitted were also placed in the margin, or between the lines. A transcriber might thus easily mistake these glosses, or supplements, of his predecessor for accidental omissions and transfer them to his text. This rule does not apply to cases where an omission can be satisfactorily explained by homaeoteleuton; that is, cases where two successive sentences or parts of sentences have a like ending. The scribe copies the first of these, then his eye glances to the like ending of the second, and he thinks that that is what he has just copied, and omits unconsciously the intervening words. Another prerequisite to successful criticism is a careful study of the principal documents and groups or classes of documents, in connection with the history of the text, so far as it can be traced, in order to determine by a process of comparative criticism their peculiar characteristics, their weak points and their strong points, and the relative antiquity and value of their texts. This process includes the ancient versions and the quotations in the writings of the principal Christian Fathers. It can not be here detailed. Griesbach did good work in this direction, and it has been the special study of Westcott and Hort. It is thus possible to weigh the external evidence in particular cases with some approach to accuracy.
4. Results of the Textual Criticism of the New Testament: The host of "various readings" which an examination of ancient manuscripts, versions, and quotations, has brought to light, perhaps a hundred and fifty thousand in number, alarms some simple‑minded people. Analysis at once dispels the alarm. It is assn that a very large proportion of these readings, say nineteen‑twentieths, are of no authority, no one can suppose them to be genuine; and nineteen‑twentieths of the remainder are of no importance as affecting the sense. Of how much, or rather, of how little, importance, for the moat part, the remainder are can readily be seen by comparing the Revised Version of the New Testament (with its marginal notes) with the text of the Authorized Version, or by an examination of the various readings of the chief modern editors in Scrivener's aVovum Testamentum text= Stephanici A.D. 1660
• . aecedunt varies lediones (8th ed., Cambridge, 1877). The great number of various readings is simply the result of the extraordinary richness of critical resources, Westoott and Ilort remark,
with entire truth, that " in the variety and fulness of the evidence on which it rests, the text of the New Testament stands absolutely and unapproachably alone among ancient prose‑writings."
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the paleography of the N. T.: 8. P. Tregellee, An Account of the Printed Text of the Greek New Testament; with Remarks on its Revision upon Critical Principles, together with a Collation of the Critical Texts of GriabacA, $choZz. Lachmann, and Tiaclundarf, with that in Common Use, London, 1854; E. A. Bond and E. M. Thompson, Facsimiles of Ancient MSS, ib. 1873‑82; W. Wat‑
tenbaeh. Anleitunp cur griecTaiaehsn Palaeographic, Leipaie,
1877; idem, 3chrifttafeln zur Guchichte der grieehiarJaen Schrift, 2 parts, Berlin, 1878‑77; idem and F. A. von Weleen, Exempla codicum Gruorum litteris minuaculia aertptorum, Heidelberg, 1878; idem, Scripturos Grocm epacimina, Berlin, 1883; N. Gardthaueen, Griechiachs Palmopraphie, Leipaie, 1879; J. R. Harris, New Teatament Autograph#, in supplement to AJP, no. 12, 1882; idem, Stichomedy, New York, 1893; T. W. Allen, Notes on Abbreviations in Greek MSS, with Facsimiles, Oxford, 1889; F. Blass, PaZocopraphie, in Handbuch der klaaaiarhen Aiterlhumsvrieaenachaft, vol. i, Munich. 1892; W. A. Copinger, The Bible and its Transmission, London, 1897; F. G. Kenyon, Our Bible and the Ancient MSS, ib. 1897; idem, Bible Manuscripts in the British Museum, Facrimilea, ib. 1901; C. F. $itterly, Praxis in Greek MSS of the N. T. The mechanical and literary Processes involved in their Writing and Preservation, New York, 1898; R. Proctor, The Printing of Greek in the Fifteenth Century, no. 8 of Illustrated Monographs, issued by the Bibliographical Society, London, 1900; DB, iv, 944‑957.
For the old printers consult‑on Christopher Plantin: M. Rooms, Christopher Plantin, imprimeur Anvernoia, Antwerp, 1884; idem, Christopher P1anCin, Correapondanu. Ghent, 1888; T. L. de Vinne, Christopher Plantin and the Plaretin‑MoreEua Museum at Antwerp, New York, 1886; L. Degeorge, La Maiaon Plantin h Anvers, Paris, 1888. On the Stephens: G. A. Crapelet, Robert Estienne, imprimtur royal, Paris, 1839; A. A. Renouard, Annalea do fimprimerie den Ealienne ib. 1843; L. Feu0re Eaaai sur la vie et Ian ouvragsa de Henri Eatitnna, ib. 1853. On the Elsevire: C. Pietere, Annalta de fimprimerit Ela6uirianne, Ghent, 1880; A Willema, Lea Elzlroier: histaire et annalss tgpopraphiques, B‑uaeels, 1880.
Late critical editions are C. Tischendorf, Novum Teatamentum Grew, ad. 8. critics major, Leipsie, 1884‑72; Prolegomena, by C. R. Gregory, ib. 1884‑94, small ed. of text of 8. ed., with selections of readings, ib. 1878; F. H. A. Scrivener and E. Palmer, The Greek Testament with the headings adopted by the Revisers of the Authorised Version, Oxford, 1882; B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hart, N. T. in the Original Greek, Am. ed. with introduction by P. Schaff, 3d ed., New York, 1883; W. 8anday, Lloyd's ad. of Mill's Text with Parallel References, Euaebian Canons
. and three Appendices (published separately, containing variants of Westoott and Hort, and a selection of important readings with authorities, together with readings from Oriental versions, Memphitic, Armenian, and Ethiopia), Oxford, 1889; O, von Gebhardt Novum Teatamentum (with variants of Tregellea and Westoott and Hort), 8th ed., Leipeio, 1894; B. Weiss, Des News Testament, Taztlnitische Untereuchungen and Texdharetellung, ib. 18941900; F. Blass, Acta Apoatolorum give Locos ad Theophilum Tiber alter secundum formam goes roidetw Romano,, ib. 1898; idem, Evangelium xcundum Lucam give Lucee ad ThwpAilum liba prior HIM= tormam guts vuietur
Romanam, ib. 1897; E. Nestle, Teatamentum Novum Or" cum apparatu critico, Stuttgart, 1898 (the use of editions with the M8, variants will still be required); Novum Tutamentum Grocum, editio Stutpardiana, ib. 1898 (based on collation of Tiachendor$ Westoott and Hart,
Weymouth, and Weiss; contains for the Gospels and Acts a selection of MB. readings, chiefly from Codex Bezm).
Treatises on various phases of the history of N. T, tex‑
tual criticism are: F. H. A. Scrivener, A Full and Enact Coll~On of about twenty Greek MSS of the Holy Gospels (hitherto unexamined) . in the British Museum the Archiepiscopal Library at Lambeth, . . with a critical In_
doduetion Cambridge, 1853; idem, A Plain Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament, 4th ed , by E. Miller London, 1894 (conservative); O. T. Dobbin, The codex

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Montjortianno, ib. 1854' F. W. A. BBthRen, Der priechiaehe Text den Cureton'achen 3yrera, Leipaic, 1885; J. R. Harris, The Origin of the Leicester Codex of the N. T., London, 1887; U. J. M. Bebb, Evidence of the Early Versiana and Patristic Quotations on the Tut of . . the N. T., in Studio Biblioa, ii, Oxford, 1890; H. C. Hoskier, A Full Account and Collation of the Greek Cursive Cadez Evang. 60.¢, London, 1890 (contains in Appendix C, A full and exact comparison of the Elzevir Editions of 1624 and 18357; G. H. Gwilliam, The Material for the Criticism of the PeahiUo N. T., in Studio Biblica, iii, 47‑104, Oxford, 1891; F. H. Chase, The Old Syriac Element in the Text of Codex Brew, London, 1893; Mrs. A. $. Lewis, The Four Gospels translated from the Syriac Palimpsest, ib. 1894; R,. C. Beneley, J. R. Harris, and F. C. Burkitt, The Four Gospels in Syriae transcribed from tl,e Syriac Palimpsest, Cambridge, 1894; G. N. Bonwetach and H. Achelis, Die rhrieh lichen griechiachen Schriftateller vor Euaebiua, Berlin, 1897; E. Miller, The Present State of the Textual Controversy respecting the Holy Gospels, London, 1899 (conservative); idem The Textual Controversy and the Twentieth Century, ib. 1901; G. Salmon, Some Thoughts on the Textual Criticism of the N. T., ib. 1897; M. R. Vincent, A Hint. of the Textual Criticism of the N. T., New York, 1899; K. Lake, The Text of the N. T., London, 1900; F. G. Kenyon, Handbook to Textual Criticism of the N. T., ib. 1901; idem, Evidence of Greek Papyri with Regard to Textual Criticism, ib. 1905. On the Revisers' text consult W. M. Sanday in Expositor, 1881.
The principles of textual criticism are discussed at length in Hors's Introduction to Westcott and Hors's Greek Testament, London, 1881, where also is found the moat elaborate discussion of the $inaitia end Vatican MSS. On the Sinaitic MS. consult also F. H. A. Scrivener, Collation o f the Codex Sinaitieua, 3d ed., London, 1867; C. Tixhendorf, Die Anfethtunpen der Sinaibibel. Leipaie, 1883; idem, Die SinaibibeL, ihre Enfdeclcunp, Herauapabe and Aruxrbunp, ib. 1871; idem, Waj/en der Fineternias wider die Sinaibibel, ib. 1863. Convenient manuals are: E. Nestle, Einf4lhrunp in das priaehische Nsue Testament, G&ttingen, 1897. A valuable collection of editions of the Greek Testament, mostly amassed by the late Dr. Isaac H. Hall, is in the library of Union Theological Seminary, New York.
During the last three years considerable discussion has been aroused on the subject of the text, to which the following are the moat important contributions:
	For 1902: J. M. Babb, in DB, iv, 848‑855, 860‑864;
F. Blass, Evangelium aecundum Johannem cum varim leo
tionia delectu, Leipeie; F. C. Burkitt, The Date of Codex
Bezie, in JTS, vol. iii; F. C. Conybeare, Three Early Doo•
dinal Hodihrataona of the Text of the Gospels, in Hibbert
Journal, i. 98‑113; M. D. Gibson, Four remarkable Sinai
MSS, in Expository Times, xiii, 509‑‑511; $. K. Gifford,
Pauli ePistolaa qua farms legerBt Joanne‑8 Chryeoetomua,
Halls; E. J. Goodspeed, The Haskell Gospels, in JBL, aai,
1107; C. R. Gregory, Textkritik den N. T., vol. ii,
Leipsic; C. E. Hammond, Outlines of Textual Criticism
applied to the N. T., Oxford; J. R. Harris, A curious Be
sou reading vindicated, in Expositor, pp. 189‑195; idem,
On a Recent Emendation in the Text of St. Peter, ib., pp.
317‑320; idem, The History of a Conjectural Emendation
(ib., pp. 378‑390); A. Hjelt, Die altayriache Evanpelienitber
aetsunp and Tatiana Diatesaaron, in T. Zahn's Foraehunprn,
viii, 1, Leipeie; K. Lake, Codex 1 of the Gospels and its
AiL'ua, Cambridge; idem, Texts from Mount Athos, in
Studio Biblioa, vo1 v, part 2, pp. 89‑185, London; A. 8.
Lewis, Studio Sinaitica XI. Apocrypha Syriaca, Lon
don; G. R. S. Mead, The Gospels and flu Gospel. Study
in most recent Results of lower and higher Criticism, London;
A. Mars. Die vier kanoniarhsn Evanpsiisn each ihrem ttltea
tan bdcannten Taxte. Ueberutsung and ErIButerunp der
ayrisehart im Sinaikloater pajundenen PalimPaeathandachrif
ten, part 2: Erltluterungen, let half: Matfhltus, Berlin;
E. Nestle, The Greek Testament, with Introduction and
Appendix on irregular Verbs, by R. E. Weidner, New
York; idem, in DB iv, 841i‑482, 737r741; H. von Soden,
Die 3ehrijten den N. T. in ihrer altettan erreiehbaren Text ‑
gestalt, Vol. i, part 1, Berlin; B. Weiss, Daa Neue Testa‑
ment, 3 vole., Leipaic; H. J. White, in DB, iv, 873890.,
	For 1903: L. Bleu. Ueber den 1?;tnRuaa den althe6rdischen '.
Buchwuens auJ die Originals and nuJ die diteatert Hand.
athriften der LXX den N. T. and der Hezapla, Berlin;
F. C. Burkitt, On Codex Ciaromontanua, is JTS, iv, b87
		IL‑8
Bible Teat
588; idem, The Syriac Interpretation of John xiii, /,. in JTS, iv, 438‑438; idem, in EB, iv, 4981‑5012; idem, Further Notes on Codex k, in JTS, v, 100‑107; W. E. Cram, Coptic Oatraka from the Collection of the Egypt Exploration Fund, the Cairo Museum, and others, London; M. D. Gibson, Pour Remarkable Sinai Manuscripts, m Expository Times, siii, b09‑511; J. E. Gilmore, Manuscript Portions of three Coptic LecROn, in PSBA, xxiv, 188‑191; G. H. Gwilliam, The Ape of the Bodleian Syriac Codex Dawkins 3, in JTS, iii, 452 sq.; idem, Place of the Peahitto Version in flue Apparatus eriticua of the Greek N. T., in Studio Biblica, v. 3. pp. 187‑237: K. Lake. Dr. Weiss, Text of the Gospels, is AJ,T, vii, 249‑258; A. Schmidtke, Die Eroanpdian einei alter Unzialcodex, Leipsic; W. B. Smith, The Pauline Manuscripts F and G, in AJT, vii, 4b2‑485. 882‑888; C Taylor, The PericoPe of the Adulteress, in JTS, iv, 129‑130; B. Weiss, Die Perikopa won der Ehebrechsrin, in ZWT, xlvi, 141‑158; A. Wright, A Synopsis o/ the Gospels in Greek, ?d ed., London; O. ZSekler, The Textual Question in Ads, tranal. by A. Steimle, New Rochelle.
For 1904: F. Bless, Ue6er die Te:efkritik im N. T., Leipeie; F. C. Burkitt, Evanpdion Da•Mepharreahe. The Curetonian Version of the tour Gospels, with the Readings of the Sinai Palimpsest and the early Syriac patristic Evidanca, 2 vole., Cambridge; Codex VeronersBas . . . denuo ed. J. Belaheim, Prague; R. D'Onston, The Patristic Gospels. An English Version o f the Holy Gospels as they existed in the second Century, London; J. T. Marshall, Remarkable Readings in the Epistles found in the Palestinian Syriac Leetionary; is JTS, v, 437‑445; J. B. Mayor, Notes on the Text of ll Peter, in Expositor, pp. 284‑293; idem, Notes on the Text of the Epistle of Jude, ib., pp. 45!)480; J. O. F. Murray, Textual Criticism, in DB, extra vol., pp. 208‑238: W. $andaY. The Present Greek Testaments o/ the Clarendon Press, in JTS, v, 279‑280; A New Greek Testament, prepared by E. Nestle. Text with Critical Apparatus, London; Novum Teatamentum . . . Latins xcundum editionem sands Hieronymi . . . recerr suit J. Wordsworth‑H. J. White, part. ii, fast. 2, Aetus Apostoionam, Oxford; C. H. Turner, A Re‑Collation of Codex k of the Old Latin Gospels, in JTS, v, 88‑100.
1905: R. F. Weymouth, The Resultant Greek Text, with readings of Stephens (1550), Lachmann, Tregellea, Lightfoot, and (for the Pauline Epistles) Ellicott, also of A4 ford end Weiss for Matthew, the Basel ed., Westaott and Hors and Revisers, London, 1892, 3d ed., 1905.
1906: F. H. A. Scrivener, Novum Teatamentum, Textua 3tephanici, Vario; Lectiones of Bean, the Etzevira, Lachmann, Tiachendmf, Trepellea, Westcott and Hors, and the Reroiaera, London, 1887, ed. E. Nestle, 1908; A. Deieemsnn. The New Biblical Papyri at Heidelberg, in Expository Times, pp. 248‑254.
The literature of the work which is being done may be found year by Yes' In the Bibliopraphie der thuolopiachen Literatur and in AJT.
	III. Chapter and Verse Divisions: The purpose
of the present division into chapters and verses
was to facilitate reference. These divisions some
times, but not generally, ignore logical and natu
ral divisions. Common opinion concerning chapter
divisions attributes them to Cardinal Hugo of Saint
Char (q.v.) for use in his concordance to the Latin
Vulgate (c. 1240, first printed, with modification,
at Bologna, 1479). This opinion rests on the direct
testimony of Gilbert Genebrard (d. 1597), that
		" the scholastics who with Cardinal
1. Charter Hugo were authors of the concord‑
M°i°l°n`' ancx" made the division. Qudtif and Echard, a century and . a half later than Genebrard, ascribe to Hugo only the subdivision of the chapters presently to be mentioned. The better opinion is, that Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1228), made the chapter division to facilitate citation. Before the invention of printing it had already passed from Latin manuscripts to those of other tongues, told after the

Bible Tent
Bible Versions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	114
invention of printing it became general. It has undergone alight variations from the beginning to the present day. Many early printed Bibles, especially Greek Testaments, besides these chapters retain also the old tmeves or WW. noted in the margin (see above, II, 1, § 5). The chapters were at first subdivided into seven portions (not paragraphs), marked in the margin by the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, reference being made by the chapternumber and the letter under which the passage occurred. In the shorter Psalms, however, the division did not always extend to seven. In Pa. cxix it seems not to have bin used at all. This division (except in the Psalms) was modified by Conrad of Halberstadt (c. 1290), who reduced the divisions of the shorter chapters from seven to four; so that the letters were always either A‑G or A‑D. This subdivision continued long after the introduction of the present verses, but in the seventeenth century was much modified, some chapters having more than four, and less than seven, subdivisions.
The present verses differ in origin for the Old Testament, New Testament; and Apocrypha. In
the canonical Testament they appear. 2. Verse in the oldest known manuscripts Divisions, (see above, I, 1, § 7, 2, § 2), though
Old
they were not used for citation by ment. the Jews till the fifteenth century. The earlier printed Hebrew Bibles marked each fifth verse only with its Hebrew numeral. Arabic numerals were first added for the intervening verses by Joseph Athias, at Amsterdam, 1661, at the suggestion of Jan Leusden. The first portion of the Bible printed with the Maaoretic verses numbered was the Paalterium Quincuplex of Faber Stapulensis, printed at Paris by Henry Stephens in 1509. In 1528 Sanctea Pagninua published at Lyons a new Latin version of the whole Bible with the Masoretic verses marked and numbered. He also divided the Apocrypha and New Testament into numbered verses; but these were three or four times as long as the present ones.
The present New Testament verses were introduced by Robert Stephens in his Greco‑Latin Testament of 1551 (see above, II, 2, § 2).
Stephens says.in his preface that the division is made to follow the most ancient Greek and Latin copies. But it will be difficult, if not impossible, to find any Greek or Latin manuscripts whose divisions coincide very
nearly with Stephens's verses. Doubtless he made this division with reference to his concordance to the Vulgate, then preparing, published in 1555. This Latin concordance, like former ones, contains references to the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and also to the numbers of the verses of each chapter " after the Hebrew method " of division. This latter, the preface states, has special reference to an operi pulchernmo et prceclarisaimo which he is now printing, which moat mean his splendid Bible'of 155657, 3 vole., containing the Vulgate, Pagninus, and the first edition of Beza's Latin New Testament. Meanwhile, for present convenience, he is issuing a more modest
S. Verse
Divisions,
New
Testa
ment.
Bible (Vulgate), with the verses marked and numbered. This latter was his Vulgate of 1555 (Geneva)‑the first whole Bible divided into the present verses, and the first in which they were introduced into the Apocrypha. The text is continuous, not having the verses in separate paragraphs, , like the New Testament of 1551, but separated by a q and the verse‑number. The verse‑division differs in only a very few places from that of 1551; and a comparison shows that the concordance agrees rather with the division of 1551 than with that of 1555. The statement so often made that the division was made " on horseback " while on a journey from Paris to Lyons must be qualified. His son asserts that the work was done while on the journey, but the inference most natural and best supported is that the task was accomplished while resting at the inns along the road.
In other languages the division appeared first as follows: French, New Testament, Geneva, 1552, Bible, Geneva, 1553 (both R. Stephens); Italian, New Testament, L. Paschale (Geneva?), 1555; Dutch, New Testament, Gelliua Ctematius (Gillis van der Erven), Embden, 1556, Bible, Nikolaus Bieatkena van Dieat, Embden, 1580; English, Genevan New Testament, 1557, Genevan Bible, 1560; German, Luther's Bible, perhaps Heidelberg, 1568, but certainly Frankfort, 1582.
In Beza's editions of the Greek Testament (1565‑1604) sundry variations were introduced, which were followed by later editors, notably the Elzevirs (1633, etc.); and many minor. changes have been made, quite down to the present day.
A very convenient and illuminating "table of ancient and modern divisions of the New Testament," giving the divisions in the Vatican manuscript, the titloi, the Ammonian kephalaia, the atic)wi, r9»tata, and the modern chapters and verses, is given in Scrivener, Introduction, i 68. The titloi, kephalaid, and tables of the Eusebian canons are available in such editions as Stephens's Greek Testament of 1550, and Mill's of 1707, 1710. The Greek Testament by Lloyd (Oxford, 1827) and by Mill (1859) give the Euaebian canons. For a synopsis of variations in manuscripts consult J. M. A. Scholz, Novum Teatamerttum Greece, i, Frankfort, 1830, pp. ‑xxix.
The Stephanie verses have met with bitter criticism because of the fact that they break the text into fragments, the division often coming in the middle of the sentence, instead of forming it into convenient and logical paragraphs, an arrangement which has seldom found favor. But their utility for reference outweighs their disadvantage. They should never be printed in separate paragraphs (as in the English Authorized Version), but the text should be continuous and the numbers inserted in the margin (as in the Revised Version).

Bisncoassrax: C. R‑ Gregory, Pro7cpomerw, i,140‑182, Leipeic, 1894; the Inboductiona of ~Tregelles sad Scrivener,
ut sup. under II; B. F, weetoott and F. J A. Hort, N. T.,
Introduction and Ate. PP. 318 eqq., of Am. edition,
New York, 1882; I. H. Hall in Sunday Bdwot Timm, Apr'
2, 1881. onsult also W, Wright, in Kitto'e Cyclopsdia
of Biblical Literature, " Verse, London, 18" (the ed: of
1870 is not so Eood); DCA, ii, 953‑fl67.

116	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Teat
		Bible Versions
BIBLE VERSIONS.
I. Greek Versions.
1. T" Septuagint. Origin (5 1). Printed Editions (§ 2). Early Corruption of the Teat (§ 3). The Hexapla of Origen (§ 4). Lucian and Heaychiue (§ b). Versions Made from the Septuagint (5 e). Manuscripts (§ 7).
2. Later Greek Translations. Aquila (§ 1). 6ymmachus (§ 2). Theodotion (§ 3).
II. Latin Versions.
1. The Latin Bible before Jerome.
I. Arabic Versions.
II Celti3 Versions
III. Dutch Versions.
IV. English Versions. The Earliest Versions 0 1). Wyclif (§ 2). Tyndale (§ 3). Coverdale. Other Editions (§ 4). The Douai Bible (§ b). The Authorised Version (§ 8). The Revised Version (§ 7). Minor Versions (§ 8). Rare and Curious Editions (§ 9).
V. Finnish and Lappish Versions.
VI. French Versions. The Earlier Versions (§ 1). Guyard des Moulins (12). Protestant Versions (§ 3). Roman Catholic Versions (§ 4).
A. Ancient Versions.'
The Old Latin Bible. The Itals (4 1>.
Manuscripts and Editions (§ 2).
Quotations in Latin Writers (§ 3).
2. The Bible of Jerome (the Vulgate).
Jerome's Work. The New Testament (§ 1).
The Old Testament (§ 2).
History to the Invention of Printing (§ 3).
Earlier Printed Editions (§ 4).
The 8ixtine‑Clementine Edition (5 5):
Later Work. Problems (¢ 8).
3. Later Latin Translations. IIL Syriac Versions.
1. The Peehito.

B. Modern Versions.
VII. German Versions.
Old German Fragments (§ 1),
Printed Bibles Before Luther (§ 2).
Luther's Bible (§ 3).
Revision of Luther's Version (§ 4).
Other Versions (§ b).
VIII. Greek Versions, Modern.
IX. Hebrew Translations of the New Testament.
X. Hungarian (Magyar) Versions.
The First Versions (§ 1),
The Komdromi Bible (§ 2).
Modern Versions (§ 3).
XI. Italian Versions.
XII. Lithuanian and Lettish Versions.
XIII. Persian Versions.
Bible versions, or translations of the original Hebrew and Greek of the Old and New Testaments, may be treated in an encyclopedia from different points of view: (1) from the critical, as instruments with which to reconstruct the original text,; (2) from the exegetical, as showing how the Bible was understood in different times and places; (3) from the historical, as documents for showing the extent of the Bible and of its propa, gation among the nations of the earth; (4) from a literary and philological standpoint, since the Bible versions are often the earliest monuments of the respective languages.
Versions are either primary and direct, as the Septuagint, or secondary and indirect, derived versions, as the Old Latin. [They now exist, either for the entire Bible or a part, in more than five hundred languages. During 1906 eleven new versions were added and translation or revision is in progress in over one hundred tongues. Scriptures for the blind are issued by the British and Foreign Bible Society in fifteen languages.] Manifestly only a selection of the more important versions can be treated here.
i The principle of arrangement adopted in thin series of articles is that of age, not simply, however, on account of chronological precedence, but because necessarily the earliest versions are, generally speaking, the moat important for text‑critical purposes. Two main divisions are thus formed: A, Ancient Versions; and B, Modern Versions. The versions treated under A are arranged approximately in order of text‑critical value; under B, alphabetically.
Origin and Name (5 1).
The Old Testament (5 2).
The New Testament (§ 3).
2. Later Versions.
IV. The Samaritan Pentateuch.
V. Aramaic Versions (the Targume).
Origin and Language ($ 1).
Targum Onkeloa (5 2).
Targum Jonathan (§ 3).
Other Targums of the Law and Prophets (5 4).
The Hagiography (§ b),
VI. The Armenian Version.
VII. Egyptian Coptic Versions.
VIII. The Ethiopia Version.
IX. The Georgian (Iberian) Venison.
X. The Gothic Version of Ulfilaa.
XIV. Portuguese Versions.
XV. Scandinavian Versions. Before the Reformation (5 1). Since the Reformation (§ 2).
XVI. Slavonic Versions.
The Old Church Slavonic Version (§ 1).
Russian Versions (§ 2).
Bulgarian and 13ervisn Versions (§ 3).
Slovenian and Croatian Versions. (5 4>.
Bohemian Version ($ b).
Wendish or Sorbio Versions
(5 e).
Polish Versions ($ 7).
XVII, Spanish Versions.
XVIII. Bible Versions in the Mission Field.
	Of the complete Bible in the original languages
there is as yet but one edition in existence: Biblia
Sacra tam V eteria quam Novi Teatamenti cum APocry
phia secundum Pontes Hebrteos et Greeeoa, ed. Q. B.
Michaelis (2 vole., Zilllichau, 1740‑‑41; cf. the cor
respondence on this point in the Sunday School
Times, Sept. and Oct., 1899, raised by a statement
in the TLZ, 1899, no. 14). 	E. NESTLE.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Among older works the following are indispensable: J. H. Hattinger, Dieaertationum theodopicophilolopicasum faaciculue, Heidelberg, 1880 (deals with Jewish and Christian translations); Richard Simon, Hiatoire critique du Vieux Testament, Amsterdam, 1880, Eng, traoel., London, 1882; idem, Hiatoire critique den version@ du Nouveau Testament, Rotterdam, 1890, Eng. travel., London, 1892; idem, Hiatoire critique du texts du Nouveau Testament, Rotterdam, 1889, Eng. tranal., London, 1889; idsm, Nouvelles observations our Is texts et lea versions du Nouveau Testament, Paris, 1895 (on Simon consult H. Margival, in Revue d'hietoire et de litt6rature relipisueea, Jan., Feb., 1898).
Bibliographical information is to be sought in the following: J. Le Long, Bibliotheca Sacra, emendate . . . ab A. li. Match, 2 parts in b vole., Halls, 1778‑‑90 (pert 1 deals with edition of the original texts, part 2, in 4 vole., deals with version); Article Bibei in J. S. Ersch and J. G. Gruber, ARgentsine Encyklopddie, reprinted as a saps. rate volume, Leipeio, 1823; The Bibles in this Caxton Ex
hibition, London, 1878; British Museum Catalogue, entry
"Bible,"4 parts, including Appendix, London, 189?‑99 (the
fullest list printed of edition of the Bible and of its parts);
T. H. Darlow and F. H. Moule, Historical Catalogue of the
Printed Editions of Holy Scripture is the Library of the
British and Foreign Bible Society, vol. i, English, London,
1903, vol, ii not yet issued. Of specific interest are: I ‑
Rain, ReperWrium bibliopraphicum, 5 vole., Stuttgart,
1828‑91, Supplement by W. A. Copinger, 3 vole, London

Bible Versions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	118
1894‑1902, Appendices by D. R.eichling. Munich, 1905‑05; W. T. Lowades, Bibliographer's Manual, 4 vole., London, 1857‑64; J. C. Brunet. Manuel du Libraire, 7 vole., Paris, 1860‑78. Consult also the works of Loisy, Copinger, and Kenyon given under BIBLE TEXT, I; the table of Bible Translations in J. 3. Dennis, Centennial Survey o/ Foreign Missions, New York, 1904; T. Haring. Daa Verat6ndniea der BibeL in der Entudcklunp der Menachhsit, Tiibingen, 1905, and DB, iv, 848‑865, extra volume, 236271, 402‑420.
A. Ancient Versions.
I. Greek Versions.‑1. The Septuagint: The Bible version moat important in every respect is the Alexandrian translation of the Old Testament, the so‑called Septuagint. " Custom now holds to the version which is called the Septuagint," writes Augustine (De civitate Dei, xviii, 42). The term " Septuagint " is as abbreviation of secundum sePtuaginta interpretes; the subscription of Genesis
in the Codex Vaticanus is " According
	1. Origin.	to the Seventy "; Codex A has before
		Isaiah, "the Edition of the Seventy ";
this is based on the story that King Ptolemy
Philadelphus, by the advice of his librarian Deme
trius Phalereus, asked from the high priest Eleazar
of Jerusalem seventy‑two scholars, who translated
for him in seventy‑two days the law, and, after a
later form of the legend, in seventy‑two (or thirty
six) cells, the seventy‑two or thirty‑six copies
being found without any variation when brought
together and compared. The story is first told in
the so‑called "Letter of Aristeas" (see ARI$TEA$),
who pretends to be one of the officers sent by
Philadelphus to Jerusalem, and is wholly unhis
torical.
As the date of the version ancient chronicles mention the 2d, 7th, 17th, 18th, 19th, or 20th year of Philadelphus, the year 1734, 35, 36, or 37 of Abraham; as its day the 8th of Tebeth, a day of darkness like that on which the golden calf was made (cf. 111argoliouth, in the Expositor, Nov., 1900, 348‑349). Philo relates, on the contrary, that the Jews of Alexandria kept in his time an annual festival "in commemoration of the time when the interpretation first shone out, and they praised God for his works in times new and old." He knows that the interpreters asked God's blessing on this undertaking; " for he answered their prayers that more and more the whole race of men might be assisted to correctness of life in thought and deed." This aspiration was fulfilled when the version became one of the chief instruments for the preparation and propagation of Christianity (on this aspect of the version cf. E. W. Grinfield, Apology for the Septuagint, London, 1850; W. R. Churton, The Influence of the Septuagint on the Progress of Christianity, London, 1861; A. Deissmann, Die Hellenisierung des semitischen Monotheismus, Leipsic, 1903). It is not yet certain whether the translation is due, as the legend purports, to the literary interest of a king who was a bibliophile; or, as is the common view at present, to the religious wants of the Jewish community of Alexandria; or to the needs of an intended Jewish propaganda. For the latter view the prologue of Eccteaiasticus may be mentioned, which is, at the same time, the first witness to speak
of all three parts of the Hebrew Bible as already extant in Greek; Ariateas, Philo, and Josephus speak only of the law. Of the several books of the Old Testament only Esther has a statement about the translation of the book, which is referred generally to Soter II (114 B.C.), but by H. Willrich (Judaica, Gottingen, 7900) to Ptolemy XIV (48 B.C.). At the end of Job is the strange notide: "This is interpreted from the Syrian book."
The first part of the Septuagint to be multiplied by the printing‑press was the Psalms in the Greek and Latin Psalter of Bonacursiua (Milan, Sept. 20, 1481; in Greek alone, Venice, 1486, and again by Aldus Manutius about 1497). The complete editions fall into four classes according as they are derived from one or another of four original editions,
2. Printed of which the first (designated as c) is
Editions. the Complutenaian Polyglot of Car‑
dinal Ximenes, printed 1514‑17 but not published until 1521 (see BIBLE, POLYGLOT, I; cf. Franz Delitzach, Studien zur Entstehungsgesehichte der Polyglottenbibel des Cardinals Ximenes, Leipsic, 1871, supplemented 1878‑86; T. H. Darlow and F. H. Moule, Historical Catalogue
. of the BFB.S, ii, London, 1908, 1 sqq.). Of the manuscripts used for the Greek Old Testament we know with certainty Vat. Gr. 330 and 346, and Yenet. 5 (=Holmes‑Parsons 108, 248, and 68). The second (a) is the Aldine Bible published by Andreas Asulanus, father‑in‑law of the elder Aldus (Venice, 1518). Among the manuscripts used were Holmes‑Parsons 29, 68, 121, all of Venice. The third and most important is the Editio Sixtina (b), published by Pope Sixtus V (Rome, 1586 [1587]) on the basis of Codex Vat. Gr. 1209 (=B, in the article BIBLE TEXT, II, 1, § 9). Besides c and a, the manuscripts Holmes‑Parsons 16, 19, 23, 51 seem to have been used, especially for the scholia, which were collected chiefly by Petrus blorinua and enlarged by Flaminius Nobilius in the Latin translation published 1588. The fourth edition (4 vols. folio and 8 vole. 8vo, Oxford, 1707‑20) was begun by Johannes Ernst Grebe (q.v.), who published vols. i and iv (1707, 1709), and after his death (1711) was completed by Francis Lee (vol. ii, 1719) and George Wigan (•rol. iii, 1720). It is based on the Codex Alexandrinus (A; see BIBLE TEXT, II, 1, § 9) with use of other sources, especially Origen's Hexapla, has useful prolegomena, and possesses a merit of its own.
These editions have been often reproduced‑the Sixtine edition most frequently‑with more or less of editorial labor (for list of reprints, etc.; also mention of the more important editions of single books of the Greek Old Testament, cf. the HauckHerzog RE, iii, 4‑9 and Swete, Introduction, 171194). But no existing edition of the Septuagint satisfies present wants, for none gives an exact reproduction of the manuscript or manuscripts which it follows, nor does any provide a full apparatus criticus. The first. attempt to satisfy the latter want was made in the great work begun by Robert Holmes (q.v.) and completed after his death (1805) by James Parsons, Vetus Testamentum Gr(ecum, cum variis lectionibus (5 vole., Oxford, 1798‑1827; cf. Swete, Introduction, 184‑187; Church

117	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Qersioas
Quarterly Review, Apr., 1899, 102 eqq., and the annual accounts published during the progress of the work from 1789 to 1805). The text is that of b. Not less than 164 volumes of manuscript collations prepared for this work are still in the Bodleian Library. All manuscripts, versions, and quotations were put under contribution. Despite some drawbacks in the plan and still more in the execution, the work deserves admiration; it is still indispensable to all who wish full information about the Old Testament in Greek. The advance made in the course of the nineteenth century is due, on the one hand, to the discovery of new materials (e.g. the Codex Sinaiticas ; see BIBLE TExm, Il, 1, § 9); on the other, to greater exactness in handling witnesses Both these advantages are evident in the work of C. Tischendorf, P, de Lagarde, and H. B. Swete. Tischendorf (Yetus Testamentum Greece juxta LXX interpreter, 2 vole., Leipsic, 1850; 7th ed., 1887) repeated the text of b and enriched it with variants from the Codex Alexandrines, Ephraemi Rescriptvs, and (after 1869) the Sinaiticvs, adding rich prolegomena. Lagarde's work, though left incomplete, was monumental (for list of his publications, see LAGAItDE, PAUL ANTON DE). Swete reproduced in his edition (The Old Testament in Greek according to the Septuagint, 3 vole., Cambridge, 1887‑94; 2d ed., 1895‑99; 3d ed., 191‑07) for the first time not the printed text of h, but the Vatican manuscript itself, in the first edition according to the facsimile impression of Fabiani‑Cozza (Rome, 1869‑81), which for the second has been revised (by E. Nestle) after the photographic reproduction. Where the manuscript is deficient the text has been taken from the oldest manuscript accessible in a trustworthy form, while under the text variants have been given from some of the oldest manuscripts, a8 Sinaiticus, Alexandrines, and Ambrosianus. The merit of this edition is that it gives the materials with greatest accuracy; its defect, that it does not make any attempt to construct the text according to the principles of textual criticism, but follows the leading manuscript even in its most glaring faults. And in some books at least (e.g. in Ecclesiasticus), the oldest manuscripts are far from being the best. But this deficiency is fully explained by the fact that the edition is intended to be but the basis of a great critical edition now in course of preparation, of which the first part has already appeared, The Old Testament in Greek, according to the Text, of Codex Yatieanus Supplemented from Other Uncial Manuscripts, with a Critical Apparatus Containing the Variants o f the Chief Ancient Authorities for the Text o f the Septuagint, ed. A. E. Brooke and N. McLean, vol. i, The Octaleuch, part i, Genesis (Cambridge, 1906; cf. .1TS, iii, 601‑621, and E. Nestle, Die grosse Cambridger Septuaginta, in Yerhandlungen des Xlll.InternationalenOrientalistenkongresses, 1902; idem, Septuagintastudien, vol. v, 1907 ).
There are two English translations: The Septuagint Version of the Old Testament according to the Vatican Text, translated into English, with the principal various readings of the Alexandrine copy,
and a table o f comparative chronology, by Sir Lancelot Charles Lee Brenton (2 vole., London, 1844; has also the Greek text); the other by Charles Thomson (Philadelphia, 1808; new ed., The Old Covenant, commonly called the Old Testament, by S. F. Pells, 2 vole., London, 1904).
That there is yet slot a satisfactory edition of the Septuagint is not because of want of materials for its preparation‑there is on the contrary an embarras de richesse‑but of its complicated history. The history of a translation will always be more complicated than that of Corruption
	of the	an original text, but in this case it
	Teat.	is the more so as the Septuagint is
		a work of Jewish origin, taken over
into the Christian Church. Of the pre‑Christian
period of its history next to nothing is known.
There are some Hellenistic writers who used the
Septuagint, as Demetrius, Eupolemus, Aristeas
(the historian), Ezekiel, and Aristobulue; but the
preserved fragments of their writings are too few
and incomplete to establish more than the mere
fact that they used the Septuagint. Philo made
extensive use of the law, but his quotations from
the rest of the Old Testament are very few, and
from Ruth, Esther, Ecclesiastes, Canticles, Lam
entations, Ezekiel, and Daniel he does not quote
at all. Besides, his writings can be traced back only
to the library of Origen, and have been transmitted
to us probably exclusively through Christian copy
ists. For Josephus we must be content to know
that for his description of the restoration he used
what is now called I Eedras; but about his relation
to the chief manuscripts there is uncertainty.
Even the quotations in the New Testament do
not justify very definite statements, except that
they prove that already in those times the copies
were not free from textual corruption (cf. Heb, iii,
9, xii, 5). A little later the situation is described
by Origen‑speaking, it is true, chiefly of the
manuscripts of the New Testament, but what he
says holds good also of those of the Old Testament:
" Now it is clear that there has come a great
difference in copies, either through the laziness of
scribes or from the audacity of those who intro
duced corruptions as amendments, or of others
who took away from or added to their new text
such things as seemed good to them."
	If the situation was already bad, since any copyist
or reader who was acquainted with the original
might change single passages on comparison with
the Hebrew, it became worse when new translations
		appeared, especially those of Aquila,
4. TheHea‑ S		aches and Theodotion (see be‑
	apla of	low, 2). At last a systematic com
		parison of the Septuagint with the
Hebrew and these versions was earned out by Ori
gen in the Hexapla (see ORIGEN), and what ap
peared to him a safeguard against the calamity
that threatened the text turned out‑not by his
fault, but through later ignorance and careleesness
the worst aggravation of it. In continuation of the
passage just quoted, he goes on to say that through
the guidance of God he found a way to correct
the dissonance in the copies. Using the Hebrew
a8 a criterion, and adopting the text of the Septua•

Bible Versions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	118
gint which confirmed the Hebrew, he made the two the ground text, and marked changes by diacritical signs. It is pardonable that he took his Hebrew text ‑whence he got it is not known‑as the original text; but it was contrary to sound criticism to take those readings of the Septuagint which agreed with the Hebrew for the true ones, instead of those which differed from it (cf. the third axiom of La.garde for the restoration of the Septuagint, Mittheilungen, i, 21). Nevertheless we should be extremely thankful if the work of Origen had been preserved. Until 1896 it was known only from the deBCrip_ lions of EuBebius, Jerome, Epiphanius, and some later writers, and by specimens preserved in scholia of Biblical manuscripts, a great part also by a literal Syriac translation (see below, § 6). In 1896 Giovanni Mercati discovered in a palimpsest of the Ambroaian Library of Milan the first continuous fragments of a copy of the Hexapla, and in 1900 another and much older piece was found by C. Taylor among the Greek palimpsests from the Cairo genizah in the Taylor and Schechter collection. These fragments show that Origen put generally only one Hebrew word, or at the most two, in one line; the extent of the work, therefore, must have been much greater than was previously supposed. The later fate of the original is unknown. Jerome saw and used it in the library at Caeaarea; it may have been destroyed there during the invasion of the Arabs.
Origen arranged his work in six columns, the first containing the Hebrew text in Hebrew letters, the second the same in a Greek transcription, the third the translation of Aquila, the fourth that of Symmachus, the fifth the Septuagint, the sixth the translation of Theodotion. For some books, especially the Psalms, Origen had a fifth, sixth, sad even a seventh translation at his disposal (Bee below, 2, § 3). In the Septuagint column he used the system of diacritical marks which was in use with the Alexandrian critics of Homer, especially AriatarchuB, marking with an obelue‑under different forma, as = , called lemniacus, sad ‑ , called hypolemniBCUS‑those passages of the Septuagint which had nothing to correspond in Hebrew, and inserting, chiefly from Theodotion under an asterisk (*), those which were missing in the Septuagint; in both cases a metobelus ( y ) marked the end of the notation. This column was copied afterward with additional excerpts from the other versions on the margins; and, if it had been copied with all its critical marks, it would have been well, but later copyists neglected these , completely and produced what we may call kryptohexapIaric manuscripts, completely spoiling by this carelessness the value of the Septuagint for critical purposes. Such a copy, for instance, is, for Kings, the Codex Alexandrines ; and it is but a poor defense of these copyists that the same process has been repeated in the nineteenth century by the Moscow and Athens reprints of Grebe's edition of that codex.
After Origen, EusebiuB and his friend Pamphilua were careful to continue or disseminate his exegetical labors. Copies of the Pentateuch are known which were compared with the Samaritan text
	(cf. S. Kohn, Samareitixort and Septuagir4a, in
	Monataaehrtft liar Wiseeasehaft des Judenthums,
	new aeries, i, 1894, pp. 1‑7, 497; ZDMG, 1893,
	p. 650). Jerome mentions besides Eusebius and
6. Lucian Pamphilus, Lucian and HesychiuH, the
		sad	text of the former being used from
	Hesyohins. Constantinople to Antioch, that of
			the latter in Alexandria and Egypt,
	while the provinces between, especially Palestine,
	kept to the copies of Origen as published by
	Eusebius and Pamphilue (pr&,fatio in paraliPo
	mena ; Adv. Ru finum, ii, 27). About neither the
	work nor the person of HesychiuH (see HEBYCHIUB,
	1) is there complete certainty. He may have
i,	been the martyr bishop mentioned by Eusebius
	(Hiat. eccl., viii, 13) together with Phileas of
	Thmuis. The result of his labors is sought
	now for the Octateuch in the manuscripts 44,
	74, 76, 84, 106, 134; for the prophets, especially
	Isaiah and the Twelve, in the Codex Marchalianus
	and its supporters 28, 108, 198, 306 (cf. N. McLean,
	in JTS, ii, 1901, p. 306, and A. Ceriani, De Codice
	Marchaliano, Rome, 1890, pp. 48 Bqq., 105 sqq.).
	Lucian was a deacon of Antioch, who died a
	martyr at Nicomedia 312 (Bee LUCIAN THE MAR
	TYR). He must have known a Hebrew text which
	showed many peculiarities, especially in the his
	torical books, sad perhaps used for his pur
	poses the Syriac version. The first part of his
	work has been edited by Lagarde in Librorum
	Yeteris Testamenti canonicorum, pares Prior, grace
	(GiSttingen, 1883; cf. his Mittheilungen, ii, 171).
	But this revision must not be confounded with
	the original Septuagint any more than the Eng
	lish Revised with the Authorized Version. Since
the fourth century very little has been done in
	the Greek Church for its Bible. Emperors di
rected beautiful copies of it to be written‑e.g.,
	Constantine ordered !iffy copies through Eusebius
	for the new churches of his capital, sad for Con
Btans Athanasius procured " copies of the divine
	writings," one of which is perhaps preserved in
the famous Codex Yaticasus. Other royal persons
wrote them with their own hands.
Latin was probably the first language into which the Septuagint was translated. (On the Latin version, or rather versions, of the Septuagint see below, II, 1. It is a pity that so little of these labors has been preserved, and that these few remnants are so difficult of access.) After the Latin versions came
e. Versions
		the Egyptian (Bee VII), Here the
	Here difficulty of the language makes
from the these helps for restoration of the
8eatusaiat. Septuagint accessible to few. Similar
		is the case with the moat neglected
branch of the Semitic languages, the Ethiopic
(Bee VIII). The Arabia versions (see B, I) are
for a great part too late to have much weight
for the critic of the Septuagint. The Gothic
version (see X) is an outcome of the Lucianic re
cession, for which it would have great importance,
both for age and literalness, but very little of the
Old Testament is preserved in Gothic. The Luci
anic recession is also the basis of a Slavonic version
(Bee B, X VI) and through it of the Georgian (see IX).

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
The Armenian version (see VI) is again of great importance, also the so‑called Syro‑Hexaplar version made in the year 616‑617 by Paul, bishop of Tells (Constantine in Mesopotamia), in a cloister near Alexandria with the utmost fidelity from manuscripts which went back by few intervening links to the very copies of the Hexapla and Tetrapla of Origen. The greater is the pity, therefore, that only fragments have been preserved, and that especially the codex which Andr6 du Maes (Masius, d. 1573) had in his hands, containing the historical books (including part of Deuteronomy and Tobit), has been lost, and that only a part of this Bible (poetical and prophetic books) is still preserved in the Ambrosias Library at Milan, hence called Codex Syro‑hexaplaria Ambrosianus (published in a photolithographic facsimile edition by A. Ceriani as Vol. vii of the Monuments saga et profana, Milan, 1874). The fragments of Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Joshua, Judges, and I and II Kings have been most carefully edited in the last work of Paul de Lagarde, Bibtiothects Syriac&, a Paulo de Lagarde collectce quce ad philologiam sacram pertinent (G8ttingen, 1892). For earlier works on this version cf. E. Nestle, Litteratura SrJriaca (reprinted from his Syrische Grammatik, Berlin, 1888), 290; of. also T. S. Rordam, Libri Judicum et Ruth (Copenhagen, 1859‑61), and F. Field, Otium Norvicense, i (Oxford, 1864), and his edition of the Hexapla (Oxford, 1875). There are also fragments in the special dialect called Syro‑Palestinian, on which of. Swete, Introduction, 114, and F. C. Burkitt, in JTS, ii, 174 sqq.
Up to the present day in several Churches these versions based on the Septuagint have been retained and even in those where they have been replaced by translations from the original, as in the Latin West through Jerome or in modern Europe through the Reformation, the influence of the Septuagint is still very marked; note, for instance, the names of the Biblical books in the latest of these revisions, the English Revised Version.
The versions just mentioned are one of the three sources which exist for the recovery of the true text of the Septuagint, the first class being, of
7. Mann‑ .°°urse, the Greek manuscripts still
	scripts.	m existence, the third the quotations
		of ancient writers. A list of the more
ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint was given in
the eighteenth century by Stroth in Eichhorn's Re
pertorium (Leipsic, 1777 sqq.), vole. v eqq.; the
most complete list was formerly that in the pref
aces of Holmee‑Parsons; then in the prolegom
ena of Tischendorf and in Lagarde's Genesis
Greece ; but reference may now be made to Swete,
Introduction, pp. 122‑170. A few remarks on some
of them may be offered.
The four great uncials, K or S, A, B, and C, are the chief manuscripts also for the New Testament (see Bi$r.z TEXT, II, 1, § 9). For N there is needed a photographic reproduction or a complete new collation. The notations from A in Swete's Septuagint need revision, at all events in the first volume. Of B a new photographic reproduction is in preparation; on the suggestion of Rahlfs that B is dependent on Athanasius, cf.
Bible Versions
E. Nestle, introduction to the Textual Criticism of the Greek New Testament (London, 1901), 62, 181, where (note 1) read Constantius instead of Constane. Concerning the famous illuminated Codex Cottonionun (D), which was badly injured by fire in 1731, nothing new has come to light since Swete wrote; it is well to mention the name of Martin Folkes as editor, by whom were issued the facsimiles in the Vetuata monuments of 1747. On the purple illuminated Genesis of Vienna (L), there is a dissertation by W. Lildtke (Greifswald, 1897), who is inclined to ascribe this oldest Biblical history with illuminations to the second part of the fifth century. To the eighteen uncial manuscripts enumerated by Swete (Introduction, pp. 146‑148) as not yet used for any edition of the Septuagint and remaining without a symbolical letter or number, may be added: fragments of Genesis at Vienna (cf. Philologischer Anzeiger, xiv, 1884, 415); a Hebrew‑Greek palimpsest containing fragments of Ps. cxliii, cxliv; and parts of four leaves from a papyrus codex of Genesis, of the late second or early third century (Oxyrhynchus papyri no. 656). On the minuscules scarcely anything has been done lately, except that some will be used in the Cambridge edition mentioned above (1 2). For facsimiles, cf. F. G. Kenyon, Facsimiles of Biblical Manuscripts in the British Museum (London, 1901).
The question, in which set of manuscripts the purest text is to be found, is not yet settled. It is the more complicated since the Old Testament is a collection of books which in one and the same manuscript may have had a very different pedigree; for whole Bibles (pandectes, such as manuscripts t4, A, and B) do not seem to have been produced much before the time of Eusebius or Origen.
2. Later Greek Translations: The rupture between Church and Synagogue led to new translations. The authors of at least three of them are known by name, Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion.
Of the Fathers of the Church, Irenaeus is the first who mentions Aquila of Pontus as a translator of the Bible. Epiphanius calls him a "Greek" and a relation of Hadrian, and tells that
	1. Aquila‑	he was placed by Trajan in charge of
		the rebuilding of Jerusalem, that he
became a Christian but returned to the Jewish
faith. Epiphanius places his translation in the
twelfth year of Hadrian, 430 years, four months, less
nine days after the Septuagint. Jewish sources
mention a proselyte Aquila, a contemporary of
Rabbis Eliezer, Joshua, and Akiba, who met Har
drian and is called his nephew, and is praised as
translator of the Bible in the words of Ps. xlv,
"thou art fairer than the children of men "; some
passages of his translation are quoted.
It is not clear as yet, whether or how the dates of Epiphanies and the statements of the PseudoClementine writings about Aquila, the disciple of Simon Magus, are to be combined. That Aquila the translator of the Bible is the well‑known husband of Priscilla in the New Testament is a fancy of Hausdorff. His translation, the use of which was

Bible Versions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	120
permitted in the synagogue by Justinian, is the most literal ever produced, and enough has been preserved to judge of its value and character. Up to 1897 all known of it went back to the Hexapla of Origen (cf. F. Field, Origertis Hezaplorum guts supersunt, 2 vols., Oxford, 1867‑75, and, on Field, J. H. Burn, Expository Times, Jan., 1897). In 1897 for the first time a continuous portion of his translation came to light in a palimpsest of the Cairo Synagogue, showing the tetragrammaton written in Old Hebrew letters. The statement of Jerome that Aquila made two versions, " a second edition, which the Hebrews call ` the accurate one,"' seems to be correct. Some new fragments to be added to Field are in J. B. Pitra, Artttleda sacra (Paris, 1876); E. Kloatermann, Arealekta zur Septuttginta (Leipaic, 1895); Jerome, in Anecdote Mtaredaolarea, iii, 1.
According to Epiphanius, Symmachua was a Samaritan, and lived not under Severus, but under " Verua " (i.e., Marcus Aurelius; cf. Lagarde, Symmicta, ii, Giittingen, 1.880). Geiger identified the translator with Symmachus ben Joseph, dis‑ ciple of Rabbi Meir (Jiidiache Zeit‑
anaahne. echrift fur Wissenschaft ured Lebert, i,
1862, pp. 624). Origen got the manuscript of his translation from a certain Juliana of Caesarea, who had received it with other works of Symmachus from Symmachua himself. Whether the Ca'sarea where she lived was that of Palestine or Cappadocia is in doubt. In the sixteenth century Symmachus's works were still in existence at Rodosto near Constantinople (cf. R. F6rster, De antiquitatibus et libris manuscriptia Conatantinopolitanis, Restock, 1877; T. Zahn, TLS, 1893, p. 43). Symmachua wrote the most elegant Greek of all these translators. Jerome quotes in three passages a second translation.
Theodotion, according to Irenteus, was from Ephesus; according to Epiphanius, from Pontus; 3. Theodo‑ he went over from Gnosticism to
	lion.	Judaism. His work is a revision of
		the Septuagint and has therefore
been placed by Origen in his Hexapla next to
the column of the Septuagint. For the same
reason Origen made use chiefly of Theodotion
to supply such passages as were missing in the
Septuagint (cf. I Sam. xvii, 12 eqq.; Jer.
xxxiii, 14‑26; xxxix, 4‑13). For the Book of
Daniel his version came into general use in the
Church, while the older Greek version has been
preserved only in the one codex (Chisianus) dis
covered 1772. Readings similar to those of Theo
lotion are found before his time (on this question
cf. E. Konig, Einleitung, ii, 108; TLS, 1897, 51;
Stark, ZWT, 1895, 288). Howorth offers some
unconventional views (PSBA,1891‑92) on the ques
tion whether Chronicles and Ezra‑Nehemiah in our
editions of the Septuagint are from Theodotion.
That his name has the same meaning as that of
the Targumist Jonathan seems accidental.
Besides these versions, which covered the whole Old Testament‑note, however, that for Samuel we have no quotations from Aquila‑Origen succeeded in finding, at least for certain parts, more translations: the one which lie numbered five, in Nicopo‑
lis near Actium; the sixth with other Hebrew and Greek books in a clay jar near Jericho in the time of Antoninua, the son of Severus.
Deserving of brief mention is a Greek translation which is 1,000 years younger than the preceding, the (irtecus Yertetus, which first became known in 1740 through the catalogue of the library of San Marco. The complete and final edition is due to O. von Gebhardt (Grceeus Vettetua, Perttateuchi, Proverbiorum, Ruth, Cantici, EcctP,siastw, Thrertonsm, Danielis grteca versio, with preface by F. Delitzach, Leipsic, 1875). Delitzach is inclined to see in the translation the work of a Jew, Elieseus, who lived at the court of Mural I in Prusa and Adrianople; von Gebhardt, that of a proselyte. The rendering of "Yahweh" by ontourgos, ousiiites and the use of the Doric dialect for the Aramaic portions of Daniel are interesting. E. NF$TLE.

Bxsn:oaaerav: The following is Poly s selection out of the vast body of literature available. The critical Introduolions and Commentaries on the Old Testament and on separate parts deal more or lees fully with the subject. For the literature on Polyglots see BIBLES, POLYGLOT; for that on Arietese see Aste2zAs; and on printed editions of the Septuagint cf. H. B. 8wete, Introduction, pp. 171‑194 London 1902. On the Septuagint in general consult besides the works mentioned in the text: J. H. Hottinger, Exercitationea Anti‑Moriniance, Zurich, 1844; idem, Diaaertatiosum . . . faeciculua, Heidelberg, 1880; A. Caloviue, Criticue eater, Leipsic, 1848; L. Cappellus, Critics sass. Paris, 1850: J. Buxtorf. Anticritica, aeu roindicios roeritatss Hebraicoa, Basel, 1853; J. Usaher, De Graea septuayinta interpretum versions ayntapma, London, 1855; J. Morinus, Exercitationea eccteaiaa(dcos et biblicoz. Paris, 1889; H. Holy. De bibtiorum Eeztibus origirwlibua, Oxford, 1705; J. E. Grebe, Eyiatola ad J. Mi7lium, Oxford, 1705; idem, Do roitiia aeptuapinta inkrprelum, ib. 1710; E. Leigh, Critics sass, 5th ed., London, 1708; A. Trommius, Concosdantice Grmcos roeraionia, Amsterdam, 1718; w. whiaton, Essay toward Restoring the
True Text of the Old . . . Testament, London, 1722,
and Supplement (to the same), 1723; J. G. Carpzov, critics seas Leipsic. 1728; w. Wall, The vas of the Septuagint Translation, in his Brief Critical Notes, London, 1730; C. F. Houbigant, Prolegomena in aaipturam aaanm, Paris, 1748; B. Kennicott, The State of the Printed Hebrew Text of the Old Testament, Oxford, 1753; idem, a second Dissertation on the same subject 1759; J. D. Michaelis, Programme . . . fiber die 70 Do1Lmtttaeher, G:itUngen, 1787; H. Owen, Enquiry into the Present State of the Septuagint Version, London, 1789; idem, Critics sacra, 1774; idem, A Brie/ Account . . . of the Septuagint Version, 1787; J. C. Biel, Novua thesaurus philolopicue, The Hague, 177980; J. F. $chleusner. Lexici in interpretu prmci Veteris Teatamesui, Leipsic, 178488; C. A. Wahl, Clovis titrorum Veteria Teatamenti, Leipsic, 1853; G. Biekell, De indole ac rations veraionia Attxandrinas . . . Jotri, Marburg, 1882; F. Delitasch, 3tudien . . . der compluteneiaehen Polyplotte, Leipsic, 1888; A. Scholz, Maaorethiadur Text urul die LXX‑Ueberaetzung du . , , Jeromiss, Regensburg, 1875: idem, Die alsxandriniache Uebereetzunp des . . . Juaiae, wiirzburg 1880; E Fleeker Scripture Ononaatology . . . Critical Notes on the Septuagint, London, 1883; W. J. Deans, in The Expositor, 1884, pp, 139157, 223‑237; E. Nestle, 3eptuayintaetudian, vole. i‑v, Ulm, 1888‑1907, Maulbronn, 18991903; J. G. Carleton, The Bible o/ our Lord and his Apoatlu, London, 1888; E. Hatch, Essay# in Biblical Greek, London, 1889 (cf. criticism by Hort, in The Expositor, Feb.. 1897); A. Schulte, Ds restitutions . . roeraimaie Graces . . Judicum, Leipsic, 1889 G. C. Workman, Text of Jeremiabl . . Greek and Hebrew, Edinburgh, 1859: P. de Lagasde, 3tiehometris, in MitJheitungan, iv, 205, Gtittingen, 1891 F. C. Conybesre on Philo'a Text, in The Expositor, Des., 1891, pp. 458‑488; H. B. $wete. on GTtttB'a Theory, in Expository Times, June, 1891; J. Taylor, Mauoretie Text and . . Versions of, , , i,*
London, 1891; Transactions of the Congress of Orientalist,

121	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Versions
in London, London, 1894; E. Hatch and H. A. Redpath, Concordance to the Septuagint, London, 1892‑1900; F. C. Conybeare, Philonean Text, in JQR, Jan., 1893, pp. 246280, Oct., 1895, pp. 58‑122; H. A. Rsdpath, in The Academy, Oct. 22, 1893; G. Morin, Une revision du peautier, in Revue benidictine, 1893, part b, pp. 193‑197; H. H. Howorth, in The Academy, 1893, July 22, Sept. 18, Oct. 7, Dec. 18, 1894, Feb. 17, May 5, June 9 (of. W. A. Wright, ib. 1894, Nov. 3, and T. K. Cheyne, 1894, Nov. 10); V. Nourieson, La Bibliothbque lea PWiLnnEea, Alexandria, 1893; 8. Silberstein, Codex Aiexandrinua and Vaticanua lea dritten Ktinigabuchea, in ZATW,1893‑94; G. A. Deisamann, Bibelatudien, Marburg, 1895‑98, Eng. tranal.. Edinburgh, 1901; H. A. Kennedy, Sources of New Testament Greek, Edinburgh, 1895; E. Kloetermann, Analecta our Septuaginta, Leipaie, 1895; Max LShr, Vorarbeiten zu Daniel, in ZATW, av (1895), 75‑103, 193‑225; E. Nestle, Zum Codex Alexandrines. in ZATyV, xv (1895), 281‑262; idem, Zur Hezapla des Origenea, in Z1VT, xxxviii, 231; H. E. Ryle, Philo and Holy Scripture, London, 1895; F. Johnson, Quotations of the New Testament, London, 1896; A. F. Kirkpatrick, The Septuagint, in The Expositor, April, 1898, 213‑257; E. Kloatermann, Die Mai7dnder Fragments, in ZATW, 1898, pp. 334‑337; J. Furat, in Semitic Studies in Memory of A. Kohut, Berlin, 1897; E. Nestle, Einftthrung in dace gruchiache New Testament, GSttingen, 1897, Eng. transl., London, 1901; J. H. Moulton, A Grammar of New Testament Greek, vol. i, Prolegomena, pp. 1‑41, Edinburgh, 1908; A. Mere, Der Werth der Septuaginta tUr die Textkritik lea A. T., in JPT, ice, 65; A. Rahlfe, Septuaginta‑Studten, parts i‑ii, Gtittingen, 1904‑07.
On Aquila, 6ymmaehua, and Theodotion, besides the references in Irenaeus, Origen, Eueebius, Jerome, and Epiphanies, consult: C. A. Thieme, Pro puritafe Sltrnmachi, Leipeic, 1755; R. Anger, De Onkelo Chaldaico, ib. 1845; F. Field, t?rigenia Hexaplorum gate auperaunt, i, pp. avi eqq., Oxford, 1887; G. Mercati, L'Eth di Simmaco interprets, Modena, 1892; L. Hauadorff, Zur Geachichte der Targumim nach taZmudiachen Quellen, in Monateachrift fur Geachichte and Wiaaenachaft lea Judentuma. xxxviii (1893). 5‑7; L. Bleu, Zur Einleilung in die heilipe Schrift, Budapest, 1894; M. Friedmann, Onkeloa urd Akylae, Vienna, 1898; $. Kraus‑Budapest, in Festschrift sum achtzigaten Geburtatage fM. Steinachneidera, Leipaic, 1896; F. C. Burkitt, Fragments of the Books o/ Kings . . , Cambridge, 1897; DCB, i, 150‑161, ii, 14‑23 (valuable); DB, iv, 864‑8B5; EB, iv, 5017‑19.
17. Latin Versions: The origin of the earliest Latin versions is unknown. This fact is easily explained if the case was stated correctly by Augustine: " Those who translated the Scriptures from Hebrew into Greek can be enumerated; but the Latin translators by no means. For in the early days of the faith when any one received a Greek manuscript into his hands and seemed to have ever so little facility in language, he dared to translate it" (De doctrine Christians, ii, 11). Again (ii, 14) he mentions " the abundance of interpreters." Augustine is probably right in the supposition that Latin versions did not exist in pre‑Christian times. At all events there are no traces of Jewish undertakings in this direction. The history of the Latin versions is divided into two unequal parts by the work of Jerome and closes with an account of later versions independent of Jerome, particularly those made by Protestants.
1. The Latin Bible before Jerome: The statement of Augustine about the great variety of Latin translations is corroborated by the documents, manuscripts, and quotations preserved, for the New Testament of course much more than for the Old. But even for the latter one may cite, e.g. for Deut. xxxi, 17, at least eight variant readings; and in the New Testament for Luke x:tiv, 4, 5, at least twenty‑seven variant readings. In other
words, as Jerome says, " as many readings as copies "; and these readings are not merely different renderings of an identical Greek Latin Bible. text' but correspond to various Greek
	The itala.	readings, a fact which seems to de
		monstrate the more clearly the exist
ence of different translations. Nevertheless Je
rome speaks frequently as if there was but one
ancient translation, which he opposes as "the com
mon edition" and an "old translation" to his own
undertaking. Some variations at least arose in
the way sketched by Jerome‑" by stupid inter
preters badly translated, by presumptuous but
unskilled men perversely amended, by sleepy
copyists either added to or changed about." ‑ Never
theless it is impossible to reduce all these variations
to consecutive stages of one original translation
sad therefore scholars use the term "Old Latin
versions " (in the plural) and avoid especially the
name formerly used; viz., " Itala." This designation
went back to a single passage of Augustine (De
doctrine Christians, ii, 14, 15); after he had fixed
the principle " that the uncorrected texts should
give way to the corrected ones at least when they
are copies of the same translation," he goes on to
say: " Among translations themselves the Itala
is to be preferred to the others, for it keeps closer
to the words, without prejudice to clearness of
expression." There can be no doubt that he puts
here one translation, which he prefers, in opposition
to several other translations; therefore it was not
well done to comprehend all that is left of the Latin
Bibles from the time before Jerome under this name
Itala. Some have tried to change the text, but
Itala is the correct reading. Augustine must mean
a version used in or having come from Italy, prob
ably the northern part of the peninsula. Isidore
of Seville (Etymologice, vi, 4) in the seventh century
clearly understood by " Itala " the work of Jerome.
This view was restated in 1824 by C. A. Breyther,
was considered possible by E. Reuse, sad well
founded by F. C. Burkitt (The ld Latin and the
Itala, in TS, iv, 3), with the limitation that Augus
tine had not yet in view the whole of Jerome's
labor, but only its beginning‑the revision of the
Gospels. It is therefore advisable to avoid com
pletely the name "Itala" and to use "Old Latin"
for the Bible before Jerome. The home of this
Bible is not to be sought in Rome, where Greek was
the language of the infant Church and its literature,
but moat probably in Africa. It is true, many of
the linguistic peculiarities ascribed to Africa are
shared by the lingua rustics in other parts of the
Latin world, and it has become customary to distin
guish an African and a European branch of the
Latin Bible; nevertheless the origin of this whole
literature seems to have been in Africa. Trans
lations of certain books which in early times
were of almost canonical standing‑such as the
Epistle of Barnabas, the Shepherd of Herman, and
the First Epistle of Clement‑are closely con
nected with these versions (cf. Harnack, Litteratur,
i, 883; O. Bardenhewer, Geachichte der altkirch.
liehert Litteratur, i, Freiburg, 1902).
Because the Old Latin versions have been replaced in the nee of the Church by the version of

Bible Versions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	192
Jerome, only a few manuscripts of the Old Latin have survived and these as fragments and palimpsests only, but of high antiquity. It is a great pity that they are not yet collected in such
8' Xavrn' a way .as to make their use easy, essaripta sad pecially for the Old Testament, since
Editions. they are all important for the criticism of the Septuagint. This was recognized by the Roman commission which prepared the Editio $ixtitta of the Septuagint. They collected with great care the Biblical quotations from the Latin ecclesiastical writers. Petrol Morinus, Antonius Agellius, and Laelius Malwerda were the members of the commission to whom this part of the task was entrusted. Their labors were used in the acholia of the Greek edition of 1586 [1587], but still more freely in its Latin translation, published by Flaminius Pfobilius (Rome, 1588: reprinted with the Greek text at Paris, 1624; without it, Venice, 1609, 1828; Antwerp, 1616). But the chief work is BtMliorum Saerarum Lalinte veraionea antjqttce . . . opera et studio Petri Sabatier, 0. S. B., e congregations S. Maori, (3 vola., Reims, 1739‑49, with new title, Paris, Didot, 1751). Before Sabatier, are to be mentioned J. M. Canis (Cardinal Tommasi); Sacrorum Bihliorum iuxta editionem aeu LXX Interpretum sets B. Hieronymi veteres titttli, etc. (2 vole., Rome,,1688; 2d ed. in Thomasii Opera, ed. Vezzosi, i, Rome, 1747); and Ecclesiastes ex versions Italy cum nods Bosstteti (Paris, 1693). For full list of manuscripts and editions, cf. the Hauck‑Herzog RE, iii, 28‑33. The manuscripts of the New Testament are enumerated also in Scrivener's Introduction, ii (London, 1894), 45‑54 (revised by H. J. White); in Gregory's Prolegomena to Tischendorf's New Testament, iii, 952‑971, and Textkritik den Neuen Testaments (Leipaie, 1900), 598‑613; and in the prefaces of Jerome's New Testament edited by J. Wordsworth and H. J. White (Novum Teatamentum Domini nostt# Jesu Christi Ltttine aeeundum editionem S. Hieronymi ad codicum manuscriptorum ftdem recensuit Johannes Wordsworth. In operis soeieta,tem adsurripto Hertrico Juliano White, part i, the four Gospels, Oxford, 1889‑98; part ii, section i, Acts, 1905). In the critical apparatus of the New Testament they are designated by the small letters of the Latin alphabet.

The following additions may be made to what is contained in the RE (ut sup.):
Old Testament: P. 8abatier, Bibliorum $acr»rum Latinos veraionea nntiquir, i (Reims, 1744). 904 (for a fragment of Job; cf. 8. Berger, Hiatoire de la Vulgate, Paris, 1893, 88); G. M. Bianchini Vindicia, canonicarum acripturarum (Rome, 1740; Psalms from the Codex y'eronenaia); F. Mone, Lateiniache and Grieehiache Messes (Frankfort, 1850), 40 (for fragments of Psalms from a palimpsest in Carlaruhe); P. de Lagarde Probe einer slues Auapabe der lateiniachen Ueberaetzunp den Allen Testaments (Gbttingen, 1885; for Psalms); H. Ehrennberger Paalterium value (Tauberbischofeheim, 1887); Xeptateuchi Portia poater4oria veraio Latino antiquiaaima a ‑dies Lupdunenai (Lyons, 1890; cf. F. Vigouroux m Revue den questions hietoriquea, Jan.‑Apr., 1902); P. de Lagarde, Beptuapintaatudisn ii (GSttingen, 1892; for III Eedras); J. Beleheim, Libri Tobit Judil, Eater . . . Latino Wane" a coda . Monachenei (Trondhjem, 1893); V. Schultze, Din QuedZinburger lktla‑Miniatures
. in Berlin (Munich, 1898; he refers them to the fourth century); P Coreeen. Zwsi nerve Fraprnsate der Weinparfena Prophe<enhondsMrift, nabat siner Unterauchunp fiber
day Verhdltnia der Weinpartener and W4rzburger Prophetenhandachriften (Berlin, 1899); P. Thielmann, Baricht fiber dye Oesammelte handechriluiche Material su sins kritisehen Auagabe der lateiniechen Ueberaetzungen bib7ischar Bilcher den Allen Testaments, in Sitsunpaberichte der kdnipliehen Bayeriachen Akadamie der Wiaesnechaften, 1899. u. 2; G. Hoberg, Dye 8lteste 7ateiniache Uebereettunp des Buchas Baruch (Freiburg, 1902): A. M. Amelli, De libri Baruch roeluatieeima Latino versions . epiatola (Monteeseeino, 1902); W. O. E. Oesterley, Old Latin Texts of the Minor Prophets, in JT3, v (1904), 78, 242, 378, 570, vi, 87, 217. The Psalms from the Moaerabio Liturgy are in MPL, lxzxv.
	New Testament: Gospels: The Fragments Curienria (a)
are edited in OLBT, ii (London, 1888); for Codex Sare
tianus (j), cf. G. Amalfi, Un antichisaimo coddce biblico Latino
purpureo (Monteoseaino, 1893); Acts: Codex Dtmidovianus
(dam), probably of the thirteenth century, now lost, a
mixed text, was edited by C. F. Matthasi (Novum Teetamen
tum, Riga, 1782); for the Codex Laudianua (e), see Brsr.mm
TEXT, II, 1, ¢ 9; it was revised by White for Wordsworth
White; on the Codex Parpinianua (p), thirteenth cen
tury, a mixed text, collated by White, cf. 8. Berger, Un
Ancien Texts Latin den Actea den Apdtres, in Notices et Ex
traita den manuacrita, aaav (Paris, 189b); cf. further Liber
comicus viva ledionariua misses quo Tolstana eccteaia ante an ‑
not MCC utebatur, ad. G. Morin (Anealota Maredaolana, i,
Maredaous, 1893). Pauline Epistles: for the manuscripts
d, e, f, p, cf. H. RSnach, in ZWT, 1882, p. 83. Apocalypse:
et. H. Links, l3tudien our Italy (Breslau, 1889). The Codex
Corbeienaia (ff9), with fragments of the Catholic Epistles,
Acts, and the Apocalypse from the Fleury palimpsest (Paris,
8400 G), have been lately edited by E. 9. Buchanan (Ox
ford, 1907, in OLBT, v).
On the relation of the different texts, cf. for the New Testament Hort's Introduction (London, 1881) and Wordeworth‑Wbite; for the Old Testament Kennedy in DB, iii. 49 eqq. On the language, cf. H. Rbnach, ItaZa and Vulpata (Marburg, 1889), on which work cf. J. N. Ott, in Neue Jahrbilcher fur Phidologie, cix, 1874, pp. 778, 833.

Of the highest importance for the restoration of the Old Latin Bible are the quotations of the older Latin writers. Their countries ere known end thus the home of the Biblical texts is located.
Yet many questions are still unsettled; 8. Quota‑ e.g., did Tertullian know and use a
is Latin Latin translation or are his quotations
Writers. taken by him from the Greek and trans‑
lated into Latin? Heinrich Hoppe (Syntax uttd Stil den Trrtullian, Leipsic, 1903) denies that Tertullian knew a Latin version of the Old Testament. T. Zahn makes the same assertion for the New Testament.

Quotations from almost all books are found in the Liber de divinis scriptoria give speculum (designated as m), ascribed to Augustine, published by A. Mai in Spacileoium
Romanum, ix, 2 (Rome, 1843), 1‑88, and in Nova patrum bibliotheca, i, 2 (1852), I‑117; better by F. Weihrich, in CBEL, aii (cf. Weihrich's dissertation, Din Bibel‑Exarpte
de diving aeriptura, Vienna, 1893). Several fragments are also in C. Veroellone, Diasertationi accademiche (Rome, 1884). On the quotations in general, c£ H. RSnach, is ZHT, x, 1887, 808‑834, 1889, 433‑479, 1870, 91‑150, 1871, 531, 1875, 88; L. J. Babb, in Studio BibZia, ii (Lon‑
don, 1890), 195 eqq.; Scrivener's Introduction (London, 1894), 187‑174; Gregory's Prolegomena, iii (Leipeio, 1894), 1131‑1248; and Kennedy, in DB, b2‑53.
The writers that are of primary importance are; Alcimua Avitus, archbishop of Vienna a. 4b0‑b17; Ambrose, bishop
of Milan 374‑397; Ambmeieeter, the name liven to a moat important commentator on the thirteen Epistles of St. Paul (cf. T. Zahn, in NICZ, xvi pp. 419 eqq., and A. 6outer,
T$. vii, 4, Cambridge, 190b): Arnobiun. Presbyter in Africa fourth century; Exhortations# do ponitantia, ascribed to
Cyprisn; Libor do alaatoribw (acoordin< to Harnack as early ~ CYPnan): Liber do paadw computes (written is Africa. c. 243): Libor de promieaionibua (ascribed to Prosper of Aqui‑
taine), Libor eollationie Lpum Moaaicarum et Romarsarum (ad. P. Kreger sad T. Mommeea in Colloctio librorum juria antejuatiniani, iii. Berlin, 1891): Augustine, bishop of Hippo

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
354‑430 (from this author alone Lagsrde collected 13.278 quotations of the Old Testament and 29,540 of the New Testament); Capreolue bishop of Carthage e. 431; Caseian, monk at Marseilles (d. about 435); Commodian (perhaps middle of third century); Cyprian, bishop of Carthage (d. 258; cf. Banday, in OLBT, ii; Lagarde, Symmieta, i, 74; Mittheitunpen, ii, 54: P. Coreaen. Der vllpriaaText der Aeta ApostoLorum, Berlin, 1892); Teaching of the Twelve Apostles; Phi:ustrius, bishop of Brescia (c. 380; ad. Marx, in CSEL, zuviii); Fulgentius, bishop of Ruape (c. 488‑b33); Gildas of Britain; Eucherius; Hilarius, bishop of Poitiers (d. 380; cf. Zingerle, in Kleine phi7olopische A67usttdlunpen, Innsbruck, 188'7): Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons (c. 180, Novum Teatamentum Irenai; to be published in OLBT by Prof. 8anday): Jovinian (in the time of Jerome); Lactantiue (in Africa c. 280‑340): Lucifer, bishop of Cagliari (d. 371; cf. Dombart, in Berliner Philoiopieche Woehenachrilt, 1888, no. 8); Julius Firmicua Maternus (c. 345); Maximin (cf. TLZ, 1900, 17); Novatian (at Rome c. 252; cf. Harnack, in TU, ziii, 4); Origen (Latin translation; c. 251); Optatue, bishop of Mileve in Numidie, c. 388; Primsaiue, bishop of Adrumetum, sixth century (cf. Hauasleiter, in Zahn, Forsehunpen our GsschicAta des neutestamentlichen Kanona,iv, Berlin, 1900, 1‑224); PeIagius of Ireland; Priacillian, bishop of Avila in Spain, fourth century (cf. CSEL, zviii); Sslvianue of Marseilles, c. 450 (cf. Ullrich, De Salviani scripture aacrm vwsionihua, Neuatadt, 1893); Tertullian of Carthage, c. 150‑240 (cf. RSnech, Das Neue Testament Tartulfiaru, Leipeic, 1871, and J. N. Ott, in Neue JahrtNlcher far PhiIoIopie. 1874, p. 858); Tyeoniue, in Africa, c. 340 (cf. F. C. Burkitt, in TS, iii, 1, 1894); Verecundue (cf. Lagarde, 3eptuapintaaEudiea, i); Victcrinus, bishop of Pettau in Pannonia, c. 300 (cf. Hauseleiter,in ZWT, vii, 239‑257); Vigiliue, bishop of T)aspaue, c. 484.
Some parts of the Old Latin Bible are still in ecclesiastical use and even in the works of Luther Denifle has shown readings from this source. The same is the case with some of the translations in the vernacular dialects of medieval Europe, such as the Anglo‑Saxon (cf. for instance R. Handke, Ueber daa Verhkltnis der toestaiichsischen Evangelieniibersetzung zum lateiniachen Original, Halls, 1896; A. S. Cook, Biblical Quotations in Old English Prose Writers, New York, 1898; )Wax Forster, in Englische Studien, Leipsic, 1900, p. 480).
	2. The Bible of Jerome (the vulgate): Toward
the end of the fourth century the inconve
nience from which the Western Church suffered
because there was no single authorized Latin ver
sion of the Bible must have been seriously felt,
and Damasus, bishop of Rome (d. 384), commis
sioned Jerome (q.v.) to prepare an authoritative
		revision, probably in the year 382.
1. Terome's The letter with which Jerome dedi‑
N Te The Gated the first part (the Gospels) to
	ment.	the pope gives the only authentic
		record of the work and its scope
(cf. NPNF, 2d ser., vi, 487‑488). Jerome accepts
the task set him by Da,masus, notesita extreme
difficulty and the resulting peril to hnnaelf, antici
pates the harshest criticism of himself and of the
results of his labor, and states that his emendar
tions have been as conservative as possible. Not
withstanding Jerome's modesty concerning his
work, it has had an unparalleled history, inas
much as it became the Bible of the whole
Occident.
To estimate Jerome's work properly, it would be necessary (1) to know what were the Latin texts which he had to revise; (2) what were the Greek texts which he chose as standard; (3) to have his work in its original form. The last is now realized, at least for the first part of the New Tes‑
Bible Versions
tament, since the monumental edition of Words
worth‑White. The Greek manuscript or manu
scripts used by Jerome must have been of the type
of the Codices Vaticanus and Sinaiticus; there
are, however, some readings not attested by any
Greek manuscript (cf., for instance, John x,16, unum
ovile; xvi, 13, docebit; and on this question cf. the
letter of Wordsworth and White in The Academy,
Jan. 27, 1894; their Epilogue, 65772; E. Mange
not, in RSE, Jan., 1900). About Jerome's Latin
texts there is still less information. Wordsworth
and White printed under Jerome's text that of the
Codex Brizianus (f) as most nearly related to it;
but according to Burkitt and Kaufmann it is
	rather a text of Jerome himself adapted to the
	Gothic version. Jerome's statement in his prefa
	tory letter that he changed as little as possible is
	probably true; for the language indicates that the
	Gospels came from different translators. Identical
	expressions in Greek are quite differently rendered
	into Latin (cf. the history of the Passion in the
	different Gospels, and notice for instance lagenam
	agate baiulans = amphoram aqua portans or the
	rendering of " high priest " in Matthew by prin
	ceps sacerdotum, in Mark by summus sacerdos, in
	John by pontifex). It is, therefore, quite wrong to
	treat the Vulgate of the Gospels as a harmonious
	work, and it is clear that the value of it for tex
	tual criticism is greatly enhanced, since it pre
	serves the text of the time when the Gospels were
	not yet united into one collection. Whether also
	in the second part of the New Testament such
	differences can be detected has not yet been in
	vestigated.. It is not even quite certain how far
	Jerome revised the second part of the New Testa
	ment. Only the Gospels have his prefaces, and
	Augustine writes to him only of the Gospel: " We
	give no small thanks to God for your work in
	which you have interpreted the Gospel from the
	Greek" Jerome, however, answers: " If, as you
	say, you suspect me of emending the New Testa
		tt "; and in 398 he wrote to Lucinius Beticus,
	to whom he sent the first copy ready (Epist., lxxi,
	5, NPNF, 2d series, vi, 154): "The New Testa
	ment I have restored to the authoritative form of
	the Greek:" In his De vir. ill. he says: "The
	New Testament I have restored to the true Greek
	form, the Old I have rendered from the Hebrew:'
		Jerome's work on the Old Testament was more
	thorough. First he revised the Psalter [from the
	Septuagint] in 383 in Rome. This revision was in
	troduced by Damasus into the liturgy and is hence
	called the Psaltenum Romanum in distinction from
	the Psalterium vetva or the unrevised Old Latin.
	It was in use in Italy till Pius V (156fr72), and it is
	still used in St. Peter's in Rome and in Milan,
	partly in the Roman Missal and in one place in the
	Breviary, in the hortatory Psalm xcv (xciv). About
		:d. The four years later in Palestine Jerome
	Old Tests‑ revised the Psalms a second time,
		ment. making use of the critical marks of
		Origen, the obelus and asterisk. This
	revi§ion is known as the Gallican Psalter, as it was
	first used chiefly in Gaul (it seems through Gregory
	of Tours), but finally it became the current version
	in the Latin Church (through Pius V), of course

Bible Versions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	124
without the critical marks. At last Jerome translated the Psalms from the Hebrew at the suggestion of Sophronius about 392 (not 405, as Lagarde has it); but this remained a private labor and is not found in many manuscripts. The best edition of this version is Lagarde's Psalterium juxta Ilebrceos Hieronymi (Leipsic, 1874).
About the same time with his second revision of the Psalter Jerome revised the translation of Job (preserved in a few manuscripts, especially at Oxford and St. Gall; edited by Lagarde, Mittheilungen, ii, 189 sqq.; cf. Caspari, in Actea du huiWme congrba des Orientdlistes, i, Leyden, 1893, 37‑51) and most of the books of the Old Testament; but he lost the work " by the deceit of somebody." Therefore he undertook the greater labor of translating the Old Testament afresh direct from the Hebrew. He began in 390 with Samuel sad Kings and published them with his Prologue galeatus (q.v.); then followed Job, the Prophets, and Psalms. About the chronological order of the rest absolute certainty is not reached.' He left Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Maccabees, and Baruch without revision. According to his own statement he translated the three Solomonic writings in three days, Tobit in one day, Judith in one night; for the latter two his Jewish teacher translated to him the Aramaic into Hebrew and he dictated the Latin to a copyist (cf. G. Griitzmacher, Hieronymus, i, Leipsic, 1901, 73‑77. On Jerome's method, cf. G. Hoberg, De S. Hieronymi rations interPretandi, Bonn, 1886; M. Rahmer, Die hebrZiischen Traditionen in den Werken des Hieronymus, Breslau. 1861).
At first Jerome's work was not well received, especially becausehe had dared to part with the Septuagint, which even Augustine believed to be equally inspired with the original Hebrew. An
	African bishop on finding hedera
8. History (« ivy ») in the Book of Jonah in
to the In‑
vention of the new version instead of the accusPrinting. toured cucurbita (" gourd ") raised a
tumult in his Church. Jerome's former friend Rufinus wrote expressly against the new work. " So great is the force of established usage," says Jerome, " that even acknowledged corruptions [of text] please the greater part, for they prefer to have their copies pretty rather thaw correct." On the other hand he knows " that they attack it in public and read it in secret." At the time of his death (420) the attacks and criticism of his opponents had ceased.
We are not informed where and when complete Bibles of Jerome's version were first produced and introduced into the use of the Church. In Spain it seems to have been at a pretty early time. Cassiodorus (d. about 570) was one of the first, if not the very first, who took care to produce correct copies. From his copies are derived the introductory pieces in the Codex Amiatinua (cf. H. J. White, in Studia Biblica, ii, Oxford, 1890, 273; P. Coresen, Die Bibeln des Casaiodorius, JPT, 1883, 1891),

' White gives the following table: 394 Eedrae; 398 Chwniaks: $98 Proverbs, Eooleeisetee, Bong of Solomon; 401?
& followed by Exodus, Leviticus. Numbers, Deuteronomy; 405 Joshua. Judges, Ruth, Esther, Tobit, Judith, °°d the apocryphal parts of Daniel and Esther.
Pope Gregory the Great wrote at the end of the sixth century: " I indeed circulate the new translation; but when the course of argument demands it, I .use now the new and now the old by way of proof; and this because the Apostolic See, over which under God I preside, uses both and by the study of both my toil is lightened." By that time the name Yulgata (" common," "ordinary "), which before had meant the Septuagint and its Latin translation, had gone over to the work of Jerome. Roger Bacon says of it "that [version] which is diffused among the Latins is that which the Church receives in these days:" But even in the printed editions of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries this name is not yet as invariable as we are inclined to suppose; and despite the warning of Walafrid Strabo, " let none desire to amend one from the other," mixing in all degrees of the old and the new texts took place and survives up to the present not only in manuscripts, but even in the printed text, as when in II Kings i, 18, the first part is from the Old Latin, and the second from Jerome.
Charlemagne found several recensions in use in his dominions. In a capitulary of 789 he ordered that there should be " in each monastery and parish good copies of the catholic books, and the boys. must not be permitted to deface them either in reading them or by writing on them; and if there be necessity for writing [copying] a Gospel, Psalter, or Missal, men of maturity are to do it, using all care." In 797 he committed to Alcuin (q.v.) the " emendation of the Old and the New Testament "; and the copy of the Biblical books, "bound together in the sanctity of one most glorious body," which Alcuin offered to him en Christmas 801, must have been the first copy of this revision, of which the Codex Yallicellanus at Rome is the best representative in existence. As Alcuin was himself of Northumbria, he probably had his text brought from there, and fortunately just there the purest text seems to have survived (cf. Berger's Histoire and WordsworthWhite). At the same time Bishop Theodulf of OrlEans (787‑821) worked at a revision, but on very different lines. Being a Visigoth, he took Spanish manuscripts as the basis, but incorporated in the margins various readings; fortunately his work found no large circulation. It is still represented by some fine manuscripts (cf. Berger, 145‑184, and Delisle, in Bibliotheque de l1cole des Charles, vol, xl, Paris, 1879). About the labors of Lanfranc of Canterbury (q.v.) precise information is not obtainable; but t1iv normal copy produced with the help of Jewish scholars by Stephen Herding, third abbot of Cfteaux for the members of his order is still preserved at Dijon (cf. J. P. Martin, in RSE, 1887). Later on, critical observations on the true readings of certain passages were collected in the so‑called Correctorio Biblica. The Principal Correctoraa .are (i) the Correctorium Parisiense, prepared about 1236, also called Senonense, sneered at by Roger Bacon, who in 126? called the Parisian text, in a letter to Pope Clement IV, " horribly corrupt"; " the correctors," he says, are " corruptors, for any reader whatsoever in the lower orders corrects as he pleases, in like manner also the preachers, and similarly the students change as they like what they

125	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Version
do not understand"; (2) the Correcforium Sorbonicum, a sort of epitome of the larger Correctoria; (3) the Correctorium of the Dominicans, prepared under the auspices of Hugo of St. Cher, which sometimes went back of the Latin text to Greek and Hebrew manuscripts; (4) the Correclorium Vaticanum, the work of the Franciscans, perhaps especially of Willermus de Mara. (Cf. on the Correctoria, besides S. Berger, in RTP; xvi, 41, especially Denifle, in Archiv fur Litteratur‑ urtd Kirchenqeschichte, iv, Berlin, 1883, 263, 471.) By the influence of the University of Paris the text used there was the one which was most current in the Middle Ages and consequently that which found its way into the first printed editions, and gained thereby still more influence.
To enumerate even the more important of the manuscripts of the Vulgate is here impossible. There are lists in J. Le Long, Bibliotheca sacra (i, Paris, 1723, 234 eqq.), and in O. Vercellone, Varim tectioaea vul9atta Latino Bibliorum editionia (i, Rome, 1860, lxxxii eqq., ii, 1884, xvii aqq.). Scrivener's Introduction (ii, London, 1804, 67‑90) has a select list of 181 manuscripts, chiefly of the New Testament, by H. J. White; Berger's Hiatoire (Paris 1893, 374‑422) one of 253; Gregory's Prolegomena (iii, Leipaic, 1894, 983‑1108) notes some 2,270, and his Textkritik (2 vols., Leipsic, 1900‑02) 2,369, reserving some for an appendix. H. J. White (DB, iv, 886‑889) classifies them under the following headings: (1) Early Italian texts; (2) Early Spanish texts; (3) Italian texts transcribed in Britain; (4) Continental manuscripts written by Irish or Saxon scribes and showing a mixture of the two types of text; (5) Type of text current in Languedoc; (6) Other French texts; (7) Swiss manuscripts, especially of St. Gall; (8) Alcuinian recension; (9) Theodulfiaa recension; (10) Medieval texts. ,
Naturally Bibles and parts of the Bible were among the earliest of printed books, and as a matter of course the text presented was the Vulgate. The Mazarin Bible, so called, because a copy in the library of Cardinal Mazarin first attracted the attention of bibliographers‑i.e., the Bible in fortytwo lines, not that in thirty‑six‑is now proved to be the first Bible printed by Gutenberg. His
Psalter of 1457 is the first book with
4. Earlier a printed date, while the Psalter of Printed 1459 is one of the most costly of books.
A Bible printed at Mainz 1462 is the first dated Bible. The first Bible printed at Rome is of 1471, by Sweinheim and Pannartz, printed in 250 copies. Of ninety‑two editions of the fifteenth century which can be localized, thirty‑six belong to Germany (to Nuremberg 13, Strasburg 8, Cologne 7, Mainz 3, Speyer 2, Bamberg 1, and Ulm 1, the latter of 1480 being the first Bible with summaries); twenty‑nine belong to Italy, twenty‑four of them to Venice. In England in the whole period none is known. The first quarto Bible is believed to have been printed at Piacenza 1475, and the first octavo at Basel 1491 (because of its small size called the first "poor man's Bible "). An undated Bible, probably of 1478, has for the first time the verses:

Fontibue ex greecie hebreaorum quoque librie
Emendata satin et decorate aimul
Biblia sum praeeeas, euperoe ego teetor et sells.
Copinger mentions 124 editions of the Latin Bible prior to 1500, of the sixteenth century be knows 438 editions, of the seventeenth 262, of the eight‑
‑‑'1IE;	'3v' . ~1. V`
math 192, of the nineteenth (till 1892) 133, in all 1,149. These figures show that, under the influence of the religious and intellectual ‑awakening, the sixteenth century was the time of the Latin Bible.
The bad state of the text soon became evident and attempts were made to improve it from the original texts, as by the editors of the Complutensian Polyglot (see BIBLES, POLYGLOT, I), and, among Protestants, first by Andreas Osiander (Nuremberg, 1522) and at Wittenberg, in an edition of the Pentateuch, Joshua‑Kings, and the New Testament, ascribed to Luther and Melanchthon (1529), then by Lukas Osiander at Tubingen (9 vols., 15731586), with an "exposition:' Of greater importance are the attempts to correct the text from the Latin manuscripts, to which Lorenzo dells Valle had called attention in the fifteenth century. Erasmus published his In Latinam Novi Testaments interpretationem ex coltatione grwcmwm exemPlarium annoteobones aPprxme Wiles at Paris in 1505. The French printer Robert Stephens (q.v.) in particular corrected the text from manuscripts and put variant readings on the margins (cf. Wordsworth, in OLBT, i, 1883, 47‑54). For his edition of 1528 he used three good manuscripts, for the larger of 1540 not less than seventeen; his impression of 1555 is the first complete Bible with the modern verse division, and his text became the basis of the official Roman text through the mediation of the edition undertaken by the theological faculty of ,Louvsin under
j	the guidance of Johannes Hentenius after compari
	son of some thirty manuscripts (Louvain, 1547).
All these editions were private undertakings. In its fourth session (Apr. 8, 1546), the Council of Trent decreed that " of all Latin editions the old and vulgate (vulgata) edition be held as authoritative in public lectures, disputations, sermons, and expositions; and that no one is to b. The da‑re or presume under any pretext
9iztine‑	to reject it:' The council decreed at
Clementine
	Edition,	the same time that " this same old
		and vulgate edition be printed in
as correct form as possible:' It does not appear
that steps were taken to entrust a special person or
body with the latter task. The edition of Hentenius
was used for a long time as the best available.
At last several pores took the matter in hand, and
after various attempts of Pius IV and Pius V, at
last Sixtus V carried the work to completion
through a committee, with Cardinal Antonio Caraffa
at its head, and published the Biblia Sacra Vul
gatce Editionis tribua tomis distincta. Rome : ex
TypograPhia APostolica Yaticdrtd M.D.XC (on a
second title‑page: Biblia Sacra Vulgatce Editionis
ad concilii Tridentini grrcescriPtum emendaJa et a
Sixto V. P. M. recognita et approbata). In the
constitution Xternus ills (Mar. 1, 1589; not included
in the Bullarium Romanum ; printed in Thomas
James, Bellum papale, London, 1600, and L. van
Esa, Geschichte der Vulgatta, Tiibingen, 1821, 269)
Sixtus had declared the edition "true, lawful, au
thentic, and not to be questioned in disputations,
either public or private." No future edition was
to be published without the express permission of
the Holy See, and for the next ten years it was
forbidden to reprint it in any place except the Vati‑

Bible Versions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	128
can; all future editions were to be carefully collated with it, " that no smallest part be changed, added to, or taken away," sad they were to be accompanied with the official attestation of the inquisitor of the province or of the bishop of the diocese, no variant readings, acholia, or glosses being allowed on the margins. In August of 1590 Sixtus V died, and was followed by several short‑lived popes; in 1592 Clement VIII called in all copies of the edition which were within reach‑copies are, therefore, of extreme rarity‑and replaced it under the direction of Cardinal Bellarmine with a new BZlia Sacra Vulgate Editionia. Rome: Ex TypOgraphia Apostolicca Vaticnna M.D.%CII (on the second titlepage: Biblia Sacra Vulgalte Editionis Sixti Quinti Poet. Max. J7A887L recognitd algae edits). The accompanying bull decreed: " From the form of this copy let not even the least particle be changed, added to, or taken away, unless it happens that some fault is unmistakably due to typographical carelessness‑let this be inviolably observed." The reasons for this whole proceeding are not quite clear. That the printing of the first edition was not correct enough is not true; as a matter of fact the Sixtine edition is typographically more correct than the Clementine, but the text of the Clementine is an improvement on that of the Sixtine. Sixtus was personally interested in the work and changed the text frequently to accord with that of Stephens, while the editors of the Clementine edition followed more often that of Hentenius. There are some 3,000 differences between the two editions. Nevertheless thenames of bothpopes were placed on the title‑pages of the later reprints, first, it seems, at Lyons, 1604, then at Mainz, 1609, the official title being now: Sixti Y. et Clementia VIII. Pontt. Ma=. jussu recognita atque editea. A quarto edition was issued in 1593 with "marginal references, explanations of Hebrew names, and an index of subjects," and a small quarto edition in 1598 with a corredorium. All four editions (1590, 1592, 1593, 1598) are compared by Leander van tea in his edition of the Vulgate (3 parts, Tiibingen, 1822‑24). Of editions by other editors, those of C. Vercellone (Rome, 1861) and particularly M. Hetzenauer (Innsbruck, 1906) may be mentioned; the latter has useful appendices.
Since the edition of 1592 scarcely any attempt has been made in the Roman Church to apply to its Bible the most necessary emendation.
8. Later D' Vallarsi printed an emended text
Work. (Verona, 1734), under the title Divine Problems. bibl2°theca, is his edition of the works of Jerome. [A Biblical commission was appointed late in the pontificate of Leo XIII, and Pins X has lately commissioned members of the Benedictine Order to revise the Vulgate. It is intended to restore, so far as possible, the exact text of Jerome.] Among Protestants, Richard Bentley contemplated a new edition of the Latin New Testament together with the Greek (see BIBLE TEXT, II, 2, § 3); about the same time J. A. Bengal (q.v.) did much for it; in the nineteenth century S. Berger in France should have the greatest credit for clearing up the history of the Latin Bible; at last Wordsworth‑White have
issued what moat be called the first critical edition of the Latin New Testament; and in Bavaria P. Thiehnann is engaged in publishing those books of the Old Testament which were not translated by Jerome himself.
It is a matter of surprise that a task so easy and interesting as the criticism of the Latin Bible has received so little attention. Berger knew more than 8,000 manuscripts of the Latin Bible; few of them have been properly investigated. What kind of surprises they may offer is shown by the recent discovery of two different translations of the Third. Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians in two manuscripts of the tenth and thirteenth centuries at Milan and Leon. The order of the Biblical books in the manuscripts; the prefaces and summaries (cf. on this point Lea Prefaces jointer aux livrea de la Bible daps lea mcanuscrita de la Vulgate; m&oire poathume de M. Samuel Berger, in the M6rrwirea de l'Aeadftie des IrtaeriPtions et Belles‑Letlres, aer. i,. vol. xi, part 2, 1902); the capitulation and divisions; the illumination and miniatures (many of the manuscripts belong to the moat beautiful productions of Christian art); ecclesiastical or private notes; connection with the vernacular versions, influence upon the dialects of Europe; lists of the passages in literature which mention manuscripts of the Latin Bible; and many other points may be named as those which await investigation.
8. Later Latin Translations: That the Latin Vulgate was not sufficient was asserted in the Middle Ages by scholars like Nicolaus de Lyra and Raymond Martini. The English Benedictine Adam tartan (d. 1397) is said to have been one of the first to think of a new translation. It was Erasmus, however, who vindicated the right to place new Latin translations by the side of the Vulgate through his translation of the New Testament (Basel, 1516, 1519, 1522, 1527, 1535, and more :hen 200 times since the death of Erasmus; see BIBLE TEXT, II, 2, § 1; ERASMUa, DEBIDERIU6). He has had many followers who have translated into Latin either the Old or the New Testament or both, as well as separate books of the Bible, even as late as the nineteenth century. But the time has passed when Latin versions were necessary or helpful; since the Reformation translations into the vernacular languages have taken their place.

The more important new translations o: the whole Bible are those of the Dominican Senates Pagninue (Lyons, 1528; revised and annotated by Michael Servetus, Lyons 1b42), of Arias Montanus in the Antwerp Polyglot (1b72), and one prepared under the direction of Cardinal Cajetan (1530 eqq.: see Cerrrex, Tsoxns).
The Old Testament was newly translated by the Hebraiet Sebastian Milneter (Basel 1534‑35 and often); by Loo Jud and (after Jud'e death) T. BibHander, C. Pellican, P. Cholinue, and R. Gualtherus (Zurich, 1543); by Sebastian Caetellio (complete ad., Basel, 1651, with a dedication to King Edward VI of England); by Immanuel Tremellius, s Jew of •Ferrara, and his eon‑in‑law, Franciacus Junius. (du Jon; b parts, Frankfort, 1b75‑79; bested., with full index, by P. Toseanus, Hanau, 1824. Tremellius's work was well received); by J. Piacator (24 parts, Herborn, 18011818; really s revision of Tremellius); by Thomas Malvenda, a Spanish Dominican (left incomplete at 1lislvends's death in 1828 and first published with his Commentarii, 8 vole., Lyons, 1850); by J. Cocceius (published with his commentaries, Opera, vole. i‑vi, Amsterdam, 1701; incomplete; contains also most of the New Testament); by Sebastian.

12?	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Versions
Schmid, a Strasburg Lutheran, who worked forty years on the translation (Strasburg, 1898; photographic facsimile, with manuscript notes by Swedenborg, ed. R. L. Tafel, Stockholm, 1872); by Jean Le Clerc (Clericus; Amsterdam, 1693‑1731); by C. F. Houbigant (4 vole., Paris, 1753); by J. A. Dathe (Halls, 1773,89); and by H. A. Schott and J. F. winter (Leipaic, 1816).
Forty years after the first edition of the New Testament of Erasmus, Beta's Latin New Testament appeared (Geneva. 1556, 1585. 1582, 1588, 1598, and more than 100 subsequent editions; by the BFBS, 1898,). A translation by H. A. Schott was published at Leipsic in 1805. The latest works of the kind are by F. A. A. Niibe (Leipsic, 1831) and A. Geschen (Leipsic, 1832).
For other translations, including those of separate books of the Bible, cf. the Hauck‑Herzog RE, iii, 49‑58. On translations of the Psalms into Latin verse, cf. Hugues Vaganay, Lea Traductiona du Peautier en yens Latin au aeizieme aidcle, in ComPta rergidu du quatriLme Conprla international deer Cafholiquea (Freiburg, 1898), part vi, Sciences
Philolopiquea. 	E. NESTLE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the Latin Bible before Jerome consult: H. Renach, Italy and Yulpata, Marburg, 1875; idem, in ZWT, 1875, pp. 78, 81, 425, 1878, pp. 397, 1881, p. 198: Deaiaequea, in ttudee, relipieuaea. Phiiosophiqwr5, hiatoriquea et litterairea de la eompagnie de Jesus, 1378, pp. 721‑724; L. Ziegler, Die lateiniachen Ueberaetaunpen war Hieronymus and die Italy deer Auguatinua, Munich, 1879; G. Koffmane, Geachichte deer KirdunlaEednr bid auf Augustinua‑Hieronymua, Breslau, 1879‑81; P. Corseen, Die vermeintliche " Italy " and die Bibelaberaetsung des Hieronymus, in JPT, 1881, pp. 507‑519; F. Zimmer, in TSK, 1889; F. C. Burkitt, The Old Latin and the Rata, in TS, iv, 3, Cambridge, 1898; E. Ehrlich, Beid‑dpa xur Latinitttt den Italy, Rochlita, 1895; idem, t,Zu® sit Itaim gods dicitw verborum tenacataa, Leipsie, 1889• P. Moneeaux, Lea Afrieaine. Ltude sun la dittkratun Latins d'Aftique and La Bible Latine an Afrique, in REJ, 1901; DB, iii, 47‑84; EB, iv, b027r24.
On the Vulgate consult: $. Bergen, Hiatoire de la Vulgate, Pte. 1893 (this work was crowned by the Academy, pp. xx‑xxiv contain a full list of earlier literature); G. Riegler, Geachichte den Vulpata, $ulzbaeh, 1820; L. Van Esa, Pragmatiach‑kritiache Geachichte den Vulpata, Tiibing_ en, 1824; A. $ehmitter, Kurze Geachichte den hieronymianiachen Bibelttberaetzung, Freyeing, 1842; F. Ksulen, Geachichte den Vulpata, Mainz, 1888; O. Rottmanner, in Hiatoriach‑Polittache Bli66ter, exiv, 31‑38, 101‑108; DB, iv, 413‑890.
On the grammar and the language consult: w. Nowack, Die Bedeutunp des Hieronymus tUr die altteatamentliche Textkritik, Gettingen, 1875; 3. A. Hagen, Syrachliche Eriixterangeu xur Vulgates, Freiburg, 1863: J. B. Heise, Zur Grammatik den Vulgates, Munich, 1884; V. Loch, Materialien xu einer lateiuiaclaen Grammalik den Vulgates, Bamberg, 1870; P. Hake, SPrachliche Bemerkungen zu dem Pealmentexta den Vulpata, Arnaberg, 1872; H. Gblzer, etude . . . de la latinit6 de St. JkrBme, Paris, 1884; P. Thielmann, in Phiiologua, xlii, 319, 370; G. A. Saalfeld, De bibliorum aacrorum Vulpatce edilionia Artatitate, Quedlinburg, 1891; w. M. C. wilroy, The Participle in the Vulgate N. T., Baltimore, 1892; L. B. Andergsasen, Ueber den Gebrauch deer Infinitive in den Vulgates, 1891; P. Tbielmann. Beitrnpe zur Textkritik den Vulgates, $peier, 1883; $. Bergen, in Revue de theolegie et de PhilosoPhde, zvi (1883), 41 aqq.; idem, in Memoirs# de la aocikte des antiquairea de France, Iii, 144; P. Martin, in Le Mue6on, vii (1888), 88‑107, 169‑198, viii (1889), 444; H. P. Smith, in Presbyterian and Reformed Review, April, 1891; E .yon DobeehOtz, Studien zur Textkritik den Vulpata, Leipsic, 1894 (cf. on it H. J. White, in Critical Review, 1898, pp. 243‑248); J. Eoker, Porter Sion#, Lexikon xum lateinischen Psalter, viii. 234 1,938 columns, Trier, 1904; F. Kaulen, SPrachliclus Flandbuch zur bibliechan Yuipata. Freiburg, 1904 (cf. on it JGliaber, in TLZ, 1905, no. 8).
On the printed text consult: W. A. Copinger, Incunabula biblica, etc., London, 1892; cf. L. Delisle, in Journal deer aavana, 1893, pp 202‑218, where Copinger'e 124 editions prior to 1500 are reduced to ninety‑nine, and w. Milller, in Daiatako's B%bliothakawiaeanachaf<kche Arbeiten, no. 8, 1894, pp. 84‑9b); L. Hain, RsPartorium bibliopraphicum, 4 voles., Paris, 1828‑38. Index volume, Leipsic, 1891, SuPPlanunt by w. A. Copinger, 3 vole.,
London. 1895‑1902, Appendices by D. Reichling, faecioulna 1, Munich, 1905 (gives ninety‑seven editions prior to 1500). On the first printed Bible consult K. Dziatzko, Gutenberpa fraheate Druekerpraxia auf Grund einer Verpleichung den ¢Sseiligen and 38zailigen Bibel, Leipaic, 1891; L. Deli" in Journal deer aavana, 1894. pp. '1‑413; British Museum Catalogue, entry Bible.
III. Syriac Versions.‑1. The Peshito: According to some Syrians certain of the Biblical books (enumerated by Iahodad, bishop of Haditha, a 852) were translated into Syriac under Solomon at the request of Hiram, king of Tyre. Another tradition refers this work to a priest Asa or Ezra, who was sent by the king of Assyria to Samaria, and the rest of the Old Testament with the New to the days of King Abgar V of Edessa and
1. Origin the apostle Adds! (Le., Thaddaus; see and ABGAx. Cf. II Kings xvii, 24, I
Name. Can. xv, 18, in the editions of Lee and Ceriani; J. P. N. Land, Anecdotes. Syriaca, iii, Leyden, 1870, 11; Bar Hebraeus on Ps. x; JA, 1872, 458). Bar Hebraeus makes the atrange~ statement that, according to Eusebiua (cf. Hist. eccl., VI, xvi, 4, and VI, xvii), Origen found the Syriac version in the keeping of a widow at Jericho; and equally curious is the tradition which refers the translation of the New Testament to Mark. Some manuscripts of the Psalms state that they were translated from Palestinian into Hebrew, from Hebrew into Greek, from Greek into Syriac. Theodore of Mopsueatia (commentary on Zeph. i, 6) rightly says: " These books were translated into Syriac by some one, but who he was no one knows to this day:' Some scholars have thought to discover, at least for the New Testament, the influence of the Latin Vulgate; more probable is the supposition that at least some parts of the Old Testament are pre‑Christian or certainly Jewish; and the home of the translation is not Ierusalem and Palestine (JA,1872, 458) or Antioch, but Edessa and its neighborhood.
The name which is commonly given to the oldest and most important Syriac version, " Peshito " (" Peshitto "), is first found with Moses bar Kepha (d. 913) and in Masoretic manuscripts of the ninth and tenth centuries (cf. N. P. S. Wiseman, Home Syriac&,, Rome, 1828, p. 223; J. P. P. Martin, Introduction ds la erFtiqtte textuelle du Nouveau Testament, Paris, 1883, p. 101; ZDMG, xxxii, 589). It means " the simple" in contradistinction to the more elaborate versions, such as that made from the Greek by Paul of Tells (see below, 2; on the name, cf. K. W. M. Montijn and J. P. N. Land, in Godgeleerde Bijdragen, 1882; F. Field, Origenis Hexapla, i, Oxford, 1875, p. ix; ZDMG, xlvii, 157, 318; A. Mez, Die Bibel des Joaephvs, Basel, 1895, 4; F. C. Burkitt, Early Eastern Christianity, London, 1904, chap. ii).
The Syriac Old Testament is practically the same as that of the Palestinian Jews. Chronic
however, was missing in the Nestorian canon and, se it seems, also in that of the Jacobites; at least 2. The Old it is not treated in their Maeoretic Test.meat. manuscripts, but it is found in very old manuscripts. Ezra‑Nehemiah too are not treated in the Maeoretic manuscripts nor Esther by the Nestorians, while in Jacobite manu‑

Bible Versions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	128
scripts thin book together with Judith, Ruth, Susanna, and Thecla forma the " Book of Women " (cf. A. Baumstark, in Oriena Christianus, iii, Leipaic, 1901, 353). After the Law there follows as the second part the " Book of Sessions," i.e., Job, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Proverbs, Eccleaiasticus, Ecclesiastes, Ruth, Song of Solomon. Among the prophets, Isaiah (sometimes divided at xxv, 2) is followed by the minor prophets, then Jeremiah (with a division at xxxii, 6) with Baruch i‑ii and the Epistle of Jeremiah, then Ezekiel and Daniel.
	Manuscripts with the Apocrypha are called
" catholic" or " pandecta "; they do not contain
I Esdras, Tobit, or the Prayer of Manaasea, but
have an Apocalypse of Baruch, IV Eadras, and
even the story of Shamuna and Joaephus, War,
V, as IV and V Maccabees. 'obit, as fares chap.
vii, 11, is preserved only in the translation of Paul
of Tells, but from that point on there is a still
later text. Accurate manuscripts give atichomet
rical lists (cf. Martin, Introduction, 677; J. R. Har
ris, On the Origin o f the FerraT Group, London,
1893, 10, 26; DB, iv, 650).
The character of the translation is different in various books; it is very literal in the Law, influenced by the Septuagint in Isaiah and the minor prophets, probably also in the Psalms. Ruth is paraphrastic. Chronicles resembles a Jewish targum, while the Syriac Proverbs has been used in the Targum. Eccleaiasticua is taken from the Hebrew.
Up to 1858 only one old version of the New Testament in Syriac was known in Europe; viz., that published for the first time by J. A. Widmanatadt (Vienna, 1555). Textual critics considered it "the queen of the Bible translations:"
The New In 1858 W. Cureton published in Testament. London, from manuscripts which had
	come into the British Museum in
1842, Remains o f d very Antient Recension o f
the Four Gospels in Syriac hitherto Unknown is
Europe. The great value of thin recension was
soon recognized, and was greatly enhanced
when, in 1892, a second manuscript of it was
discovered in a palimpsest on Mount Sinai by Mrs.
A. S. Lewis and her sister, Mrs. M. D. Gibson,
which was published under the title, The Four
Gospels in Syriac Trarescrz'bed from the Sinaitic
Palimpsest by the Late R. L. Benaly . . . J. R.
Harris . . . and F. C. Burkitt. With do Intro
duction by Agues Smith. Lewis (Cambridge, 1894).
Mrs. Lewis published Some Pages of the Four
Gospels Retranscribed from the Syriac Palimpsest
with a Translation of the Whole Text (London, 1894).
F. C. Burkitt published Evangelion do‑Mephar
reshe : The Curetonian Version o f the Four
Gospels, with the Readings o f the Sinai Palimpsest
and the Early Syreac Patristic Evidence Edited,
Collected, and Arranged (vol. i, text and transla
tion, vol. ii, introduction and notes, Cambridge,
1904). Burkitt's title is taken from the head
ing or subscription of the two manuscripts and
means " the Gospel of the Separated " (i.e.,
" the Separated Gospels "), used in contradistinc
tion to the Diateasaron of Tatisa, which was called
among the Syrians " the Gospel of the Combined " (" the Combined Gospels "). Herein is indicated the first problem in the history of the Syriac New Testament. It is well known that a harmony of the Gospels was used in the Syriac Church till the beginning of the fifth century, when Theodoret removed the copies in his diocese, and Rabbulae of Edessa ordered that the " Gospel of the Separated " should be read in church. The great question concerns the relationship of the Peshito, the Mepharreahe, and Tatian. It seems certain that the three are interrelated. It seems further to have been proved by Burkitt that the Peahito is the latest, and is in all probability the revision which Rabbulas of Edessa (d. 435) is said to have undertaken. The decision of the other question, whether the Mepharreshe or Tatian is the earlier, is made difficult by the fact that Tatian'a work is not preserved in its original form, and further by the fact that the two representatives of the Mepharreahe, the manuscripts of Cureton and Lewis, differ greatly. But on the whole it seems moat probable that Tatian was the first to bring the Gospel to the Syrians in the form of his Diotessaron, and that then on the basis of his harmony the version of the separate Gospels originated. Burkitt is inclined to believe that this was toward the end of the second century, perhaps under the influence of the Church of Antioch, through Paul of Edesaa. The opposite view, that the Mepharreahe is earlier than Tatian, is taken by Hjelt, who believed he was able to show that the Gospels in the Mepharreshe were transl8,ted by different hands, and that the first Gospel especially betrays a Jewish character. Without the discovery of new evidence the question will be very difficult to decide.
No manuscript of an early Syriac version of the Acts and the Pauline Epistles is known. But that there was an older version can be proved from the quotations of such early writers as Aphrar atea and Ephraem, and perhaps also from readings in the Armenian version. In early times the apocryphal correspondence with the Corinthians was placed with the Epistles of Paul. The Catholic Epistles were at first totally unknown, as is expressly stated by Theodore of Mopaueatia and Theodore bar Koni (cf. A. Baumatark, in Orients Chriatianus, i, 176, iii, 555). In the Peahito as we have it the three greater of them are found, in accordance with the use of the Church of Antioch. Still later the four others were added. It is strange that the Nestorian inscription of Singan‑fu (see NFBTO$IANB) speaks of twenty‑seven books of the New Testament. Revelation never formed part of the canon among the Syrians (cf. on the Syriac canon, T. Zahn, Orundriss den Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanona, Leipaic,1904, § 6; J. A. Beaver, The History of the New Testament Canon in the Syrian Church, Chicago, 1900; W. Bauer, Der APoatoloe den Syrer, Giessen, 1903), and whether the Pauline collection included Philemon can not be decided.
!d. Later Versions: The Nestorian patriarch

1>i9	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Version@
Mar Abba (d. 552) is said by Bar Hebreeus, Ebed Jesu, and Amru to have translated and explained the Old and New Testaments from the Greek; but nothing more is known about it.
In 508 Philoxenus of Mabug with the help of his coadjutor Polycarp translated at least some parts of the Old Testament and undertook a new version of the New Testament. Parts of Isaiah preserved in a manuscript of the British Museum may belong to this version (ed. A. Ceriani, Monuments sacra et profanca, v, 5, Milan, 1873, 1‑40). According to Bernstein, the Gospels are contained in manuscript A2 of the Angelican library at Rome. Isaac H. Hall published a Syriac Manuscript. Gospels from a pre‑Harklensian Version, Acts and Epistles of the, Peshittn Version, Written (probably) between 700 and 900 A.D. Presented to the Syrian Protestant College [Beirut] (Philadelphia, 1884). The minor epistles, first published by E. Pococke in 1630 and since often found in editions of the Syriac New Testament, are very likely part of this version, and so is the version of Revelation discovered by J. Gwynn and published by him (Dublin, 1897).
	About one hundred years later the work of trans
lation was resumed, for the Old Testament, by
Paul of Tells (the so‑called Syro‑Hexaplar version;
see above, I, 1, § 6), and, for the New Testament,
by Thomas of Heraclea (Hsrkel in Mesopotamia).
This version was published by J. White under the
inappropriate title, Yersio Phaozeniana (Oxford,
1778‑1803). A lacuna in the Epistle to the He
brews was filled in by R. L. Benely (Harklean Ver
sion o f the Epistle to the Hebrews x4., 28‑viii, 26,
London, 1889). W. Deans began a new edition
but was prevented from finishing it. Its comple
tion, especially for the Acts, is much to be desired.
For his marginal notes, Thomas made use of a
manuscript closely related to the Greek codex D
(cf. A. Pott, Der abertdhlndische Tent der APostelger
schichte, Leipsic, 1900, and Hilgenfeld, in ZWT,
xliii, 1900, p. 3). The Syriac text of Revelation
published by De Dieu (Leyden, 1627) and now in
the common Syriac New Testaments belongs to
this version (c£ J. Gwynn, in HermsEhena, 1898,
227‑245).
On the revision of the Old Testament undertaken by Jacob of Edessa in 704‑705, cf. Kamphausen, in Tsx, 1869, 753, and A. Ceriani, Monuments sacra et profane, v, 1 (Milan, 1871).
Mention must also be made of the Palestinian version (used by the Melchite Church in Palestine and Egypt). Of the Old Testament, only fragments remain. The New Testament has been known from an evangeliarium at Rome since 1789 (published by F. Miniecalchi‑Erizzo, Verona, 18611864, and by Lagarde, BxMliotheca Syriaca, Gbttingen, 1892). Since that time many new texts have been brought to light, especially through Mrs. Lewis. A full list is given in the Lexicon syropalastanum of F. Schulthess (Berlin, 1903), pp. vii‑xvi. F. C. Burkitt (JTS, ii, 183) gives masons for believing that this literature may have a connection with the attempts of Justinian in the fifth century to extirpate the Samaritans, trod of Heraclius early in the sixth century to harass the Jews. This IL‑9
peculiar dialect is important lexically, as being
closely akin to the language spoken in Galilee.
E. NESTLE.
B>etroosersy: The first parts of the Bible printed in Syriac are in Ambrroa.us Theseus, Introduetio in Chaldairnm Zinpuam, 3yriaoam algae Armsnicam, Pavia, 1539 (cf. ZD M(i, hiii, 1904, 801). The Old Testament appeared first in the Paris Polyglot, vole. vi‑ix, 1632‑45, then in the London Polyglot, vole. i‑iv, 1854‑57, reprinted by 8. Lee for the BFBS, London, 1823 (other copies, 1824; on their differences‑‑one set contains Pa. cli, the other not ‑cf. ZDMGi lie, 1905, 31), and at Urumiah (with modern Syriac added), 1852. The text is very bad, resting on a single late manuscript at Paris adapted by Gabriel 8ionits, editor of the Paris Polyglot, from which the London Polyglot and Lee took it with scarcely any correction the Urumiah edition, at least in some parts, with but few corrections (cf. w. E. Barnes, An Apparatus critical to Chronicles in the Peahitta Version, Cambridge, 1897; G. Diettrioh, Bin Apparatus critscua zur PeXi#o sum Propheten feasts, Giessen, 1905). Bernstein and Rahlfe have published emendations, the former in ZDM(I, iii, 1849, 387‑398, the latter in ZATW, ix, 1889, 181‑210. A. M. Cerisni published a photographic reproduction of the Codex Ambroeianue, Milan, 1878‑83. The Apocrypha was published by Lagarde, Leipsic, 1881. The first critical edition of the Gospels was by P. E. Pussy and G. H. Gwilliam, Oxford, 1901; for the rest of the New Testament there are the editions of the American mission at Urumiah, 1848, New York, 1848, etc. The edition most used in textual criticism hitherto has been that of J. Leuaden sad C. Schaaf, Leyden, 1709 and 1717, reprinted by Jones, Oxford, ISOb (cf. Tischendorf on Matt. a, 8, with the note of Pussy‑GwilGsm). The entire Bible was printed by the Dominicans at Mosul, 1887‑91. A list of editions to 1888 is contained in Nestle, Litteratum svriaca (reprinted from Syriache Grammatik, Berlin, 1888), 17‑30. Consult further: Beck, Editionee principes Novi Testament% Spriaci, Basel, 1771; J. Le Long, Bibliotheca sacra, emendate . . . ab A. a. March, i, part 4, pp. 64‑102, b vole., Halle, 1778‑90; A. M. Ceriani, Le Edizioni e i manoacritti deZle versions $iriache del vecchso Testamento, Milan. 1889; Printed editions of the Syriac New Testament, in Church Quarterly Review, July, 1888, 25rr297; ByrFae New Testament translated
into Enp. by J. Murdock, with a bibliographical Appendix,
by I. H. Hall, 8th ed., Boston, 1893; G. H. Gwilliam, The Ammonian Sections, Eusebian Canons and Harmonizing Tables in the Syriac Tetraeuangelium, in Studia Biblica et EaZesiaatica, ii, Oxford, 1890; idem, Materials jor the Criticism of the PeahiEto, ib, iii, 1891; Scrivener, Introduction, ii, 8‑40; F. C. Burkitt, Evanpelion da‑Mepharreehe, Introduction, vol. i, London, 1905. On the Old Testament in the Peshito consult: J. Prager, De veterJa teatamenti versions Syriaoa quam Peachidtho, GSttiagen, 1875; J. Perks, Maletemata Peach%ttlwniana, Breslau, 1880; J. M. 8ch5nfelder, OnkeZoa and Peschittho, Munich, 1889. On parts of the Old Testament: L. Hirsel, De Pentateuehi vereionie Syriaca indoZe, Leipsic, 1815; fi. D Luasatto, Phidozenus rive de Onkedodi Cloddaica Pentateuchi versions, Vienna, 1830; F. Tuoh, De Lipeisnai codice Pentateuchi Syriaco, Leipsic, 1849; E. Schwartz, Die ayriaclis Uebaraetsung des i. Samuelie, Berlin, 1897: J. Berliner. Die Peschitta sum 1. BucJl der Ifiinipe, Berlin, 1897; 8. Frankel, in JPT, 1879, pp. 508, 720 (on Chronicles); A Oliver, A Tmnsl. of the Spriac Peachito Vernon of the Psalms, Boston, 1881; F. Bhthgen, Untereuchunpen fiber die Paalmen each der Pesclvato, Kiel. 1878: idem, in JPT viii (1882). 405, 593; F. Dietrich, Comments& de psallerii use in eceleeta Syriaca. Marburg, 1882; B. Oppenbeim, Die syriache Ueberaetzunp . . . der Paalmen, Leipsic, 1891; J. F. Berg, Influence of the Septuagint upon the Peehitta Psalter New York 1895; Techen, Glamor, in ZATW, suit (1897), 129, 280 (on Psalms); Baumann (on Job), in ZATW, xviii‑ax (1898‑1900); J. A. Dathe, De rations consensus . . . Spriacw Pmverbiorum, Leipaio, 1784; A. 8. Kamenetaky (on Ecclesiastes), in ZATW asiv (1904); G. Dietrich, Die Maeewah der tlatlirhen and u:eetlfchen Serer, London, 1899; idem, TextkriHscher Ayparat, 1905 (Isaiah); C. H. Coraill, Doe Buck des Propkelsn EzeekiaL, Pp. 137‑158, Leipsic, 1888; C. A. Credner, De prophetarum mirwrum versionis Syriaca . . . indole, GSttingen, 1827;

Bible Versions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	130
M. $eb6k (9eh6nberger), Die syrisclu Uebereetsuap der swSlf Propheten. Breslau, 1887; V. RYaeel, Unterauchunp_ an bar die Taxtgeetalt . . . des Buchea MicAa, Leipeio 1887; J. J. Kneucker, Doe Buck Baruch, pp. 190‑198, Leipaia, 1889; T. N6ldeke, Die Texts des Bushes Tobit, in Monateberichla der Berliner Akadamis, 1879. pp. 45‑89.
On the New Testament: The Peehito Versions of the Gospels, ed. G. W. Gwillism, London, 1901. On the Curetonian: C. Hermaneen, Do codice evanpeliorum SyriaA, Copenhagen. 1889; Le Hir, etude our um ancienne roersion ayriaqua des evarepiks, Paris, 1859; G. Wildeboer, Do maarda der syriache avangeliau, door Curetou ontdskt, Leyden, 1880; Fr. BBthgen, Eroangalienfragrnenta, Leipsie188b: H. Harman, Cwafou Fragments, is JBL, 1885"
June‑Dec., PP. 28‑48.
On the Mepharreshe, J. R. Crowfoot, Frapmenta Evanpelsca, London, 1870; idem, Collation in Greek of Curetoa'a Syriac Fragments, ib. 1872. On the Sinai Palimpeest: M. D. Gibson, How the Codex was found, Cambridge, 1893; Mrs. R. L. Bensly, Our Journey to Sinai . . . with a Chapter on the Sinai Palimpsest, London, 1898; K. Holshey, Der seuenfdeekte Codex Syrus $%uaiticue, Munich, 1898; A. Bonus, Collatio codicil Lataisiani . . . cum wdice Curetosiano, Oxford, 1898. For further accounts of the Lewis codex consult the files of the Athesamm, Aoademy, Contemporary Review, Expository Times, Guardian, Church Quarterly Review, TLZ, and similar journals for the years 1893‑98.
On the Peehito in textual criticism consult: The Oxford Debate on The Textual Criticism of the Nam Testament, London, 1897; T. W. Etheridge, Horn: Aramaiea•. With a Transl. of . . . 8t. Matthew and . . . Xa6rewl from ths. . . Peshita, London, 1843; idem, The Apoltolieal Ads; Tranal. from the Peshito and a later Tart, London, 1849; W. Norton, A TransL. . . of do Seventeen Letters . Of ON Peahito Syriac, London, 1890; J. Gwynn, Older Syriac Version of the four Minor Catholic Epistles, in HermaWeua, 1890. On Tatian: A. Hjelt, in T. Zahn, Foradmnpen, vii, 1 (1903); Mrs. Lewis, in Expositor, Aug., 1897. June. 1890.

N. The Samaritan Pentateuch: This must not be confounded with the Hebrew text of the Pentateuch in Samaritan characters or with the Arabic version used by the Samaritans. All three are contained in the famous triglot manuscript in the Barberini Library at Rome of the year 1227 (for facsimile cf. G. M. Bianchini's Evangeliarium quadruplex, Rome, 1749, or, on a reduced scale, F. G. Kenyon, Our Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts, London, 1896, pl. v). The question of the age of this targuvl depends on the decision of the question whence the readings are taken which are found under the rubric to Samaraitikon in some fifty marginal notes of Origen's Hexapla (to the passages collected by Field add Lev. xv, 8; Dent. viii, 22, xx_eiv, 1‑3, from the margins of Lagarde's Bt'bliotheca Syriaca). The moat probable view seems to be that not Origen but Eusebius took these notes from the Hebrew Pentateuch as used among the Samaritans. On a Samaritan inscription found at Amwas (Emmaus) of. Revue Biblique, 1896, p. 933. E. NESTLE.
The Samaritan Pentateuch is essentially the same as the Hebrew. The variations, aside from those of a linguistic character, are the following: the narrative of action or declaration by Moses is often preceded by the statement that he acted or spoke by divine direction; Gen. ii, 2a, " seventh " is changed to " sixth "; anthropomorphisme are 'I removed, and in Gen. xx,13, xxci, 53, xxxv, 7, Ex. gii, 8, the plural predicate after Elohim is changed to the singular to avoid a polytheistic implication; " Ebal " (Deut. axvii, 4) was displaced by Gerizim for national reasons. The
Samaritan Pentateuch is proved by these changes to be a revision of the Jewish, but a revision made in early times (possibly pre‑Christian), though the modern tendency is to ascribe the text now extant to the second Christian century.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The text was first printed in the Paris Polyglot, 1843, then in Walton's Polyglot, 1867. Other editions of the whole or of parts are: A. Br911, Dag aamaritaniacha Tarpum sum Pentateuch, Frankfort, 1873‑7b, with two appendices which appeared 18715‑76; H. Petermann and C. Vollers, Pentatsuchw Samaritanus . . ., i, Genes%a, Berlin, 1872, ii, Exodus, 1182, iii, Leviticus, 1883, iv, Numeri, 1885, v, Dauterouomium, 1891; J. W. Nutt, Frapmenta of a Samaritan Tarpum, London. 1874; F. Field, Oripanis Hsxaplorum, i, p. Ixxxii‑laxxiv, Oxford, 1875: 8. Kohn, in Monataachrift fur Geachichte and Wiaaenechaft des Judantume, 1894; pp. 1‑7. 49‑87.
On various phases of the relation to text‑criticism consult: J. Morinue, Exercitationea %n utrumque Samaritasorum Pantatauchum. Paris, 1881; idem, in the Preface of his edition of the Septuagint, 1828; W. Geeenius, Do PenfakucAi 3amaritani %ndole, . . Halle, 1816 ; G. B. Winer. Do versionia Psataleuchi Samaritanas indola, Leipeio, 1817; 8. Kohn, Do Pentataucho SamariGauo . .•, ib. 1885; idem, Samarataniache Studien, Breslau, 1888; idem, Zur SPrache, Likratur uad Dapmatik der Samaritaner, Leipsic, 1878; idem, in ZDMG, axxix (1885), 185‑228; A. Cowley, in JQR, viii (1898), 562 eqq., and in JE, x. 887; idem, A Supposed Early Copy of the Samaritan Pentateuch, in PEF, Quarterly Statement, Oct., 1904: P. Kahle, Textkrst%eahs and ZaxikaliacAe Bemerkunpea run aamarifaniochen Psntatauchtaryum, Leipeie, 1898; J. Skinner, Notes on a newly acquired Samaritan MS, in JQR, aiv (1901), 28‑38; W. E. Burton, The Samaritan PentatsucA, in Biblsotheca sacra, la (1903); R. Gottheil, in JBL, aav, part 1, 1908; J. A. Montgomery, The Samaritan's, Philadelphia, 1907.

V. Aramaic Versions (The Targama) : These are Aramaic paraphrases of the Old Testament (targum s "interpretation, translation," from targem,
"to explain, translate "; cf. Ezra iv, 7) 1W'~
	ana	prepared for use in the synagogue,
Language. and took their rise from the custom of
repeating and explaining the Hebrew sacred text in the Aramaic tongue, which after the exile became the vernacular of the Jews in Palestine and elsewhere. At first the targum was a free oral exposition; then it gradually acquired fixed form, and at last was reduced to writing. It is frequently found in manuscripts following the Hebrew text verse by verse. When the Law was read, the paraphrase was given after every verse; with the. Prophets three verses were allowed to be taken together.
The language of the Targums used to be called Chaldee, because Jerome so named the Aramaic portions of the Hebrew Bible, which are written in a dialect very akin to that of the Targuma. In reality, these have preserved the Jewish form of the Aramaic, the next cognate dialect being Syriac, the form of the Aramaic used by the Christians of Edesea, while still other cognate dialects are those of the Palmyrene inscriptions and of the Samaritans (see SEne<1'rle LANGUAGES). The grammatical and lexicographical use of the Targums is hampered by the fact that no edition has as yet appeared that takes account of all the materials now available. Merrier vocalized the texts after the Syriac, Buatorf after the Biblical Aramaic the edition printed by Foe (Sabbionetta, 1557) seems to rest on a

131	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible verdoa
manuscript in which the supralinear system of vocalization had been changed into that of Tiberias, but with many faults and inconsistencies. The moat original system of vocalization is that preserved in manuscripts from Yemen, on which cf. the works of Merx, Berliner, Landauer, Kautzsch, Margoliouth (The Superlinear Punctuation, in PSBA, xxiii, 164‑205), and Barnstein (The Targum of Onkelos to Genesis, London, 1896), and the editions of PrAtorius (Joshua, Berlin, 1899; Judges, 1900).
For the greater part of the Old Testament there is more than one Targum. One on the Pentateuch is attributed in some passages of the Talmud to
B, T~ the helpers of Ezra. According to the
Onkelos. Babylonian Talmud (Megillot 3a), On‑
kelos delivered it orally in Palestine; but this is the result of confusing Onkelos with Aquila, who translated the Old Testament into Greek (see above, I, 2, § 1), and "Judaic Pentateuch‑Targum" is a better name than "Targum of Onkelos," which has been in use since Bomberg's Rabbinic Bible of 1517. In the third century its text seems to have been considered fixed, and manuscripts are mentioned several times, but Origen and Jerome apparently did not know a Targum, and hence we may conclude that it did not find official recognition before the fifth century. Its language is different from that of both Talmuds, and seems to render the original into the language of the place and time of its origin (Palestine) as faithfully as a translation which is somewhat parar phrastic can do. The Hebrew text on which it rests is practically our Maeoretic text, and it is of interest as representing the exegetical tradition of the Jews. It is quite literal, gives a messianic interpretation of Gen. xlix, 10, and Num. xxiv, 17, additions to Gen. alix, Num. xxiv, Dent. xxxii, 33, and avoids all anthropomorphisma. Like the Hebrew text, it has been the subject of Masoretie studies, which have been edited by Berliner (Die Massorah zum Targum Onkelos, Leipaie, 1877).
The Targum of the Prophets has been ascribed to Jonathan ben Uzziel, Hillel's greatest disciple; others give as its redactor Joseph ben Hiyya of Baby‑
lon (d. about 333); but it did not receive
3. Targvm its final written form before the fifth
Jonathan. century. It is more paraphrastic than the Targum of the Law, which induced Cornill to think that it is older. Eichhorn and Bertholdt thought they recognized different hands. The paraphrase is greatly influenced by the book of Daniel. Isa. liii is understood of the Messiah, whose suffering atones for Israel. Great enmity is shown against Rome.
The two Targums just described represent the Judaic Aramaic; of a mixed character is the language of Targums Yerushalmi I and II on the
Law. Some verses are missing from the
4. Other former, and the latter is preserved only
Twreums ~ fragments. Certain other fragments of the found in various manuscripts and edi‑
Law and
Prophets. lions of the Pentateuch are designated
by Dalman (Grammatik, § 6, 3) as YerushalmiIII. There are similar fragments of a Targum on the Prophetspublishedbyl,agarde from the
marginsof Reuchlin's codex (on which cf. Bacher, in ZDMG, xxviii). Basafreund (Des Fragmententargum zum Pentateuch, Breslau, 1896) and similarly Dalman (Grammatik, § 6, 4) see in Onkelos the oldest Palestinian Targum and in Yerushalmi I and II a later development. M. Ginsburger, on the contrary (Pseudo‑ionathan, Berlin, 1903, preface), and Bacher find is them traces of a very old Palestinian Targum, which has been worked over by Onkelos. The comment in these pieces is sometimes very fantastic.
The Targums of the Hagiography are not translations, but commentaries; the Targum of the Song of Solomon, for instance, is a panegyric of the Jewish nation with
6. The	foolish anachronisms, the Targuln of
	the Psalms is in some parts literal, in
	rapha. others explanatory. The Targum of
Proverbs is a working over of the Syriac translation
(cf. Pinkues, in ZATW, xiv, 65, 161). As the
Hagiography were not read in the Synagogue as
regularly as the Law and the Prophets (cf. Lk. iv,
16; Acts xiii, 15; xv, 21), their Targuma are to
some extent private literary works of differing
character. For Ezra‑Nehemiah and Daniel no
Targum is known, unless the Aramaic parts of
Daniel are fragments of a Targum. For Esther
there are two Targums. 	E. NESTLE.
Brarroaawre:: The best grammar is G. Dalman, Grammatik dea jitdiach‑pal8atiniachen Aramdieeh, Leipsie, 1894, Auagabe mil Diatektproben, 1898, 2d ed., 1905 (gives valuable compend of literature). The first special dictionary for the Targum is the Maturpeman of Elias Levity, Ieny, 1541; quite complete but unsatisfactory linguistically is J. Levy, Chalddischea W6rterbuch ilber die To, pumim, 2 vole., Leipaic, 1887‑88. The whole range of Aramaic literature is treated in Nathan be,, Jehiet Bep>br hearuk (a. 1100 A.D.), first printed without place and date, but before 1480 A.D., new ed., by A. Kohut, Vienna, 1878=82 (cf. JE, ix, 180‑182). Others are: G. F. $oderianua (1b73), printed in the Antwerp Polyglot; J. Buatorf, Lexicon dwtdaicum, 1840, new ed., B. Fischer, Leipaie, 1889‑7b; M. Jaetrow, Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babii and Jeruahalmi and the Midrashic Literature, 2 vole., New York, 1903 (the moat ycceasible); G. Dalman, Ammdiech‑neuhebrttiachea Wzrrterbuch mil Lexikon der Abbrsviaturen, von G. Hi£ndler, Frankfort, 1897‑1901.
The Targum of Onkelos was first printed Bologna, 1482, with Behr. text and Rashi'e commentary; best edition by Foe, at Sabbionetta, 1557, republished by A. Berliner at Berlin, 1884 (cf. Lagarde, Mittheilungen, ii, 183‑182); latest edition in the Hebrew Pentateuch Sefer keter tore at Jerusalem, 1894‑1901. Parts are in A. Merx, Chreatomathia Tarpumica, Berlin, 1883; in E. Kautasch, Ue6er sine alts Haredachrift des Tarpam Onkeloe, Halls, 1893; and G. Dalman, Aramdiache Diatektproben, Leipsic, 1896. Translations are that in Eng, by J. W. Etheridge, including Onkelos, Jonathan, and the Jerusalem fragments, 2 vole., London, 1862, sad the Latin transl. by P. Fagius, Strasburg, 1546. On the text‑critical value and other' relations consult: 8. Landauer, Die Maaorah zum Orekelua, Leipeie, 1877• H. Barnstein, Targum of Onkeloa to Genesis, London, 1898; G. Diettriah, Orammatische Beobachtunpen, in ZATW, ax (1900), 148‑1b9; E. Brederek, in TSK, Ixxiv (1901), 3b1‑377; A. MOM Die Vokaliaalion der Targume, in VerhandZunp des 6ten orientaliachen Congrcaa, ii, part 1, pp. 142‑188. On the person of Onkelos consult: D. I,ussytto, Philoxenua, Cracow, 1895; M. Friedmann, Onkeloe and AkyTaa, Vienna, 1898; JE, ii, 36‑38, ix, 405, sii, 68‑69.
The editions of the Targums of Jonathan are: For the " Former Prophets " 1st edition, Leiria, 1494, for the whole, in the first Rabbinic Bible, Venice, 1517; by Lr garde after Reuchlin's MS., 1872 (cf. A. Klostermenn in T.9R, zlvi, 1873, 731‑767); Joshua and Judges by Prm.

Bible Versions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	132
torius from South Arabian MSS., Berlin, 1899‑1900; Jonah and Micah by Merx, in his Chreatomalhia, ut sup.; Nahum by Adler, in JQR, vii (1895). 630‑657; Jer, i‑xii by Wolfeohn, 1903; Ezekiel, i‑x by Silbermann, 1902; the Haftaroth in the Hebrew Pentateuch $efer keter torah, ut sup. Consult also: C. W. H. Pauli, The Ckaldirx Paraphrase on the Prophet Isaiah, London, 1871; Z. Frankel, Zu dzm Targum der Propheten, Breslau, 1872; w. Bacher, in ZDJTG, xxviii (1874), 1‑72, 157, 319; H. 8. Levy, Targum on Isaiah, with Commentary, London, 1889.
Yerushalmi I and II were first published in Bomberg's Rabbinic Bible, Venice, 1517. The best editions of both are by M. Ginsburger, Pseudo‑Jonathan, Berlin, 1903, and Daa Frapmententharpum, 1899 (cf. Bernstein, in JQR, xiii, 1899, 167; ZDMG, lviii, 1904, 374‑378). On both Targums, cf. Dalman, Grammatik, § 6, 1‑2; on an important manuscript of Yerushalmi II at Nuremberg, cf. Lagarde, Mittheilungen, iii, GSttingen, 1889, 87.
The Targum of the Hagiographa: The first edition of Job, Ps., Prov., and the Rolls was in the Rabbinic Bible, Venice, 1517, which books were reprinted by Lagarde in 1873; the best edition of the Targum on Esther is by M. David, Berlin, 1898 (cf. Posner, Daa Tarpum Riachon zu Esther, Breslau, 1896); Ecclesiastes, from South Arabian MSS., by A. Levy, ib. 1905. Consult E. Brederek, Konkordanz sum Targum Onketoa, Giessen, 1908; H. L. Strack, Einleitunp in das A. T., § 84, Munich, 1906.

VI. The Armenian Version: The Armenian translation of the Old Testament rests on the Greek, thoughitshowaincertainpaseages and books traces of revision either from the Syriac or from the Hebrew. The Greek text used seems to have been dependent on Origen, for in some Armenian manuscripts hexaplaric marks are found. In the manuscripts (not in the printed editions) various pseudepigraphie books appear. The Armenian Psalter printed for the British and Foreign Bible Society at Venice, 1850, was rejected in consequence of these additions. Ecclesiasticus has been translated twice, first in the fifth century, this version being printed in the Venice Bible, 1860; again probably in the eighth century, found in Zohrab's edition of the Armenian Bible of 1805. On the statements of Koriun, Lazar of Parpi, and Moses of Chorene, that the Scriptures were translated by Mesrob, Sahag, Eznik, and others between 396 and 430 from manuscripts brought from Edessa, Constantinople, and Alexandria, cf. Conybeare, DB, i, 152 (see ARMENIA, II, §§2‑3). A collation of the Armenian version was made for Holmes‑Parsons (see above, I, 1, § 2), and is being made afresh for the forthcoming Cambridge Septuagint by McLean (cf. Swete, Introduction, London, 1900, p. 118). Theodoret states that in his time the language of the Hebrews was translated into that of the Armenians, Scythians, and Sauromatians. A concordance to the Armenian Bible has been printed in the cloister of San Giacomo at Jerusalem (1895). The uncanonical writings of the Old Testament found in Armenian manuscripts in the library of San Lazzaro were translated into English by J. Iseaverdens (Venice, 1901); on Ter Moosesjan's History of the Translation of the Bible into Armenian, cf. H. Gouseen, in Nouvelle Revue de Thdologie, 1904, p. 9.
For the New Testament Mill used some notes on the Armenian version by W. Guise and L. Piques. For Tregelles C. Rieu collated Zohrab's edition of 1805. His notes were used by Tischendorf in the eighth edition of his New Testament; Gregory
catalogued sixty‑four manuscripts in Europe (outside
of Russia) and America. At Moscow is a copy of the
Gospels dated 887, at Echmiadzin is the manu
script 222 written in 989, but with an ivory
binding which is much older.	Conybeare dis
covered in this manuscript, after Mark xvi, 8,
the words Ariston eritzou (" of	the presbyter
Arist[i]on"), which probably preserve the name
of the author of the close of the second Gos
pel. The Gospels have invariably the so‑called
Ammonian sections; the Acts and Epistles of Paul,
the Euthalian additions (see AMriONIUS of ALEX
ANDRIA;•EUTFIALIUS); at their end is found the
apocryphal correspondence of Paul with the Corin
thians. After John follows sometimes the apocry
phal " Rest of John." The Apocalypse is said to
be a recession made by Nerses Lambron in the
twelfth century; a much older version is indicated
by H. Goussen (cf. Gregory, Textkritik, Leipsic, 1902,
p. 568). The inclusion of the apocryphal corre
spondence of Paul with the Corinthians and other
characteristics of this version and the whole history
of the Armenian Church confirm the view that
the Armenian version was first based on the
Syriac Bible and afterward revised from the
Greek; cf. on this question Conybeare and
BUTkltt. 	E. NESTLE.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Armenian Bible was first printed, Amsterdam, 1666, from a single MS.; of this the edition by Meehitar, Venice, 1733, was in the main a reprint; the first critical edition was by Zohrab, Venice, 1805. Consult Scrivener, Introduction, ii, 148‑154; Gregory, Textkritik, i, bG5‑573; F. C. Conybeare, in DB, i, 151154, and in The Expositor, 1893, pp. 242 aqq., and Dec., 1895; F. C. Burkitt, in EB, iv, 5011, 5028; A. Abeghian, Vorfragen zur Entstehungapeachiehte der altarmeniachen Bibeliiboaetzungen, Marburg, 1906; idem, Zur Entatehungapeaehichte der altarmeniachen Bibetiiberaetzurh gen, Tiibingen, 1907.

VII. Egyptian Coptic Versions: According to Zosimus Panopoiitanus, the Hebrew Bible was translated into Egyptian at the same time as the Septuagint (see above, I, 1, § 6); according to the life of St. Anthony, he heard the Gospel read in church in the Egyptian language. But the latter statement is not certain enough to justify the supposition that the Egyptian version of the New Testament goes back to the middle of the third century. At that time Christianity in Egypt seems to have been restricted to the Greek‑speaking towns. Modem scholars distinguish linguistically as many a3 five or six Coptic dialects; for the textual critic the Coptic versions fall into three divisions, although a former generation knew only one and called it the Coptic, i.e., the Egyptian, version. These divisions are: (1) The Saidic or the version of Upper Egypt, sometimes called the Thebaic; (2) the Fayyumic (formerly called the Bashmuric), with which text the fragments in the Middle‑Egyptian dialect agree; (3) the version now in ecclesiastical use among all Copts or Egyptian Christians, called Bohairic. The Bohairah (" Lake ") is a district near Alexandria and Lake Mareotis, the. modern Beherah. There is a fourth dialect called Akhmimic; but the version of the Catholic Epistles in this dialect, preserved in a very ancient manuscript, is properly

183	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible versions
classed with the Saidic version. Bashmurie had already died out in the time of Athanasius.
	The Bohairic version was for a long time the
only one known to European scholars, and is
still supposed by some to be the earliest version
in any Egyptian dialect; but with better reason
others see in it a late recession, characterized by
greater faithfulness to the Greek, the basal Greek
text being best represented by the Greek Codex
L and, among the Fathers, not by Clement and
Origen, but by Cyril. Of the Saidic manuscripts
some of the more ancient are bilingual, the
Greek occupying the page on the left hand of
the open book; the Bohairic manuscripts, on
the contrary, are often accompanied by an
Arabic translation, but there is no instance of
a	Greco‑Bohairic manuscript. When written in
two columns the Greco‑Saidic manuscripts have
both Greek columns on the left and both Saidic
on the right, and occasionally the two pages
of the codex give different readings. The text
of this version generally supports that represented
by Codex B, but it has some strange "Western"
singularities; for instance, to Luke xxiii, 53, it is
added that Joseph plaecd a stone at the door of
the sepulcher, which twenty men were scarcely
able to move, and in the parable of the rich man
and Lazarus the name of the former is given as
"Nineveh." Revelation seems to have been con
sidered uncanonical, for it is not found with the
rest of the New Testament. 	E. NESTLE.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Erach and Gruber, Allgemeine Encycloplidie, Section 2, vol. xxxia, 12‑36; J. P. Martin, in Polybiblion, i, 128, Paris, 1888; A. Schulte, Die koptiache Ueberaetzung der vier groeaen Propheten, MGnater, 1893; Scrivener, Introduction, ii, 91‑144; H. Hyvernat, etude our lea versions Coptea de la Bible, in Revue Biblique, v (1898), 3, 427‑433, 540‑b69, vi (1897), 1, 48‑74; Gregory, TesArfitik, i. 528‑553; DB, i, 868‑873; EB, iv, 5008‑I1, 5027; W. E. Crum is accustomed to note new Biblical teats in the annual Archcsolopieal Report of the Egypt Exploration Fund (cf. that for 19056, pp. 88 aqq.).
On the Bohairic version of the Old Testament, especially the Pentateuch, cf. A. E. Brooke, in JTS, iii, 258‑278. For the Bohairic New Testament there is now the fine edition of the Clarendon Press by G. Horner, The Coptic Version of the N. T. in the Northern Dialed, otherwise called the Memphitic and Bohairic, with Introduction, critical Apparatus, and literal Enp, tranai., vole. i‑ii, Gospels, 1898, vole. iiiiv, Acts and Epistles, 1905.
The Saidic New Testament is edited by P. J. Baleatri in Saaorum bibliarum frapmenta copto‑aahidica Muaei Borpiani, vol. iii, Rome, 1904; the Berlin manuscript of the Psalter, by A. Rahlfa, GGA, iv, 4,1901; of. also J. O. Prince, Two Versions of the Coptic Psalter, is JBL, azi, 92‑99; E. O. Winatedt, SahidicBiblical Fragments in the Badleian Library, in PSBA, xavii, 2; and C. Weeeely, Sahid%achgrieehiache Psalmenynpmente, Vienna 1907. For parts of the Old Testament cf. Lagarde's Pentateuch, Leipaic,1887, Psalterii versio Memphitica, G6ttingen, 1875, and (for Wisdom, Ecclesiastes, and Psalms) his Xgyptiaca, 1883; vole. i and ii of the Borgian Fragments, by Cisacs, 188b‑89; on the importance of the Egyptianveraion of Job, cf. Lagarde, Midheilvngen, Gbttingen, 1884, i, 203.

VIII. The Ethiopic Version: In Ethiopic there exists a translation of the Bible which has continued the only one authorized among Abyssinian Christians, and even among the Jewish Falashas; and it still maintains its ancient authority, although the Ethiopic long ago ceased to be spoken. There is no reliable information as to the exact time or manner of its origin; but it is certain that it was made
from the Septuagint in the early days of Abyssinian Christianity, between the fourth and tire sixth century. It is very faithful, being, for the moat part, a verbal rendering of the Greek, readable and fluent, and in the Old Testament often renders closely the ideas and the words of the Hebrew.
Dillmann projected an edition of the Ethiopic Old Testament in five volumes, of which he lived to publish vole. i, Gen.‑Ruth (1853), ii, Sam.‑Kings (1861‑71), and v, the Apocrypha (1894). HZ arranged the manuscripts in three groups: (1) those which contain theoriginal translation from the Septuagint uncorrupted; ( >) those the text of which has been revised and completed from the Greek; (3) those which have been corrected from the Hebrew. From the circumstance that the Ethiopic Church was dopendent on that in Egypt, it is probable that the particular recession of the Septuagint from which the Ethiopic translation was made was the Hesychian (see above, I, 1, § 5). But the early Aramaiospeaking missionaries influenced the translation, as is shown by the numerous Aramaic words which are employed to convey Christian ideas. Possibly the Bible was translated, at least in part, by these missionaries or their pupils.
	The division into chapters was introduced at a
later day into Abyssinia, under European influ
ences. The Ethiopic Bible includes the Apocrypha,
except the books of Maccabees, which were either
not translated or very early lost, and several
paeudepigrapha, and puts them upon perfect
equality with the canonical writings; and in this
way the number of books is given as eighty‑one,
forty‑six for the Old Testament, thirty‑five for
the New. (See ABYl3SINIA AND THE ABYaaINIAN
CHURCH.) 	(F. PRATORIUS.)
BIHLIOCYRAPHY: For lists of Ethiopic M$$. available consult the Catalogues by A. T. d'Abbadie, Paris, 1859 (a general list), by C. F. A. Dillmann (for British Museum), London, 1847 (for Bodleian Library), Oxford, 1848, and (for Berlin) Berlin, 1878, by W. Wright (for British Museum), London, 1877, and by H. Zoteaberg (for Bibliothbque Nationals), Paris; ZDMO, v, 184 eqq. (for those in Tiibingen), ZDM(I, xvi (for Vienna), Bulletin acient%fiqus publik par 1'Acad€rnie do& Sciences, ii, 302, iii, 145 eqq. (for those in $t. Petersburg), and a general list in C. R. Gregory, Prolegomena, iii, 900‑912. Leipaic,1894. On the version consult: C. F. A. Dillmann, in JahrbVcher der bibliachen Wiaeenachaft, v (1853), 144‑151; Reekendorf, in ZATW, vii (1887), 81JB0; P. J. Bachmann, Dodelcapropleeton tethiopum, part 1. Obadiah, Halle, 1892. Part 2, Maleachi, 1893, Die Klapeliaier, 1893, Jeeaia, 1893; L. Goldschmidt, Bibliotheca athiopira, Leipeic, 1893; Ilackepill, in ZA xi (1897), 160‑151. The subject is treated also is C. R.. Gregory, Prolegomena, iii, 894‑‑9pp, ut sup.; in the Einteitunp of Kbnig, 1893, p. 113, of JOlicher, 1894, p. 388, and of Cornill, 1898, p. 338, and the Introduction of Scrivener, ii, 154‑155.
The beat ed. of the Old Testament is that of Dillmana (ut sup.). The New Testament was first printed at Rome in 1b48‑49 by the Abyssinian Tasfa‑Sion or, as he is also called, Peter the Ethiopian, reprinted in the London Polyglot. An ed. was issued by T. P. Platt for the BFB9 in 1828‑30, reprinted at Leipsic, 1899.

I%. The Georgian (Iberian) Version: The earliest translations of parts of the Bible in the language of the Iberians belong to the fifth century, and seem to betray the influence of the Syriac version. David and Stephen in the eight century are the first names known of men engaged in revision of the Iberian Bible. A papyrus Psalter is assigned to the seventh

Bible Pardons	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	134
or eighth century, and a copy of the Gospels is dated a century later (facsimile in Tsagareli). The edition printed at Moscow, 1743, has been retouched from the Slavonic. S. C. Malan in 1862 Used this version for his edition of the Gospel of John. On the Georgian manuscripts of the library at Paris there is a recent paper by A. Khakhanov.
E. NESTLE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Scrivener, Introduction, ii, 158; A. A. Tsagareli, " Information about the Monuments of Georgian Literature " (Russian). Parts i‑iii, St. Petersburg, 1888‑94; C. R. Gregory, Prolegomena, iii, 922‑923, Leipeic, 1894; idem, Textkritik, i, 573; J. M. Bebb, in DB, iv, 881; A. Palmieri, Le Versions Georgians del.'s Bibbia, in Beaearione, 2 eer., vol. v, 259‑288, 322‑327, vi, 72‑77, 189194, Rome, 1901‑02. On the people consult: A. Leist, Das peorpiache yolk, Dresden, 1903.
R. The Gothic Version of Ulfilas: Ulfilas (q.v.), the Moses of the Goths, as Constantine styled him (cf. TSK, 1893, 273), was made bishop probably in 341 at Antioch and died in 381 or 383. He gave to his people the alphabet and the Bible, but, according to Philostorgius (Hist. acct., ii, 5), omitted to translate the books of Kings because he thought they contained too much about war for the good of his fierce countrymen. Of the Old Testament very few fragments are left; viz., Gen. v, 3‑30; Ps, Iii, 2‑3; Ezra xv (i.e. Nell. V), 13‑16, xvi, 14‑xvii, 3, xvii, 13‑45. The translation follows the recension of Lucian (see above, I, 1, § 5). The Gothic priests Sonnies and Fretela, who were in correspondence with Jerome about the true readings of certain passages in the Psalter some twenty years after the death of UI files (cf. Jerome, Epiat., evi), were perhaps engaged in a revision of the Gothic Psalms. That the Psalms were sung in Gothic at Constantinople is testified by Chrysostom (cf. the dissertation of J. Miihlau, Zur Frage each der gotischen Psalmentlberaetzu7tg, Kiel, 1904). On the fragments of Ezra (Nehemiah), cf. E. Langner, Die golisehen Nehemia‑frttgmente (Sprottau, 1903).
More of the New Testament is preserved, thanks to the Codex Argenteus now in Upsala, also by a palimpsest from Weissenburg discovered in Wolfenbiittel in 1756, and fragments at Turin discovered by Angelo Mai in 1817 and by Reifferscheid in 1886. The Codex Argenteus must have had a very near relationship to Codex f. of the Latin Bible (cf. M. Haupt, Die Vorrede der gotischert Bibelubersetzung, in his Opuscula, vol. iii, Leipsic, 1876; Burkitt, JTS,1,129; Kauffmann, ZDP, xxxii, 305335; Driiaeke, ZWT, 190?). It was perhaps part of a Greek, Gothic, and Latin Testament. The version is very faithful, following the text used by Chrysoatom. More than 100 Greek and Latin words were retained by Ulfilas (cf. C. Elis, L'eber die Fremdwbrter and fremden Eigenftdmen in der 9otischen Bibeliiber'setz3eng, Gottingen, 1903).
E. NESTLE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Bernhardt, %ritiache Unterauchunpen fiber die pothieche Bibehlberaetzung, Meiningen, 1887; K. Weinhold, Die gothiache S7xache in Dienate den CAriatenthuma, Halls, 1870; A. Ki9eh, Der Beptuaginta‑Codex den UZpAilaa in Monataechrift far GeachieAte and Wieeenachaft den Judenfhuma, axu (1873), 42‑48, 85‑89, 21b‑219; O. OhrloB, Die Bruchatiicke . . . der gofhiachen Bibelilber‑ II aetzung, Halls, 1e73; idem, in ZDP vii (1878), 251‑295;
A. $ehaubaeh, Ueber dna Verhtiltnie der gothischen Bibet‑ ~I :iiieraetzunp . . . zu der Lutheriachen . . , 1lfeiningen,
1879; G. Kaufmann, in Zeitachrift filr deutachea Alterthum, xxvii (1883); K. Marold, ICritiache Unterauchungen fiber den Einftuas den Lateina auf die potAiache BibdUberaetzung, K'inigaberg, 1881; C. R. Gregory, Prolegomena, iii, 1108, Leipsic, 1894; F. KauHmann, in ZDP, xxix (1898), 308‑337; W. Bangert, Der Einffuaa lateiniacher Quellen auf die potAiacha Bibelfiberaetaunp, Rudolatadt, 1880; W. Loft and F. Vogt, in Zeitaehrift far deutsche* Alterthum, xlii (1898); J. Mtihlau, Zur Frogs nacA der potiachen Pealmeniibereedsunp, Kiel, 1904. On the language consult: G. H. Balg, Comparative Glossary of the Gothic Language, 8 parts, New York, 1887‑90; J. Wright, A Primer of the Gothic Language, London, 1899; on the Gothic alphabet, W. Loft, Studien zu den Blteaten permaniachen Alphabeden, Gatereloh, 1898.
The Codex Arpenteue was first published by Franci9eue Junius (du Jon), Dort, 1665; with the other fragments, glossary, etc., by H. C. de Gabelentz and J. Loebe, Leip9ic, 1838 and 1848; in.'facaimilebyA. Uppetrom, Upeala, 1854, supplemented in 1857 by ten leaves which had been stolen but afterward recovered. The edition most used in Germany is by F. L. Stamen, Paderborn, 1858, 9th ed., with dictionary by M. Heyne and grammar by F. Wrede, 1898. Another ed. with apparatus is by E. Bernhardt, Halle, 1875 (text ed.,1884). There is an American edition by G. H. Balg, The First Germanic Bible, Milwaukee, 1891. Partial ads. are J. Bosworth, The Gothic and Anglo‑Saxon Gospels
. with . . . Wycliffe and Tyndale, London, 1885, new ed., 1907, and W. W. Skeet, Mark, London, 1882.

B. Modern Versions
I. Arabic Versions: "There are more Arabic versions of the Gospels than can be welcome to theology, with its press of work," wrote Lagarde in the preface of his edition of the four Gospels in Arabic (Leipsic, 1864). There are translations made from Hebrew, Samaritan, Coptic, Latin, Syriac, and Greek. There was not, as it seems, a translation into Arabic before Mohammed (cf. M. J. de Goeje and M. Schreiner, in Semitic Studies in Memory of Alexander Kohut, Berlin, 189?, p. 495). John of Seville is said to have produced an Arabic Bible about 737; the chronicle of Michael Syrus mentions an Arabic translation of the Gospels made under direction of John, patriarch of Antioch, at the command of the emir Amru. The "Indians" mentioned by Chrysoatom between Egyptians and Persians as in possession of the Scriptures in their mother tongue may be South‑Arabians, but there is no additional information about this version.

Of translations from the Hebrew Old Testament, by far the moat important is the work of Saaedia ban Joseph, the Gaon, from the Fayyum (d. 942; 988 9AADIA). On Seadia and his translation, cf. H. Ewald and L. Dukes, Beitrlipe zur Gesehichte der iilteaten Aualepunp and .SpracherklBrung den alten Testaments, ii (Stuttgart, 1844); 8. Monk, in La Bible, traduction nouvelle . . . par 3. Cahen, ix (Paris, 1838), 73159; M. Steinschneider, Din arabiache literatur der Juden (Frankfort, 1902), 58 sqq.; and especially the edition of his collected works by J. H. Derenbourg, vol. i, the Pentateuch (Paris, 1893); iii, Isaiah (1898); iv, Proverbs (1899); v, Job (ed. Bacher, 1899). On the question of the text, cf. P. Kahle, Die arabiachen Bibsla7bereetzunpen . . . (Leipeie, 1904), no. viii, and against him Becher, in TLZ, 1905, no. 8. Sandia's translation of the Pentateuch was printed first in Hebrew letters with the Hebrew teat, Targum and s Persian translation at Constantinople, 1548, then in the Paris and London Polyglots (see BIBLES, POLYGLOT, 111, IV). For Genesis and Exodus, cf. Lagarde, in his Materialien zur ICritik (Leipeie, 1887). Kahle used for his Specimen a manuscript of Florence and Wolfenbattel, not used by Derenbourg. On Isaiah, cf. Derenbourg, in ZATW, 1890, pp. 184. Of Job there is an edition by J. Cohn (Berlin, 1889). On the Psalms, cf. the dissertations of Haneberg in AMA, 1841, iii, 2; J. Cohn, in Mapazin far die Wieeenaehaft den Judentuma, 1881. On Canticles, ef. A. Marx, Din .Saadjaniache Ueberaetzung den Hohen Liedea ins ArabiacAe (Heidelberg, 1882). On Proverbs, cf. a dissertation of Jones

136	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Version
Bond! (Halls, 1888). On fiasdis's system of translating. of, W. Engelkemper. De Saadio3 Oaonis vita, bibliorum roeraimee, hermeueubica (MBneter, 1897).
There are other Arabia translations made from the Hebrew by Jews such as the Arabs F.rpsai%, s translation of the Pentateuch made by an African Jew in the thirteenth century (published by Erpeniue, Leyden, 1822), and s translation of the Psalms made by the Karaite Japhet ban Eli (ed. J. J. L. Bargee, Paris, 1871); a specimen of his commentary on Genesis is in Kahle, viii; his commentary on Deuteronomy was edited by $. Margoliouth, in Anecdote Ozonienaia, Semitic aeries, vol. i, part 3. 1899. Hoses and Joel from an Oxford manuscript were edits! by $ahrSter, in Archiv tits roissenachafRiche Esjoraclaunp du Allen Testaments, i and ii (1889‑70). A Fragment aintr arabiachen Petttakuch4baruEsuup was published by J. Hirsch, Leipaio, 1900.
The first specimen of an Arabic translation of the tiamaritan text was published by A. C. Hwiid (Rome, 1780) from the famous triglot in the Barberini library; then by Paulus, 1789 and 1791; better by de 8eay, in Mimoiru do l'AoadEmie den Inscriptions, xlia, 1‑199; $. Kahn, in Abhandlunyen fAr die Runde du Morpen7ardu, Vol. v, part 4 (Leipsie, 1878), 1‑499; J. Bloch, Die aamaritaniaeh‑arnbiache Peatatsuchubereetxunp (Berlin, 1901); and Kahle. ut sup., no. vi. The $amaritane seem to have used at first the translation of $eadia; soon after 1000 they made s translation of their own, which was revised in the middle of the thirteenth century by Abu Said; Genesis, Exodus, sad Leviticus of this version were edited by Kuenen, 1851‑54 (cf. A. Cowley, in JR, x, 877).
Many Coptic manuscripts have an Arabia translation by the aide of the Coptic teat; in other manuscripts containing only an Arabia version, this is derived from the Coptic (cf. Arab. 3 in the Greek Pentateuch of Holmes‑Parsons; see above, I, 1, $ 2); for Job such s translation hse been edited by Lngarde, Paatter4um, Job, Proverbia arabios (G5ttingen, 1878); on Psalms, cf. Pealterium Coptia, ed. M. G. $cswartrs (Leipsic, 1843), v.
From the Latin, either made from it or corrected by it, are the Roman editions such as that of $ergius Risi (Arabia and Latin, 3 vole., Rome, 1871), the Gospels (1591), and Psalms and Prophets (1814). A new recension by Rafael Tuki contains only Genesis‑Nehemish and Tobit (2 vole., 1752). The edition of 1871 without the Apocrypha hoe been frequently reprinted by the BFB$ since 7822 after it had reprinted the Arabic portion of the London Polyglot under the supervision of J. D. Carlyle (Newcastle, 1811). In 1858 the Gospels, in 1880 the New Testament, in 1886 the Old Testament appeared in the new translation begun by the American missionary Eli Smith (q.v.) and finished by C. V. A. Van Dyck at Beirut, with the help of native scholars. It has been frequently ‑printed in Beirut, Oxford, London, and New York. In competition with this translation are two from Roman Catholics, the one undertaken by the Dominicans of Mosul under the direction of Joseph David (4 vols., 1875‑78), the other by the Jesuits in Beirut (3 vole., 1878‑$2; reproduced by photolithography in 1 vol. 1897; of. on these editions Kahle, iii eqq.; A. G. Ellis, Catalogue of Arabic Books in the British Museum, London, 1894 eqq.; the Bible Catalogue of the same library; and Darlow‑Moule, Historical Catalogue of the Coltaetion of the BFBS, ii, London, 1908). Independent translations of the New Testament are those of $alomo Negri (London, 1727) and of Nathaniel $sbst (Calcutta, 1818). There is also an edition of the Psalms by Negri (London, 1725; of. G. A. Freylinghaueen, Memories Nepriana, Halls, 1784).
From the Syriac Bible is the teat of Judges, Ruth, Samuel, I Kings i‑xi, II Kings ii, 17 to the end, Chronicles, Ne. ix, 28 to end, and Job in the Paris and London Polyglots. he first four books are, according to Rtidfger, by the same author, the rest by different authors Psalms, Proverbs, and Job have been reissued by Lagarde (Paalterium etc., ut sup.) and the whole with few alterations by the BFB$ (1811, ut sup.). A Psalter in Syriac and Arabic in Syriac letters (the so‑called Karshunia script; i.e., Gereom's manner of writing) was printed by Maronite monks of Mount Lebanon at Koschaya, 1810 (perhaps as early se 1585), and reprinted in Arabia type by Lagarde. Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy in the Materialien of Lagarde seem to have been derived from the Syriac Bible. A translation of the Syriac Hexapla of the Pentateuch and Wisdom Is the work of Hareth ban $enan ban Sabot (cf. Nestle, in ZDMO, 1878, p. 488; Holmes‑Parsons, Pra/atio ad Pentateuehum,
and Kahle, ut sup., ia). The fragments of Job were edited by Baudieein, 1870.
From the Greek are translated the prophets and the poetical books (except Job) in the Polyglots perhaps also the Psalms as edited by Athsnesius, patriarch of Antioch (Aleppo, 1708), reprinted by Lsgarde with e, translation of the tenth century by Abu al‑Fath Abdallsh ban Fsdhl.
	Gregory (Textkrit%k, Leipeio, 1902) mentions 137 Arabia
manuscripts for the New Testament. On no. 138, cf.
Stenij, Die altarabiecha Uebersetsung der Briefs an die He
brder, an doe Romer and an die ICoriuther (Helsingfore,
1901). For the manuscripts on Mount Sinai, cf. the cata
logue of Mrs. M. D. Gibson, in Studio Sinaitica, iii (Cam
bridge, 1894), and her publication of a part of an Arabia
translation of the Epistles of St. Paul in no. ii (1893) of
the same collection; also in no, vii (1899), an Arabic trans
lation of Ante and of the seven Catholic Epistles from an
eighth or ninth century manuscript. On the revision of
the Arabia made about 250 at Alexandria by Hibath Allah
ibn &I‑Aeealy with various readings from the Greek, the
Syriac, and the Coptic, ef. D. B. Macdonald, in the Hartford
Seminary Record, Apr., 1893. Finally, the Arabic version
of Titian's Diateesaron (ed. Ciascs, Rome, 1888) must not
be forgotten. 	E. NESTLE,
Brsrxoosnrav: On the M$8. the one indispensable book in I. Guidi, Lc fraducioni depli evanqelii in arabo . .
Rome, 188$; and valuable is also C. R. Gregory, Pro1opomena, iii, 928‑947, Leipeio, 1894. On the version and editions consult: Walton's Polyglot, Prolegomena, chap. 14, London, 1852; C. F. $chnurrer, Bibliotheca arabica, de Pentateucho arabico . . . , TVbingen. 1780: H. E. G. Paulus, Comme»tatio astiat, Jens, 1789; R. Holmes, Vetus Tutamentum Grow, the Preface to the'Pentsteuch, Oxford, 1798; J. Roediger, Commentatio . . . de iaten pratatione Arabiea . . . , Halls, 1824; idem, De origins
. Arabica . . . in(erpretationia, ib. 1829; J. Gildemeieter, De eoangeiiis in Arabiersm . . . traneiatia, Bonn, 1886: Gregory, TexRkrikk; Scrivener. Introduction, ii. 181184: F. C. Burkitt, in DB, i, 138‑138 (a lucid presents. lion).
II. Celtic Versions: No version of the Bible or of single Biblical books in any of the Celtic dialects has come down from the pre‑Reformation period, though a few Biblical extracts in Old Irish (8th‑11th centuries) are extant in homilies. After the establishment of the English Church in 1560 as the State Church, Bishop Nicholas Walsh of Ossory and others made an effort toward giving the Bible to the Irish people, and the New Testament, translated by William O'Donnell, archbishop of Tuam, was published at Dublin in 1603 in Irish characters. This edition was republished at London in 1681, and in 1685 the Old Testament, translated by Bishop William Bedell of Kilinore and others, was issued. This edition was often reprinted, especially in a revised form by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1827. A translation of the New Testament into the modern dialect of Munster by Dr. R. O'Kane appeared at Dublin, 1858. Of the Roman Catholic translation prepared by Archbishop John MacHale of Tuam.from the Vulgate, the first volume only (Genesis‑Joshua) has appeared (Tuam, 1861). Gaelic, which is spoken in the Highlands and western isles of Scotland, is related to Irish; consequently the Scottish Minister Robert Kirke, in order to satisfy the needs of the Protestant Highlanders, had O'Donnell's Irish translation of the New Testament printed in Roman letters and supplied with an Irish‑Gaelic glossary (London, 1690). To provide the Gaelic‑speaking Highlanders with a Bible of their own, the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge published in 1767 the New Testament translated by James Stuart of

Bible versions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	136
Killin, and in 1783‑1801 a translation of the Old Testament prepared by John Stuart, Jr., and John Smith. At the instance of the same society, Dr. Mark Hildealey, bishop of Man, distributed different parts of the Bible among the Mane‑speaking clergy of the Isle of Man, with the view of having a translation prepared into this tongue. The whole was revised by P. Moors and his pupil John Kelly. In 1770‑72 the Bible in Manx was printed for the above society at Whitehaven under the supervision of J. Kelly, and is the basis of all later editions.
Before the Reformation hardly any parts of the Bible were translated into Cymric. In 1562 the House of Commons resolved to have the Bible and the Book of Common Prayer translated into Cymric within four years, and made the bishops of Bangor, St. Asaph, Hereford, Llandaff, and St. Davids responsible for its execution. The New Testament was published in London in 1567, and in 1588 the whole Bible (revised by Bishop Richard Parry, 1620). All later issues follow Parry's revised text. The Bible has never been translated into Cornish. A manuscript belonging to the first half of the eighteenth century contains a translation of Gen. i, iii; Matt. iv, vi, 9‑13, vii; and the ten commandments. Before the beginning of the nineteenth century only short passages of the Bible had appeared in the Breton. The British and Foreign Bible Society published at Angoul6me in 1827 the New Testament translated by the Breton scholar Le Gonidec into the dialect of Lion. The translation was made from the Vulgate, and was for other reasons unsuitable. A new translation by the Baptist missionary John Jenkins was printed at Brest in 1847. Le Gonidec's translation of the Old Testament was revised by Troude and Milin, and published at Saint‑Brieuc in 1886. In 1883 the Trinitarian Bible Society published a New Testament in the dialect of TrE:guier, prepared by the Breton Protestant G. Ar C'hoat, and in 1889 the whole Bible. A Roman Catholic translation of the New Testament was published in Guingamp in 1853, and an edition of the Psalms at Paris in 1873. For linguistic purposes C. Terrien translated the Gospel of Matthew into the dialect of Vannes (Lundayn, 1857) at the instance of Lucien Bonaparte.
(H. ZIMMER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Reid, BiblioScoto‑Celtica, Glasgow, 1832; the 3cot<iah‑Celtic Revim, Nov., 1881, pp. 150 eqq.; T. Llewelyn, An Historical Account of the British or Welsh Versions and Editions of the Bible, London, 1788; W. Rowland, Lly)ryddiadh of CyMry, pp. 10‑21, 41‑60, 93‑97, Llandloes, 1889; Revue Ceitique, vi, 382, xi, 180‑190, ,368; Bible of Every Land, pp. 151‑173. London, 1881; I. Ballinger, The Bible do Wales, London, 1908.
III. Dutch Versions: The first printed Dutch version (Delft, 1477), was made, apparently by a layman, probably about 1300 from the Latin. Some parts, which the translator was unwilling to popularise, as Deut. axii, 13‑21, are passed over with a reference to the Latin text. Difficult passages have explanations mostly from the Hiatoria scholastica of Peter Comestor. The printed edition omits Psalms and the New Testament, though both are contained in a good manuscript of this version at Vienna. A very good translation of the Psalms is
found is several incunabula. About 1,300 translations of the New Testament, or at least of the church lessons or of the life of Christ, began to be .made. A translation of the New Testament of Erasmus appeared at Delft in 1524, and two years before at Antwerp a translation of Luther's version was printed by Hare van .Roemundt (repeated at Basel, 1525 and 1528, also, a little altered, at Amsterdam, 1526). The Old Testament with the Pentateuch and Psalms translated from Luther, the rest the text of the Delft edition revised, was printed, also by Roemundt, in 1525 in four small vole.; and the first complete Dutch Bible was printed at Antwerp in 1526 by Jacob van Lieaveldt. It was reprinted and corrected several times until 1546, when Charles V prohibited the edition.
Roman Catholic editions of the New Testament followed in 1527, 1530, and 1533, in Dutch and Latin in 1539. The whole Bible did not appear until after the meeting of the Council of Trent, at Cologne in 1548 by Alexander Blanckart, and at Louvain in the same year by Nicolaus van Winghe with a sharp preface against the Protestant editions. In 1599 it was revised after the official Vulgate of 1592, again in 1717 by tEgidius Wit of Ghent. After 1820 the Roman Catholics were allowed to use editions without notes, and such an edition of 1599, called the DZ6rentorf Bible (from its publisher), was circulated by the British and Foreign Bible Society.
The division of Dutch Protestantism into various parties, Lutherans, Mennonites, and Reformed, caused the production of various versions. The Lutherans received a version in 1558 after Bugenhagen's edition in Low German; it has been several times revised and reprinted up to 1851. The Mennonites used a version printed by Nicolaes Bieatkens at Emden in 1560, the first Dutch edition with verse divisions. The Reformed received another in 1556, based on the Zurich Bible of 1548‑49 (see below, VII, § 5); but in 1562 they adopted a version based on Luther's, called the Deux Aes or Eulenspiegel Bible (from the marginal notes at Neh. ii, 5 and Ecclus. xix, 5). The Rsmonstrants used at first the Staatenbibel (see below) but received a New Testament of their own from Hartsoeker in 1680.
After the beginning of the seventeenth century the necessity of improving the Dutch versions was felt and was shown especially by W. Baudartius of Zutphen, who published in 1614 an emended translation. As early as 1594 the Staten General determined on undertaking a revision. The result is the Staatenb~,'bel. At first Philips van Marnix (q.v.) was entrusted with the task of a new translation; in 1598 Johannes Drusius (q.v.) was appointed his assistant. The Synod of Dort discussed the question in eight sessions in Nov., 1618, and May, 1619. The work of translation was completed in 1632, the revision of the Old Testament Sept., 1634, that of the New Testament, Oct. 10, 1635. The first edition was printed, with and without notes, in 1636, but not published before July 29, 1637. An official list of misprints followed in 1655 and in 4711 for the first time an edition was stereotyped. An edition of 500 copies of the New Testament was punted for Peter the Great in 1717,

187	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Versions
and of the Old Testament in five parts in 1721, in two columns, one being left blank in order to receive in St. Petersburg the Russian text. Language and orthography raised difficult questions in a revision of 1762, and another by Henry Cats and W. A. van Hengel in 1834. The first impression for the British and Foreign Bible Society was made in 1812.
About the middle of the last century members of the theological faculty of Leyden began a new revision; the New Testament was finished in 1866; work on the Old Testament was interrupted for a time, but was resumed in 1884 by A. Kuenen and his pupils, H. Oort, W. H. Koaters, and J. Hooykas. The first instalment appeared at Leyden in 1897, the first part (Gen.‑Esther) in 1900, the second part (Job‑Malachi) in 1901.
	Of other translations that by J. H. van der Palm
(1825 and often) is worthy of mention. The New
Testament has been translated by G. Viasering,
a Mennonite (1854), by S. P. Lipman, a Roman
Catholic (1861), and by G. J. Vos of the Reformed
Church (1895). 	E. NEemr,E.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The really important work is laaac Le Long, Bak‑Zaal der nederduitacha ByGels, Amsterdam, 1732, 2d ed., 1784. Consult also Bitria of Emery Land, pp. 181‑188, London, 1881; H. van Druten, Gsarhiedenia der Nederlandaclu BijbaLoareatinp, 2 vole., Leyden, 1898‑97; G. N. De Vooye, TAT, March, 1903; J. M. Bebb, in DB, extra vol., pp. 414‑415.
On the 3taatsnbibaL consult N. Hinlopen, Hietarie van
de Nederlandeche Oowuttinpe des By6ela, Leyden, 1777; P. Meyjee, Jacobus Revius, Amsterdam, 1895; J. Heineius, Rlank‑en BuiyenpsTear roan do kwl des atatenbij'bela. Amsterdam, 1897.
	IV. English Versions: Setting aside the Biblical
poetry that is in the main wrongly ascribed to the
Anglo‑Saxon Caedmon (q.v.), and the translation
of John's Gospel which Bede finished on his death
bed, but of which nothing further is known, the
Psalms seem to have been the first part of the
Bible to be translated into English. An Anglo
		Saxon paraphrase is extant containing
	1. The the first fifty Psalms In prose, the
	Earliest met in verse (ed. B. Thorpe, Oxford
Versions. 151, which has been incorrectly attributed to Aldhelm (q.v.), bishop of Sherborne, who died in 709, and to King Alfred; the name of the translator is not known, but he did his work after 778 and used the Latin, not the Greek text, as did all the others down to and including Wyclif. A translation of the four Gospels was made probably in the ninth century (ed. Matthew Parker, 1571; T. Marshall, 1665; B. Thorpe, Tha halgan Godapel on Engliac. The Anglo‑Saxon Version of the Holy Gospels, London, 1842; Joseph Bosworth and George Waring, The Gothic and Anglo‑Saxon Gospels, London, 1865; new ed., 1907), and interlinear glosses for the Psalms and the Gospels in the ninth and tenth centuries (Paalterium Datridia Latino‑Saxonicum roetus, London, 1640). The so‑called Veapasian Gospels probably belong to the first half of the ninth century (cf. J. Stevenson, Anglo‑Saxon and Early English Psalter, 2 vole., London, 18437; H. Sweet, The Oldest English Texts, Early English Tent Society, Vol. 83, London, 1885, pp. 18320; E. Wends, Ueberlieferung tend Sprache der mittelengliachen Ver‑
sion des Psalters and ihr YerhCltnia xur lateinischen Yorlage, Breslau, 1884). There are other similar glosses to the Psalter in the libraries of Cambridge University and Trinity College, Cambridge, in the British Museum, in the Bodleian at Oxford, in Lambeth Palace, and Salisbury Cathedral. For other Gospel versions, cf. G. Stevenson and G. Waring, The L$adisfarne and Rushworth Gospels (4 vole., Durham and London, 1854‑65); K. W. Bouterwek, Die vier Evangel%en in altnorthumbrischer SPrache (Gilteraloh,1857); W. W. Skeat, The Gospel according to Matthew, etc. (Cambridge, 1887,‑Mark, 1871; Luke, 1871; John, 1878); A. S. Cook, A Glossary o f the Old Northumbrian Gospels (Halls, 1894). Alfric (q.v.) translated the Pentateuch and Joshua in 997‑998. The following may also be mentioned: homilies on the lessons by the Augustinian monk Ormin in the twelfth or thirteenth century (the so‑called Ormulum); the translation of the Psalms by William de Shorham, vicar of ChartSutton, near Leeds in County Kent, about 1325 (the manuscript in Trinity College, Dublin, owned by John Hyde and perhaps written by him, may be a revision of this translation); and the commentary with a translation of the Psalms by Richard Rolls of Hampole near Doncaster, Yorkshire, written about 1330 (cf. H. R. Bramley, The Psalter . . . by Richard Rolls . . Edited from Manuscripts, Oxford, 1884; Heinrich Middendorff, Studien fiber Richard Rolle trop Hampole, Magdeburg, 1888).
The language developed and the thoughts of men strode onward. John Wyelif (q.v.) entered the lists to war for the pure truth, and he determined to give the people the Bible. With the help of his pupil Nicholas of Hereford (q.v.) he seems to have translated the whole Bible, and when he was
charged with heresy and driven from
8. WyoliL Oxford in 1382, he withdrew to Lutter
	worth and revised the whole very
carefully. His pupil John Purvey (q.v.) appears
also to have revised some things in the Old
Testament; he did all he could to spread the
translation abroad after Wyclif's death (cf. The
New Testament in English, Translated by John
Wycli,$e circa 1380, now first printed from a contem
porary manuscript . . . . Printed at ChisW ck by
Charles Wht&ngham for William Pickering, Lon
don, 1848; Josiah Forshall and Frederic Madden,
The Holy Bible . . . in the Earliest English Ver
sions Made . . . by John Wycliffe and his Folloto
ers, 4 vole., Oxford, 1850, with a list of 170
manuscripts; J. ten Brink, Geschichte der engliachen
Litteratur, vol. ii, by Alois Brandy Strasburg,
1893, pp. 5‑32, especially pp. 27; A. Richter, Das
Wycliffesche Evangelium Johannis im 600. Bde.
der Tauchnitzer Collection of British Authors, die
W yell f f cache Bt7xluberaetzung, and daa YerhBltnis
des ersteren zu der lelzteren, programme of the
gymnasium at Wesel, Aug. 30, 1862). The first
English Bible, the first Bible at all in a modern
tongue, was well received by the people, but for
a century and a half was the object of attack by
Priests and nobility. Even long after the dis
covery of printing no one could think of publish
ing this translation. It finally came out as a

Bible Versions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	lgg
literary necessity in 1731, edited by J. Lewis preprinted by H. H. Baber, London, 1810, and by Batter, London, 1841; the edition of 1848 is named above). For another version of this period consult the work of a Swedish lady, Anna C. Panes, A Fourteenth Century English Biblical Version (Cambridge, 1904).
The first to translate the New Testament in English from the original Greek was William Tyndale (q.v.). He printed Matthew and Mark
first, somewhere on the Continent, in 3. Tyndale. 1524 and 1525, and then the whole New
	Testament in quarto, partly at Cologne
at Peter Quentel's before 1526, partly, it seems,
at Worms (at Peter SchSffer'sP) in 3,000 copies,
and in octavo at Cologne at SchiSffer'a in
3,000 copies.		Both editions were in England
by about March, 1526 (cf. The First Printed
English New Testament Translated by William
T yndals. PhotolithograPhed . . . . Edited by E. Arber,
London, 1871; The First New Testament Printed
in the English Language . . , by William Tyndale.
Reproduced in facsimile . . . by F. Fry, Bristol,
1863; James Loring Cheney, The Sources of Tyn
dale's New Testament, Halls, 1883, especially pp.
39, 40; W. Sopp, OrthogralOhie urul Aussprache
der craters		lischert Bibelubersetzurtg von William
Tyndale, Marburg, 1889). The hierarchy attacked
Tyndale's work violently. The first public burning
of the volume appears to . have taken place in the
autumn of 1526. William Warham (q.v.), arch
bishop of Canterbury, thought in May, 1527, that
his agents had bought up all the copies of all
three editions. In 1528 the readers of the New
Testament had to take their turn at being burned.
'Tyndale published the Pentateuch Jan, 17, 1530
(see Tyrmer.E, Wmrm), Joshua in 1531.
William Roye, George Joye (afterward a bitter enemy), Miles Coverdale (q.v.), John Rogers (q.v.), and John Frith (q.v.) were among the friends who from time to time worked with Tyndale. Coverdale completed at Antwerp, Oct. 4, 1535, the printing of his translation of the whole Bible
" out of Douche acid Latyn " (i.e. the
4.	Cover‑ German of Luther and the Zurich Bible
	dale
=	of 1524‑29‑wee below, VII, § 5‑
Othe
Editions. and the Vulgate), using also Tyndale's
work. This was the first complete Bible in English; in it the non‑canonical books of the Old Testament are in an appendix by themselves, named "Hagiographa." In 1537 the "Matthew" Bible came out, a speculation on the part of the king's printer, although moat of it was perhaps printed in Antwerp; it was a combination of Tyndale and Coverdale, made by John Rogers (alias Matthew) in Antwerp. In 1539 appeared the " Taverner " Bible, a revision of the Matthew Bible by Richard Taverner (q.v.). The " Great " Bible was brought out by Cromwell, Earl of Eases, Thomas Cranmer (q.v.), and Thomas More (q.v.), and a committee of prelates and scholars, and was printed under Coverdale's supervision, partly at Penis, till the Inquisitor‑General attacked it Dec. 17, 1538, and then in London, where the volume was finished in Apr., 1539; the second edition(" Gran‑
mer's " Bible, 1540) was " apoynted to the vac of the churches"; the Psalter from this Bible still stands in the prayer‑book of the English Church. In 1557 William Whittingham published at Geneva an English New Testament with Stephens's verse‑division of 1551 (see BIBLE TEST, III, § § 2‑3) and with many corrections of the translation. In 1558 Coverdale began in Geneva a new Bible, but returned to England in 1559, while Whittingham, Anthony Gilby, and Thomas Sampson finished the printing of the handsome edition known as the " Geneva " Bible in Apr., 1560. Archbishop Parker (q.v.) with eleven bishops and four minor prelates began in 1583 a revision of the edition of 1539, which was completed Oct. 5, 1568, as the " Bishops' " Bible; but it was not especially liked; in the churches they used chiefly the Bible of 1539 and at home the Geneva Bible. See BIHLEB, ANNOTATED, AND BIBLE SuMMmuES, II, §§ 1‑2.
The Roman Catholic fugitives on the Continent now prepared an English version and published the New Testament at Reims in 1582; the Old Testament followed in two volumes at Douai (q.v.) in 1609‑10 (the first edition of the "Douai"
	Bible; cf. Gregory Martin, A Dis
h. The 	coo f the Manifold Corruptions of
Bieb 	the Holie Scriptures by the Heretikes o f
our Dales, etc., Reims, 1582; William Fulke, A Defence of the Sincere and True Translations of the Holie Scriptures . . against . . Gregorie Martin, London, 1583, ed. C. H. Hartsborne for the Parker Society, Cambridge, 1843). [Both works profess to be "faithfully translated out of the authentical Latin, diligently conferred with the Hebrew, Greek, and other editions in divers languages," and are provided with arguments of books and chapters, annotations, and " other helps for the better understanding of the text, and specially for the discovery of the corruptions of divers late translations, and for clearing the controversies in religion of these days." The New Testament was reprinted at Antwerp in 1600; the two Testaments were united by Richard Cha,lloner (q.v.) in a five volume edition published in London, 1749‑50. The version was promoted by Cardinal William Allen (q.v.) and the translation was by Gregory Martin, a former fellow of St. John's College, Oxford, revised by Allen, Richard Bristow, fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, and probably others. The annotations, tables, etc., for the Old Testament were by Thomas Worthington, a graduate of Oxford (Brasenoee College) and president of Douai College 1599‑1813. The long interval between the publication of the two Testa, menta was due to lack of means as the translation of both was completed before 1582. The English of the translation is faulty owing to too clone following of the Vulgate, and from the critical standpoint it possesses the advantages and defects inherent in that Latin version. An elaborate preface of more than twenty pages explains and justifies the translation. The notes are characterized by the controversial spirit of the time in which they were produced. The Douai version became the standard Bible of the English Roman Catholics and, with extensive changes in language and

139	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Versions
orthography introduced in Challoner's various editions (see CHALLONER, RICHARD), still remains such. American editions were published in New York in 1854 trod 1861. Consult Henry Cotton, Rhemes and Downy (Oxford, 1855); F. E. C. Gigot (Roman Catholic), General Introduction to the Study of the Scriptures (New York, 1900), pp. 345 aqq.]
Puritan dissatisfaction with existing versions, or perhaps with the existence of another version than the one used and approved by themselves, was urged by John Reynolds (q.v.), head of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, at the Hampton Court Conference (q.v.) in Jan., 1604. The idea of a new Bible translation, to be made ostensibly at his instance and under his direction, was congenial to James I. By the summer of 1604 the preliminaries were completed. A commission of aid "com‑
panies," each of nine scholars (two
8. The An‑ companies each in Westminster, Ox‑
thorized
Version. ford, and Cambridge; actually forty‑
seven members took part; for names of the translators, the division of the work, and much other information about the Authorized Version in convenient form, cf. Mombert's Hand Book, chap. xiii; Schaff's Companion, chap. vii), was appointed by James and very strict rules were laid down for the work. After years of labor (although some say that the work really began only in 1607 and lasted but two years and a half), during which some passages were wrought over fourteen or even seventeen times, the version appeared in 1611 in two folio editions, set up and printed at the same time so as to have a large number of copies very quickly; in the same year a duodecimo edition came out, of which only one copy (in the Lenox Library, New York City) is said to be known, and in 1613 what is called the second folio edition. The translation was then called " The Authorized Version " (although it does not appear ever to have been " authorized ") or " King James's Version," and the title read " Appointed to be read in Churches." The translation was good, clear, dignified, idiomatic, and suited to the people. Of course, like everything new, it was at first and for a long time sharply attacked, but little by little it made its way, and in 1661 the Epistles and Gospels in the English prayer‑book were changed to this translation. F. H. A. Scrivener published a critical edition of this version: The Cambridge Paragraph Bible of the Authorized English Version, ate. (Cambridge, 1873), in which he compared many of the reprints, as well as the revisions of Dr. Paris in 1762, Dr. Blayney in 1769, and of the American Bible Society in 1867; unfortunately Scrivener does not give the exact text of 1611 or of 1613.
On Feb. 10, 1870, on motion of Samuel Wilberforce (q.v.), bishop of Winchester, the Convocation of Canterbury determined upon a revision of the Authorized Version (cf. Mombert, Hand Book, chap. xiv; Schaff, Companion, chap.
7. The viii). About thirty‑seven scholars
Revised were asked to take up the Old Tea‑
Version. tent, and about twenty‑nine the
New Testament, although the number really working at any time was leas. At least five religious bodies besides the Church of
Y° • :Y'
England shared in the work. In like manner two groups of scholars from nine different religious bodies took up the work in America sad the results of the deliberations were exchanged across the sea. The Greek text of the New Testament (cf. The Greek Testament with the Readings Adopted by the Revisers of the Authorized Version, Oxford, 1881) was thoroughly worked over and the translation made on the basis of the result compared with the translation of 1611, and in every detail filed and polished. The revised New Testament was published in England May 17, 1881, and in America, May 20, 1881; the Old Testament appeared May 19, 1885. Three million copies of the New Testament were sold within a year. The reception, especially is England, was at first, as was to be expected, not very friendly. A very few indeed were .dieeatiafied because too few alterations had been made. The great mesa struggled against the change of old familiar words and found support in one scholar or another. Some conservative scholars condemned the English dress while they approved the changes made in the original text, and others took offense at the new readings in the original text, because they considered the common readings sacred. America had a peculiar reason for complaint, seeing that many an expression which American scholars had preferred was to be . found only in the appendix, and they were bound not to issue a new edition within fourteen years. That time was up in 1896, and the American edition, a model of exact work, appeared in New York in 1901. As the years pass the revision gains friends, and gains them more rapidly than did the revision of 1611.
CAaPAR REWD GREGORY.

The following is a list (incomplete) of translations of the Bible or parts of it into English or attempts at revision of the Authorised Version by individuals previous to the revision of 1881‑$5 (we a190 BIBLES, ANNOTATED, AND BIBLE SUMMARIES, II). Daniel Mace, a Presbyterian clergyman, N. T. (2 vole., London, 1729; Gk. text with a scholarly but eccentric transl.); Anthony Purver, a Quaker, A New and Literal TranaL. of Ail the Books o/ the O. and N. T. (2 vole., London, 1784; has notes); Edward Harwood, A
Liberal Tranal. of the N. T. (2 vole., London,
8. Minor 1788; described as an attempt to translate
Versions. the sacred writings with the " freedom,
spirit, and elegance " of other translations from the Greek; has notes and includes the First Epistle of Clement); Henry $outhwell, entire Bible (London, 1782; the A. V. with notes, " wherein the mietranathtiona are corrected "); George Campbell, professor in Aberdeen, The Four Gospels (2 vole., London, 1789; has dissertations sad notes); Gilbert Wakefield, s Unitarian N. T. (3 vole., London, 1791); James Macknight, AR the Apoatolical EplaUes (4 vole., Edinburgh, 1795; has commentary, notes, and life of Paul); William Newcome, archbishop of Armagh. N. T. (2 vole., Dublin, 1798; from Grieabaoh's teat; a Unitarian version based on Neweome's work was issued by Thomas Beleham in 2 vole., London, 1808; Newcome also
published " attempts " at improved versions of the Minor
Prophets, 1785, and Ezekiel, 1788' his manuscript mate‑
rials for a revised O. T. are in Lambeth Palace); Nathaniel $carlett, successively s Methodist, Universalist, and Bap. fist, N. T. (London, 1798; with notes); David Macrae, A Revised Tranal. and Interpretation of the Sacred Scriptures, after the Eastern manner, from roncurrent authorities of the critics. interpreters, and commentators' copies and versions: ahoWinp that the inspired writings contain the seeds o/ the valuable sciences, etc. (2 parts, London, 1798‑991; Charles Thomson, entire Bible, the O. T. from the Septuagint (4 vole., Philadelphia, 1808); John Bellamy, O. T. through

Bible Versions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	140
Song of Sol. (London, 1818 aqq.; has notes); Alexander Campbell, founder of the Disciples of Christ, N. T. (1826; see CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER); Rodolphus Dickinson, an American Episcopalian, N. T. (Boston, 1833; has notes); Noah Webster, the lexicographer, the Bible " with amendments of the language" (New Haven, 1833; the amendments were the removal of obsolete words or " those deemed below the dignity and solemnity of the subject, the correction of errors in grammar, and the insertion of euphemisms, words, and phrases which are not very offensive to delicacy ); Nathan Hale, N. T. (Boston, 1838; from Grieabach's text); Granville Penn, N. T. (London, 1838); C. Wellbeloved a Unitarian, Pentateuch and Job‑Song of Sol. (2 vole., London, 1838; " a new trane4" with notes); Samuel Sharpe, the Egyptologist, N. T. (London, 1840; from Griesbach'a text) and O. T. (3 vole., 18&5; there were eight ads. of the former and four of the latter during the author's life; Sharpe's revision is commended for skilful removal of the archaisms of the A. V.); Edgar Taylor, N. T. (London, 18$.0; from Grieabach's text; a meritorious version); Joshua V. Himes, the " Millerite," N. T. (Boston, 1849); James Murdock, N. T. from the Peehito (New York, 1851); Andrews Norton, Gospels (2 vole., Boston, 1855); Gospel of John (London, 1857) and Pauline Epistles (1861) by Henry Alford, George Moberly, W. G. Humphry, C. J. Ellicott, and John Barrow; L. A. Ambrose, N. T. (Boston, 1858; with chronological arrangement and " improved " chapter and verse divisions); L. A. Sawyer, N. T. (Boston, 1858), entire Bible (New York, 1879 eqq.); Robert Young, author of the concordance, entire Bible (Edinburgh, 1883; very literal); T. $. Green, The Taro/old N. T. (London, 1864; Gk. text and new transl. in parallel columns); Henry Alford, N. T. (London, 1889); G. R. Noyes, professor in Harvard, N. T. (Boston, 1869; from Tiechendorf's text; Prof. Noyes also published translations of Job, 1827, Psalms, 1831, the Prophets, 1833 and Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles, 1848); . N. Derby, N. T. (2d ad., London, 1872); J. B. Rotherham, N. T. (London, 1872; from text of Tregellea, with introduction and notes); Samuel Davidson, N. T. (London, 1875; from Tiachandorf'e text, with introduction); J. B. McClellan, Gospels (London, 1875; based on A. V. with a " critically revised " text); Julia E. Smith, entire Bible (Hartford, 1876); The Revised English Bible (O. T. by F. W. Gotoh and Benjamin Davies, N. T. by G. A. Jacob and $. G. Green, London, 1877; with notes, tables, and maps); The Sunday School Centenary Bible, by T. K. Cheyne R. L. Clarks, $. R. Driver, A. Goodwin, and W. $anday (London, 1880; republished, 1882, as‑The Variorum Teacher's Bible). The American Bible Union, formed m 1850 (see BIBLE SOCIETIES, III, 2), undertook an English version which should reflect Baptist views in the language used, and published the N. T. (2d revision, New York and London, 1889) and certain books of the O. T. Since 1882 the work has been continued by the American Baptist Publication Society of Philadelphia, and is now nearing completion. Among the scholars who have collaborated in this version are John A. Broadus, T. J. Conant, H. B. Hackett, William R. Harper, Alvah Hovey, A. C. Kendrick Ira M. Price. J. R. $ampey, and B C. Taylor. A present day tendency is represented by The Bible in Modern English, translated direct from the original languages by Farrar Penton, with critical introduction and notes ($t. Paul's eqiatles, London, 1894; N. T complete, 1895; O. T., 1903).
The following are by Roman Catholics: John Caryll, s hymen, secretary to the queen of James II end intimately associated with the family of James, the Psalms ($t. Germains. 1700; a prose version from the Vulgate taking Bellarmine as a guide); Cornelius Nary, pariah priest of 8t. )tlicbsn'e, Dublin, The N. T. . . needy Translated out of the Latin Vulgate Dublin,1718; has annotations and notes); Robert Witham, president at Donal, Annotations on the N. T. (2 vole.. Dousi, 1730• explains the " literal sense,"
examines and disproves false interpretations, and gives " an account of the chief differences betwixt the text of the ancient Latin version and the Greek ' ); ' Troy 's Bible " (Dublin, 1791 • ad. the Rev. Bernard MacMshon, who had already edited three annotated editions of the Reims N. T.;' this Bible is annotated and the text of the N. T. differs considerably from Chslloner; the name comes from J. T. Troy, titular archbishop of Dublin, who approved the work); Alexander Geddes, Genesis‑II Chronicles and the Prayer of Manssees (2 vole., London, 17921797) and Psalms i‑cviii (1807; see GaanES, ALEXANDER); the Newcastle N. T." (1812, differs from every other
known edition in the Gospels and Acts); John Lingard, A Nam Version o/ the Four (anneals (London, 1838; for the moat part from the Greek; has notes); F. P. Kenrick, bishop of Philadelphia, later archbishop of'Baltimore, N. T. (2 vole., New York, 1849‑51; " a revision of the Rhemiah translation with notes "); F. A. Spencer, O. P., N. T. (New York, 1898 eqq.; from the Greek). The work of Bishop Chslloner hen been referred to above (¢ 5).
The following are certain rare and curious editions of the English Bible with the passage or fact which gives to each its name. The Breeches Bible: the Geneva Bible of 1560 Gen. iii, 7 reads " They sewed fig leaves together and made themselves breeches" (also in Wyclif); the Bug Bible: ac edition of the Matthew Bible in 1551; P=
8. Rare:ci, 5 reads " $o that thou shall not ned
and	to be afraid for any buggea [i.e., bogies] b;
Curious	night " (also in Coverdale and Taverner;
Editions. the Carton Memorial Bible: Oxford, 1871 printed sad bound in 100 copies in twelv hours; the Discharge Bible: London, 1802; I Tim. v, 21 " 1 discharge [for charge] then before God"; the Ears i Ear Bible: Oxford, 1807; Matt, rail, 43. " Who bath ear ~i to ear " (also has " good works " for " dead works " i Heb. ix, 14); the Goose Bible: Dort editions of the Genev Bible because the Dort press had s goose as its emblen the He and She Bibles: the first and the second folio ad tione of the veraidh of 1611; in Ruth iii, Ib, the forma reads " He measured six measures of barley and laid it c her: and he went into the city "; the latter " and she wee into the city "; both issues were used by printers as coF until in and after 1814 all have " she " (cf. the Revise Version, text and margin); the Leda Bible: the first Bisl cps' Bible (1588); it used a series of initial lettere,prepare for Ovid's Metamorphoses and that for the Epistle to ti Hebrews represented Leda and the swan (also called tt Treacle Bible, see below); the Murderers' Bible: has" mot derera " for " murmurera " in Jude 16, also other misprint the Plaoe»wkera' BabLe: the second edition of the Genev Bible (1582); has " placemakera " for " peacemakers " i Matt. v, 9; the Rebekah Bible: London, 1823; Gen. xxi. 81, " And Rebekah arose and her camels " (for " damsels " the Rosin Bible: the first Donal Bible (1809‑10): Je. viii, 22 " Is there no rosin in Gilead? " (A. V. " balm "' the Standing Fiches Bible: London, 1808; Esek. xlvii, 1( " The fishes [for fishers] shall stand upon it " ; (the errc was repeated is editions of 1813 and 1823); the Thum Bible: Aberdeen, 1870; it is about one inch square an half an inch thick; the To Remain Bible: Cambridge, 180 Gal. iv, 29, " Persecuted him that was born after the $piri to remain even so it is now " (the words " to remain " hay been written on the proof in answer to a query whether o not a comma should be deleted; the error was retained ii an edition printed for the Bible Society in 1805‑08 and h an edition of 1819); the Treacle Bible: the first Bishops Bible (1588; also called the Leda Bible, see above); Jer viii, 22, " Is there no tryacle in Gilead" (cf. the Rosic Bible); the Vinegar Bible Oxford, 1718‑17; has " vinegar " for " vineyard " as the heading to Luke xx (it was printed by J Baekett, and though the moat sumptuous of the Oxford Bibles, soon came to be styled " a basketful of printer's errors "); the Wicked Bible: London, 1631; the negative was left out of the seventh commandment (it was printed by the king's printer and there were four editions in the came year; all were suppressed and the printer was fined £300); another Wicked Bible (London, 1653) makes Paul ask, I Cor. vi, 9, " Know ye not that the unrighteous shall inherit the kingdom of God? " the Wife‑Hater Bible: Oxford, 1810; Luke riv, 28, " If any man come to me and hate not his father . . . yea, and his own wife [for life] also, be ass not be my disciple." The list of misprints might be greatly extended. A Cambridge Bible of 1829, printed and proof‑read with great care, introduced " thy doctrine " for " the doctrine ' in I Tim. iv, 18, and the error reappeared for many years. An Edinburgh octavo of 1837 has; Jer. iv, 17, " because she Lath been religious [rebellious] against me." Perhaps the finest Bible ever printed at Cambridge (1838) has a famous error in Acts vi, 3, which is said to have cost Cromwell £1,000 se s bribe =' whom ye [for we] may appoint." Cotton Mather relates that a Bible printed before 1702 made David complain in Ps. sax, 181, ' Printers [princes] have persecuted me without a cause." The " wicked " Bible of 1831 does not furnish the only instance of an infelicitous omission of s negative; an Edinburgh Bible of 1700 reads, Heb. ii, 18,

141	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Versions
" He took on him the nature of angels " (correct reading " he took not "); another (Edinburgh, 1818) has, Luke vi, 29, " Forbid [not] to take thy coat also "; and a London Bible of 1817 reads, John avii, 25, " O righteous Father, the world bath [not] known thee." On the other hand an Edinburgh edition of 1781 makes the Psalmist's prayer (cxiz, 35) " Make me not to go in the path of thy commandments." The errors of an Oxford Bible of 1804 include, Num. xxxv, 18, " The murderer shall purely be put together " (for " to death "), I Kings viii, 19, " out of thy lions [loins]," and, Gal, v, 17, " For the flesh luateth after [against] the Spirit." A Cambridge Bible of 1819 reads in Mal. iv, 2, " shall the son [nun] of righteousness arise . .
and shall [for ye shall] go forth." An Oxford Bible of 1820 has, Iea. lxvi, 9, " Shall I bring to the birth and not cease [cause] to bring forth? " A Cambridge Bible of 1828 has " heart " for " hart " in Pa. alii, 1, and the error was repeated in an edition of 1830. A Bible printed at Utica, N. Y., in 1829 begins Joe. v, 17, " Elise was a man possible like unto us " (" subject to Eke passions as we are "). One of Jeaper Harding's early editions, published at Philadelphia, hoe m I Kings i, 21, " The kite shall dagger sleep with his fathers " (the copy read " The king shall t sleep with his fathers "). A Bible published at Hartford in 1837 makes II Tim. iii, 18, read, " All scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable . . . for destruction [instruction] in righteousness." An edition printed for the American Bible Society in 1856 hag in Mark v, 3, " Who had his dwelling among the lambs [tombs]." The Great Bible in 1539 introduced the mistranslation " fold " for "flock" in John x, 18, and it was not corrected till the Revised Version. Some of the renderings in the early vernion8 are extremely quaint. In Gen. mcix, 2, Tyndale has, " And the Lord was with Joseph sad he was s lucky fellow," and in Matt. vi, 7, " When ye pray, babble not much." Coverdale renders Judges xv, 9, " Then God opened a gome tooth in the cheke bone so the water went out," and I Kings axii, 34, " Shott the King of Israel between the maws and the lunges."
English‑speaking Jews have used freely the Authorised Version, also, since its appearance in 1885, the revised Old Testament. The Jewish School and Family Bible (4 parts, London, 1851‑81) has a new translation by A. Beniach, and The Jewish Family Bible (London, 1884) has a revision of the Authorised Version by M. Friedlfinder; the latter was sanctioned by the chief rabbi of the British Jews. loam Lesser, s pioneer Jewish rabbi and founder of the Jewish press in America, published s translation of the complete Old Testament at Philadelphia in 1854, giving practically new versions of the Prophets, Psalms, and Job and following the Authorised Version in other parts. In 1898 the Jewish Publication Society of America (Philadelphia) took in hand the preparation of s complete revision, with M. Jeatrow, $r., as editor‑in‑chief and K. Kohler and F. de Solo Mendee as associate editors. In 1905 Dr. Kohler's translation of the Psalms was issued (cf. the JE, iii, 194‑195).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The moat complete view of the literature on the subject is given in $. G. Ayres and C. F. Bitterly, The History of the Eng. Bible, New York, 1898 (a bibliography almost exhaustive, arranged in rubrics). The moat complete account up to the time of its publication is J. Eadie, The Enp. Bible, an External and Critical Hint, of . . . Enp. Translations, 2 vole., London, 1878. The most recent, and worthy of confidence, is H. W. Home, Evolution of the English Bible . . . 1888‑1886, London, 1902 (exceedingly handy). Consult further: T. J. Conant, Popular History of the Translation of !he Holy ScripCuru into the Eng. Tongue, New York, n.d; The English Hexap1a, published by Bageter, London, n.d., has a valuable preface; The Bible of Every Land, pp. 189‑205, ib. 1881 (contains specimen paragraphs from several versions); C. Anderson, Annals of the Enp. Bible, new ed. by H. Anderson, ib. 1882; Anglo‑American Bible Revision, by Members of the American Revision Committee, New York, 1879; J. Stoughton, Our Eng. Bible, its Translatlana and Trnnalatora, London, 1879: B. Condit, Hilt, of the Enp. Bible, New York 1882 W. F. Moulton, Hilt. of the Enp. Bible, London 1882; B. F. Weatcott and F. J. A. Hort, The New Testament in the Original Greek, Vol. ii, Introduction and Appendix, London. 1881, New York, 1882; J. I. Mombert Handbook of the Bag. Versions, Lndon, 1907 (valuable); A. $. Cook The Bible and Enp. Prom Style, Boston, 1892; idem, Biblical Quotation* in Old Enp. Prose
Writers . . . Introduction on Old Eng. Versions, New York, 1904 (the work of a master, minute and exact); J. Wright, Early Bibles of America, ib. 1892 (on printed editions); R. Lovett, Printed Ereg. Bibles 16.5?6‑1886, ib. 1894; T. H. Pattison, Hiet. of floe Eng. Bible, ib. 1894; G. Milligan, The Eng. Bible, a Sketch of its Hiat., Edinburgh, 1895; P. Schaff, Companion to Ott Greek Testament and Me Eng. Version, 4th ed., New York, 1898 (deals with the A. V. and R. V.); J. W. Besrdalee, Bible among the Nations; Study of as great Translators, ib. 1899; G. L. Owen, Notes on the Hint. and Text of our Early Eng. Bible, London, 1901; E. H. Foley, The Language of the Northumbrtan Glow to the Gospel of St. Matthew, New York, 1903; R. Demane, W. Tindale: A Biography. Being a Contribution to the Early History of the English Bible, London, 1904; Anna C. Pause, Fourteenth Century Eng. Version A. Prologue and Parts of the N. T. now drat edited from the MSS., London, 1904; B. F. Westeott, General View of the Hint. of the Enp. Bible, ib. 1905 (the latest ed. of Bishop Westcott's scholarly work); J. R. Slater, The Sources of Tyndale's Version of the Pentateuch, Chicago, 1908; $. Hemphill, Hint. op the R. V. of the N. T., London, 1908; I. M. Price, Ancestry o/ our Eng. Bible, Philadelphia, 1907. The Gospels in West Saxon, ed. J. W. Bright, are appearing in Boston, Matthew, 1904, Mark, 1905, Luke, 1908, cf. The Gospels, Gothic, Anglo‑Saxon, Wycliffe, and Tyndale Versions, London, 1907.

V. Finnish and Lappish Versions: Although Swedish was formerly the principal language of Finland, which remained a Swedish province till the year 1809, during the period of the Reformation the ]and acquired a. Finnish ecclesiastics] language. A young Finn, Michael Agricola (see FINLAND, § 2) became acquainted with Luther at Wittenberg. Having returned to his native ]and in 1539, he began to translate religious books into Finnish. His translation of the New Testament was published first in 1548; the Psalms and some of the Prophetical books in 1551‑52. In 1642 the entire Bible in Finnish by E. Petrtuus, M. Stadius, H. Hofman, and G. Favorin was published in Stockholm, Finland having at that time no printing establishment. There were new editions in 1683‑85 by H. F]orinus, and in 1758 by A. Litaelius; a new translation by A. V. Ingman appeared in 1859.
The Lappish and Finnish languages are cognates, the former having several dialects. The Lapps (q.v.) wale nominally Christians early in the Middle Ages, but had little real knowledge of Christianity. Thomas von Westen (q.v.) did much for Christian instruction among them during the years 1714‑23. Some Christian works were published in Lappish; parts of the Bible were translated and sent to Copenhagen, where they were destroyed by a fire. The Norwegian Bible Society having resolved in 1821 to publish a Lappish translation of the Bible, Provost Kildahl offered his services in 1822 in conjunction with a teacher named Gundersen. Kildah] died the same year, but the work was continued by Gundersen and later by Niels Stockfleth. The first two Gospels were printed in 1838, and the complete New Testament in 1840 (new eds.1850 and, revised, 1874). Stockfleth translated also parts of the Pentateuch (1840), and the Psalms (1854). A Lapp, Lars Hb,tta, translated the whole Old Testament, which, after being revised by Prof. J. A. Friis and Seminary‑Director Quigstad in Tromeo, was printed in 1875. All these are in the Norwegian‑Lapp dialect.
In the Swedish‑Lapp dialect a handbook containing the lec3ons from the Gospels and the Epistles for

Bible Versions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	142
the church‑year,. the Psalms, Proverbs, and Eccles
eiasticus was published by J. J. Tornaus at Stock
holm in 1648. The New Testament was translated
by Per Fjellatrom and published in 1755; a new
edition and also the entire Bible was issued at
Hernosand in 1811. 	J. BELaHEIM.
BIHLIOdRAPHY: Bible of Every Land, pp. 319‑324, London,
1881.

	VI. French Versions: The beginnings of a French
Bible may be traced at least to the early twelfth
century. In all probability pupils of Lanfranc (d.
1089) translated the Psalter for the first time into
		the French‑Norman vernacular. At
	1. The that time there was scarcely any dif‑
Earlier
	Versions.	ference between the Norman and the
		French (i.e. the dialect used in the
fle‑de‑France, a province having Paris as its capi
tal). The Psalter, together with the canticles used
in the Church, was offered to the French‑speaking
people in a double form; viz., (1) after the Psalte
rium Hebraicum, i.e. the Psalter translated by
Jerome directly from the Hebrew (cf. Le Livre des
Psaumes, ed. from Cambridge and Paris manuscripts,
F. Michel, Paris, 1876); (2) after the Psalterium
Gallicanum, i.e. according to the Psalter carefully
revised by Jerome from the Septuagint (cf. Libri
Psalmorum versio antiqua Gallica, ed. F. Michel,
Oxford, 1860; see above A, II, 2, § 2). These
translations were made word for word, and are
interlinear, the Latin text standing between the
lines of the French. The translations from the
Gallican Psalter were so well received that down to
the Reformation no one ventured on a new rendering.
The manuscripts of the French Psalter which are
still extant, more than 100 in number, without an
exception go back to the old Norman Psalter.
About fifty years later Revelation was translated into French in the Norman provinces; also Samuel and Kings (cf. Les Quatre Livres des Rois, Publics par le Roux de Lincy, Paris, 1842). In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries numerous translations originated (cf. G. Paris, La Litterature franfoise au moyen 8ge, Paris, 1890, § 136; J. Bonnard, Les Traductions de la Bible en vers fran~ais, Paris, 1884). Toward 1170 Peter Waldo, the head of the Poor Men of Lyons, better known later as the Waldenses (q.v.), brought out translations of several parts of the Bible into the vernacular, which had been made by Lyonnaise priests at his expense, and Pope Innocent III did not. rest till these auspicious writings were everywhere suppressed by the Inquisition. Nevertheless some remnants of this old Waldenaian literature have been saved from the hands of the inquisitors at Metz and Liege.
Of the versions which have been printed, and of which it is possible to give some account, mention may be made of that of Guyard lea Moulins, canon of St. Peter's at Aire in Artois, on the borders of Flanders. Taking the Ilistoriu scholastics of Peter Comestor (q.v.), composed in
2. Cfnyard 1170 and containing a digest of the
	Moulins.	Bible history with glosses, he made
		a free translation of it between 1291
and 1295; added a sketch of the history of
Job, Proverbs, and probably the other books
ascribed to Solomon; substituted for Comeator's history of the Maccabeea a translation of Maccabees from the Vulgate; and in general made the whole conform more closely to the text of the Vulgate than Comestor had done. Psalms, the Prophets, and the Epistles and Revelation were not in the work as first issued, and it is uncertain whether Acts was not also omitted; they were added, however, in later issues. These parts, brought together, received the name Biblium historiale (Bible historiale; see BIBLES, HISTORICAL), and it was printed and reprinted in great numbers. An edition completed by different hands and making thus the first complete Bible, was issued by order of Charles VIII about 1487, edited by the king's confessor, Jean de Rely, and printed by V4rard in Paris. Twelve editions of this appeared between 1487 and 1545. This is called La Grande Bible to distinguish it from a work entitled La Bible pour Zes simples gees, a summary of the history of the Old Testament, of which five editions, four undated, one dated 1535, have been examined. Previous to the edition of 1487, au edition of the New Testament of the same translation as that found in the supplemented work of Guyard, but not by Guyard himself, was printed at Lyons by Bartolom6e Buyer, edited by two Augustinian monks, Julien Macho and Pierre Farget. It is undated, but is referred to the year 1477, and justly claims to be the editio princeps of the French Scriptures.
In the year 1523 there appeared at Paris, from the press of Simon de Colinea, an anonymous translation of the New Testament (often reprinted), to which was added in the same year the Psalter and, in 1528, the rest of the Old Testament, issued at Antwerp in consequence of at‑
3. Protes‑ tempts on the part of the French tant clergy to suppress the book. There
	Versions.	6Y can be no doubt that the well‑known
humanist Jacques Lef6vre d')ttaplea (see FesEx
STAPULENSIa) was the author of this version.
The complete work appeared in one volume
at Antwerp, 1530. It was placed on the papal
Index in 1546; but in 1550 it was reissued at
Louvain, edited by two priests, Nicolas de Leuze
and Fran9ois van Larben, who revised the work,
striking out all that savored'of heresy. The first
Protestant version was prepared by Pierre Robert
Olivetan (q.v.) within the apace of one year, and
printed in 1535 by Pierre de Wingle at Serri6res,
near Neuchatel, in Switzerland, at the expense of
the Waldensia,ns. It was reprinted several times,
in one case with a few emendations from the pen of
Calvin, in 1545. The Roman critics had denounced
Olivetan's work as of little value because of his
supposed ignorance of the languages. But he
really knew and used the Hebrew to advantage,
and the Old Testament was quite well done; but
either through press of time or leas accurate knowl
edge of Greek, the New Testament was inferior.
To remedy the defects of Olivetan's version, the
" venerable company " of pastors of Geneva
undertook a revision of the work and was assisted
by Beza, Simon Goulart, Antoine Fay, and others.
The editor was Bonaventure Corneille Bertram,

143	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Versions
who gives an account of his work in the LuctAbrationea Franktallenses (in Pearson's Ctritici Sacri.,
vol. viii). This revised edition appeared in 1588. In this as well as in the following editions the divine name Yahweh was translated by l1ternel and this rendering is retained to this day in the Protevtant Bible of France.
During the seventeenth century this revision of Olivetan'v version, known as the " Geneva Bible," was again revised by different ministers; the editions of G. Diodati (Geneva, 1644), Samuel Des Mareta (Amsterdam, 1669), and David Martin (New Testament, Utrecht, 1696; whole Bible, 1707) are the first of such revisions. Martin's Bible was again revised by the Basel minister Pierre Roquea (1744), and is to this day disseminated by Bible Societies along with other editions. Twenty years before Roquea published Martin's revised text, J. F. Oaterwald (q.v.), a pastor at Neuch6tel, published anew the Geneva Bible in 1724, and another and revived edition in 1744, in which he embodied the results of the exegetical science of the time. As Osterwald'a translation became the standard version, it was adopted by the British and Foreign Bible Society and issued from time to time. A thoroughly revived version prepared by M. Foaaard and other French pastors was published by the French Bible Society in 1887, and this revived text was then adopted by the British and Foreign Bible Society.

The following are other Protestant versions: $. Cbestillon (Caetalio), complete Bible (2 vole., Basel, 155b); J. Le Clore (Clericus), N. T. (Amsterdam, 1703); I. de Beaueobre and J. Lenfant, N. T. (Amsterdam, 1718; often reprinted in Germany and Switzerland); Charles Le Cbne, Bible (Amsterdam, 1741); H. A. Petret‑Lentil, professor at Neuchfstel, O. T. (NeuchAtel, 1847 eqq.); E. Arnaud, N. T. (Toulouse, 1858); A. Riltiet, N. T. (Geneva, 1859); M. J. H. Oltramare, N. T. (Geneva, 1872); Louis $egond, O. T. (Geneva, 1874), N. T. (1879), whose work has been printed by the Oxford University press; E. $tapfer, N. T. (Paris, 1889).

	Of versions by Roman Catholics, the moat im
portant are a translation of the New Testament
published anonymously (Trwoux, 1702), but as
cribed with correctness to Richard Simon (q.v.), and
		a series of versions which proceeded
4. Roman from Port Royal and the Jtwsenivts.
Catholic
	Versions.	As early as the middle of the sev
		enteenth century, Antoine Godeau
(q.v.) published a translation of the Bible, at first
in parts, then as a whole. In 1687 the New Tes
tament followed, printed by the Elzevirv at Am
sterdam, for a bookseller of Mons, whence it is
often called the Mons Testament. The transla
tors were Antoine and Louis Isaac Lemaiatre
de Sacy (see LEMAIaTRE DE SACY, Louis IsAec),
aided by Antoine Arnauld, Pierre Nicole, Claude
de Saints‑Marthe, and Thomas du Fosat;. The Old
Testament, translated by Louis Isaac Lemaiatre
de Sacy, was added later (1671), and the New
Testament by Pasquier Queanel (q.v.) appeared in
1687. These translations exercised great influence,
partly on account of the elegance of the language,
partly on account of the notes, which served de
votional purposes. Their method iv not a literal
rendering, but iv paraphrastic. The translation of
the New Testament generally known as that of De Sacy was often republished, and is still widely used in France, being circulated by the British and Foreign Bible Society.

Rend Benoist (q.v.) published a translation of the Bible in 1588. Jacques Corbin, an advocate of Paris, presented the Vulgate in a translation more Latin than French in 1843. The Latin New Testament of Eraemua was translated into French by Michel de Marollea, abb6 of Villeloin (1849), who also published a version of the Psalms (1844). Denys Amelote, a priest of the Oratory, translated the New Testament Vulgate into very good French (1868). Dominique Bouhoura, a Jesuit, also issued a French New Testament (1897). In the eighteenth century C. Hurl (1702), Augustin Calmer (1707), N. Le Gras (1739), and others made versions, all more or less dependent on the Vulgate. In more recent times the Psalms and Job have been often translated. The entire Bible by E. Genoude (Paris, 1821 eqq.) had great success. The Gospels by Lamemaie (Paris, 1848) are a model of style, but because of the notes are really a socialistic polemic. [Other names and works which may be mentioned are: M. Orsini, La Bible den famildea catholiquea (Paris, 1851); H. F. Delaunay, who translated the annotated Bible of J. F. Allioli (q.v.) into French (b vole., Paris, 1858); J. A. Gsume, Le Nouveau Testament (2 vole.,. Paris, 1863); M. A. Bayle, who furnished the translation for Paul Drach'e annotated Bible (Paris, 1889 eqq.); P. Giguet, who translated the Beptuagint (4 vole., Paris, 1872); H. Laeaerre, Lea Saints Evaapilea (Paris, 1887); the Abbd Boiseon (Paris, 1901); the Abbd Claire, who furnished the French translation for the polyglot Bible of F. Vigouroux (Paris, 1898 eqq.); and the Abb€ Crampon, La Saints Bible, revised by the Jesuit fathers with the collaboration of the professors of Bt. $ulpice (Paris, 1907).]

	Translations of the Old Testament by Jews are
found in S. Cahen'v annotated Bible (18 vole., Paris,
1831‑51) [and in the Old Testament translated
under the direction of Zadoc Kahn, chief rabbi of
France (1901 aqq.)]. 	(S. BEftCiERt.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The most important contributions on the subject have been produced by $. Berger, as follows: La Bible franraiae au moyen dge, Paris, 1884; Lea Bibles prwenfaZea et roaudoiaes, in Romania, xviu (1889); Nouvellea recherchea sur lea bibles provenSalea et catalanea, ib. xix (1890), cf. P. Meyer, in Romania, xvii (1888), 121, and H. $uchier, in Zeitachrift far romaniacha Philolopie, iii (1879), 412. For enumeration of French Bibles consult British Museum Catalogue, entry "Bibles, French," 175‑188, and the Appendix, " Bibles, French," 18; O. Douen, Catalogue de la sociitE biblique de Paris, 1882; Bible of Every Land, pp. 254‑280, 281‑283, London, 1881 (incomplete, but clear so far as it goes). Consult also J. Le Long, Bibliotheca sacra, vol, i, Paris, 1723; E. Reuss, Fragments Zitterairea et critiques relatifa h Z'hiatoire de (a Bible frangaiae, in Revue de thEoZopie of phiToeophie, ii, iv‑vi, xiv, new aeries, iii‑v (1851‑87, exceedingly important); idem, Geachichte der heiZigen SchrifEen den Neuen Testaments, pp. 485 eqq., Brunswick, 1887; E. PAtavel‑Olliff, La Bible en France, ou lea traductiona franfaiaee des eaintea Ocriturea, Paris, 1884; It . Cadiot. Eaaai our lea conditions dune traduction populaire de la bible en langue franfaiae, $trasburg, 1868; G. $trOmpell, Die eraten Bibeltiberaetzungen der Franzoaen 1100‑1300, Brunswick, 1872; A. Matter, Note eur la rEviaion de la bible d'Oatarwald, Paris, 1882; J. Bonnard, Lea Traductiona de is bible an very fran~aia au moyen dpe, Paris, 1884 P. Quievreux, La Traduction du N. T, de Le/Lwrs d'htaplea Paris, 1894; P. Meyer, Notice du M$. BibliotJti'que Nationals F 8447. Paris, 1897; A. Laune, La Traduetiott de l'A. T. de Le/tame d'$taplea, Paris. 1895; Revue de i'hiefoirro du Religions, xaxii, 56;
.
DB, extra vol., pp. 402‑408.

VII. German Versions: After the Gothic version of Ulfilas (see above, A, X), the oldest fragment of the Bible in a Germanic tongue is probably the Matthew of Monsee, of the year 738 (twentytwo leaves are in Vienna, two in Hanover; on the

Bible Versions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	14
left page is the Latin, on the right German), a Bavarian working over 3f a Frankish or Aleacian originate The beat edition is A. Bench, The Monses
Fragments newly Collated, with Text, 1. Old Qer‑ Introduction, Notes, Grammatical Trea‑
tile, and Exhaustive Glossary and
m~ , Facsimile (Strasburg, 1890). The
"German Tatian," of which the chief manuscript is at St. Gall (second half of the ninth century, in two columns, left in Latin, right in German), originated about 830 in 1 olds. The Latin rests upon a manuscript written about 540 for Bishop Victor of Capua (q.v.), which is still preserved in Fulda, and the German follows the Latin very closely (best edition by E. Sievers, Tatianus. Lateiniach and Altdetitsch, Paderborn, 1874, 2d ed., 1892). Heecard, count of Burgundy, in 876 gave as a present an Evangelium Theudiscum with other books (cf. P. Lejay, in Revue des Bibliothpques, July‑Sept., 1896). Walton, in his Polyglot (Prolegomena, p. 34a), asserts that " Rhenanus testifies that Waldo, bishop of Freising [884‑906] about the year 800 [sic]] translated the Gospels into German " (cf. Hauck, KD, ii, 620, 704, 712). Detached fragments of the Gospels have been published by F. Keinz (SMA, 1869, p. 546) and J. Haupt (Germanic, xiv, 1869, p. 440), which are in a handwriting of the twelfth century, but show the accents used earlier in the school of Notker Balbulus (see NOT%ER, 1; cf. W. Walther, Die deutsche Bibeliiberaetzung den Mittela7.ters, 3 vole., Brunswick, 1889‑91, 455‑465). For the Heliand and Otfrid's Liber Eroangeliorum or Kriat, Bee HELIAND, THE, AND THE OLD‑SAXON GENESIS; OTFRID OF WEL96ENIiUR(3).
The first translator after Ulfilas known with certainty is Notker Labeo of St. Gall (d. June 29, 1022; 'gee NOTKER, 5). His Job is lost, but his translation of the Psalms can be almost completely reconstructed from his German and Latin commentary on them (beat ed. in P. Piper's Schriftere Notkers and seiner Schtile, 3 vole., Freiburg, 1883‑84; facsimile in Vogt and Koch, Deutsche Litteraturgeschichte, Leipaic, 1904, and Walther, ut sup., 563). Williram, after 1048 abbot of Ebersberg in Bavaria. (see WILLIRAM), made a translation of the Song of Solomon, which found so much favor that nineteen manuscripts are still known, one written as late as 1528 (cf. Walther, 523‑536, with facsimile, and J. Seemiiller, Die Handsehriften and Quellen von Willirama Paraphrase, Strasburg, 1877, and Tv illirams Paraphrase, 1878; Hauck, KD, iii, 968). An interlinear version of the Psalms from the cloister of Windberg, written 11$7, wee published by E. G. Graff, Deutsche Interlinearversionelt der Psalmen (Quedliaburg, 1839; cf. Walther, 566; also A. E. Seh6nbaeh, Bruchstiicke einer frlinkischen Psalmenversion, in ZDAL, xXiv, 2, pp. 17?‑186). Other manuscripts of this kind are mentioned by Walther, 568. Some twenty manuscripts and two impressions (the one probably by Knubloezer in Strasburg about 1477, the other by Peter Drach in Worms 1504) have preserved the commentary of Nicolaus de Lyra (see LYRA, NICOLAUS DE), containing translations into German by Heinrich von bfiigeln, who was for a time with the emperor
Charles IV at Prague and seems to have left him on account of his edict of 1469 against the German books on Holy Scripture (cf. Helm, in Sievers's Beitrage zur Geschiehte der deuaschert Sprache, xxi, 1897, p. 240, Xxii, 1898, p. 135).
Especially interesting is Walther's eighth group of translations of the Psalms (which include all Latin‑German Psalters printed in the Middle Ages and two or three manuscripts) on account of the fact that the German text does not go back to the Latin Vulgate is common use, but to Jerome's version from the Hebrew (see above, A, II, 2, § 2). To Walther's ninth group belongs the splendid Psalter of St. Florian in three languages, Latin, Polish, and German, which was made either for the Polish queen Marguerite, daughter of the emperor Charles IV, or for Mary, sister of the Polish queen Hedwig of Anjou. Another translation is due to Henry of Hesse, rector of the University of Heidel• berg, who died 1427, a Carthusian. On the eve of the Reformation Duke Eberhard I of Wiirttemberg was careful to have translations made for him (cf. TLZ, iv, 473; 571).
Besides 202 (203) manuscripts, Walther enumerates between 1466 and 1521 eighteen impressions of complete German Bibles,
2. Printed twenty‑two of Psalters, and twelve
Bibles be‑ of other parts. Of the eighteen comiore plete Bibles, fourteen are in High
	Luther.	German. They differ from the com
		mon Latin Bible by containing the
Epistle to the Laodiceans and by placing Acts
after the Epistles of St. Paul. The prayer of
Manaesea is missing in the first two and placed
after Chronicles in the rest. Their correct chrono
logical order is:
(I) Strasburg, Mantel, o. 1488 (Hain, iRepdiorfum bi6liopraphicam, no. 3130). (2) Strasburg, F.ggeetein, c. 1470 (Hain, 3129). (3) Augsburg, PBanamann, e. 1473 (Hain, 3131). (4) Augsburg, G. Zainer, o. 1473, a thorough revision of 2 (Hairs 5133). (5) 8wiee,1474 (Hain, 3132). (8 and 7) Augsburg, G. Zainer, and A. Sorg, 1477 (Hain, 3134‑3135). (8) Augsburg, A. Borg. 1480, a repetition of Zainer'e impression of 1477 (Hain, 3138). (9) Nuremberg, A. Koburger, 1483 (Hain, 3137). (10) Strasburg, Griininger, 1485 (Hain, 3138). (11‑14) All printed in Augsburg. by H. BchSneperger, 1487, 1490 (Hain, ala9‑40>, H. otmar, 1507, and 8ilvanue Otmsr, 1518.
All these editions give in the main one and the same version, but Zainer (4 above) undertook a thorough revision, which had much influence. Koburger (9 above) also made changes. The version was already more than 100 years old when first printed. Its home is not yet ascertained, but there are traces which indicate Bohemia. The Latin text underlying this version is interesting especially in Acts, where it has preserved many Old Latin readings. Led by an entry in a manuscript of Nuremberg, F. Joatea tried to prove that a certain Johannes Rellach of RestSm (?) in the diocese of Constants, who he thinks was a Dominican, was the author of this version about 1460 (cf. his Meister Johannes Rellach, sin Bibelirberaetzer den 16. Jahrhtenderts, in Historisches Jahrbuch, Munich, 1897, 133‑145). Kurrelmeyer (Die deutsche Bibel, Tiibingen, 1904 sqq.) seems to think the version older than this Rellach, who may have undertaken a revision of it, and he has not pronounced upon the alleged Walden‑

146	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Pensions
aian origin of the version; the .manuscript of Tepl may have been in Waldensian hands, but this does not prove a Waldenaian origin. There are certain peculiar readings in which the version agrees with the Provengal translation.
	A different translation containing only the Old
Testament is represented by the " Wenzel " Bible
at Vienna, translated from the Latin at the com
mand of the emperor Wenceslaus by Martin Rotlev .
later than 1389 (facsimile in Vogt and Koch, ut
sup.). A " Bible for the Poor " at Maihingen of
1437 gives a German working over of the 212 hex
ameters in which Alexander Villadeua summarized
all the chapters of the Bible (e.g. Gen. i vii: sex,
prohibet, Peccant, Abel, Enoch, arches fit, intrant)
sad counts seventy‑six books, fifty‑eight prologues,
1,457 chapters, and 1,608 verses in the Psalter.
To the same group belongs a manuscript now at
Maihingen (1472), beautifully illustrated by FurG
meyer for Albert IV of Bavaria, which has between
Deuteronomy and Job Matt. i‑v, 44, like a manu
script in the British Museum written by the same
copyist in 1465 (cf. the Athenceurn for May 31, 1884,
and R. Priebaeh, Deutsche Handschriftert in England,
i, Erlangen, 1896). For other versions, cf. Walther.
	The Low German Bibles include the Old Testa
ment of Delft (1477), without Psalms, and the
famous Picture Bible of Cologne (about 1478; cf.
R. Kautzaeh, Die Holzachnitte den K6lner Bibel von
117 9, in SttZdien zttr deutschen Kunstgeachichte, vii,
1898, and G. Gerlach, in Dziatzko's Arbeiten, ii, 13,
Leipaie, 1896). The Song of Solomon in this Bible
is not translated but is given in Latin. The Bible
of Liibeck of 1494 gives, up to II Kings vii, an
original translation; from that chapter onward
text and pictures of the Cologne Bible. The edition
of Ludwig Trutebul (Halberstadt, 1522) is very
scarce. On the Psalters cf. Walther, 682‑703, and
Kurrelmeyer, ut sup.
On the " Wenzel " Bible, cf. AJP, au, 82‑7b, and F. Jelinek, Die 3yraeJu den Wenselbx'beL, GiSlZ, 1898‑99. On the pre‑Lutheran Bibles, cf. B.. E. f3chSnbaah, Misalien aua Grazer Handachriften, ii. Reihe, Deutsche Uebersetrungen bibZiecher Schriften, Gras, 1899; idem, Ueber sin mitteldeutachea Evangelienwerk aua St. Paul, Vienna, 1897, and L. J. M. Bebb, in DB, extra vol., 411‑413.
Contemporaneously with Luther others were engaged in translating parts of the Bible into modern German, e.g., Bsschenatein, Lange, Krumpach, Amman, Nachtgal, Capito, and Frohlich; but their works are forgotten (see also below, § 5). Not contemplating at first the entire Bible, Luther began with the penitential Psalms 8. Luther's (Mar., 1517, improved 1525) and followed with the Lord's Prayer and Pa. cm in 1518, the Prayer of Manasses with Matt. xvi, 13‑20, in 1519, and other pieces. At the end of 1521 he began with the New Testament. He writes on Dec. 18, 1521: " Meanwhile I am gathering notes, being on the point of translating the New Testament into the vernacular; " two days later: " Now I am laboring on annotating and translating the Bible into the common speech; " on Jan. 13, 1522, to Amsdorff: " Meanwhile I am translating the Bible, though I have undertaken a task beyond my strength. The Old Testament I can not touch unless you lend your aid " (cf. G. BosIL‑10
serf, in TSK, 1897, pp. 324, 349, 366). The New Testament was in type Sept., 1522; it was published with woodcuts at Wittenberg without name of printer or of translator (Dar Nerve Testament Deutzach) and was sold for one and one‑half florins. In December a second edition followed (cf. R. Kuhre, Verhliltnis den Decemberbibel zur Septemberbibel. Kritischer Beitrag zur Geschichte den Bibelaprache M. Ltethera. Mil eirtem Anhang fiber Joh. Lange's Malthdttsiibersetzung, Greifawald, 1901). Of the Old Testament, part i (the five books of Moses) was ready in 1523; parts ii and iii (the historical and poetical books) in 1524; the prophets did not follow until 1532; and the Apocrypha as a whole not until the first complete Bible in 1534. Eleven editions were published during Luther's lifetime, besides numerous reprints. For the Old Testament he used the edition of Brescia, 1494 (the copy is now at Berlin); for the New Testament, the second edition of Erasmus (1519), but he consulted the Vulgate, and for the Old Testament had the assistance of his friends Melanchthoa, Bugenhagen, Aurogallus, and all available helps. In the preface to Sirach he mentions the earlier German translation, but he seems on the whole independent of it. The influence of Luther's work was great even outside of Germany. It formed the basis of the Danish translation of 1524, of the Swedish and Dutch of 1528, of the Icelandic of 1540, and, through the mediation of Tyndale, influenced the English Authorised Version of 1811.

Large parts of Luther's autograph printer's copy are preserved, and the first part is in print in D. Martin Luther's Deutsche Bibsl, Weimar, 1908. A catalogue of the original editions of Luther's Bible was published by H. E. Bindeeil (Verzeirhniea den Original‑Auepaben, etc., Halls, 1840), who also, in collaboration with H. A. Niemeyer, issued a critical reprint of the edition of 1545 with s collation of the earlier impressions (7 cola., Halls, 1845‑55). J. G. Hagemaan, Nachsicht con denen ffirnehmstera Ueberaetsungen den heiligen Schri/t (Brunswick, 1750), gives a list of editions to 1749. In the Hauck‑Herzog RE, iii, 74‑75, about ninety places are named in which Luther's Bible has been printed, with the date of the first edition in each place. It includes the following towns i0 A1nEiiCH.: GCrlDSIItOWII, Penn., 1743 (the first Bible in a European language printed in America; see 8owsa, Cm3ismoraas) and 1783 (ef. Basler Bibeibote, 1899, 82); New York, 1854 (N. T.) and 1857 (complete Bible); Philadelphia, 1846. Heading, Penn., 1813, and Lancaster Penn., 1819, may be added. A chronological list would show the influence of Pietism. The first Berlin edition (1699), for example, was due to 3pener. The first Low .(,,ermsn Bible, by J. Hoddersen, was printed by L. Diets at LSbedc in 1533; the lest was that of LtSneburg, 1621.

By the middle of the nineteenth century six or seven different reeensiona of Luther's version were in use in Protestant Germany (cf. C. Miinekeberg, Tabellarische Ueberaicht den tuichtigaten Varianten den bedetttendsten gdngbaren Btbelaz<a4. ~~ gtrben; New Testament, Halls, 1885,
Old Testament, 4 vole., 18?0‑71). In:

Luther's	1863
a Colrimlttee way named by

	Version.	the Eisenach Conference (see EI8E1P
		aoa CONFERENCE) to undertake a
final revision. As the result of the labors of this
committee the revised New Testament appeared
in 1867 and again in 1870, Genesis in 1873,

Bible Versions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	148
the Psalms in 1876, the whole Bible (the so‑called Probebibel) in 1883. At last, in Jan., 1890, the whole work was finished and the first impression was published at Halls in 1892. The revised edition was adopted in most parts of Germany, though in Mecklenburg it is still opposed. A comparison with the English revision shows that the German was much too timid (cf., on the one side, P. de Lagarde, Die reuidierte Lutherbibel des Halleschen Waisett)Eauses, G6ttingen, 1885, also in DTittheilungerE, iii; on the other, E. V. Kohlachiitter, Die Revision der LuthersM4n Bibeliibersetzung, 1887, and A. Kamphausen, Die beriehtigte LEEtherbibel, Berlin, 1894; also TJB, 1886, where twelve pamphlets for and against the revision are named; O. H. T. Willkomm, Was verliert unser Volk durch die Bt3elrevision t Zwickau, 1901).

Luther's work was criticized early, especially by his Roman Catholic opponents‑e.g., by Hieronymus Emeer, to whom Urbanua Rhegiua replied in 1524 (see EmBEB, HIEBONYMtJa; RHEGIDa, UBBAN178; of. G. Kawerau's Hieronymus Emaer, Halls, 1898; for criticism from the modern point of view, cf. P. de Lagarde, Die reridierte Luther6ibel, ut sup.). The Wittenberg edition of 1572 introduced the summaries of Veit Dietrich. A. Calovius added in 1661 s " Biblical Calendar" by which it was possible to read the Psalms four times every year, Proverbs twice, and the rest of the Bible with Luther's prefaces once. The Wittenberg faculty added a new preface in 1869. The verse of the " three witnesses " (I John v, 7) was first introduced into a Frankfort edition of 1575, into a Wittenberg impression in 1596. Dietrich's summaries were replaced by those of Leonhard Hotter in 1824; in this edition a Roman Catholic compositor changed " everlasting soaps! " in Rev. xiv, 8, to " new gospel," the verse being often applied to Luther, and subsequent editions were printed from the sheet as copy. Several editions gave great offense because of changes in the text or additions ‑e.g., an edition by N. Funk (Altona, 1815) was asserted to teach a " new faith " because of changes in the indexes and notes. The Bible Institute founded at Halle by Karl Hildebrand, Baron Canstein (q.v.) came to have great influence; after 1717 standing type or stereotyped plates were used and millions of copies of the Halls text were circulated (see BIBLE SOCIETIES, II, 1).
The Anabaptists Haas Denk and Ludwig Hi,taer (qq.v.) translated the Prophets before the completion of Luther's version (published by Peter $ch5ffer, Worms, 1527; many later editions); their work was used by
6. Other other translators and has been praised for
	Versions.	scholarship and style (cf. J. J. I. D&llinger,
		Din Reformation, i, Regensburg, 1848, 199;
Heberle, in TSK, axviii, 1855, 832; L. Keller, Eia APoatal
der Wiedertdufer, Leipsic, f882, 210 sqq.). The preachers
of Zurich published s complete Bible in six parts (1525
1529), thing Luther's work so far as available and adding
the Prophets (part iv) themselves end the Apocrypha
(part v. including III end IV Eedras and III Maccabees
but not the Prayer of Azarish, the Song of the Three Chil
dren, the Prayer of Manaaees, or the Additions to Esther)
by Leo Jud (q.v.). The complete Bible yvea printed in
1530, without prefaces and glosses, the Apocrypha at the
end. The edition of 1531 (2 vole.) has a abort admonition
and introduction for " the Christian reader of these Bib
lical Books " probably by Zwingli; also summaries, paral
lel references, woodcuts, and s new translation of the poct
icsl books. The edition of 1548 (2 vole.) professes to have
been compared word for word with the Hebrew, but really
does not differ from editions of 1642 and 1545; it became
the basis of later editions. The verse division was first
introduced in 1589. A revision of the Zurich New Testa
ment wag undertaken by J. J. Breitinger in 1629, by
s collegium biblicum in 1817, 1880, 1868, and 1882, and
s new revision of the New Testament and Psalms appeared
in 1893 (cf. E. Riggenbxh. Die echweizeriache revidicrte
Uelxraetzunq den Netun Testaments and der Paalmen, Basel,
1895).
Besides the Zurich Bible three other " composite " Bibles (i.e., Luther's translation so far as it had appeared
with the missing parts supplied from other translations) were published before 1534: (11 Worms, Peter $chSffer, 1629, the so‑called " Baptist " Bible, haviluR HBtzer and Desk's version of the Prophets; it was the fast Protestant Bible to use the word Biblia in the title, retained in Luther's Bible till the eighteenth century‑; (2) $traebulg, Wolff K5pph1, 1530, Prophets by Hiitaer and Denk, Apocrypha by Jud; (3) Frankfort, C. Egenolph, 1534, in which only a part of the Apocrypha was not Luther's. The Epistle to the Laodiceans was included in these editions.
About one hundred,years after Luther new versions began to appear. The first complete. Bible was that of J. Piscator (Herborn, 1802), c,6lled the " $traf mich Gott " Bible because the translator added in smaller type to Mark viii, 12, Wana disem geschlechE sin zaideen wirdt peBeben warden, so straffe mich Gott (" If a sign be given to this generation, so strike me God; " cf. R. $teck, Die Piaca= torbibel, Bern, 1897). The Rerleburg Bible (8 vole., 17261742) and the Wertheim Bible (1735) were prepared in the interest of mysticism and' rationalism respectively (see BIBLES, ANIJOTATED, AND BIBLE $DMMABIEa, I, §§ 3, 4). Later versions are by J. D. Michaelis (O. T., 13 vole., G&ttingen, 1769 eqq.; N. T., 2 vole., 1790); J. H. D. bloldenhauer (O. T., 10 vole., Quedlinburg, 1774 eqq.; N. T., 2 vole., 178788); Simon Gryna°ue (5 vole.. Basel, 1776‑77; s paraphrase is modern style, the historical books of the O. T, abridged, the Gospels harmonised); and G. F. Griesinger (Stuttgart, 1824). Better than these is the version of W. 1.. M. de Wette and J. C. W. Atlgusti (8 vole., Heidelberg, 1809‑14; later editions by De Wette alone). Bunsen's annotated Bible (9 vole., Leipsic, 1858‑70) has a translation of the Hagiographa by A. Kamphausen, of the Apocrypha and N. T. by H. J. Boltzmann, other portions by Bunsen.
Translations of the New Testament alone include: J. Crell, J. $tegman the elder, and others, the $ocinian N. T. (Rakow, 1830); J. Felbinger, also a $ocinian (Amsterdam, 1860); J. H. Reitz, Reformed (Offenbach, 1703); C. E. Triller (Amsterdam, 1703); Count Zinaendorf (Eberedorf, 1727); Timotheus Philadelphua (i.e., J. Kayser, a Stuttgart physician, 1733); C. A. Heumamm (Hanover, 1748); J. A. Bengal (Stuttgart, 1753); C. T. Damm (3 vole., Berlin, 1765); C. F. Bahrdt (" the latest revelations of God," 4 vole., Riga, 1773‑74); J. C. F. Schulz (vol. i, the Gospels, 1774);' P. M. Hahn (Winterthur, 1777); G. W. Rullmann (3 vola., Lemgo. 1790‑91); J. A. Bolten (8 vole., Altona, 1792‑1808); J. O. Theisa, Gospels and Acts (4 vole.. Hamburg, 1794‑1800); J. J. Stolz (2 vola.. Zurich, 1795; a second ed. of a version by Stolz, J. L. VSgeli, and C. Hitfeli, 2 vole., 1781,82); G. F. Seiler (2 vola., Erlangen, 1806); J. C. R. Eckermsan (3 vole., Kiel; 1808‑08); J. W. F. Hetzel (Dorpat, 1809); C. F. Preisa (2 vole., Stettin, 1811); L. $chtthkrafft (Stuttgart); J. Goesner (Munich, 1815); H. A. W. Meyer (Gbttingen, 1829); E. G. A. B5eke1 (AItona, 1832); J. K. W. Alt (4 parts, Leipsic, 1837‑39); K, von der Heydt (Elberfeld, 1852; used by the Plymouth Brethren); F. Rengsdorf (Hamburg, 1860); C. Weizeiicker (TVbingen, 1875; 9th ed.,1900); C. Reinhardt (Lahr, 1878); E. Zittel (3 vole., Carleruhe, 1880‑85); C. Stage (R.eclam, Leipsic, 1896; " in present‑day speech "); H. Wiese (Berlin, 1905).
Roman Catholic versions have been numerous. Hieronymus Emser's New Testament (Dresden, 1527; see EIIBEB, HIERONYMUS) was merely a alight revision of Luther after the Vulgate. J. Dietenberger, s Dominican, published the entire Bible at Mainz in 1534 (cf. F. Schneider, Johann Dietenberper's Bibeldrac7c, Mains, 1801). In the New Testament he followed Emaer chiefly, in the Apocrypha Leo Jud, in the Old Testament he took much from Luther. C. Ulenberg revised this version in 1630, and the clergy of Mains in 1882; thenceforth it was commonly called the " Catholic " Bible. Later Roman Catholic versions are: T. A. Erhard (2 vole., Augsburg, 1722); the Benedictines of the cloister of Ettenheimmflnster (Conetance, 1751); I. Weitenauer (14 vole., Augsburg, 1777‑81);. F. Roaalino (3 vole., Vienna, 1781); K. H. $eibt (Prague. 1781); H. Braun (13 vole., Augsburg, 1788‑1805; worked over by J. F. Allioli, 6 vole., Nuremberg, 1830‑32); D. von Brentano, T. A. Dereser, and J. M. A. Scholz (N. T. by Brentano, 3 vole., liempten, 1790‑91; revised and O. T. added by Dereser and Scholz, 15 vole., Frankfort, 17971833); K. and L. van Egg (3 vole., $ulabach, 1807‑22); H. J. Jack (Leipsic, 1847). Translations of the New Testament alone are: C. Fischer (Prague, 1734); B. B. M. $chaappingsr (3 vole., Mannheim, 1787‑99); 8. Mutsohelle (2

147
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑‑

vole., Munich, 1789‑90); B. Weyl (Maine, 1789); J. G. Krach (2 vole., Freiburg, 1790); C. Schwartzel (8 vole.. Ulm, 1802‑05); M. Wittmann (Regensburg, 1809); J. M. Bailer (Graz, 1822); J. H. Kistemaker (Munich, 1825: circulated by the British and Foreign Bible Society, which now also circulates Allioli's translation); B. Weinhart (Freiburg, 1900); A. Arndt, $. J. (Regensburg, 1903); B. (=rundl (Augsburg, 1903).
Finally, mention should be made of the scholarly translation of the canonical Old Testament, edited by E. Kautzsch in collaboration with F. Baethgen, H. Guthe, A. Kamphausen, R. Kittel„ K. Marti, W. Rothstein, R. Ruetschi, V. Ryssel, K. Siegfried, and A. Socin (Freiburg, 1894; 2d ed., 1896). In the supplementary translation of the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha Prof. Kautzsch had the assistance of G. Beer, F. Bless, C. Clemen, A. Deias‑
mann, C. Fuchs, H. Gunkel, H. Guthe, A. Kamphausen, R. Kittel, E. Littmann, M. Lohr, W. Rothstein, V. Rysael, F. Schnapp, K. Siegfried, and P. Wendland. Since 1899 cheap editions called Texlbibel, both with and without Weizaiicker's New Testament, have been circulated. German Israelites have translations of the Old
Testament prepared under the direction of L. Zunz
(Berlin, 1837) and by S. Bernfeld (Berlin, 1902).
There are also versions in the Jewish‑German
(Yiddish). 	E. NESTLE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The one work on early German translations is W. Walther, Die deutsche Bibelaberacuung de* Mittslaltera. 3 vole., Brunswick, 1889‑91; cf. Bible of all Lands, pp. 178‑187, London, 1861, and DB, extra Vol., pp. 411‑414.
The subject of the printed German Bible before Luther has been much elucidated by W. Kurrelmeyer of Baltimore, who has prepared an edition from a collation of all impreViona and manuscripts; vole. i and ii, the N. T., have already appeared as nos. 234 and 238 of the Bibliothek des Zitterariachen Vereina in Stuttgart, Tiibingen, 1904 and 1905; vole, iii‑iv of the O. T., nos. 243, 248, ib. 1907. F. Jostea (Roman Catholic) has long had s history in preparation. Consult L. Hain, Repertorium bibliopraphicum, Vol. i, Paris, 1826; L. Keller, Die Reformation and die tilteren Reformparteien, Leipsic, 1385; idem, Die Waldenaer and die deutachen Bibeliiberaetzungen, v, 389, ib. 1886; F. Jostea, Die iValdenaer and die vorlutheriache deutsche Bibeluberaetzunp, p. 44, Miinater, 1885; idem. Die TepZer Bibelii6eraetzung, Munster, 1888; idem,
Die lValdenaerbibeln" and . .	Johannes Rellach, in
	Hiatoriaches Jahrbuch, xv (1894), 77 eqq.; H Haupt, Die
	deutsche Bibeltiberaetzung der mitlelalterlichsn Waldenaer
	W iirzburg, 1885; idem, in Ceniralblatt filr Biblio
	thekaweaen, 1885 pp, 287‑29p; idem, Der toatdenaiache
Uragrung des Codex Teplenaia ,	WUrzburg, 1888;
	M. Rachel, Die Freiberper Bibelhandacla'rifl. Freiburg, 1888;
	S. Berger, La Question du codex Teplenafis, in Revue ii;
	torique, xxx (1888), 184. :ocxii (1886), 184• K. $chellhorn,
	Ueber daa V_rhe'i'bte‑r'g" der Freiberper and der Tepler Bibel
	handachriJt, FreibergXf 1896• W. Walther, Ein angeblichtr
Bi6eliiberaelzer des	ilfelalter8, in Nette kirchl9,Clte Zeib
	achriJl, viii, 3 (1896), 194‑207; Schaff, Christian Church,
vi, 351 sqq.
On Luther's Bible consult: J. G. Palm, Fj18~ der deutechen Bibtlfibereetzung Dr. M. LutTiui, 1617‑3I,. ad. J. M. Gbze, Halls 1772; G. W. Panzer Enym, f ainer vollatBndipsn Geachichte der deutachen Bibeltlberaetaung M. Luther*, 1617‑81 Nuremberg, 1791; J. Jsnesen_pasfAr, Geachichte dea deufscken Volkee vii, 531,575 Freiburg' 1893; 'chaff, Christian Church, vi, 340‑38g; Mueller, Christian Church, iii, 34‑3b.
On the language of Luther's Bible consult: R• Von Raumer, Einwirkunp de Chriatentuma, Stuttgart, lg¢5. P. Pietsch M. Luther and die hor4deutche Schriflaprache, Breslau, 1383; K. Bur Die Einigunp der nera)ech_ deutachen Rchriftapracha Halle, 1584• B. Lindmeyer, Der Wortachata in Luthers Emaers and Eck, UeLeraetzunp dea N. T. e, Strasburg 1899; F. Dauner, Die oberdeutachen 8ibslyloaaare des xvi. Jahrhunderta, Darmstadt, 1898;
Bible Versions
BShme, Zur Geschichte der aiichaiachen Kanzleiapraehe. Reichenbach, 1899; W. W. Florer, SubatantivRexion bei Martin Luther. Ann Arbor, 1899; H. Byland, Der 1Vortaehala des Zuricher A. T.'e von 166 and 1651 . . . , Berlin, 1903.
On translations after Luther consult: J. bfezger, Ceachiehta der Bibeiilbersetzungen in der achweizeriach‑relormierten Kirche, Basel, 1878; A. Kappler, Die achweizeriache Bibeliiberaetzunp. Zurich, 1898; idem, Die neue Revision der ZitricAer Bibel, in Neue Ziiricher Zeitung, Nov. 2 and 27, 1904.
On Roman Catholic versions consult: G. W. Panzer, Geachichte der riimiaclrkatholiachen Bibeliiberaetzunp, Nuremberg, 1781; J. Jsnssen‑Pastor, ut sup.; G. Keferstein, Der LauWtand in den Bibelfiberaetzungen von Emaer and Eck, Jena, 1888.
VIII. Greek Versions, Modern: Parts of the Old Testament were translated by Jews into modern Greek as early as the end of the Middle Ages. A version of the Pentateuch made in 1547 has been edited by C. Hesseling (Leipsic, 1897). On the whole the Greek Church has been anxious to make the people acquainted with the Bible, a fact evinced especially in the sixteenth century by the efforts of Damascenus the Studite (q.v.). But when, at the instance of Cyril Lucar, Maximos Kalliupolites published in 1638 an edition of the New Testament in the original Greek with a modern Greek version, the Church as a whole did not favor it, though the patriarch Parthenioa permitted its circulation. This text was reprinted in London in 1703 by the monk Seraphim, also in 1710 at Halls, and by C. Reineccius in his polyglot Bible of 1713 (see BIBLES, POLYGLOT, V). In the East, Seraphim's edition was expressly prohibited by the patriarch Gabriel of Constantinople (1702‑04).
A new period began when the British and Foreign Bible Society took the matter in hand. :As early as 1810 it published the text of Maximos, and English influence induced the patriarchs Cyril VI and Gregory V to permit its circulation. Other issues followed in 1814, 1819, and 1824. The deficiencies of the old text having been long known, it was decided to bring out a new translation, which should approach more nearly the ancient Greek. For this work the monk Hilarion was employed under the direction of the learned Archbishop Conatantius of Sinai, afterward patriarch. But when, in consequence of a controversy over the Apocrypha (1825‑27), the society introduced bibles without the Apocrypha, the Greek Church would not circulate them. Moreover, after the war of liberation the desire to be entirely independent of Occidental
aid greatly increased and orthOdpg roUtlon Set in anew. The version of such learned Greeks as Typaldos, Bambas, and others found no more favorable receptl0n. This disposition has con‑
tinued. The latest version of the New Testament
by A. Pallis (Liverpool, 1902), written in common
Greek, has not been approved. The patriarch
Joachim ill has renewed the prohibition of Bible
translation. 	PHILIPP MEYER.
BI 	goes, in Atakta, Vol‑ iii (1830); J. Wenger,

Ba~'~e our Kennlnie der pricchiechen Kirche, Berlin 1839•
Bible of Every Land. pp. 241‑244, London, 1861; ~. L~
Brand. Bibliopraphie Xellinique. 3 vole., Paris, 1885‑1903
(for 15th and 16th oe	idem Bibliopraphie Hel
ZEnique, 5 vole., ib. 1894‑1903 (for the 17th century); A. D.
BYriskos Gsachichte der orienta(ysch‑ Rirchen 1l,6g_1888,
Leipsie 1802• Bible Society Rte. Jan. and May, 1902;
DB, extra Vol., p. 420.

Bible Versions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	148
I%. Hebrew Translations of the New Testament: The anciently attested Hebrew original of the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel according to the Hebrews are not to be included in this treatment (see MemraEw, II; APOCRYPHA, B, I, 19). Of existing Hebrew versions of the New Testament, the more important are the following:
1. Versions by Jews: (1) The Evangelium Matthcei in lingua Hebraied cum versions Latina, by Sebastian Minster, appeared at Basel, 1537 (2d ed., Paris, 1541; 3d ed., with Hebrews in Hebrew and Latin, Basel, 1557). (2) The Evangelium hebraice Matthcei recens a Judceorum PenetraltMus eruEum, with Latin translation, edited by Jean du Tillet and Jean Mercier (Paris, 1555) is part of a translation of the Gospels by Schemtob Schaprut (1385), which maybe preserved in a Vatican manuscript. (3) A complete translation of the New Testament was made by Ezekiel Rachbi (d. 1772), and an assistant from Germany.
2. Versions by Christians: (1) Elias Hutter made a Hebrew translation of the complete New Testament for his polyglot editions (Nuremberg, 1599, 1602; see BIBLES, POLYGLOT, V); a better edition of this version was issued by B. Robertson (London, 1861), and the first part of the same by R. Caddiek (London, 1798). (2) Johannes Baptists Jona translated the four Gospels (Rome, 1668). (3) A translation of Matthew by Johannes Kemper (d. 1714), with Latin rendering by A. Borelius, is preserved in manuscript in the library of the University of Upeala. (4) The Epistle to the Hebrews, translated by F. A. Chriatiani, appeared in Leipsic, 1876, and Luke i, 1‑xxii, 14, by I. Fromman at Halls, 1735. (5) The translation of the whole New Testament prepared for the London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews appeared in 1821, and in revised form in 1840 and 1866. (6) The edition of the British and Foreign Bible Society, begun in 1864, was made by Franz Delitzsch (Leipsic, 1877; stereotyped ed.. 1881; revised ed., 1885; again revised by Delitzach and edited by G. Dahnan, 1892). (7) The translation of the Trinitarian Bible Society, begun by Isaac Salkinson and completed by C. Ginsburg, was issued in London, 1885. (G. DALxaN.)
BiHLIO(iRAPHT: On I: A. Herbst, Die roan Sebastian Mfln
	ater„ . . Ijbersetzunpen den Eroangetivma Mntthd%, Gbt
	tingen, 1879; F. Delitsaeh, Brief an die R6mer, pp. 22,
	105, 103‑109, Leipaic, 1870; 8. Schechter, in JQR, vi,
	144‑I4b. On 2: F. Delitaech, ut sup., pp. 21‑38; Theo
	topiaclw LiferotvrbtaU, 1889‑1890; G. Delman, in Ho
	braica, i& 228‑231 and Theodopiarhse Iriteraturblatt, 1891,
PP. 289 eqq.: J. Dunlop. Memorize of Gospel Triumphs,
pp. 378‑388, London. 1894.

	%. Hungarian (Magyar) Versions: J6,nos Er
dosi (or Sylvester; b. 1504; died c. 1560) made
the first Hungarian translation of the New Tes
tament. After studying in Cracow and Wig
		tenberg (1526‑29), he returned to
	1. The his native land and worked at SSrv&r
First
	Versions.	under the patronage of the magnate
		T. N9,dasdi, who erected the first
Hungarian printing‑press in Uj‑Sziget (Neanesis).
There Erdbai's translation was printed in 1541.
Erdiiai was afterward professor of Hebrew in
Vienna (1542‑52); driven out by the Jesuits, he
went to Debreczin and, in 1557, to Locse (Leutschau) as teacher and preacher. A little later, G. Heltai, pastor at Kolosvir (Klausenburg), and his three colleagues translated the New Testament, with several books of the Old Testament (KolosvAr, 1552‑61). Peter Juh"z (Melius), pastor and superintendent at Debreczin (1558‑72), rendered into Hungarian the books of Job and Kings (Debreczin, 1565), and the New Testament (Szegedin, 1567); of the latter work no copy is known. T. F46legyhIzi, professor and pastor at Debreczin, published a translation of the New Testament at Debreczin in 1586. Gaspar KAroli (d. 1591), a pupil of Melanchthon, pastor at GtSnc (not far from Kassa), translated the entire Bible with the Apocrypha and published it at Visoly, 1590. This is styled the Visoly Bible, and it has remained in use to the present. It has passed through many editions with some slight corrections.
During the religious wars (1604‑45) against the Austrian monarchs the Hungarian nation heroically fought for political and religious liberty; to the great Protestant princes of Transylvania, Bocakai,
Bethlen, and George (GytSrgy) R5‑
g. The ' kbczi the Protestant Church is much Homgromi indebted, for without them it would
Bible.	have suffered the fate of the Bohe‑
mian Church. The victorious RAkbcai family caused 10,000 copies of the Bible to be published at V6.rad in 1657. The years 1660 to 1781 were a dark period for Hungarian Protestants, during which the Austrian government, under Jesuitical influences, took control of the entire kingdom, and the freedom gained in the Reformation was lost. The crisis came in 1671‑81, the so‑called " decade of mourning." This grievous situation explains the fact that Hungarian bibles had to be printed :n foreign countries. The learned Reformed pastor of Debreczin, Gy6rgy Caipk6s KomAromi, an excellent Hebrew scholar, in order to meet the common wish and to make the Bible keep pace with the growth of the language, made a new translation which was approved by the synods in 1681. The city of Debreczin at enormous cost had an edition of 4,000 copies printed at Leyden in 1718. When the edition reached the frontier it was seized by the Jesuits (who had secured from the king an order to that effect) and carried to their house at Kassa. The agitated citizens and council of Debreczin used all means available to recover the books and at length secured a royal edict from King Charles III (June 79, 1723) granting them a free Bible (P. Bod, Historia Hungarortena ecclesiastics, iii, 89). So great was the power of the Jesuits, however, that they frustrated the royal edict, and the bishop of Eger, Count F. BarkSczy, carried the KomAromi bibles to his palace and threw them all into damp cellars, where they remained till 1754, when on Nov. 1 he burned them in the court of his palace before a large gathering (cf. The Bible Society Monthly Reporter Mar., 1904, p. 69). A few copies retained in Vare6, hidden in the Prussian ambassador's house, were brought to Debreczin in 1789.
The Roman Catholics, on their part, had the Bible translated by a Jesuit scholar GySrgy Kfildi,

149
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
and this translation appeared at Vienna, 1626 (see KALDl, GYORGY). In the nineteenth century Baron A. Bartakovics, archbishop of Eger, ordered a new translation, which was made by his secretary, the learned T6,rk£nyi (d. 1886); this " Eger Bible " was published at the coat of the archbishop in 1862, and again in 1892.
	Samuel KS,mori, professor in the Lutheran theo
logical academy at Pozsony (Pressburg), attempted
a new translation of the whole Bible with the
Apocrypha (Budapest, 1870). Because of the
		translator's modern style and his
	s. modern	inadequate knowledge of the Magyar
	Versions.	tongue, notwithstanding its fidelity to
		the original, this version can not be
used by the people. A revision of the old KAroli
text was proposed as early as 1840, and the British
and Foreign Bible Society assumed the task. The
first revision of the New Testament was accom
plished by J. Menyh6rt, professor of . exegesis in
Debreczin College, and by W. GySri, Lutheran
pastor of Budapest. It was issued at Budapest in
1878 and, being sharply criticized, did not gain
acceptance. The work of revision began more
seriously in 1886, when T. Duka, a native of Hun
gary and a member of the committee of the Bible
society in London, secured the aid of that great
organization. Competent men were chosen from
among the professors and pastors of both Churches.
After many years' labor, the revised Old Testament
left the press at Budapest in 1898. This noble
work needs further revision, and the Hungarian
Church awaits the moment when the second revision,
soon to appear, will be ready. Work on the revi
sion of the New Testament is progressing.
	After the great revolution of 1848 and between
1851 and 1861, the constitution of Hungary was
suspended by the Austrian government and the
circulation of the Bible was prohibited. The Bible
depot, the property of the British Society, was
ordered to be removed, and was located at Berlin;
since the coronation of Francis Joseph I all
hindrances have been removed, and under the
Hungarian state government circulation of the
Bible is free. 	F. BALOGH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bible of Every Land. PP. 325327, London,
	1861; F. Vereeghi, Dissertatio do versions Hungarica scrip.
	tutu; nacres, Budapest, 1822; T. Duka, in Bible Society's
	Monthly, London, 1892; KL, ii 77o‑771; Hauck‑Herzog,
	RE, pp. 115‑118 (gives the literature in Hungarian);
BD, extra vol., p. 417.

%I. Italian Versions: Legend has it that Jacobus de Varagine (q.v.), bishop of Genoa, made an Italian translation of the Bible. There can be no doubt that one was prepared as early as the thirteenth century. The earliest printed Italian Bible is that of Nicold di Malherbi, an abbot of the Camaldolites, based on the Vulgate and published Venice, 1471. In 1530 Antonio Bruccloli published at Venice his translation of the New Testament and in 1532 the entire Bible. In the same year the New Testament by the Dominican Zaccaria was published at Venice, and in 1551 that of Domenico Giglio. After this time Geneva became the home of the Italian Bible. A congregation of refugees settled there about the middle
Bible Versions
of the sixteenth century, and for their benefit Massimo Teofilo, a former Benedictine of Florence, translated the New Testament from the Greek (Lyons, 1551). For the Old Testament Bruccioli's version was revised and thus in 1562 the first Protestant Bible in the Italian language appeared (at Geneva). It was entirely superseded in 1607 by the translation of G. Diodati (q.v.) of Lucca. This version, made directly from the original texts, stands in high esteem for fidelity and has been repeatedly reprinted by different Bible societies.
j	A version affecting great elegance, but by no means as faithful because made from the Vulgate, is that of Antonio Martini, archbishop of Florence (Turin, 1776). This version has also been repeatedly reprinted by the British and Foreign Bible Society, and in 1889 sqq. an illustrated edition was published by the Catholic publisher Sonzogno at Milan. [A version of the Gospels and Acts in modern Italian prepared under the direction of the St. Jerome Society of Rome by Giuseppe Clementi, a secular priest and professor of Italian literature, with brief notes by Giovanni Genocchi of the Mission of the Sacred Heart, and preface by Giovanni Semeria of the Order of St. Paul (Barna,bites), was printed at the Vatican Press with the approbation of Pope Leo XIII in 1902. The work was well received by the public and by scholars, and was approved and circulated by many dignitaries of the Roman Church, although some feared its influence. The completion of the New Testament and translation of the Old, which was contemplated by the Society, has been postponed, as it seemed inadvisable to Pope Pius X to give the Italian people the epistles of St. Paul at the present time. The volume published is sold at a nominal price, and about 500,000 copies, it is claimed, have been distributed.
(S. BERGERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: 9. Berger, La Bible Italienne au moyen (ige,
in Romania, xxiii (1894), 358 aqq, (contains bibliog
raphy and fiat of M8$.); Bible of Every Land, pp. 277
279, London, 1861; J. D. Hales, The Bible or the Bible
Society r The Corruption of Go's Word in the Italian
Version of Martini, London, 1861 J. Carini Le Versions dells Biblia in rolgari itadiano S. Pier d'Arena, 1894; 8. Minocci, Versions Italiennsa de la Bible, in Vigouroua, Dictionnaire de la Bible; KL, ii, 741‑742; DB, extra vol., 4p8‑408.
XII. Lithuanian and Lettish Versions: A forerunner of the Bible translation for Protestant Lithuanians was the rendering of the Scripture lessons from the Gospels and Epistles by B. Willent (Konigsberg, 1579) from Luther's text (edited by F. Bechtel, in Bezzenberger's Lilatcische and lettische Drucke des 1'6. Jahrhunderts, part 3, Gottingen, 1882). The first translator of the Bible in a fuller sense was Jan Bretkun (Bretkunas), minister at Labiau and Konigsberg (d. 1602 or 1603). He translated the whole Bible, 1579‑90. The manuscript, preserved in the university library at Kiinigsberg, is described by A. Bezzenberger, Beitrage zur Geschichte der ditauischen Sprache (G&ttingen, 1877), pp. vi‑vii, Only the Psalms were published (KSnigaberg, 1625) and the editor, J. Rhrea, introduced many chang%s.
The Reformed Lithuanians, anxious for a Bible,

Bible Versions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	180
in 1657 commissioned Samuel Boguslaw Chylinski to go to England and have the Bible printed there (cf. H. Reinhold, in Mittheilungen der litauischlitterarisehen Gesellscha ft, vol. iv, part 2, p. 105). The Old Testament as far as the Psalms was presented to the synod at Wihla in print in 1663, other parts in manuscript. Of this Bible impression only three copies, all imperfect, are known to exist. Chylinski was the translator.
The New Testament, translated by Samuel Bythner, was published at Ktinigsberg, 1701, for the benefit of the Lutherans (new ed., Berlin, 1866). A New Testament translated by different ministers was published at KLSnigsberg in 1727. The Old Testament was prepared in the same way and the whole Bible was published at K6nigaberg, 1735. In the beginning of the nineteenth century the need of a new edition of the Bible was felt, and the work was undertaken, with the help of the British and Foreign Bible Society, by a number of clergymen and especially by L. J. Rhesa. It was based on Luther's version, with comparison of the Hebrew and Greek originals, and was published at Tilsit, 1824.
For the Roman Catholic Lithuanians, Joseph Arnulf Giedraitis (Polish, GiedrojE), bishop of Samogitia, translated the New Testament from the Vulgate (Wilna, 1816).
	The oldest specimen of Lettish printing, the
Enchiridion (Konigsberg, 1586‑87; called in later
editions Yademecum and " Hand‑Book "), con
tains among other writings for ecclesiastical use
the Scripture lessons for Sundays and festivals for
the Evangelical Letts (in later editions enlarged by
parts of the Old Testament). The first Lettish
Bible, translated by E. Gliick and C. B. Witten,
was published at Riga, 1685‑89.	In 1877 A. Bielen
stein published at Mitau a thoroughly revised
edition. 	(A. LESKIEN.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. J. Rhesa, Geachichte der Litthauiaclten Bibe1, Kdnigaberg, 1818; H. Reinhold, Die aoptnanntt Chy‑
Zinskiechs Bibelilbersetsunp, in MittAeiiunpen der litauierh‑
Iitterariachen Geaeliachatt, vol. iv, part 2. P• 105: Napier‑
sky, Chronolopischer Conapect der lettiachlitterariachan
GaaeUacleaft, vol. iii, 1831; Bible of Every Land, pp. 310‑
813, London, 1881; Bielenatein, Zum 300j1!)afipsn Jubi‑
ldum der Lettischen Literatur, Riga, 1888. Consult Also the
Annual Reports of the BFBB.

%ITI. Persian Versions: Chrysostom mentions Persians as well as Syrians, Egyptians, Ethiopians, and other nations as being is possession of the Gospel; but it is very doubtful whether there was at that time a versibn of Scripture in the Persian tongue, since Syrian influence predominated in the Persian Empire. It is said, however, that Chosroes II had the Scriptures brought from Edema (cf. TLZ, 1896, 432, and Theodoret, Hilt. ecd., i, b). All that was known in Europe till 1700 of Biblical and other texts is found in Lagarde, Peraiache Studien (GLSttingen, 1884), 3‑8.
A translation of the Pentateuch by the Persian Jew Jacob ben Joseph Tawus, printed in Hebrew characters, is contained in s polyglot Pentateuch of Constantinople (1546), and was transcribed into Persian characters with a Latin translation by T. Hyde in vol. iv of Walton's Polyglot. The Gospels, translated from the Greek, were edited by
Abraham Wheelocke and, after his death, by Pierson (London, 1857), and another translation from the Syriac was printed in vol. v of Walton's Polyglot, and used by Tischendorf after the edition of C. A. Bode (Helmstadt, 1750‑51). In Paris are parts of two different translations of the Old Testament, the one made from the Hebrew, the other from the Aramaic (cf. Zotenberg, Catalogue lea manuacrita Hebreux, etc., Paris, 1868 sqq., and Lagarde, Peraiache Studien, i, 69, and ii, and his Sgmmicta, ii, GSttingen, 1879, 14‑17). On Jewish reports about the Bible in the language of Elam and Media cf. L. Bleu, Einleitung in die heilige Schrifd (Budapest, 1894), 80‑94.
E. NESTLE.
	For partial translations of the Bible, particu
larly of the Pentateuch, the Psalms, Proverbs,
Ecclesiastes, Canticles, the Minor Prophets, Esther,
Daniel, Tobit, Judith, Job, and Lamentations,
preserved in manuscript, cf. JE, iii, 190, vii, 318
319. The oldest fragments of this character are
probably those found in the Pahlavi Shikand
gumdnig Yijar, which dates from the latter part of
the ninth century (ed. Jamasp‑Asana and E. W.
West, Bombay, 1887; transl. by E. W. West, SBE,
xciv, 117 sqq.). These fragments are Gen. i, 2 3,
ii, 16‑17, iii, 9, 11‑16, 18‑19, vi, 6; Ex. xx, 5;
Deut. xxix, 4, xxxii, 35; Ps. xev, 10; Isa. xxx,
27‑28, xliii, 19; Matt. i, 20, v, 17, vii, 17‑18, xii,
34, xv, 13, xviii, 32; Luke v, 31‑32, vi, 44, xv, 4;
John i, 11, 14, viii, 23, viii, 37‑38, 42‑45, 47; and
Rom. vii, 19‑20. They were quoted for anti
Christian polemics, and from the forma of the proper
names seem to have been derived from a Syriac
original, though traces of the Targum of the pseudo
Jonathan (see above, A, V, § 3) may be discovered
in the renderings of Ex. xx, 5 and especially of Gen.
iii, 14 (cf. L. H. Gray, is Actes du XIV. congrFs
international des orientalistes, i, Paris,1905,182‑186).
Equally interesting are the fragments of the New
Testament in Eetrangelo script but in an Iranian
dialect (probably Sogdhian, thus constituting
almost the only known remains of this dialect),
discovered in Turfan, Eastern Turkestan, in 1903.
These citations are Manichean in origin, and the
following passages are thus far known: Matt. x,
14 sqq.; Luke i, 6380; John xx, 19 §qq.; Gal. iii,
25 sqq., and a number of smaller fragments which
are adaptations and compilations rather than
translations (cf. F. W. K Muller, in appendix to
the Abhandlungen der Berliner Akademie, 1904,
pp. 347, and Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Aka
demie, 1907, pp. 260‑270). Mention may also be
made of a Persian version of Gen. i vi, 6, by Abhi
chand, a Hindu converted to a mixture of Judaism
and Mohammedanism by the Judeo‑Persian poet
Sarmad early in the seventeenth century, and pre
served in the Dabiatart. This version differs ma
terially from the translation of Jacob Tawus.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Walton's Polyglot, Prolegomena, 18, sad 8. Clarions, in vol. iv; 8. Monk, Une version persons M3. do la Bibliothaque Royale, Paris, 1838: Bible of Every Land. DP 84‑‑71. London, 1881; A. Kohut, Beisuchlunp der persistlurt Psnfateuch4berssfsunp. Heidelberg, 1871; T.. N6ldeke, in ZDMG, G (1893), 648; Horn, Aua ihiienischen Bi37iotheken, in ZDVIG, li (1893); Scrivener, Introduction, ii, 185; Gregory, Ttxtkriiik, i, b7b‑578.

161	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Versions
XIV. Portuguese Versions: Portuguese versions begin with that by Joso Ferreira d'Ahneida, a former Roman Catholic priest (New Testament, Amsterdam, 1681; Old Testament, revised and continued by Danish missionaries, Tranquebar, 17191751). A Roman Catholic version, with annotations, by Antonio Pereira de Figueiredo, was published in Lisbon, 1778 eqq. (23 vole.; revised ed., greatly improved, 1794‑1819).
	A version based on Ahneida's translation was
made by the Rev. Thomas Boys, and published by
the Trinitarian Bible Society (London, 1843‑47).
The British and Foreign Bible Society has often
printed revised editions of both Almeida's and
Pereira's versions. The need of a better and more
accurate translation of the Bible in the Portu
guese language is generally recognized by Protes
tant missionaries and laborers in Portugal and
Brazil. 	(S. BEROEftt.)
BIHLIOf3AAPH7: Bible o/ Emery Land, p. 271‑278, London, 1881; 8. Berger, in Romania, aaviii (1899), 543 eqq. (gives a full account of the literature); DB, extra vol., pp. 410‑411.
%V. Scandinavian Versions: Of the Scandinavian countries, Norway and its colony, Iceland, had at a very early period a national
	1. Before	literature in the Old Norwegian
	the Ref‑	tongue (incorrectly called Old Norse).
	ormatioa.	To the earliest period of Bible trans
		lation belongs the Stjorn (" Dispen
sation," ac., of God), which includes Gen.‑II
Kings. This is not a translation but a para
phrase of these books on the basis of the Vul
gate, with explanatory remarks from different
authors‑Josephus, Augustine, Peter Comestor,
Vincent of Beauvais, and others. The preface
states that it was prepared under the patronage
of King Haakon V (1299‑1319), and from a
note in one of the manuscripts it appears that
Brand Joneon, bishop of Hole is Iceland (d. 1264),
made the translation. If this note is correct,
Jonsou probably translated the middle and moat
ancient part (Ex. xix‑Deut. xxw). The Stjorn
was edited by Prof. C. R. Unger (Christiania, 1862).
In the Old Norwegian literature there exist many
homilies, legends of the saints, and apocryphal Acts
of the Apostles which contain many Bible texts;
these were put together and published by J. Be18
heim under the title Al Bibelen i Norge og pas
Island i Middelalderen (Christiania, 1884).
The earliest traces of a translation of the Bible into Old Swedish appear in the time of St. Bridget. In her" Revelations" as well se in accounts of her life it is said that she had s copy of the Bible made in Swedish. This was undoubtedly only an exposition of the Pentateuch composed by her father confessor Matthias in LinktSping (d. 1350; Bee BRTDOET, SAEQT, OF SWEDEN). Joshua and Judges were translated later by Nile Ragnvaldeon (d. 1514), while Judith, Esther, Ruth, and Maccabees were translated by Jens Budde of the NiEdendal monastery. There is also extant a translation of the Apocalypse, made prior to 1520. All these Biblical works, based on the Vulgate, were edited by G. E. HIemming, in Svenska Medeltidens Bibelarbeten (2 vole., Stockholm, 1848‑55).
An old Danish version based on the Vulgate, containing the first twelve books of the Old Testament, is contained in a manuscript of the Mariager monastery in Jutland, antedating 1480. The first eight books were edited by Prof. C. Molbech (Copenhagen, 1828). A translation of the Psalms of the same period is extant in different manuscripts. Some of them were edited by C. J. Brandt, in Gamle danske LrEsebog (Copenhagen, 1857).
In both Denmark and Sweden the entire Bible was first translated in the period of the Reformation. Norway was united with Denmark
from 1380 to 1814 and the Danish
2. since language, being cognate with the Nor‑
the Ref‑ wegian, became the common literary
ormation. language in the two countries. The
New Testament was first rendered into Danish by Hans Mikkelsen, formerly burgomaster of Ma1mS, who followed Christian II into exile in the Netherlands in 1523. This New Testament appeared at Leipaic in 1524. Being a mixture of Danish and German, the language was uncouth. A better translation was made by Christen Pedersen (d. 1554), the first editor of the history of Denmark by Saxo Grammaticus and of other older works. Pedersen's New Testament was printed at Antwerp 1529 and again in 1531, and in the latter year his translation of the Psalms appeared. Previous to this (1528) a translation of the Psalms made by Franc Wormordsen, a Dutchman by birth, was published at Rostock. All these followed the Vulgate closely, but were influenced by Luther and Erasmus. The Danish Reformer Hans TauseD (d. 1561, as bishop of Ribe [Ripen]) translated the Pentateuch from Luther's version (Magdeburg, 1535). Peder Tidemand translated Judges (Copenhagen, 1539), and Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus (Magdeburg, 1541). The first complete Bible in Danish was published at Copenhagen is 1550, following, according to the instructions of Christian III, as much as possible Luther's version. The greater part of the work was done by Christen Pedersen, assisted by a number of professors. A new edition followed, 1589, reprinted 1633. A translation from the original languages, prepared by Elms Paulsen Resen (d. 1638), appeared in 1607, and, revised by Bishop Hans Svane or Svaning (the so‑called 3vaning Bible), again in 1647 and was used till the middle of the nineteenth century. In 1819 Bishop F. C. K. H. Mfiinter (q.v.) with others undertook a revision of the New Testament, and the whole Bible, revised by C. Rothe, C. Hermaneen, and C. Kalkar under the presidency of Bishop H. L. Martensen (q.v.) was published in 1872. There arA translations made by other scholars, such as C. Bastholm (New Testament, 1780), O. H. Guldberg (New Testament, 1794), the whole Bible, by J. C. Lindberg (1837‑56) and C. Kalkar (1847), the four Gospels by K. F. Viborg (1863), and the New Testament by Bishop T. 8. Rordam (1886; 2d ed., 1894‑9b). A Roman Catholic version of the New Testament after the Vulgate was published by J. L. V. Hansen in 1893.
After the separation of Norway from Denmark in 1814, three revisions of the New Testament

Bible Versions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	lbfd
were made (1819, 1830, and 1873), the moat important being by Prof. Hersleb in 1830. A new translation of the Old Testament undertaken by Adjunct Thistedahl and Profs. Kaurin, Holmboe, Caspari, and Nissen was published in parts (18571869; revised ed. completed 1890), and of the New Testament by Bishops F. W. Bugge, A. C. Bang, and others was published in 1904.
The New Testament was rendered into the Norwegian vernacular, which much resembles the Old Norwegian, by Prof. E. Blix, I. Aasen, M. Skard, and J. Belsheim, and published in 1889 (new ed., 1899). A translation of parts of the Old Testament is in preparation and the Book of Psalms was printed in 1904, Genesis in 1905. A translation of the New Testament for the use of Roman Catholics has also been published. During the Reformation period Iceland also received the Bible in its old Norwegian‑Icelandic tongue. An Icelander, Odd Gottakalkson, of Norwegian descent, translated the New Testament, which was published at Roskilde, 1540. The whole Bible translated after Luther's version by Bishop Gudbrand Thorlakson appeared in 1584 (revised 1644). A new translation by Bishop Stein Jonaon was issued in 1728, but the rendering was not smooth, so the older version of Thorlakson was reprinted at Copenhagen in 1747, and the New Testament again in 1750 and 1807, followed in 1813 by a reprint of the whole Bible. In 1827 a new translation of the New Testament was published, followed by a revised edition of the whole Bible in 1841, and by a revised edition. Oxford, 1863.
When Gustavus Vasa became king of Sweden in 1523, wishing for a Swedish translation, he applied to Archbishop Johannes Magni of Upsala, requesting him with the help of the clergy to prepare a translation of the New Testament. The archbishop devised a plan which, however, was opposed by some of the ministers. Bishop Haas Brask of Linkbping said that "it were better for Paul to have been burned, than to be known by every one." The New Testament translated by the chancellor Lorenz Andre# (q.v.) with the assistance of Pastor Olaus Petri (q.v.) was published at Stockholm 1526. The whole Bible, translated by Lays Petri, archbishop of Upsala (d. 1573), was issued 1540‑41. This Bible, made after Luther's, was for a long time the church Bible of Sweden. A revised edition by the two bishops Gezeliue in Abo (father and son; see GEZELIUS, JOHANNES) was highly praised. Different commissions for translating the Bible were appointed; one, consisting of twenty‑three members, spent a long time in preparing a translation with a rationalistic tendency; but the "specimens" published from time to time found no favor. In 1844 the commission was reconstituted, with Prof. A. Knbs as one of its most active members. The New Testament prepared by the cathedral provosts C. A. Thoren and H. M. Melin and published in 1853‑77 was not favorably received. A better reception met the version of the New Testament Prepared by Archbishop Sundberg, Cathedral Provost Thoren, and Bishop Johanson , published is 1882. A new translation of the Old Testament is
in preparation. The Bible version of Cathedral Provost Melin was published in 1865‑89.
J. BELBHEIM.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Belaheim, Veiledninp i Bsbelena HiaWrie, pp. 252 aqq., Christiania, 1880; J. A. 8chinmeier, Gcachichte der erhwaliachen Bibel‑Ueberaetcunpere and Anapaben, Leipaic, 1777; P. W. Becker, De J. P. Reaenii veraione Daniea, Copenhagen, 1831; C. Molbeoh, Bidrag NZ en historic of de Danake Bsbeloveraaettelser, ib. 1840; Bible of Every Land, pp. 214‑225, London, 1881; C. W. Bruun, Bibliotheca Dnica, Copenhagen, 1872; J P. Hitggman, Forteekninp bfver averaaka upplagor of Bi6eln, Upsala, 1882; KL, ii, 767‑769; DB, extra vol., pp. 415‑418.

%VI. Slavonic Versions: The history of Bible versions in the Slavonic begins with the second half of the ninth century. The oldest translation,
commonly called the Church Slavonic, 1. The Old is closely connected with the activity
Slavonic Church
	Slavonic	of the two apostles to the Slave,
	Version.	Cyril and Methodius, in Moravia, 864
		SH5 (bee CYRIL AND METHODIUH). The
oldest manuscripts are written either in the
so‑called Cyrillic or the Glagolitic character. The
former is the Greek majuscule writing of the ninth century with the addition of new characters for Slavic sounds which are not found in the Greek of that time; the latter was a style of the Greek minuscule with the addition of new signs as in the Cyrillic alphabet. The oldest manuscripts are written in the Glagolitic, which is older than the Cyrillic. The oldest manuscripts
extant belong to the tenth or eleventh century, and the first complete collection of Biblical books in the Church Slavonic language originated in Russia in the last decade of the fifteenth century. It was made by Archbishop Gennadius of Novgorod, and the Old Testament was translated partly from the Vulgate, and partly from the Septuagint. The New Testament us based upon the old Church Slavonic translation. During the sixteenth century ,~a greater interest in the Bible was awakened in South and West Russia, owing to the controversies between adherents of the Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholics and Uniates. In the second half of the sixteenth century the Gospels, Acts, and Epistles, and parts of the Psalter were often printed at Lemberg and Wilna,
though the oldest edition of the Acts and Epistles was issued at Moscow in 1564. In 1581 the first edition of the Slavonic Bible was published at Ostrog, a number of Greek manuscripts, besides the Genna‑
dius Bible, having been used for this edition. But neither the Gennadius nor the Ostrog Bible was satisfactory, and in 1663 a second somewhat revised edition of the latter was published at Moscow. Tn 1712 the czar Peter the Great issued a ukase ordering the printed Slavonic text to be carefully compared with the Greek of the Septuagint and to be made in every respect conformable to it. The revision was completed in 1724 and was ordered to be printed, but the death of Peter (1725) prevented the execution of the order. The manuscript of the Old Testament of this revision is in the synodal library at Moscow. Under the empress Elisabeth the work of revision was resumed by a ukase issued in 1744, and in 1751 a revised "Elizabeth" Bible, as it is taped, w

183	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Versions
published. Three other editions were published in 1756, 1757, and 1759, the second somewhat revised. All later reprints of the Russian Church Bible are based upon this second edition, which is the authorized version of the Russian Church.
The Church Slavonic is not intelligible to the Russian people. An effort to produce a version in the vernacular was made by Frantsisk Skorina (d. after 1535), a native of Polotsk in White Russia. He published at Prague, 1517‑19, twenty‑two Old 2, Russian Testament books in the " Russian
	Versions.	language," in the preparation of which
		he was greatly influenced by the
Bohemian Bible of 1506 (see below, § 5). Other
efforts were made during the sixteenth and sev
enteenth centuries, but the Church Slavonic
predominated in all these efforts. Peter the
Great felt that the mass of the Russian people
needed a Bible in the vernacular and author
ized Pastor Gliick in 1703 to prepare such
an edition. Unhappily Gliick died in 1705 and
nothing is known of his work. It was left to
the nineteenth century in connection with the
establishment of the Russian Bible Society (founded
in 1812 at St. Petersburg, with the consent of Alex
ander I; see BIBLE SOCrETIEB, II, 5) to prepare a
Bible in the vernacular. The work was under
taken by Philaret (q.v.), rector of the Theological
Academy of St. Petersburg (afterward metro
politan of Moscow), and other members of the
faculty of the academy. The Gospels were
published in 1818 and in 1822 the entire
New Testament. In 1820 the translation of
the Old Testament was undertaken, and in
1822 Philaret's translation of the Psalms was
published. In 1825 the Pentateuch, Joshua,
Judges, and Ruth were issued. The year 1826
saw an end to the activity of the Bible Society
in the ban put upon all kinds of private associa
tions, even when non‑political. Not before 1858
was the work of translation resumed. In 1876 the
entire Bible was published in one volume. The Old
Testament books, though based upon the Hebrew,
follow the order of the Septuagint and the Church
Slavonic Bible. The Apocryphal books also form
a part of the Russian Bible. The British and
Foreign Bible Society also issued a Russian edition,
omitting, however, the Apocrypha.
The Bulgarians too were provided during the nineteenth century with translations of Biblical books into the vernacular. In 1828 the New Testament was published at Bucharest (2d ed., 1833), translated by the pastors Sapunov and Seraphim. For the British and Foreign Bible Society the archimandrite Theodosius, abbot of the Bistrica monastery, translated
H. Bulga. the New Testament, which was printed
rian sad at London in 1828. The entire edition
Servian
	Versions.	was sent to St. Petersburg and is said to
		have been destroyed there. A new
translation of the New Testament was published at
Smyrna in 1840 (3d ed., Bucharest, 1853, and often).
In 1867 the American Bible Society printed in New
York a translation of the New Testament and other
editions were issued at Constantinople in 1866 and
1872. The Old Testament " translated from the
original " was also published there in three parts (18624), but without the Apocrypha. An edition of the entire Bible " faithfully and accurately rendered from the original " was published by the same society at Constantinople in 1868 (3d ed., 1874). A translation of the New Testament into Servian was made by Vuk Stefanovi6 KarajiE, the founder of modern Servian literature, and published at Vienna in 1847. The Old Testament was translated by Vuk's pupil Dyuro Danichi6 and issued at Belgrade in 1868. The language in both is excellent. The Servian Bible of Atanasiie IvanoviE StoikoviE (published by the Russian Bible Society at St. Petersburg, 1824) is not written in the vernacular, but is a mixture of Church Slavonic and Servian.
The Bible versions for the Slovenes are most closely connected with the activity of the Reformer of Car‑
niola, Primes Truber (1507‑86; see 4. 810‑ TRUBER, PRIMUS), and his associates veniana.nd
Croatian and successors; they were intended for
versions. the Evangelical Slovenes. Truber trans‑
lated the Gospel of Matthew, which was printed at Reutlingen in 1555 ; in 1557 the first part of the New Testament was published at Tiibingen, the second part in 1560, and the complete New Testament was issued in 1582; the Psalms appeared in 1566. Dalmatin, who assisted Truber, translated the Old Testament, and an edition of the entire Scriptures in Slovenian was published under his direction at Wittenberg in 1584. Stevan Kuezmics published a New Testament for the Hungarian Slovenians in their dialect at Halls in 1771. An edition published at Guns (Koszeg) in 1848 has the Psalms added. In 1784 a part of the New Testament for the use of Roman Catholics was printed at Laibach, translated from the Vulgate by several hands. The second part of the New Testament was issued in 1786, and the Old Testament between 1791 and 1802. Efforts were also made to prepare a Bible version for the Evangelical Croats or for those who should be brought over to the Evangelical faith. A New Testament translated by Anton Dalmata and Stipan Consul was printed in Glagolitic characters (2 parts) at 1iibingen,1562‑63. In the seventeenth century ‑efforts were made to give a translation to the Catholic Croats and Servians in the so‑called Illyrian dialect, but nothing was printed till the nineteenth century. when a Bible in Latin letters together with the parallel text of the Vulgate, translated into "the Illyric language, Bosnian dialect" by Petrus Kataucsich, was published at Budapest (6 parts, 1831). It followed the Vulgate slavishly.
The Czech literature of the Middle Ages is very rich in translations of Biblical books, made from the Vulgate (cf. the list of manuscripts and prints in J. Jungmann, Historie Literatury G''esk6, Prague, 1849). During the fourteenth century all parts of the Bible seem to have been translated at different times and by different hands.
The oldest translations are those 8. Bohe‑ of the Psalter. The New Testa‑
Mien	went must also have existed at that
Versions.
time, for according to a statement of Wyclif, Anne, daughter of Charles IV, received in 1381 upon her marrying Richard II of England
lescament in 1599, 1 and under the supervision of the Franciscan Arias

Bible Versions	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	154
a Bohemian New Testament. It is certain that Huss had the Bible in Bohemian before him as a whole and he and his successors undertook a revision of the text according to the Vulgate. The work of Hues on the Bible antedated 1412. During the fifteenth century the revision was continued. The first complete Bible was published at Prague, 1488; other editions were issued at Kuttenberg, 1489, and Venice, 1506. These prints were the basis of other editions which were published from time to time.
With the United Brethren a new period began for the translation of the Bible. In 1518 the New Testament appeared at Jungbunzlau at the instance of Luke of Prague (q.v.). It was not satisfactory and the same must be said of the edition of 1533. Altogether different was the translation made by Jan Blahoslav from the original Greek (1564, 1568). The 'Brethren anon undertook the translation of the Old Testament from the original and appointed for this work a number of scholars, who based their translation upon the Hebrew text published in the Antwerp Polyglot. The work began in 1577 and was completed in 1593, and from the place of printing, Kralitz in Moravia, it is known as the Kralitz Bible (6 parts, 1579‑93, containing also Blahoalav'a New Testament). This excellent translation was issued in smaller size in 1596, and again in folio in 1613 (reprinted at Halle in 1722, 1745, 1766; Pressburg, 1787; Berlin, 1807).
After the year 1620 the publication of nonCatholic Bibles in Bohemia and Moravia ceased, and efforts were made to prepare Bibles for the Catholics. After some fruitless beginnings the work was entrusted to certain Jesuits, who took the Venice edition of 1506 as the basis, but relied greatly, especially for the Old Testament, on the Brethren's Bible. Between 1677 and 1715 the so‑called St. Wenceslaus Bible was published at the expense of a society founded in honor of the saint. A new edition appeared at Prague 1769‑71. A thoroughly revised edition, using the text of the Brethren's Bible, was published in 1778‑8U. Still more dependent on the Brethren's. Bible was Prochaska'a New Testament (Prague, 1786), and his edition of the whole Bible (1804). Editions of Prochaska's text, slightly amended, were issued in 1851 and 1857. The Bible edited by Beedi>ka (Prague, 1860) gives the text of the Brethren's Bible with slight changes. G. Palkovi6 translated the Bible from the Vulgate into Slovak (2 parts, Gran, 1829).
The oldest Sorbic Bible version, that of the New Testament of 1547, is extant in a manuscript in the Royal Library at Berlin. The translator was Miklawuach Jakubica, who employed a dialect (the Lower Sorbic) now extinct. In the eighteenth century Gottlieb Fabricius, a German,
or $orbio e. Wendish mere a translation of the New Testa‑
	Versions.	mgt which was printed in 1709. In a
		revised form this version was pub,
liahed by the British and Foreign Bible Society in
1860. The Old Testament, translated by J. G.
Fritz, was printed at Kottbua in 1796, An edi
tion of the entire Bible was published by the
Prussian Bible Society in 1868.
Michael Frentzel, Pastor in Postwitz (d. 1706),
translated the New Testament into the Wendish of Upper Lusatia (Upper Sorbic), and his version was published by his son, Abraham Frentzel (Zittau, 1706). A complete edition of the Bible, the work of different scholars, was first published at Bautzen, 1728. A second revised edition was prepared by Johann Gottfried Kahn and issued in 1742; a third improved edition prepared by Johann Jacob Petachke was published in 1797. Passing over other editions, it is worth while to note that the ninth edition of the complete Bible (Bautzen, 1881) was revised by H. Immiach and others and contains a history of the Upper Lusatian Wendish Bible translation. For the Roman Catholic Wends of Upper Lusatia G. Luacanaki and M. Hornik translated the New Testament from the Vulgate, and published it at Bautzen, 1887‑92; the Psalms were translated from the Hebrew by J. Laras (Bautaen, 1872).
The history of the Polish translation of the Bible begins with the Psalter (cf. W. Nehring, Altloolnische Sprachdenkmdler, Berlin, 1886). A manuscript of the second half of the fourteenth century, in the abbey of St. Florian, near Lira, in Latin,
Polish, and German is probably the 7. Polish oldest. A critical edition of the Po‑
versions. lish part was published by Nehring
(Pealterii Florianenaia pare Polonica,
Posen, 1883) with a very instructive introduction. Besides the Florian Psalter there is the Psalter of Pulawy (now in Cracow) belonging to the end of the fifteenth century (published in facsimile, Posen, 1880).
Polish Bibles originated after the middle of the fifteenth century. An incomplete Bible, the socalled Sophia Bible (named after Queen Sophia, for whom it was intended, according to a remark from the sixteenth century; also called the SArospatak Bible from the place where it is preserved), contains Genesis, Joshua, Ruth, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, II (III) Esdras, Tobit, and Judith (ed. A. DZalecki, Biblia KrolowEj Zo fii, Lemberg, 1871). With the Reformation period activity in the work of translation increased as the different confessions endeavored to supply their adherents with texts of the Bible. An effort to provide the
Lutherans with the Bible in Polish was made by Duke Albert of Prussia (q.v.) in a letter directed in his name to Melanchthon. Jan Sieklucki, preacher at Ktsnigsberg (d. 1578), was commissioned to prepare a translation, and he published, the New Testa‑
ment at KSnigsberg, 1551 and 1552. The Polish Reformed (Calvinists) received the Bible through Prince Nicholas Radziwill (1515‑65). A com‑
pany of Polish and foreign theologians and scholars undertook the task, and, after six years' labor at Pincow, not far from Cracow, finished the translation of the Bible which was published at the expense of Radziwill in Brest‑Litovsk, 1563 (hence called the Brest or Radsiwill Bible). The translators state that for the Old Testament they consulted besides the Hebrew teat the ancient versions and different modern Latin ones. The Brest Bible was not universally welcomed. The Reformed suspected it of Socinian interpretations; the Socinians complained that it

158	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Versions
was not accurate enough. The Socinian Simon Budny especially charged against the Brest Bible that it was not prepared according to the original texts, but after the Vulgate and other modern versions, and that the translators cared more for elegant Polish than for a faithful rendering. He undertook a new rendering, and his translation (" made anew from the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin into the Polish ") was printed in 1572 at Ne4viih. As changes were introduced in the printing which were not approved by Budny, he disclaimed the New Testament and published another edition (1574). The charges which he made against the Brest Bible were also made against his own, and the Socinian Adam Czechowicz published a new and improved edition of the New Testament (Rakow, 1577). The interesting preface states that Czechowicz endeavored to make an accurate translation, but did not suppress his Socinian ideas; e.g., be used " immersion " instead of " baptism." Another Socinian New Testament was published by Valentinus Smalcius (Rakow, 1606).
The Brest Bible was superseded by the so‑called Danzig Bible, which finally became the Bible of all Evangelical Poles. At the synod in Olarowiec, 1600, a new edition of the Bible was proposed and the work was given to the Reformed minister Martin Janicki, who had already translated the Bible from the original texts. In 1603 the printing of this translation wag decided upon, after the work had been carefully revised. The work of revision was entrusted to men of the Reformed and Lutheran confessions and members of the Moravian Church (1604), especially to Daniel Mikolajewski (d.1633), superintendent of the Reformed churches in Great Poland, and Jan Turnowski, senior of the Moravian Church in Great Poland (d. 1629). After it had been compared with the Janicki translation, the Brest, the Bohemian, Pa,gnini's, and the Vulgate, the new rendering was ordered printed. The Janicki translation as such has not been printed, and it, is difficult to state how much of it is contained in the new Bible. The New Testament was first published at Danzig, 1606, and very often during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The complete Bible was issued in 1632, and often since. The Danzig Bible differs so much from that of Brest that it may be regarded se a new translation. It is erroneously called also the Bible of Paliurus (a Moravian, senior of the Evangelical Churches in Great Poland, d. 1632); but he had no part in the work.
For the Roman Catholics the Bible was translated from the Vulgate by John of Lemberg (Leopolita, hence thin was called the Leopolitan Bible) and published at Cracow, 1561, 1574, and 1577. This Bible was superseded by the new translation of Jakub Wujek (a Jesuit, b, about 1540; d. at Cracow 1593). Wujek criticized the Catholic sad non‑Catholic Bible versions and spoke very favorably of the Polish of the Brest Bible, but asserted that it was full of heresies and of errors in translation. With the approbation of the Holy See the New Testament was first published at Cracow, 1593, and the Old Testament in 1599,
after Wujek's death. This Bible has often been
reprinted. Wujek's translation	follows, in the
main, the Vulgate. 	(A. Lnssi»L)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For the beginnings of Slavic versions consult: Vita sandi Methodii, ruaso‑elovaniu at latine, ed. F. Mikloeioh, Vienna, 1870; C. DUmmler, Die pannoniache Lepende vom heilipen Method, in Archiv far Kunda daterr. Gsachiehtsquellen, vol. xiii; idem and F. Mikloeieh, Die Legends vom heaven Cprillua, in DerJcechri/ten der Wiener Akademie, phi1.‑kiator. Claaae, xix (1870); Jagi6,ZurEntateAungageechichte der Ksrchenalav‑Sprache, Vienna, 1900. On the history of versions consult: 8. W. Ringeltaube, Nachricht von polniachen Bibeln, Danzig, 1744; R. G. Ungar, Allpemeine btihmiachs Biblio0aek, part 1, Theokgie, Prague, 1788 (s bibliography of Bohemian versions); J. Dobroweky, Ueber den eraten Text der bdhmiachen Bibelx'tberaebunp, Prague, 1798; idem, Glaqolitica, ib. 1807; C. F. Sehnurrer, Slaviacher B7ichernachdruck in Wfirtemberg im IB. Jahrhundert, Tilbingen, 1799; G. J. Dlabacr„ Nachricht 'von einem biaher nocb unlxkannten b6Amiachen A. T., Prague, 1804; Bible of Every Land, pp. 291‑310, London, 1881; I. Kostrendia Geaehichte der proteatantiachen Litteratur der Sildalaven, 166L‑86, Vienna, 1874; W. R. Morfill, Slavonic Literature, London, 1883; Archiro' ffir Slaviache Phiio7opie, by V. Jagi6, especially supplement vol. by F. Paetirnek, Berlin, 1892 (contains bibliographical lists of works on Slavonic subjects for the years 1878‑91, including whatever has appeared during that time on the Russian Bible); V. Vondr&k, Die Spuren der adtkirchenalaviacAen Evangelienilberaetsunp, Vienna, 1893; F. Alm, Bibliopraphiachs Ssltarauiten der TruberZittsratur, Leipsic, 1894; L. J. M. Bebb, The Russian Bible, is Church Quarterly Review, Oct., 1895, pp. 203‑225; T. Else, Die aloveniachen protestantiaeken Druckschriftsn do* xvi. Jahrhunderta, Venice, 1898; Scrivener, Introduction, ii, 157 eqq.; BD, extra vol., pp. 417‑420.

%VII. Spanish Versions: It is very difficult to decide at what time the first Spanish version was made. In treating of Spanish Bibles, a distinction should be made between the Catalonian and the Castilian speech. Of Biblical manuscripts in the former there are many from the fifteenth century, one (of the New Testament) from the fourteenth. Report has it that the Dominican Romeu Sabruguera of Mallorca (d. 1313), who translated the Psalms, worked on a translation of the entire Bible; but the report can not be verified. Moat of the Catalonian translations of parts of the Bible (Proverbs, the Prophets, Pauline and Catholic Epistles) depend on the Vulgate and early French versions; a translation of the Psalms depends wholly on the French; the Gospels in the oldest manuscripts are not based on the Vulgate but on a text in southern French. Of an alleged translation supposed to have been printed in Valencia, 1478, no bibliographical datum or exemplar is known, only a few fragments being so attributed.
Of the Castilian translations almost as little is known, since no efficient examination of Spanish manuscripts has yet been made. If tradition may be accepted, the oldest version belongs to the thirteenth century, having been made at the request of Alphonao of Castile and John of Len; but there is no confirmation of this statement. It is a remarkable fact that the early Castilian versions of the Old Testament were made by Jews, and the basis was, naturally, the Hebrew text. Luis de Guzman, grand master of the Order of Calatrava, entrusted in 1422 to the learned rabbi Moses Arragel of Maqueda the work of translating and annotating the Scriptures, but with the help and under the supervision of the Franciscan Arias

81b1e Versions
Bibles, Annotated
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
cf Enzinas (Enciena) and others of the clergy. It accords with this that most of the manuscripts follow tile order of the Hebrew canon.
	Of printed texts the first in chronological order
is the New Testament by Francis of Enzina.s
(Antwerp, 1543); next a Bible printed in two
editions (Ferraia, 1553), one for Jews, the other
for Christians (reprinted Amsterdam, 1611, 1630;
revised ed., 1661). In 1556 Juan Perez published
(ostensibly at Venice, really at Geneva) an edition
of the New Testament, which follows the original
Greek. In 1569 a Bible was published, probably
at Basel, in the translation of Cassiodoro de Reins.
Another edition with alight changes was published
by Ricardo dal Campo, 1596, and an entirely re
vised edition by Cipriano de Valero was published
at Amsterdam, 1602. The oldest Jewish‑Span
ish printed translation of the Pentateuch is that
of Constants, 1547. The Old Testament in He
brew and Spanish was published by Solomon
Proops at Amsterdam in 1762. It was not until
the end of the eighteenth century that a Roman
Catholic scholar undertook to give his Spanish
countrymen a new translation, with the Latin
text and a commentary. The author of this work
(10 vole., Valencia, 1790‑93; 20 vole., Madrid,
1794‑97) was Felipe Scio de San Miguel, bishop
of Segovia. It was often reprinted. A more re
cent translation, having respect to the original
texts, was published by Felix Torres Amat, bishop
of Aatorga (9 vole., Madrid, 1824‑29; 6 vole.,
1832‑35; reprinted, 1? vole., Paris, 1835). A
corrected edition of Amt's version was pub
lished under the care of Sefior Calderon, by the
Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge
in 1853. In 1893 the American Bible Society
published a thoroughly revised edition of Valero's
Bible, which may be regarded as practically a
new version. The work was done by H. B. Pratt.
A New Testament in the Catalan, translated by
J. M. Pratt, was issued by the British and For
eign Bible Society. 	(S. BaRaESt.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: $. Berger, Nouvalles recherche$ our lee Mbdee
	catalanea, in Romania tea, 1890; idem, Lea Bibles
caatillanee, ib. xcviii 1899 (oontaine bibliography and hat of M$$.); J. M. ~de Egur6n, Efemoria do loo codices notables, Madrid, 1859; J. Rodriguez de Castro; Bibli‑
ofeca eapafiola, vol. i, ib. 1781; J. L. Villanueva, De la leccion de la 3. Escrttura en lsnpuaa vulgarsa. Valenzia,
1791; Bible of Every Land, pp. 281_287. London, 1861; The Governor of Madrid's Bible, ib. 1871; J. E. B. Mayor, Spain; Portugal, and the Bible, ib. 1896; G. Borrow, The Bible to Spain, latest ed., ib. 1908; AL, ii, 743‑744; DB. extra vol., pp. 408‑410.
XVIII. Bible Versions in the Mission Field: Eusebiua (TheoPhania, iii, 28) says that the writings of the Apostles were translated in the whole world, in all languages of Greeks and barbarians; and Chrysoatom and Theodoret repeat the remark with still greater emphasis. Nevertheless from this early time till the rise of Pietism and the founding of missionary and Bible societies little was done by the official Church or Churches for the translation and circulation of the Bible. The first Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society has an account of what was then the most famous collection of Bibles (at Stuttgart) and estimates the number of languages represented there at forty‑one. The Bibles presented to the Society in its first year were in forty‑six languages, from Arabic and Armenian to Turkish and Welsh. The catalogue of Bibles of the British Museum includes ninety‑seven languages. The hundredth Report of the British and Foreign Bible Society, in the " Historical Table of Languages and Dialects in which the Translation, Printing, or Distribution of the Scriptures has been at any time promoted by the Society" (pp. 434 sqq.), gives 378 languages; versions in twenty‑four languages prepared by other societies have been removed from the list. [The total number of languages into which the Bible, or parts of it, has now been 'ranslated is about 500.] The beat conspectus is afforded by T. H. Darlow and H. F. Moule, Historical Catalogue of the Printed Editions of Holy Scripture in the Library of the British and Foreign Bible Society (2 vole., London, 1903‑08).
E. NESTLE.
Bxeraoonerar: The Bible of Every Land, London, 1881; R. N. Cuat, Language as Illustrated by Bible Translations, ib. 188C; idem Essays on the Languages of the Bible and Bible Translations, ib. 1890; idem, Three Lute of Bible Translations accomplished . . . to Aug. 1, 1890, ib. 1890; J. $. Dennis, Centennial Survey of Foreign Missions New York. 1901; E. Wallroth in Allpemeine Miasionzeitaehrift, aviii, 1901• T. Nicol, The Bible and the Church and the Mission Field, in London Quarterly Review, Jan., 1904. The Raporte of the various Bible Societies furnish the sources.
BIBLES, ANNOTATED, AND BIBLE SUMMARIES.
II. English.
Matthew's and the Geneva Bibs (¢ v.
The Bishops' Bible (¢ 2).
The Authorized Version (¢ 3).
John Canna's Notes, 1847 (¢ 4).
Other Works to 1701 (§ 6).
Matthew Henry. Other Works to 1750 (§ 8).
[Under this title certain works are mentioned which give the text of the Bible with annotations aiming to promote its proper use and understanding. They are of the nature of commentaries, and a distinction is not to be sharply drawn. The Annotated Bible, however, will always include the text, to which the helps are strictly subordinate; the commentary is published for the sake
I. German.
The Ernestine and TObingen Bibles <§ 1).
Wtirttemberg Bibles (¢ 2).
The Marburg, Berleburg, and Eberadorf Bibles (¢ 3).
The Wertheim Bible (¢ 4).
Later Works (¢ 5).
Various Works after 1750 (¢ 7).
Thomas Scott and Others to 1810 (¢ 8). Adam Clarks, D'Oyly and Msnt, and Bellamy, 1810‑34 (¢ 9).
Other Works 1818‑38 (§ 10).
Republication in America (¢ 11).
Original American Works (¢ 12).
Later Works, English and American (¢ 13).
Of the comments 'and frequently dote not include the text.]
L German: When the Reformation made the Bible the common property of the people, ft was not only the source of their faith and piety, but the only literature, the whole intellectual world, of the uneducted losses. The more Luther's Bible was cherished as the compendium

157	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bible Versions
		Bibles, Aanotsted
of religious and ethical truth and became the daily
reading of the people, the more it needed explana
tory notes. As early as 1531‑33 Luther published
his " Summaries of the Psalms," which were incor
porated by Bugenhagen in his North Saxon Bible
(Lilbeck, 1534). In the High German Bible,
" summaries and brief contents of all the chapters "
ass found first appended to the Augsburg edition
of	1535. Real annotations appeared as parts of
the book only after Luther's death, first as mar
ginal totes or in smaller type under the text (the
Wittenberg editions of Lufft, 1551, and Krafft,
1572, the latter containing the arguments and notes
of Veit Dietrich, the Nuremberg preacher).
	It would be a mistake to imagine that the Refor
mation early brought the Bible into every house.
There were no small cheap editions, and the Thirty
Years' War made the earlier ones still scarcer.
Duke Ernest the Pious of Saxe‑Weimar (d. 1675;
see EpxESm I. THE Pious) brought about the publi
cation of the famous Ernestine Bible, on which,
after plans laid out by him, nearly thirty prominent
theologians worked. Every community was to
				possess a. copy; if they were poor, the
		1. The	duke provided it wholly or in part.
	Ernestiae The actual work of preparation began
			and	in 1630 and was completed in 1640.
	Tubingen It contained, besides pictures and
				maps, and & running commentary,
tables of weights, coins, etc., the topography of
Jerusalem, and the creeds and Augsburg Confession.
It was originally sold at six thalers, but the price
	gradually rose with later improvements and addi
tional illustrations, until its general circulation was
impeded. The Tiibingen Bible (1730) is an adap
tation of this, less firm in its dogmatic stand, by
Christoph Matthaus Pfaff (q.v.), professor at
Tubingen, and his brother‑in‑law, Johann Christian
Klemm.
	The same spirit that actuated Duke Ernest
induced Eberhard III of Wiirttemberg to publish
				the " Wiirttemberg Summaries " in
2. Wurt‑ 1669, the first attempt to give a clear,
temberg
	Bibles.	Preties, and connected paraphrase
		of the whole Scriptures. A revised and
enlarged edition appeared at Leipsic in 1709, followed
by others. The complete revision published in 1787 by
Magnus Friedrich Roos, Karl Heinrich Rieger, and
others of the school of Bengelwas less clear, objective,
and orthodox. Another Wiirttemberg edition which
deserves mention is the New Testament published
in 1701 by the court preacher Johann Reinhard
Hedinger (q.v.); it was marked by Pietistic devia
tions from traditional theology, and attracted
attention by its sharp rebukes of the sins of the peo
ple at large and especially of the clergy.
The new spirit of mystical Pietism which influenced the last‑named work was fully revealed in the Marburg Bible (1712), as might be inferred from the main title, " Mystical and Prophetic Bible." The interpretation of type and prophecy in this follows the federal theology of Cocceius, that of Canticles and Revelation Madame Guyon. It was the forerunner of a larger work in the same spirit, the Berleburg Bible of 1726‑43 (8 vole. folio), projected and prepared chiefly by Johann Heinrich
Hang (q.v.). The teat is a revision of Luther's, with comparison of the English and French versions; the commentary reflects the views of the Ph~7ar delphian communities, and quotes
Msrburg, the mystical books current among
Berleburg, them, especially Madame Guyon's, but and its teaching goes back beyond Dippel
Ebersdorf and Petersen to Jakob Bbhme, or even
Bibles. to Origen in some points. It lacks unity of belief and of.treatment; it is the work not of a single mystic, giving voice to his inner convictions, but of a propagandist sect with practical tendencies. It is not without value, however, from different points of view; it edifies by its continual application of Scriptural words to the spiritual life, and it prepares the way for historical criticism by an appendix containing apocrypha (Old and New Testament), pseudepigrapha, and postapostolic writings. In the same year (1726) appeared the Ebersdorf Bible, in the preparation of which Zinzendorf shared. Its commentaries are altogether in his spirit, and it was received with favor only by the friends of the Herrnhut immunity.
When the emotional mysticism of the Pietiets gave way to the prosaic, commonplace conceptions of the age of Enlightenment (q.v.), attempts were made to replace the older commentaries by works conceived is the new spirit. The Wertheim Bible (1735) aroused great excitement in its day, both in Church and State, though its interest now is purely historical. This was only the first part of a projected whole, and contained merely the Pentateuch. The gist of the long, involved preface is that 4. The the traditional ideas about the ScripWert‑ tares rested on prejudice and unheim
	Bible.	scientific conceptions, and that the
		attempt was now made to found an
exposition of their real meaning on adequate
grounds of reason and historical evidence. It
proposes to give a free translation, adapted to
modern comprehension, though faithful in substance,
and supplemented by the necessary explanations.
The translation is hopelessly bald and common
place to our taste; the editor showed some orig
inality, however, as for example in venturing to
discard the traditional division of chapters and
verses. The general philosophical principles, as
well as the critical and historical, are those of Wolf;
in spite of many blunders, a fair knowledge cf
Hebrew is displayed. The editor's name is not
given, but it was soon known. He was Johann
Lorenz Schmidt, a graduate of Jena, personally
much respected, who was then tutor to the young
Count von Lowenstein at Wertheim in Franconia.
He was arrested at the beginning of 1737 and the
book was confiscated by the imperial authorities.
After a year's close imprisonment, he was allowed
more liberty, and escaped to Holland. The literary
war which raged around the Wertheim Bible was
fierce and not uninteresting. In 1738 Schmidt
published a collection of reviews and polemical
pamphlets, with his own replies. His work found
imitators; another of a similar nature, with mod
ern deistic explanations, appeared in 1756, but hod
little success; and the excitement over the frankly
rationalistic commentary of Nieolaus Funk (Altona,

Bibles Annotated, and
[Bible summaries
1815) was not wide‑spread (cf. J. N. Sinnhold, Ausfuhrliehe Historic der Wertheim Bibel, Erfurt, 1739).
The eighteenth century was not destitute of attempts to carry on the old tradition in a spirit of orthodox edification. The first was that of Chriatoph Starke (New Testament, 3 vole., 1733 sqq.; Old Testament, 6 vole., 1741 sqq.), which gave Luther's text with extended comments from
	6. Later	older expositors and ascetic writers,
	Works.	introductions to each book, and a
		summary of each chapter. Next
came the Hirschberg Bible (1756‑63), an excellent
work which fell flat at the time and was res
cued from oblivion only by a reprint in 1844
under the patronage of Frederick William IV.
The age was not favorable to the spread of Biblical
study, and but a few readers were found for the
commentary translated from English expositors by
R. Teller, J. A. Dietehnayer, and Brucker (19 vole.,
1749‑70), or for the edition of Michaelis (1769‑92).
But the revival of religious devotion ultimately made itself felt in this field. Friedrich von Meyer's revised translation with short, pointed comments and uncritical introductions appeared in 1819. More widely read were Richter's (1834‑40) and Lisco's (18333). A more learned and thorough work was that of Otto von Gerlach in 6 vole., which is still popular in North Germany, as is the Ccalwer Handbuch der Bibelerkliirnng (1849) in the South. Other more recent editions which may be mentioned here are those of Bunsen (9 vole., 1858‑?0), Christian Miiller (Collegium Biblicum, 8 vole., 1879‑84), Johann Peter Lange (36 vole., 1856‑77), I£. A. Dachsel (illustrated, 7 vole., 1865‑80), and R. J. Grau (2 vole., 1877‑80). [J. F. Allioli'a annotated Bible (6 vole., Nuremberg, 1830‑34) has been very popular among Roman Catholics.]
(H. HbrSCHEA.)
B. English: As a rule, Bible societies publish the Scriptures " without note or comment "‑a wise plan, for it secures the widest circulation of the Word of God. In early times, however, when a person bought a Bible, he found between the covers not only the Old and the New Testaments, but a commentary in the notes attached, a concordance at the end, and a small dictionary in the introduction and tables. These special editions had their day, and fell into disuse, for very evident reasons. The numerous comments made the volume too bulky for convenience and general use; the notes were likely to be one‑sided and subjective, so that a man's theology might be judged by his Bible, from its being supplied with comments by Doddridge, or those of D'Oyly and Mant; however acceptable the annotations might be for a time, eventually they were superseded by later scholarship. Moreover, in the last half‑century commentaries, Bible dictionaries, and concordance have grown into great volumes, and constitute a distinct class of literature. They have found their true places apart from the inspired words of the Bible.
Annotated Bibles date back to the time of the Reformation. Matthew's Bible (1537) had annotations and John Rogers, who was the real translator of this Bible, showed by his notes, especially
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
on the subjects of faith, holy life, and repentance, that he was in full touch with the most advanced Protestantism. The Geneva Bible (1560) attained its great popularity and fame by its prologues and marginal notes. These annotations are so numerous end miscellaneous that it is not easy to give
in a brief statement a fair repreaen1. Mat‑ tation of their general tenor. Many thaw's are strongly antipapal, and for that sad the
Geneva reason theY were
especially acceptBible. able to overzealous Reformers. As might be expected, the Geneva notes are also Calvinistic. When the Geneva Bible was first published, Calvin was the ruling spirit in Geneva. All the features of his theological, ecclesiastical, political, and social system are accordingly reflected in the marginal annotations of the English Bible that issued from the city of his residence. The political doctrine of the book was as much disliked by kings of the absolute order, as were the ecclesiastical notes by infallible popes, and one of the reasons that led King James, in 1604, to agree readily to a new translation of the Scriptures, was his dislike of the politics preached on the margins of the Geneva Bible.
The marginal notes in the Bishops' Bible (1568) are not very numerous, and they are generally not interesting. They were designed mostly for readers of weak capacity. A few,
2. The which are valuable and entertain‑
Biahopa'
	Bible.	m8, are taken verbatim, without ac
		knowledgment, from the Geneva
Bible. Some of them, too, remind of Geneva
caps and predestination in a way that would
scarcely be expected in a Bible issued by a body
of prelates. The distribution of notes in the
Bishops' Bible is very irregular and unequal. In
some books hard t6 understand, such as the prophe
cies of Isaiah and Jeremiah, the notes are very
sparse, so that five or six consecutive pages may
be found here and there without a single anno
tation; while in other books, such as Genesis,
Exodus, Job, and the Epistles of St. Paul, the notes
are very frequent.
	In the original edition of the Authorized Version
(1611), the number of marginal references to cor
responding passages, including those in the Apoc
rypha, was about 9,000. Large as this number
seems, it is but a small fraction of what the ref
erences now amount to in some well‑edited Bibles.
These references, doubtless, have their value, but
it can not be denied that many of them obscure
the meaning of the statements to which they are
attached. It is different, however, with what are
called the marginal notes. In the original edition
		(1611) these notes were nearly as
8. The numerous as the marginal references.

Author‑ In the Old Testament there were ized
	Version.	6,588 references and 6,637 notes; in
		the New Testament 1,517 references
and 765 notes; in the Apocrypha 885 refer
ences and 1,017 notes. These notes are brief and
non‑polemical, differing in these respects very
markedly from the annotations in both Matthew's.
and the Geneva Bible. They indicate, for the moat
part, alternative or more literal renderings. In some

189	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bibles, Annotated, and
		[Bible tiummaries
cases they specify variant readings in the original
text, and, in other cases, they give brief explanations
of words or expressions. Not a few of the alterna
tive renderings they present have been adopted,
either verbatim or substantially, in the revised
version of 1881‑85. The headings of chapters
in the translation of 1611 were new. In the
Bishops' Bible, the Geneva Bible, and the Great
Bible, all the chapters were headed with a short
table of contents; but the Ding Jam, translators
prepared tables of their own. And these tables,
drawn up in 1611, appear in many editions at the
present day unaltered, save in some twelve in
stances.
	Other Bibles with notes from the pen of an
notators appeared and in course of time became
very popular. These annotators did not write
so much for the learned as for the common people,
and their Bibles became household and family
			books, laying stress more or less on
	4. John the devotional side. John Carne a
	Carne's Baptist minister (d. 16677), was the
	Notes,
	1847.	author of three seta of notes which
			accompanied three editions of the
Bible. His great ambition was " to make the
Bible its own interpreter." His first authenticated
version appeared in 1647 at Amsterdam, under the
title, The Bible, with Marginal Notes, Sheeting
Scripture to be the Beat Interpreter of Scrip
ture. The work was often reprinted (9 editions,
between 1662 and 1754). Orme, in his Bibliotheca
Biblica (Edinburgh, I824), nays of it, " The mar
ginal references of Canna are generally very judi
cious and apposite. They still retain a considerable
reputation, though moat of the latter editions
which pass under the name of Carne's Bible are
full of errors, and crowded with references which
do not belong to the original author."
	In 1657 there was published Annotations upon
All the Books of the Old and New Testament. .
Wherein the tent is explained, doubts resolved, Scrip
tures paralleled, and various readings observed by
the labor o f certain learned divines thereunto appointed
and therein employed, as is expressed in the preface,
2	vole., London, 1657. This work is usually
called the " Assembly's Annotations," from the
			circumstance of its having been
	6. Other composed by members of the Weat
	Works	minster Assembly.‑Another popular
		to
		1701.	work of the same character was
			Annotations Moon the Holy Bible
wherein the sacred text is inserted, and various read
ings annexed ; together with the parallel Scriptures.
The more difficult terms explained; seeming con
tradictions reconciled ; doubts resolved, and the
whole text opened. By the Rev. Matthew Poole,
London, 1863, 2 vole., fo. The work was published
in many editions. Poole, an eminent noncon
formist divine (1624‑79), did not finish it; but
it was completed after his death.‑Not less popular
was a work entitled, The Old and New Testament,
with Annotations and parallel Scriptures. By
Samuel Clarks, A.M., London, 1690. Bishop
Lloyd's Bible (London, 1701) was the first to in
corporate Archbishop Ueeher's chronology.
	In 1708 appeared the first volume of Matthew
	Henry's well‑known Exposition of the Old and New
	Testament ; four other volumes (to the end of the
	Gospels) were published in 1710, and a sixth volume
	(the Book of Acts) from Henry's manuscript after
	his death (1714); the work was completed by vari
	ous non‑conformist clergymen (see HENRY, MAT
	THEW). It long enjoyed a high and
	e. Matthew deserved reputation, and is distin
Henry,	shed, not for depth of learning or
Other ~ 	g
	Work,	oiginality of views, but for sound
	to 1780.	practical piety, and the large measure
		of good sense which it discovers.‑Dr.
Edward Wells edited between the years 1709
and 1728, An Help for the more Easy and Clear
Understanding of the Holy Scriptures, after the fol
lowing method : 1. The common English translation
rendered more agreeable to the original. 2. A para
phrase wherein the tent is explained, and divided
into proper sections, and lesser divisions. 3. An
notations. 4. Preface, 8 vole.‑Patrick, Lowth,
Whitby, and Arnold's Commentary on the Bible, a
work of a similar character, appeared in London,
1727‑60, 7 vols., and was reprinted as late as 1821.
According to Orme, Patrick was " the moat sen
sible and useful commentator on the Old Testa
ment. He had a competent measure of learning
for the undertaking, of which he never makes any
ostentatious display. The elder Lowth completed
the work on the Old Testament, and Whitby com
mentated on the New Testament. Neither Patrick
nor Lowth has so much Arminianiam as Whitby,
though they all belong to the same theological school.
Whitby was superior to both in acuteness and
research, but if the reader do not find in them the
same talent, he will be exposed to leas injury from
specious and sophistical reasonings against some
important doctrines of Christianity."‑John Gill
published An Exposition of the Old and New Testa
ments, in which the sense of the sacred text is given ;
doctrinal and practical truths are set in a plain and
easy light; diffiCult passages explained; seeming
contradictions reconciled ; and whatever is material
in the various readings, and the several Oriental
versions, is observed. The whole illustrated by
notes from the most ancient Jewish writings. By
John Gill, D.D., 9 vole, fo., London, 1748‑63;
9 vole. 4to, London, 1809. Gill gives a summary
of each chapter. Orme says of him, " Had Dr.
Gill fulfilled the promise of his title page, no other
commentary on the Bible could have been required.
But he moves through his exposition like a man in
lead, and overwhelms the inspired writers with
dull lucubrationa and rabbinical lumber. He is
an ultra‑Calvinist in his doctrinal sentiments;
and often apiritualizea the text to absurdity. Ii
the reader be inclined for a trial of his strength
and patience, he may procure the burden of Dr..
Gill. He was, after all, a man of undoubted
learning, and of prodigious labour."‑A very popular
work was an English translation of Jean Frdd6ric
Oaterwald's Argumens et re/lexions sur l'dcriture
saints (NeuchAtel, 1709‑15 and often; see O8TER
WALr, JEAN FR$rICRIC), which appeared under
the title, The Arguments of the Books and Chap
ters of the Old and New Testaments, with practical
observations. Translated by John Chamberlayne,

Bibles, Amnotated, and
	180
Esq., London, 1749, 3 vole.; fifth edition, enlarged, 2 vole., London, 1779.
Chamberlayne's work was followed by A New and Literal Translation of all the Books of the Old and New Testaments, with Notes critical and explanatory. By Anthony Purver (2 vole., London, 1764). Purver was a Quaker and originally a shoemaker. He taught himself Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, in order that he might understand the Bible. His work is often ungrammatical, and unintelligible; the notes are very similar to the tea and, what is worse, full of pride and ill‑nature.
Notwithstanding these defects, Purver 7. Various sometimes gives a better rendering
=s than occurs in the Authorized Version. 1750. ‑One year later appeared The Evan‑
	gelical Expositor; or a Commentary
on the Holy Bible, wherein the Sacred Text is inserted
at large, the sense explained, and different passages
elucidated, with practical observations, etc. By
T. Haweia, LL.B., M.D., London, 1765, 2 vole.;
Glasgow, 3 vole. 4to,and various editions. Haweia
(d. 1820) was rector of Aldwinkle, Northampton
shire; his work had little value.‑Next to be
mentioned is The Complete Family Bible: or a
Spiritual Exposition a f the Old and New Testament ;
wherein each chapter is summed up in its context,
and the sawed text inserted at large, with Notes,
spiritual, practical, and explanatory. By the Rev.
Mr. Cruden, London, 1770, 2 vole.‑In the same
year appeared a similar work under the title,
A Commentary on the Books of Old and New Testa
ments, in which, are inserted the Notes and Collections
of John Locks, Esq., Daniel Waterland, D.D., and
the Right Hon. Edward, Earl of Clarendon, and
other learned persons, with practical improvements.
By W. Dodd, LL.D., London, 1770, 3 vole. This
is mostly a compilation, the chief value of which
consists in notes furnished from the original papers
of John Locks, Dr. Waterland, Lord Clarendon ,
Gilbert West, and some others. Great use is also
made of some of the printed and long‑established
commentaries on Scripture, such as Cahnet, Houbi
gant, and Doddridbe. Adam Clarks said, rather
hyperbolically, that it was on the whole by far
the beat comment that had yet appeared in the
English language.‑The next work to be men
tioned is The Self‑Interpreting Bible, containing
the Old and the Yew Testaments, to which are annexed
an . . . introduction, marginal references and illus
trations . . . explanatory notes . . . etc., etc. By
the late Rev. John Brown, Minister o f the Gospel at
Haddington, London, 1?78, 2 vole. It was
repeatedly reprinted, and proved almost as popular
south as north of the Tweed.‑Henry Southwell
published a Bible, Authorized Version; with notes
etc.; wherein the mis‑translations are corrected,
London, 1782.‑Another work of a similar character
is The Holy Bible, containing the Books of the Old
and New Testaments, carefully printed from the fatal
edition (compared with others) of the present trans
lation; with notes by Thomas Wilson, D.D., Bishop
o f Sodor and Man, and various renderings, collected
from other translations, by the Rev. Clement Cruttaell,
editor, London, 1785, 8 vole. Bishop Wilson's
notes are merely brief hints either for the expla‑
nation or the practical improvement of particular
Dr. Thomas Paris, in the Cambridge passages. 1762, and Dr. B. Blayney, in the Oxford Bible of 1769, added considerably to the number of marginal notes and references.
But far more popular than any of the works already mentioned was the Bible with commentary edited by Rev. Thomas Scott (q.v.). It had the largest circulation and sustained it through many years. It appeared under the title, The Holy Bile, containing the Old and New Testaments; with original notes, praaieol observations, and copious marginal references. By Thomas Scott, Rector of Aston Sandford (London, 1788, and
S. Thomas often). As a commentary Dr. Scott's gnat work was superior to any that had Others appeared before its time. Home,
	to 1810.	usually a discriminating judge, speaks
		of it in high praise (cf. his Manual
of Biblical Bibliography, London, 1839, p. 259).
In 1799 appeared A Revised Translation and Inter
pretation of the Sacred Scriptures, after the Eastern
manner, from concurrent authorities of critics, inter
preters, and commentators' espies and versions ;
chewing that the inspired writings contain the seeds
of the valuable sciences, being the source whence
the ancient philosophers derived them, also the most
ancient histories and greatest antiquities, and are
the most entertaining as well as intruding to both
the curious and serious (by David Macrae, or
J. M. Ray, J. McRay, or D. McRae; Glas
gow, 1799; 2d ed., 1815; 4to, also in 3 vole. 8vo.).
The author introduced many approved renderings,
but marred the simplicity and dignity of the
Authorized Version.‑Another noteworthy anno
tated Bible is. that of John Reeves, which appeared
in ten volumes in London, 1802. The explana
tory notes are based on Wells's Paraphrase, and the
commentaries of Patrick, Lowth, Whitby, and
others. A 'similar work was the so‑called " Re
formers' Bible," The Holy Bible, containing the
Old and New Testaments, according to the Authorized
Version, with abort Notes by several learned and
pious Reformers, as printed by Royal Authority
at the time of the Reformation, with additional Notes
and Dissertations, London, 1810. The notes in
the Old Testament in this edition are taken from
the Geneva Bible, the annotations of the New
Testament from the Latin of Theodore Beza.
Also in 1810 there began to be published The Holy Bible, containing the Old oral New Testaments
the Text carefully printed from the most correct copies of the present authorized translation, including the marginal readings and parallel texts ; with a Commentary, and Critical Notes, designed as a help to a better understanding of the
ClAds‑	Sacred Writings. By Adam Clarks,

D'Oyly LL.D., F.A.S., London, 181()‑26.
	sad	The author, a Wesleyan minister (see
at,		CLAR%E, ADAM), attained a high repu
Bellamy, lotion as a student of Oriental lan‑
	1810‑84.	guages. The scope of the commentary
		is expressed in its own words: "Ia
this work the whole of the text has been col
lated with the Hebrew and Greek originate, and all
the ancient versions; the moat difficult words

161	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bibles, Annotated, and
		[Bible Summaries
analyzed and explained; the moat important
readings in the Hebrew collections of Kennicott
and De Rossi on the Old Testament, and in those
of Mill, Wetstein, and Griesbach on the New, are
noticed; the date of every transaction, as far as
it has been ascertained by the beat chronol
ogers, is marked; the peculiar customs of the
Jews and neighboring nations, so frequently
alluded to by the prophets, evangelists, and apostles,
are explained from the best Asiatic authorities;
the great doctrines of the Law and Gospel of God
are defined, illustrated, and defended; and the
whole is applied to the important purposes of prac
tical Christianity." A considerable popularity
was achieved also by D'Oyly and Mant's com
mentary, The Holy Bible according to the Authorized
Version, with Notes explanatory and practical,
taken principally from the most eminent writers of
the United Church o f England and Ireland; together
with appropriate introductions, tables, indexes,
maps, and plans, prepared arid arranged by the Rev.
G. D'Oyly, B.D., and Rev. Richard Mant, D.D.,
Oxford and London, 1814, 3 vole., and various
subsequent editions printed at Cambridge and
Oxford. " This work, which was published under
the sanction of the venerable Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge, professes to communicate
only the results of the critical inquiries of learned
men, without giving a detailed exposition of the
inquiries themselves. These results, however, are
selected with great judgment, so that the reader
who may consult them on difficult passages will
rarely be disappointed. Of the labour attending this
publication some idea may be formed, when it is
stated that the works of upward of one hundred
and sixty authors have been consulted for it,
amounting to several hundred volumes. On the fun
damental articles of Christian verity‑the Deity
and atonement of Jesus Christ, and the personality
and offices of the Holy Spirit‑this work may be
pronounced to be a library of divinity" (Horns,
ut sup., pp. 261‑262).‑A work of a similar character
was The Holy Bible, newly translated from the orig
inal Hebrew, with Notes critical and explanatory.
By John Bellamy, London, 1818‑34. Orme con
siders it a strange hodgepodge of error, confi
dence, misrepresentation, and abuse of learned and
valuable writers in all the departments of Biblical
literature.
	Rev. B. Boothroyd edited A New Family
Bible, and Improved Version, from corrected Texts
of the Originals, with Notes critical and explaru,
tory; and short Practical Reflections on each Chap
ter, Pontefract and London, 1818‑23, 3 vole. The
author has very happily blended critical disqui
sition with practical instruction, and an invariable
regard to the spirit and design of revelation.
In 1821 there appeared The Plain Reader's Help
in the Study of the Holy Scriptures; consisting of
Notes, explanatory and illustrative, chiefly selected
or abridged from the Family Bible, published by the
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. By
the Rev. William Thomas Bree, M.A., Coventry,
1821‑22. The aim was to supply brief and un
technical notes at a moderate price for readers
who could not procure or consult larger works.
		IL‑11
	In 1824 appeared The Holy Bible, arranged and
	adapted for family reading, with notes, etc. by a
	Layman o f the Church o f England (2
lo. Other vole., London).‑Another popular
	Works
leis‑88. Bible was the so‑called Co	Bible
	and Family Expositor; containing
	the Authorized Translation of the Old and New
	Testaments, with Practical Reflections and short
	Explanatory Notes, calculated to elucidate dif/'uul:
and obscure Passages.	By Thomas Williams,
	London, 1825‑27, 3 vole., and various subsequent
	editions. This unassuming but cheap and useful
	commentary on the Holy Scriptures was pro
	fedeedly designed for persons and families in the
	humbler walks of life.‑There is also to be men
	tioned The Comprehensive Bible; containing the
	Old and New Testaments, according to the Authorized
	Version, with the various readings and marginal
	notes usually printed therewith ; a general intro
	duction, containing disquisitions on the genuineness,
	authenticity, and inspiration of the Holy Scriptures,
	various divisions and marks of distinction in the
	sacred Writings,‑‑ancient versions,‑coins, weights,
and measures,‑‑various sects among the Jews
introductions and concluding remarks to each book;
the parallel passages contained in the Rev. J. Scott's
Commentary, Canna's Bible, Rev. J, 8rown'a Self
Interpreting Bible, Dr. A. Clarke's Commentary,
and the English Version of the Polyglott Bible system
atically arranged ; philological arid explanatory notes.
With chronological and other indexes (by William
Greenfield, London, 1827).‑In 1828 there was
published The Holy Bible . . . principally'designed
to facilitate the audible or social reading of the Sacred
Scriptures ; illustrated with .notes, historical, geo
graphical, and otherwise explanatory, and also paint
ing out the fulfilment of various prophecies. By
William Alexander‑vol. i‑the Pentateuch‑York,
1828; two other volumes were planned but did
not appear). This Bible owed its origin to efforts
of members of the Society of Friends. Passages
" unsuitable for a mixed audience" were printed
in italics below the text.‑‑‑C. Girdlestore edited
The Old and .New Testament, with a commen
tary, consisting of abort lectures for the daily use
of families, London, 1835‑42.‑Another Bible of
the same style was the Treasury Bible. First
division : containing the authorized English Version
o f the Holy Scriptures, as printed in Bagster's Poly
glott Bible, with the same copious and original selec
tion of references to parallel and illustrative passages,
and similarly printed in a centre column. Second
division : containing the Treasury of Scripture
Knowledge, consisting of a rich and copious assem
blage o f upwards o f five hundred thousand parallel
teals, from Canna, Brown, Blayney, Scott, and others,
with numerous illustrative notes, London, 1835.‑
In 1837 there was published The Condensed Com
mentary and Family Exposition of the Holy Bible
containing the best criticisms o f the most valuable Biblical Writers, with practical reflections and marginal references ; chronology, index", ate., etc. By the Rev. Ingrain Cobbin, M.A., London, 1837. This work is literally a condensed commentary, derived from the best accessible sources. The notes sae brief, but well chosen, and are partly

Bibles, Annotated Bibles, Historical
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
critical and explanatory, partly practical. They are taken from nearly two hundred writers, British and foreign.‑Another annotated Bible was edited by the Rev. C. Wellbeloved, The Holy Bible, a New Translation, with introductory remarks, notes explanatory and critical, and practical, reflections, 2 vole., London, 1838. It is Unitarian and designed principally for the use of families.
The standard English version of the Roman Catholics (the "Douni" Bible; see BIBLE VERsiorrs, B, IV, § 5), was provided with notes setting forth and defending the Roman standpoint. The later annotated English Bibles of the Catholics are based chiefly upon these notes. Richard Challoner (q.v.) and George Leo Haydock (The Holy Bible, 2 vela., Manchester, 1811‑14; revised Reims and Douai text with extensive notes) are well‑known Roman Catholic annotators. Most of the "minor versions" enumerated in 18 of the article on English versions (BIBLE VERSIONS, B, IV) are annotated.
The popular works of England were reissued in America,. The first American edition of Scott's commentary was printed and published by W. Wood‑. ward of Philadelphia in 1804 in 4 vole. Other issues followed by different publishers, moat of them from the press of Woodward of Philadelphia, and that of Samuel T. Armstrong of Boston. The most popular form of the book was an octavo of six volumes. Scott's Bible had a continuous sale for more than forty years, and as late as 1841 W. E. Dean, 2 Ann Street, New York, published an edition in three volumes.‑Adam Clarke's commentary was published by Ezra Sergeant, 86 Broadway, New York, in 1811.‑Osterwald's Observatiorfs appeared in 1813 with this imprint: " New York: Published by Evert Duyckinck, John Tiebout, G. & R. Waits, and Webstere di Skinners of Albany. George Long, Printer."‑The first American edition of Matthew Henry's Exposition appeared in Philadelphia in 1816, 11. Repub‑ published by Tower and Hogan in six
lication volumes. They also issued a stereoin
		edition in three volumes in 1829.
	America. B er and Hughes of the same city
issued a six volume edition in 1828, with
preface by Archibald Alexander.‑D'Oyly and
Mant's Bible with commentary was reprinted in
New York in 1818‑20 by T. and J. Swords, 160
Pearl Street. This edition has additional notes
from the pen of the Rt. Rev. John H. Hobart, D.D.,
bishop of New York, who quotes from a large num
ber of Biblical scholars, mainly in the Anglican,
Scottish, and American Episcopal Churches, who
had not been noticed by the English editora.
Thomas Williams's Cottage Bile, reedited by the
Rev. William Patton, was printed in two octavo vol
umes by Conner & Cooks, New York, in 1833. It
contains numerous engravings and several maps,
and was intended chiefly for the use of Sunday
schoole and Bible‑classes. The plates were sold
by the New York printers, and in after‑years the
editions were issued at Hertford, Conn.‑Green
field's Comprehensive Bible was issued in 1839 with
the imprint of " Robinson do Franklin, successors
to Leavitt, Lord dt Co., 180 Broadway." The
book is .a thick quarto of 1,460 pages. The American issue was also published by Lippincott, Gambo & Co., Philadelphia, in 1854, and by J. B. Lippincott &' Co. in 1857. Cannes marginal notes and references appeared in many editions of American household and family Bibles, and John Brown's Self‑Interpreting Bible was frequently reproduced. The American Tract Society early published a family Bible with brief notes and instructions and many editions were printed. Eugene Cummiskey, of Philadelphia, published various editions for Roman Catholics, such as The Holy Bible, translated from the Latin Vulgate, with annotations, references, etc. Isaiah Thomas, the famous author of the History of Printing in America, published and sold the Authorized Version with notes at his press in Worcester Mass.; various editions appeared after 1791.
One of the earliest productions of ~ the Philadelphia press was The Christian's New dad Complete Family Bible, published by William Woodhouse in 1790. It was issued in numbers, and the Rev. Paul Wright, D.D., vicar of Oakley, is supposed to have been the editor.‑The Columbian Family and Pulpit Bible bears the imprint, "Boston: Published by Joseph Teal, printed by J. H. A. Frost, opposite U. S. Bank, Congress Street, 1822:" It claims to be a " corrected and improved American edition of the Popular English Family Bible," supplied " with concise notes and annotations, 18. Original theological, historical, chronological,
Americas critical, practical, moral, and es‑
	Works.	Planatory"; also containing :` sundry
		important received various readings
from the moat ancient Hebrew and Greek manu
scripts and the moat celebrated versions of Scrip
ture. Also, sundry corrections and improvements
of our excellent English version (generally admitted
by learned Christians of every name) with references
to authors, versions, and manuscripts; also, an
illustrative argument prefixed to each sacred book
or epistle, from the beat authorities." The volume
is a folio, embellished with thirty‑sin engravings.
The book was issued in numbers and had more than
three thousand subscribers. The Rev. Jonathan
Homer, D.D., of Newton, Mass., revised the ob
servations, and condensed some of the notes and
enlarged others.‑In 1826 The Collateral Bible
made its appearance with the following imprint:
" Philadelphia: Printed by Samuel F. Bradford,
and by E. Bliss and E. White, New York. J. Herd
ing, Printer, 1826." This book was edited by
William McCorkle, assisted by the Rev. Ezra Stiles
Ely, D.D., a Presbyterian minister, and the Rev.
Gregory T. Bedell, A.M., rector of St. Andrew's
Church, Philadelphia. " In this work the best
marginal references are printed at large, and in
connection with every passage, by which means
every parallel or related phrase in the sacred volume
is brought at once under the eye, so as to present
the whole scope and subject of every text at a
single view " (Horns, Biblical Bibliography, p. 86).
The three volumes comprised only the Old Testa
ment, and the New Testament part was never
attempted.‑The Devotional Family Bile was
edited by the Rev. Alexander Fletcher, D.D.,

RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bibles, Annotated Bibles, Historical
" with practical and experimental reflections on each verse of the Old and New Testaments, and rich marginal references:' An edition in quarto with fifty‑seven illustrations was published with this imprint: " London and New York: Virtue, Emmins and Company." The title‑page has no date, though O'Callaghan assigns the publication to the year 1835.
	Of more modern works of a similar character
the following may be mentioned: the Lunge com
mentary, translated and edited, with additions, by
		Philip Schaff and others (25 vats.,
	ls. h,ter	New York, 1866‑‑88); the work com
	Worke,	manly known as the " Speaker's Com
	Esh
and menta,ry" (because suggested by the American. Right Hon. J. Evelyn benison, speaker of the House of Commons), ed. F. C. Cook (10 vole., London, 1871‑81); the Cambridge Bible far Schools and Colleges, ed. J. J. S. Perowne (48 vats., Cambridge, 1877sqq.); Bishop Ellicott's Commentary far English Readers (8 vole., London, 187784); J. H. Blunts Annotated Bible . . . a Household Commentary on the Holy Scriptures (3 vole., London, 1878); Clark's Handbooks far Bale Classes, ed. M. Dads and A. Whyte (4T vole., Edinburgh, 1879 aqq=); the American Commentary (Baptist; N. T. complete, ed. Alvah Hovey, 7 vole., O. T., 4 vole.‑Lev. and Num., Job, Eccles., Prov. and Song of Songspublished at present, 1881 sqq.); the International Illustrated Commentary on the New Testament, ed. Philip Schaff (4 vole., New York, 1889); J. G. Butler, Bible Work (11 vole., 1892); the New Century Bible, ed. W. F. Adeney (N. T. complete, 13 vole.; O. T., 10 vats. issued, London, 1901 aqq.); and the Temple Bile (31 vole., London, 1901‑03; especially useful for reading because the text is paragraphed according to the sense, and chapter and verse divisions are relegated to the margin). The so‑called " Teachers' Bibles," of which many were published during the last quarter of the nineteenth century, may also be mentioned.
BIBLIO(1RAPH7: G. W. Panzer, Geachichte der deutachen Bi. belilbereetaung Dr. M. Lathers van 1617‑81, Nuremberg, 1791; J. A. G&a, Ueberbliek itber Lathers . . Dolmetachung der heiligen SchrifE and die . . . miner Zeitgenoaeen, Nuremberg, 1824; W. Orme, Bibliotheca Bibldca, Edinburgh, 1824; F. H. Horns, Manual of Biblical Bibliography, London, 1839; M. Gtibel, GeaclaichEe lea chriah lichen Lebena in der rhein‑weatfdliachen eaanpeliachen Kirche, vole. ii, iii, Coblen$,18b2‑80; A. Beck, Ernst der Fromme, 2 vole., Weimer, 1865; A. Ritachl, Geachichte lea Pietiamua, vole. i, ii, Bonn, 1880‑84; W. Bohne, Die plfdagogiachen Beatrebungen Herwg Ernst . . . roan Goths, Goths, 1888; G. Frank, Die Wertheimer Bibeltiberaetzuny vor dam Reichahofrat in Wien, in ZKG, ail (1891), 2.
BIBLES FOR CHILDREN: Various attempts have been made to present the Bible in the form of a " child's book." The selection of parts best adapted to immature minds and the omission of the unsuitable, with simplification of language, are the chief aims in such attempts. Illustrations, coarse print, and other typographical devices are naturally used freely. Such books spring from the conviction that the Bible contains spiritual truth for all and is the greatest instrument for awakening religious feeling and quickening moral perception, but that its usefulness for these ends is necessarily
conditioned upon the form of presentation and that the latter may well be varied for different classes of readers. The following list mentions some noteworthy books of this sort in English, but makes no claim to completeness.
An Abridgement of the Holy Scriptures. By the Rev. Mr. Sellon, late Minister of SE. James's, Clerkenwell, published in 1781 and many later eds., at Hartford by Hale and Hosmer, 1813.
The Bible for Children. Arranged from the King James Version. With a Preface by the Rev. Francis Brown, D.D., and an Introduction by the Right Rev. Henry C. Potter, D.D. [compiled by Mrs. Joseph B. Gilder], New York [1902].
The Bible Stars Re‑told for Young People; the Old Testament Story by W. H. Bennett; the New Testament Story by W. F. Adeney, London, 1897.
The Bible for Young People translated from the Dutch of H. Oort and I. Hooyksa by P. H. Wickataed, 6 vole., London, 1873‑79; 2d ed., 1882.
The Children's Bible, or an History of the Holy Scriptures to which is added a new manual of devotions for children; by a divine of the Church o/ England, London, 1759.
The Child's Bible. With plates. By a Lady of Cincinnati, Philadelphia, Henry F. Annere, 1834.
A Compendium of the Religious Doctrines, Religious mod
Moral Precepts, Historical and Descriptive Beauties of the Bible; with a Separate Moral Selection from the Apocrypha; being a Transcript of the received Text: Intended for the use of Families, but more particularly as a Reading Book for Schools. By Rodolphue Dickinson, Esq., . . . Greenfield, Mesa., Horses Graves, Printer, 1814.
A curious Hieroglyphick Bible, or Select Passages in the Old and New Testaments, represented with emblematical figures, for the amusement of youth; designed chiefly to familiarize tender age, in a pleasing and diverting manner, with early ideas of the Holy Scriptures‑s very popular work which appeared in many editions (12th ed., London, 1792; Worcester, Mass., Isaiah Thomaa, 1788; Dublin, 1789; etc.). It is a child's book, containing short passages of Scripture in which acme of the words are represented by small cute.
The Holy Bible abridged: or the History op the Old and New Testament. Illustrated with Notes, and adorned with cuts. For the Use of Children. .To which is added A Compleat Abstract of the Old and New Testament. with the Apocrypha, in Easy Verse, New York, Hodge, Allen, and Campbell, 1790.
The School and Children's Bible; prepared under the euperinkndtna of the Rev. William Ropers, . • London, 1873. It presents the Bible in a shortened form, " adapted for the use of children, and rearranges the matter."
The Bible for Young People, New York, 1902, n. e., 1906.
Scripture Lessons for schools on the British system of mutual instruction. Adopted in Russia by order of the Emperor Alexander 1., London, 1820. According to the preface, these selections were originally made in Russian at Bt. Petersburg in 1818‑19, and adopted in Russian schools at the instance of Prince Alexander Galitsin, minister of instruction. The Committee of the British and Foreign School Society then determined to issue them in the chief languages of Europe. The extracts are divided into; (1) Historical Lessons from the Old Testament; (2) Lessons on Duty toward God and Man; (3) Lessons from the Evangelists and the Acts.
BIBLES, HISTORICAL (STORY‑BIBLES): The usual term applied to a compilation of Holy Scripture which, confining itself chiefly to the historical portions, adapts them to educational purposes. This may be done either by a faithful repetition of the Biblical narratives or by thoroughgoing changes in the selection of the material, by the representation of facts, and by devotional application. In this article the term is confined to certain medieval works which, written in the language of the people and in popular style, constituted in their time the chief literary media for disseminating the knowledge of Bible history.
It is an interesting fact that the hietorico‑devotional mode of considering the Bible received atten‑

Hiblea, Historical
Bibles, Illustrated
THE NEW BCHAFF‑HERZOfI
tion only when the people themselves began their spiritual and religious emancipation. As soon as the vernacular was allowed to become the language of religious instruction, among the Anglo‑Saxons and in Germany at the time of CharleThe Earliest magne, literary phenomena appear Story‑Bibles. which at least to a certain extent fall under the conception of Story‑Bibles. It is said that the poetical productions of Cwdmon (q.v.) in their original form treated the whole Bible history to the day of judgment; in the Krist of Otfrid of Weissenburg (q.v.) and in the Low Saxon Heliand (q.v.) not only was sacred history given in poetical form, but in picturesqueness and minuteness of details it appealed directly to the spirit of the people. Several other Story‑Bibles in poetical form were subsequently composed, especially in Germany; among them the work of Rudolf of Ems (q.v.) seems to have become most popular. In the Biblical literature of Holland may be mentioned the "Riming Bible" of Jacob of Maerlant. Much older are the poetical compilations of Biblical history in the French language, especially that of Herman of Valenciennes and the popular Roman de S. Fanuel which piquantly interweaves evangelical history with apocryphal and miraculous stories. Compilations in prose were also written; it may be said, however, that the strictly literal method of translation made slow progress and fully asserted itself only at the time of the Reformation. It is strange that the history of the Old Testament was treated more frequently than that of the New Testament; probably, being the older and more unknown record, it was better adapted for a free compilation.
The space devoted to Genesis was large in proportion to that given to the other books of the Old Testament. At times an attempt was made to insert in chronological order the few facts known of secular history. As to the sources, many legendary elements from older times may have been incorporated from popular tradition.
Their But moat of these works presuppose Character a written source. The matkrial, so far and as it can not be traced immediately
	Sources.	to the Vulgate, may easily be found
		in the popular collection of glosses of
Walafrid Strabo or in the historical works of
Vincent of Beauvais, of Gottfrid of Viterbo, and
others. Moreover, later Story‑Bibles used earlier
works of the same nature. Thus the Historic
scholastics of Peter Comestor (q.v.) was the source
of several German and French works. Similarly,
poetical works became the sources of works in prose.
A popular Story‑Bible of Germany may be traced
to the poetical production of Rudolf of Ems, and
French literature possesses prose compilations of
older riming Bibles; even in the Qustre Livres
des rois of the twelfth century there are found
occasional rimes or even larger passages in verse,
all of which clearly show that the original form of
the Biblical story in popular literature was poetic.
It was only gradually that higher theological
education found its way back to the Bible text in
its proper form.
In Spain originated the Historic general, under
the influence of King Alfonso the Wise (125284). He entrusted to certain scholars the task of writing a great collective work on the basis of the Historic scholastics of Peter Comestor, in which the whole history of the world should be represented in the framework of the Biblical stories with the addition of extensive portions from secular history.
There is a distinction between the French expressions bibles hiatorikes and bibles historiales. Histoire in Old French means " picture," because to people of no education history in the form of pictures was most easily available. Hence bible histmlde means " illustrated Bible " (see BIBLES, ILLUSTRATED), while bible historisle denotes " StoryBible." Bibles hiatorinles are, then, the works treated above. Of this sort was the translation of the Historic scholastics of Peter Comestor into the dialect of Picard by Guyard des Moulins, canon of Airs in Artois (1295), a work which, in connection with s literal translation of the Bible dating from the thirteenth century, formed for hundreds of years one of the most popular Story‑Bibles (see BIBLE VEBOIONS, B, VI, § 2).
It was reserved for the Reformation to place in the hands of Christian people the whole Bible according to the original texts, without glosses and additions, and thus with the beginning of that period the Story‑Bible had fulfilled its mission. (s. BER(3EBt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Gildemann, Haggadah and MidraachHagpadah, Berlin, 1884; D. H. Milller and J, v. Schlosser, Die Haggadah roan Sarajevo, Vienna, 1895; T. Meradorf, Bibliothekariache Unterhadtungen,Oldenberg, 1860; E. Reuse, Die dentache Hiatorienbibel, Jena, ISbb; idem, Oeachichle der heilipen Schrrften des N. T., §§ 483‑484, Brunswick, 1887; Lee Qualre Lice des roia, ed. Le R. de Liney, Paris, 1841; E. Reuse, in Revue de "lopia of philoaophroe, avi (1857), 1 aqq.; H. Palm, Sine miltelhochdeutaehe Hiaforienbibed Breslau, 1887; J. Bonnard, Lea Traducdimra de 7a Bible en vera franpaia, Paris, 1884; IA Roman de 3. Fanned, ed. C. Chabaneau, ib. 189; L. Delisle, L%wea d'%magea deat%n6a h T%nab‑uction re%igieuee des daiquea, Paris, 1890; 8. Berger, Lea Bibles Caatillanea, in Romania, aaviii, 1899.

BIBLES, ILLUSTRATED.
Illustrated Manuscripts, Roman and Byzantine (§ I). Teutonic and Celtic Manuscripts (§ 2).
Manuscripts of the Eleventh Century (§ 3). Biblia Pauperum (§ 4).
Illustrated Bibles of the Reformation and Later (§ 5). The Nineteenth Century (§ 8).

The history of illustration goes back beyond the
Christian era; the ancients adorned manuscripts
of Homer, Vergil, and Livy with drawings and richly
painted designs, and illustrations were introduced
for educational purposes into the works of Vitru
vius on architecture, Aratus on astrology, and Vege
tius on the art of was. In like manner, from the
time of Constantine and probably earlier, illus‑
	tration was applied to manuscripts
:. Illustra‑ of the Bible. Presumably to this
ted Mann‑ decoration may be referred what
	scripts, Jerome and Chrysostom say in repro
Roman and bation of the luxury which people
Byzantine. allowed themselves in the ornamenta‑
	tion of the Scriptures. The high
veneration paid to the Bible explains the zeal with
which miniature‑painting was pursued in the ea:7y

186
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bibles, Historical
Bibles,.Illnetre.ted
Church. The extant illustrated manuscripts do not apparently go further back than the fourth century (the fragment of Genesis in the Vienna library; the Vatican Joshua; the evangeliarium of Roasano; and a Syriac ~evangeliarium of 586 in the Laurentian library at Florence). In these many features, such as the architecture, costume, action, the introduction of allegorical figures and personifications, indicate the nature of the scene or its locality, which are derived from ancient art and reveal the prevalence of a good tradition. Among them are small pictures executed in body‑colors with idyllic artistic feeling, after the manner of the older mural painting. The miniatures of the Vienna Genesis are still partly in the purely illusionist style which had been dominant since the Flavian period, like the paintings in the Baths of Conatantine; but the greater part of them are in a style specially adapted to book illustration, more a draftsman's than a painter's. They exhibit the continued influence of the narrative art of the Roman empire in the second and third centuries, as shown in the pictures from the Odyssey on the Esquiline, on Roman sarcophagi, and in the pictures of Philostratus; this defined the specific style of all Christian compositions until the sixteenth century. The illustrations of the Paris Psalter and other manuscripts which may be assigned to the end of. the fourth century are characteristic of the end of Greek and the beginning of Roman painting. The Joshua continues the Roman triumphal style, with strong affinity to the reliefs of Trajan's Column. In the Byzantine empire the influence of the ancient civilization was long felt; but a more ornamental tendency came in with the iconoclastic controversy. It is true there are some illustrations of the ninth and tenth centuries, a psalter and a commentary on Isaiah in the Vatican, another psalter and the sermons of Gregory Nazianzen in the Biblioth6que Nationals at Paris, which are worthy to stand by the side of the early Christian specimens; but as a rule the drawing grows harder and stiffer. Ornamentat= )n, on the other hand, is richer; the gold ground becomes more usual, the initial letters are made prominent, and the ornamental borders are more noteworthy. Mosaic and enamel painting set the style for the miniatures as well. The standard of Byzantine painting is laid down in the Mount Athos " Guide to Painting " (1458; translated into German by G. Schafer, Trevea, 1855). The development of illustration in the West was altogether different. Here, too, the influence of the early Christian tradition was operative; but the entrance of the Teutonic nations into the Church brought new impulses and new problems. They were, indeed, barbarians, without any native artistic style; but they brought with them a joyous power of accomplishment, a feeling for nature, and a bold love of truth which had far‑reaching effects.
The Roman tradition continued among the Lombards and the Franks; but art became ruder and less refined. In the early Christian and Byzantine manuscripts the decoration had been usually confined to the addition of pictures; the Teutonic peoples extended it to the text itself. The initials
are almost buried in bright colors and elaborate decoration, the leaves framed in colored designs.
The scribe was often the painter. s. Teutonic These characteristics appear plainly and Celtic in the Irish manuscripts‑the " Book Manuscripts. of Kells " at Trinity College, Dublin,
and those of Wiirzburg, Trevea, and St. Gall. The influence of Gregory the Great helped to preserve the early Christian traditions among the Anglo‑Saxons and Franks until within the Carolingian period (the Purple Gospel in the British Museum and an evangeliarium at Cambridge, seventh century). An independent conception comes out first in the illustrations proper, without any feeling for perspective, but with an attractive effort to attain truth and naturalness (Ashburnham Pentateuch, seventh century). Under the Carolingians great schools were founded for artistic copying of manuscripts at Tours, Orleans, Metz, Reichenau, St. Gall, Trevea, etc. Their work was connected with the old tradition by its sober‑minded simplicity and its careful technique (evangeliarium of Godescalc, Paris; another at Vienna; another of St. M6dard, 826, at Soissons; another of King Lothair, 843, and the Bible of Charles the Bald, 850, both in Paris). In the provinces the development, though less beautiful, was more independent (Bible of Alcuin, British Museum). Here the draftsman takes precedence of the painter, but the work is marked by originality and poetic imagination and power (Utrecht Psalter, ninth century; a benedictionale at Chatsworth; evangeliaria of Otto I at Aix‑la‑Chapelle, of Egbert at Trevea, c. 980, of Echternach at Goths, c. 990, and of Otto III at Aix‑la‑Chapelle). Then the decoration becomes gradually more elaborate, the pictorial and ornamental parts begin to interchange their qualities, the initiate and borders are rich and gay.
In the eleventh century the Cluniac mood of struggle and renunciation prevails; the spiritual excitement and vivid fancy of the time are shown in the Bible‑illustrations; wasted forms in stiff garments set forth the ascetic ideal of their creators; truth to nature disappears entirely. And yet there is great progress in every domain of the intellectual life‑it is the age of Bernard. Even in the mini‑
atures there are signs of the awakening
3. Mann‑ of the individual life; beneath all the
scripts of passion and combat there are a quiet the melancholy and longing for peace.
Eleventh Henry II endowed his Bamberg
Century. foundations with beautifully painted
books, and at Hildeaheim an important scriptorium, influential throughout the north of Europe, was founded by Bernward, himself a pioneer in painting. Here the forms are hard and traditional, but the content is new and full of deep sad animated feeling. After the rise of general civilization under the Hohenstaufens, the bars of form were to a great extent broken down. The joy of living came back, and led the imagination once more into the comprehension of beautiful things, both graceful and dignified. There is a better feeling for outline, and the study of the heritage of antiquity seems to revive. The Bruchsat evangeliarium at Carlsruhe shows surprisingly

Bibles, Illustrated Bibles, Polyglot
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
good drawing and natural movement, as does another of about 1200 in the cathedral library at Treves; best of all is that of Henry the Lion, formerly in the cathedral treasury at Prague but now in the possession of the Duke of Cumberland, and the Merseburg Vulgate. A brilliant period for miniature‑painting was opening; but its tone was characterized rather by breadth than by depth, and the more popular it became, the more the profound symbolism of the early times disappeared. Illustration was now bestowed less on Bibles than on books need in public worship, until at the end of the Middle Ages artistic interest once more covered the whole Bible; but new life really came into this branch of illustration with the invention of wood‑engraving.
The transition to illustrated Bibles for the people is seen in the Biblia pauperism of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries‑short representations of
the earthly life of Christ in simple q. Biblia drawings, generally uncolored, ran‑
Pauperum. ging in number from thirty‑four to fifty. Each event depicted is accompanied by two antitypes from the Old Testament and by four prophets with appropriate citations, and the pictures are explained in Latin or in German. The mast important examples of these " Bibles of the Poor " are those of St. Florian in Lower Austria., of the Lyceum library at Constance, in the Vienna and Munich libraries [and in the ducal library at Wolf enbUttel].
With the invention of printing and engraving, especially wood‑engraving, both the Bible and art became common property. Reproductions of the Biblia pauperism, which now first became really accessible to the "poor," are among the most celebrated of early block books. The German Bibles before Luther (Augsburg 1477, Cologne c. 1480, Nuremberg 1483, LUbeck 1494) ha•>e woodcuts. Finally Diirer, with the wonderful vision which could realize even the majestic pictures of the Apocalypse, teased Biblical illustration to its highest dignity. With the vernacular text, eagerly sought after as it was, a great variety of illustrations went hand in hand. Luther recognized their importance to the Reformation cause and promoted illustration zealously, and Melanchthon drew rough sketches, which he gave to Lucas Cranach for execution. Bible‑illustration has never had such a vogue as in the first half of'the
sixteenth century. The most splendid 5. Illus‑ edition was published by Krafft of
	trated	Wittenberg in 1576 and 1584. With
Bibles of the middle of the century Biblical
the Refor‑ illustrating took a new direction, when mation line‑engraving gradually forced woodand Later. engraving into the background. The latter was used mainly for cheap popular editions, while artistic tendencies were mainly displayed by the former. In 1607 the fifty‑two pictures from the logge of the Vatican, the so‑called Raffael Bible, engraved by Badalocchio and Lanfranco, were published, followed by another important series of line‑engravings, the Icones bxblicca and Historic; sacra published by Merian at Frankfort, 1625‑27, and a long list of similar works in Germany, France, and Italy. In the eighteenth
century wood‑engraving almost entirely died out, except for cheap ephemeral productions, while lineengraving flourished in the hands of the Dutch school, who shared the renown of the French. German art was mainly imitative, and produced little that is noteworthy in Biblical illustration. Good editions, on the other hand, were published during this period in Holland by Mortier, 1700; Danckers, 1700; Luyken, 1740; Schots, 1749. In France the beat were those of Basnage, 1705, and Martin, 1724. In England, besides the Oxford Bible. of 1717, there were the editions of Royaumont, 1705; Clarks, 1759; and Fleetwood, 1769. In all these the Dutch‑Flemish spirit appears, with its wide, free, joyous life; the fundamental principles of illustration are based on imitation of painting; Rubens, and Rembrandt for etching, are the highest authorities. In the nineteenth century Bible‑illustration took a new impulse from England. The modern romantic manner and straining after effect entered into it, largely as a result of the great Holy Bible with Engravings from Pictures and Designs by the moat Eminent Artists, published in London, 1800. [This, however, had been anticipated by the Historical Part of the Holy Bible with illustrations engraved by John Cole (London, 1730) and a volume with the same title illustrated by John Sturt, as well as by the James Tittler Bible (4 vole., 1794‑95). It was followed by a series of efforts,, such as the Pictorial Bible by Charles Knight, with woodcuts (London, 1828‑29, New York, 1843), another of the same name, but with steel engravings (London, 1847‑49), a numerous series of Bible Picture Books issued by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge and the Religious Tract Society, and Bible Illustrationa, issued by Frowde (London, 1896).]
The interest in the Orient which came up with Napoleon's Egyptian campaign, in alliance with the strong realistic tendency of the century, brought in a wholly new sort of illustrated Bible, like Brown's Family Bible (London and New York), with views of towns and landscapes in addition to historical pictures. Later, wood‑engraving revived reached once more an unexpected height of excellence, and succeeded in getting in touch
i	with the great masses of the people.
	6. The Notable products of this revival
Nineteenth (in Germany) were Oliver's Bible of
	Century. 1834; Overbeck's forty fine illustrations
to the New Testament (1841); the Cotta edition of 1850, with 175 wood‑engravings after the first artists of Germany; and, best of all the German editions, that published by Wigand (Leipsic, 1852‑
1860), with 240 illustrations by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld (Eng. ed., Leipsic, 185rr60; London, 1869). The technically brilliant but too theatrical designs of Dord won great popularity. The Germane
have recently published several noteworthy editions, such as the " Pfeilstiicker Bible " in 1887, with many explanatory archeological drawings, and the " Star Bible " published by Hinrichs (Leipsic) in
1892, with reproductions of classical pictures for the Old Testament and Hofmann's for the New. [One of the latest attempts at Biblical illustration is the work of the French artist J. J. J. Tissot (d

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bibles, Illustrated Bibles, Polyglot
1902), who, during s ten years' residence in Pales
tine, prepared a series of sketches based upon
study of the Biblical places sad environment.
The Life of our Lord Jesus ChrtaE, with 365 com
positions in color and black sad white, was pub
lished in 4 vole. in 1899‑1900, and The Old Testa
ment, with 396 similar illustrations, in 1904 (2
Vole.).] 	(H. HSLBCHEH.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. de Bastard, Peinturea et ornemenG des MSS., especially vol. iii, 8 vole., Paris, 1832‑89 (4th‑18th centuries, a very complete work); idem, Pe%nturee, ornementa . . . de la Bible de Charles Is Chauve . . . h Paris, ib. 1883; H. Shaw, Illuminated Ornaments of the Middle Ages, London. 1833 (8th‑17th centuries, elaborate and costly); idem, Handbook of the Art of Illumination, ib. 1889; J. O. Westwood, Illuminated Illustrations of the Bible, copied from Select MSS. of the Middle Ages, ib. 1848 (with descriptive letterpress); H. N. Humphreys, Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages, ib. 1849 (historical and illustrative); H. A. Muller, Dos Evangelistarium Heinriche 111. in der Stadtbibliofhsk su Bremen, Bremen, 1882; W. R. Tymms, Art of Illuminating, London, 1888 (noteworthy); J. O. Westwood, Facsimiles of the Miniatures and Ornaments of Anglo‑Saxon and Irish MSS., ib. 1888; J. H. Todd, Descriptive Remarks on Illuminations, ib. 1889 (deals largely with the Book of Hells); J. E. Woeel, Die Bilderbibel des Belialav, Prague, 1871; A. Frind, Scriptum auger Apocalgpain cum %maginibua, ib. 1872; F. W. Dehsmotte, Primer of the Art of Illumination, London, 1874; W. de G. Birch and H. Jenner, Early Drawings and Illuminations; Introduction to the Study of Illuminated MSS., ib. 1879 ("a handsome book for specialists"); A Springer, Paalteritluatrationen in frilleen Mittelnlter, Leipsie, 1881; idem, Din Geneaisbilder in der Kunst des frffhen MiUelaltera, ib. 1884; O.von Gebhardt, The Miniatures of the Aahburnham Pentateuch, London, 1883; R. Muther, Din Ztlteaten deuteehsn BiZderbibeln, Munich, 1883; F. X. Kraus, Die Miniaturen des Codex Egberti . . . to Trier, Freiburg, 1884; idem, Geachichte der chriatlichen Kunst, i, 447 e4c1., ib. 1898; Geachichte der deutachen Kunst, vol. iii, H. Janitschek, Din Malerei, Berlin, 1890; K. von Liitsow, Geachichte des deistachen Kupferatiche and Holzachnitta, vol. iv, ib. 1891; 8. Beisael, Doe . . . Evangelienbuch %m Dome zu H%ldeaheim. Ilildesheim,1891; J. 8trsygowaki, Daa Etschmiadzin TnangeZiar, Vienna, 1881; C. von Kobell, Miniaturen and Initiaden aua MSS. des .i. 18. Jahrhunderta, Munich, 1892; J. H. Middleton, Illuminated MSS. in Classical and Modern Times, London, 1892 (letterpress elaborate and comprehensive); W. von Hartel and F. Wiekhoff, Die Wiener Genesis, Vienna, 1895; 8. Berger, Lea Manuel& pour l'ilZuatration du Paautier, in Mbmoires de la sociJtJ des anti.qisitia, 1898, lvii; G. E. Warner, Illuminated MSS., London, 1900; the illustrations of the Evaugeliarium of Roseano are reproduced in the enact sire of the originals by A. Munoz, Rome 1907.
On the B%blia Pauperism consult: $. L. Sotheby, Principia typographica, London, 1858; J. T. Berjesu, Biblia pauperism, London, 1859; A. Camesina and G. Heider, Die bildlichers Daratellungen der Biblia pauperism . . in St. Florian, Vienna, 1883; E. la Roche, Din Clteate Bib derbibel, die eogenannte Biblia pauperism, Basel, 1881; W. L. Schreiber, Manuel do Camateur do 14 gravure ... au xue. eibcle, 7 vole., Leipaio, 1891‑1900; F. Laib and F. J. Schwarz, Biblia pauperism, Freiburg, 1899; E M. Thompson, On a MS. of the Biblia pauperism, in B%bliotheca, iii, 1897; Biblia pauperism. Unicum der Heidat_ berger Univereitets.BibZioiluk, in 34 Liehtdrurkfafela and .¢ Tafeln. Berlin, 1908.

BIBLES, POLYGLOT.
I. The Complutensian Polyglot. II. The Antwerp Polyglot.
III. The Paris Polyglot.
IV. The London Polyglot (Walton's Polyglot). V. Minor Polyglots.
Polyglot Bibles are editions of the Bible presenting the text in several languages side by tide. The practical needs of the Jews after Hebrew ceased to be a living tongue led to the preparation
of manuscripts giving, with the original Hebrew, translations or paraphrases in Aramaic, Greek, Arabic, Persian, and the languages of Europe. Like conditionsin the Churchweremet insimilarmanner. Certain manuscripts of the New Testament in both Greek and Latin are mentioned in the article BIBLE‑TEXT, II, 1, § 9. An edition in the original and in modern Greek was printed in 1638 at the instance of Cyril Lucar (sae BIBLE VER8ION8, B, VIII), and the needs of Syria, Egypt, and Armenia sae met in like manner by editions still issued by Rome and by Protestant Bible Societies. The so‑called glossaries (see GLOSSES, BIBLIUa1L) and interlinear versions giving the Vulgate and the vernacular text of the Middle Ages may also be mentioned in this connection. And there are numerous modern copies of the Vulgate accompanied by an English, German, French, Spanish, or Italian translation.
The name Polyglot, however, can not strictly be given to editions presenting but two languages (Gk. polyt; _" many "), and, in common usage, is restricted to certain particular works, via.:
L The Complutensian Polyglot, one of the most noted and rarest of Biblical works, was undertaken under the supervision and at the expense of Cardinal Francisco Ximenez de Cisneros, archbishop of Toledo and chancellor of Castile (d. 1517), and was prepared by the most famous scholars of Spain, such as Demetrius Ducal of Crete, Antonio of Lebrija, Diego Lopez de Stunica, Ferdinand NuHez de Guzman, and Alphonso of Zamora. After years of labor the work was printed at Alcala (Latin, Complxctum) between 1513 and 1517, being .finished only a few months before the death of the cardinal, and was published in 1520 with the sanction of Pope Leo X. It consists of six folio volumes, the first four including the Old Testament, the fifth the New Testament, and the sixth being a Hebrew‑Chaldee lexicon with grammatical and other notes (printed separately as Alphonsi Zamorensis introdtcctiones artis grammaticee Hetraicte, Alcala, 1526). The languages are (1) the Hebrew of the Old Testament; (2) the Targum of Onkelos; (3) the Septuagint (here printed for the first time and with remarkable alterations of the manuscripts to make the text fit the Hebrew or the Latin); (4) the Vulgate; (5) the Greek New Testament. Latin translations of the Targum and Septuagint are appended. The title‑page and last page are given in reduced facsimile in Schaff's Companion to the Greek Testament (New York, 1885).
	II. The Antwerp Polyglot (BtUia Regua) was
printed at the expense of Philip II of Spain by
the famous Antwerp printer Christophe Plantin (8
vole., folio, 1569‑72). Benedictus Arias Montanus
(see ARiAB, BENEDICTUB) had charge of the work,
with the help of Spanish, Belgian, and French
scholars, among them AndrS Mass, Guy le FBvre de
la Boderie, and Frangois Rapheleng. Volumes i iv
contain the Old Testament, vol. v the New; be
sides the original texts, the Vulgate, and the Septu
agint with Latin translation, Aramaic targuma of
the Old Testament (with the exception of Daniel,
Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles) are given,
with Latin translation; also the old Syriac
(Peshito) version of the New Testament, lack‑

$~bBiblel~i~yglat	THE NEW ecHAFF HERZOG	ies
ing II Peter, II and III John, Jude, and the
Apocalypse; it is printed with both Syriac and Hebrew characters and has a Latin translation. Volumes vi‑vii contain the Hebrew lexicon of Sanctes Pagninus, .the Syriac‑Chaldee lexicon of Le F&re de la Boderie, a Syriac grammar by Maes, a Greek dictionary and archeological treatises by Arias Montanus, and many brief philological and critical notes. The last volume repeats the Hebrew and Greek texts with interlinear Latin translations, by Sanctea Pagninus of the former, and the Vulgate for the latter; this part of the work, especially the New Testament, has often been reprinted. The critical preparation was defective and the manuscripts used were of secondary importance; in many places there is dependence on the Complutenaisn work.
III. The Paris Polyglot, the moat magnificent but scientifically least important of all, was printed at the expense of Guy Michel le Jay in seven languages (10 vole., 1629‑45). Volumes i‑iv are merely reprints of the Antwerp Bible. Volumes v‑vi contain the New Testament from the same edition, augmented by the Syriac Antilegomena and an Arabic version with Latin translation. The other volumes contain (1) the so‑called Samaritan Pentateuch with its Samaritan translation (see Bisr.E VEaslorrs, A, 1V); (2) the Syriac; and (3) an Arabic version of the Old Testament, all with Latin translations. The Oratorian Jean Morin prepared the Samaritan texts and the Maronite Gabriel Sionita did most of the Syriac work.
IV. The London Polyglot (Walton's Polyglot), the moat scholarly and the commonest of all, was undertaken by Brian Walton (q.v.), afterward bishop of Cheater, and completed in 1657 (6 vole., London). Walton had the help of nearly all contemporary English scholars, particularly the Orientaliata Edmund Castell, Edward Pococke, Thomas Hyde, Dudley Loftus, Abraham Weelocke, Thomas Greavea, and Samuel Clarks. The excellence of this Polyglot over others consists in the greater number of old Oriental versions and the much greater and more intelligent work of the editor. The first four volumes contain the Old Testament in the Hebrew with the Antwerp interlinear version, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint from the Vatican edition of 1587 with the variants of the Alexandrine codex, the fragments of the Itala collected by Flaminius Nobilius, the Vulgate from the Vatican edition with the corrections of Lucas of Brilgge, the Peahito augmented by the translation of certain apocrypha, a better edition of the Arabic version, the Targums from Buxtorf, the Samaritan translation of the Pentateuch, and the Ethiopic version of the Psalms and Song of Songs. These texts (nine in all), with Latin translations of the Greek and the Oriental, are arranged side by side or one under the other. Two additional Targuma, that of Pseudo‑Jonathan and that of Jerusalem, with a Persian translation are given in vol. iv. The New Testament appears in vol. v, the text with few changes from Robert Stephens's folio edition of 1550; then are given Ariss's version
and the variants of the Alexandrine codex, Syriac, Latin, Ethiopic, and Arabic versions, and the Gospels in Persian, with literal Latin translations. Walton's Apparatus, a critical‑historical introduction in vol. i, was not superseded for more than a century, and was several times republished. Volume vi contains critical collections to all the texts published. Finally Edmund Castell's Lexicon Heptaglottum (2 parts, Cambridge, 1669) is usually counted as an integral ,part of this Polyglot.
V. Minor Polyglots: Less important are (1) the
Heidelberg Polyglot (Polyglotta Sanctandreana;
Old Testament, 1586; New Testament added, 1599), probably edited by Bonaventure Corneille Bertram, professor of Hebrew at Geneva 1566‑,84, afterward preacher at Frankenthal. It contains the original texts and Septuagint, with Latin translations, and the Vulgate, all from the Antwerp Polyglot. (2) The Hamburg Polyglot (1596) consists of six volumes by David Wolder, giving in four columns the Greek texts, the Vulgate, Pagninus's Latin translation of the Old Testament and Beza's of the New, with Luther's German version, to which Elias Hutter's Hebrew Bible of 1587 was added with new titlepage bearing the date 1596. (3) The Nuremberg Polyglot, the work of Elias Hutter (q.v.), comprises (a) an Old Testament in six languages (1599), carried only to the Book of Ruth; (b) a Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and German Psalter (1602); (c) a New Testament in twelve languages (2 parts, 1599) ‑Syriac, Italian, Hebrew, Spanish, Greek, French, Vulgate, English, German, Danish, Bohemian, and Polish; (d) a New Testament in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and German, taken from the preceding (16021. (4) The Leipsic Polyglot of Christianua Reineccius, rector at Weiesenfels, has the New Testament is five languages (1713) and the Old Testament in four (2 vole., 1750‑51). (5) The Bielefeld Polyglot, ed. R. Stier and O. G. W. Theile (4 vole., ii and iii in two parts, 1846‑55), contains the Old Testament in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and German, the New Testament in the last three languages, with variants of different German versions in the ‑fourth column; there are also copies with the English version in place of the German. Lastly, mention may be made of the Biblia Hexaglotta of E. R. de Levante (6 vole., London, 18741876), and Bagater's Biblia sacra polyglottd, with prolegomena by S. Lee (London, 1831). Other works including only portions of the Bible do not fall within the scope of this article. E. NEamll..

BarnoaaAra:: J. Le Long. Bibliotheca Sacra, emendata . .
ab A. G. dfaach, part i, chap. 4, pp. 331. Halls, 1778; idem, Diacours hiatoriqae ear lea yrincipalea Editions des Bibles polyplottes, pp. 554 eqq., Paris, 1713: B. Pick, History of Printed Editions . . . and Polyglot Bibles, in Hebraica, ix (1892‑93), 47‑116.

BIBLES, RAB$1QYIC, called also Great Bibles (Mik, ra'ot Gedolot): Hebrew Bibles containing, besides the original text, the commentaries of sundry Jewish rabbis. The first of these B:bles was published by Daniel Bomberg, edited by Felix Pratensis (4,parts, Venice, 1517‑18); it contains, besides the .Hebrew, the Aramaic paraphrases and commentaries of eight different writers on certain books, IlZasoretic notes, end other matter. As the editor

189	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	8ibies, Polyglot
		8ibliander
was a convert to Christianity, his work did not
prove acceptable to the Jews. Its faults induced
Bomberg to undertake another edition, for which
he employed as editor the celebrated Masoretic
scholar Jacob ben Hayyim, who in after‑life also
embraced Christianity. This edition, the Hebrew
title of which means " The Holy Gate of the Lord,"
was published at Venice (4 vols., 154‑25) and,
like the first edition, contains the Hebrew text,
the Aramaic commentaries, and the Masoretic notes.
The editor's introduction, containing a treatise on
the hlasorah, has been translated into English by
Christian David Ginsburg (Jacob ben Chajim's
Introduction to the Rabbinic Bible, London, 1865),
who based The Massoretic Critical Text of the
Hebrew Bible (1894) on this edition of Hayyim.
	A revised and improved edition of the second
Bomberg Bible was published (Venice, 1546‑48)
under the supervision of Cornelius Adelkind. The
changes made in this edition were the omission of
some commentaries and the substitution of others.
Bomberg'a fourth Rabbinic Bible, by J. de Gara,
was tamed through the press and corrected by
Isaac ben Joseph Salem and Isaac ben Gershon
Treves (4 vole., Venice, 1568). The correctors
remark at the end of the work that they have rein
serted in this edition the portion of the Masorah
omitted in the edition of 1546‑48. Appended to
this is the so‑called Jerusalem Targum on the Pen
tateuch.
	A Rabbinic Bible (4 vole., Venice, 1617‑18)
was published by Pietro and Lorenzo Bragadini
and edited by the celebrated Leon of Modena.
It contains the Aramaic paraphrases, the Masorah,
and the Rabbinic commentaries of De Gara's
edition. This edition, however, is of less value to
the critical student, being censored by the Inqui
sition.
	Buxtorf's Rabbinic Bible or Biblia stove Hebraica
et	Chaldaicca cum Masora, quce critics HebrtemKtm
aoerti est, magna et parva ac selectissimis Hebreeorum
interpretum commentariis (4 parts, 2 vole., Basel,
1618‑19) has a Latin preface by Buxtorf, a table
of the number of chapters in the Bible, and a poem
of Aben Ezra in the Hebrew language. Besides
the Hebrew and the Aramaic paraphrases, it con
tains the commentaries of Rashi, Aben Ezra, and
others, and Buxtorf's Tiberias sine commentaries
masorethictds triplex. The whole is formed after
Jacob ben Hayyim's second edition (1546‑48),
with some corrections and alterations by Buatorf.
Buxtorf's Bible is imperfect, but in spite of its
deficiencies, the student must still thank the editor
for his work, which, however, was criticized by R.
Simon in his Histoire critique du Vieux Testament
(p. 513).
	The next Rabbinic Bible was the Sepher Kehil
lat Moshe, or "Book of the Congregation of Moses,"
edited by Moses Frankfurter (4 vole., Amsterdam,
1724‑27). This is the moat valuable of all the
Rabbinic Bibles. It is founded upon the Bomberg
editions, and gives not only their contents, but also
those of Buxtorf's, with much additional matter.
	The latest Rabbinic Bible is the Mikrd'ot Gedo
lat published at Warsaw (12 vole., 1860‑68) by
Lebenson. This gigantic work contains thirty‑
two commentaries, old and new, among others the critical commentary of Norzi. The Hebrew text is on the whole very correct, the size is more convenient than that of its predecessors, and the edition is recommended by the best Jewish authorities in Poland and Austria. B. Plcz<.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The one book for consultation is C. D. Ginsburg, Introduction to the Maeeoretico‑critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible, London, 1897; cf. B. Pick, in Hebraica, ix (1892‑93), 47‑118.
BIBLIA PAUPERUM (" Bible of the Poor "). See BIBLES, ILLUSTRATED, § 4.
BIBLIARDER (BUCHMAftN), THEODOR: Swiss theologian and teacher; b. at Bischofezell (11 miles s.s.e. of Constance), Switzerland, 1504 (1509?); d. at Zurich Nov. 26, 1564. He studied Hebrew under Jacob Ceporinua in Zurich, in 1526 , under Pellican and (Ecolampadius at Basel, and later on under Capito. When Duke Frederick II of Liegnitz in 1527 asked for teachers for his high school, the Council of Zurich sent him Bibliander, who served there two years with distinction. He then returned home and was appointed Zwingli's successor in the theological professorship at Zurich in 1531.
Bibliander's specialty was linguistics, and he used to call himself homo grammaticus; he was versed in the Semitic dialects and was master of several modern languages. From the beginning his rendering of the Prophets was successful, was indorsed by Bullinger and Pellican, and caused J. H. Hottinger to call him the father of exegetical theology in Switzerland. He wrote also on Hebrew Grammar and on Comparative Linguistics. Perhaps the greatest sensation he caused was that produced by his publication of the Koran (1543, rev. ed., 1550); the magistrates at Basel tried to prohibit the book, but Luther interfered in defense of it and of the translator. Bibliander issued studies on the Gospel of Mark and the Protevtangelium Jacobi, translating them into Latin. His works betray a rich historical knowledge. Especially worthy of mention in this regard are his De Rations Temporum (1551) and Temporum Supptttatio (1558). Most of his writings were never published, but are preserved in manuscript at Zurich.
Neat to Bullinger, Bibliander appears as the most respected representative of the Church at Zurich. He participated in all theological and ecclesiastical discussions, preserving the heritage of Zwingli. He assisted in the publication of Zwingli's and (Ecolampadius's letters (1536). In some treatises he openly attacked the Catholic Church and the Tridentinum (De Legitima Virtdicatione Christianismi, 1553), and antagonized the Roman propaganda, appealing to England as the land of Christian liberty. He advocated missions to the Jews and Mohammedans, and went so far as to start on mission work, being restrained only by Bullinger'a representations. He was made emeritus and given a ,pension in 1560. (Enflr. EGLI.)
Blsrroessrsx: A list of the writings of Bibliander is given
	in 13. J. Len, Allg~enea Lexicon, iv, 11‑14, 20 vole.,
	Zurich, 1747‑(35. For his life consult J. J. Christinger,
	T. Bibliander, sin baograPhischea Denkmal. Frauenfeld,
	1887; E. Egli, Analecta refornwtoria, vol. ii, Zurich, 1901.

Biblical Archeology Biblical Criticism
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
170
BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. See ARCHEOLOGY, BIBLICAL.

BIBLICAL CANON. See CANON OF SCRIPTURE.

BIBLICAL CRITICISM.
I. Conception and Problem.
The History of the Term (§ 1).
Limitations and Sphere of ‑the Critic (§ 2).
Biblical Criticism (§ 3). II. The Critical Method.
Fundamental Aeaumytions (§ I).
Classification (§ 2).
Function (§ 3). III. The Departments of Criticism.
Criticism of the Canon (§ 1).
Textual Criticism and Apparatus (§ 2).
L Conception and Problem: Criticism, like interpretation, is an art; the two are related to each other as sisters, and both are nourished by science. Interpretation is the art of bringing to the comprehension what has really been handed down and of grasping it as it really is; criticism is the art of rightly estimating what has been actually apprehended according to its real value. Interpretation without criticism befogs and enervates; criticism without interpretation is vague and mere intellectual play. Since man can not understand without exercising the faculty of judgment, in work that deals with spiritual verities the two are not separated, yet the point of view from which they approach the same object is as different as their method. Interpretation proceedsinductively, collectingeverything which bears upon the understanding of the matter; criticism proceeds deductively, furnishing the canons by which to value that understanding. While one asks about the fact, the other asks about the truth of it; one builds, the other classifies and estimates the material and tests the building process. Criticism is the inverse of interpretation, and more. While it pronounces upon tEie results of interpretation, it opens new questions about the trustworthiness or untrustworthiness, the completeness or fragmentariness, the genealogy and the significance of the object; and thus it affords a starting‑point for final valuation and definition. It is skill, partly natural, partly acquired, in distinguishing and appropriating true from false, good from bad, beautiful from ugly, whether derived from contemplative perception and revelation or through chance or tradition. Its purpose is positive, though its result may often be negative. It knows no other authority than that of the case before it, no other method than that demanded by the same.
The word has been in use since Plato's time; he distinguished between criticism and constnlc‑
	tion, the two being employed in the
1. The Has‑ science of knowledge. Aristotle intro
tort' of the
Term.	duced a distinction between the crit‑
ical and the literary arts, which was taken up by the Alexandrian school in connection with literatureandparticularlywithpoetry. Clement
Linguistic Criticism (§ 3).
Historical Criticism (§ 4).
Criticism of Style (15)'
Reconstructive Criticism
(§ g).
IV. History of Criticism.
Meaning and Limitations
f§ 1).
Hellenistic and Patristic Criticism (§ 2).
Criticism from the Time of the Reformation (§ a>.
Modern Criticism (§ 4).
V. Biblical Criticism in the Roman Catholic Church.
of Alexandria established in his review of Greek culture the fact that grammatikoa as a technical term is later than kritikos. Terminology, however, was unstable in the ancient world. Philologos was differentiated from philosophos, meaning not the independent inquirer but the critic and expounder of classical productions. As the art of valuing, criticism is the product of the eighteenth century. The Encyclopediets called it in particular the restorer of ancient literature, in general the art of open‑eyed examination of human productions and of judging them justly.
The critic stands in an opposition between subjective and objective. The obscure, the ugly,
the disorderly, the arrogant, the 8. Limits‑ artificial‑everything which tends to
tions	distort a pure impression‑amuse
	and
Sphere	the critical function, which manifests
of the	itself in simple aversion or blame, or
Critic.	in a deliberate exposition of the causes
		of distortion. Limitations to under‑
standing lie also in the person. Complex and diffi
cult to grasp are the conditions sad impulses which
deceive, divert, and suborn the faculty of judg
ment. Personal taste, inexperience, dogmatic pre
supposition, arrogance‑‑such hindraneea are as
numerous as the emotions of the soul. A valuable
inheritance sometimes suffers injury by the en
croachments of critical ineptitude. Whoever re
gards a thing as worthy has a sense of ions, even
if the criticism be pertinent; much more is that the
case if in the critical process insincerity and arbi
trariness be present. It is not surprising, therefore,
that esthetic and religious natures are filled with
aversion to criticism and distrust of it. Goethe
once said that a book which had accomplished
great results was simply above the operations of
criticism, and that criticism is generally a mere
habit of moderns. Such an attitude seems to the
critic mere obedience to blind authority. Great
events and much of literature have rested on
fictitious bases. Apocrypha and paeudepigrapha
claim genuineness. Such facts are warrant enough
for the activities of critical science.
The general standards of criticism, like those of interpretation, rest on logic, philosophy, and
rhetoric. It applies those standards 8. 8lbliosl to the particular case, and the general
Criticism, rules are modified to accord with the
demands of the occasion. Since the Scriptures of the Old and the New Testaments have a special importance as a related whole, Biblical criticism is a special and independent branch. It deals with sources, history, and religion; it tests the historical worth of the documents which set forth the religion of the two Testaments. It has as its object the discovery of the religious life operative therein by reason of which this literature has its special meaning. There is a double outlook here; insight into the essence of religion and into the essence of historic fact.
Biblical criticism is on its other side historical criticism. Hence its function is to separate the natural progress of events and the religious limitations of the Biblical exposition of history in order to comprehend their relations upon the basis of

171	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Biblical Arch‑1097
		Biblical Criticism
this separation. Religious occurrences it must
seek to explain upon psychological, pathological,
and hiatorico‑religious grounds. Lesaing says that
" the dramatic poet is not a historian; historical
verity is not his purpose, only the means to it."
Is this poet then a falsifier of history? Similarly
for the Biblical writers historical truth is only
a means for offering religious truth; it is the channel
of the revelation from God. Consequently the task is
to examine case by case in order to determine how
far historical reality carries revelation. Its own
standpoint, therefore, is assured to this science.
It asks with what right and under what conditions
and limitations the Scriptures exist as a religious
collection. It gives historical rating to the con
tents. Its leading word is‑‑discriminate, which it
uses in promoting recognition of worth or its oppo
site, of fact or mere appearance.
	II. The Critical Method: To achieve real service
in Biblical criticism appreciation of the religious
factor is necessary. The critic, however, may not
walk in a rut if he is to attain a right position.
After he has through interpretation grasped the
object of investigation, he gives it rating according
			to the conditions and warrant of the
	1. Funds‑ facts of the case. He proceeds upon
	mental	the immanent, not the transcendent.
	Assump
		tions.	And after the right criterion is
			found, he has to remember that a
complete and not a partial or fragmentary in
vestigation is required, and further that fast hold
must be laid upon equipoise between critical acute
ness and the perception of what is possible and plain.
Eccles. vii, 20 has its application here, " God made
man upright, but he has sought out many inven
tions." What is the inherent standard of Biblical
criticism? The historical narratives of the Bible
are, so far as they deal with religious life, inter
pretations of history and testimonies to faith.
To express a right judgment the critic must deter
mine the relation between the historical and the
religious and decide which is the more prominent.
De Wette regarded the Pentateuch as poetry;
the opposite view makes the Bible historical only.
Between these extremes lies the recognition that
the Bible employs history for religious purposes.
Is this religious significance to be regarded as
expert emphasis upon the worth and force of a
real occurrence or was it used to support some
dogmatic purpose? Is it found in or read into the
case? Is it in the main possible to recognize the
fact in the religious dress?
	These possibilities the critic must take into
account as he holds the scales of truth, testing the
composite parts of the Bible and proceeding thence
to a consideration of the Bible as a whole. Upon
this ground only can the decision be rendered how
far the historic facts which the Bible reports stand
in organic connection with their religious valua
tion and whether they may be regarded as history
or as legend, fable, or myth. The varying ratio
of the admixture of the historical and the religious
and the degree of its significance must be observed;
and especially the interval between the Old Testa
ment and the New in their historical relations,
original limitations, and purposes must be kept in
mind. It is one thing to appreciate the essential qualities of Hebrew national literature, covering a thousand years in its development, and another to apprehend the worth and character of the New Testament, which is the literature of a religious propaganda covering but two generations. Yet the critic's .methods are essentially the same, corresponding to the varied historical limitations of the subject‑matter. When the question of the essence of Christianity arises, the bearing of the Old Testament religion upon Christianity is to be decided and grasped.
The fundamental axiom shows that each literary production, as well as each body of writings which has a common bond, requires its ap‑
8. Clsssi‑ propriate method both of interpretloation. tation and of criticism. Means and end will agree when the character of the whole presents itself in the parts; the last‑named will separate and individualize themselves where origins and relations differ. The classifications of Biblical criticism arise not out of logical abstractions but out of the demands made by the individualistic Biblical qualities. Criticism of the canon asks how and with what right the two Testaments were united in one book, how and by what methods the correct text of that which has come down is to be ascertained, what was the origin and what is the historical worth and what the relation of the present form of the books to the original form. It draws conclusions from the data furnished by interpretation. On the basis of the recognition (I) of the suitability of means to ends and (2) of the literary individuality, it. pronounces upon the worth of a document as a source and upon its relation to the whole to which it belongs and which it serves. The science divides, therefore, into criticism of the text, of the language, of the history, of the style, and constructive criticism.
Since subjectively criticism finds its occasion in the limits of the understanding, its starting‑point is doubt about the trustworthiness
3. luac‑ and the arrangement of what has come
	tion.	down. This doubt proceeds to ask
		the reason for this impression. If
the reason lies not in the spiritual being of the
doubter but in the object, then some defect is
understood to exist in expression, contents, or style.
The critic has then to discover the kind of defect
and to discern its cause. As a means to this,
Jerome directs the critic to digest, arrange, deduce,
construct. In other words, the critic first diag
noses the case and then applies the remedy. And
in this process comparison is constantly employed,
holding in view the separate parts and the united
whole. The division of the field of the critic into
external and internal, higher and lower, does not
have any essential truth at its root, and should be
rejected for that given at the end of the last
paragraph.
III. The Departments of Criticism: That the Old Testament existed as a holy authority for the synagogue and that the New in connection with the Old had the same value for the Church is the fact the success and the right of which criticism has to investigate. It notes the process of

Biblical Criticism	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	i?2
formation of the canon and the internal testimony of the canonical writings as related to the authority attributed to them. It asks whether the canon
was made or whether it grew, whether 1. Criti_ and how far its parts are peeudepi‑
cism	graphic. For the Old Testament there
Canon.	is outside testimony only from late
Judaism and the Talmud; for the New there is a wealth of evidence arising from the circumstances tinder which it came into existence by about 180 A.D. One result of criticisms is to reveal the motive of canon‑formation and also the correctness of the separation of the literature made authoritative by comparison of it with the noncanonical (see C.uvoN or ScRxrwam).
A preliminary in this work is the collection of the text‑critical apparatus which shall present an
orderly and complete picture of the 2• Textual condition of the text. The documents
Criticism must be described and their characsad Appa‑
ratns.	teriatics brought to light. The sources
of text‑criticism are manuscripts in the original languages, lectionariea of selected parts, translations, citations; for the Old Testament the Masorah, for the Septuagint and the New Testament also patristic commentaries and scholia. The variant readings in this mesa of materials are to be arranged and classified, a preliminary to which is the valuation of the text‑sources on the basis of age, genealogy, and trustworthiness. In the Old Testament the difference of the Masoretic text from that of the Septuagint proves the two to be independent witnesses; but the fact that the text of the latter is not yet settled makes difficult the task of arbitrating between the two. On the other hand, the New Testament writings were not, before the time of Origen, handled with the care bestowed by the Jews on the text of the law. The collection of apparatus for the New Testament text presents not only an agitated sea of differences in orthography and word‑forms which create little or no difference in sense, but also a series of variations which affect the meaning and educed the wail of Origen that they were the result not only of carelessness on the part of the scribes but also of wilfulness and design. The task is to bring order into this mass of variations. There have been discerned three principal types of text, the Alexandrian, the Western, and the Constantinopolitan. The text of the Synoptic Gospels shows the most serious variations, in which purpose is manifest to make parallel passages read in the same way and to supply omissions. The text of Revelation and of the Lucan writings also is in a bad condition. Great differences exist between the text of the Alexandrian and the Grew‑Latin types. The last word on relative values has not yet been said, and the matter is still further complicated by the fact that the minuacules have not yet been taken fully into consideration, and they contain very many excellent and independent readings. See BIBLE TEXT.
The purpose of comparison of variant texts is approximation to the original. The critic estimates the age of a document. For this much help has been received from the papyri and parchments recovered in Egypt, from which it has been learned
that the earliest texts were written is capitals and without accents or marks of punctuation, and that the word or syllable was broken at the efid of the line as the demands of apace required. Study of the proms of reproduction of manuscripts has shown that errors are either mechanical or designed. The former are illustrated by the doubling of a word or a passage or the omission of the same either by an error of the eye or of the ear, or by the substitution of one word or letter for another which resembles it either in form or sound. Of conscious or designed variations from the original, some were brought about by attempts to smooth a rough passage or to 'illumine an obscure one, to correct real or supposed errors, to make two parallel passages read in the same way, or to change the reading so as to support some dogmatic interest. The Old Testament was originally written without punctuation 4r helps to reading and pronunciation; the possibility of error is, therefore, greatly increased as compared with the Greek text, the vowels of which were always written.
After interpretation has set forth the lexicographic and grammatical character of the language, criticism inquires into the relation of expression to thought, unity in the methods
S. Lin‑ of expression, and individual charac‑
	C ~~ °,~.	teristica in writing as related to the
		general character of the language,
and into the various influences which have
controlled the form. Dissimilarity in style in
parts argues dissimilarity in authorship; dis
arrangement or disorder suggests interpolation.
Especially valuable are the tests which depend
upon uniformity in the use of certain fundamental
notions such as those of the kingdom of God, life,
faith, righteousness, spirit, flesh. Similarly use
is made of collection and comparison of idioms
which characterize a writing or a group of writings,
and in this case critical judgment is of great im
portance. Individuality is thus discovered, since
the idiosyncrasies of writers are in the main un
conscious and undesigned. And rhetorical quali
ties also come into play, the tendency to a type
of expression or fondness for certain words or kinds
of figures or turns of sentence. Recognition of
characteristic ways of using language adds to
text‑critical apparatus, since it not only presents
the facts of different readings and of. peculiarities,
but also notes their effects, influences, and modi
fications. So that text‑criticism and criticism of
the language work together in correcting an unin
telligible or corrupt text by employing conjecture.
By this is not meant merely subjective sagacity or
ineptly used technical skill. Conjecture is the
result of study of the causes of error in the text
which marks them as mechanical or designed, and
then seeks a reading in accordance with the habit
and character of the document under examination,
a reading which on known principles of error in
transmission will prdduce the particular error.
Historical criticism is applied not merely to works on history but to any literary product of the past which claims or really has importance for any historical reason. The result of this process is pronouncement upon the worth of any

173	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Biblical Criticism
particular document as a source. It deals with the genuineness, unity, integrity, and trustworthiness of a writing, asks whether it is as the au‑
thor wrote it or whether it has been 4. His‑ corrupted or falsified, whether it re‑
torical
Criticism.	the habit of the author assumed
	sm. or of the times in which it is placed.
	Since it is seldom that explicit external testimony
	to a document is available, criticism usually pro
	ceeds upon internal evidence. But this is not
	always decis'‑ve. Conceivably, the tradition of
	Israel's sojourn in Egypt might have arisen out
	of the story of the Babylonian exile. So of the
	New Testament writings, the decision whether they
	are really documents of the apostolic age depends
	finally upon the judgment of their character as a
	whole and upon appraisement of the distance
	between them and the poatapostolic and apocry
phal literature.
The three points upon which the critic is intent are not of equal weight. Thus, though the authenticity of a writing be denied on internal grounds, the worth of the writing as a source is not thereby necessarily denied, for the document may have been produced anonymously, may be a genuine witness for the times in which it yeas written, and yet have had a name wrongly attached to it later. Examples of this are the Books of Samuel, the Gospel of Matthew, and the Epistle to the Hebrews, which last is a genuine document of the apostolic age, though the authorship is undetermined. So integrity does not of itself determine source‑value. Investigation in this direction discovers gape or additions and relates them to historic credibility. The final test has reference to this duality. Investigation into a writing as a whole leads to the discussion of its composition. Criticism of sources enters here, which on the basis of the linguistic character of the finished work and of its parts decides whether the work is a unit or is composite. In the latter case the questions arise what was the original form and how far it has been changed by the successive hands through which it has passed; whether the parts are in their original form or have been worked over, and in the latter case whether in some dogmatic interest. Such are the problems which arise respecting the Pentateuch and the Gospels. Decision in favor of the trustworthiness of a document in itself a unit and complete is carried a step further toward assurance by comparison with the general whole to which it belongs. This involves consideration of linguistic characteristics, of the circle of ideas in which it moves, the general trend of thought. Account is taken of external testimony. In this case error has to be guarded against, since the trustworthiness and competence of the, witness is itself a subject for investigation. The criticism of the Epistle to the Philippians gives an illustration of the difficulties of the process, where irreconcilably different conclusions have been. reached by Baur, Holster, and P. W. Schmidt.
The moat important problem affecting credibility arises from the specific character of the Biblical narratives. What attitude shall be assumed toward miracles? How far are the reports legend‑
ary or mythical? What is the relation of the religious idea to the question of the historicity of the reports and of their worth as sources? The position taken will depend upon the philosophical position of the critic. The theist does not disavow belief in miracles and values the divine self‑consciousness of Jesus as testimony to his living participation in deity. But the historic spirit of the times enters a caveat by noting the limitation placed on the reporters by the characteristics of the times in which they lived. Moreover, he who accepts Jesus as a wonder‑worker is not called on as a critic to prove the reports of miracles reliable; nor is he who accepts Jesus as God's son required to prove the stories of the infancy, analogies of which are so abundantly available. But with the recognition that there are obscurities in the reports of miracles and that poetry, legend, and myth are used by the Bible, the last word has not been spoken on the historicity of Biblical narratives. When the English minister Mitchell said in relation to the wars of Frederick the Great that the latter was fighting for the freedom of the human race, he gave an interpretation of history but did not alter the historic fact. It is then possible that without altering the facts the Gospels, under the impression made by the person of Jesus, acknowledge him as Son of God and Savior of the world. If the theologian speaks of salvation as a fact which has become known in history, that is not a dogmatic dislocation but a correct valuation of the historical order in which the Christian religion and its Old Testament precursor reveal themselves.
" Style is only the order and progress in which thought takes form; it supposes the union and exercise of all the intellectual faculties,
8. Criti‑ and it is the man " (Buffon). This cism
		of	utters the final decision in the reaching
	Style.	of which the critical acid hermeneutical
			faculties unite more closely than in
the processes named above. It asks the question,
what purposes did the writing have and how did
it attain them? It takes into account the total
impression made by the document, the progress
of thought and the conception of history it em
bodies; it notes clearness and force or indefinite
ness and unwieldinesa, originality or accord with
accustomed forms. And in the background is ever
a reference to the historical setting and .relation
ships. Historical criticism may shove composite
neas in a document and answer the question whether
the elements are united bye loose idea or are worked
into each other. In the latter case criticism of
style shows the relation of the parts to the whole.
When historical criticism has thoroughly inves
tigated historical conditions and order, the question
of credibility in a new sense arises. . Was the pur
pose objective or personal, did the ideal enter into
the personal, did personal interests and passion
modify the objectivity of the writing? For docu
ments run to Tendenz whenever they are not purely
objective narrative.
The results from the processes so far reviewed are now positive, now negative. They produce decisions upon the completeness, reliability, and value of what has been transmitted.

Biblical Criticism	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	174
That done, the relation of the product under discussion to the original actuality in particular and in general remains to be investigated. What is
historic reconstruction 7 Niebuhr's 8. B,eoon‑ History o Rome was the first con‑
structive cysts example of the results of the
Criticism. process. t embodied his endeavor to pierce through the displacements and exaggerations of national pride which influenced the historical form of the statements and to discover actuality as it was and developed. His method is and remains the method of constructive criticism. The first step, then, is criticism of sources, which not only reveals their nature and value, but grasps also their connection with the original fact, their original relations, their mutual dependence or independence. In religious literature it is necessary to have regard to the conceptions embodied to see whether these are the original gift of the religion or whether they have entered during the course of the development. Hence the sources have to be traced to their original form, conceptions are abstracted, the historical course of events displayed, and the method by which events have worked out of the objective and essential conditions discovered.
The dominant method of source‑criticism is literary. It deals with documentary indication, traces backward parallel traditions aaddintinguiahea their relationship, genealogy, and dependence; it shows their original or secondary character, seeks the occasions of their deviations; in documents it would discern the seams of joining, the manner and form of the insertions. And then often the question arises whether an oral or a written source lies in the background. And bides thin there is in Biblical literature the complicating factor of the editors; so that modern criticism is well represented graphically by the "Rainbow Bible" In the foreground of interest now is the proving of the relationship of Biblical presentations and conceptions to the original form and sense and the attempt to show their interrelationship. Are the leading Biblical conceptions original and in their original form? Do the terms used carry their original meanings, or has the original sense become detached and connected itself with acme other term? The answers to such questions will lead back to the early forms of the religion of the Old Testament and of Christianity, will produce a history of religious ideas; but the work is yet in its infancy. Even the prehistoric cult‑motive, found in totemism, animism, and belief in demons will not clone the inquiry; there is the background of the pelf‑seeking impulses which led men to placate ghosts and employ magic and sorcery. And the relations of these to the Old Testament and the New are yet under discussion. They indeed point out in which direction criticism must direct its researches.
The highest and .most difficult task is the reconAtruction of the historic protean, the monuments of which are found is the criticized writings. It purposes a presentation of the entire circle of ideas, and seeks to discover from the deficient sources the original connection, and from the reports brought together the original development. The results
then are historical, the basis sought is the most ultimate facts attainable, but the degree of assurance necessarily varies. In Biblical science the two objective points are the recovery of the history of Israel and of the history of the origins of the Christian Church. The crux of the first is the relationship of the prophetic literature to the Pentateuch. Is the latter preprophetic or postprophetic and poatexilicT Another question still under discussion is the historical value of the body of tradition about the patriarchs and Moses; estimates of the highest importance and bearing upon character hang upon the decision. The reconstruction of New Testament history depends upon the decision as to the existence or non‑existence of usable sources of history in the New Testament. The new Dutch school returns a negative answer on the ground that New Testament literature is mostly paeudepigraphic. Everything here depends upon criticism of sources, upon the decision about the bases of the Synoptic Gospels, the Johannine literature, the Chriatology of the Epistles. Upon decisions rendered here hangs also the estimate of the person and work of the founder of Christianity. For the conception of apostolic times critical valuation of the worth of Acts as a source is required, and a determination of its relation to the Pauline Epistles and of the genuineness of the latter. In this case also conclusions the most opposite are reached with necessarily opposite results in the construction of history. The difficulties of the reconstruction of Biblical history are thus suggested, and in the work only a beginning has been made. Real progress is possible only if the critic is not self‑deceived in respect to the continuity and completeness of the sources and the objective basis of his hypotheses, and if he does not forget that the history which he undertakes to reconstruct neither claims to nor can supply the religious force which is operative in history.
IV. History of Criticism: This might be made to embrace all work conducted with critical insight as well as of all branches of Biblical
1. Mess‑ science with the hypotheses and con‑
ing and
Limits _ olusiona. Decision must be made
	tioaa.	between a review of the results and
		of the conditions and valuations
which have given the impulse to. a new series
of cfuestiona. With the latter goes a description
of the methods necessitated by the newer condi
tions. It is also to be remarked that criticism
and interpretation, so to speak, alternate and relieve
each other. Interpretation flourishes when tra
dition is accepted at its face value; criticism,
when doubt has called in question that value,
though indeed criticism is never beyond call.
The Greeks were the fathers of criticism. No other people of the ancient world employed critical methods; the memory, not judgment,
2' "um'' held away. Judaism was no excep‑
ietio and Lion
Patristic 	for the Masorah is text‑criticism
	Criticism.	in a kited sense only. But among
		the Greeks criticism was the hand
maid of interpretation. Homer was their canon,
furnishing the model of the completest expres
sion of human relationships. Consequently, text‑

17s	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Biblical Criticism
criticism found there its task and elaborated its methods, while interpretation was also at work. The questions of integrity, authenticity, and credibility were raised, but of course the answers were such as the age was qualified to give.
It has often been denied that in the patristic age criticism existed. But patristic literature set itself the task of suppressing the old canon and replacing it by the new canon of the Old Testament and the New. And in this task criticism was a necessary agent. Alexandria and Antioch were the two seats of the new learning, the headquarters where the methods of the Greeks were applied in pursuit of the new object (see ALEXANDRIA, SCHOOL or; ANTIOCH, SCHOOL OF). Even the fourfold division of the science employed by the Greeks was adopted, though the whole work proceeded from a different standpoint. For the Greeks the esthetic was the principal thing, for the Church Fathers the religious; in both cases criticism served interpretation. The great undertaking of Origen to bring order into the corrupt text of the Septuagint remained incomplete and only introduced further confusion. What opinion is to be entertained of the recessions of Lucian and Hesychius is not yet certain. Jerome's efforts to obtain a better text of the Vulgate advanced text‑criticism but little. In the matter of the canon of the New Testament, the genealogy of texts, the public use of the Scriptures, and their genuineness were discussed. Explanations were offered of the differences found in the writings ascribed to John. And in the councils and synods the matter of canonicity was raised for churchly authority to decide.
With the Reformation criticism took a new start upon a basis prepared by humanism, but
8. Criti‑ within the bounds set by patristic
oism	criticism. The inspiration of the
from the Bible was assumed, for the need felt
	Time	was for nourishment of the spirit.
	of the	Criticism assumed more definite forma
Reforms‑ after attempts were made to fix the
tics. teaching of the Evangelical Church. The early Protestant doctrine of inspiration attempted to exalt into law what had been till then simple religious statement. A wall was built upon the Protestant doctrine of Scripture against the Roman Catholic conceptions. Apologetics and harmonistics were created. The doctrine of verbal inspiration came into play until textcritical apparatus began to accumulate. Then dogmatic pronouncement upon the contents of Scripture, upon its clearness and sufficiency, stumbled over fact, and the earlier dogma of inspiration came to grief.
Under such conditions Biblical criticism developed and became more opposed to dogmatism. Its apostle was Spinoza, who in his Tractatua theologicopoliticua authoritatively formulated the problem for the future. The skepticism of the seventeenth and the deism and rationalism of the eighteenth centuries changed not the form of the problem, but only the tone of the critic. Spinoza had given a comprehensive description of the exigency produced by a theology benumbed by dogmatics.
His desire was to produce an tmdogmatic Christianity through criticism of the documents. Christianity was to be apprehended as teaching for practical life and not as philosophy. Religion was not to contradict reason: Criticism attacked the problem of the text and proceeded to discussion of the canon and its contents. Meanwhile the view was held that religion was something different from theology.
The first attempts to build up a critical method were in the region of the Roman classics. J. Robertellua (De arts live rations eorrigendi dntiquorum libroa disPutatio, Padua, 1557) defined the sources of error in the text as additions, eliminations, transpositions, extensions, condensations, separations (of parts belonging together), joininga (of parts which should be kept apart), and variations. Caspar Scioppiue (1597) argued against the " rash and audacious attempts to better the text." Johannes Clericua (1697) connected criticism of the classics and of the Bible. Perhaps he was the first to see that the canon had a history. L. Cappellus (1634), A. Pfeiffer (1680), and J. G. Carpzov (1728) argued for the unassailable authority of Scripture, but Carpzov's conjectural emendation of the Masoretic text aroused the acorn of the orthodox, who declared this text inviolable, as Ball and Erasmus had that of the Vulgate. But a new turn was given when the Oratorian J. Morinus (1633) exalted the text of the Septuagint over that of the Masoretea because derived from purer sources, though this valuation was discredited by the insecure readings of the Septuagint. Mill (1707) and Wetatein (1751) collected a rich apparatus for the New Testament, and Bengal proposed to alter the Textua recePtus upon the basis of manuscript readings properly discriminated. The great Bentley's proposal to form a new recession of the Greek text (on the basis of MS. A and of the Vulgate) was wrecked on the rocks of the opposition of the theologians.
The criticism of sources was estaolished in Bentley's disproof of the genuineness of the Letters of Phalaris. That method was applied to Biblical literature only in individual instances among the Arminiana and Sociniana, as example of which is found in H. Grotiua's work on Thessalonians. The application of this to the Old Testament was first made in Aatruc's discussion of Genesis (175.3). The antidogmatic position of criticism became ever more pronounced in the eighteenth century. English deism attacked clumsily the historicity of the Old Testament Scriptures. Skepticism rejoiced over the proof of variety in origin of Biblical writings. Rationalism sought to prove that history is ,. no puzzle and all proceeds in rational order. Leasing's discussion with Goetze over the " Wolfenbifttel Fragments " fathomed deep waters. Against the reckless criticism of English deism appeared Lardner'e Ancient Jewish and Heathen Testimonies to the Truth of the Christian Religion (1764‑87), while through Michaelis and Semler criticism sought to find equipoise.
The modern age of critical research began with the end of the eighteenth century. Its aim is an tmdogmatic method founded on fact, and its

Biblical Criticism	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	1'7g
Biblical History
tack is reconstruction of history on the basis of a grasp of original conditions and of the actual course of development. It makes use of psychol‑
ogy, linguistics, literary art, and hia‑
4. Modern
Criticism. t°ry, and it attempts to guard against
the one‑aided application of any or all of these, recognizing that subjective criticism world produce results inconsonant with the spirit of the times in which the literature discussed was produced. The historical point of view as applied to the Bible was first expressed by Herder. Schleiermacher and Eichhorn made contributions to it, but not without error. Strauss's intellectual method overlooked criticism of sources. Bruno Bauer's reconstruction of the early history of Christianity on the basis of Philo, Seneca, and Grew‑Roman philosophy was bettered by F. C. Baur, who sought a factual basis. Vatke's work on the Old Testament has been confirmed and extended by Reuss, Graf, Wellhaueen, and Kuenen. How Biblical criticism has changed its center of gravity is illustrated by the dictionaries. Teller's TYiirterbueh des Allen Testaments (6th ed., 1805) was ultrarationalistic. Winer's work (3d ed., 1847) expressed the materialistic doubt of De Wette. Schenkel's Bibellexicora (1869‑75) represented the Tiibingen school. Riehm‑Baethgen (1897) shut the latter out as much as possible, in which line the new Dictionary o f the Bible of Hastings follows, while the Encyclopo5alia Biblica bccupiea the moat advanced position and complains that criticism of the New Testament is less advanced than that of the Old.
(G. HEIIIRICL)
V. Biblical Criticism is the Roman Catholic Church: It is a well‑known fact that the subject of Biblical criticism has never received so much attention among Roman Catholic as among Protestant scholars. This disparity of interest in a topic so important is doubtless largely due to the fundamentally different attitude of the two Churches toward the Bible itself. While the early Reformers claimed to set aside tradition and church authority, and to make the Bible‑and the Bible alone‑the foundation‑stone of their respective creeds, the Catholic theologians and controversialists, on the other hand, emphasized anew the principle of central organic authority. For Catholics the supreme and ultimate guide in matters of religion, faith, and morals is the infallible authority of the living Church‑authority which in their view hoe been inherited from the Apostles and the Divine Founder of Christianity. Thin organised society is considered as the divinely appointed custodian of all revelation, whether contained in the Scriptures or in the storehouse of Christian tradition4and to this society belongs, under divine guidance, the official and authoritative interpretation of Holy Writ. The great and exclusive importance given to the Bible in the Protestant communions naturally called for a deep and comprehensive study of the Scriptures; and this, in the nature of things, was bound to develop on critical liiies; whereas Catholics, resting content with the principle of church authority, continued to look upon the Bible as something incidental and secondary in comparison
with the living, teaching organization. Hence less interest on. the part of the latter in the various branches of Biblical investigation, and likewise less alarm at the . changes wrought by the so‑called destructive criticism in the traditional views concerning the Bible.
But, while the general interest in the topic hoe been less marked among Catholics, it is true that scholars belonging to that faith have made valuable contributions to the rise and growth of scientific Biblical criticism. The first, perhaps, who deserves mention is the French Oratorian Richard Simon (1638‑1712) who, setting aside the abstract, a priori methods previously in vogue, began a study at once historical and critical of the principal topics pertaining to the origin and growth of the Bible. The results of his investigations, which were too far in advance of his age to receive intelligent appreciation from his contemporaries, were embodied in a series of volumes, which, however much they may have been superseded by writings of later scholars, are nevertheless extremely interesting as setting forth the true critical method and applying it with a freedom which was bound to provoke opposition and censure on the part of orthodox theologians such as Bossuet (see SinsoN, RICHARD). It was the Catholic physician Jean Astruc (q.v.) who gave a valuable key and a starting‑point to the modern documentary analysis of the Pentateuch by his essay published in 1753. Another Catholic clergyman who figures prominently among the pioneers in the field of scientific Biblical study is the Scotchman Alexander Geddes (1737‑1802; see GEDDEB, ArrxeNnrR). Foremost among modern and contemporary Catholic scholars who have distinguished themselves in the field of Biblical criticism must be placed the abb6 A. F. Loisy (q.v.), who to a vast erudition and a remarkably keen critical acumen has unfortunately joined a sarcasm of exposition and a rashness of speculation which have brought him into serious disfavor with the authorities of the Church. The more moderate school of Catholic Biblical scholars includes a relatively large and ever growing number of adherents who, always subject to the limitations imposed by church authority, frankly accept the well‑authenticated results of scientific critical investigation. Obviously these scholars are not so free and independent in their researches as their nonCatholic brethren, but Catholic apologists claim that while the restrictions imposed do at times curtail unduly the freedom of investigators whose views though correct may not harmonize with traditionally received opinions, they serve, on the other hand, as a salutary check on critical speculations of the more radical and advanced type.
Moved by the acute controversies which, within the last quarter of a. century have grown up in the field of Bible study and caused so much alarm in moat of the orthodox communions, Pope Leo XIII instituted a Biblical Commission which was to be a standing tribunal composed of Scripture specialists and theologians, for the settlement on acien~ tific as well as authoritative grounds of the various
knotty questions raised by higher criticism. Under the present pope, however, while the number of

177
RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Biblical Criticism Biblical History
members and consultors of this tribunal was greatly augmented, a large majority was conceded to the theologians as distinguished from the Biblical scholars; and the decisions rendered thus far have little or no interest for the scientific world, as they constitute simply a reaffirmation, without specified reasons, of the traditional positions. In the Church at present the trend of authoritative direction a$ regards the Scriptures is unfavorable to Biblical criticism, as is plain from the Syllabus of Modern Errors and the encyclical against Modernism issued by Pius X in 1907 (see SYLLABUS).
JAMES F. DRISCOLL.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For works on textual criticism see BIBLE TExT; on the history of criticism consult: H. Cave, The Bathe of the Standpoints; the Old Testament and the Higher Criticism, London, 1892 (brief and popular); H. S. Neah, The History of the Higher Criticism of the New Testament, New York, 1900, new ed., 1907 (an argument for scientific Bible study).
For exposition of methods consult C. A. Briggs, General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture, New York, 1899 (exhaustive); A. C. Zenos, Elements of the Higher Criticism, ib. 1895 (useful); F. Ast, WiaaenachafEliche Daratellung der Grammatik, Hermeneutik and Kritik, Landshut, 1808; F. Hitzig, Begriff der Kritik am Alters Testament, Heidelberg, 1831; F. D. E. $chleiermacher, Ueber Begri$ and Einteidung der philoaophiachen Kritik, in his Sammtdiche Werke, III, iii, 387‑404; Berlin, 1835; A. Kuenen, Criticea et hermeneutiue librorum Novi Teatamenti lineaments, Leyden, 1889; F. Blass, Hermeneutik and Kritik, in Handbuch der klaaeiachen Altertumawiaaew achaft, I, i, 127‑128, Munich, 1891; F. Godet and others, Higher Criticism, Six Papers, New York, 1893; C. W. Riahell, Higher Criticism, Cincinnati, 1893 (needs revision); E. Bernheim, Lehrbuch der hiatoriachen Methods, Leipsic, 1894; H. Hildebrand, Die hiihere Bibalkrdtik, Paderborn, 1902; W. MSller, Biblical Criticism, London, 1903; G. W. Gilmore, Biblical Criticism, in The Monist, xiv (1904), 215 eqq.
	For criticism of higher‑critical methods and results
consult: E. B5h1, Zum Geaeta urad sum Zeugniea, sins Ab
wehr wider die neu‑.kritiache Sehriftforachung im Alters
Testament, Vienna, 1883; O. Naumann, Wellhauaen'a
Methods, Leipsic, 1886; F. Vigouroug, Lea Livrea saints et
la critique rationalists, 4 vols., Paris, 1888‑‑90; J. J. Blunt,
Undee%gned Coincidences in the Writings of Goth the Old
and the New Testaments, republished, New York, 1890;
R. F. Horton, Revelation and the Bible, London, 1892;
E. Ruppreeht, Die Ansehauung der kritischen Schule
Wedideauaena, Erlangen, 1893; A. Zahn, Ernate Bdieke in
den Wahn der modernen Kritik lea Alters Testaments,
Giitersloh, 1893; F. R. Beanie, Radical Criticism, an
Exposition and Examination of the Radical Critical Theory,
Chicago, 1894; L. Munhall, Anti‑higher Criticism, New
York, 1894 (extreme in its conservatism); S. Leathea,
Claims of the Old Testament, ib. 1897; W. H. Green, Gen
eral Introduction to the Old Testament, New York, 1899
(Dr. Green was the exponent of the most conservative
type of Biblical study, and his strictures on higher criti
cism will be found in his Moses and the Prophets, 1883,
The Hebrew Feasts in their Relation to Recent Critical Hy
potheaea, 1886 Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch, 1895,
and Unity of the Book of Genesis, 1895): W. M511er, Are
the Critics Right? ib. 1903; F. D. Storey, Higher Crdtir
clam Cross‑examined, Philadelphia, 1905; J. Orr, The
Problem of the O. T , London 1908 (conservative).
For application and statement of critical methods
consult: G. D'Eichthal, MPlangea de critique biblique,
Paris, 1896; Smith, OTJC, cf. R. Watts, The Newer
Criticism and the Analogy of the Faith, Edinburgh, 1883
(Watts is a reply to Smith); J. P. Smyth, The Old Docu
ments and the New Bible, London, 1890; T. K. Cheyne,
Aids to the Devout Study of Criticism, ib. 1892; W. $an
day, Inspiration, ib. 1896 (advanced in dealing with the
O. T., conservative as respects the N. T.); idem, Criti
cism of the Fourth Gospel, ib. 1905: W. F. Adeney, How to
Read the Bible, ib. 1897 (a helpful handbook); G. A. Smith,
Modern Criticism and the Preaching of the Old Testament,
ib. 1901; R. Bahnforth, The Bible from the Standpoint of
		IL‑12
Higher Criticism, 2 vols., New York, 1904‑05; T. W. Doane, Bible Myths and their Parallels in Other Religions, ib. 1905.
On the interrelations of criticism, the Bible, andarcheology consult: H. A. Harper, The Bible and Modern Discoveries, Boston, 1889; H. E. Ryle, Early Narratives of Genesis, London, 1892; T. Laurie, Assyrian Echoes of the Word, ib. 1894; A. H. Sayce, Higher Criticism and flea Verdict of the Monuments, ib. 1894 (archeological, reaching the same conclusions as the critics, yet violently assailing them); W. St. C. Boscawen, Bible and the Monuments, ib. 1895; F. Hommel, Ancient Hebrew Tradition as Iljuatrated by the Monuments, ib. 1897 (the standpoint is similar to Sayce's); D. G: Hbgarth, Authority and Archeology, ib. 1899 (in its Biblical parts sober, and a corrective of Sayce and Hommel); I. M. Price, Monuments and the Old TeRtament, Chicago, 1900; T. G. Pinches, The Old Testament in the Light of Historical Records and Legends of Assyria and Babylonia, London, 1902; Schrader, KAT.

BIBLICAL HISTORY. See ISRAEL, HISTORY OF, I.
BIBLICAL HISTORY, INSTRUCTION IN: Fundamental to all Christian teaching and attainment, especially according to the Protestant view, is a knowledge of the Bible; and this knowledge naturally begins with the characters, events, and institutions of the Bible‑a sum total of knowledge which may be comprehended under the general expression Bible history. Thence the individual is led on to the weightier matters of Christian doctrine and the manner of the Christian life. The organized and premeditated efforts of the earlier Church to impart Christian instruction (See CATECHBMENATE; CATECHE$IS, CATECHETIC$; CATECHISMS; HOMILETICS; etc.) aimed more directly at the latter, assuming that the former already existed. In the New Testament, knowledge of Old Testament history is presupposed. This knowledge was communicated at home Conditions (II Tim, iii, 15) or by readings at Before the public Services (I Tim. iv, 13). The Reforms‑ aim of a portion of the New Testa‑
	tion.	went Scripture (the Gospels and
		Acts) was to keep alive in the con
gregations the knowledge of the New Testament
history. In the primitive Church, besides public
service, home training (Eusebiue, Hilt. eccl., vi, 2;
Chryso$tom on Eph. vi, 4) and private reading
(Cyril, Catech., iv, 35; Apostolic Constitutions,
vii, 39) were means of imparting Biblical history
to beginners in Christianity. During the Middle
Ages no systematic school instruction in Biblical
history could be furnished for lack of common
schools, and self‑instruction was not possible for
the people because the Bible was commonly in
Latin and costly, and but few of the laity could
read even the works provided for them in their
mother tongue (See BIBLES, HISTORICAL). The
great mass were limited ‑ to the translations by
preachers of the texts of their sermons, or nar
rations of Bible stories in the sermon; also,
scenes espeCy from the life of Jesus or dramatic
spectacles from the Biblical record helped to pre
serve in the lay world the knowledge of Biblical
essentials (see RELIGIOUS DRAMAS). In Refor
mation time as well as in the following centuries,
there was no general systematic schooling in Biblical
history; the common‑school system was as yet a
merely formative conception, and text‑books of
Bible history (for list cf. Reu) were designed for
higher schools or for the home.

Biblical History
Biblical Introdnotioa	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	178
Not until Christian common schools were introduced did instruction in Biblical history become a systematized branch of public education. Among the text‑books thus used may be mentioned the Bibliache Histories of Justus Geaenius (1656), and the Ztoeimal 52 auaerlesenen biLlischen Histories of Johann Hiibner (1714). These books are the prototypes of modern German manuals, and such manuals have now generally taken the
place of the Bible, from which in Biblical earlier times Biblical history, was
Instruction taught by reading aloud. The Roman is Schools. Catholic Church also teaches Biblical history; a text‑book widely in vogue was that of Chriatoph von Schmid (d. 1856). At present the Bible histories of the Catholics are combined with their diocesan catechisms. Their new catechism, which according to the desire of Plus X is to become the Catholic standard or uniform catechism (Compendio dells dottrinm chrlatiand, 1905), contains a Breve atoria dells religions. It thus appears that modern Churches, in contrast with the primitive Church, have reached the conviction that catechumens should gain the necessary amount of knowledge of Bible history not immediately from the Bible, but from a text‑book prepared for this educational object. But the fact is still more significant that the Churches are convinced of the necessity of a knowledge of Biblical history.
This conviction reefs on the knowledge that Christian belief is the product of a history which came to pass between God and humanity, and that the knowledge and understanding of this salvation on the part of individual Christians moat proceed from acquaintance with this history. The selection
of Bible stories for catechumens is Methods adapted to thin principle. The various
	and	manuals of Biblical history deviate
Principles. from one another in details of selection,
but are in substantial agreement in the matter of setting forth the main events of sacred history according to their historical succession. An exception occurs in the cane of compilations
I. Old Testament.
Nature and Scope of the Discipline
<¢ 1).
Method of Treatment (¢ 2).
History (¢ 3).
To the Renaissance (¢ 4).
The Reformation Period (¢ b).
The Seventeenth Century (¢ B).
intended for children who are not yet catechetical scholars; for these there is need of particular Bible narratives adapted to the years of childhood and related to the church festivals. With reference to the connection between instruction in Biblical history and instruction in the catechism, a change has come about, since in earlier times instruction in the former had practically no independent significance, but was designed to aubaerve the catechism; the contrary situation, howe‑er, obtains today, certain modern instructors making Biblical history the main issue, while ca,techetical scholars are confined to the fundamentally illustrative or especially adapted Biblical relations. Concerning the method of inetructioll, there is a consensus of modern conviction to the effect that the textbook should coincide as far as possible with the wording of the Bible as generally in use. The earlier method of reading the narrative from the Bible, or having it read aloud by a pupil, has been discarded. It is better to have a story related by the teacher; and the preferable method is that his oral discourse should adhere altogether or with close approximation to the phrasing of the textbook. In particular the decisive and striking utterances of the dramatic personae should be reproduced exactly. Opportunity for explanation and application is afforded by the subsequent discussion. The use of maps and pictures, with which modern Biblical text‑books are provided, tends to give the matter more of an objective background, but pictures are not so necessary as they formerly were, when pupils had fewer books. [In the United Staten, religious instruction being necessarily excluded from the public schools, the teaching of Bible history belongs to the Church and the home. See SUNDAY SCHOOL8.)
W. CABPARI.

BIHLIOaEAPHT: C. A. G. von Zesxhwits, Rateehdik, n, 2, chaps. 2‑4, Leipaic,1872‑74; K. H. Holtech, Studies fiber den 6ibli6chen GeacAichtsunterricht, Breslau, 1870; W. H. G. Thomas, Methods of Bible Study, New York, 1903; L. Emery, Introduction h fEtuds de b thlolopie proteataate, pp. 122‑132, Paris, 1904; J. M. Rau, Qudlen sur Gr achichte den 3ibliachen Unkrrschfs, Gtlteraloh, 1908.
BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION.
The Eighteenth Century (¢ 7).
The Nineteenth Century (¢ 8). II. New Testament.
1. History of the Discipline.
To the Reformation (¢ 1).
The Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (¢ 2).
Michaelis (13).
I. Old Testament: The science of Old Testament Introduction, like that of Biblical Introduction in general, has developed from indefinite beginnings, and has not yet won the ensured A universally recognized form which most other theological disciplines have assumed. The name eisagt<ges was used in the fifth century by the Syro‑Greek monk Adrian, the terms introductorzi libri and introductorea in the sixth by Cassiodorus. But these terms carried the me9,ning of s general and instructive direction how to read the Bible, a guide to its correct understanding, an exposition of the correct principles of exegesis. A complete under
. $emler, Schmidt, and Others (14).
Baur ($ b).
Later Work (¢ 8).
2. The Conception and the Task.
History of New Testament Scrip. turea (¢ 1).
History of the Canon (¢ 2).
Textual Criticism and Versions (¢ 3). standing of the Bible involves, however, a number of auxiliary sciences‑linguistics, exegesis, history of literature, general history, archeology, geography,
Biblical theology, etc., all useful in 1. Nature obtaining a right apprehension of and Scripture. But eo large a conception
of the scope	of the science was not reached all at
	M,oipline, once. It was J. G. Carpzov who first
appreciated the comprehensive nature of the discipline and defined it as the precise setting forth of those matters a knowledge of which prepares the approach to the reading of the sacred
books. SimilarlyDeWetteun3eratoodbyIntro‑

179	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Biblical History
		Biblical Introduction
duction all knowledge which contributed to the intelligent reading of the Bible, and which set it forth as a whole and in its parts in relation to history. Keil regarded it as an exposition of those matters the understanding of which prepares for a fruitful reading of Scripture, by which he understands only a history of the text, of the origin of the individual writings, the story of the rise of the canon, and of the general conception of Scripture. A new start was made by H. Hupfeld, who held that Introduction sought to discover what were the writings embraced in the Bible and how they lied come to be what they are. In other words, what is sought are the extent and original character of the writings, and a knowledge of the vicissitudes through which they have passed in attaining their present form, unity, worth, and effectiveness. But care is needed in following such a formulation lest one make of Old Testament Introduction simply a history of Hebrew literature, a mistake made by Reuse, who included in his work the letter of Ariateas and the writings of Philo. The .first consideration of this science must be its service to theology; its principal concern is with the books of the canon held by the Jews of Palestine, and only secondarily with the circle of writings derived from Hellenistic sources. Care moat also be taken not to limit the task of Introduction so as to take away its freedom and to bind it in effect to the pronouncements of tradition as to authorship. On the other hand, Introduction is not what Riehm would make it, the literary‑historical characterisation of the Bible as the authentification of a divine revelation. It has its own functions to perform in the service of theological science, and its usefulness must not be diminished by setting it at tasks which it may not undertake. Its work is a preparation for that of exegesis and for that of Biblical theology. As Reuss has well expressed the fact, the science of Introduction is not the house itself, but is the set of calculations and estimates necessary for the actual processes of building.
From the preceding it follows that the articulation of this discipline in the general science of theology is fixed. In the arrangement and handling of its subject‑matter it demands and requires great freedom; on the other hand, certain lines are laid down along which it must operate. Thus, while the origin of the separate writings and the story of their transmission (history of the text) are its concern, it is a matter of choice whether consideration of the individual writings precede or follow consideration of their collection into a canon.
	Not unimportant is the question of
	W 8eth°$ method of investigating the individual
of	writings. Thus, the chronological or
Treat‑	der certainly lies near to hand, as in
meat.	the treatment by Wildeboer and
	Kautzsch; yet, illuminating as this method is,
	weighty considerations may be urged for another
	way of proceeding. If one is disposed to empha
	size the theological character of the discipline,
	concentrating his attention upon the writings
	received into the canon, the chronological, his
	torical‑literary order assumes a complexion of
	incompleteness, since only a small part of Hebrew
literature found place in the canon and that part was not composed with the object of being gathered into a collection. By a simpler grouping the advantage is gained of awakening no expectations which are doomed to disappointment. Then, too, there are practical difficulties attending such a method. Over the origin of most Old Testament writings rests a darkness not yet dispelled and probably never wholly to be banished. Moreover, many of the writings, such as the historical books, are complex in origin, and refer to preceding compositions of which too little is known to admit of their being taken into a history of the literature. These same books also bear traces of being transmitted and worked over by hands the methods of operation of which are altogether uncertain. This historical method consequently leads frequently into a cul‑de‑sac. It is, therefore, not without reason that many have adopted the literary‑historical method, following the grouping of the canon so far as to consider the historical books by themselves, the Prophets in another section, and so on, while the three departments of Introduction are history of the canon, of the separate books, and of the text. Whether a history of exegesis is to be included in this branch of study is debatable. For the history of the Bible in a narrower sense it is not important; yet in itself and its relationship it has such value that there is some justification for including in Introduction what properly belongs in hermeneutics.
The history of this science shows in all its phases the same marked trait; via., that the Church,
which would fair remain in restful S. History. and thankful enjoyment of the Scrip‑
tures as handed down, has been compelled by outside pressure to take up the problems of the origins of those Scriptures and either to modify or discard the traditions regarding them. In the earliest times this pressure came partly from Jewish sours, later from linguistic science and philosophy, and later still from the Roman Catholic Church, which sought to undermine the Protestant principle. Only the salient points of the development of Introduction can be here given.
The beginnings are found in the treatment of the canon in the prologue to Ecclesiasticua, in Josephus and the Talmud, and in the controversy between the Jews and some of the Church Fathers respecting the Palestinian and the Alexandrian canon. This led up to the text‑critical labors of Origen. The next name is that of Jerome, about whose time began work on Introduction, but with the limits is treatment already referred to above, by Adrian and Casaiodorus, the latter of whom
dealt briefly with the history of the 4. To the text and of the canon. A slight
B'°nai~. advance was made in the work of canoe. Junilius Africanus (about 550) called heatituta regularia divine legia. This classified the books according to their contents as history, prophecy, proverbs, and simple teaching, and according to their degree of authority as perfect, medium, or of no authority; it distinguished also between poetical and prose writings. In this

Biblical Introduction	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	180
connection must be mentioned Augustine's De doctrines Christians, which treated of the extent of the canon and of the use of translations. The Church of the Middle Ages was content with the work done by Cassiodorus, Augustine, and Junilius. But among the Jews there were the stirrings of a more vigorous life, exemplified in the investigations of Ibn Ezra in the region of special introduction.
By the revival of learning the Christians were made familiar with the results of Jewish investigations which were soon to lead to the enrichment of isagogical science. The interest in the Hebrew language grew into a wider concern for Oriental philology, which had a fertile field in the translations of the Old Testament, soon to become of use in the department of text‑criticism. The earliest fruits ripened among the Roman Catholics in the work of a convert from Judaism, Sixtus of Sienna (d. 1599), the Bibliotheces sancta, which distinguished between protocanonical and deuterocanonical writings, and which dealt also with matters of special introduction. The
5. The Reformers did not enter this field,
:Reforms,, though the exegetical works of Calvin
tion
contain materials for special introduction, and Luther necessarily had to do with the extent of the canon. Important was the work of Carlstadt, De cesnonicia scriptures (1520), is which he showed the superiority of the Jewish canon and made the canonicityof a Biblical writing depend not upon the authorship but upon its relation to that canon. The period immediately following the Reformation produced nothing notable. A. Rivetua (d. 1662) represents the standpoint of the age in his definition of Scripture as that which proceeds from God as the special author, who not only impelled (the scribe) to write and gave the thoughts, but even suggested the order and the words.
Out of this dogmatic quiet the theologians were shaken by the newer criticism, which began in the realm of the text. The Reformer Cappellus undertook investigations which showed that the traditional text was not altogether trust‑
e. The worthy, and he was followed by the
Seven‑ Catholics Morinus and Richard Simon
teenth
	Century.	(d, 1712). The tatter's Histoire cri
		tique was epoch‑making in that it
employed the literary‑historical method, and showed
that the Pentateuch could not be wholly the work
of Moses and that other historical books had been
worked over. Simon had been preceded by Hobbes,
whose Leviathan had used the method of inter
nal testimony, and Spinoza, whose Tractatus theo
logico‑politicos had advanced a number of positions
which were to be established later. Simon's book
awakened much opposition and was suppressed,
only to be reproduced in a Protestant land (Rotter
dam, 1685). The ideas of Simon were further
established in Protestant regions by the work of
Johannes Clericus (q.v.), though the tendencies of
Protestantism were conservative, and its supporters
came later to hope that the learning of Carpzov
would establish firmly the truth of the traditional
views.	I
In the second half of the eighteenth century new doors were opened to Biblical criticism, especially by the researches of Semler. At that time the attitude of criticism toward the Old Testament was unfriendly; it treated the collection from the historical standpoint only, but insisted upon understanding the times in which the writings originated. Of religion little was discovered in the Old Testament. Herder came to the help of
7. The the defenders of the Bible with his Eight‑ discovery of the poetry it contained, eenth and this newer light was intensified Century. in the work of Echhorn, which outshone all the works of his predecessors and contemporaries. Special interest attaches to the researches of Eichhorn in general introduction, while the work of special introduction gained from his treatment of the books as constituting a Hebrew national literature. Yet permanent results were lacking from that period, excepting only the discovery by Astruc which forecast the documentary analysis of the Pentateuch.
A new era was opened by De Wette, who combined the literary with the historical method. Ewald carried the process on, not indeed in a work on Introduction, but in exegetical researches in which he employed it, using along with it a sympathetic appreciation rather than a rigid logic. Meanwhile the Pentateuchal problem was pushing to the front in the works of Vatke and Reuss, to receive its most advanced conaid‑
8. The eration from Wellhausen and,Kuenen.
Mine‑ The aide of the defense had mean
teenth
	Century. while not been inactive, as the works
		of Hengstenberg, Havernick, and
Keel abundantly prove, all of which contributed
something toward the solution of the problems
discussed. Between the two extremes represented
by the men named come others who approach one
or the other tendency, but the general characteris
tic of their labor is to bring into accord the assured
results of criticism and the faith of the Church in
revelation. The most notable example of this kind
of work is Driver's Introduction. 'But the final
solution of the problems raised by the science of
Introduction will come not from that discipline
but from the other branches of theology which
build upon it. 	(F. BUHL.)
IL New Testament.‑1. History of the Discipline: The employment of the term "Introduction" with its present connotation in connection. with the New Testament dates in modern times from Michaelis. But as in the case of the Old Testament, beginnings had been made long before. Besides the men mentioned above (I, § 4) as working in this department, Tyconius and Eucherius of Lyons attempted to supply the needed information about the .origin, occasion, purpose, and history of the New Testament writings. The antagonism to the apocryphal books and heretical parties such as the Marcionitea with their variant canon and the Montanista with their new prophecy enhanced in the second and third centuries the Church's valuation of the Christian books which had come to it from the apostolic age. The Muratorian Canon employed a legendary report of

181	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Biblical Introduction
the origin of the Gospels, not to explain individual peculiarities, but to establish the dogmatic unimportance of variations in the Gospel
1. To the narratives. Similarly, the church prac‑
Reiorma‑ tine of using in service the private
tion. letters of Paul as well as the public letters and of excluding the spurious ones from use was established. The vacillation of the Church in reference to such writings as the Apocalypse of Peter and the Sheperd of Herman, the Marcionitic criticism of the canon of the Gospels and of the Pauline epistles, the opposition of the Alogi to the Johannine writings as being the production of a heretic of the apostolic age, the writings of Melitus and Hippolytus about the Fourth Gospel and the Apocalypse‑all these suggest the way in which the need for a kind of Introduction made itself felt in even those early times. So a beginning was made in the writing of Dionyeius on the Apocalypse, while the sentiments and traditions of the different Churches began to take systematic form in the writings of Origen. Eusebius used considerable space in his works in setting forth the varied views and early testimonies concerning the New Testament books. Jerome followed in the steps of Eusebius, but without contributing much that was new in this particular line of investigation. The doctrinal contests of the fourth and succeeding centuries turned the channel of investigation away from the history of the canon, and for a considerable time there appeared only reproductions of the early opinions about the New Testament books in the prefaces to the commentaries or summaries and synopses which came into being and which gave a general view of the arrangement, contents, and origin of the New Testament writings.
The silence of the Middle Ages gave place during the Reformation to the utterances of the Catholic scholars Sanctes Pagninus of Lucca (d. 1541), Sixtus of Sienna (d. 1599), and A. Rivetus, who wrote an Isagoge sine introdudio to both the Old and New Testaments (Leyden, 1627). These works contained much information in this department, along with dogmatic discussions concerning inspiration and the relations of Scripture and tradition. Richard Simon (q.v.) published (at Rotterdam) his three works upon the critical history of the New Testament (Histoire critique du texts, 1689, den versions, 1690, and den principaux commentateurs, 1693, du Nouveau Testament), and thus won his place as the
	2. The	father of New Testament Introduction.
	81a‑	BY " critique " he understood the
	teenth	investigations for the establishment
	and	of the original text; and, by his his
	Seven‑	tory from the sources, he impugned
	teenth	not only the Protestant claim of " a
Centuries. witness of the Spirit," but also the
scholastic treatment, which, resting upon imper
fect acquaintance with antiquity, could not prove
that Christianity was a religion based on facts
and that the Bible was the record of those facts.
In the effort to establish the New Testament
text, he traversed a large part of the province of
Introduction.
The next name is Johann David Michaelis (q.v.), who wrote the Einleitung in die g6ttlichen
Schriften; des Neuen Bundea (G6ttingeff, 1750). He disclaimed dependency upon Simon, and yet his work was really, in its first
	8. Xicha‑	shape, based upon Simon. With
		each succeeding edition it was greatly
improved; but, even in the fourth and last edition
(1788), its standpoint was a strongly rational
supernaturalism. The differences to be noted
between the editions are mainly that his attacks
on the " doubters " became milder, and that he
gave up the inspiration of the historical books,
denied also the inspiration of the non‑apostolic
books (among which he reckoned apparently the
Epistle to the Hebrews), and declared that the
" inner witness of the Spirit " was of as little worth
as the witness of the Church in proof of the inspira
tion of any book.
Johann Salomo Semler (q.v.) made the next contribution of importance (in his Abhandlung von freier Untersuchung den Kanons, 4 parts, Halls, 1771‑75), when he distinguished between the word of God, which contained the doctrines of directly spiritual value, and the Holy
4. 8emler, Scriptures, which contained them
6ohmidt, only sporadically. There is, howand ever, no historical roof that an
Others. particular passage as the word of God; the inner witness for the truth was the only source of proof. The Church had the right, exercised by the ancient Church and by the Reformers, to say what books should constitute the canon. It can not be said that Introduction was influenced permanently by Semler; the greater impulse was given by Michaelis, who was followed by J. E. C. Schmidt (1804), Eichhorn (1804‑14), Hug (1808), Berthold (1812), and De Wette (1826), while in England Horns (1818) had included in his work the domains of Biblical geography and antiquities, which were excluded by the Germans. Schmidt applied the phrase " historico‑critical "since so widely used‑to his Introduction; Eichhorn started his fruitful " original Gospel " theory; Hug, in an unexcelled manner, investigated the relations of the synoptists. Schleiermacher (1811) called attention to the need of a reconstruction of this branch of study, declaring that its object was a history of the New Testament, so that its present readers might be, in their knowledge of the origin of the books and their text, on a level with the first. Credner (1832 sqq.) projected a fairly complete scheme for a treatment of the subject, embracing the history of the science of Introduction, history of the origin of the New Testament Scriptures, history of the canon, of translations, of the text, and of interpretation. This scheme he was not permitted to carry out, though his posthumous publications completed the history of the canon. Reuss followed Credner's lead in the Geschichte der heiligen Schriftzn den Neuen Testaments (Brunswick, 1842), while Hupfeld made a contribution in his Begri ff and Mdhode der . . . biblischen Einleitung (Marburg, 1844).
Ferdinand Christian Baur (q.v.; d. 1860) has had by far the most influence upon New Testament studies of any man of modern times. He attempted nothing less than a reconstruction of all apostolic

33iblical Introduction 83blioal Theology
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
182
and poatapoatolic history and literature, from the four Pauline epistles (Galatians, I and II
Corinthians, and Romans) which
6. Barer. alone he considered genuine. Starting
with the idea that the difference between Paul and the rest of the apostles was fundamental, he declared that those New Testament writings which either put the relations of the apostles in a more favorable light or seemed to ignore their differences altogether were either forgeries or the products of a later time. But his historical considerations were derived from Hegel's philosophy, and his criticism rested upon dogmatic convictions. New discoveries of vital importance in the field of church history and patriatica and the recovery of the Codex Sinaiticus and of parts of Tatian's Diatessaron from Ephraem's commentary have given a new basis for a historical discussion of the New Testament and its origin and contents. It is the irony of history upon Baur's methods that the modern Dutch school have used Baur's methods to discredit the four " genuine " epistles. These four points may be made against Baur: (1) He reasoned in a circle; for he examined critically, first the sources of the history, and then the history of the sources. The reasoning which reduced the genuine Pauline epistles to four reduces the four to none; so that Paul is robbed of his title to have produced any writing which lasted. (2) Baur certainly was extraordinarily familiar with the old Christian literature; but he read it with prejudice, and not with a desire to learn anything different from his preconceptions. (3) He was lacking in the sense of the concrete and the value of the individual, and therefore could not grasp complicated relations and their results. (4) If it is self‑evident that one must understand what he criticizes, and that his criticism must rest upon thorough exegesis, then Baur surely was unfitted for his labor; for he was weak as an exegete and his school has done little in exegesis.
It may, however, be added that the deficiencies in Baur'a method of work were supplied by others. B. F. Westeott's General Survey of the History of the Canon (London, 1855 and often), E. Reuss's Histoire du canon (Strasburg, 1863), A. Hilgenfeld's Kanon and die Kritik des Neuen Teslamenta (Halls, 1863), T. Zahn's Geschichle des
nexitestamentlichen Kanons (2‑ vols.,
S. Later Leipaic, 1888‑92), and A.1.oisy's His‑
toire du canon du Nouveau Testament
(Paris, 1891) are productions of this character. Such works as W. M. Ramsay's Church in the Roman Empire (London, 1893) have served also as correctives of much of the work which has been accomplished in Germany. The studies of F. Bleek (6th ed., 1893; Eng. tranal. of 2d Germ. ed., 1869), Hitegenfeld (1875), Holtzmann (1892), Salmon (1894), S. Davidson (1894), Godet (1893‑99; Eng, tranel. 1894‑99), Zahn (1900), and Jiilicher (1901; Eng. tranal, 1904), and of the Roman Catholics Trenktee (1897) and Schafer (1898) in Introduction are important contributions to the science.
8. The Conception and the Task: In order to obtain an adequate comprehension of the books which together make up the New Testament as
witnesses for a historical movement and to secure for them safe utilization as historic sources, there is required a scientific investigation of their origin. That is, there must be inquiry into the time in which, the circumstances under which, the purpose for which, and the personal relations of the persona by whom they were produced. In other words, the method of research is literary‑historical. Whether this can be called a science is debatable, since criticism is the art of distinguishing the genuine from the spurious. But if it be granted that an examination from a historical standpoint of the writings of the New Testament and an adequate exposition of the history of their origin is really
1. His‑ scientific, it is none the less a fact that
tor7 of the process has a theological character.
New	For the fact that this literature is
fiesta‑	Greek and sprang up in the Roman
meat	world does not do away with the other
Scrip‑	fact that it originated in certain
	communities which had in certain
vital respects their existence apart from the world
about them. The religious element marks it off
from the other productions of the time, and the
history of this literature is one aide of the history
of the Church. If Christianity depends upon the
historic reality of a revelation mediated by Christ
and authoritatively expounded by the apostles,
it is no unimportant result that it can reach his
torical foundations for the early productions.
And those foundations are found in the writings
brought together in the New Testament. The
supereminent value in this respect of these writings
is sufficient justification for considering them apart.
But the investigation must not start from a dog
matic conception of what the canon is. The ground
fact is that even from the second century this
collection has existed in the Church and has been
accepted as the one legitimate source for the history
of the revelation made through Christ. But if
it should appear that there are in the New Testa
ment writings which in generate character and in
origin separate themselves widely from the rest
of the New Testament Scriptures, or if there were
outside that collection writings which affiliate
themselves with the New Testament Scriptures,
Introduction can not content itself with disregard
ing those facts. It is hardly likely, however, that
such discoveries will be made as will compel a
radical departure from the accepted procedure,
that there will come to light such writings as are
referred to in Luke i, 1 sqq., or the correspondence
of Paul with the Corinthians implied in I Cor, v,
9, vii, 1. Even such discoveries as those last
mentioned would not be likely materially to change
accepted results, and the business of the discipline
would still be with the New Testament Scriptures.
Along with the history of the separate writings which make up the New Testament goes as a second part the history of the com‑
2. His' bination of these into the canon in
tort'
	of the	which they have been transmitted
	Csnoa.	to the present time. It is of impor
		tance to examine and exhibit the
historical antecedents and developments which
compassed the formation of this collection, the

183	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Biblicalintroduction
		Biblical Theology
	irregularity and vacillation which existed during
	several centuries, and the adjustment which pro
duced a final and universally accepted result.
	The examination of the origins of the individual
	writings and that of the origin of the collection
	supplement each other. The one brings to light the
	common spirit which animated the individual
	writers, the other reveals the influence which those
	writers exercised over the churches. And it is
	noteworthy that the collection was begun almost,
	if not quite, before the latest writers had finished
	their work, so that no appreciable interval of time
	separated the two operations of writing and of
	collection. And so, notwithstanding the different
areas in which these two processes work, they
	belong together as sections of the one discipline
of the literary history of the New Testament.
	As to the inclusion of other departments in this
	branch of study, usage differs. Some have in
	cluded. therein not only the history of the text
	and of translations, but also the history of the
	theological handling of the same. But, strictly
	speaking, neither the story of the vicissitudes of
	transmission nor the history of translations belongs
	here. If with Credner and Reuss the history of
	translations is put as a part of the
	3. Teztnal history of the propagation of the New
	Criticism Testament, its proper place is in the
and
	history of missions. So far as the
	versions assist in the recovery of the
	original text, the treatment of them belongs in
a guide to the exercise of text‑criticism or in
	the prolegomena to editions of the New Testa
	ment. To be sure, the history of the earlier text
	and that of the old versions have importance for
	the history of the canon because of the fact that not
so much individual books as the entire collection
or at least great parts of the collection were copied
	and translated. Were greater certainty than is
	yet the case attainable concerning the Syriac and
	the Latin versions, great gains would be made
	in the history of the canon of the New Testament.
	But it must be remembered that not all branches
	which contribute to results in any given line of
	research are to be included in the department of
science in which they are used.	(T. ZAHN.)
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the general introduction Lo the whole
	Bible consult: C. A. Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, New
	York, 1899 (the best book for a comprehensive survey);
	G. T. Ladd, Doctrine of Sacred Scripture, ib. 1883 (full
	but dry); E. Rapin, Lea Livrea de l'Ancien et du Nouveau
	Testament, Moudon, 1890; A. Sehlatter, Ein&ilung in die
Bibel, Stuttgart, 1894 (conservative).
	On the Canon of the O. T. it is sufficient to mention:
	A. Kuenen, Hiatoriach‑krttiach onderzoak naar het onataan
	en de verzameling roan de boeken des Ouden Verbonda, 3 vole.,
	Leyden, 1885‑93 (the fullest discussion); F. Buhl, Kanon
	and Text des Allen Testaments, Leipeie, 1891, Eng. tranal.,
	Edinburgh, 1892 (a model); H. E. Ryle, Canon and Text
	of the O. T., London, 1892 (reliable, indispensable); G.
	Wildeboer, Het Onataan roan den kanon des Ouden Ver
	bonda, Groningen, 1889; Eng. tranal., London, 1885 (all
	students should have it); E. Kautaeeh, Abriaa der Ge
	achichte dea altleatamentlichen Schrifttuma, in his Heilige
	Schrift des A. T., Freiburg, 1898, Eng. trsnal., Outline
	of the Hiat. of the Literahura of the O. T., New York. 1899
(fresh and interesting).
	On O. T. Introduction the one indispensable book is
	Driver, Introduction, latest impression, London, 1897.
	Consult also J. P. P. Martin, Introduction h la critique p&
nErala de 1'A. T., 3 vole., Paris, 1888‑88; A. F. Kirkpat‑
tick, The Divine Library of the O. T., London, 1892 (con
servative); S. Davidson, Introduction to the O. T., 3 vole.,
ib. 1894 (the antithesis of Kirkpatrick); H. L. Strack,
Einleitunp in daa A. T., Munich, 1898; W. H. Green,
General Introduction to the O. T., 2 vols., New York,
1898‑99 (the extreme in conservatism); R'. R. Smith,
O. T. in Jewish Church, Edinburgh, 1902; C. H. Cornill,
Einleitung in daa A. T., Freiburg, 1905, Eng. transl.,
1907; J. E. MeFadyen, Introduction to the O. T., New
York, 1805; K. Budde, Geachichte der althebraiaehen Lit
teratur, Leipsic, 1908; C. L. Gautier, Introduction
1'A. T., 2 vole., Lausanne, 1908.
On the N. T. the works have been sufficiently indicated
in the text, though worthy of mention are A. Loiey, Histoire du Canon du N. T., Paris, 1891; Biblical Introduction; N. T., by W. Adeney, London, 1899; B. W. Bacon, Introduction to N. T., New York, 1900; H. von Soden, Urchriat. lithe Literatur‑Geachichte, i, Die Schriften des l7. T., Berlin, 1905, Eng. transl., 1905.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY.
Origin and History (§ 1). The Old Testament (§ 3).
Study of New Testament Limitations (¢ 4).
Theology (§ 2).		Constructive Work (¢ 5).
	The True Aim (¢ 6).
Biblical theology, or the orderly presentation of the doctrinal contents of Scripture, is a comparatively modern branch of theological science. In general the term expresses not so much the construction of a theology which is Biblical in an especial sense as a method of dealing with the Biblical matter which is midway between exegesis and dogmatics. Its object and limitation can be shown beat by tracing its history.
So long as the Church felt or admitted no discord between its tradition and the Biblical tradition, there was no need to compare or contrast tile contents of the Bible with the teaching of the Church. On this account the beginnings of a Biblical theology appear in the circles of the theologians of the Reformation, who perceived in Scripture the teat by which to try eccleaiastical tradition. Since to them
and
	History.	the Bible was the sufficient, self‑ex
		plaining basis of dogmatics, by this
juxtaposition the possibility was given of a aepa,
rate treatment of the doctrinal contents of the
Bible. The first timid effort confined itself to
a discussion of the customary quotations (Sebas
tian Seh3lidt, Collegium Biblicum in quo dicta
Veteris et Novi Teatamenti juxta aeriem locorum .
explicantur, 1671). Under the influence of Pietism the close connection of dogmatics and the Bible was relaxed, because in the latter was seen less an infallible source of knowledge than a means of grace (A. F. Biisching, Geddu7cen von der Beschca ffenlteit and dem Vorzttge der bibl.‑dogm. Theologie von der acholastiachen, Lemgo, 1758, and similar works). When in the eighteenth century J. S. Semler and his school busied themselves in discovering the differences in date and characteristics of the different books of the Bible, and brought to light the dissonance between crystallized dogma and New Testament teaching (a dissonance greater still in the case of the Old Testament), the desire naturally arose to show the essential agreement of the teaching of the Church and that of the Bible by an unprejudiced study of the latter (G. T. Zachariii. Biblisehe Ti'teolagie otter Untersuehtcng des bibliachen Grurtdxa der vornehmsten kirchlichen Lehren, 5 vols., Giittingen, 1771‑86). The rationalistic school, in

Biblical Theology	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	184
opposition to the formulated dogma of the Church, endeavored to read its own views (those of natural religion) into the Bible (C. F. Ammon, Entu*icklung einer reinen biblisehen Theologie, Erlangen, 1792; G. P. C. Kaiser, Die biblische Theologie oder Judaismus and Christianismus nach einer freimutigen Stellung in die kritisciwergleichende Universalgeschichte der Religionen uxd in die universals Religion, 2 vole., Erlangen, 1813). In contradistinction to this there was during the nineteenth century an eager desire to give the purely historical results of examination of the Bible. In this way, the fact of differences of conception in the parts of the Bible was fully brought to light.
Probably under the influence of Schleiermacher (q.v.) especial attention was directed to the New Testament, and the "systems" of the different apostles were separately treated (the Pauline by Meyer, 1801, L. Uateri, 1824; the Johannine by K. Frommann, 1839). Along with this an effort was made to show the unity of the Gospel in the vei5• variety of individual conceptions (of the many important works, note A. Neander, Geschichte der Pflanzung . . . der christlichen Kirehe, Hamburg, 1832; B. Weirs, I,ehrbuch der biblischen Theologie,
Berlin, 1868; W. Beyschlag, Neufes‑
2. Study taiehe Theologie, Halls, 1891).
of New At the same time another class of
Testament
Theology. theologians was eagerly engaged in
tracing the differences of the individual conceptions to their very roots. According to Hegel's formula the crystallized dogma was a synthesis of the two sharp opposites of Paulinism and the primitive apostolate, and this development was followed up in all its details from a literary‑historical point of view (F. C. Baur; H. E. G. Paulus; F. C. A. Schwegler, Nachapostolisches Zeitalter, Tiibingen, 1846; O. Pfieiderer, Paulinismus, Leipeic, 1873; C. Holster, Evangelium des Paulus and Petrus, Rostock, 1868; A. Hilgenfeld, Urchristentum, Jena, 1854). In like manner the life of Jesus and its sources were treated, in connection with which work there originated a countless number of monographs on the selfconsciousnesa of Jesus and the titles he assumed. The result from this point of view was the conviction that New Testament theology has to deal not with a completed whole, but with a mobile and developing Christianity. Hence " Biblical Theology " and " Introduction " together represent simply a part of the apparatus of general church history (of. A. Hausrath, Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte, Heidelberg, 1868; O. Pfleiderer, Urchristentum, Berlin, 1887).
Parallel to this development of New Testament theology was that of Old Testament theology. Students came to discern the narrowness and onesidednees of the Old Testament religion, upon
which Hengstenberg vainly insisted in
8. The his obliteration of the limits between
Old Ten‑ the Old and the New Testament. In
tament. acknowledging the principle of slow historical genesis, others sought to understand the development of the Old Testament religion by the principle that no doctrine is completed in the Old Testament, no doctrine in the New Testament is
altogether new (G. F. Oehler, Theologie des Alter Testaments, Tiibingen, 1873‑74; similarly Schultz and Riehm). J. Wellhausen (Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels, Berlin, 1886) and A. Kuenen produced a revolution in the treatment of the Old Testament. Under the influence of their religioushistorical suppositions and literary‑critical conclusions, Old Testament theology served to describe how from the supposed original conditions, from animism and totemism, the prophetic monotheism of the prophets and ultimately the theocratic ceremonialism of postexilic Judaism gradually developed (B. Duhm, Theologie der Propheten, Bonn, 1875; R. Smend, Alttestamentliche Religionsgeachichte, Freiburg, 1893; S. Kayser and Marti). In this way the Old Testament religion was placed on a level with other religions, and the surprisingly rich discoveries concerning the ancient Orient and the rising science of the history of religion grasped hands with this method of treatment. It was a natural consequence to show that the New Testament possesses a rich heritage of religious fancy common to ethnic religions (cf. especially H. Gunkel, Sch6pfung and Chaos, G6ttingen, 1895; Religionegeschichtliche Abhandlung des Neuen Testaments, 1904). The idea of unity and special individuality of the New Testament thus goes by the board.
In glancing over the development of Biblical theology, it is surprising ?o see how this branch has worked out its own disintegration. In the beginning the aim was to make the Bible the only and sole source of Christian doctrine in the Reformers' understanding of the phrase, by allowing it to speak for itself without introducing any diluting medium. The investigator sought to penetrate its polymorphous nature, and finally
saw that under his touch the uniting 4' Limi‑ bond had disappeared which formerly
tations. kept together the disparate parts and made it an undivided object of scientific research. This self‑immolation the discipline owes to a one‑sided maintenance of the historical and religious‑historical method. Biblical theology must indeed be a historical science; but the adjective must not become a noun and the method must not master the subject. For in this study there are fundamental perceptions which can not be obtained by literary criticism and general historical researches. Thus the subject itself‑namely, the whole Bibleauggeata the question whether the subject‑matter is the remains of a religious literature or documents, productions, and descriptions of a history which is fixed by a revelation from God. And the answer to this question is of the greatest import for the investigation. How different must be the verdict of higher criticism, provided the miracles or the declarations of Jesus are regarded as a priori. historically possible or impossible; how much the selection of the matter decides whether one shall find only religious‑ethical views, or historical facts of the " religion of Jesus," or that " the belief in Christ " belongs to the essence of Christianity.
For this reason there has always existed an opposition to the development described above. The history of salvation with its literary deposit

185	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Biblical Theology
ought not to be resolved into a purely human development. The impression is gained rather
	that the Bible contains a primary
6. Con‑	life of faith, having the character of
	a Work un°orruPted self‑consistency and un‑
broken independence, and that consequently there is underneath a uniform and fundamental idea. As standing for this, mention must be made of K. I. Nitzsch, System der christlichert Lehre (Bonn, 1829), and H. Ewald, Lehre der Babel von Gott (3 vole., Leipsic, 1871), and particularly of J. C. K. von Hofmann, whose great work (Die hexlige Schrift des Neuen Testaments zusammenhangend untersucht, completed by Volck, Munich, 1886) culminated in the description of the history of the entire New Testament preaching as a historical development of the uniform word which is not the product of the individual authors. Hermann Cremer (Bibliseh‑theologisehes Worterbuch der neutestamentlichen Grac%tkt, 8th ed., Goths, 1895) endeavored in a new way to bring into view the unity of the contents of Scripture by collecting the individual notions of the Bible and following their development from the Hebrew into the Greek. According to him there are not only different modes of expression at different times, but there is a Biblelanguage, a linguistic body of the divine word, ever developing itself. It is a scientific necessity that Biblical theology regard the individuality of the Bible as the basal principle of its entire activity. For the religion of the Bible is not merely a part of the historical past; it is an active factor in the present. In like manner the Bible is not merely a document showing the manner in which the Christian Church originated; it is the authentic tradition of the word of God, out of which the Church is ever originating (M. Kaehler, Der historiache Jesus, 2d ed., Leipeic, 1896). On this account Biblical theology must always proceed from the unexceptionable agreement, which can only be reached at the end of a development; its way leads, therefore, from the New to the Old Testament, through the whole to the parts. Since, however, that result is nowhere offered in complete form, it is the task of this branch to educe from that which exists what is essential‑the entirety‑so that the examination of the particular is ever a means to an end, and is always under the control of the final aim of the work.
Accordingly it is not the task of Biblical theology to criticize the theology of the Bible and to judge it by the measure of a probable understanding of
		the original to be obtained scientif
	e. The	ically, , but to show as a matter of fact
	True	what the contents of the Bible are
	Aim.
		and at the same time to bring into
view the different forms and shapes in which these
contents are offered. It owes to the Church a pure
exhibition of the " word "by the preaching of which
the Church has lived in all ages. On this account
no help is gained by considering some " probable
gospel of Jesus," sought behind the sources, but the
necessity is that the Jesus Christ of primitive
tradition be described, and that in the various
forms in which it has been handed down. Again,
the highest aim is always to produce a theology
of the entire Bible (such an effort is K. Schlottmann, Kompendium der biblischen Theologie, 2d ed., Leipsic, 1895). But the separate treatment of the Testaments will generally recommend itself for practical reasons, since a great deal of preliminary work is necessary on the Old Testament, and because the difference of degrees of revelation must be indicated. But the correlation between the two must, after all, never be overlooked. It is a matter of course that the Biblical theology of the whole Bible can never dispense with exegesis. But it raises itself above the purely exegetical by its relation to systematic theology. It is released from the duty of exhibiting all the mazes and changes of development which are not essential to the understanding of the unified whole. On the other hand, it must not be misled into compressing Biblical riches into a narrow, one‑sided system, which will take the form of contemporary dogmatics, for the dogmatic interest will take charge of the process of digesting the immense amount of subject‑matter. One task of Biblical theology is to open the way of return from contemporary crystallization into formulas in dogmatics to the source itself. In this sense it will be of very great service to evangelical theology, provided it directs us to disclose more clearly and richly God's word in Holy Scripture and thus protests in the name of the document of revelation against every claim of human infallibility, for " God alone is infallible " (Zwingli). M. KAMMER. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Discussions on the methods of the discipline are in: C. A. Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, pp. bB9‑BOB, New York, 1899 (historical end critical, discriminating); G. R. Crooks and J. F. Hurst, Theological Encyclopaedia and Methodology, pp. 249‑255, New York, 1894• A. Cave, Introduction to Theology, pp. 405‑421, Edinburgh, 1898; W. Wrede, Ueber Aufgabe and Methods der aogenannten neuteatamentlichen Theolopie, G5ttingen, 1897; L. Emery, introduction a l'Itude de la thEolopie Protestants pp. 122‑127, Paris, 1904 (the foregoing all contain bibliographies). An excellent review of recent literature is furnished in the Theolopieche Rundachau, May, 1907 (an excellent periodical devoted to the review of works on theology).
Works additional to those in the text which deal with the whole of Biblical theology or of some phase of both the O. and the N. T. are: L. Noaek, Die bibliache Theologie, Halls, 1853; F. Gardner, The Old and the N. T. in their Mutual Relations, New York, 1885; H. Schultz, Adtteafamentt%ehe Theologie, Gottingen, 1885, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1892; W. L. Alexander, A System of Bibli. ail Theology, 2 vole., Edinburgh, 1888; C. L. Fillion, L'IdSe eendaIe de la Bible, Paris, 1888; C. G. Chavsnnea, La Religion dana la Bible, 2 vole., Paris, 1889; C. H. Toy, Judaism and Christianity, Boston, 1890 (called by Dr. Briggs " the best book on the subject "); A. Duff, O. T. Theology, Edinburgh, 1891 (original); R. H. Charles, Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Lips in Israel, Judaism and Christianity, Lo, don, 1899 (the one book in the field).
Additional and worthy books on O. T. theology are: C. H. Piepenbring, Thlologie de 1'Aneien Testament, Paris, 1888, Eng. tranal., New York, 1893• A. Dillmann, Hand. both der altteatamentlichen Theologie, Leipaic, 1895 (posthumous); W. H. Bennett, Theology o/ the O. T., London, 1898 (a handbook); R. Emend, Lehrburh der altteatamentZichen ReZigionageachichte, Freiburg, 1899; A. B. Davidson, The Theology of the O. T., Edinburgh, 1904 (somewhat disappointing).
Additional works on the N. T. are W. F. Adeney, The. oZopy of the N. T.. London, 1894 (corresponds to Bennett on the O. T. ); H. J. Holtzmann, Lehrbuch der neuteatev mentlichen Theoiogie, 2 vole., Tubingen, 1897 (one of the beat on the subject); G. B. Stevens, Theology o/ the N. T., New York, 1899; E. P. Gould, Biblical Theology of

Biblioiets	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	188
Biddle
as N. T., New York, 1900; D. F. Estes, An Outline of N. T. Theology, ib. 1901; J. Bovon, ThEoZogie du N. T., 2 vole., Lausanne, 1893‑94, vol. i, 7d ed., 1902.
BIBLICISTS, BIBLICAL DOCTORS: A name sometimes given to those who, during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, demonstrated religious truths by the Scriptures and by the authority of the Fathers, in contrast to others, who abandoned Scripture and tradition in order to give full rein to their fancy and philosophy. The most of the latter were Dominican and Franciscan monks who, since their orders held no property, had no libraries, and, owing to their unsettled and vagrant lives, had little opportunity for the study of books. Some of the Biblical doctors were scholars, .and produced valuable works; but the majority of them were servile imitators of their predecessors.

BIBRA, NICHOLAS OF. See Nlcaol.es or Blsxe.
BICgELL, GUSTAV: German Roman Catholic theologian and Orientalist; b. at Cassel July 7, 1838; d. at Vienna Jan. 15, 1906. In 1862 hg became privat‑docent of Semitic and Indo‑Germanic philology at Marburg, and in the following year went in the same capacity to Giessen. Two years later he became a convert to Roman Catholicism, was ordained priest in 1866, and from 1867 to 1874 taught Oriental languages in the academy of Miinster, where he was appointed associate professor in 1871. From 1874 to 1891 he was professor of Christian archeology and Semitic languages in the University of Innsbruck, and from the latter year until his death was professor of Semitic philology at the University of Vienna. He wrote: De indule ac rations versionis Alexandrine in interpretando libro Jobi (Marburg, 1862); Sancti EphraemiSyricarmina Niaibens (Leipsie, 1866); Grundriss der hebraischen Grammatik (2 vole., 1869‑70; Eng. transl. by S. I. Curtiss, 1877); Grande fur die Unfehlbarkeit des KirchenoberhsuPtes (Mifnster, 1870); Conspectus ref Syrorum literarice (1871); Mease uhd Paschs (1872, Eng. transl. by W. F. Skene, F,,dinburgh, 1891); Sandi lsaaci Antiocheni opera omnia (2 vole., Giessen, 1873); Kalilag and Damnag, alts syriache Uebersetzung des indiachen Furatenspiegels (text and translation, Leipeic, 1876); Metrlces biblicce regula' exemplia illustrate (Innsbruck, 1879); Synodi Brixinenses aceculi quindecimi (1880); Carminx Veteris Teatamenti metrics (1882); Dichtungen der Hebraer (1882); Ruheletha Unterauchung fiber derv Went des Dsseins (1884); and Das Buck Job nach Amass der Strophzk and der Se;Otusginta auf seine urspricngliche Form zuriickgefuhrt and im Versmasse des Urtextes ilberaetzt (Vienna, 1894).

BICgELL, JOHANN WILHELM: Writer on canon law; b. at Marburg Nov. 2, 1799; d. at Cassel Jan. 23, 1848. He studied law at Marburg and Gottingen; was professor of jurisprudence at Marburg, 1824‑34; president of the supreme curt of Hesse‑Cassel, 1841, and minister of state, 1846. He wrote Ueber die Entstehung . . . des Corpus Juris Canonici (Marburg, 1825); Ueber die Reform der lvrotestantiachen Kirchenverfassung (1831); Ueber die Verpflichtung der evangelischen Geistlichen auf die symboliachere Schriften (Cassel, 1839; 2d ed.,
1840); of his Geschichte des' Kirchenrechts, only one volume was completed (part i, Giessen, 1843; part u, Frankfort, 1849).
BICgERSTETH, EDWARD: The name of three clergymen of the Church of England.
1. A leader of the Evangelicals; b. at Kirkby Lonadale (60 m. n. of Liverpool), Westmoreland, Mar. 19, 1786; d. at Watton (21 m. w.s.w. of Norwich), Hertfordshire, Feb. 28, 1850. He was at first a lawyer and practised at Norwich, but he was always of deeply religious temperament and in 1815 received priest's orders and was sent to Africa by the Church Missionary Society to inspect the work there. Returning in Aug., 1816, he became one of the society's secretaries and for the rest of his life spent much time traveling in the service of the society; in 1830 he became rector of Watton. He was an active opponent of the Tractarian Movement, and was one of the founders of the Evangelical Alliance and of the Irish Church Missions Society. His published works were numerous and many were very popular; the more important (A Help to the Study of the Scriptures, 21st edition; A Treatise on Prayer, 14th edition; A Treatise on the Lord's Supper, 13th edition; A Guide to the Prophecies, 8th edition; and others) were collected in sixteen volumes (London, 1853). He also compiled Christian Psalmody (Hereford, 1833), a muchused hymn‑book, and edited the Christian's Family Lzbrary (50 vole.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. R. Birke, Memoir of E. BickerstetA, 2
vole., London, 1858 (by his eon‑in‑law); DNB, v, 3‑4.

2. Dean of Lichfield, nephew of the preceding; b. at Acton (12 m, s. by e. of Bury St. Edmund's), Suffolk, Oct. 23, 1814; d. at Leamington (80 m. n.w. of London) Oct. 7, 1892. He studied at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge (B.A., 1836; M.A., 1839; D.D., 1864), and at Durham University; became curate of Chetton, Shropshire, 1838; at the Abbey, Shrewsbury, 1839; Penn Street, Buckinghamshire, 1849; vicar of Aylesbury and archdeacon of Buckinghamshire, 1853; honorary canon of Christ Church, Oxford, 1866; dean of Lichfield, 1875; resigned in 1892. In 1864, 1866, 1869, and 1874 he was prolocutor of the lower house of convocation of Canterbury, and as such was a member of the committee of New Testament revisers. He was a High‑churchman. He published Diocesan Synods in Relation to Convocation and Parliament (London, 1867); My Hereafter (1883); edited the fifth edition of R. W. Evans's Bishopric of Souls (1877), with a memoir of the author; and contributed the commentary on Mark to the Pulpit Commentary (1882).
3. Bishop of South Tokyo, Japan, eldest son of Edward Henry Bickersteth (q.v.); b. at Banningham (10 m. n, of Norwich), Norfolk, June 26, 1850; d. at Chisledon (30 m. n. of Salisbury), Wiltshire, Aug. 5, 1897. He was educated at Cambridge (B.A., 1873), and was ordained priest in 1874. He was curate at Hampstead, London, 1873‑75; fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge, from 1875 till 1877, when he headed the Cambridge Mission for Delhi, India. In this mission he so impaired his health that he was obliged to return

187	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bibliciets
		Biddle
to England in 1882, and he became rector of Fram
lingham, Suffolk. In 1886 he was consecrated bish
op of Japan. He was an extreme High‑churchman
and strove to reproduce this type of church life
among the Japanese. The result was the so‑called
" Catholic Church of Japan" (Nippon Sei Kokwat~.
In 1887 a visit to Korea bore fruit in the establish
ment of a mission in that country. In 1892 his
visit to the Anglican mission stations in Japan
convinced him that there should be more bishops;
accordingly his diocese was made that of South
Tokyo. Again his health gave way and he returned
home to die. His lectures for Japanese divinity
students were published under the title Our Heritage
in the Church (London, 1898).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: $. Bickersteth, Life and Letters of Edward
	Bickersteth, Bishop of South Tokyo, London, 1905 (by his
	brother).
	BICKERSTETH, EDWARD HENRY: Bishop of
Exeter, son of Edward Bickersteth, 1; b. at Isling
ton, London, Jan. 25, 1825 ; d. in London Dray
16, 1906. He was educated at Trinity College, Cam
bridge (B.A., 1847), and was ordered dean in
1848, and ordained priest in the following year.
He was curate of Banningham, Norfolk (1848‑51);
rector of Hinton Marten, Dorset (1852‑55); vicar of
Christ Church, Hampstead (1855‑85); rural dean of
Highgate (1878‑85), and dean of Gloucester (1885).
He was consecrated bishop of Exeter in 1885, but
resigned five years later on account of age. He
wrote Water from the Well Spring (London, 1852);
The Rock of Ages (1857); Commentary on the New
Testament (1864); Yesterday, To‑day, and Forever
(poem in twelve books, 1866; prized as a devout
revelation of heaven); The Spirit of Life (1869);
Hymnal Companion Lo the Book of Common Prayer
(1870); The Two Brothers and Other Poems,(1871);
The Reef and Other Parables (1873); The Shadowed
Home and the Light Beyond (1874); Words of
Counsel to the Clergy and Laity of the Diocese of
Exeter (1888); Charge at Third Visitation (1895);
From Year to Year (1895); The Feast of Divine
Love (1896); and Charge at Fourth Visitation
(1898). He was the author of a number of well
known hymns.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. K. Aglionby, Life of E. H. B4ckeratdh,
	London, 1907.
	BICKERSTETH, SAMUEL: Church of Eng
land, second son of Edward Henry Bickersteth
(q.v.); b. at Hampstead Sept. 9, 1857. He was
educated at St. John's College, Oxford (B.A., 1881),
and was ordered dean in 1881 and ordained
priest in the following year. He was successively
curate of Christ Church, Lancaster Gate (1881‑84);.
chaplain to the bishop of Ripon (1884‑87); vicar of
Belvedere, Kent (1887‑91); and vicar of Lewisham
(1891‑1905). Since 1905 he has been vicar of
Leeds and rural dean. He has written Life and
Letters of Edward Bickersteth, D.D., Bishop of
South Tokyo (his brother, London, 1899), and is
the editor of the Preachers of the Age aeries.
	BIDDING PRAYER: Originally bidding of pray
ers, signifying " the praying (offering) of prayers,"
one of the meanings of the verb " to bid" down
to the Reformation being "to ask pressingly, to
beg, to pray:' As this meaning became obsolete
the phrase was interpreted to mean " the ordering
or directing of prayers"; i.e., an authoritative
direction to the people concerning what or whom
they should pray for, such directions being not un
common in England in the sixteenth century.
Still later " bidding" was taken as an adjective
and the phrase " bidding prayer" came to mean
the prayer before the sermon, which the preacher
introduced by directing the congregation to pray
for the Church catholic, the sovereign and the
royal family, different estates of men, etc. (Con
stitution and Canons o f the Church o f England,
§ 55). A collect is now usually substituted for it,
as the sermon, except on rare occasions, is preceded
by the common prayers, which include the petitions
prescribed by the canon. When, however, these
prayers are not said before the sermon (as at univer
sity sermons), and on occasions of more than usual
solemnity, the " bidding prayer" is used.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Forine of the Bidding Prayer are to be found in Manuals et Prouseionak . . . eccleaia E6oracenaia, ed. W. G. Henderson in 6urteea Society Publications, no. 83, Durham, 1875, and in F. Procter, Hiat. of Book of Common Prayer . . '. revised by W. H. Frera p. 394, London, 1905. Consult C. Wheatley, Bidding of Prayers before Sermons, London, 1845; D. Rock, Church of our Fathers, 3 vole., ib. 1849‑53.
BIDDLE, JOHN: A founder of modern English Unitarianism; b. at Wotton‑under‑Edge (15 m. s. of Gloucester), where he was baptized Jan. 14, 1615; d. in a London jail Sept. 22, 1662. He was educated at Oxford, and appointed head master of the free school in the parish of St. Mary le Crypt, Gloucester, 1641. Study of the Scriptures led him to disbelieve the doctrine of the Trinity, and, his unsoundness being reported to the city magistrates, he was summoned before them. Fearing imprisonment, he made a confession of faith (May 2, 1644) which was not satisfactory, and so he made a second in which he used more conventional language and was allowed to go free. He then committed to paper Twelve Arguments Drawn out of Scripture: wherein the commonly received opinion touching the Deity of the Holy Spirit is clearly and fully refitted, and to these views he was faithful the rest of his life. A friend informed the magistrates of the existence of this paper and so he was cited before the committee of Parliament then at Gloucester, and put in the common jail Dec. 2, 1645. Happily a prominent citizen bailed him out. In 1646 he was summoned to appear before Parliament at Westminster to explain his position, and boldly avowed his belief. He was committed to the custody of one of the officers of the House of Commons and so continued for five years. Meanwhile a committee of the Assembly of Divines sitting at Westminster considered his case and to them he gave a copy of his Twelve Arguments. They made answer to it, but did not move him. So in 1647 he published his paper,,which makes a tract of thirtyeight small pages. It stirred up great indignation and was suppressed and burned by the common hangman. Nest he published A Confession of Faith Touching the Holy Trinity, according to the Scripture (1648), a tract of seventy‑five small pages; in which in six articles, accompanied by

83odermann	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HE$ZOG	1$$
Billiaaa
expositions, he plainly states his views, making
God the Father the first person of the Holy Trinity;
one chief Son of the most high God, with only a hu
man nature, though our God by reason of his divine
sovereignty over us, yet subordinate to the most
high God, the second person; and one principal
minister of God and Christ the third. Next
came another tract (eighty‑six pages) containing
alleged testimonies in favor of his views from the
Fathers. In 1648 Parliament, at the instigation of
the Westminster divines, made denial of the Trinity
a	capital offense, yet Biddle was not only not
put to death, but in 1649 was released on bail. He
became a chaplain and preacher in Staffordshire,
but was shortly recalled and remained in prison
till Feb., 1651. On his release he publicly advo
cated his views and continued his publications
with A Two‑fold Catechism ; the one simply called
a	Scripture Catechism ; the other a brief Scripture
Catechism for Children. (1654, the first of 141 small
pages, the second of thirty‑four, both with a pref
ace). The answers, being entirely in quoted Scrip
ture, could not be gainsaid, but the questions were
open to serious criticism. Consequently he was
examined by the House of Commons and com
mitted to prison on Dec. 3, 1854, and was not re
leased till May 28, 1655. The Catechism was burned
by the common hangman Dec. 14, 1654. Again pub
licly advocating his beliefs on July 3, 1655, he was
thrown into prison and a little later was tried for his
life on the ordinance above mentioned. Crom
well, unwilling to put him to death, banished him
to	the Scilly Islands (Oct. 5, 1655), and allowed him
100 crowns a year for maintenance. In 1658
he was released, and reaume,l preaching. In the
latter part of Aug., 1662, he was again imprisoned
and after five weeks died.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The principal source of information respect
	ing Biddle is the Life by Joshua Toulmin, London, 1789,
	which analyzes all his writings, including several transla
	tions, not mentioned above. There are earlier accounts ,
	such as J. Bidelli Vita, by J. Farrington, ib. 1882, and
	A Short Account of the Life of John Biddle, ib. 1891. Con
	sult also A. i; Wood, Athena' Oxonieuaea, ed. P. P. Bliss,
	m, b93‑603, 4 vols., ib. 1813‑20; J. H. Allen, Historical
	Sketch of the Unitarian Movement, pp. 131‑135, New York,
	1894; DNB, v 13‑18. Some additional information is
	in Walter Lloyd's Bicentenary of Barton Street Dissenting
	Meeting House, Gloucester, pp. 40‑b0, Gloucester, 1899.
	BIEDERMANN, bf'der‑man, ALOIS EMAftUEL:
Swiss Protestant; b. near Bendlikon, on the west
shore of the Lake of Zurich (4 m. from the city),
Mar. 2, 1819; d. at Zurich Jan. 25, 1885. He
studied at Basel 1837‑39, and then at Berlin;
became pastor at MBnchenstein (3 m. a. of Basel)
1843; professor extraordinary at Zurich 1850,
ordinary 1860, where he lectured at first upon
theological encyclopedia and New Testament in
troduction, later chiefly upon dogmatic theology.
He was the leading theologian of the neo‑Hegeliana,
and was deeply influenced by the Tiibingen school,
especially by Strauss. He was a prolific writer
for the religious press, but obtained his greatest
repute by his Christliche Dogmatik (Zurich, 1869;
2d ed., Berlin, 1884‑85, vol. ii edited by Rxhmke),
in which he denies the historicity of the Gospels,
yet holds to the eternal ideas which the supposed
facts of the Gospels embody; denies Christian
doctrine, but advocates Christian practise; denies personality to God and personal immortality to man, yet holds that love to God and man constitutes the essence of religion. He took a deep interest in education and public affairs, preached often and by preference to small and weak congregations, and was tactful and courteous in his associations with men of all classes; he was a lover of athletics and a robust mountain‑climber. Many of his briefer publications were collected under the title Ausgewdhlte Yortrage and Aufs6tze, with a biographical introduction by J. Kradolfer (Berlin, 1885).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: For further notes on Biedermann's life consult J. J. Oeri, Peratlnliche Erinrtarungen an Biedermaren, in Kirrhenblatt fur die reformierte Schvxiz, 1886, nos. 718. On his theology and philosophy consult O. Pfleiderer, Religionaphiloaophie, i, 594, Berlin, 18!?3; idem, in Preuraieche Jahrbiicher, Jan., 1888, pp. 53‑76; T. Mooaherr, A. E. Biedermann each seiner allpemeinenphiloaophiecheu Stelluag, Jens, 1893.

BIEL, bil, GABRIEL: One of the most remarkable theologians of the late Middle Ages; b. at Speyer; d. at Tiibingen 1495. He studied at Heidelberg, became preacher at St. Martin's Church at Mainz, provost of Urach in Wiirttemberg, and after 1484 professor of theology and philosophy in the newly founded University of Tubingen. In his old age he joined the Brethren of the Common Life (see CoiKnsoN LIFE, BRETHREN OF THE). In theology Biel followed the nominalism of Occam (q.v.), whose system he reproduced in his Epitome et collectorium ex Oceamo super qttattttor libros aententiarum (Ttibingen, 1495). In anthropology and soteriology he was a Semi‑Pelagian, teaching that " merit depends on man's free will and God's grace " (sermo xiv, 7); the sacraments operate not only ex opera operands, but also ex opera operato " (Sent., IV, i, 3). The Church, therefore, was for him a mechanically operating sacramental institution; in its priests he glorifies a " mighty dignity." In questions affecting the constitution of the Church, Biel took the position assumed by the councils of Constance and Basel. As a preacher he surpassed his predecessors in the practicality of his views; his knowledge of political economy also deserves recognition. Besides the work already noticed, he wrote Lecture super canonem missce (Reutlingen, 1488); Expositio canonis misste (Tilbingen, 1499); Sermones (1499); and other works. PAUL TSCHACgERT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. X. Linsenmann, Gabriel Biel der letztt Seholaatiker and der Nominal%amua, in Tiibinger theologiache Quartalachrift, 1885, pp. 449 aqq.; idem, in KL, ii, 804‑808; A. R,itaehl,DierhraetZicheLehre van der Rechtfertigung and Veraohaung, i, 102 aqq., Bonn, 1889; H. Plitt, Gabriel Biel ale Prediger, Erlangen, 1879; Schultz, Der aittliche Begri ff den Yerdienatea, in TSK, 1894, pp. 304 eqq.

BIERLING, bi'ar‑ling, ERNST RUDOLF: German Protestant jurist; b. at Zittau (49 m. s.e. of Dresden) Jan. 7, 1841. He was educated at the universities of Leipsic (18593) and Gottingen (1864‑65), and after being a lawyer in his native city in 1868‑71 was privet‑docent at Gottingen for two years. Since 1873 he has been professor of canon and criminal law at Greifswald. In addition to being a member of the Pomeranian provincial synod in 1878‑99 and of the general synod in 1875

189	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Biedermana
		Billioan
	and 1884‑1902, he was a member of the House of
	Deputies in 1881‑85 and of the Upper House after
	1889. His publications include Gesetzgebungsrecht
	evangelischer Kirchzn im Gebiete der Kirchenlehre
	(Leipaie, 1869); Zur Kritik der juristischen Grund
	begriffe (2 vols., Goths, 1877‑82); Die konfes
sionelle Schtde in Preussen and ihr Recht (1885);
	and Jttristische Prinxipienlehre (3 vole., Tiibingen,
	1894‑1905).
		BIGELMAIER, bf"gel‑mai'er, ANDREAS: Ger
man Roman Catholic; b. at Oberhausen (a suburb
of Augsburg) Oct. 21, 1873. He was educated at
	the University of Munich (Th.D., 1899) and was
	ordained to the priesthood in 1897. From October
	to November, 1897, he was chaplain at HSrzhausen,
	in 1904 became privet‑docent for church history at
	the University of Munich; in 1906 professor of
	church history in the Royal Lyceum of Dillingen.
	Besides numerous contributions to literary and
	theological periodicals, he has written Die Beteili
	gungen der Christen am ojfentlichen Leben in vorkon,
	stantinischer Zeit (Munich, 1902) and Zeno von
	Verona (1904).
		BIGG, CHARLES: Church of England; b. at
	Manchester Sept. 12, 1840; d. Oxford July 15, 1908.
	He studied at Christ Church, Oxford (B.A., 1862),
	where be became tutor. He was master in Chelten
	ham College (1866‑71), head master of Brighton Col
	lege (1871‑81), and rector of Fenny Compton, Leam
	ington, 1887‑1901, and honorary canon of Worcester
	from 1889 to 1901, when he was appointed regius
	professor of ecclesiastical history in Oxford Univer
	sity. He was examining chaplain to the bishops
	of Worcester (1889‑91), Peterborough (1891‑96),
	London (1897‑1901), and Man (1903), Bampton
	lecturer in 1886, and has been canon of Christ Church,
	Oxford, since 1901. He has edited a number of
	Greek classics and the " Confessions " of St. Augus
	tine (London, 1896); the Didache (1898); the De
	Imitations Christi of Thomas & Kempis (1898);
	and Law's Serious Call (1899); and has written
	The Christian Platonists of Alexandria (London,
	1886); Neoplatonism (1895); Unity in Diversity
	(1899); Commentary on the Epistles of Peter and
	Jade (Edinburgh, 1901); and The Church's Task
	under the Roman Empire (London, 1905).
		BIGNE, bid, MARGUERIft, mur"ge"ran, DE LA:
	French theologian; b. at Berni~res‑le‑Patry, in Nor
	mandy, 1546 or 1547; d. at Paris 1589. He came of
	noble Norman parentage; studied at Caen and be
	came rector of the university there; went to Paris,
	where he studied theology at the Sorbonne and
	received the doctorate. To refute the authors of
	the Magdeburg Centuries in June, 1576, he under
	took to give a fuller edition of the writings of the
	Fathers of the Church than had been yet made. For
	this work he was appointed canon of the church of
	Bayeux, and some time after professor of the
	chapter‑school; resigned to succeed his uncle,
	Franqois du Parc, who had died, as dean of the
	church of Mans. In 1576 he was sent as deputy
	from the clergy of Normandy to the States Gen
	eral of Blois. In 1581 he went as canon of Ba
	yeux to the provincial council there, and defended
vigorously his chapter against the usurpation of Bernardin de St. Franpois, bishop of Bayeux. The death of the bishop (July 14, 1582) appeared to end the conflict; but the bishop's successor, Mathurin de Savonnibrea, eventually forced Bigne to resign. He returned to Paris, where he died the same year. He was a great patristic scholar and au eloquent preacher. G. BorrET‑Meulty.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His works were: Veterum patrum et antiquorum ecriptorum ecclee%oaticorum collectio (Paris, 1575‑79); Statute ayrwdalia Parieienaium ep%acoporum, Galonia cardinalia, Odonia et Wilhelmi; item Petri et Galteri Senonenaium archiepiacoporumdeaeta Primum edits (1578); S. Isidori Hiapalenaia Opera (1 b80). Consult: J. Hermant, L'Hietoire du diocPae de Bayeux, Caen, 1705; P. D. Huet, Lis Originea de la ville de Caen, Rouen, 1706; Niekron, Mtynoirea, xxx, 279; J. G. de ChauHepie, Nouveau diotionnaire hiatorique et critique, vol. i, Amsterdam, 1750.
BILLICAN, THEOBALD (Diepold Gernolt or Gerlacher): German theologian; b. at Billigheim (4 m. s.s.w. of Landau), Bavaria, toward the end of the fifteenth century; d. at Marburg Aug. 8, 1554. He took his surname from his birthplace; studied at Heidelberg, where Melanchthon was his fellow student; lectured at Heidelberg; became provost of the college of arts (1520) and had among others Johann Brenz (q.v.) as his pupil. When, in 1518, Luther came to Heidelberg, Billican, Brenz, *hnepff, and Martin Butzer (q.v.) were among his admirers. Billican left Heidelberg in 1522 and went to .Veil as preacher. But his sermons against the mediatorahip of the Virgin Mary and against purgatory brought about his deposition and he went to Nordlingen (1523), where he remained till 1535. Billiean opened there a way for the Reformation and published Von der Mess Gemein Schhtssred (1524), in which he sharply rebuked the " fraud " of the mass as a sacrifice for the living and the dead. Billicau, who corresponded with Luther, Melanchthon, Rhegius, Brenz, (Ecolaanpadius, and Zwingli, was regarded as a leader of the Evangelical cause in South Germany. But future events showed the instability of his character. In his controversy with Carlstadt, who had come to Nordlingen, he aided with Luther against Carlstadt in the doctrine of the Lord's Supper and stated in his Renovatio ecclesice (1525) that " in the Lord's Supper the flesh and blood of the Lord ass present." Induced by Urbanua Rhegius (q.v.) openly to defend the Lutheran doctrine, Billican sent a statement to Rhegius, which the latter published (in mutilated form, as Billican complained) together with his answer Dec. 18, 1525, under the title De verbis dente dominicee et opinionttm varietate Theobaldi Billicaniad Urbanism Regittm (1526). But while theyof Wittenberg were rejoicing over this new ally, Billican changed his views in a letter addressed to (Ecolampadius Jan. 16, 1526; and two months later, in letters addressed to Schleupner at Nuremberg and to Pirkheimer, he expressed still other views. While Billican did not fully agree with Zwingli, he stated that he learned more from the Zwinglians than from the Lutherans, and, adopting in part the views of Carlstadt and (Ecolampadius, he pretended to teach the only correct doctrine because he stood between the two parties. His vacillating

Bilney
8interim	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	190
position is best illustrated in a booklet entitled
Epiatola Theobaldi Billicani ad Joannem Hubelium qua illo de eucharfstia cogitandi materiam congcri.Psit (1528) which remained unnoticed.
	Billican, of whom so much had been expected,
was now avoided by both parties. In 1529 he ap
plied to Heidelberg University for the doctorate,
presenting at the same time a confession in which he
acrimoniously rejected Lutheran, Zwinglian, and
Anabaptist doctrine, and expressed his firm belief
in the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church.
Being refused by the faculty, he married a woman
of wealth, and, regardless of what had taken place,
he had the boldness to ask Melanchthon to procure
him the doctorate at Wittenberg. The latter
replied, " [The authorities] advance no one before
he has set forth his doctrinal views " (CR, 1,1112).
Since he was repelled by the Reformers and not
fully trusted by the Roman Catholics, Billican'a
position became untenable, and so in 1535 he left
NSrdlingen and went to Heidelberg, where he com
menced the study of jurisprudence. He was made
licentiate in jurisprudence and for a time took the
place of a professor who was disabled on account
of sickness. When in 1543 .that professor died
and Billican sought the position, the entire faculty
opposed his nomination, but through the influence
of Margaret von der Layen, whose " chancellor "
ha was considered, he was permitted to give inde
pendent lectures on law. On account of his rela
tions with Margaret, the elector Frederick II deposed
Billican from his office July 26, 1544, and ordered
him to leave Heidelberg. He went to Marburg
and was made professor of rhetoric, a position which
he held till his death. 	(T. KOLDE.)
BIHLi0a8AP87: G. Veeaenmeyer, Kleine Beytrape zur Geachichte des Reichatapa zn Augsburg, 1630, pp. 59 aqq., Nuremberg, 1830; A. Steichele, Daa Biatum Augsburg, iii, 947 eqq., Augsburg, 1872; T. Keim, Die SEellunp der achwubiachen Kitchen cur swinpliaeh‑lutheriechen Spaltuny, in TJB, riv, 1894; C. Geyer, Die NSrdtinper eoanpetiachcn Kirchenordnungen des 16. Jahrhunderta, Munich, 1898.

BILNEY (BYLNEY), THOMAS: Early English Protestant; b. of a Norfolk family about 1495; burned at the stake at Norwich Aug. 19, 1531. He studied at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and gave up law for theology and was ordained priest in 1519. He adopted the belief in justification by faith alone and was a leader in a company of Cambridge men who were inclined to the views of the Reformation; Hugh Latimer was added to the number by Bilney'a influence and became his lifelong friend. Concerning the mass, transubstantiation, and the powers of the pope and the Church, Bilney remained orthodox; but he preached unremittingly in Cambridge, London, and neighboring counties, denouncing the invocation of saints and relic‑worship, pilgrimages and fastinga, at the same time leading a moat austere life and devoted to deeds of charity. He was arrested and confined in the Tower Nov. 25, 1527; brought to trial, he denied having wittingly taught the doctrines of Luther, but was finally persuaded to abjure his alleged heresies and as penance was kept imprisoned for more than a year. Released in 1529, he went back to Cambridge, suffered much from remorse for his abjuration, and
in 1531 resumed preaching, but was immediately arrested, and was executed as a relapsed heretic.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources for a life are in Letters and Papers . . . of the Reign of Henry VIII., vol, v, ed. James Gairdner, in Record Publications, London, 1883‑80. Consult also C. H. Cooper, Athenca Cantabrigienaea, i, 42, ib. 1858; DNB, v, 40‑43. .
BELSON, THOMAS: Bishop of Winchester; b. at Winchester 1546 or 1547; d. there June 18, 1616. He studied at New College, Oxford (B.A., 1566; M.A., 1570; B.D., 1579; D.D., 1581); was made prebend of Winchester 1576, and became warden of the college there; was consecrated bishop of Worcester 1596, translated to Winchester 1597. He was a noted preacher, a man of much learning, and defended the Church of England against both Roman ‑Catholics and Puritans. At the command of Queen Elizabeth he wrote The True Difference between Christian Subjection and Unchristian Rebellion (Oxford, 1585), in answer to Cardinal William Allen's Defence of the English Catholics (Ingoldstadt, 1584), and The Survey of Christ's Sufferings for Man's Redemption and of his Descent to Hades or Hell for our Deliverance (London, 1604), a reply to the Browniat Henry Jacob; in The Perpetual Government of Christ's Church (1593; new ed., with memoir, Oxford, 1842) he defended episcopacy. With Dr. Miles Smith he revised the King James translation of the Bible before its publication, and he added the summaries of contents at the head of each chapter.
BIDLIOaRAPHY: A. &. wood, Atheaa Oxoaienass, ed. P. Bliss.
ii, 189‑171, 4 vole., London, 1813‑20; DNB, v, 43‑44.
BINDING AND LOOSING, POWER OF. Sea KEYB, POWER OF THE.

BINDLEY, THOMAS HERBERT: Church of England; b. at Smethwick (3 m. n.w. of Birmingham), Staffordshire, Oct. 21, 1861. He was educated at Brownagrove College, Worcestershire, and Merton College, Oxford (B.A., 1884), and was ordered deacon in 1889 and ordained priest in the following year. He was assistant curate of Ixworth, Suffolk, in 1889, and since 1890 has bees principal of Codrington College, Barbados, and examining chaplain to the bishop of Barbados. He became canon of Barbados in 1893 and archdeacon in 1904, while in the following year he was made vicar‑general of the diocese. In theology he is a liberal High‑churchman. In addition to numerous contributions to theological periodicals, he has translated St. Athanasius de incarnations Verbi Dei (London, 1887); Tertullian's Apology (London, 1889); Epistle of the Gallican Churches (1900); and St. Cyprian on the Lord's Prayer (1904). He has also edited Tertulliani Apologetieua (Oxford, 1889); Tertulliani De Prcescriptione (1893); and ecumenical Documents of the Faith (London, 1900); and has written The Creeds (1896) and Et incarnates eat (New York, 1896).

BINGHAM, H1RAM: Congregational missionary; b. at Honolulu, Hawaii, Aug. 16, 1831; d. at Baltimore Oct. 25, 1908. He was educated at Yale College (B.A., 1853) and Andover Theological Seminary (1854‑55), and, after acting as principal of the Northampton High School in 1853‑54, entered the

191	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	8ilney
8lnterim
service of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions in 1856. He began his missionary activity in the Gilbert Islands in 1857, and from 1866 to 1868 was in command of the missionary brig Morning Star. He was corresponding secretary of the board of the Hawaiian Evangelical Association from 1877 to 1880. From 1880‑82 he was Hawaiian government protector of South Sea immigrants. In theology he was a conservative. He has written Story of the Morning Star (Boston, 186G); Gilberrese Bible (New York, 1893); Gilbertese Bible Dictionary (Honolulu, 1895); Gilbertese Hymn and Tune Book (New York, 1897); Gilbertese Commentary on Matthew (1904); and Gilbertese Commentary on the Four Gospels (1905).
BINGHAM, JOSEPH: Church of England; b. at Wakefield (9 m. s. of Leeds), Yorkshire, Sept., 1668; d. at Havant (6 m. s.e. of Portsmouth), Hampshire, Aug. 17, 1723. He studied at Oxford and was fellow of University College 1689‑95, when he resigned and withdrew from the university because his controversial sermon on the Trinity preached before the university had led to the charge, wholly unmerited, of heresy. He was immediately appointed rector of HeadbournWorthy (2 m. n. of Winchester), which made the rich cathedral library accelaible to him. In 1712 he was transferred to the. Fetter living of Havant. His fame rests upon his Originea Eccleaiastico;, or the Antiquities of the Christian Church (8 vole., London, 1708‑22). This is exhaustive for the field it covers and can never be superseded, as it is derived from the sources and interestingly written. It has been a quarry for many books and itself several times reprinted; the best edition is by the greatgreat‑grandson of the author, Rev. Richard Bing. ham (vole. i‑viii of Bingham's Works, 10 vols., Oxford, 1855). There is a separate edition of the Antiquities in the Bohn Library (2 vole.), a Latin translation by Johann Heinrich Griachow (Grischovius; 11 vols., Halls, 1724‑38), and an abridged German translation by an anonymous Roman Catholic author (4 vole., Augsburg, 1788‑96). Unfortunately Bingham invented his savings in the South Sea Bubble and so lost them in 1720.
BIHLIOdaAPHY: Bingham's biography by his great‑grandson is given in the Oxford ed. of his works. Consult also: J. Darling, Cydopadia Bibliopraphim, pp. 312‑31b, London, 1854; $. $. Allibone, Critical Dictionary of Eng. Literature, i, 189‑190, Philadelphia, 1891; DNB, v, 48‑b0.
BIftNEY, THOMAS: English Congregationalist'
‑
b. at Newcastle‑upon‑Tyne Apr. 30, 1798; d. at Clapton, London, Feb. 24, 1874. He was for seven years a bookseller's clerk at Newcastle, during which time he learned Greek and Latin and accomplished considerable reading. He studied at the theological seminary at Wymondley, Hertfordshire, and was minister for a year at Bedford; became minister at Newport, Isle of Wight, 1824, of the King's Weigh‑House Chapel, Eastcheap, London, ‑1829, and remained there forty years. After retiring from his pastorate he was professor of homiletics and pastoral theology at New College, London. He was chairman of the Congregational Union in 1848. He was strongly opposed to an established Church, and is 1833 at the laying of the corner‑
stone of a new chapel for the Weigh‑House congre
gation expressed himself on the subject in language
which led to a long and bitter controversy. He
felt that the sermon occupied too large a place in
the service of the non‑ritualistic Churches and
favored the introduction of responsive readings
and similar changes in the form of worship; his
Service o f Song in the House o f the Lord (London,
1848) exercised much influence in the development
of a richer and better musical service, and he en
riched the hymnals by the hymn " Eternal light,
eternal light:' He edited Charles W. Baird's
Chapter on Liturgies, adding a preface and an appen
dix, "Are Dissenters to Have a Liturgy? " (1856).
His other publications include a Memoir of Stephen
Morell (1826); Dissent Not Schism (1835); a life
of Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton (1849); la it Possible
to Make the Best of Both Worldag (1853); Lights
and Shadows, or Church Life in Australia, obser
vations made during a visit in 1857‑59 (1860);
Money, a Popular Exposition in Rough Notes (1864);
St. Paul, his Life and Ministry (1866); Micah
the Priest Maker, a handbook on ritualism (1867);
From Seventeen to Thirty, a book for young men
(1868). Two aeries of his Sermons Preached in
the King's Weigh‑House Chapel, 1829‑‑69, were pub
lished, the second with biographical sketch by
the Rev. H. Anon (1869‑75).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the sketch in the volume of his sermons, the following may be consulted: A Memorial o/ the late Rev. Thomas Binney, ed. J. Stoughton, London, 1874; E. P. Hood, Thomas Binney, his Mind, Life and Opinions, ib. 1874; DNB, v, b7‑b9.

BINTERIM, ANTON JOSEF: German Catholic theologian; b. at Diisaeldorf Sept. 19, 1779; d. at Bilk (n. suburb of Dusseldorf) May 17, 1855. After receiving his first education in his native city, lie entered the Franciscan order in 1796 and studied philosophy and theology at Diiren and Aachen for five years and a half. Returning to Diiaseldorf, he was ordained priest at Cologne (Sept. 19, 1802). The suppression of the monasteries on the right bank of the Rhine in the following year, however, obliged him to become a secular priest, and in 1805, after passing the required examination, he was appointed to the ancient and extensive parish of Bilk, where he remained until his death. Binterim was an enthusiastic propagandist of ultramonta niam, and to this cause he devoted the greater part of his prolific literary activity. He also defended the Jesuits and upheld the authenticity of the Holy Coat of Trevea, while with equal consistency he opposed the followers of Georg Hermes (q.v.) and Catholic " rationalism." In 1837, with his elder brother, he had founded and endowed the vicarage of St. Anthony of Padua at Bilk, and in honor of his jubilee the first impulse toward the establishment of the Historiacher Verein f iir den Niederrhein was given in 1852. In his devotion to the Church he was imprisoned for nix months, in 1838 for opposing mixed marriages.
(VICTOR SCHULTZE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Among the numerous publications of Binterim special mention may be made of the following: Ueber Ehe and Ehescheidunp each Gotteswort and dem• Geiste der kathoZischcn Kirche (DOeaeldorf, 1819); Calendarium eeclesia Germanicm Coloniencis adenli noni (Co‑‑

Birch
Bishop	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	192
logne, 1824); Die vorzaglichaten Denkwiird%pkeiten der ehriat‑katholieehen Kirche (7 vola., Mainz, 1825‑41); Die katholiache Kirche, sin Gepenaatz des Rationaliamua and Aftesmysticiamua (Diiseeldorf, 1827); Die alts and neue Erzdioeeae K6ln (4 vols., 1828‑30); Ueber die zvxekmda sige Einrichtung des uralten katholiachen Gotteadienatea and den heilaamen Gebrauch der Za.teiniachen Sprache bei demaeZben (1832); Ueber den Gebrauch des ChriatenbZutea bei den Juden (1834); Pragmatiache Geschichte der deutachen Concilien (7 vols., 1£35‑49); Der katholi.ache Bruderund Sclaweaterbuttd zu einer rein katholiachen Ehe (1838); De proepiacopia sine suffraganeia Colonienaibue eatraordinariia (Mainz, 1843); Zevgnisae fur die Eehlh,eit des heiligen Rockea zu Tries (3 parts, Diiaseldorf, 1845‑46); Die geistlichen Gerichte vom 1 2. 19. Jahrhundert (2 parts, 1849); Der heilipe Hilariua (Leipsic, 1851); Hermann IL, T.rzbiachof von K6ln (DOSSeldorf, 1851); Ueber den Hoatienduendel in Deutschland and Frankreich (2d ed., 1852); and Die Beheimen Voraehriften der Jeauiten (Monitor Secrets), sin altes Lupenwerk (1853).
For his life consult: ADS, vol. ii; K. Werner, Geachichte der katholiachen Theologie aeit dem Trienter Konzil Us zur Gepenwart, pp. 391‑393; KL, ii, 848‑854 (in considerable detail).
BIRCH, THOMAS: Church of England clergyman and author; b. in London Nov. 23, 1705; d. there Jan. 9, 1766. He was ordained priest in 1731, although of Quaker parentage and without a university education; was an ardent Whig and, having influential patrons, received many good preferments, holding at the time of his death the rectories of St. Margaret Pattens, London, and Depden, Suffolk. He was an indefatigable writer, and his works have been criticized as showing more industry than judgment; they include a number of volumes relating to English history; lives of Robert Boyle (London, 1744), Archbishop Tillotson (1752), and others, as well as most of the English biographies in the General Dictionary (10 vols., 1734‑41); editions of Milton's prose (1738), Sir Walter Raleigh's works (1751), and the works and letters of Lord Bacon (1765); History of the Royal Society of London (4 vole., 1756‑57); numerous communications in the " Philosophical Transactions" and other periodical publications.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Nichols, Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century, i, 585‑837, ii, 507, iii, 258, v, 40‑43, 53, 282‑290, London, 1812‑15; DNB, v, 88‑70.
BIRD, FREDERIC MAYER: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Philadelphia June 28, 1838; d. in South Bethlehem, Pa., Apr. 3, 1908. He was educated at the University of Pennsylvania (B.A., 1857) and Union Theological Seminary (1860). He was ordained to the Lutheran ministry in 1860, and after serving as an army‑chaplain in 1862‑63, held several pastorates. In 1870 he became Protestant Episcopal rector of Spotswood, N. J., from 1870 to 1874. Seven years later he was appointed professor of psychology, Christian ethics, and rhetoric in Lehigh University, remaining there in this capacity, as well as in that of chaplain, until 1886. He was also acting chaplain there in 1896‑98, and from 1893 to 1898 was editor of Lippincott's Magazine. In the latter year be became associate editor of Chandler's Encyclopedia. In addition to numerous contributions to periodicals and encyclopedias, including most of the American matter in Julian's Dictionary of Hymnology (London, 1892), he has edited Charles Wesley Seen in his Finer land Less Familiar Poems ( New York, 186? ) ; the Hymns of the Lutheran Pennsylvania ministerium (Philadelphia,
1865; in collaboration with S. M. Schmucker); and Songs of the Spirit (New York, 1871; in collaboration with Bishop W. H. Odenheimer). He made a noteworthy collection of hymnology, now in Union Theological Seminary, New York City.

BIRETTA. See VESTMENTS AND INSIGNIA, EcCLESIASTICAL.
BIRGITTA, ST., AND THE BIItGITTIftE ORDER. See BRIDGET, SAINT, OF SWEDEN.

BIRINUS, SAINT: First bishop of the West Saxons; d. Dec. 3, 650. He was a Benedictine monk at Rome and was given a missionary commission by Pope Honorius I. After being consecrated bishop at Genoa by Astenus, archbishop of Milan, he landed in Wessex about 634. He baptized its king, Cynegils, in 635, Oswald of Northumbria standing as sponsor. He fixed his see at Dorchester (now a small village, 8 m. s.e. of Oxford), and gained influence in Wessex and Mercia. Cwichelm, the son of Gynegils, was baptized in 636; Cuthred, Cwichelm's son, in 639; Cenwalh, the brother and successor of Cynegils, in 646.
BIBLIOGRAPHT: Beds, Hiat. ece1., iii, 7.
BISHOP: A spiritual overseer in the Christian Church. The origin of the office, its historic development, and theories of its relative dignity will be found discussed in the article POLITY; for views of different communions concerning the office, see EPISCOPACY; this article will deal mainly with the selection of bishops and their duties.
In the Roman Catholic Church the bishop holds the first place in the hierarchy, not as belonging to a separate order, but as having the fulness of the priesthood. Conditions for consecration are the following: legitimate birth, the age of thirty years, eminent learning, and moral probity. In the ordinary case the candidate is supposed also to be a native of the country and acceptable to the government. The choice of the person belongs, on the curialist theory, to the pope; but in practise it is generally left to the chapter, either by election, or when there are canonical impediments to be removed, as when translation from another see is required, by Postulation (q.v.); or
Election it may occur through nomination and by the government. The candidate
Consecra‑ must then receive the papal contion. firmation, after examination as to his fitness. This is made first by a papal delegate in the place of the election (processes informativzs in partibus eleeti), after which a second investigation takes place at Rome, by the committee of cardinals appointed for the purpose (congregatio exayninis episcoPorum); this second examination is called processes electionis de finitivus in curia. If both prove favorable to the candidate, he is confirmed, preconized, and put in possession of his powers of jurisdiction, though not, of course, of those pertaining to orders until his consecration, which is supposed to occur within three months. It is administered by a bishop designated by the pope, with the assistance of two other bishops or prelates, in the cathedral of the new bishop's diocese. The candidate takes the ancient oath

of fidelity to the pope (substantially the same as that prescribed by Gregory VII in 1079), signs the profession of faith, and then, after he has been duly consecrated according to the form laid down in the Roman Pontifical, is solemnly enthroned. An oath of allegiance to the government of the country is also usually administered before consecration.
The rights or powers of a bishop may be considered under three heads‑as pertaining to his orders, to his jurisdiction, and to his dignity. As to the first, he has all the jura ordinis of the fulness of the priesthood, including, besides those powers which every priest shares with him, the special episcopal prerogatives of administering ordination and confirmation, of consecrating the holy oils, churches, and sacred objects in general, of benediction of abbots and abbesses, and of anointing sovereigns. The rights of jurisdiction, in the broad sense, embrace the bishop's whole power of ruling his diocese as its chief pastor. Sometimes, however, the term lzx jurisdictionis is applied specially
		to his legislative and executive ftmc
Rights	tions (for the jurisdictio conteretiosa and
	and	coereiliva‑i.e., the power of hearing
Duties.	cases and pronouncing and enforcing
		judgment‑see AUDIENTIA Eplaco‑
PALL9; JURISDICTION, ECCLESIASTICAL), while the ex
pression lex diacesann refers to his right to the vari
ous church taxes. These rights belong to the bishop
as bishop, and in regard to them he is judex ordina,
rius, " the ordinary"; but he often holds other
powers specially delegated to him as represent
ative of the pope (see FACULTLE9). Finally, in
regard to his dignity, he takes ecclesiastical rank,
is virtue of his exalted office, immediately after
the cardinals, and bears various customary titles
of honor, being addressed as " Right Reverend,"
" My Lord," etc. In many places he also enjoys
secular precedence; and he has his special insignia
and vestments (see VESTMENTS AND INSIGNIA,
ECCLESIASTICAL). To these prerogatives corre
sponding duties are attached, including not only
the cure of souls, but residence in his diocese, and
a visit to Rome to report upon its condition at
fixed intervals, varying with the distance. Since
the bishop is naturally unable to exercise all the
rights and duties above described in person through
out kris entire diocese, he has always had special
assistants‑in early times the archdeacons and
archpriests, later his chapter and variously desig
nated functionaries, vicars‑general and the like,
as well as, for those things which pertain to the
power of orders, coadjutor or assistant bishops.
See the articles tinder these titles.
In the Protestant Churches the episcopate in the Roman Catholic sense has not been preserved. In the early days of the Reformation in Germany, the assaults of the Reformers were directed not so much against the episcopal power in itself as against abuses in its exercise; until 1545 the question was debated on what conditions the adherents of the evangelical doctrine could agree to submit to the existing bishops of the old Church. The Lutheran confessions of faith recognize as of divine right only the pastoral function in the bishop's office; all else is of merely human institution, and IL‑13
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Birch
Bishop
may be abolished by the same power that created it. Since, however, they laid down no definite form of ecclesiastical polity as ordained by God, they could and did declare themselves willing to recognize these powers still, so long as the bishops would allow freedom to teach the pure doctrine and tolerate the priests who preached it. Some bishops fulfilled the condition and accepted the evangelical doctrine; but this semblance of epiacopal government had clearly nothing in common with the pre‑Reformation episcopate except the name and certain forma. Elsewhere, as in Schwerin and later at OanabrUck and Lubeck, the name bishop was definitely used for an official appointed by the ruling power, in no sense ecclesiastical. The attempt to prove that the German Reformation deliberately intended to retain episcopal government is quite useless, though the tendency which it represents has had adherents, among whom were Frederick William IV and Bunsen. Where the title has been employed in the modern evangelical Church of Germany, it represents nothing more than a general superintendent. The bishops of England, Sweden, and Denmark are also not bishops in the strict sense understood by the Roman Catholics; their institutions rest on special historical grounds which are beyond the scope of this article. (E. FRIEDBERG.)
In the Church of England there are three classes of bishops: the diocesan bishops, taking their titles (with a few exceptions of recently founded sees) from the old pre‑Reformation dioceses; sufl'ragan bishops, bearing likewise territorial titles; and assistant bishops. The diocesali bishops are nominally elected by the chapters of their cathedrals, but practically are appointed by the Crown, which sends a nomination to the chapter with the conga d'elire: Suffragan bishops are also nominated by the Crown, while assistant bishops are appointed by the prelate under whom they are to serve. Their appointment is revocable at his pleasure; that of suffragans is for life. None of these classes has any jurisdiction independent of its superior. With the first extension of the Anglican colonial episcopate, the English government attempted to claim the same right of nomination as at home; but this claim was abandoned, and the colonial bishops are now elected either by the clergy or by the deliberative assemblies of their dioceses. In the Episcopal Church of the United States, bishops are elected by the diocesan conventions: their election must then be confirmed by a majority of the other bishops and " standing committees." Assistant bishops in this Church are now known as bishopecoadjutor, and have the right of succession on the death of the diocesan bishop. In England bishops are frequently " translated " from one see to another; in the United States, bishops of missionary jurisdictions may be elected to a diocesan see, but this is all. Throughout the Anglican communion consecration by three other bishops is required. Every English bishop at his consecration takes the oaths of allegiance to .the sovereign and canonical obedience to his metropolitan; in the United States each bishop is independent, subject only to the general law of the Church as formulated by the

Bishop
Blackwood	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	194
General Convention, the office of presiding bishop being almost purely honorary. Throughout the Anglican communion the administration of certain quaaisacramental rites (confirmation, ordination, consecration of churches, etc.) is strictly reaervedto the bishop, who also has a power of ordinary jurisdiction in some measure resembling that exercised by the Roman Catholic prelates. The two English archbishops, the bishops of London, Winchester, and Durham, and moat of the other bishops (the number corresponding to that of the more ancient sees), as " spiritual lords," have seats in the upper house of parliament. The American Methodist Episcopal Church also has its bishops, who are elected in any number required by the General Conference. They have joint jurisdiction throughout the Church, being confined to no diocese or districts, though for practical reasons theGeneral Conference designates episcopal residences at its quadrennial sessions. Their functions are purely executivethey preside at conferences, arrange districts for presiding elders, fix appointments of preachers, and, especially, travel throughout the Church to promote its spiritual and temporal interests. No distinction of order is recognized between them and other ministers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult Bingham, Oripinea, books iv, v, ix, xvi, xvii, for the election of bishops and the exercise of discipline; P. HergenrSther, Lelvrbuch do& katholiachen Kirchenrechta, Freiburg. 1905. On the general subject consult works cited in Ceases Govearrmxxx.

BISHOP, NATHAN: Baptist layman; b. of New England stock at Vernon, Oneida County, N. Y., Aug. 12, 1808; d. at Saratoga Aug. 7, 1880. He was graduated at Brown 1837, and elected tutor; was superintendent of schools in Providence 1838‑51, in Boston 1851‑57. Removing to New York, he became an active member of the Sabbath Committee, manager of the American Bible Society, a member of the Christian Commission during the Civil War, and of the Indian Commission appointed by President Grant in 1869; he was also a member of the New York State Board of Charities, a delegate of the Evangelical Alliance to the Czar of Russia in behalf of religious liberty in the Baltic provinces in 1871, a trustee of Brown University from 1842, and one of the original board of trustees of 'Vassar College. For two years he served gratuitously as secretary of the American Baptist Home Mission Society, and he was chairman of the finance committee of the American Bible Revision Committee till his death.
(P. ScHAITt) D. S. SCHAEF.

BISHOP (EPISCOPUS) IN PARTIBUS INFIDELIUM. See BISHOP, TITULAR.

BISHOP, TITULAR: According to the old law of the Church, only one bishop was consecrated for a diocese; and none was consecrated at large or without a definite diocese (First Council of Nicaea, canon viii). If, therefore, occasion arose for the designation of a representative to perform episcopal functions in the place of an incapacitated bishop, it was necessary to call upon some neighboring bishop or one who happened to be in those parts (see COADJUTOR). In the ninth and tenth
centuries, certain Spanish bishops who had been
driven from their sees by the Saraoena, and in the
tenth some from Prussia and Livonia who were in
a similar position, served in this capacity. The
same service was rendered in the fourteenth cen
tury by the bishops of sees founded in the East
during the crusades and afterward occupied by the
Mohammedans. So, even after all hope of the
recovery of these territories had been abandoned,
bishops continued to be consecrated for these
dioceses, called episcopi an partibua infideliurn
(" bishops in the regions of the unbelieving ")
until 1882, when Leo XIII ordered the use of the
designation episcopi titulares. Their functions are
various. In the first place, they serve as auxiliary
or coadjutor bishops in dioceses where the need
exists, when the diocesan makes a request to the
pope for such an assignment, naming a suitable
person, and giving assurance for his support.
The coadjutor of course possesses all the jura
ordinis like any other bishop, but exercises them
only at the direction of his superior, and he has not,
ex officio, the other prerogatives of a diocesan bishop
(see BISHOP). Apostolic vicars, who administer
missionary districts not formed into dioceses are
usually consecrated bishops, and so are certain
Roman functionaries who are members of the great
congregations, and papal nuncios and other diplo
matic representatives. Titular bishops are also
consecrated for certain special purposes, such as
the administration of holy orders to the Uniat
Greeks of Italy, and the spiritual oversight of the
military and naval forces of certain countries (see
EXEMPTION). 	(P. Hurac$lust.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Thomseein, Vetw et nova ece7eeim diaciplina, part I, book i, chaps. 27‑28, Lucca, 1728; A. 77. Andnucci, Tractatua de epiacopo titulari, Rome, 1732; J. C. M&ller, Oeschichte der Weihbiach6ta won Oanabriick, Lingen, 1887.

BISHOPRIC, or DIOCESE: The territory over which the jurisdiction of a bishop extends. The origin of such divisions goes back to the foundation and growth of the very early Christian communities. When the apostles founded a church in a city, the faithful living there (Gk. paroikoi, Porepidemai ; cf. Eph, ii, 19; I Pet. ii, 11) formed a community (paroikia) which gradually took more definite shape under the leadership of the presbyters or bishops, and gained adherents outside the town. At first these latter attended divine service in the city, until their numbers increased sufficiently to form a separate dependent community, the term paroikia being applied to the larger territory equally. In the West the name parochia retained this sense until the ninth century, when it became restricted to single parishes in the modern sense, the bishop's jurisdiction being known as dicecesis (already in use to designate a civil governor's jurisdiction). The latter word in the East, following the analogy of civil divisions, was applied to the district ruled by a patriarch. In Gaul the ecclesiastical unit was constituted out of the chief town of a district and its annexed‑ territory (conventus, Gk. dioikdsis), which in the Frankish period corresponded to the jurisdiction of a count. In Germany the original diocese was larger, and the Gau was coterminous

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
198
with its subdivision of archdeaconry or deanery. The erection or redistribution of dioceses was from the fourth century a function of the metropolitan and the provincial synod; in Germany from the eighth century it was carried out under papal supervision. From the eleventh century it has been reserved to the pope; but in Germany the joint action of the state has been required, the matter being considered a cause mixta.
(E. FRIEDBERG.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Thomasein, Vetua et nova tcdeeiet diaeiplina, part I, book iii, Lucca, 1728; R. Hooker, Ecckaiaatical Polity, book viii, chap. 8, best ed., by Keble, 3 vole., Oxford, 1846; H. Milmaa, History of Christianity, book iv, London, 1887; W. T. Arnold, Roman System of Provincial Administration, London, 1879; Bingham, Ori9inea.. Books iv‑v, ix; KL, ii, 878‑888.
	BISHOPS' BOOK, THE: A work published
at London in 1537, compiled by a commission of
English bishops and clergymen, of which the full
title is The Institution of a Christian Man, con
taining the exposition or interpretation o f the common
creed, of the seven sacraments, of the x command
ments and of the pacer roster, and of the eve mania,
justification, and purgatory. It reflects the con
ditions of the time in maintaining that the authority
of the pope is a human institution, while not denying
that the Church of Rome is a part of the Church
Universal. It is reprinted in Formularies of Faith
Put Forth by Authority during the Reign of Henry
VIII, edited by C. Lloyd, bishop of Oxford (Oxford,
1825). Consult C. Hardwick, A History o f the Chris
tian Church during the Reformation (6th ed., London,
1877).
BISSELL, EDWIN CONE: American Congregationalist; b. at Schoharie, N. Y., Mar. 2, 1832; d. at Chicago Apr. 10, 1894. He was graduated at Amherst 1855, and at Union Theological Seminary, New York, 1859; was pastor of Congregational churches at Westhampton, Mass., 18594, San Francisco, 1864‑69, Winchester, Mass., 1871‑73; missionary of the American Board in Austria 1874‑79; became Nettleton professor of Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis in the Hartford Theological Seminary 1881, and of Old Testament exegesis and literature in McCormick Theological Seminary, Chicago, 1892. During his pastorate at Westhampton he raised a company of the fiftysecond regiment, Massachusetts volunteers, and served as its captain under Gen. Banks at Port Hudson 1862‑63. In 1869‑70 he supplied the
pulpit of the Congregational Church at Honolulu, Sandwich Islands. He published The Historic Origin of the Bible (New York, 1873); The Apocrypha of the Old Testament (a revised translation, introduction, and notes, vol. xv of the American Large aeries, 1880); The Pentateuch, its origin and structure (1885); Biblical Antiquities (Phila‑
delphia, 1888); A Practical Introductory Hebrew Grammar (Hartford, 1891); Genesis Printed in Colors, showing the original sources from which it is supposed to have been compiled, with introduction (1892).
BITHYftIA. See AsiA MINOR IN THE APOSTOLIC TIME, VI.
BIZOCHI. See FRATICELLI.
Bishop
Blaakwood
BJORLIftG, bim'ling, CARL OLOF: Swedish theologian; b. at Weater5s (60 m. w.n.w. of Stockholm), Sweden, Sept. 16, 1804; d. there Jan. 20, 1884. He studied at the University of Upsala; became bishop of Weaterhs, 1866, having long been connected as teacher and rector with the Gefle gymnasium. He was the author of several learned works, including a treatise on Christian dogmatics (2 parts, 1847‑75), which attracted considerable attention in Germany, and shows his firm adherence to the Augsburg Confession.
BLACK FATHERS. See HOLY GHOST, ORDERS AND CONGREGATIONS OF THE, II, 6.
BLACK FRIARS: A name given in England to Dominican monks because of the color of their dress.
BLACK, HUGH: Scotch Presbyterian; b. at Rothesay (40 m. w. of Glasgow), Buteahire, Mar26, 1868. He was graduated from Glasgow University in 1887 and the Free Church College, Glasgow, in 1891, and was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in the latter year. He was pastor of Sherwood Church, Paisley, 1891‑96, and became associate pastor of St. George's Free Church, Edinburgh, 1896. He lectured on homiletics at Union Theological Seminary, New York, in 1905, and in 1906 became professor of practical theology in that institution. He has written The Dream of Youth (London, 1894); Friendship (1897); Culture and Restraint (1901); Work (1903); The Practice of Self‑Culture (1904); and Comfort (1906).
BLACK JEWS. See CHURCH of GOD, 2.
BLACK RUBRIC: The popular name for the declaration enjoining kneeling at the end of the order for the administration of the Lord's Supper in the prayer‑book of the Church of England, so called because it was printed in black letter in the prayerbook as revised by William Sancroft (q.v.) in 1661. It is not, strictly speaking, a rubric at all as it is intended for the direction of the people and not for the officiating clergy. Nor did Sancroft originate it, as it dates back to the second prayer‑book of Edward VI (1552), whose council ordered that the communicants should receive the elements kneeling, and explained in the " rubric" that this attitude was not used to express belief in transubstantiation. The " rubric " was omitted in the Elizabethan prayer‑book of 1559, and this omission was one of the cherished grievances of the Puritans. In the Savoy Conference of 1661 the Presbyterians demanded its restoration, but the bishops were not at the time inclined to grant it; at the last moment, however, it was replaced and $o it appears in the
revised prayer‑book of Charles II and is still retained in the English prayer‑book. It was removed from the prayer‑book a$ revised for the American Episcopal Church in 1789.

BLACKWOOD, WILLIAM: Presbyterian; b. at Dromara, County Down, Ireland, June 1, 1804; d. in Baltimore Md., Nov. 13, 1893. He was graduated at the Royal College, Belfast, 1832; became pastor successively of the Presbyterian churches of .Holywood, near Belfast, 1835; of

Bla Dhemy	THE VIEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	198
Trinity Church, Newcastle‑on‑Tyne, 1843; and of the Ninth Church, Philadelphia, Penn., 1850. He was secretary to the Education Committee of the Irish Presbyterian Church, 1834‑40; mathematical examiner of students under care of the Synod of Ulster, 1839‑43; and was moderator of the Presbyterian Church in England, 1846. He published, with other works, essays on Missions to the Heathen (Belfast, 1830); Atonement, Faith, and Assurance (Philadelphia, 1856); Bellarmine's Notes of the Church (1858); and edited the papers of the late Rev. Richard Webster, with introduction and indexes, and published them under the title Webster's History of the Presbyterian Church (Philadelphia, 1857); also the Biblical, Theological, Biographical, and Literary Encycloptedia, (2 vols., 1873‑76).

BLAME, WILLIAM GARDEN: Free Church of Scotland; b. at Aberdeen Feb. 5, 1820; d. at North Berwick June 11, 1899. He studied at lfarischal College and at Edinburgh (M.A., Aberdeen, 1837); was ordained minister of the Established Church at Drumblade, Aberdeenshire, 1842; joined the Free Church of Scotland, 1843; was minister of Pilrig, Edinburgh, 18448; professor of apologetics and pastoral theology in New College, Edinburgh, 1868‑97. With the Rev. William Arnot he was delegate from the Free Church of Scotland to the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church of the United States at Philadelphia in 1870 to convey congratulations on union; he took a leading part in the Alliance of the Reformed Churches; was deeply interested in measures to improve the condition of the poor and the working classes; and active in behalf of home missions, temperance, church extension, and all the work of the Free Church. In 1892 he was moderator of the General Assembly. He edited The Free Church Magazine 1849‑53, The North British Review. 18601863, The Sunday Magazine 1873‑74, and The Catholic Presbyterian 1879‑83.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The more important of his many books were Bible History in Connection with the General History of the World, London, 1859; Better Days for flu Working People, 1863 (originally published as Six Lectures Addressed to the Working Classes on the Improvement of flair Temporal Condition, Edinburgh, 1849); Heads and Hands in the World o/ Labor, 1865; For the Work of the Ministry, a Manual of Homiletical and Pastoral Theology, 1873; Glimpses of the Inner Life of our Lord 1876; The Personal Life of David Livingstone, 1880; The Public Ministry and Pastoral Methods of our Lord, 1883; Leaders in Modern Philanthropy, 1884; Robert Rol7ock, Arai Principal o/ the University of Edinburgh, 1884; The Preachers of Scotland from the Sixth to the Nineteenth Century (Cunningham Lectures for 1888); Thomas Chalmers, Edinburgh, 1898; David Brown, a Memoir, London, 1898. He also edited Memorials of the Late Andrew Crichton, 1868, and James Walker's Theology and Theologians of Scotland, 1872; wrote five of the Present Day Tracts, 18831885; contributed the "Expositions and Homiletics" for the Epistle to the Ephesiane in the Pulpit Commentary, and prepared the Books of Joshua and Samuel for the Expositor's Bible. For his fife consult his Autobiography, edited with introduction by N. L. Walker, London, 1901, and DNB, supplement vol. i, 212‑213.
BLAIR, HUGH; Church of Scotland; b. in Edinburgh Apr. 7, 1718; d. there Dec. 27, 1800. He studied in the local university; became minister of Coleesie, Fifeshire, 1742; second minister of
the Canongate Church, Edinburgh, 1743; minister of Lady Yester's 1754; was transferred to the High Church 1758. From 1759 he lectured in the University so acceptably on rhetoric and belles‑lettres, that in 1760 lie was appointed the town council professor in that department, and from 1762 to 1783 was the royal professor; when on resigning he published his lectures (2 vols.) he became one of the most famous authors of works on rhetoric in the English language and retained the position for a century. In 1780 he received a pension of £200 a year. To his own generation he was a most acceptable preacher and his sermons continued to be read and to be translated far into the nineteenth century. Their simplicity, excellent style, and high morality account for their vogue, but their lack of depth in thought and spirituality have caused them to lose popularity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sketches of Blair's life were appended to vol. v of his sermons by J. Finlayson, London, 1801; consult also John Hill, An Account of the Life and Writings of ll. Blair, Edinburgh, 1807; DNB, v, 160‑181.

BLAIR, JAMES: Virginia colonial Episcopal clergyman; b. in Scotland in 1656; d. at Williamsburg, Va., Apr. 18, 1743. He was graduated M.A. at Edinburgh in 1673; became a clergyman of the Episcopal Church of Scotland and was rector of Cranston in the diocese of Edinburgh. In the latter part of the reign of Charles II he went to England and was persuaded by Dr. Compton, bishop of London, to emigrate to Virginia, where he arrived in 1685; he was minister of Henrico parish till 1694, at Jamestown till 1710, and at Williamsburg the rest of his life. In 1689 he was appointed by the bishop of London commissar, for Virginia, the highest church office in the colony, the duties of which: were practically those of a bishop exclusive of ordination. After 1793 he was member of the colonial Council and for many years its president. He was a man of sterling character and great ability, and worked with persistent zeal and energy to promote the religious and material welfare of Virginia. He did much to elevate the character of the colonial clergy. With several of the governors he had bitter disputes and was influential in securing their removal. He was founder and first president of William and Mary College, for which he procured a charter in England in 1693, and which he made a success in spite of great difficulties and discouragements. He published four volumes containing 117 sermons on Our Savior's Divine Sermon on the Mount (London, 1722) and with Henry Hartwell and Edward Chilton prepared The Present State of Virginia and the College (London, 1727).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. E. Motley, The Life o/ Commissary James Blair, in Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science, aeries six, no. 10, Baltimore, 1901; DNB, v, 161‑182.

BLAIR, SAMUEL: American Presbyterian; 'b. in Ireland June 14, 1712; d. at Londonderry, Penn., July 5, 1751. He came early to America; studied at Tennent's " Log College " at Neshaminy; was ordained pastor of Middletown and Shrewsbury, N. J., 1734; in 1739 removed to Londonderry or Fagg's Manor (40 m. w.s.w. of Philadelphia,`.,

197
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Chester County, Penn., and established there a school after the model of the " Log College." He was an adherent of Gilbert Tennent in the controversies of his time. His principal writings were collected by his brother, Rev. John Blair (Philadelphia, 1754); they include sermons, a treatise on predestination and reprobation, and an account of a revival in his congregation at Londonderry.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult the biographical sketch in A. Alexander, The Founder and Principal Alumni of the Lop College, pp. 164‑198, Philadelphia, 1851.

BLAIR, WILLIAM: United Free Church of Scotland; b. at Cluny (23 m. s.w. of St. Andrews), Fifeshire, Jan. 13, 1830. He studied at the University of St. Andrews (M.A., 1850), and in 1856 was ordained to the United Presbyterian ministry at Dunblane, Perthshire. He was clerk to the Stirling Presbytery for twenty‑five years, and to the United Presbyterian Synod 1894‑1900; since 1900 he has been clerk to the United Free Church General Assembly, and was moderator of the United Presbyterian Synod in 1898 99. He has been chaplain to the famous Black Watch since 1892, a member of the University Court of St. Andrews University since 1903. In theology he adheres strictly to the Westminster Confession. He has written Chronicles of Aberbrothoe (Arbroath, 1853); Rambling Recollections: or, Scenes worth Seeing (Edinburgh, 1857); Archbishop Leighton, Life with Selections (London, 1883); Jubilee Memorial Volume (Edinburgh, 1887); History and Principles of the United Presbyterian Church (1888); and Robert Leighton, Extracts and Introduction (London, 1907).
BLAISE, SAINT. See HELPERS iv NEED.
	BLAKESLEE, ERASTUS: Congregationalist; b.
at Plymouth, Conn., Sept. 2, 1838; d. at Brookline,
Mass., July 12, 1908. While a sophomore at Yale
in 1861 he enlisted as a cavalryman. He was mus
tered out in 1865 as brevet brigadier‑general of vol
unteers. After a business career he studied in
Andover Theological Seminary from 1876 to 1879,
and entered the Congregational ministry. He had
three charges, at Greenfield, Mass., Fairhaven,
Conn., and at Spencer, Mass. (1887‑92), and re
signed the last that he might give his whole time
to the preparation and publication of the " Bible
Study Union Lessons," which are not only widely
used in this country, but translated into severed
missionary languages. With the teachers' aids,
issued separately, more than 160 volumes of lessons
were published. 	FxeN$ SANDERS.

BLAIICgMEISTER, FRANZ THEODOR: Ger• man Lutheran; b. at Plauen (21 m. s.w. of Zwickau) Feb. 4, 1858. After studying at Leipaic from 1877 to 1880 and teaching for a year, he entered the ministry, and has been, since 1897, pastor of Trinity Church in Dresden. In theology he is extremely Protestant and an adverse critic of the Roman Catholic Church. Of his numerous publications may be mentioned Alts Gesehichte aua dem Sachaenktrede (3 vols., Barmen, 188"9); Sachaeraapiegel (Dresden, 1897; 2d ed., 1902) ; and Sdchsiache Kirchetageechichte (1899; 2d ed., 1906).
Blaikie
Blasphemy
BLANDINA, SAINT: A martyr who was among the victims of the persecution in Lyons under Marcus Aurelius. In the account of that persecution given by the Christian community there, and preserved by Eusebius (Hilt. eccl., v, 1), the courage of the young slave girl is specially extolled; and she is singled out for mention by name, an honor which she shares with only seven of the other martyrs, including the bishop Pothinus. (A. HAUCg.)

BLANDRATA, GEORGIUS: Italian Unitarian; b. about 1515 at Saluzzo (17 miles n.w. of Coni), Piedmont; d. after 1585. He migrated to Poland, where he became physician to Sigismund I, then went to Transylvania and served the widow of Jan Zapolya in a like capacity. Having returned to Italy, he went to Pavia, and became an object of suspicion on account of his radical utterances on theology, but escaped the Inquisition by going to Geneva. There he debated with Martinenghi, the preacher of the Italian congregation, also with Calvin, especially concerning the doctrine of the Trinity, which he regarded as endangering the doctrine of the unity of God. He regarded speculation on the relation of the three persons as unnecessary (F. Trechsel, Protestantische Antitrinitarier, 4 parts, Bern, 1841‑42, ii, 467; CR, xvii, 2871). Calvin replied in his Responsum. ad qucestiones G. Blandratce (Geneva, 1559). As some members of the congregation sided with Blandrata, Calvin had a confession signed which condemned the antitrinitarian doctrine. Blandrata went to Zurich, then again to Poland, where he was received by Prince Radziwill and took part in several synods (cf. H. Dalton, Lasciana, Berlin, 1898, iv), but Calvin's repeated warnings against him, stigmatizing him as " a foul peat," prevented any lasting activity. In 1563 Blandrata went again to Transylvania and openly professed Unitarianism, being assisted by Prince Stephen Bathori, afterward king of Poland. Faustus Socinus accused Blandrata of having separated from his coreligionists out of avarice; at any rate, tired of the conflict, he ceased to take part in public affairs.
K. BENRATH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Many of the letters of Blandrata are printed in Cft, vola. xvii‑xxi. Sources for a biography are: C. Sandius, Bibliotheca antitrinitariorum, Freiatadt, 1884; S. 7rbienski, Hiatoria re/ormationie Polonicd, ib. 1685. Consult V. Malacarne, Commentario deZle opere a dells vieendi di G. Biandrata, Padua, 1814; O. Foek, Der Socinianismua, Kiel, 1847; and J. H. Allen, Historical .Sketch of the Unitarian Movement, New York, 1894.
BLASPHEMY (Gk. blasphemia, "a speech or word of evil omen "): Properly any species of calumny and detraction, but technically limited to evil‑speaking of God or things held sacred. The conception that such an act is a crime may be traced back to Judaism, whose code imposed death by atoning as a punishment (Lev. xxiv, 15‑16; Matt. xxvi, 65; John x, 33). The later Roman law also attached the death penalty (Nov. Justin., LXXVII, i,1‑2). In the earlier church law, blasphemy is not mentioned as a punishable offense. Pope Gregory IX (1227‑41) prescribed penance for publ'_e blasphemy against God, the saints, or the Virgin; the guilty person must stand for seven Sundays

Blass	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	198
Bledsoe
at the church porch during the mesa, on the last
of the seven without cloak or shoes; he must fast
the Fridays preceding on bread and water, and give
alms according to his means. The civil authorities
were also admonished to impose a fine. By the
end of the century the offense came to be more
definitely defined as any depreciatory or oppro
brious expression concerning God, Christ, or the
Holy Spirit, such as the denial of a divine attribute,
or the ascription of something unseemly (as false
hood or revenge), or wishing ill to or in any way
dishonoring God, the saints, or the Virgin. Leo
X (1513‑21) imposed fines according to the ability
of the offender and bodily punishments which
included flogging, boring the tongue, and condem
nation to the galleys in extreme cases. Later a
tendency to substitute admonition and exhortation
for severe penalties becomes apparent. By the
common law of England, and in many of the United
States by statute law, blasphemy is an indictable
offense; prosecutions, however, have become infre
quent.	(P. H>zrscarost.)
	The blasphemy against the Holy Ghost which
is pronounced unpardonable (Matt. xii, 31; Mark
iii, 29; Luke xii, 10) is best understood to be wilful
and persistent resistance to the influences and
warnings of God, which renders the subject in
capable of repentance and pardon. See HOLY
SPIRIT, II.
B7HLI066APHT: J. D. Michaelis, MoeBiechea Recht, part v,
	¢ 251, Frankfort, 1770‑75, Eng. travel., London, 1810;
	P. Hineehius, Des KircAenmcht in Deutaehtand, iv, p. 793,
	n. 3, v, 184, 318‑319, 325, 899, vi, 188, Berlin, 1889‑98;
	Blackstone, Commentaries, IV, 4, iv; air J. F. Stephen,
	History of the Criminal Law of England, ii, 469‑478, Lon
	don, 1883; Bishop, Commentaries, X, x; DB, i, 305‑306;
	EB, i, b89‑b90.
	BLASS, FRIEDRICH WILHELM: German Prot
estant classical scholar; b. at Osnabruck (30
m. n.e, of Munster) Jan. 22, 1$43; d. at Halls
Mar. 5, 1907. He studied in G6ttingen (1860‑61)
and Bonn (1861‑6.3; Ph.D., 1863), and after being
a teacher in gymnasia at Bielefeld (1864‑66),
Naumburg‑an‑der‑Saale (1866‑70), Magdeburg
(1870‑73), and Stettin (1873‑74), became privat
docent at KSnigsberg in 1874. Two years later
he was appointed associate professor at Kiel, where
he was promoted to the rank of full professor in
1881. From 1892 he was professor of classical
philology at Halls. Besides editions of Greek
authors and inscriptions, and several works on
strictly classical themes, he published Philology of
the Gospels (London, 1898) and Grammatik des
neuteatametttlichen Griechisch	(Gtittingen, 1896;
Eng. travel. by H. St. J. Thackeray, London, 1898),
and edited Acts. Apoatolorum (Gottingen, 1895;
minor edition, Leipsic, 1896); Evangelium secun
dum Iateam (Leipaie, 1897); Evangelium aeextndum
Matthceum (1901); Evangelittm aeeundum Johan
nem (1902); and (Barnabas) Brief an die HebrcSer
(Halls, 1903).
	BLASTARES, MATTHEUS: At first a secular
priest and later a monk of the order of St. Basil,
who made about 1335 a collection of laws, both civil
and ecclesiastical, known as " Alphabetical Col
lection," Syntagma alphabeticum rerum omnium
quo in sacral canonibus comprehenduntur. The
civil part (" political laws ") is based upon the
Novelke of Justinian, the ecclesiastical (" canons ")
upon the collection of Photius, with the commen
taries of Zonaras and Balsamon. Such a diction
ary of law filled a practical want, and so was uni
versally used by the Eastern clergy, and even
translated into Slavic. A complete reprint is found
in Beveridge's Synodicon, ii, 2, and in vol. vi of the
Syntagmca On thei3n kai hierbn kanontn (Athens,
1859). 	(E. FRIEDBERG.)
BLAURER (BLARER, BLAARER), AMBRO‑
SIUS: German Reformer; b. at Constants Apr. 12, 1492; d. at Winterthur (12 miles n.e. of Zurich), Switzerland, Dec. 6, 1564. He studied at Tubingen, where he became acquainted with Melanchthon; about 1510 he entered the monastery at Alpirsbach, and continued his studies at Tubingen till 1513. Through study of the Bible and of Luther's writings, to the reading of which he was led by his brother Thomas, who while studying at Wittenberg had become intimate with Luther and Melanchthon, he embraced the principles of the Reformation, which he tried to introduce into the monastery. Being opposed by the abbot, he went to Conetance July 5, 1522, and at the instance of the council of the city began to preach in 1525. He became the leader of the Reformation there. From 1528, Blaurer labored for the Reformation outside of his native city. He was present at the colloquy in Bern (Jan. 6, 1528), was at Memmingen Nov., 1528‑Feb.,1529, and presided over the convention of the friends of the Reformation in Upper Germany which met in Memmingen Feb. 27‑Mar. 1, 1531. From May to July, 1531, he was at Ulm with (Ecolampadius and Butzer, afterward at Geislingen, and (Sept. 1531‑July, 1532) at Esslingen. He everywhere displayed ability in organization. In July, 1532, his native city recalled him, and in 1533 he married a former nun.
In 1534 he was called by Duke Ulrich, together with the Lutheran Erhard Schnepf, to further the cause of the Reformation in the duchy of Wiirttemberg. The two men came to an agreement, Aug. 2, 1534, concerning the doctrine of the Lord's Supper paving thereby the way for the coming union of the German Evangelical Church. To Blaurer was assigned the south of Wurttemberg with residence at Tubingen. He encountered there certain difficulties: (1) the agreement with Schwenckfeld, 1535; (2) the reformation at the University of Tubingen, which Brenz had undertaken; (3) the image‑question, which Blaurer solved by removing all of them from the churches, but the " idol‑diet " at Urach left the decision to the duke. At Schmalkald Blaurer refused in Feb., 1537, to sign the articles of Luther, but approved those of Melanchthon. Court intrigues brought about Blaurer's dismissal in June, 1538. Not till 1556 did Duke Christopher compensate him for his four years' services. He was at Augsburg June 27‑Dec. 6, 1539, where he earnestly labored against the luxury of the rich, pleaded for benevolence to the poor, and for the cause of morality. He went to Kempten and labored there (Dec., 1539, to the end of Jan., 1540) for the peace of the Church, and also at Isny, 1544‑55.

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RELIGIOUS
By the Interim, Constants lost its independence. The Spaniards took the city Aug. 6, 1548, and made it an Austrian town, speedily crushing the Reformation. Blaurer left there Aug. 28, and preached in Biel (1551‑59), Leutmerken, and finally at Winterthur, where he died. He declined calls to Bern, Augsburg, Memmingen, and the Palatinate, and influenced large circles by his correspondence. His twenty‑two hymns give evidence of poetical power and fervor.
G. BOHaERT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. C. Pfister, D871TC7aUfdlQkCLtCR der WdrIJtmberpiachen and achmabiacAen Reformationepeachichte, part 1, Tiibingen, 1817; T. Keim, Ambr. Blarer der schudr biache Re%rmator. Stuttgart, 1860; T. preeeel. Ambroaiua Bleurer'a Leben and Schrifkn, ib. 1861; Le6en and auapewlshZte 3chriften der Miter der re/ormierten Kirche, vol. xiv, Elberfeld, 1881; E. Schneider, IYalrttemberpiache Re/ormationspeachichte, Stuttgart, 1887; E. Iseel, Die Reformation in Konstanz, Freiburg, 1898; F. Both, Augaburpa Reformationapeachichte, vole. i, ii, Munich, 1901, 1904; Zvrinpliana, 1900, no. 2, p. 183, 1902, no. 2, p. 317.
	BLAURER, MARGARETHA: Sister of Am
brosius Blaurer (q.v.), one of the most intelligent
and deeply religious women of the Reformation
time; d. in Constants 1542. She became deeply
interested in the person and work of Pilgram Mar
beck (q.v.) during his residence in Strasburg (1528
1532) and, whether she sympathized with his anti
pedobaptist teaching or not, reproached Butzer for
his intolerant proceedings against Marbeck and
refused to be convinced by Butzer's arguments that
Marbeck was a heretic or a hypocrite. She died
while ministering to the plague‑stricken poor of
Constants, and has the honor of being one of the
first Protestant women to engage in diaconal
service.	A. H. NEwluarr.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. W. Baum, Capita and Butler, passim, Elberfeld, 1860; C. Gerbert, Geachichte der Strasaburper Sectenbewtpunp cur Zeit der Reformation, 15‑04‑1534, pp. 97 eqq., Strasburg, 1889; and literature under BLABRER, AMBROBIUB.
BLAVATSgY, HELENA PETROVNA : Theosophist; b. at Ekaterinoslav (250 m. n.e. of Odessa), Russia, July 31 (0. S.), 1831; d. in London May 8, 1891. Supposed to have been the child of a Russian officer named Peter Hahn, she married, at the age of seventeen, a Russian official, Nicephore Blavataky, from whom she separated after a very few months. For the next twenty years her life was a wandering one, mixed with spiritualism and similar cults. During this time she visited Paris, Cairo, New Orleans, Tokyo, and Calcutta, and she claimed to have resided for seven years in Tibet, whence she pretended to draw the mysteries of theosophy (q.v.). In 1858 she started a spiritualistic movement in Russia, and in 1873 was again in the United States. In 1875 she founded at New York, in collaboration with Col. Henry Steel Olcott, the Theosophical Society. Her chief works, which have run through repeated editions and have been translated into many languages, both in Europe and India, are Isis Unveiled
The Master Key to Ancient and Modern Mysteries,
the standard text‑book of the Theosophists (2 vole., New York, 1877); Secret Doctrine : The Synthesis of Science, Religion, and Philosophy (2 vole., 1888); Voice of the Silence (1889); Key to Theosophy, in the Form of Question and Answer (1889); and the
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bless
Bledsoe
posthumous From the Caves and Jungles of Hindostan (1892; originally contributed to the Russian Rusaky Vyestnik); Nightmare Tales (London, 1892) Theosophical Glossary (1892); and Modern Panarzo» Collection of Fugitive Fragments (1899).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Coulomb, Some Account o1 my Intercourse with Madame Blavataky from .1 b J2 to 1884, London, 18M; A. P. Binnett. Incidents in the Life of Madams Blavatsky, ib. 1888; C. WaehtmeiBter, Reminiacencca of H. P. Blavattky and "the Secret Doctrine," ib. 1893; A. Lillie, Madame Blavataky and her " Theosophy ": A Study, ib. 1895; V. B. $olovyofi, Modern Priestess of Isis, from the Russian, by W. Leaf, ib. 1895 (an expoe6); H. Freimark, Helena Petrovna Blavatzky, Lei psic, 1907.
BLAYNEY, BENJAMIN: Church of England Hebrew scholar; b. 1728; d. at Poulahot (22 m. n.w. of Salisbury), Wiltshire, Sept. 20, 1801. He studied at Worcester and Hertford Colleges, Oxford (B.A., 1750; M.A., 1753; B.D., 1768; D.D., 1787); was appointed regius professor of Hebrew in 1787 and was made canon of Christ Church. He revised the text of the Authorized Version of the Bible to secure typographical accuracy and added to the marginal references; the edition appeared in 1769 and is the standard for the Oxford press. He also published A Dissertation by Way of Inquiry into the True Import and Application of the Vision Called Daniel's Prophecy of Severity Weeks (Oxford, 1775); two sermons, on The Sign Given to Ahaz (1786) and Christ the Greater Glory of the Temple (1788); translations of Jeremiah and Lamentations (1784) and Zechariah (1797); and an edition of the Samaritan Pentateuch (1790).
BLEDSOE, ALBERT TAYLOR: American Southern Methodist; b. at Frankfort, Ky., Nov. 9, 1809; d. at Alexandria, Va., Dec. 8, 1877. He was graduated at West Point, 1830, became lieutenant of infantry, and resigned 1832; he became assistant professor of mathematics at Kenyan College, Gambier, O., 1834; entered the ministry of the Protestant Episcopal Church, was rector at Hamilton, O., and professor of mathematics at Miami University, Oxford, 0., 1835‑36; practised law in Springfield, Ill., and in the United States Supreme Court at Washington, 1840‑48; was professor of mathematics in the University of Mississippi, 1848‑54, and in the University of Virginia, 18541861; lie entered the Confederate service as a colonel, but was soon made assistant secretary of war; lived in England 1863‑68; after 1867 published The Southern Review at Baltimore, which under his management became one of the leading periodicals of the Methodist Church, South. He was ordained a Methodist minister in 1871, but never took charge of a church. He was a strenuous advocate of the doctrine of free will and a stern opponent of atheism and skepticism; the doctrine of predestination he considered a reflection upon the divine glory, and a cause of unbelief; his views are set forth in his Examination of Edwards on the Will (Philadelphia, 1845) and his Theodicy, or Vindication of the Divine Glory (New York, 18,53).
He also published Liberty and Slavery (Philadelphia, 1857); The Philosophy of Mathematics (1868); Is Davis a Traitor F or was secession a constitu‑
tional right previous to the war of 1861 F (Baltimore, 1866).

Week
Diego*
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
200
	BLEEg, FRIEDRICH: Protestant theologian and
exegete; b. at Ahrenabok, Holstein, July 4, 1793;
d. at Bonn Feb. 27, 1859. He studied theology and
philology at Kiel and Berlin, 1812‑17, and began to
lecture as repetent in theology in the latter place
in 1818. His lectures on the Old and the New
Testaments attracted attention, and in 1821 he
was made extraordinary professor; he succeeded
Liicke as professor at Bonn, 1829, receiving the
same year his doctorate from Breslau. For thirty
years Bleek lectured at the university in Bonn.
He was extremely painstaking in the preparation
of his lectures, which were so carefully written
that after his death they could easily be used for
publication, sad continue in much larger circles
the influence they had already exerted. His works
printed during his lifetime include: Ueber die Ent
stehung and Ztisammensetxung den Sibyllinischen
Orakel, UeberVerfas8erandZtaeckdesBueiiesDaniel,
and Beitrag zur Kritik and Deutung den O f f enbaremg
JoJuznnia, three valuable essays published in the
theological review. edited by Schleiermacher, De
Wette, and Liicke (Berlin, 1819‑22); Versuch einer
vollstandigen Einleitung in den Brief do die Hebr6er
(Berlin, 1828), followed in 1836 and 1840 by a
translation of Hebrews and commentary on the
book; Beitr6ge zur Evangelienkritik (Berlin, 1846).
Of his posthumous works mention may be made of
Einleitung in das Alts Testament (edited by his son J.
F. Bleak and A. Kamphausen, Berlin, 1860; 3d ed.,
by Kamphauaen, 1870; 4th, 5th, and 6th ed., by J.
Wellhausen,1878, 1886, 1893; Eng. transl. by G. H.
Venables, 2 vole., London, 1869; on the last three
editions cf. H. L. Strack, Einleitung in das Alts Tes
tament, Munich, 1895, 11); Einleitung in das Netie
Testament (1st and 2d editions by his son, J. F.
Bleek, 1862, 1868; 3d and 4th editions by W.
Mangold, Berlin, 1875, 1886; Eng. tra,nsl. by W.
Urwiek, London, 1870); Synoptische Erklarung den
drei ersten Evangelien. (ed. H. Holtzmann, 2 vole.,
Leipaie, 1862); Yorlesungen fiber die APokalypse
(ed. T. Hoesbaeh, Berlin, 1862; Engl. tranal., Lon
don, 1874); Yorlesunyen fiber die Briefs an die
Kolosaer, den Philemon and die Epheser (ed. F.
Nitzaeh, Berlin, 1865); Vorlesungen fiber den He
braerbrief (ed. A. Windrath, Elberfeld,1868). Bleek's
writings are especially distinguished for thorough
ness in investigation and clearness of expression.
His standpoint in criticism was conservative.
A. KnnlrawuaErr.
	BLE)sIMYDES, 1f1gEPHOROS: Greek monk;
b. at Constantinople about 1197.; d. (near Ephesus?)
1272. He founded s monastery near Ephesus, and
became its archimaudrite. His manywritings were
philosophical treatises, discourses on the procession
of the Holy Spirit, on the Trinity, on Christology,
on the duties of the king, and an exposition of the
Psalms. [He is principally noted for his defense
of the Roman doctrine of the procession of the
Spirit from Father and Son before the emperor John
III Vatatzea at Nica'a.] Blemmydes was honest
and incorruptible, but harsh in character. Out of
devotion to the ascetic life, he declined the patri
archate. 	PHILIPP MEYER.
Bnutoaasrm: The works of Blemmydea are in MPG, c:lu, and also in A. Heisenberg's N. Blemmydas, curri‑
culum titm et carm4na, Leipsio, 1896, which contains the
newly discovered autobiography. Consult Krumbacher, Gesclaichte, pp. 445 x49•. et passim.
BLESSEDRESS.
Biblical Basis U 1).	In Communion with God (13).
Foundation in Ethics (§ 2). 	Degrees of Blessedness (§ 4).
The term "blessedness" is the usual rendering in the English Bible for the idea of the Hebrew ashen and Greekmakarios. The GermaaSeligkeitrepresentabe‑
aides the content of those words also
:. Biblical the idea of the Greek s6zein, " to Basis. save." The Latin equivalent of maka‑
rios is beatus, which has, however, passed in usage to designate the state of Christians who have fallen asleep (cf. Rev. xiv, 13); while beatitudo in scholastic usage designates the aim and the highest good of the Christian. The union of two Biblical conceptions in one expression gives to the latter its unique Christian content, as is realized when the two ideas are traced to their junction. Illuminative of this point is Paul's use (Rom. iv, 7‑8) of Ps. xxxii, 1‑2. The Old Testament passage bases " blessedness " on forgiveness of sin, and goes to the root of human felicity or its opposite. The Reformed theology traced the idea of blessedness to the salvation implied in that forgiveness, and the fact is evinced in Luther's use of Seligkeit to express the state consequent upon forgiveness. Thus the union of the ideas of blessedness and salvation is manifest.
The term suggests also the idea of a condition of abiding satisfaction fully realized in consciousness. This is attributed to God in I Tim. vi, 15‑16 (cf. i, 11), with which ~dogmatics agrees on the ground of his absoluteness and completeness. In this respect, to man may be attributed only a relative blessedness. By reason of his constitution man may pursue and attain a sort of arbitrary satisfaction; and in consequence of his being a creature he can attain full satisfaction only in a way in accord with his inner nature. A purpose which for him reaches beyond the present life involves a blessedness not to be reached here, where only a conditioned form is for him attainable. This is the point of view of the Biblical presentation. Man holds, on the one hand, relations with God, and on thin depends his blessedness; he is also, as a member of the race of Adam, a sinner and so under the impress of evil, and his blessedness is contingent upon salvation from this condition.
On the foregoing basis is built Christian usage, in which " eternal life," " eternal blessedness," and " blessed eternity " are variant expressions for the same concept. Life in its fulness is the idea. The Bible and philosophy agree in the ethical as the source of blessedness (Jas. i, 25; Acts xx, 35),
but the former annexes also a religious
2. Founds‑ relationship (Jas. i, 27). If the moat tion in significant limitation in life, that Ethics. which distinguishes man from God,
viz., guilt, be removed, on this line of thought blessedness may be attributed to man. Out of this comes the emphasis constantly laid in the language of the Gospels upon the identity of salvation sad blessedness, the latter resting upon freedom from guilt and from the proscription ari‑

201	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	81eex
8lessig
singfromsin. Thus blessedness and life, in thiaway reaching its fulness, are regarded as equivalents.
	A special	dogmatic terminology has developed
from this usage, as when Schleiermacher (Chris
lithe Glaube, Berlin, 1821, §§ 100, 101, 108, 110)
describes the activity of Christ in that he receives
believers up into his own God‑consciousness and
into participation in his serene blessedness, into
the " peace " of the New Testament. Similarly
J. C. K. von Hofmann (Theologische Ethik, N&rd
lingen, 1878, p. 89) asserts that "faith as obedience
is freedom, faith as certainty is blessedness." So
the term designates the religious side of the Chris
tian's condition as distinct from the ethical. The
eudemonistic side. is expressed by J. Kaftan
(Wesen der christlichen Religion, Bielefeld, 1881, pp.
67, 292) in the form " blessedness is enjoyment of
the highest gobd: ' Into Christian usage there has
come a transcendent element, implying the satis
faction of all needs which present themselves
to the people of God. If among these needs is
classed complete communion with God in the com
pletely realized kingdom of God, or intercom
munion of mankind made one in God, the satis
faction of this need goes on to God as the source,
and to communion with him as the means of attain
		ing such satisfaction. Hence in Bib‑
3. In Com‑ lical representations intimate com‑
munion munion with him is the highest with God. privilege of which man may think in his Godward relations. Companionship with God appears therefore as an implicit ground of blessedness, and the Old Testament conception comes out in the manifestation of theophanies and in the intimate intercourse had by Moses with God (Ex. xxxiii, 11; Num. xii, 8; Dent. xxxiv, 10). The idea is still further carried out in later books,, as in Pa. xvii, 15, cxl, 14 (" I shall be satisfied"), and is expressed by Job as a desire (xix, 26). The opposite effect is the result of separation from God (Isa. xxxviii, 11). Pa. lxxxiv exuberantly sets forth the blessedness arising from this companionship with God. In the New Testament the same notion of the consciousness of God's presence and of faith in him is in evidence (John xiv, 9; II Cor. iv, 6; I Pet. i, 8). Yet in this life knowledge of God and communion with him is but partial (I Cor. xiii, 12, cf. II Cor v, 7; Matt. xi, 27). It is the sons who see the father, and so the sons of the Heavenly Father are called blessed (Matt. v, 9). This intimacy, which is conditioned upon ethical oneness with God, is the source throughout the development of the man of God from which he draws the completion of his happiness.
	A difficulty has been encountered in the question
whether there are steps or grades of blessedness or
glory. To this an affirmative answer is given on the
basis of such passages as Matt. x, 41, xiv, 28‑29,
xxv. 14‑15. Such a conclusion is fortified. by the
		consideration that blessedness includes
4. Degrees within itself a kingdom whose subjects
of Blessed‑ are men of God, and that such a concepness. tion involves diversity in which differences must exist in relation to blessedness. Such differences imply variety in order of felicity to accord with personal gifts and individuality.
The figurative language of Heb. iv, 10 makes mention of a final Sabbath rest. The question has been raised whether by this is meant a state of inactivity or of continued activity. It will be noted that the passage refers to the rest following upon creation; therefore, not the stagnation of absence of life is represented, but the quietude of the achievement of an end. And in the Christian imagery of Rev. xxi, 3‑4, what is implied is the absence of evil, grief, and toil with the unrest which they entail. Similarly the inception of the restoration of all things (apokatastasis Pcatxton), in which there is stated an eternity of punishment as well as of satisfaction or peace, raises the question whether the latter will not be marred because of pity on account of the misery of the condemned. Relief is afforded by the consideration that the region is one in which ethical measures apply, not those of emotion. Dente has the blessed look into the mirror of God's heart, which last is the source from which the ethical world draws its being and order. In ancient times Tertullia,n (De sloectaculis, xxx),in modern times Jonathan Edwards held that among the causes of the bleaeednessof the redeemed will be the sight of the misery. of the wicked. Edwards declared that the "eight of hell torments will exalt the happiness of the saints forever" (Works, vol. vi, pp. 120, 426).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. L. Martensen, Dopmatik, §§ 283‑284, Berlin, 1856, Eng. tranel., Edinburgh, 1865; E. Riehm, LehrlxpriJf lea Hebr4erbriefa, Basel, 1867; B. Weiss, Theologie lea N. T., §§ 144, 149, 157, Berlin, 1880, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1882‑83; I. A. Dorner, System der chriatlichen Glaubenalehre, ii, 864, Berlin, 1887; H. Schultz, Altteatamentiiche Theolopie, pp. 370‑371, Gottingen, 1896, Eng, travel., London, 1892.
BLESSIG, JOHANN LORENZ: German Protestant; b. at Strasburg Apr. 15, 1747; d. there Feb. 17,.1816. He studied at the university of his native city; traveled extensively in Italy, Hungary, and Germany; began to preach, and was continually promoted till he was in charge of the principal Protestant church of Strasburg; became professor in the philosophical faculty in 1778, and in the theological, 1787. He was three times rector; his lectures covered Greek literature, history of philosophy, Old Testament exegesis, dogmatics, sad homiletics, and in them all he made the practical dominate. His activities carried him into the field of politics also, and he was elected to the city council. The French Revolution brought upon him exile, a fine, sad imprisonment for eleven months. Robespierre's downfall restored his liberty and he returned to his labors. Church and school were reorganized, Bleasig's influence being felt everywhere. He left no great work, but not less than forty minor writings, including several memorial address, which were highly esteemed in their time. Worthy of special mention are: Ueber Unglattben,Aberglauben.und Glauben (Strasburg, 1786); De cenau Davidico Pestegue hunt censurra secuta (1788); and De evangeliis secundutn Ebreeos, fEgyptios atqtse Justini Martyris (1807). (A. ExlcxsolJj'.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. M. Fritz, Leben Dr. J. L. Bleeaipa, 2 vole., Strasburg, 1819; A. Froelich, Dr. J. L. Bleeaip, Ein Vork8mpfer lea religiseen Liberaliamua im Elsaae, in Schriften lea protutantiachen liberakn Yereitta in Elsasa‑Lofhrinpsn, no. 38, ib. 1891.

Blessing
Bliss	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	202
BLESSING AND CURSING.
Ethnic Conceptions (§ 1). In the Old Testament (12).
Higher and Lower View (§ 3).
The conception of blessing and cursing has a large part in every religion. It refers to the supernatural or divine promotion or hindrance to human action and welfare. Sometimes it is predicated of
man himself as possessing through his
x. Ethnic connection with deity the ability to
Concep‑ exercise over another the power origtions. finally possessed .only by deity (cf.
Gen. xii, 3; Num. vi, 24, 27). In this latter case, the power is often exercised by means of verbal expression, though it is not confined to that means. It is apparent that in the religion of the peoples who were neighbors of the Hebrews as well as elsewhere the conception .of blessing and cursing belonged in the sphere of magic. Wizards commanded the blessing and furthering force of deity, which they could exercise at a given point for good and still more often the power resident in a host of evil spirits, to damage or to cause damage at the desired place and time. While often power to bless comes not from an equipment gained for a special occasion and then lost, continuance of power and conditions for evil are especially frequent. The curse lurks in the background of earthly existence, enshrined in the form of harmful and malicious demons, into whose power a careless word or heedless step may instantly cast the unfortunate. According to ethnic belief, only the most painstaking care, the most punctilious caution, observance of a host of rules and practises can enable one to escape danger. Frequently without any overt act, by merely mentioning these spirits or by entering their domain without adequate protection, the spirits are summoned and their power let loose On man, animal, and possessions.
Within the Old Testament there are many traces of the contact of Israel with such conceptions. The prophetic religion was especially ~ emphatic . in its opposition to witchcraft, necromancy, and the like, and, especially in the Babylonian age,
was not successful in combating them.
s. In the Earlier examples are found in Saul's
Old Tes‑ resort to the witch of Endor and the
tament. cases suggested by Deut. xviii, 10‑14,
and Isa. ii, 6. It is, then, not surprising that the conceptions of blessing and cursing are found together among the Hebrews, though they come to have a more spiritual content. It is noticeable that the tendency of the development was toward a narrowing of the region in which the idea was operative, and it was thrust more and more into the background.
In examining the eases presented in the Old Testament, it becomes evident that use was made both of the word of power and of an instrument. The staff was used frequently, its use being attributed to Moses and Aaron and to the Egyptian magicians (Ex. iv, 2, vii, 8 sqq.), while in Hos. iv, 12, it seems to have been used to obtain oracles, and possibly it was a magical staff which Balsam carried (Nom. xxii, 27). It is possible that the origin of the staff is to be connected with the idea
of the tree as the seat of deity (cf. the Asherah and the stake customary at the grave). A branch from a tree was either the seat of deity or the symbol of his power. A farther means of operating, especially for evil, was the glance of the eye (cf. the common notion of the " evil eye "). Cases of this in the Old Testament are suggested by Prov. xxiii, 6, xxviii, 22 (cf. Ecclus. xiv, 3; Pirke Abot v, 13). The laying on of hands seems to have had close connection with the operation of blessing (Gen. xxvii, xlviii, 14 sqq.), the idea being that in this way the person bestowing the blessing caused to pass to the recipient some of the power which was his, especially if he were a man of God.
Blessing and cursing were often connected with things holy, particularly with sacrifice. By means of these a blessing or a curse were often bespoken. So in Judges ix, 27 the cursing of Abimelech was evidently closely bound up with the feast in the temple of the deity. The episode of Balsam also makes evident the connection between sacrifice and curse (or blessing, Num. xxiii, 1 eqq.), and the same fact has been noted among Arabs of ancient and modern times. A special case is that of the ordeal by water, narrated in Num. v, 11 sqq. Blessing and curse operate also through the spoken word, which may take either the phase of a magical formula or of a prayer of which the content is spiritually pure. The latter is of very frequent occurrence in the Old Testament, where the blessing, or equally the curse, is besought of God.
This practise of seeking blessing or curse had continuing vogue in the common religious ideas of Israel, remaining in evidence down to prophetic times. As elsewhere, so among the Hebrews, superstition and the practise of magic never completely died out, and not only deity but the spirits of the dead (I Sam. xxviii) and of ancestors were invoked to give effect to the invocation or the imprecation. The deity is in mind in Samuel's blessing of the meal (I Sam. ix, 13), in Eli's blessing of Hannah (I Sam. i, 17), in'the blessing of Rebecca by her brothers (Gen. xxiv, 60), and in Solomon's blessing (I Kings viii, 15 sqq.). There is every reason to assume that on occasions of gatherings such as sacrifices and feasts the priests besought a blessing for the people. While such invocations did not always take a fixed form, there moat have been a tendency in that direction, as is proved by the priestly blessing in, Num. vi, 24‑26. And there is a suggestion of a fixed formula for the curse in I Kings viii and in the alternate words of blessing and cursing in Deut. xxviii.
If it be asked who are the persons who may bless or curse, it is always found that they are those in especially close relation to deity, either seer or priest or man of God. Of these Moses, Balsam, Joshua (Josh. vi, 26), Elisha (II Kings ii, 24‑25) are examples. And like persons are among the Arabs conceived as possessing the power. Special power in this matter is also ascribed to the dying, who are already on the border between the human and the divine. Thus Moses when dying blesses his people (Deut. xxxiii), and the dying patriarchs Isaac and Jacob distribute both blessing and its opposite when on the eve of dissolution (Gen,

203	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Blessing
		Blip
xxvii, 10 aqq., xlviii, 8 sqq., xlix, 2 sqq.). Under
special stress the power to bless or curse, especially
the latter, is attributed to almost any one, se when
the Arabs assert that one influenced by anger may
effectively pronounce a curse. Such a case is pre
sented in II Sam. xvi, 5 (cf. verse 10); and another
in the narrative of II Sam. xxi, 1 aqq. Prov. xxvii,
14 presents a peculiar case, in which the early and
loud call may be thought of as arousing the spirits
of malice and letting them loose on the object of
the call. A similar conception is involved in
Amos vi, 10. The name of Yahweh, who lingers
near occupied in the work of the plague, is not to
be spoken lest by the mere utterance he be sum
moned to the spot and slay the only surviving
member of the household.
	Investigation into the way in which blessing and
cursing operate in the Old Testament shows a
lower and a higher view. Not infrequently the mere
vocal expression of the wish works out the fulfil
ment in a kind of blind compulsion such as takes
place in ethnic magic (cf. Gen. xxvii, 33 aqq.
t'.m blessing has been uttered over Jacob and can
not be recalled‑and Num, xxii aqq., especially
xxii, 6, " I know that he whom thou blessest is
			blessed, and he whom thou curaest
3. Higher is cursed," the words of Balak to
		sad	Balsam). An illuminating case is
	Lower	given in the connection of Josh. vi,
		View.	26 with I Kings xvi, 34, in which the
			ancient curse pronounced upon him
who should rebuild Jericho works itself out in the
death of the youngest and the eldest eons of Hiel
the Bethelite. And a similar instance is Saul's
breach of the treaty with the Gibeonitea in which
the curse operates after his death until reparation
is made with blood (II Sam. xxi). David's charge
to Solomon (I Kings ii, 5 sqq.; cf. II Sam. icvi, 13)
furnishes other examples. Solomon is to take venge
ance on Shimei and on Joab. The former had pro
nounced a heavy curse on David. Since it was yet
operative but had not fallen on David himself, it
moat work itself out on his house. But it can be so
diverted as to fall on the head of its formulator and
become changed into a blessing for David's family.
On the other hand, Joab'a deeds of blood laid David,
Joab's lord, under a curse which could be relieved
only by expiation exacted from the perpetrator of
the deeds [cf. on this EB, i, 1034, note 1].
	While this inevitability is to be recognized in the
Old Testament as inherent by the mere formulation of
blessing and cursing or curse, the act takes on more
and more the character of the expression of a wish
to be fulfilled by Yahweh, and so it becomes dis
tinguished in form and character from magic and
witchcraft. And while the method of operation
is thus transferred, the character of the blessing
sought changes from the material to the spiritual.
Thus in the priestly blessing of Num. vi, 24‑26
there is doubtless in mind the highest good of
God's grace and peace, and in this light is to be
construed verse 27. A similar content is to be
recognized in Gen. xii, 3 and parallel passages:
" In thee shall all families of the earth bless them
selves," i.e., shall wish for themselves the very
blessing which Abraham had obtained.
As oracles were quoted among the heathen, so sayings attributed to Yahweh or spoken in his name were cited among the Hebrews, and blessings and curate appear almost in profusion in the Old Testament, derived from prophetic or ancestral authority. These take on often a cryptic character and anticipate the more extended apocalyptic writings of later times (cf. the sayings ascribed to Moses and to Jacob in Gen. xlix and Deut. xxxiii).
	The uncertainty of the original significance of
the practise is disclosed by an examination of the
etymology of the words used. The technical
Hebrew term for cursing is artar, the meaning of
which was evidently to press heavily upon one.
Alongside this was used for the curse a word derived
from alah, connected with the word el, " God."
This last implies a calling upon deity or a reference to
him as agent, a meaning which recalls the idea
in the German aegnen, " to (make the) sign (of the
cross over one)." But another root also used,
lcttlal, had no inherent reference to the deity, mean
ing simply " to vilify." So the original sense of the
word obscure meaning " to curse," is uncertain. Not
less obscure is the original meaning of the word for
blessing, berakhah. It has been referred to berekh,
" knee," suggesting the meaning " to bow the
knee." But that the idea of worship was originally
connected with the word or that it meant " to
pray " does not appear probable. It is possible
to relate it to beakhah, meaning an accumulation of
the growth and fruitfulness attributed to water
and, then the attainment of prosperity.
A noteworthy expression is that which appears quite frequently (e.g., Gen. ix, 26), " Blessed be Yahweh." Is this only a manner of speech equivalent to " Yahweh be praised "7 While this may be the sense in later ages, it was hardly so in early times. It has doubtless come down as a survival of the conception that even deity might be blessed by the utterance of some highly endowed individual. (R. Klmr>sl..)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Scholz, 08txendienst and Zaulxrweaen
bei den Hebrllem, Regensburg, 1877; C. F. Keil, Biblical Arehmolopy, a", 457, Edinburgh, 1888; R. 8mend, Altteetamentiiche Retipionapeechie><ta, ¢ 334, Freiburg, 1893; DB, i, 307, 534‑bib; BB. i, b91‑592; JE, iii, 242‑247. For ethnic parallels consult: E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, pp. 112‑132, New York, 1877; I. Goldsiher, Muhammidanische Stadien, 2 vole., Halls, 1889‑90; wellhaueea, Heidentum• F. T. Elworthy, The Evil Eye, London, 1895; F. B. Jevone, Introduction to Hilt, of Religion, chaps. iii‑iv, ib. 1898; G. B. Frazer, Golden Bough, i, 97, ib. 1900; 8. I. Curtiss, Primitive Semitic Religion, New York, 1902.

BLISS, DANIEL: Congregational missionary; b. at Georgia, Vt., Aug. 17, 1823. He was graduated at Amherst College in 1852 and Andover Theological Seminary in 1855. He was ordained to the Congregational ministry in 1855, and immediately went to Syria as a missionary of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, remaining there in this capacity until 1862. Four years later he was appointed president of the Syrian Protestant College, Beirut, and retained this position until 1902, when he resigned and became president emeritus. He is the author of a number of works in Arabic, particularly a text‑book of mental philosophy and another of natural philosophy.

Bliss
Blood	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	204
BLISS, EDWIN MUNSELL: Congregationalist; b. at Erzerum, Turkey, Sept. 12, 1848. He was educated at Robert College, Constantinople, High School, Springfield, Mass., Amherst College (B.A., 1871), and Yale Divinity School (B.D., 1877). He was assistant agent of the American Bible Society for the Levant in 1872‑88 (excepting 1875‑77, when he was completing his theological studies in America), and after his return to America in 1888 edited The Encyclopedia of Missions (New York, 1889‑91) and was associate editor of The Independent in 1891‑1901, He was an editorial writer on Harper's Weekly and The A'ew York Times in 1901‑02, and was field secretary of the American Tract Society for New England in 1903‑04. He was then pastor of the Congregational church at Sanford, Fla., in 1904‑05, and general secretary of the Foreign Missions Industrial Association in 1905‑06. In 1907 he became connected with the United States Census Bureau in Washington. In theology he is liberal‑orthodox. He has written Turkey and the Armenian Atrocities (Philadelphia, 1896); The Turk in Armenia, Crete, and Greece (1898); and Concise History of Missions (Chicago, 1897).
BLISS, FREDERICK JONES: American archeologist; b. at Mount Lebanon, Syria, Jan. 22, 1859. He was educated at Amherst College (B.A., 1880), and was for three years principal
of the preparatory department of the Syrian Protestant College, Beirut, Syria. He then studied at Union Theological Seminary, where he was graduated in 1887. Returning to Syria, he was an independent explorer until his appointment, in 1890 as explorer to the Palestine Exploration Fund (London). During the ten years in which he held this position, he excavated the pound of Tell‑el‑Hesy (Lachish) in 1891‑93, and from 1894 to 1897 was engaged in excavations at Jerusalem. In 1898‑1900 he excavated four Palestinian cities. In addition to numerous briefer contributions, he has written A Mound of Many Cities; or Tellel‑Ilesy Excavated (London 1894); Excavations at Jerusalem, 189/x‑i897 (1898); Excavations in Palestine during 1898‑1900 (1902; in collaboration with R. A. S. Maealister); and The Development of Palestine Exploration, the Ely lectures at Union Seminary for 1903 (New York, 1906).
BLISS, HOWARD SWEETSER: Congregational missionary; b. at Mount Lebanon, Syria, Dec. 6, 1860. He was educated at Amherst College (B.A., 1882), Union Theological Seminary (18841887), and the universities of Oxford (1887‑88), Gottingen, and Berlin (1888‑89). He taught at Washburn College, Topeka, Kan., in 1883‑84, and after his return from Europe to the United States was successively assistant pastor of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, N. Y. (1889‑94), and pastor of the Christian Union Congregational Church, Upper Montclair, N. J. (1894‑1902). Since 1902 he has been president of the Syrian Protestant College, , Beirut, Syria.
BLISS, ISAAC GROUT: Congregational foreign missionary; b. at Springfield, Mass., July 5, 1822; d. at Assiut, Egypt, Feb. 16, 1889. Educated at
Amherst College (B.A., 1844) and at Yale and Andover (1847) theological seminaries, he served as. missionary of the American Board at Erzerum, Eastern Turkey, 1847‑52, when the failure of hit health compelled his return to the United States. In 1857 he returned to the foreign field as agent for the Levant of the American Bible Society, with residence in Constantinople.
BLISS, WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER: American Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Constantinople Aug. 20, 1856. He was educated at Robert College, Constantinople, Phillips Academy, Andover Mass., Amherst College (B.A., 1878), and Hartford Theological Seminary (1882). He was ordained to the Congregational ministry, but after holding pastorates in Denver, Col., and South Natick, Mass., he entered the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1885, and was ordered deacon in 1886 and ordained priest in the following year. He was minister at Lee, Mass., in 1885‑87, and was then successively rector of Grace Church, South Boston (1887‑90), Linden, Mass. (1890), Church of the Carpenter, Boston, Mass. (1890‑94), Church of Our Savior, San Gabriel, Cal. (1898‑1902), and Amityville, L. I. (since 1902). He has taken an active interest in social reform, and in 1889 organized the first Christian Socialist Society in the United States, and has since been its secretary, while he has been president of the National Social Reform League since 1899, and was the Labor candidate for lieutenant‑governorof Massachusetts in 1887. He has also been secretary of the Christian Social Union since 1891, and in 1905 was a member of the United States Labor Department on the Unemployed. In theology he is a radical Broad‑churchman. He edited The Dawn (1889‑9fi), The American Fabian (1895‑9fi), The Civic Councillor (1900), and the Encyclopedia of Social Reform (New York, 1898; 1908); and has written Hand‑Book of Socialism (London, 1895).
BLODGET, HENRY: Congregational foreign missionary; b, at Bucksport, Me., July 13, 1825; d. at Bridgeport Conn., May 23, 1903. Educated at Yale College (B.A.,1848) and at Yale Divinity School, he was a missionary in China of the American Board from 1854 to 1894, living in Peking from 1864 on. He shared in the translation of the New Testament into the Mandarin colloquial of Peking, and independently translated much in prose and verse.
BLOMFIELD, CHARLES JAMES: Bishop of London; b. at Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk, May 29, 1786; d. at Fulham Palace Aug. 5, 1857. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1808); was ordained 1810;. became chaplain to Bishop Howley of London 1819; archdeacon of
Colchester 1822; bishop of Chester 1824; bishop of London 1828. He retired from office in 18.56 after a vigorous and effective administration. He was
a noted Greek scholar, edited a Greek grammar (Cambridge, 1818), and a number of Greek texts (the dramas of Eschylus, 1810‑24; Callimachus 1815; Euripides, 1821; fragments of Sap‑
pho, Alcaeus, and Stesichorus for Gaisford's Poetm minores Grceci, 1823), and wrote much for the

206	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bliss
reviews on classical subjects. His theological works comprise Five Lectures on John's Gospel (1823); Twelve Lectures on the Ads (1828); several collections of sermons; and A Manual of Private and Family Prayers (1824).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Blomfield, A Memoir of C. J. Blomfield, . with Selections from his Correspondence, 2 vats., London. 1883 (by his son); G. E. Biber, Bishop Blomfceld and his Times, London, 1857; DNB, v, 229‑230. The British Museum Catalogue devotes five pages to a list of Blomfield's works.
BLOMFIELD, WILLIAM ERNEST: English Baptist; b. at Rayleigh (24 m. s.w. of Colchester), Essex, Oct. 23, 1862. He was educated at Regent's Park College, London (B.A., University of London, 1883), and after being assistant (1884‑85) and sole minister (188;r86) of Elm Road Baptist Church, Beckenham, was pastor of Turret Green Church, Ipswich, 1886‑95 and of Queen's Road Church, Coventry, 1895‑1904. Since 1904 he has been president of the Baptist College, Rawdon, Leeds.

BLOMMAERDINE, blem"mar‑dine, HADEWICH or HADEWIJCH: Ahereticalmyaticwhosereligious activity and writings caused great excitement in Brussels early in the 14th century. Her adherents venerated her as a saint and her writings as divine revelations; her opponents charged her with heretical teaching on the freedom of the spirit, and with mingling religious devotion and sensual passion. During his stay in Brussels (1317‑43), Ruysbroeck conducted a strong polemical campaign against her, which, however, did not prevent people from coming after her death to seek the cure of diseases by touching her shroud. The scanty notices which Ruysbroeck's biographer gives of her life and writings have been recently filled out by the scholarly investigations of K. Ruelena and P. Fredericq. They have shown it to be extremely probable that the mystic was identical with the important Flemish poetess Hadewijch (erroneously called " Sister Hadewijch "), whose remains in prose and verse, known only in part heretofore, have been published in full by J. Vercoullie (Ghent, 1877). The principal theme of all these writings is love (Minus) for God. The specimens given by Fredericq display the tempestuous, sometimes actually sensual, passion with which she longs for mystical union with him. In describing her numerous visions the poetess boasts of very intimate relations with Christ and the saints, and claims the gift of prophecy and the power of working miracles. She expresses herself bitterly in regard to the persecutions set on foot by her enemies, the vremden, against herself and her adherents, whom she calls uriende, the nuwen or vdmaakten der Minne (perfedi). In one place she gives the number of her then living followers (principally nuns or Beguines) as ninety‑seven, of whom twenty‑nine were outside the Netherlands. Apparently the dtrmicella Heilwigis dicta Blammardine, the daughter of William Blommaert, a rich and noble citizen of Brussels, who died about 1336, is the same as the mystic and the poetess. It appears that as late as the beginning of the fifteenth century the Inquisition in Brusrwls was still obliged to proceed against
adherents of the heresies promulgated by her, which were not far removed from the views of the Brethren of the Free Spirit (q.v.). (H>liHnuirr.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Henricus Pomerius, De origins monasterii Viridisvallia, in Analecta Bollandia»a, iv, 288, Paris, 1888: H. C. Lea. History of the Inquisition, ii, 377, Philadelphia, 1888; P. Fredericq, Corpus documentorum inquiaitionia . . . Neerlandicw, I, 185 aqq., 288 eqq., The Hague, 1889; idem, De geheimzinnige ketierin Blwmordinne en de sects der " Nuux " to Bruaael, in y'eralagen en Mededeelingen der koninkl. Akademie van Wetenachapyen to Amsterdam, series 3, xii (1895). 77 sqq.; W. A. Jonckblaet, tleachiedenia der Nederlandache letterkunde, ii, 270 sqq., 1889; A. Auger, etude our lea mystiques des Pays‑Bas au maven dqe, in Memoirea couronnea . • . par l'aead6nie royals de Belgique, xlvi (1892), 149 eqq., 164.

BLONDEL, DAVID: French Protestant theologian; b. at Ch&lona‑sur‑Marne 1590; d. at Amsterdam 1655. He belonged to a noble family of Champagne; studied classics at the College of SEdan and theology at the Academy of Geneva; was called as pastor to Houdan (he de France), then to Roucy on the estate of La Rochefoucauld. Because of his great knowledge of the Scriptures and of ecclesiastical history, he was chosen more than twenty times secretary of the provincial synod of ale de France. His writings in defense of the Protestants against their Roman Catholic opponents won for him a great reputation for scholarship. In 1631 he was appointed professor of divinity at Saumur, but his pariah of Roucy declined to give him up. For his contributions to the history of the Reformation, the National Council of Charenton allowed him an annuity of 1,000 livres, enabling him to devote himself to his studies without fear of want. After the death of Vossius in 1650, he was appointed professor of history at the EPcole Illustre at Amsterdam. Pierre Bayle said of him: " He was a man who had an unbounded knowledge of religious and profane history." He was accused by the orthodox party of Arminianism and of indifference to his church; he also endured much from political opponents on account of an article against Cromwell written during the war between Great Britain and Holland. His works were in part: Modeste declaration de la sinc&itt! et v&ite des 9glises r6formeea de France (Sddan, 1619); Pseudo‑Isidorus et Turrianus vapulantes (Geneva, 1628); Eclaircissements familiers de la controverse de fEucharistie (Quevilly, 1841); De la primaute en l1glise (Geneva, 1641); Des Sibylles, cElebrees tart par l'antiquitE payenne que par les SaintsP&ea (Charenton, 1649); Aden authentiques des tglises rEform6es de France, Germanie, GrandeBretagne (Amsterdam, 1655).
G. BONET‑MAUAY.
BLOOD‑BROTHERHOOD. See COMPARATIVE RELIGION, VI, 1, b, § 6.

BLOOD‑REVENGE: A custom nearly universal in the tribal or clan stage of society, often surviving later, binding the kin of a murdered man to secure satisfaction for the murder by the death of the slayer or of one of his clan. The custom depends upon two fundamentals of that stage of civilization: (1) the sacredness of life and the solidarity of the clan; (2) the lex talionis. Its essence is execution of the slayer or some of his

Blood
THE NEAP SCHAFF‑HERZOG	208
kin by the representatives of the slain, not by public authorities; it belongs therefore to private as opposed to public justice. In nomadic society the perpetuation of the clan depends upon its fighting strength and its sense of unity. Hence assault upon a member of the clan, if attended with even unintended fatal results, involves the tribe, clan, or family of the slain in what is felt to be a sacred duty, the avenging of the shedding of blood. The custom is important from the standpoint of utilitarian ethics, since the knowledge that reparation will be demanded by the clan of the assailed restrains a potential assailant from wanton attack and makes men more careful in ordinary intercourse. The duty set by the institution is binding, and so close is the relationship in the clan (see COMPARATIVE RELIGION, VI, I, b, $ 1) that all its members may become involved, the result being a blood‑feud between the clans of the assailant and the victim. Usually, however, the duty devolves upon the next of kin. Refusal on his part to exercise his• right and perform his duty subjects him to utter contempt and even to outlawry.
In the advance of civilization the State assumes exclusively the function of Capital Punishment (q.v.) and the custom becomes obsolete. The Hebrew legislation furnishes an example of an intermediate condition, by which the right of the family of a man deliberately (not wantonly) murdered to execute justice was recognized and the murderer, when captured, was delivered by the authorities to the avenger of blood (go'el haddam, Lev. xix, 11‑13; Num. xxxv, 19, 21, 27; for the general law of murder among the Hebrews consult Gen. ix, 6; Ex. xxi, 12; Lev. xxiv, 17; Josh. xx). Even in the case of accidental killing, the avenger of blood might kill the slayer if before the death of the high priest he found him outside the city of refuge in which he had taken sanctuary. See LAW, HEBREW, CIVIL AND CRIMINAL, III.
GEO. W. GILMORE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. H. Poet, Studies our EnbuKeddungepeachichts dea Famidienrechta, pp. 113‑137, Oldenburg, 1889; Smith, Kinship (invaluable for the Semitic peoples, cf. also his Bel. o/ Sem.); and for modern savage practise, Spencer and F. J. Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, London, 1899; idem, Northern Tribes of Central Austalia, ib. 1904; DB. ii, 222‑224; EB, ii, 1746‑47.
BLOUNT, CHARLES. See DE18M, I, § 3.
BLUMHARDT, CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB: German Protestant; b. in Stuttgart Apr. 29, 1779; d. in Basel Dec. 19, 1838. He studied at Tiibingen; in 1803 became secretary of the Deutsche Christentumsgesellschaft in Basel; minister at Burg, WUrttemberg, 1807; returned in 1816 to Basel as director of the missionary school. From 1816 he edited the Misaionamagazin, and from 1828 also the Heidenbote; he published Veratlch sitter allg>zen Missionageachichte der %irche Christi (5 vole., Basel, 18287), reaching down to the time of the Reformation.

BLUMHARDT, JOHANN CHRISTOPH: German Lutheran; b. at Stuttgart July 16, 1805 d. at Boll (5 miles 8‑w‑ of GSppingen) Feb. 25, 1880. He studied at Tiibingen; became teacher at the missionary institution at Basel 1830; succeeded pastor
Barth at MBttlingen, near Calw, 1838. By the reported cure by prayer of a girl named Gottliebin Dittus, supposed to be a demoniac, which cure was effected after a two years' struggle, Blumhardt gained great fame. A revival followed, attended by so many people from so large an area that on Good Friday, 1845, no less than 176 localities were represented at the service. At his services, so it is reported, healing of physical infirmities resulted from Blumhardt's laying on of hands in token of absolution. Blumhardt received calls to other places, but felt that his gifts and time belonged to the " distressed "; in order to be able to devote himself entirely to them, he bought in 1853 the royal watering‑place Boll, which became an asylum for sufferers of all kinds, and from all ranks of society. The girl he had cured went with him as an assistant, accompanied .by a brother and a sister whom Blumhardt had also cured. In 1869 and 1872 his sons joined him in the work. From all countries the afflicted flocked to his asylum, where his unique treatment seemed to give them new vital energy. At last sickness attacked him, and he ordained his son to the work with the words, " I consecrate thee to victory." In 1899 this son withdrew from the clergy, but continued to maintain the establishment at Boll. (J. HE88E.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. ZUndel, P/arrer J. C. BZumhardt. Zurich,
1887; T. H. Mandel, Dar Siep won MtittLinpen im Licht dea Glaubena and der Wisaenachaft, Leipeie, 1895; C. Blum‑
bsrdt, Gelankrn cue dam Reiehe Gottes im Axxhluea an die Geachichte von M6ttlingen and Bad Boll and unsere
)<eutipe Stellunp, Bad Boll, 1895.
	BLUNT, JOHN HENRY: Church of England
scholar; b. in Chelsea., London, Aug. ~25, 1823;
d. in London Apr. 11, 1884. He gave up a busi
ness career for the ministry, studied at University
College, Durham (M.A., 1855), and was ordained
priest in 1855; after filling a number of coracles,
he became in 1868 vicar of Kensington, near
Oxford, and in 1873 rector of Beveraton, Glouces
tershire. He was a pronounced High‑churchman,
and an indefatigable writer both of articles for
the periodicals and of books; among his works are
a number of useful theological and Biblical com
penda, such as The Annotated Book of Common
Prayer (2 vote., London, 1866; new ed., 1895);
Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical Theology
(1870); The Book of Church Law (1872; 9th ed.,
revised by W. G. F. Phillimore and G. E. Jones,
1901); Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, Ecclesiastical
Parties, and Schools of Religious Thought (1874);
The Annotated Bible : being a household commen
tary upon the Holy Scriptures, comprehending the
results o f modern discovery and criticism (3 vole.,
1879,82); A Companion to the New Testament
(1881); A Companion to the Old Testament (1883);
also an important history of The Reformation of
the Church of England (2 vole., 1869‑82). At the
time of his death he was working upon a Cyclo
ptedia of Religion (1884).

BLUNT, JOHN JAMES; English theologian; b. at Newcastle‑under‑Lyme (15 m. n.n.w. of Stafford), Staffordshire, 1794; d. at Cambridge June 18, 1856. He studied at St. John's College, Cambridge (B.A., and fellow, 1816; M.A., 1819:

207	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Blood
		Boohart
B.D., 1826); traveled in Italy and Sicily; became
curate to Reginald Heber at Hodnet, Shropshire,
in 1821; rector of Great Oakley, Essex, 1834;
Lady Margaret professor of divinity at Cambridge
1839. He wrote many books and contributed
much to the periodical press; some of his works
have passed through many editions. They include
A Sketch of the Reformation in England (London,
1832); Undesigned Coincidences in the Writings both
of the Old Testament and New Testament an Argument
for their Veracity (1847); A History of the Christian
Church during the First Three Centuries (1856);
The Duties of the Parish Priest (1856); Two Intro
ductory Lectures on the Study of the Early Fathers
(with memoir, Cambridge, 1856).
	BLYTH, GEORGE FRANCIS POPHAM: Angli
can bishop in Jerusalem and the East; b. at Bever
ley (9 m. n.n.w. of Hull), Yorkshire, in 1832. He
was educated at Lincoln College, Oxford (B.A.,
1854), and was ordered deacon in 1855, and or
dained priest in the following year. He was suc
cessively curate of Westport St. Mary's, Wiltshire
(1855‑61), and Siggleathorne, Yorkshire (1861‑63),
and chaplain to the earl of Kimberley (1863‑66).
He then went to India, was chaplain of the eccle
siastical establishment at Allahabad (1866‑67),
and was attached to the cathedral of Calcutta
and chaplain to the bishop of Calcutta (1867‑68).
He was then stationed successively at Ba,rrackpur,
Bengal (1868‑74), Naini‑Tal, North‑West Prov
inces (1874‑77), and Fort William, Bengal (1877
1878), after which he was archdeacon of the pro
cathedral at Rangoon from 1879 to 1887. In
the latter year he was consecrated bishop in Jeru
salem and the East. He has written The Holy
Week and Forty Days (2 vole., London, 1879).
	BOARDMAN, GEORGE DANA: 1. Baptist for
eign missionary; b. at Livermore, Me., Feb. 8,
1801; d. at Tavoy, Burma, Feb. 11, 1831. In
1824 he was a resident licentiate in Andover Theo
logical Seminary. In 1825 he went out to Burma
under the Baptist Board of Missions, which had
accepted his services in 1823, but owing to the
Burmese war he could not reach that country till
1827. After a year at Maulmain he opened the new
station at Tavoy, 150 miles north, and there he
immersed the first Karen convert‑Ko Tha Byu.
From this center he prosecuted a very successful
missionary work, but pulmonary disease caused his
death after less than three years.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. King, Good Fight, or G. D. Boardman
	and the Burman Mission, Boston, 1875.
	2. American Baptist, son of the preceding; b.
at Tavoy, Burma, Aug. 18, 182$; d. at Atlantic
City, N. J., Apr. 28, 1903. He was graduated at
Brown in 1852 and at the Newton Theological In
stitution 1855; was pastor in South Carolina 1855
1856; in Rochester, N. Y., 1856‑84; of the First
Baptist Church, Philadelphia, 1864‑94. He was
president of the American Baptist Missionary Union
(1880‑84), and of the Christian Arbitration and
Peace Society of America. His publications were
for .the moat part studies of Biblical texts of an exe
getical character and include Studies in the Creative
Week (New York, 1877), in the Model Prayer (1879),
and in the Mountain Instruction (1881); Epiphanies of the Risen Lord (1879); The Divine Man from. the Nativity to the Temptation (1887); University Lectures on the Ten Commandments (1889); The Kingdom (1899); The Church (1901); Our Risen King's Forty Days (Philadelphia, 1902).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Life and Light. Thoughts from the Writings of George Dana Boardman, with Memorabilia, Philadelphia, 1905.

BOARDMAN, GEORGE NYE: American Congregationalist; b. at Pittsford, Vt., Dec. 23, 1825. He was graduated at Middlebury College, Vt. (B.A., 1847), and Andover Theological Seminary (1852). He was tutor at Middlebury College, in 1847‑49, and after the completion of his theological studies was appointed professor of rhetoric and English literature in Middlebury College, also acting as temporary professor of intellectual philosophy. Six years later (1859), he accepted a call to the pastorate of the First Presbyterian Church at Binghamton, N. Y., where he remained until 1871, when he was chosen professor of systematic theology in Chicago Theological Seminary. He resigned from this position in 1893, with the title of professor emeritus. He was the first moderator of the new synod after the reunion of the Old School and New School Presbyterian Churches, being also chairman of the committee for the formation of new presbyteries. He was also moderator of the Congregational General Association of Illinois in 1881, and has been a corporate member of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions since 1869. He prepared the section on systematic theology in the seven volumes of Current Discussion, issued by the faculty of the Chicago Theological Seminary (Chicago, 1883‑‑89), and hoe also written Lectures on Natural Theology (1881); Congregationalism (1889); Regeneration (1891); and History of New England Theology (New York, 1899).

BOCHART, b5"sh8r', SAMUEL: French Protestant; b. at Rouen 1599; d. at Caen 1667. His father was the learned Rend Bochart, pastor at Rouen, and his mother Esther du Moulin. At the age of fourteen he made Greek verses in honor of his masters. He studied philosophy at Sddan, theology at Saumur under Cameron, whom he accompanied to London in 1621. He did not stay long, but soon returned to Leyden, where he took up theology and the study of the Arabic language under Erpenius. He was appointed Protestant minister at Caen, but gave private lessons in a Roman Catholic family. His controversy with the Jesuit V46ron, in 1628, gave him a great name, and he edited an account of it (2 vole., Saumur, 1630) to refute V6ron's teachings. In 1652 Queen Christina of Sweden wished his presence and he followed her call, accompanied by his pupil Huet, later bishop of Avranches. He remained in Stockholm one year, studying Arabic texts in the queen's library. Returning to Caen, he became the representative of Normandy at the National Calvinist Synod of Loudun. He died suddenly during a session of the academy at Caen. His works include Theses theologicte de verbo Dei (Saumur, 1620); Aden do

Bookhold
Boehme	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	208
la eonf46rence tenue h Caen entre Samuel Bochart
et Jean Baillehaehe, ministres de la parole de Dieu
en l1glise reformee . . , et Frangois Y6ron (2 vole.,
1630); Mponse h la lettre du pyre de la Barre,
J6suite, sur la prEsence r&lle (1661); Hierozofcora
sive historic animalium S. Seripturae (London,
1663); Opera omnia, hoc est, Phaleg, Cancan, et
Hierozoacon, quibvs accessere varice dissertaliones
(Leyden, 1675). 	G. BONET‑MAURY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. D. Bust, Lea Originea de la vine de Caen , Rouen, 1708; Nic€ron, Memoirea; w. R. whittingham, The Life and Writings of S. Bochart, in Essays on Biblical Literature, London 1829; Smith, Samuel Bochart, Caen, 1833; E. and It. Haag, La France proteatante, ed. H. L. Bordier, vol. ii, Paris, 1879; KL, ii, 950‑952.
	BOCKHOLD,	JOHANN (JAN BEUKELS
ZOON). See MUENSTER, ANABAPTIaTH IN.
	BOD, bed, PETER: Hungarian theologian and ec
clesiastical historian; b. at FelsB‑Caernfiton (a village
of Transylvania) Feb. 12, 1712; d. at Magyar‑Igen
(40 m. s.w. of Klausenburg) Mar. 3, 1769. He
was educated at the Reformed college of Nagy
Enyed and the University of Leyden, and in 1743
became pastor at Hwiz, whence he was called, six
years later, to Magyar‑Igen. He was the author
of fifty‑six works, of which twenty‑three were
printed, but by a decree of Maria Theresa restricting
the liberty of the press certain of his books of a
patriotic and Protestant tendency were confiscated.
Among his works in Hungarian special mention
may be made of the following, the titles being
translated into English: " History o f the Holy
Bible " ' (Hermannstadt, 1748); " History o f the
Church of God" (Basel, 1760); "History of the
Reformed Bishops of Transylvania " (Enyed, 1766);
" The Magyar Athens " (Hermannatadt, 1767);
biographies of 485 Hungarian authors, and "The
Hungarian Phenix " (Enyed, 1767); biography of
the printer Kiss; while his Latin works include:
llistoria Unitariorum in Transylvania (Leyden,
1778), a vivid description of the struggles of the
Sociniana in Hungary; Historic Hvngarorum eccle
siastics (ed. Rauwenhoff and Prins, 3 vols., 1888
1890, from a manuscript recently discovered in the
library of the university); and two treatises on
the promoters and defenders of the Hungarian
Reformation (in Gerdes, Scrinium Antiqtutrium,
ii, Groningen, 1763). 	F. BALO(IH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. D. Teuteeh, Korreapondenzblatt des Vereine fur aiebenb. Landeakunde, no. xi, 1888, nos. v,
vi, 1891; Presbyterian and Reformed Review, vols. i‑ii, 1891‑92.
BODELSCHWIRGH, b8'del‑ahving, FRIEDRICH VON: German Lutheran; b. near Tecklenburg (20 m. n.n.e. of Munster), Westphalia, Mar. 6, 1831, son of Ernst von Bodelschwingh‑Velmede, a distinguished Prussian statesman. After gaining practical experience of mining and agriculture, he studied theology (from 1854) in Basel, Erlangen, and Berlin, and in 1858 became pastor of the Leoman congregation in Paris, at Dellwig in Westphalia 1864. During the wars of 1866 and 18701871 he served as army chaplain. Since 1872 he has devoted himself to the work of the Innere Mission (q.v.) at Bielefeld, and the following institutions have been founded by his exertions: the Bethel
house for epileptics with 1,800 inmates; the Sarepta deaconesaea' house with 980 sisters located in 326 stations, of which eleven are in foreign countries; the Nazareth house for training male nurses with 350 deacons in 120 stations, six not in Europe and six more outside Germany; the " workingmen's colony " Wilhehnadorf (a practical attempt to deal with the tramp problem), the first of its kind in Germany, having at present five branches and 400 inmates; a " workingmen's home " with 164 houses and 400 dwellings; a missionary seminary for candidates in theology.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Siebold, Kurze Geachichte and Beachreibung der Anatalten Bethel . . . bel Bielefeld, Bethel publishing house, 1898, and the annual reports.
BODENSTEIft, ANDREAS RUDOLF VON. See CARLSTADT.
BODY, CHARLES WILLIAM EDMUND: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Clapham (a (suburb of London) Oct. 4, 1851. He was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1875), where he was fellow from 1877 to 1881. In the latter year he was chosen provost and vice‑chancellor of Trinity University, Toronto, where he remained until 1894, when he was appointed professor of Old Testament literature and interpretation in the General Theological Seminary, New York City. He has written The Permanent Value of Genesis (the Paddock Lectures for 1894; New York, 1894).
BODY, GEORGE: Church of England; b. at Cheriton Fitzpaine (9 m. n.w. of Exeter), Devonshire, Jan. 7, 1840. He was educated at St. John's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1882), and was curate of St. James's, Wedneabury, Staffordshire (1863‑65), Sedgley, Staffordshire (1865‑67), and Christ Church, Wolverhampton (1867‑70). From 1870 to 1884 he was rector of Kirby‑Misperton, Yorkshire; and since 1883 he has been canon of Durham. He was proctor in convocation of York for Cleveland in 1880‑85 and was select preacher to the University of Cambridge in 1892, 1894, 1896, 1900, and 1904, as well as lecturer on pastoral theology in the same university in 1897. He was warden of the Community of the Epiphany, diocese of Truro, in 1891, and is also chaplain to the bishop of St. Andrews and vice‑president of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. He has written: Life of Justification (London, 1884); Life of Temptation (1884); The Appearances of the Risen Lord (1890); The School of Calvary (1891); Activities of the Ascended Lord (1891); The Life of Love (1893); The Guided Life (1894); and The Work of Grace in Paradise (1896).
BOECKENHOFF, bOk'en‑hef, WILHELM BERNARD ALOYSIUS KARL: German Roman Catholic; b. at Schermbeck (37 m. e.w. of Munster) July 10, 1870. He was educated at Munster (1890‑93), the Gregorian University, Rome (1897‑1900; Doctor Juria Canonici, 1899), and the University of Berlin (1900‑01; D.D., Munster, 1901). He was ordained to the priesthood in 1894 and was a vicar in Dolberg from that year until 1897, when he resumed his studies. He became a privatdocent at Minster in 1902, but three years later went in a similar capacity to Strasburg, where he

209	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Boakhoid
		Boehme
was appointed associate professor of canon la
in the following month. In addition to contribu
tions to theological periodicals, he has written
De individuitate matrimonii (Berlin, 1901) and
Das apostolische Speiaegesetz in den ersten funf
Jahrhunderten (Paderborn, 1903).
	BOEGIYER, birg'ner, ALFRED EDOUARD
French Protestant; b. at Strasburg Aug. 2, 1851.
He was educated atthe university of his native city
and at the theological faculty at Montauban, after
which he studied at the German universities of Leip
aic, Erlangen, and Tubingen in 1873‑74. From 1876
to 1879 he was pastor of the Protestant church at
Fresnoy‑le‑Grand, and in the latter year became
aul?director of the Paris Society of Evangelical
Missions, of which he has been director since 1882.
In this capacity he made tours of inspection of
South Africa in 1883, Senegal and the West Coast in
189(1‑91, and Madagascar, the Transvaal, Orange
Free State, and Cape Colony in 1898‑99. He is also
director of the Paris House of Evangelical Missions,
and in addition to editing the Journal des missions
EvangBliquea de Paris since 1879 and publishing
or editing a number of minor contributions, has
written Patterson, Is misaionnaire de la MOIanEsie
(Paris, 1881); Le Miasionnaire de Mdhlakatla (1882);
Les Bassoutos, autrefois et aujourd'hui (1885);
Quelques reftrxions our l'autoriM en mature de foi
(1892); and Rapport our la dEl6gation d Madagas
car (in collaboration with P. Germond; 1900).
	BOEHL, boi, EDUARD: German theologian; b.
at Hamburg Nov. 18, 1836; d. at Vienna Jan. 24,
1903. He was educated 'at Berlin (1855), Halls
(1856‑58), and Erlangen (1858‑60), and became
licentiate and privatrdocent at Basel in 1860,
whence he was called to Vienna four years later
as professor of Reformed dogmatics and symbolics,
and also of pedagogics, philosophy of religion, and
apologetics, in the Protestant faculty of theology.
In 1864 he also became a permanent member of
the Synod of the Reformed Church of Austria,
and was in 1883 president of its fourth General
Synod. He edited the Evangelische Sonntagsbolen
fur Oesterreich, and published De Aramaismis libri.
Koheleth (Erlangen, 1860); Vazicinium Jesajts c.
24‑27 ~ commentario illustratum (Leipsic, 1861);
Zwolf messianiache Psalmen erklart; nebst einer
grundlegenden christologisehen Einleitung (Basel,
1862); Confessio Helvetica Posterior (Vienna, 1866);
Allgemeine Padagogik (1870); Forschungen nach
einer V olksbibel zur Zeit Jesu and deren Zusamr
menhang mit der Septuaginta‑Uebersetzung (1873);
Die alttestamentliehen Citate im Netten Testament
(1878); Christologie des Alter Testaments, oiler
Auslegung der wichtigsten mesaianischen Weissar
gungen (1882); Zum Gesetz and zum Zettgniss;
sine Abwehr.wider die neukritischen Schriftforachun
gen im Alter Testament (1883); Von der Incar
nation des g6ttlichen Wortes (1884); Christliche
Glaubenslehre (Amsterdam, 1886); Dogmatik; Dar
8tellung der christlichen Glaubenslehre auf reforntirt
kirchlicher Grundlnge (1887); ~Zur Abwehr : etliche
Bemerkuttgen gegen Prof. Dr. A. Kuyper's Ein
leitung zu seiner Schrift " Die Incarnation des
Wortes" (1888); Yon der Rechtfertigung durch den
		IL‑14
Glauben (Leipeie, 1890); Beitrage zur Geachichte der Reformation in Oesterreich (Jena, 1902).
BOEHM, HANS: A popular preacher of the fifteenth century, known as the Drummer of Niklaahauaen; executed July 19, 1476. He was originally a shepherd at Helmatadt, between Wiirzburg and Wertheim. Up to the beginning of 1476, he had been used to play the drum and fife for rustic dances, but what he heard of the preaching of the Franciscan Capistrano (see CAPl xnxo, GIOVANNI DI) worked a great change in 1He alleged that the Virgin Mary had appeare to him and called him to be a prophet and preacher of repentance. In the village of Niklashausen near his home there was a picture of her already reputed miraculous and visited by pilgrims. Here, at the end of March, he began to preach, having burnt his drum in token of conversion. Lacking not only secular education but even elementary religious knowledge, he yet made a deep impression on his hearers by the innocence and purity of his nature. He did not atop with calling the peasants to repentance, but showed increasing bitterness against the clergy and nobles, who, he said, would find no place in the kingdom announced to him by the Virgin; taxes were to be abolished, no one was to have more than another, and all men were to live as brothers. His fame soon spread throughout central and southern Germany, and crowds of pilgrims, put as high as 40,000, thronged to hear him. He seems to have intended to lead them in an armed rising; but Bishop Rudolf of Wiiraburg had him arrested on July 12, and warded off the danger of a great peasants' war. Two days later, 16,000 of his followers appeared to rescue him, but were dispersed; and on the 19th, a recantation having been extorted from him, he perished on the scaffold as a heretic and enchanter.
(HERMAN HeUrr.) .
BrBr.InaSApHT: C. A. Baraek, Hang BBhm and die WalLfahrt naeA Niklaahausen im Jahre 1478, Wiiraburg, 1858; C. Ullmann, Reformers before the Reformation, i, 377‑392. Edinburgh, 1877 (a very detailed account); E. Gothein, Politieche and retipitiae VollcabeweAunpen vor der Reformation, pp. 10 eqq., Breslau, 1878; H. Haupt, Die relipi daen .Sekten in Franker vor der Reformation, pp. 57 aqq., Wiiraburg, 1882.
BO	E, Wine, JAKOB.
Early Tendency Toward Mys‑ Finds Sympathy in Dresden
	ticism (¢ 1).	($ 4). .
Mystic Visions (¢ 2).	Death of BShme (¢ b).
Opposition to his First 	His Writings ($ 8).
Book (¢ 3).		His Transcendentalism l¢ 7).
	His Essential Orthodoxy (¢ 8).
	The famous German mystic Jakob Bbhme (often
written Behmen or Boehme in English), born at
Alt‑Seidenberg, near GtSrlita, Nov., 1575; d. at Gor
litz Nov. 17, 1624. His parents were peasants,
		from whom he inherited, it seems, a
	:. Early strain of visionary mysticism. ‑ Unable
	Tendency to bear the rough outdoor life of the
	Toward farm, he was put to shoemaking in the
	Mysticism. little town of Seidenberg, where he
		had a hard apprenticeship with a
family that had no Christian principles, and got an
early insight into the controversies of .the age.
With diligent reading of the Bible and prayer fo><

8oehme	THE NEW SCgAFF_gEg,ZOG	210
Boehriager
the illumination of the Holy Spirit he combined
eager study of the works of fanatical visionaries,
such as Paracelaus, Weigel, and Schwenckfeld, by
means of which he felt himself elevated above the
strife of tongues around him into the light and joy
of the contemplation of God. He settled, as master
of his trade, at GSrlitz in 1599. He had his shop
there until 1613, and must have prospered to a
certain extent, since he bought a house in 1610
and tad fully paid for it in 1618. He married
a mabutcher's daughter in 1599, and had four
sons and two daughters, passing as a model hus
band and father among his neighbors. All these
things go to show that he had a practical hold on
life, and was far from being a mere crazy visionary.
A visionary, however, he remained. He tells the
story of a stranger coming into his shop and calling
him by name, taking him aside to tell him he should
be so great that the world should wonder at him,
and warning him to remain true to the Word of
God and to a life of virtue. Other visions followed.
		One day the reflection of the sun from
s. Mystic a bright metal vessel in his shop seemed
	Visions.	to infuse such spiritual light into his
		soul that the inner mysteries of things
were laid open to his sight. He went out into the
fields to seek the revelation of God's will in earnest
prayer, and found his peace and joy only grow the
deeper. None the less, ten years passed before he
ventured to put down in writing what he had seen,
and then he did so only on the encouragement of a
new vision and as a memorandum for himself.
The incomplete manuscript, written in great haste,
which he called Aurora oiler die Morgenri.'te im Auf
gany, began to circulate among his acquaintances
at the instance of Karl von Ender, a friendly noble
man who was an adherent of Schwenckfeld's. In
this way it came under the notice of Gregoriua
Richter, the pastor of GSrlitz, who at once began
a fanatical war upon the presumptuous shoemaker,
and urged the local magistrate to suppress him,
lest the wrath of God should fall upon the town.
		B6hme was minutely examined be
3. Oppo‑ fore the council, and only dismissed
	sitioa to his on promising to write no more books.
	First Book. The observance of this promise,
		however, was not only made diffi
	cult by the insistence of his friends, but by
his own inner feeling that the fear of men had
driven him to deny the grate of Cod that was in
	him. The bitter abuse of Richter, too, still con
	tinued, and after five years of silence, during which
he had learned a good deal and developed more,
B$hme could bear it no longer, and, encouraged
	by a fresh vision, again took up his pen. His new
	writings were at first circulated only in manuscript
	copies. Richter, who thought himself the appointed
	guardian of orthodoxy, thundered against him from
the pulpit and attacked him in a vulgar lampoon,
which Minna answered in a tone naturally excited,
but still showing a nobler spirit than the absurdly
	haughty and unchristian contempt of the attack.
Far from having broken with the word of God and
the sacraments, he was trying to live as an upright
Christian, in strict self‑discipline; and although
among his twenty‑eight works there are some which
directly attack the visible Church as Babel, the city of confusion, and set forth Christ in us as the mystical ideal, his general attitude by no means justifies the scornful " Shoemaker,. stick to thy last" of his opponent. In 1824 he was obliged to leave Gorlitz; and went to Dresden, where he found shelter in the house of the director of the Elector's chemical laboratory •.nd enjoyed the
society of many of the moat intellec4. Finds tual people of the court and the capital.
Sympathy In May he had a hearing before several
	in	distinguished clerics and professors,
Dresden. who fully recognized his mental endow‑
ments, and encouraged him to go home, especially as his family, deprived of its head, had been exposed to no little suffering in the confusion of the Thirty Years' War. He returned to Gorlitz, but his end was near. When he asked for communion upon his death‑bed, the successor of Richter, a man like‑minded, would only give it to him after a searching examination, of which the report is still extant. Full of confidence, however, and with
heavenly voices ringing in his ears, g. Death BShme took leave of his wife and
of 13ohme. children and died with the joyful cry
" I go to Paradise I " In spite of clerical opposition, a befitting funeral was provided by the town authorities; a cross was put up over the grave by his friends, to be defiled and thrown down by the populace.
Thus despised and rejected in his own day, BShme has been honored by some of the greatest minds of Germany in a later age; such men as Friedrich von Hardenberg, Jung‑Stilling, Friedrich Schlegel and Ludwig Tieck, Hegel and Schelling received valuable intellectual impulses from his works, which also attracted much attention in England, where a complete translation appeared between 1644 and 1682. Bides these already named, the most important are Yon ilea drei Prineapien g6ttlicherc Weeens; Yom dredfachen Leben ilea Menschen ; Yierrig Frogen son der Seeds ; Yon wahrer Busae ; Dus Oeapr4ch einer unerleuchtden Seele ; and Der Wag zu Christo; including two
against predestinarianism and two 6. His against pantheism. BShme's influ‑
Writings. ence has never been a popular one, be‑
cause his train of thought is frequently difficult and sometimes almost impossible to follow. This is due partly to his lack of education, which prevented him from expressing himself clearly, but partly also to the depth and intensity of his thought, which has to struggle for adequate representation in words. With sincere longing, with real hunger of the soul he plunges into the depths of God's being. The traditional theology of the schools, with its strife about the letter, could not content him. " As the many kinds of flowers grow in the earth near each other, and none
contends with the other about color, y. His smell, or taste, but they let the earth
Traascen‑ and the sun, rain and wind, heat and
ilsatsfism. cold, do what they will with them,
while they grow each according to its own nature, so is it with the children of Cod." Aud he was simply a child of God, that longed to

211	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Boehme
		Soehringer
	grow and approach more closely to God. In this
	effort he studied the Bible and clung to it, but
	nature and .life, to say nothing of the writings
	of earlier enthusiasts, contributed their part.
	He held fast to the fundamental doctrines of
	his Church, the Trinity, the Incarnation, the Atone
ment.	" That which is said of God, that he is
	Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, is truly said; but it
	must be explained, or the unenlightened can not
comprehend it."	" Thou must not think the Son
	is another God from the Father, or that he is out
	side the Father, as when two men stand aide by
aide.	The Father is the source of all forces,
	and all forces are in each other as one force; and
thus he is called one God.	The Son is the
	Father's heart, the heart or center of all the powers
	of the Father. From the Son risen the eternal
	heavenly joy, having its source in all the powers
	of the Father, a joy that no eye has
8. His Es‑ seen, and no ear heard."	Christ, the
sential	Father's heart, descended into the
	Orthodoxy. midst of the conflagration which had
	broken out in the world, extinguished
	it by his death, and by his resurrection, the resurrec
	tion of the God‑Man, raised man to participation
	in the Godhead. The Scripture is the receptacle
	of the truth; he holds to it, and its sense alone (of.
	Col. i, 15‑20) teaches a cosmic, universal conception
	of Christianity; baptism and the Lord's supper are
	means of grace to him. He remains, in spite of all
	obscurities, a man of inspiration who raised Protes
	tant mysticism to a great height, and not only
	endowed it with the riches of his own meditations
	but, through his " theosophic Pentecostal school, in
	which the soul is taught by God," has shown many
others the way to a deep and abiding happiness.
	(F. W. DIBELIUS.)
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: The works of BShme were collected in
	Germany by J. G. Gichtel, 1682, and an edition in 7 vole.
	was edited by Schiebler, Leipaic, 1831‑47. The Eng.
	ed. is mentioned in the teat. Early accounts in Eng. of
	his life were by D. Hotham, London, 1854, sad by F.
	Okeley, Northampton, 1780: in Germ. by J. A. Calo,
Wittenberg, 1707. For later	accounts consult: J.
	Claasaen, J. B6hme. 3ein Leben and same theoeophiachen
	Werke, 3 vole., Stuttgart, 1885; H. L. Martenaen, J.
	B6hme, Copenhagen, 1882, Eng. tranel., London, 1885;
	R. A. Vaughan, Hours with the Mystics, vol. ii, ib. 1888;
	Sch6nw51der, Lebenabeachrei6ung J. BShmea, GSrlitz,
	1895. More nearly concerned with his philosophy are:
	J. Hamberger, Die Lehre den deutaehen Philoeoplwu J
	BdAme, Munich, 1844: C. F. Baur, Zur (ieschichte der
	proteatautiechen Myatik, in Tluoloyiaeha Jahrbecher, vii
	viii, 1848‑49; A. Peip, J. Bshma . . . der VarlSufer
	chriatlicher Wieaenecha/t, Leipaic, 1880; idem, J. Btihme
	. in seiner Stellung zur Kirche, Hamburg, 1862;
	J.Tulloeh, Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy
	in the Seventeenth Century, Edinburgh, 1874; F. von
	Bander, Vorleauugen ilber J. Btihme, in Stemmtliche Werka,
	vol. xiii, Leipsie, 1855; F. Hartmann, Life and Doctrines
	of Btihma, the God‑taught Philosopher, London, 1893; J.
	F. Hurst, History of Rationalism, chap. i, New York,
	1902. McClintock and Strong, Cyclopceciia, ii, 842, gives
in Eng, complete list of his works.
	BOEHMER, bO'mer, EDUARD: German the
	ologian and Romance scholar; b. at Stettin May 24,
	1827; d. at Lichtental Feb. 5,1906. He was educated
	at the universities of Halls and Berlin, and in 1854
	became privat‑docent for theology in Halls. He
	later turned his attention to Romance, and in 1866
	was appointed associate professor in that subject in
Halls, becoming full professor two years later. In 1872 he was called to Strasburg in the same capacity, but retired with the title of professor emeritus in 1879. Among his numerous works those of theological importance are Ueber Yerfasser and Abfasaungszeit der johanneischen Apokalypse (Halls, 1855); Das stets Btteh des Thorn (1862); Franzised Hernandez tend Frai Franzisco Ortiz (Leipsic, 1866); Bibliotheca Wiffeniana: Spanish Reformers of two Centuries from 1520 (2 vole., Strasburg, 1874‑83); and Des Apostels Paulus Brief an die R6mer (Bonn, 1886).
BOEHMER, JUSTUS HENNING: A jurist who made important contributions to the study of Roman and still more of canon law; b. at Hanover Jan. 29, 1674; d. at Halls Aug. 23 or 29, 1749, as chancellor of the duchy of Magdeburg and head of the faculty of law at Halls. He rendered a great service to the continuity of Protestant church law in that he was the first to show the adaptability of the older canonical principles to post‑Reformation conditions. This was made possible by his profound knowledge of church history aI~3 his extensive theoretical and practical acquaintance with both the common and the statute law. In the question of the relation of Church and State he declared for the territorial system. Out of the large number of his writings may be mentioned the Dttodecim dissertationea juris ecclesiastici ad Plinium Seeundum et TertuLlinnum (2d ed., Halls, 1729); Enttvurf des Kirchertstaats deter ersten drei Jahrhundert . . (1733); Irh atitutiortea jttris canonici (5th ed., 1770); Jug ecclesiasticum Protestantium (6 vole., 1714); and an edition of the Corpus juris canonici (2 vole., 1747), valuable for its notes, index, and appendices. He also made some contributions to church hymnody. He was the founder of a family of jurists, two of whom deserve mention for their contributions to the study of canon law. These are his son, Georg Ludwig, b. 1715; d. 1797, as head of the law faculty at Giittingen; author of Principia juris canonici (Gottingen, 1762), which was used in the revision of the Prussian laws; and Georg Ludwig's son, Georg Wilhelm (1761‑1839), who published Grttndrisa den protestarttischen Kirchenrechts (GSttingen, 1786) and other cognate works.
(E. FRIEDBERG.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nicdroa, M&noirea; C. G. Haubold, Inati.tutionea juria Romani literarim, p. 153, Leipeie, 1819; ADS, iii, 79 aqq., 1878; J. F. Schulte, G"chichta der Quelien and Litteratur den canoniachen Rechta, vol. iii, part 2, pp. 92 eqq., Stuttgart, 1880; w. Schrader, Geachichta der Friedrichs‑ Univerait6t au Halls, i, 146 eqq., Berlin, 1894.

BOEHRINGER, bA‑ringer, GEORG FRIEDRICH: Swiss Protestant (Tiibingen school); b. at Maulbronn, Wiirttemberg, Dec. 28, 1812; d. at Basel, blind and crippled, Sept. 16, 1879. He studied at Tilbingen, took part in the insurrectionary movements in 1833, and was in consequence compelled to flee to Switzerland; became pastor at Glattfelden, Canton Zurich, 1842; resigned, 1853; removed to Zurich, and then to Basel. He wrote, from the sources and in a scholarly manner, a series of biographies which constituted a church

8oethins
Bohemian
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
history down to pre‑Reformation times, under the general title Die Kirche Christi und ihre Zeugen (24 vole., Zurich, 1842‑58; 2d ed., 186(?‑79).
	BOETHIUS, . bo‑f'thi‑us, ANICIUS MAIYLIUS
SEVERIl<YiTS: Statesman and philosopher; b. at
Rome, of wealthy and influential family, c. 480;
executed at Pavia 525. He received as good an
education as the time could give, and acquired a
close acquaintance with Greek philosophy. In
510 he was consul, and for several yearn occupied
a prominent position in the Roman world, equally
revered by the people and esteemed by the Oatro
gothic king, Theodoric, the ruler of Italy (489
526). After the decree of the Emperor Justin I
(518‑527) against the Arians, Theodoric became
suspicious of all Romans and Catholics; he im
prisoned Bogthiua at Pavia on ti charge of desiring
to restore the old Roman freedom, and finally
put him to death. By his translations and com
mentaries (including the entire six books of the
Organon of Aristotle and the Isagoge of Porphyry)
and by his independent works (Irttrodudio ad
cotegoricos ayllogismos, De nylloginnto categarico,
De ayllogismo hyPothstico, De ditrisione, De de fa
rtitione, De muaica,, De arithrnetica, etc.), Boebhius
became the connecting link between the logical
and metaphysical Science of antiquity and the
scientific attempts of the Middle Ages. His influ
ence on medieval thought was still greater through
his De . consolations philosoluhiev (written while in
prison at Pavia) and the theological writings
attributed to him. Whether BoSthiua was a
Christian has been doubted; and it is certain that
the Consolotio makes no mention of Christ, and
all the comfort it contains it owes to the optimism
of the Neoplatonic school and to the stoicism of
Seneca. ~Nevertheleas, for a long time the book
was read with the greatest reverence by all Chris
tendom, and its author was regarded as a martyr
for the true faixh. Having advanced from a mere
logician to a moralist, he next came to be regarded
as a theologian; but it is not probable that he wrote
any of the theological works attributed to him.
The tradition is very old, however; he is mentioned
by Alcuin as the author of De sancta trinitate, and
by $inemar of Reims as author of a treatise,
Utrum paler et filiua et apiritus amnetua de ditrinitate
aubsiizntialiter prcedicentuT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The complete works of Bathing first ap
	peared at Venice, 1492; again at Basel, 1546 and 1570;
	they are reproduced in MPL laiii‑lxiv. The Consolatio
	philosophise was first printed at . Nuremberg, 1473; a
	good edition is by Peiper, Leipsic, 1871; there have been
	many English translations, beginning with King Alfred's
	Anglo‑Saxon version, and including one by Chaucer and
	one ascribed to Queen Elizabeth; a late translation is by
	H. R. James, London, 1897. The translations from
	Aristotle were published by C. Meiser, 2 vole., Leipsip,
	1877‑80; the De arithmetica, Do ,nueica, and De geoma
	taica by G. Friedleiq, ib. 1887. The theological writings
	appeared at Louvain in 1833 and are in Peiper a edition
	of the Coneolatio (ut sup.). Consult: F. Nitaseh, Dan
	System den Boethiua Berlin 1880; Jourdain, De l'origina
	den traditions our In slur tianiamt de Bo&n, Paris, 1881;
.	A. Hildebrand, Boetheus and seine Stellunp sum Chaisten
	thum, Regensburg, 1885; H. F. Ste.", BoeIAiua: an
	Essay, Edinburgh, 1891 (valuable; an analysis of the
	Connotation and, other theological tracts, discusses the
	question of Boethiun'e Christianity, gives literature at
	head of each chapter); E. K. Rend, Joh. ScoUue. I. Dar
Kommentar den Johannes Seotlua, II. Des Remipiua von Auzerre su den opuacula sacra des Boethiua. Munich, 1908.
	BOGATZB:Y, KARL HEINRICH VON: German
Pietist; b. at Jaukowe .(a village of Lower Silesia)
Sept. 7, 1690; d. at Halls June 15, 1774. When
fourteen years of age, he entered the ducal court
of Saxe‑Weisaenfels as a page, but at the instance
of the pious count Henry XXIV of Reuse‑Kbatritz,
he began to complete his education in his twentieth
year. From 1713 to 1715 he studied law at Jena
and then devoted himself to theology at Halls,
where Franeke, Anton, Freylinghausen, and other
Pietista greatly influenced him. After completing
his theological studies in 1718, he lived for several
years among the nobility of Silesia, and exercised
much influence as a ‑ spiritual leader. He also
resided for a number of years at the Silesian village
of Glaucha, where he aided in building an or
phan‑asylum, sad from 1740 to 1746 he lived at
the ducal court of Saalfeld, and finally at Halls,
engaged in literary work of a devotional character
sad in the practical furtherance of Pietistic life.
The most popular of his many works was his Giil
dertes Schatxkantlein der Kinder Gotten, which he com
posed for his own edification while at the university
(Breslau, 1718; 65th ed., Halls, 1904; Eng. transl.,
London, 1745, and many subsequent editions);
while among his other books special mention may
be made of his TBgliches HaustnAClt der Kinder
Gotten (2 vole.., Halls, 1748‑49) and of his Betrach
tungert and Gebete fiber das Neue Testament (7 parts,
1755‑gY). Several of his hymns obtained a place
in the popular hymnals of the German people, and
were collected in his Uebung der Gottseligkeit in
allerlei geistlichsrt Liedsm (Halls, 1749), while a se
lection of 160, was published by Johannes Claassen,
(Stuttgart, 1888), together with a biography of
BOgatZky. 	(GEORG MfTLLER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bogataky's autobiography was published by Knapp, Halls, 1801, Eng tranal, by $. Jackson, London, 1858. Consult: G. Frank, Onachirhta der protnetantiaelun Theotogfa, iii, 201‑202, Leipeic, 1875; ADB, iii, 37‑39, Leipsia, 1878; A. F. w. Fischer, Kirchen‑LiederLexikon, ii, 430‑431, Goths, 1879; Julian, Hymnology, p. 152.
BOGERMAA, lid'ger‑man, JAN: Dutch theologian; b. . at Oplewert, East Friesland, 1576; d. at Franeker Sept. 11, 1637. He wax professor of divinity at Franeker after 1633. He took an active part in the Arminian controversy and presided at the Synod of Dort (q.v.). He wan one of the workers on the Old Testament of‑ the Staatenbibel (see BIBLE VERSIONS, B, III). He wrote a polemic against Grotius, Annototiones contra H. Grotium, and translated Beza's De la punitiort den hhrGtiques, under the title Van het ketter atraffen (Fianeker, 1601).
BOGOMIbES. See NEw MnNICaE.ims, I.
BOGUE, DAVID: English Congregationalist; b. at Hallydown, near Coldingham (10 m. n.w. of Berwick), Berwickshire, Feb. 18, 1750; d. at Brighton Oct. 25, 1825. He studied at Edinburgh (M.A.,.1771), was licensed to preach, and taught school in England; in 1780, while minister of a Congregational chapel at Gosport (opposite Portsmouth), he undertook the instruction of young men for the ministry, and from this beginning was

313	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Softhlus
developed the London Missionary Society. He was also active in founding the British and Foreign Bible Society and the Religious Tract Society. In 1796 with two other ministers and Robert Haldane he offered to go to India as .a missionary, but the plan was not approved by the East India Company. Besides sermons and tracts he pub‑
I. Origin and History to 1498. Origin of the Beet (1 1). Early Organization (§ 2). First Priests of the Brethren (§ 3). Relations with the Waldeneiane (5 4).
lished An Essay on the Divine Authority of the New Testament (London, 1801), and with James Bennett wrote the History of Dissenters from the Revolution
to 1808 (4 vole., 1808‑12; 2d ed., 2 vole., 133). BIBLIOGRAPHY: James Bennett, Memoirs of the Life o David Bogus, London, 1827; DNB, v, 302‑303.
BOHEMIA. See AusTalA.
BOHEMLAN BRETHREN.
II. The Brethren under Lukas.	III. Development from 1528 to 1821.
	Oppressive Measures of Vladielav		Johann Augusta (¢ 1).
		(§ 1).		Cessation of Persecution (§ 2).
	Overtures to the Protestants		The Brethren Merged in the Utra_
		(§ 2).			quista (§ 3).
	Later Organization 0 3).	IV. The Brethren in Prussia and Poland.
I. Origin and History to 1496: The Compactata of Prague, which marked the political end of the Hussite Wars in 1433 (see Huss, Jo>aN, Hussrrrs), proved unsatisfactory to the religious and ecclesiastical demands of the majority of the Bohemians. Many scattered communities accordingly arose throughout the country, seeking to carry out the Reformation in life and doctrine, independent of the Waldensians who had long been settled in Bohemia. In 1453‑54, moreover, the preaching of the Utraquiatic archbishop Rokycana (pastor of the Teinkirche at Prague after 1448) resulted in the formation of a community at Prague, headed by his nephew Gregory. The conviction that the validity of the sacraments, sermons, prayer, and the like depended on the moral and religious character of the priest caused them to seek for " good " pastors, and this congregation, together with others and at the suggestion of Rokycana, became closely allied with the Chelbic Brethren, the followers of a layman named Peter of Chel6ic, who first appeared at Prague in 1419 and seems to.have died before 1457. He had refused to join any of the
i. Orisia Hussite parties, since he rejected all of the temporal defense of the Gospel, and
	Sect.	recorded his peculiar views in his wri
		tings, of which the most important
were his Netz des taahren Glaubens (1455) and
his Postilla (1434‑36). His ideal of Christian life,
the fulfilment of the " law of Christ" (Matt.
xxii, 37‑39; Gal, vi, 2) in public and in private
life without regard to consequences, and his re
jection of all that could not be reconciled with this
law, such as temporal power, wealth, war, and
trade, made a profound impression on Gregory
and his followers, and inspired them to attempt
to realize this ideal. At their request their friend
and counselor Rokycana secured permission from
King George Po&brad for them to settle in the
village of Kunwald in the district of Lititz, which
belonged to him, and they accordingly established
their colony there in 1457 or 1458, Michael, the
pastor of the neighboring town of Senftenberg,
becoming their spiritual.head. How large it was,
whether including only individuals or entire fam
ilies, is not known, although the latter seems to
have been the case. At all events, families were
soon attracted to Kunwald, for the oldest docu
ment of the Brethren, a synodical resolution of
1464, presupposes the e3istence of households
with civil occupations, as well as of widows and
orphans.
	This sketch of the origin of the Bohemian Breth
ren renders it clear that the current view which
represents them as remnants of the Taborites is
incorrect. In 1471 they designated themselves
as disciples of Rokycana and his colleagues, and
declared that they had been developed from the
older communities mentioned above. The main
outlines of the organization are contained in cer
tain synodical resolutions of 1464‑67. The com
munity was divided into three groups: beginners
or penitents, comprising children under the age
of twelve and all who sought to enter the com
munity from the time they made profession of their
desire until they were received; the advanced,
forming the majority of the community and devo
ting themselves to various civil callings, with mas
ters and matrons appointed to supervise and
counsel them; and the perfected (also called priests;
although the community then had no specially
		appointed priesthood), who had re‑
2. Early nounced private property and given
	Organ‑	their possessions to the poor, par
	imstion.	ticularly to those who " journey for
		the sake of the word of God." It
was the duty of the perfected to proclaim the word
and to. hear confessions; they were required to
travel in pairs, instead of alone, to earn a livelihood
by the work of their hands, and to collect alms
regularly, which were destined partly for the poor
and partly for themselves, in case their work was
insufficient to support them. Those of the laity,
either male or female, who had voluntarily chosen
poverty, also belonged to this class. At the head
of the communities stood one or more elders, al
though no details of their duties are.known, and infor
mation is equally scanty regarding the imposition
of their frequent synods. The Brethren at Kun
wald gained an increasing number of adherents in
Bohemia and Moravia, while their opposition to the
dominant Church became stronger and stronger,
especially as a result of the persecution instituted
against them by King George in 1460. They
accordingly felt themselves obliged, seven years
later, to break entirely with the Church by the
creation of au independent priesthood, the his
torical course of events being as follows, according
to Golfs proposed combination of the sour,
which are not always in entire agreement.
By a meeting with the Waldensians and their "bishop" Stephen, with whom they had become acquainted through Rokycana, the Bohemian Brethren had entered into relations with the Waldensiam

Bohemian	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	214
previous to 1467. These negotiations proved fruitless, however, since the Waldensians as a body would not countenance an open break with the Roman Catholic Church. Some of them, on the other hand, joined the Brethren, and among this number was an old Waldensian priest, who was present, together with certain representatives of the German Waldensiana, at a conference of about sixty Brethren from various parts of Bohemia and Moravia which was held, according to a later tradition, at Lhotka, a village near Reichenau, in 1467 to choose and ordain priests of their own. Fully aware of the momentous nature of their proceeding, they wished God himself to decide by lot whether the time had come for them to venture the step, and which persona should be the first priests. Nine candidates were proposed, each of whom was required to draw one of twelve slips, nine blank and three containing the word jest (" he is "). In case all the candidates drew blanks, the synod was to be adjourned for a year. Thomas, Matthias, and Elias, however, drew the three written slips, whereupon they were " confirmed "
by the laying on of hands by the old S. First Waldensian priest, apparently assisted
Priests by the priest Michael (7), in the name
of the and authority of the synod. By a Brethren. more restricted lot Matthias was chosen from the three to have " the first place in authority," or as " bishop," as Michael called himself in a conference with the Utrar quistic consistory in 1478. It was not until May of the following year (1468) that the Brethren informed Rokycana of what had occurred, and they then seem to have broken definitely with him. They themselves, however, were soon divided as to " whether it should so remain," and the result was the decision that Matthias should be consecrated bishop by the Waldensian bishop Stephen. Strangely enough, the priest Michael was sent, instead of Matthias himself. Michael met Stephen in southern Moravia, received consecration from him, and gave it, when he returned, to Matthias, whereupon he resigned both the authority of bishop, which he had received only for this purpose, and also his Catholic priesthood, having himself reordained by Matthias as a priest of the Brethren, while the new bishop likewise ordained Thomas and Elias. This is the account of Michael and other eyewitnesses, while later sources, even of the early sixteenth century, present many deviations, partly in an endeavor to conceal the cooperation of the Waldensiana so far as possible.
The members of this newly constituted community called themselves " Brethren," sad were known in different portions of the country by the names of their chief centers, such as Kunwalders, Bunzlau Brethren, and the like. As a whole they termed themselves Jednota BratrskQ, which they later rendered into Latin as Unitas Fratrunx. Their characteristic designation was Brethren, which had already been current in various older Bohemian communities. The name Fralres legis Christi first arose in the second half of the sixteenth century, but never became general. Their opponents usually termed them Waldensians or Pick‑
arda (a corruption of Beghards), and this designation, found even in the royal decrees, became so general that they themselves employed it in the titles of many of their writings, terming themselves " the Brethren who for envy and hatred are called Waldensians or 1'ickards" The first result of the events of 1467 was a renewal of the persecutions, which lasted until the death of George and Rokycana in 1471, and which also involved the
Waldensiana, Stephen being burned at
4. R.ela‑ the stake in Vienna during this period.
bone	This persecution may also have been
with the the cause of the renewed attacks on
Walden‑ them in Brandenburg, and about
eiana•	1478 two Waldensians accordingly
went from that country to the Brethren, thus inaugurating an intercommunication between the two sects which resulted in a number of Waldensians joining the Brethren after 1480 and settling at Landskron in Bohemia and at Fulneck in Moravia. In the latter country both sects were tolerated under King Matthias, until the end of his reign, when a decree of expulsion was issued in 1488, although it was soon revoked at the petition of some patrons of high rank. A portion of the Brethren had already emigrated to Moldavia, but apparently returned within a few years.
Internal strife, centered about the ideal of Peter mentioned above, was more perilous to the maintenance of unity than external oppression. A " small " party clung to this ideal, and accordingly rejected temporal power, law, service in war, the oath, and the like as unchristian, while a " great " party regarded all these as dangerous, yet not to be rejected unconditionally. The controversies ended in 1494 with the victory of the " great " party, the " small " party, who called themselves Amoeites after their leader Amos, separating as an independent community and preserving an existence for several decafiea. During these dissenaions two leaders of the " great " party, Lukas and Thomas, journeyed to North Italy to visit the Lombard Waldensians in their own homes, possibly seeking, in view of their disagreement with the " small " party, to make a final effort to induce the Waldensians to break openly with Rome. A correspondence between the Brethren and the Waldensiana was associated with this journey, the three Waldensian treatises, preserved either entire or in fragments, La ePistola al serenisaimo Rey Lancelau; Ayczo es la canes fist nostre depart meet de la gleysa Romanea ; and De L'Antichrist, as well as the catechism Las interrogations menors, being apparently translations or revisions of Bohemian writings composed by the Brethren, although the mutual relations are not yet altogether clear.
II. The Brethren under Lukas : The period between 1496 and 1528 is marked by the activity of Lukas. Although he was not appointed presiding bishop until 1517, his influence was potent during the administration of his predecessors in office, Procopius (1507) and Thomas of Pfelou~ (1517). His special task was the restoration of the Unity which had become necessary in consequence of the secession of the " small " party. A mass of ordinances, touching on all the relations of life,

216	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bohemian
was prepared to build up the Christian community
on the principles newly won. The doctrines, which
had thus far been formulated but feebly, were now
systematized on other foundations, and from these
various points of view Lukas developed a note
worthy literary activity. The external existence
of the Unity was seriously threatened at the begin
ning of the sixteenth century, when Vladislav,
who had tolerated them hitherto, teas induced to
proceed against them by Bohuslav of Lobkowitz,
the foremost representative of Bohemian human
ism, who saw the roots of manifold evils in religious
disunion. At the same time Alexander VI sent the
Dominican Heinrich Inatitoria to Olmutz as censor
of books for Bohemia and Moravia (bull of Feb. 4,
1500), and he, after a fruitless disputation with
certain representatives of the Brethren, preached
against them with extreme severity. The over
tures toward a reconciliation between Rome and
the Utraquists (1501) led the latter to make com
mon cause in opposition to the Brethren, and a
decree of the king, dated July 5, 1503, forbade all
further toleration of the sect in Prague and the
royal cities, while the Roman Catholic estates
voluntarily enforced this prohibition in their dis
tricts. A conference held at Prague between the
Utraquistic clergy and some of the Brethren failed
to convince the latter of their " errors," nor did a
Latin creed given them by the king in 1503 meet
with their approval. He was still more incensed at
them by two venomous letters of the Olmutz canon
Augustine Kasebrut, so that he issued a sharp decree
against them in 1507. These decrees, however,
could not become valid until accepted by the diet,
and Vladislav accordingly proposed a law against the
Brethren at the diet convoked on July 25, 1508.
This was accepted by the estates and placed on the
code, as in force throughout the country. It
forbade all public and private gatherings of the
" Pickards," and ordered the destruction of all
their books and writings, while they were com
		manded to attend Roman Catholic
	1. Op‑ or Utraquistic churches, their clergy
	pressive and teachers being prisoners of the
measures king unless they should consent,
	of after receiving instruction, to join
Vladislev. one of these religious bodies. The
		law is said to have been obeyed by all
estates until Christmas, and those who still tolerated
" Pickards " were mulcted. This measure condi
tioned the position of the Brethren in Bohemia for
almost the entire period of their existence, but the
Moravian diet refused to accept it. In 1541 the
code was destroyed by a fire at Prague, so that it be
came necessary to draft the laws anew at following
diets. Thereupon the Brethren endeavored to se
cure the abolition of the law, but in vain; nor was
it repealed until an imperial letter of Rudolf II
in 1609. It is strikingly suggestive of the political
conditions of Bohemia in the sixteenth century,
however, that a community which was legally
prohibited, like the Brethren, could attain such
wide extension and importance. This was possible
only because the nobles obeyed the laws as they
pleased, for the king was generally too much occu
pied with foreign affairs to be able to insist rigidly
on compliance with his statutes, and in case he did attempt to execute them, he was resisted by a coalition of the estates, who sought to check all growth of the royal power. At first the law was strictly observed, and the Brethren were severely oppressed, their meeting‑places being closed, their priests expelled, and imprisonment and even occasional execution serving as deterrent measures. Lukas himself was imprisoned, and was freed only by the death of Vladislav on Mar. 13, 1516. This event lessened the severity of a persecution which had been opposed by some estates from the very beginning. During the reign of Vladislav's son Louis, which marked a further decay of the royal power, the persecution of the Brethren ceased altogether, and the governmental center of the Unity, which had been transferred to Prerau in Moravia during the period of oppression, was again removed to Bohemia, and located at Jungbunzlau, the residence of Lukas. While he was presiding bishop, the Brethren first came into contact with the German Reformation, when Luther learned of their short catechism, of which he seems to have received a German translation in 1521.
Although Luther at first declared himself at least in sympathy with their doctrine of the Lord's Supper, he became estranged from the Brethren after 1524, while their tendency to remain aloof, so far as possible, from the Lutheran movement was strengthened by the vagaries of Callus Cahera in
Prague (1523‑29), especially since it
	2. Over‑	resulted in the enforcement by the
	tares to	diet of the decree of Vladislav (1525).
	the Prot‑	The Brethren also sent a fruitless
	estants.	deputation to Erasmus, apparently in
		1520. In the closing years of his
life Lukas found himself obliged to break with
the Habrovanites or Lultiah Brethren in Moravia,
who were closely associated with the " small "
party, and rejected celibacy, spiritual and temporal
authority, and the taking of oaths, in addition to
following Carlata& in the doctrine of the Lord's
Supper, and wishing to substitute baptism of the
spirit for baptism by water. After a fruitless
conference, letters were exchanged with consider
able frequency for a number of years, while an effort
made by the Anabaptists who had emigrated from
the Tyrol to Moravia to unite with the Brethren
ended in 1528 in a complete schism. Lukas died
at Jungbunzlau on Dec. 11, 1523, and was buried
in the local house of the Brethren, which had for
merly been a monastery. The organization, how
ever, which he had given the Unity remained un
changed until its end.
In principle the supreme judicial power was lodged with the synod, which consisted of all the clergy, although it contained no delegates chosen from the communities. It was, at the same time, the supreme court of appeal, although the chief administrative body, the "C1oseCouncil" (vzkl rada), which was composed of some ten members chosen by the synod for life, apparently constituted the real government. The legal relation of the " Close Council " to the synod seems never to have been accurately defined. At the Synod of 1497 the " Close Council " was treated with all submission

joisndan
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HER.ZOG	216
and obedience, and was empowered to make
whatever changes and ordinances it deemed best
without awaiting a decision of the synod. Accord
ing to tradition, it never abused its privileges, and
held a general council yearly whenever this was
possible, while other synods also existed in individ
ual districts. The presiding officer of the " Close
Council" was called a " judge " (ad!), and this
office was originally united with that of bishop in
the person of Matthias, although he proved himself
unequal to the position in the strife with the
" small " party, so that Procopius was appointed
soda, Matthias retaining only the episcopal power
of ordination. Authorized by the " Close Council,"
		he associated Thomas and Elias,
	g, Later whom be had already ordained priests,
	Organize‑ and after the death of Matthias and
	tioa• the resignation of Procopius in 1500,
		the power of direction and ordination
was again united, and given to four newly chosen
Brethren, Thomas, Elias, Lukas, and Ambrose,
the first two already possessing the episcopal ordi
nation and the last two now receiving it. Each of
them was placed over a diocese which he controlled
and in which he ordained the priests. The priest
next in age to these four was called the judge, and
had special functions. Jafet, writing in 1605,
sought to show that this organization existed from
the first sad that four bishops had ruled simul
taneously since 1467, and this erroneous view was
so widely disseminated by Wengierski (Regen
volscius) that it is still found sporadically. At
the head of each . community stood the priest or
director (sgrrdvce), who lived in the " house of the
Brethren" and supported himself as an artisan or
farmer. He might possess property, although he
was bound by certain restrictions, so that when, for
example, he received a legacy, he was required
to deposit it with the " Close Council," which
deprived him of it in case of need or inability to
discharge his office. While there was no insistence
on the celibacy of the clergy, it was regarded as
desirable, in view of the unsettled position of the
community, and was the rule until the second half
of the sixteenth century. With the priest lived
his assistant or deacon, who aided him both in his
daily toil and in teaching school, and especially in
the instruction of the acolytes (young men is train,
ing for the priesthood), who resided in the "house
of the Brethren." The deacon accompanied the
priest in all his pastoral journeys, and was per
muted to preach, to baptize in case of need, and to
aid in the Lord's Supper, although he could neither
consecrate the elements nor pronounce the bene
diction at the close of the service of the community.
A council of the community aided, and in part
supervised, the priest in controlling the property
of the congregation and in distributing alms. The
income consisted, in addition to gifts and founda
tions, of two collections, taken at Christmas and
$t. John's Day. Three persona were deputed to
oversee the giving of alms, while the council of the
community was required to reconcile antagonistic
members of the congregation with each other or with
the priest, to control morals, and to maintain the
discipline of the church: The bodies next is rank
were the " Close Council " and the synods. The council of the community found its counterpart in a committee of aged widows and spinsters appointed to supervise the morals and the conduct of the sisters. This organisation, the genesis of which is known chiefly from the ‑Dekrety, remained unchanged after Lukas. It was first described in full detail by Lasicius in the eighth book of his history of the Brethren, anck was officially formulated by them at the General Synod of &ravic in Moravia, held in 1616.
III. Development from zga8 to r6z:: The independent development of the Unites Fratrum closed with the death of Lukas. The Lutheran party among the Brethren, headed by such men as Johann Horn (Roh), Michael Weiese, Johann Augusta, and Maeh Sionsky, now became more prominent and assumed the leadership. After the brief administration of the insignificant Martin Skoda, Horn became judge in 1532, but was surpassed in importance by his colleague Johann Augusta, a man characterised by meager educa‑
1. Johann tion, yet of great firmness, energy, and eloquence, and deeply impressed with a sense of the peculiar advantages of the community. He sought to associate the Brethren with the foreign Evangelicals, and found a favorable opportunity shortly after 1530, when the margrave George of Brandenburg requested Conrad of Krajek to instruct him in the doctrines of his sect. A confession was prepared, and Luther was induced to have it painted at Wittenberg with a eulogistic preface. At the same time, however, Augusta made overtures to the Strasburg theologians, and Matthias tervenka, his envoy to Butzer, unexpectedly met Calvin. On the other hand, his relations with the Utraqui'stic Church of Bohemia were strained, especially during the administration of Mistopol. Another trait which characterizes the history o€ the Brethren after Lukas (1528‑47) is the prominence of their nobility. The country estates were required to take part in the country diets just as the estates of the kingdom shared in the royal diets, and it thus became necessary for the estates of the Brethren to enter the former to defend the existence of their ecclesiastical union. In 1535, therefore, they gave Ding Ferdinand the creed of the Brethren, signed by all members of the nobility among them, twelve lords and thirty‑five knights. Since tea of the twenty‑six nobles tried by Ferdinand after the sup‑. pression of the so‑called Bohemian revolt in 1547 were members of the Unity, he found a long‑desired pretext to crush the community so far as possible. The decree of Vladislav was reenforced, certain estates which had been the centers of the brotherhood were confiscated by the king, and the former protectors of the Brethren were no longer able to evade the execution of the decree under the existing circumstances. The community was practically destroyed in Bohemia. Its seat of government was transferred to Moravia, but the majority of the Brethren were banished from the entire kingdom. Augusta himself was betrayed to Ferdinand, and regained his freedom only after repeated tortures and an imprisonment of sixteen years.

21'f	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	die man
The sixth decade of the century ushered in a period of comparative peace for the Brethren, and they now sought, under the leadership of Johann Blahoalav, to gain state recognition‑ of their Church, their chances seeming especially favorable in view of the supposed Protestant tendency of Maximilian. In 1555 and the following years they accordingly endeavored to win the favor of the archduke through repeated conferences between Blahoslav and Maximilian's court preacher, Pfauser of Vienna, but their efforts to secure definite promises for the future bore little fruit. The same object was pul• sued by Utraquieml, which had now
2. Cessa. become essentially Lutheran, and which tion of had prepared anew creed for the LuPerseon‑ theran Church in Bohemia in 1575, after tics. the compacts had been annulled by the diet of deputies in 1567.tts antiquated. Through their representatives the Brethren sought to have their independence clearly expressed in the preface of the new creed, but their chance of recognition by the side of the " Neo‑Utraquists " steadily decreased, while their essential community of interest with the new body became more and more clear. In 1609, when the estates forced Rudolf to issue bier charter, the Brethren shared the religious liberty which it granted by joining in the Bohemian Confession of 1575, after having already given a full explanation 9f its acceptance in the previous year.
All special names were now to cease, and the members of the united Bohemian Evangelical Church were henceforth to be called " Utraquistic Christians." The Brethren were represented in the common consistory, but despite the abolition of a separate name, this was, strictly
g. The speaking, not a union, but rather Brethren .a confederation between the Unites Dlerged in Fratrum aid the Bohemian Church.
the Utra‑ The Brethren, therefore, retained their abet°' own organisation and regulations, and even their independent creed (1564), while the Bohemian Lutherans, in like manner, held to the Augsburg Confession, although both creeds are declared to be in full harmony with the Bohemian Confession of 1575. Definitive form was accordingly given the church discipline of the Brethren at the Synod of Zeravic in 1616 under the title Ratio diaciPlince ordiniaque ecclr aiaslici, in unitate fratrum Bohernotytm, but the plan of making this valid for the whole Bohemian Church was not realized. This organization, however, had but a brief period of prosperity, for the battle at the White Hill (Nov. 8, 1620) destroyed Protestantism in Bohemia and Moravia for more than a century and a half.
IV. The Brethren is Prussia and Poland: The Brethren expelled from Bohemia in 1547 in consequence of the Schmalkald War emigrated partly to Moravia and partly to Prussia, where they were received by Duke Albert. After his death in 1568 they returned to Moravia and Poland, exercising an important influence on the introduction of the Reformation in the latter country, and attempting to establish friendly relations between the various Evangelical bodies at a synod held at Sendomir in
1570. Their scanty remnants still exist in the
five so‑called communities of Unity in the Prussian
province of Posers: Posers, Lissa, Laeswitz, Waschke,
and Orzeszkowo. 	JOSEF MUELLER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For full bibliography of the subject consult W. G. Merlin. Catalogue of Books relating to or illustrating the History of the Unitas Frab^um or United Brethren note generally known as the Moravian Church, Philadelphia, 1881.
For general history consult: J. Camerarius, Historica nwratio de frabum ortAodoxorum accleeise in Bohemia, Moravia, at Polonia. Heidelberg, 1805; J. Lasioiue, De origins et inahhdie Fratrum libri viii (only the eighth book wan published, ed. J. A. Comenius, 1849); Historic peraeeationum eccleaim Bohemiea, Amsterdam. 1848, Eng. travel., London, 1650; J. A. Comenius, Eccleaia: 81aroonias hietoriola, Amsterdam, 1880; idem, Hiadoria frabum Bohemorum, ed. Buddeus, Halle, 1702; Martyrolopium Bohemicum, odsr die blihmischs Yerfolgunga0eachichte, 88,¢‑1888, Berlin, 1786; D. Cram, Alts and neue Brader Historic, Darby, 1771, Eng. trawl., London, 1780; The Reformation and Anti‑Reformation in Bohemia, ib. 1845: V. Krasinski, Religious History of the Slavonic Nations, Edinburgh, 1851; A. Gindely, Geschichte der bBhmMChen Brtider, 2 vols.. Prague, 1857; A. Boat, Hint. of the Bohemian and Moravian Brethren, London, 1863; E. W. Cr6ger, Geachichte der alien Britderkirche, Gnadau. 1885; D. Benham, Notes on the Origin and Episcopate of the Bohemian Brethren, London, 1887; B. Caerwenke, Geschichle der eroanpeZiachen Ksrehe in B6kmen. 2 vols., Bielefeld, 1870; E. Jane Whately, Sketch" of Bohemian Religious History, London, 1878; E. de i3chweinitz, Hiet. of the ChurcA known as the Unites Fratrum, Bethlehem, 1885.
For the church order consult: Ratio diaciplinte ordiniaque eceZesiastici in unitate fratrum Bohemorum, Leszno, 1832, Amsterdam, 1880, and Halle, 1732; B. 8eifferth, Church Constitution of as Bohemian and Moravian Brethren. The Original Latin with a Tranal., London, 1866.
The original text of the Confession is reproduced in A. Gindely, Quellen zur Geachiehte der bdhmiachen BrG,ler, p. 354 eqq., Vienna, 1881, and in ds $chweinitz, History. ut sup., pp. 848 eqq. Consult also J. C. Koecher, Lie drey letzten and vornehmaten Glaubenabekennlnieae der bBhmiachen Brtidtr, Leipeic, 1741; 13. A. Niemeyer, ColIaaio confesaionum, pp. 771 eqq., ib. 1840.
For catechisms consult: J. G. Ehwalt, Die alts and neue Zebra der bahmiachen Brflder, Danzig, 1758; C. A. G. von Zezsehwitz, Die Ratech%smen der yValdeneer and btihmiachen Brllder, Erlangen, 1883; J. MUller, Die deulschen $ateehisrnen der bdhmiachen BrFtder, Berlin, 1887.
On the Hymnology consult: P. Wackernagel, Das deutsche Rirchenhed, iii, 229‑388, iv, 348‑48b. Berlin, 1870‑75; J. Zahn, Die peiauichan 1%eder der Brader in Btthmen, MShren and Polen, Nuremberg, 1875; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 153‑180.
BOIS (BOYS), JOH1Y: Church of England scholar; b. at Nettlestead, near Hadleigh (35 m. e.s.e. of Cambridge), Suffolk, Jan. 3, 1561; d. at Ely Jan. 14, 1644. He studied at St. John's and Magdalen Colleges, Cambridge, was elected fellow of the former in 1580, and was Greek lecturer 15841595; became rector of Boxworth (5 m. n.w. of Cambridge) 1596, and prebendary of Ely 1615. He was one of the translators of the Authorized Version, belonging to the Apocrypha company, and when his own part was done is said to have assisted the other Cambridge company on the section from Chronicles to Canticles; he was one of the delegates engaged in the final revision. He assisted Sir Henry Servile (who calls him " most ingenious and most learned ") in his edition of Chrysostom (8 vole., Eton, 1612 [1610‑13]), and left many manuscripts, but his only published work was Veteris intewpretis cum Beta aliiaque recetttiorfbus codlatio i» qzenuuor euangeLiis et apoatodorum adia (London, 1655).

Bolingbroke	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	218
Bolzsno
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The life of Bois, founded partly on his diary
	and written by Anthony Walker, is printed in Francis
	Peck's Desiderata curioaa., ii, 325‑342, London, 1779, and
	additions to it by T. Baker are appended to Peck's Mem
oirs of	.Oliver Cromwell, London, 1740. Consult
also DNB, v, 311‑313.
BOLINGBROKE, HENRY SAINT‑JOHN,	VIS
COUNT. See DE1s1Y1, I, § 8.
	BOLIVIA: A republic of western South America,
	bounded on the north and east by Brazil; on the
	south by Paraguay and Argentina; and on the
west by Chile and Peru. The area is estimated at
	from 520,000 to 600,000 square miles, the popula
	tion from 1,900,000 to 2,500,000, of whom 1,250,000
are Indians and over 500,000 half‑breeds. The
	constitution adopted in 1826 after independence had
	been attained recognized Roman Catholicism as
	the state religion and prohibited the public exercise
	of any other form of faith, toleration existing only
in new colonies.	Nevertheless, the properties of
	the Church were confiscated and sold, only the
	bishops being allowed a moderate annual sum.
	Complete religious liberty was granted by the gov
ernment in 1905.
	In its hierarchical organization, Bolivia forms
	the province of La Plats, under the archbishop of
	La Plats (Chuquisaca de la Plats) or Sucre (diocese
	since 1551; archdiocese since 1609 with 135 par
	ishes). The suffiagan bishoprics are those of
	Cochabamba, La Paz, and Santa Cruz de la Sierra.
	Cochabamba, founded in 1847, has fifty‑six parishes;
	La Paz, founded 1608, has thirty‑eight; and Santa
	Cruz, founded 1605, fifty‑four. In addition to the
	secular clergy, members of orders, including the
	Jesuits, are actively engaged in missionary labors
	among the Indiana, of whom some 200,000 still
	cling to their pagan faith. The schools among the
	converted Indians are under religious control.
	There are four seminaries for the clergy, six " uni
versities," and sixteen higher schools.
	The inaccessibility of Bolivia renders immigra
	tion, especially from Europe and North America,
scanty.	The number of Protestants in the country
	is accordingly small. There is a Presbyterian
	chapel in Sucre. Canadian Baptists have been
	engaged in missionary work in the country since
	1898 and have organized churches at Oruro, La
Paz, and Cochabamba.	More recently the Meth
	odist Episcopal Church of the United States has
entered the field‑ with headquarters at La Paz.	An
	interdenominational mission is being conducted at
	Cochabamba by Australians. The educational sys
	tem is being reorganized under the direction of
an American misaicaary.
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bolivia, issued by Bureau of American
	Republics, Washington, 1891 of. the Annual Reports of
	the Bureau since then; A. Bellessont, La Jeune AmErique.
	Chili et Bolivie, Paris, 1897; C. Mataenauer, Bolivia in
	historiacher, geopraphischer and cultureller Hinairht, Vienna,
	1897; J. $. Dennis, Centennial Survey of Foreign Mis
	sions, New York, 1902; T. C. Dawson, The South Ameri
	can Republics, vol ii, New York, 1904; J. Lee, Religious
	Liberty in South America; with special Reference to recent
	Legislation in Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia, Cincinnati, 1907.
	BOLLAND, JAN, AND THE BOLLANDISTS:
	The founder of the monumental hagiographical
	work known as the Atxa Sanaoram Bollaftdis‑
tarum (see Aerw MARTYRUM, AeTw SwrrcxoRUni), and his associates. Bolland was born at Julemont, near Liege, Aug. 13, 1596; d. at Antwerp Sept. 12, 1865. He entered the Jesuit order in 1612, was ordained priest before 1625, and in 1630 was sent to Antwerp, where he began what was to prove his lifework, making use of the mass of accumulated materW leftby H6sibert Rosweyde (q.v.), the originator of the idea, but largely extending the space contemplated by him. After working for thirteen years on the two volumes of January, he called to his aid two other Jesuits, Gottfried Hensehen and Daniel Papebroch (qq.v.), who visited numerous libraries of Germany, Spain, and Italy in quest of material, and laid the foundation of the magnificent collection of 120,000 volumes which the Bollandists now possess. The first volume appeared at Antwerp in 1643, and the work went on without interruption until the suppression of the Jesuits in 1773. Their house at Antwerp was to be turned into a military school, and there seemed little prospect of continuing their task until in 1776 the empress Maria Theresa made arrangements to help them, and two years later assigned them the Caudenberg monastery in Brussels as a home. Here they labored on as a company of secular priests until Joseph II interfered arbitrarily with their plans and finally, in 1788, forbade them to cont:, ue the publication, as a mere collection of old documents which could have but lade interest for educated men. In the following year the Premonstratensians of the abbey of Tangerlo in Brabant offered to buy their library and continue the work. The sixth volume of October appeared there in 1794; but in 1796 the French Republic took possession of Belgium and dissolved the abbey; the manuscripts, however, were preserved in the Royal Library at Brussels. Though both Napoleon and the French Academy desired the continuation of the work, it was not found possible until 1837, when, under the inspiration of De Ram, rector of the University of Louvain, the Belgian Jesuits once more took it up, with the promise of an annual subsidy of 6,000 francs from the government. The editors are now at work on the month of November, and at the present rate of progress, it is hoped that the end of the twentieth century may see the completion of the gigantic work. The present Bollandists are also publishing (since 1882) an annual volume of Andlecta Bollandiana, containing additional Latin, Greek, and Syriac texts, new dissertations, and corrections to the earlier part of the work; and since 1890 they have also published a Bulletin de publications hagxographiques, a review of all new books bearing on the subject. They have published, in addition, two complete bibliographies (Greek, 1 vol., Latin, 2 vole.) of all the printed texts and other works on hagiography.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A memoir of Bollard is prefixed to vol. i
for March of the ASB. Consult further J. M. Neale, Eesatte on Liturpiolopy, pp. 89‑97, London, 1883; C. Dehaienes, Les Oripinea des Aeta Sanctarum, Dousi, 1869; Ci. T. Stokes, The Bollandiata in Contemporary Review, xliii (1883), 89‑84• B. Aub6 Lea Derniers Traroaux des Boilandieks, in Revue du dsux mondes, Lcviii (1885). 189199.

219	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	BolinBbroke
		BoLreno
		BOLSEC, JERBME HERMES: French contro
versialist and physician; b. at Paris in the early
	part of the sixteenth century; d. probably at Lyons
	1584. He entered the Carmelite order, but was
driven from Paris for the boldness of his sermons
and fled to Ferrara. In 1550 he was physician
to :1I. de Falais, a nobleman residing near Geneva,
who was a friend of Calvin. Bolsee .vas fond of
	dabbling in dogmatics, but was repeatedly admon
	ished by the conapagnie des pctsteurs that his objec
	tions to the doctrine of predestination were con
	trary to the Bible. He seemed to submit, but on
Oct. 16, 1551, he provoked a new discussion at
Geneva on the same subject and was imprisoned,
	whereupon he charged Calvin with ignorance of
	the Bible and of teaching contrary to it, and the
	council, in their perplexity, accepted the propo
	sition of the clergy to ask the advice of the Swiss
	churches. Their condemnation of Bolsec was
	mild, but the clergy of Basel declared that Bolsec
was heretical in many respects, while the pastors
	of Neuchatel declared that he was an instrument
	of Satan. On Dec. 22 he was sentenced to per
	petual banishment for publishing offensive doc
	trines, as well as for slandering the clergy and
	charging them with preaching false dogmas. He
was expelled from Thonon (Chablais) by Calvin,
	and from Lausanne by Beza, after having again
	accused the former of " making God the author
	of sin" He then returned to France and abjured
	Protestantism. He was the author of three works:
	Le Miroir, envoye de Virile au Roi Charles neu
	fieme (1562), addressed to the king to bring about
a reformation; Histoire de la vie, mwurs, actes,
	doctrine, constance et rnort de Jean Calvin, jadis
	rninistre de Geneva (Lyons, 1577), which made
	the author infamous; and Hiatoire de 1a vie„ meeurs;
	doctrine et dePortemens de Th. de Bexe, dit le SPeo
	table, grand ministre de Geneva (Paris, 1582), written
	in :t tone of moderation. The entire life of Bolaec
	shows him to have been a restless, vain spirit, not
	overscrupulous in getting revenge or in winning
	patrons.	EUGI'iNE CHOIBY.
		Bolsec may easily be represented in a more fa
	vorable light as an honest opponent of Calvinistic
	dogma, and an advocate of liberty of conscience
	and freedom of speech. Persecution (defamation,
	repeated imprisonment, banishment from Geneva
	and from other places where he attempted to settle
	by the persistent efforts of Calvin, Beza, and
	others) embittered his spirit and no doubt led to
	exaggerated representations of the tyranny and
	cruelty of his opponents, and at last drove him
	back to the Roman Catholic Church. A. H. N.
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: CR, Opera Cadvini, viii, 141; E. and >u.
		$aeg, La France proteatante, ed. H. L. Bordier, vol. ii,
		Paris, 1879; E. Choisy, La Thkocratie h Genwe au temps
		de Calvin, Geneva, 1897; J. A. Gautier, Hiatoire de Genpve,
		iii, 432 eqq., ib. 1899.
		BOLSENA, MIRACLE OF: A miracle which,
	according to an account strongly affirmed in local
	tradition, occurred in 1264 in the town of Bolsena
	(the ancient Vulainius; 7 m. s.w. of Orvieto) in
	Umbria, Italy. The details of the story vary in
	different accounts, but the substance of the occur
	rence is as follows: A priest, who had been long
troubled with doubts as to the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, accidentally let fall upon the linen corporal, while saying mass, some drops from the consecrated chalice. While endeavoring to conceal this mishap, he was amazed to perceive that the stain was no longer as of wine but resembled fresh blood, and had not the irregular trace of a few spilled drops, but the form and contour of the consecrated boat or wafer. The miracle produced a great sensation throughout the surrounding country. Pope Urban IV, at that time staying in Orvieto with the pontifical court, caused the stained corporal to be brought to the city, where it has ever since been carefully preserved. This miracle was the determining reason which caused Urban to make general the celebration of the feast of Corpus Christi (q.v.). The composition of the liturgical office of the feast was entrusted to Thomas Aquinas, but in it there is no allusion to the miracle.
The miracle of Bolsena has been immortalized by the genius of Raffael, who made it the subject of one of his frescoes in the second Sala of the Vatican. The painting idealizes the scene and introduces, not Urban IV but Julius II, under whose pontificate the fresco was executed, as present at the mass. The present cathedral church of Orvieto was built on the site of an earlier structure to commemorate the miracle, and much of the elaborate decoration refers to it. The corporal is preserved in a silver shrine enriched with many figures in relief and subjects in translucent colored enamels. The shrine was begun by Ugolino Veri of Sienna in 1338 and is one of the moat important specimens of medieval silversmith work in Italy. The feast of Corpus Christi is celebrated with extraordinary solemnity each year in Orvieto and the corporal is carried in procession through the town together with the Blessed Sacrament.
JAMES F. DRISCOLL.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: i?ictionnaire des prophitiea et des miracles, vol. i, in Migne'a Encyclop6dic thEolopique, vol. xxiv, Paris,
1852.

BOLZANO, bel‑tsa'nB,BERftHARD: German Roman Catholic theologian, and noted mathematician; b. at Prague Oct. 5, 1781; d. there Dec. 18, 1848. He took orders and was made profesebr of the philosophy of religion in Prague 1805. He was soon suspected of heterodoxy, was accused at Rome by the Jesuits, and in 1820, on a charge of connection with certain student societies, was compelled to resign his professorship; he was also suspended from his priestly functions. Thenceforth he devoted himself to study and literary work. He sought to reconcile the teachings of the Church with reason and, it was said, considered the reasonableness of a doctrine of more importance than its traditional belief. In philosophy he was influenced by Leibnitz and Kant. His contributions to mathematical science were original and important. His works were numerous; the most noteworthy are Lehrbuch der Religionsvrissenachaft (4 vole., Sulzbach, 1834), a philosophic presentation of the dogmas of Roman Catholic theology; Wisaenachaftalehre; Versuch einer neuert Darstellung der Logik (4 vols., 1837).

Bomberger
Bontface	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZ0l3	220
BIBLIOGRAPHY: LebembeecAraibunp du Dr. Bolaano, new
	ed., Vienna, 1875 (an autobiography); Dr. Boizano and
	seine Gepner. Bin Beitrap cur rleuesten l i teraturgeachichte,
	ib. 1839; A. Wieehaupt, 8kisasn Gus dem Leben B. Bol
	zanoa, lxipeic, 1880.
BOMBERGER, JOHN HENRY AUGUSTUS:
Reformed (German); b. at Lancaster, Penn., Jan. 13, 1817; d. at Collegeville, Penn., Aug. 19, 1890. He was graduated at Marshall College, 1837, and at the Theological Seminary, Mercereburg, Penn., 1838; served as pastor of German Reformed Churches in Pennsylvania till 1870, when he became president of Ursinus College at Collegeville. He began a condensed translation of the first edition of Herzog's Realencyklop&die of which two volumes were published (Philadelphia, 1856‑60), embracing vole. i‑vi of the original; he issued a revised translation of Kurtz's Text‑book of Church History (Philadelphia, 1860), and edited The Reformed Church Monthly (in opposition to the " Mercersburg theology") , 1868‑77. He also published Infant Salvation in its Relation to Infant Depravity, Infant Regeneration, and Infant Baptism (1859); Five Years at the Race Street Church [Philadelphia], with an ecclesiastical appendix (1860); The Revised Liturgy, a history and criticism o f the ritualistic movement in the German Reformed Church (1867); Reformed, not Ritualistic : a reply to Dr. Nevin's " Vindication " (1867).

BONA, GIOVANNI: Roman Catholic theological writer; b. at Mondovi (55 m. w. of Genoa), Piedmont, Oct. 19, 1609; d. in Rome Oct. 28, 1674. He came of an old French family, and in his fifteenth year entered the Italian congregation of reformed Cistercians, becoming later prior, abbot, and general. Clement IX made him a cardinal in 1669, and he acquired a great reputation for both piety and learning. His moat important writings are ascetical and liturgical. To the latter class belong his Paallentza ecclesia; harmonic (Rome, 1553), a historical, symbolic, and ascetic treatise on the psalmody of the Church, and the still better known Rerum liturgicarum libri ii (Rome, 1671), a sober and learned investigation of liturgical antiquities. The first complete edition of his works appeared at Antwerp, 1677, followed by several others.

BOftALD, LOUIS GABRIEL AMBROISE, VICOMTE DE: French political and philosophical writer; b. at Monna,, near Millau (130 m. w.n.w. of Marseilles), Aveyron, Oct. 2, 1754; d. there Nov. 23, 1840. He emigrated in 1791 and settled at Heidelberg; returned to France in 1797, lived in concealment fo: a time, and then was allowed to proceed to his estates; in 1808 he was appointed councilor of the Imperial University, and, after the Restoration, member of the Council of Public Instruction; from 1815 to 1822 he was member of the chamber of deputies, in 1822 minister of state, and in 1823 was made a peer of France; after 1830 he retired to private life. He was one of the leaders of the reactionary school to which belonged De Maistre, D'Eckstein, Ballanche, Lamennais, and others, which started with the principle
that revelation and not observation is the true ground of philosophy; absolutism in politics and ecclesiastical despotism in religion were in his view the natural and desirable order of things. The most noteworthy of his many writings were ThEorie du pouvoir polilique et religieux (3 vole., Constance, 1796); La Legislation primitive (3 vole., Paris, 1802); Recherches philosophiqties our lea premiers objets des eonnaisaanCes morales (2 vole., 1818). His collected works were published in twelve volumes in 1817‑19 and again in three volumes in 1859. His second son, Louis Jacques Maurice, b. at Millau Oct. 30, 1787, d. at Lyons Feb. 25, 1870, became bishop of Puy in 1823, archbishop of Lyons in 1839, cardinal in 1841; he was a strong Ultramontane.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Victor de Bonald, De la vie et du drib du vicomte de Donald, Avignon, 1853 (by his eon); J. Blanchon, Le Cardinal de Donald . . . , as vie et au cauvroa, Lyons, 1870.
BONAR, ANDREW ALEXANDER: Free Church of Scotland; b. at Edinburgh May 29, 1810, youngest brother of Horatius Boner (q.v.); d. in Glasgow Dec. 30, 1892. He studied at Edinburgh; was minister at Collate, Perthshire, 1838‑56, of the Finnieston Church, Glasgow, 1856 till his death. He joined the Free Church in 1843, and was its moderator in 1878. He was identified with evangelical and revival movements and adhered to the doctrine of premillenialism. With the Rev. R. M. McCheyne he visited Palestine in 1839 to inquire into the condition of the Jews there, and published A Narrative of a Mission of Inquiry to the Jews from the Church of Scotland in 1839 (Edinburgh, 1842); he also published a Memoir of Mr. MeCheyne (1845); a Commentary on Leviticus (1846); Redemption Drawing Nigh, a defence of Premillenialism (1847); Christ and his Church in the Book of Psalms (1859); edited Samuel Rutherford's Letters (1863); and wrote many tracts, pamphlets, and minor biographies.
B113LIOGRAPHY: A. !1. Boner, Diary and Letters, edited by
his daughter, Marjory Boner, London, 1895, who published also a volume of Reminiscences, ib. 1895.
	BOftAR, HORATIiTS: Free Church of Scotland;
b. in Edinburgh Dec. 19, 1808; d. there July 31,
1889. He studied at Edinburgh; became minister
at Kelso 183'T, at the Chalmers Memorial Church,
Edinburgh, 1866; with his congregation he joined
the Free Church in 1843. He was a premillenarian
and expressed his views in books, such as Prophet
ical Landmarks (London, 1847), and in the Quar
terly Journal o f Prophecy, which he founded in 1849.
He is best known for his poems and hymns which
include " What a friend we have in Jesus," " I heard
the voice of Jesus say," and others equally familiar.
The best known collections of his verse are Hymns
of Faith and Hope (3 vole., 18576); The Song
of the New Creation and other pieces (1872); Hymns
of the Nativity (1878); Songs of Love and Joy (1888);
Until the Daybreak and other hymns left behind
(1890). His prose publications, besides sermons,
tracts etc., include The Night of Weeping, or words
for the suffering family of God (1846); God's Way
of Peace (1862); The White Fields of France
or the story of Mr. McAll'a mission to the working‑

221	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	go
men of Paris and Lyons (1879); Life and Work of G. T. Dodds (1884).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Horatiua Bonar, a Memorial, London, 1889; 3. w. Duffield, English Hymns, pp. 188‑189 and passim, New York, 1888; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 181‑182; DNB, supplement vol. i, 231‑232.

BONAVENTURA (Giovanni di Fitianza, called Doctor Seraphieus): Theologian; b. at Bagnorea (50 m. n.n.w. of Rome) 1221; d. at Lyons July 15, 1274. He entered the order of St. Francis probably in 1238; went to .Paris, 1242 or 1243, and studied under Alexander of Hales; lectured there on the " Sentences " of Peter Lombard and on the Holy Scriptures till the university suspended lectures in 1255; was chosen general of his order, 1257; cardinal bishop of Albano, 1273. His last public act was an impressive speech delivered before the Council of Lyons in May, 1274, for the union of the Eastern and Western churches. He was canonized by Sixtus IV in 1482. In defense of his order, before he became its general, during the contest between the Sorbonae and the mendicant monks, he wroth his De pauperttlte Christi, in reply to William of St. Amour's De periculis noarissimorum temporum (1256); by a somewhat forced and sophistical argumentation he represents voluntary poverty as an element of moral perfection. Of his general views on monastic life he has given an exposition in his Determinationes qutestionum circa regulam Franciaci.. In his administration he was mild yet firm. As a teacher and author he occupies one of the moat prominent places in the history of medieval theology; not so much, however, on account of any strongly pronounced originality as on account of the comprehensiveness of his views, the ease and clearness of his reasoning, and a style in which still linger some traces of the great charm of his personality. His mystical and devotional writings‑as, far instance, De septem itineribxcs teternitatis‑are almost imitations of Hugo of St. Victor. His dialectical writings are more independent. His Brexriloguium (ed. Da Vicenza, 2d ed., Freiburg, 1881) is one of the beat expositions of Christian dogmatics produced during the Middle Ages.
BIHLIOasAPHY: Bonaventura's works have been published in many editions, of which the best are that by Peltier, 15 vols., Paris, 1863‑71, and that prepared ‑by the Franciscans, 10 vole., Clairac; 1882‑93. Of his real or eupposititiou9 works accessible in English translation , the following may be mentioned: The Mirror of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Dublin, 1849; Psalter of the Blessed Virgin, London, 1852; The Life of Christ, ib. 1881; The Month of Jeaua Christ, ib. 1882; The Life of St. Francis of Aeaiai, 4th ed., ib. 1898; St. Bonaventura'a Instructions for the Season of Lent; ib. 1884; The Soul's Progress in God (transl, of the Itinerariura mentia in deem) is in the Journal of Speculative Philosophy, vol. xxi (18$7).
For his life consult: ASB, July 14, vol. iii, pp. 838‑880; Hiatoire Zitteraire de la Franca, xix, 286‑291; A. hf. da Vicenza, Der )teilipe Bonaventura . . . in aeinem Leben and IVirken, Germ. tiansl. from the Italian, Paderborn, 1874;, Ls Cardinal S. Bonaventurs . . . ac vie, so mort at eon tulle d Lyon, Lyons, 1875; L. C. Skey, Life of St. Bonaventure, London, 1889. '
On his works consult: A. de Margerie, Eaeai sur la philosophic de S. Bonavenlure. Paris, 1855; W. A. Hollenberg, Studien zu Bonaventura. Berlin, 1882; J. Richard, dude our le mysticisms apeculatif de S. Bonaventure, Paris, 1873; Fidelis a Fauna, Ratio nova coZZectionia opencm mnnium ... . . Bonaventura, Paris, 1874; A. Maria a Vieetia
et Johannes a Rubino, Lexicon Bonaroenturianum phi• losophico‑theoloAicum, Venice, 1880; J. Krause, Die Lekro des leerigen Bonaventura fiber die Natur der kTrperlicksn and geistipen Weeen, Paderborn, 1888.
BOND, WILLIAM BENNETT: Anglican archbishop of Montreal and primate of all Canada; b. at Truro (8 m. n.n.e. of Falmouth), Cornwall, England, Sept. 10, 1815; d. at Montreal Oct. 9, 1906. He came to Newfoundland while in early youth and was educated at Bishop's College, Lennoxville, P. Q., being ordered deacon in 1840 and ordained priest in the following year. After being successively a traveling missionary is 1840‑42 and a missionary at Lachine. P. Q., in 1842‑48, he was curate of St. George's, Montreal, from 1848 to 1860 and rector of the same church from 188(1 to 1878. He was likewise archdeacon of Montreal in 1870‑72 and dean in 1872‑78. In the latter year he was consecrated archbishop of Montreal, and in 1901 was elected metropolitan of Canada‑, while in 1904 he became primate of all Canada. He was also president of the theological college of the diocese of Montreal.
BONET‑MAURY, AMY GASTON CHARLES AU. GUSTE: French Protestant; b. at Paris Jan. 2,1842. He was educated at the Lyo6e Napoleon (now College Henri IV), the Sorbonne (baccalaurdat 6s lettrea, 1860) and the universities of Geneva and Strasburg (1868). He was successively pastor of the Walloon Reformed Church at Dort in 1868‑72 and of the French Reformed Church at Beauvais (Oise) in 1872‑79. In 1879 he became professor of church history in the faculty of Protestant theology of the University of Paris, and now holds the same position in the Independent Divinity School of Paris. From 1885 to 1889 he was librarian of the MusSe Pddagogique. In theology he is a liberal evangelical. He wrote: Leg Origines de la. rsforme d Beauvais (Paris, 1874); Gerard de Groote, un prdcuraeur de la rsfmane au quatorzisme siecle (1878); E qux7ma fontilrua Nederlandicis haxcaerit scriptor libri cui titxtlus est De Imitations Christi (1878); Des Origirces du christianisme unitaire chez les Anglais (1881; Eng. transl., London,. 1883);.Arnauld de Brescia, un rdformateur au douzit`mte sisele (Paris, 1881); De opera scholastiea frttEntm route eommunis in Nederlandia (1889); G. A. Burger et les origines anglaises de la ballads litt&aire en Allemagne (1890); Ignaee Dollinger, i799‑1890 (1892); Lettres et dtclarationa de J. J. I. Diellinger au sujet des decrets du Vatican, tradxcites de l'Allemand (1893); Le Congas des religions Zt Chicago en 1893 (1895); Histoire de la liberte de conscience depuis l'hdit de Nantes jusqu'h juillet 1870 (1900); Les Pr4curseurs de la reforms et de la libertE de conscience dons les pays latins du tloxizisme au quixxzihme si&le (1904); Edgar Quinet, son teuvre religieuse et son charact&e moral (1903); and L'lalamisme et le christianisme en Afrique (1906).
BONIFACE: The name of nine popes.
Boniface I: Pope 41822. After the death of Zosimus, a part of the clergy and people chose the archdeacon Eulalius to succeed him (bet. 27, 418);he was recognized by the prefect Symmachus and consecrated in the Lateran two days later. But another faction held an election on the 28th, and

Sonii9aoe	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	222
chose Boniface, the son of the priest Jocundus, consecrating him on the following day. In accordance with the report of Symmachus, the emperor Honorius recognized Eulalius, and Boniface had to leave Rome. His supporters appealed to the emperor, representing him as the choice of the majority. Honoriua called a council to meet at Ravenna, Feb. 8, 419, to decide the matter, but it reached no conclusion, and another was summoned for May 1, both candidates being forbidden to enter Rome in the mean time. Eulalius, however, entered the city or Mar. 18, and had to be removed forcibly; and tlonorius now recognized Boniface, who took up his duties on Apr. 10. This contest caused Honorius to decree that in any subsequent case of a contested election, both candidates should be set aside and a new choice made.
When Boniface I intervened in any ecclesiastical disputes, he showed great justice and moderation. The clergy of Valence accused their bishop Maximus of grievous crimes; Boniface referred the matter to a Gallic synod, reserving to himself the right to review its decision. Considering the privilege granted by Pope Zoaimus (417) to Bishop Patroclus of Arles, to consecrate bishops for the provinces known as Viennenai8, Narbonenais prima, and Narbonensis secunda, to be an infringement of earlier canonical provisions, he did not hesitate to withdraw it so far as to allow the bishop of Narbonne this metropolitan privilege for the Provincio Ntarbonensia prima. He was involved in long‑drawnout negotiations with the patriarch of Constantinople. Certain Illyrian bishops, wishing to bring charges against Bishop Perigenes of Patras, who had been chosen metropolitan of Corinth, getting satisfaction neither from the papal delegate for Illyria, Bishop Rufus of Thesealonica, nor from the pope himself, turned to Atticus of Conatantinople for redress. The latter procured au edict from the emperor Theodosius II (421), placing Illyria under the jurisdiction of Constantinople. Boniface made strong representations to the Byzantine court (Mar., 422), but would probably not have been successful had not the influence of the Western emperor Honorius prevailed with Theodosius, who withdrew the edict. Finally, Boniface had inherited from his predecessor a difficult controversy with the African church (see Zoslmual: he had no better success than Zosimus in securing the recognition in Africa, of the right of appeal to Rome: On the contrary, the Synod of Carthage in 419 confirmed the seventeenth canon of the synod of 418, which positively forbade to priests and lower clergy any such appeals, end tolerated them for bishops only on condition that the prescription appealed to could be shown to be Nicene; as a matter of fact, it came from the Council of $ardica. Boniface died Sept. 4, 422, and is reckoned among the saints of the Roman Catholic
Church. 	(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Libor pont%fiCatia, ed. Duchesne, i, 227, Paris, 1888; ABB. Oct., xi, 80b‑818; F. Gregorovius, Geaskichte der $tadt Rom, i, 170 eqq., Stuttgart, 1875, Eng. trmal., London, 1900; J. Lsngen, Gsschichta der rtimi.achsn Kirche bia Leo L, pp. 783 eqq., Bona, 1881; Jaff6, Repasts, i, 62; Hefele, Concilienpaschichte, ii, 122, Eng. !renal., ii. 488; Bower, Popes, i, 182‑188; Neander, Christian Church, ii, 208, 235, 862.
Boniface II: Pope 530‑532. After the death of Felix IV (middle of Sept., 530), a contested election followed. The minority, in obedience to the dying charge of Felix, chose the archdeacon Boniface, a Goth; the majority elected Diosourus, a Greek, and both were consecrated on the same day (Sept. 22). The Roman senate look cognizance of the matter, forbidding under heavy penalties any proceedings in the lifetime of a pope looking toward the elevation of a successor. The schism was soon ended by the death of Dioacurus, Oct. 14. The Liber Porttificalis asserts that Boniface proceeded with great violence against his adherents; and we have evidence that five years later the bitterness caused by this was not extinct among the Roman clergy. The close of the Semi‑Pelagian controversy falls in the pontificate of Boniface II. In a letter to Ceesariua of Arles lie pronounced against the opinion that man could attain faith in Christ by his own resources, without the help of divine grace; and at the same time, in accordance with the wishes of Caesarius, he confirmed the decisions of the Synod of Orange. He was always zealous in maintaining, if it was not possible to extend, the papal claims to jurisdiction. When Bishop Stephen of Larissa in Thessaly appealed to him from a sentence of deposition pronounced by the patriarch of Constantinople, Boniface endeavored to reassert the old rights of the Roman See over Illyria, which had been obsolete for a hundred years. The proceedings of a synod held in Rome for this purpose (Dec., 531) seem to have been fruitless, for soon afterward the see of Larissa was filled by a nominee of Constantinople. After attempting in vain to designate the deacon Vigiliua as his successor, Boniface died in Oct., 532.
(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Libor ponEiliea7ia, ed. Ducheane, i, 281, Paris, 1888; F. Gregorovius, Geeehichte der Stadt Rom, i, 329, Stuttgart, 1875, Eng. tranel., London, 1900; L. Duchesne, La Succession du page FEiix IV., Rome, 1884; J. Langen, Geachichte der rtfmiachen Kirche von Leo 1. bis Nikolaus L, p. 305, Bonn, 1886; R. Baxmann, Die Poiitik der PHpate von Gregor 1. bie auf Gregor VII., i, 20 eqq., Elberfeld, 1888; Jaff€, Repeats, i, 111; Schaff, Christian Church, iii, 328, 889; Neander, Christian Church, ii, 711; Hefele, Conciliengeachichte, ii, 737‑742, Eng. travel., iv, 185, 187, 171 aqq.; Bower, Popes, i, 331‑333.
Boniface III: Pope 607. He was a Roman by birth, previously a deacon and apocrisiariua at the court of Constantinople, to which he had been sent by Gregory the Great in 603. Apparently he was still there when the election took place, as nearly a year elapsed between the death of his predecessor and his consecration (Feb. 19, 607). As (in modern language) nuncio at Constantinople, he had apparently maintained friendly relations with the usurper Phocas, which would account for the favorable decision made by the latter on a point of great importance to the papal claims. One of the commissions given to him by Gregory was the settlement of the strife over the title of "universal bishop " claimed by the patriarch of Constantinople, John the Faster; Gregory did not claim it for himself, but he was unwilling that it should be borne by another. The Liber pontifrcalis, Paulus Diaconus, and Bede all assert that Phocas recognized Rome as caput omnium ecclesiarum. Though

223	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Boniface
the fact is not denied, it is to be regarded rather as a triumph of papal politics, which did not disdain the alliance of a base and criminal ruler, than as a historical justification of the claims of Rome. Boniface died Nov. 12, 607. (A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liber poatificalia, ed. Duchesne, i, 318, Paris, 1888; Paulus Diaconus, Hill. Langobardorum, iv, 38, in MGH, Script. rrT. Langob., ed. G. Waits, Hanover, 1878, Eng. transl., p. 177, Philadelphia, 1907; F. Gregorovius, Geachichte der Stadt Rom, ii, 102, Stuttgart, 1878, Eng. transl., London, 1900; J. Langen, Geachichte der rSmiachtn Kirehe . . . bia Nikolaus 1., p. 500, Bonn, 1885; Bower, Popes, i, 425‑427; Mann, Popes, I; i, 259‑282.
Boniface IV: Pope 608‑615. He was the successor of Boniface III after an interregnum of ten months. He kept up the same friendly relations with Phocas, from whom he acquired the Pantheon in Rome, built as a heathen temple, and transformed it into a church. When Heraclius, who overthrew Phocas in 610, was endeavoring to find a way to reconciliation with the Monophysites, Boniface seems to have approved of his plane; which probably accounts for a letter of Columban (q.v.) written from Bobbio (e. 613), informing him that people call him a receiver and protector of heretics who deny the double nature of Christ, and warning him that his power will remain only so long an he maintains the true faith. Boniface died May 25,
615. 	(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liber pontificalia, ad. Duchesne, i, 317, Paris, 1888; JaffS, Repeats, i, 220; Paulus Diaeonus, Hiatoria Lanpobardorum, iv, 38, in MGM, Script, rer. Laapo6., ed. G. Waits, Hanover, 1878, Eng. tranal., p. 178, Philadelphia, 1907; Bede, Hint. accl., ii. 4, ad. Plummer, vol. i, p. 88. Oxford, 1898; R. Baamana, Die Politik der Papate, i, 150. Elberfeld, 1888; F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der 3tadt Rom, ii, 102, Stuttgart, 1878, Eng, transl., London, 1900; J. Laagea, Geachichte der rSmiarheu Kirche . . . Us Nikolaus 1., p. 501, Bonn, 1885; Neander, Christian Church, iii, 32, 34, 134; Bower, Pope, i, 428‑429; Mann, Popes, I, i, 288.
	Boniface V : Pope 619‑625. The fiber pond fi
calis tells that he was a Neapolitan, that he dis
tinguished himself as pope by his love of peace
and kindness, and that he issued a number of
decrees affecting the functions of the different
orders of the clergy. Beds and William of Malmes
bury mention several letters addressed to English
personages; the most important is that preserved
by the latter, a letter to Justus, archbishop of
Canterbury (625); confirming for all time the posi
tion of his diocese as the metropolitan see of Britain,
and extending his powers: Boniface died Oct.
25, 625. 	(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Li6er poutificalis, ed. Duchesne, i, 321, Paris, 1888; Jaffb, Repeeta, i, 222; Bede, Hiat. eccl., ii, 7, ed. Plummer, vol. i, pp. 93‑95, Oxford, 1898; F. Gregorovius, Geachichte der Stadt Rom, ii, 122. Stuttgart, 1876, Eng. travel., London, 1902; Mann, Popes, I, i, 294; Bower, Popes, i, 430‑432.
Boniface VI: Pope 896. He was the son of Hadrian, a Roman, and was elevated to the papal throne in April or May, 896, by a popular movement, on the death of Formosus, although he had twice been deposed from his spiritual functions by John VIII on charges affecting his moral character, and apparently was never canonically restored. He maintained his position only for fifteen days, as the party hostile to Formosua
carried through the election of Stephen VI, who
drove him out. Others say that	he died fifteen
days after his election. 	(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jaffi% Repeats, i, 439; Annalea Fuldenaca, ed. G. H. Parts, in MGH, Script., i. 412, Hanover, 1828; R. Baxmann, Die Politik der Pdpate, ii, 70, Elberfeld, 1889; J. Langen, Geachiehte der riim%echen Kirche .
bia Gregor VII., p. 303, Bonn, 1892; Bower, Popes, ii, 229.
	Boniface VII: Pope 974, 984‑985. After the
downfall of Benedict VI, Creacentius, the leader
of the nobles, caused the election of the deacon
Boniface, called Franco (June, 974). One of his
first acts was to order his predecessor to be put
to death. But he was able to hold his own only for
six weeks, after which he fled to Constantinople.
Here he remained for more than nine years‑or
as long as Otto II lived to protect the popes ‑set
up by him, Benedict VII and John XIV. Otto
died Dec. 7, 983, and the fugitive Boniface imme
diately asserted his claims. He reappeared in
Rome, and in the following April defeated John
XIV, imprisoned him in the castle of Sant'Angelo,
and had him either poisoned or starved to death
there. Eleven months later, this " horrible mon
ster" (as a contemporary calls him) met.a like
fate, dying, it seems probable, by assassination
in the summer of 985; his body was mutilated and
insulted by the infuriated populace. Gfrorer's
hypothesis that his murder was caused by the
empress Theophano has no support in the original
authorities. 	(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jaft€, Repeeta, i, 485; Herimanaus Augieaeis, Cluonicon, ad. G. H. Pens, in MGH, Script., v. 118 sqq., Hanover, 1844; Gerbert, Acts conch%i Remenaie, ed. G. H. Parts, MGH, Script., iii, 872, ib. 1839; L. C. Fetucci, laroeatipazioni . . Bu la persona ed it pontificate di Bonif. VIL, Lugo, 1858 (attempts to clear Boniface of the charges); J. M. Watterich, Pontdficum Romsnorum vitas, i, 88, Leipsie, 188=; J. Langen, Geachichte der rpmiachen Kirche . . . bia Gregor VII,, Bonn, 1892.
	Boniface VIII (Benedetto Gaetani): Pope 1294
1303. He was born at Anagni [c. 1235], and prob
ably studied civil and canon law at Paris. He
began his ecclesiastical career as canon of Todi,
held benefices in Lyons and Rome, and became
notary of the Curia. Martin IV made him a
cardinal in 1281, and under Nicholas IV and
Celeatine V he was one of the most prominent
members of the sacred college, being employed
in the moat varied missions. He encouraged
Celeatine V in his project of retirement to ascetic
seclusion, and even drew up the formula of abdica
tion, by which he was to profit; for, less than a
fortnight after Celeatine had laid down the papal
dignity, it was bestowed upon his adviser (Dec. :214,
1294). Even before his consecration, the new
pope asserted his prerogatives by revoking many
appointments 'of his two predecessors, deposing
archbishops and bishops appointed by Celestine
without the consent of the cardinals, and leaving
		Naples for Rome with all his court, in
	Policy spite of the efforts of Charles II to
	and detain him there. He was consecrated
	Successes and crowned in St. Peter's, Jan. 23,
	is Italy. 1295, and soon took an active part in
		the conflicts of the time, offering to
mediate between Genoa and Venice in February.
Sicily occupied him next; it had freed itself from

sonithoe	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	224
French domination in 1282, chosen Peter III of Aragon as king, and thus dissolved the feudal connection with Rome. Peter's son and heir, James II, showed himself ready to abandon Sicily after Aragon had fallen to him by the death of his elder brother. Another brother, howeverFrederick‑stepped in and assumed the Sicilian crown, and neither repeated papal anathemas nor an armed league against him could make him renounce it; in 1302 he obtained favorable terms of peace, and in 1303 papal recognition. Boniface also intervened in the strife between the Blacks and Whiten of Florence, in favor of the former, and sent a legate to Tuscany. From the sojourn of Dente. in Rome as the ambassador of the Bianchi dates the bitter hatred which he displays for Boniface VIII. In agreement with the Neri, Boniface brought Charles of Valois to Tuscany in 1301 as governor; but his five months' rule accomplished nothing but the alienation of. the last sympathizers of the pope there. Boniface had real power only in the south of Italy and some central cities. Charles II of Naples became the obedient servant of the Curia, while Pisa, Velletri, Orvieto, and Terracina chose Boniface as their ruler. But a hostile party was forming in Rome, led by the two Colonna, cardinals, who disapproved of the close alliance with Charles II and secretly supported the pretensions of the house of Aragon in Sicily. In 1297 the pope stripped them of all their ecclesiastical dignities; and on the same day they formally renounced their allegiance to him, declaring Celestine's abdication to have been invalid and appealing to a general council. Boniface deprived the whole family of their possessions, one after another, and soon.Palestrina alone held out against the papal army. The Colonna submitted in 1298; but when, the next year, Boniface destroyed Paleatrina, contrary, they asserted, to a promise of ultimate restitution, they took up arms once more against him. Again they were defeated, and their estates divided between their enemies, the Orsini and the Gaetani.
Soon after his accession, Boniface became involved in complications beyond the boundaries of Italy. Eric VIII of Denmark had imprisoned the archbishop of Lund in 1294,
Denmark, really to extort money from him, but
Hungary, nominally on the ground of con‑
and spiracy. In 1295 Boniface sent a Poland. legate to demand his release on pain of excommunication and interdict. These penalties were imposed in 1296, but Eric held out until 1302, though even then the pope did not succeed in restoring the deposed archbishop. In the contest for the throne of Hungary, on the ground that he had been " set over princes and kingdoms, to put down iniquity," and that Hungary belonged on special grounds to the Apostolic See, he claimed the deciding voice; in 1300 he sent Charles Robert, grandson of Mary of Sicily, to the Hungarians as their king; but they first clung to Andrew III, and after his death elected the son of Wenceslaus II of Bohemia as Ladislaus V. At the moment of Boniface's death, Wenceslaus was preparing to unite with Philip the Fair against him, and his
interests clashed with the pope's in another place as well‑in Poland, which had elected Wenceslaus in 1300, to take the place of the deposed King Ladislaus. Again Boniface claimed suzerain rights, supported the exiled king, who had sought his aid, and forbade Wenceslaus to assume the crown without the papal sanction; but, as in Hungary, his words were not heeded.
He met with somewhat greater success in Germany. The undertaking given by Adolf of Nassau, in the Treaty of Nuremberg (Aug. 21, 1294), to support Edward I of England against Philip
IV,. displeased the pope, who wished Germany. to see peace between France and Eng‑
land. He wrote to Adolf forbidding him to take up arms, and reproaching him for not having announced his election to him. Adolf returned a submissive answer, and received some privileges in return, but the papal legates were bidden still to insist on peace. He even went so far as to impose a year's truce on all three kings (1295), which, at its expiration, he renewed for another two years. In 1296 he commanded them to submit their differences to his decision; but only Adolf sent his representatives to Rome. On June 27, 1298, Boniface decided that neither Philip nor Adolf moat overstep his boundaries, and that these must be restored where they had been violated. Adolf never heard of this decision; four days before it was rendered, he had been deposed by the electoral princes, and on July 2 he fell in battle against his rival Albert of Austria. Boniface took a lofty tone with Albert, summoning him to appear within six months and submit his claims to the throne, since i t belonged to the pope to examine the person chosen king of the Romans, and reject him if unsuitable. Albert delayed until he made his position secure in Germany, and then sent his ambassadors (Mar., 1302) with liberal promises and the required evidence. Boniface needed his help against France too badly to raise any objection, and recognized him as king of the Romans and future emperor. Albert, in return, renounced his alliance with Philip, and made all possible theoretical and practical concessions.
But a more stubborn obstacle was found in the king and parliament of England. When Edward I had conquered Scotland for the second time in
1298, Boniface claimed that country England. also as a fief of the Holy See, and
summoned Edward before his tribunal for having ventured to lay hands upon it. Edward laid the bull before Parliament in 1301; the reply of the English people was that Scotland had never been a papal fief, that their king should not answer the summons, and that, even if he wished to, they would not permit it. On May 7 Edward informed the pope that he would not give up Scotland; and Boni€ace was obliged to be content with the answer, because in the mean time the memorable conflict with France had broken out.
Philip the Fair was a ruler after the .very pattern of Macchiavelli's later description, knowing no law but self‑interest, and sticking at nothing to accomplish his ends. His relations with Boniface lied at first been friendly, but he was probably

225	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Sonillace
offended by the pope's above‑mentioned interference with his designs against England. When in
1296 the clergy of both France and France. England complained to Bonifaca of the
		taxes laid upon them by their sover
eigns for warlike purposes, he answered by the bull
Clericis laicoa (Feb. 25, 1296). It opened with the
offensive assertion that the laity had always been
and still were hostile to the clergy, and'proceeded to
forbid all princes to tax the clergy of their domin
ions without papal sanction, under pain of excom
munication. Edward, though at first protesting,
declared in 1297 that no further tax should be
laid upon the clergy without their consent; but
Philip responded by forbidding all exportation of
gold and silver, coined. or uncoined, from France
(Aug., 1296). This cut off so large a portion of
the papal revenue that Boniface modified his
attitude in the bull Ins f jabilis carnoris (Sept. 25),
and yielded more completely in three briefs (Feb.
and July, 1297) extremely conciliatory in tone;
in the same spirit he completed the canonization
of Louis IX in August, and the discord seemed in
a fair way to be removed. But it was not long in
breaking out again. Philip had welcomed to his
court some of the exiled Colonna.family, and had
lent a willing ear to their unmeasured abuse of the
pope, which did not spare his moral character.
The king's misuse of the droll de regale (see RF(3ALE),
on the other hand, had been giving increasing
provocation to the pope since 1''99. i1n open
rupture came in 1301; and by that time both con
testants had increased their pretensions and were
ready to wage a more bitter war than ever. Boni
face chose to send as legate to Pa:is a Frenchman,
Bernard de Saisset, bishop of Pamiers, who was for
several reasons persona non grate at the French
court, and his haughty tone at this time made him
no better liked. Philip refused to see him; and,
then, when he had returned to Pamiers, brought
him back to Paris, and had him tried and condemned
on a charge of treason and less‑majesty. On Dec.
5, 1301, Boniface demanded that his ambassador
should immediately be set free to come to Rome;
and at the same time he summoned the principal
French churchmen and jurists to assemble in
Rome Nov. 1, 1302, to take counsel with him in
the difficulties of the French question. Notifying
Philip of this, amid the moat passionate reproaches,
in the bull Ausculta fill, he commanded him also
to appear in person or by proxy at this assembly;
the assertions were repeated that God had set the
Vicar of Christ over princes and kingdoms, thus I
giving him charge to ordain what might be needed
for the removal of scandals and for the welfare of
the kingdom of France. To meet this, Philip sum
moned his estates to Paris for Apr. 10, 1302, and
laid before them not the bull Ausculta fill, but a
document purporting to be the pope's utterance,
which far surpassed even the real one in matter
of offense. The estates, stirred up by this, voted
to stand by the king. Toward the end of the year,
Philip notified the pope that he would have none
of his arbitration in the struggle with England;
and Boniface now urged Edward to war instead
of peace. Peace, however, was made in 1303.
	IL‑16
Meantime, as a result of the synod which the pope opened on Oct. 30, 1302, at which not a few French prelates were present in spite of Philip, the Bull Unam aandam‑ was drawn up, asserting in the moat definite terms the theory of " the two swords," and the necessity to salvation. of submission to the pope. Some futile attempts at conciliation took place in the early part of 1303, but Philip was declared on Apr. 13 to have rendered himself liable to excommunication. Two months later, the king assembled his nobles, prelates, and jurists, and his answer came in the form of a definite accusation against Boniface under twenty‑four separate heads of the most appalling nature. Impressed by this, the assembly resolved to appeal to a general council against him; but since he would have to be forced to attend it, the collection of funds for this purpose was begun. William of Nogaret, the king's vicechancellor, went to Italy and struck up an alliance with Sciarra Colonna, who had the wrongs of his family to avenge. They enlisted a number of the nobles of the Campagna, and used money freely, winning adherents. even among Boniface's fellow townsmen of Anagni, where he was then holding his court. He had resolved to make formal publication of the anathema against Philip on Sept. 8; but early on the morning of the 7th, William and his adherents, a few hundred strong, gained an entrance into the town, penetrated even into the sleeping apartments of Boniface, and when he refused all concessions made him a prisoner in his own palace. On the 9th the citizens rose and liberated him; Nogaret and Sciarra Colonna were forced to flee, while Boniface returned to Rome Sept. 25. But, worn . out by the long strife, he died Oct. 11.
His defeat is to be seen not in the circumstances of his captivity and his death, but in the fact that the spiritual weapons he wielded proved utterly unequal to the conquest of the aroused national
Character	feeling of France. The national spirit
sad showed itself more powerful than the I Achieve‑ ecclesiastical. This defeat inflicted meats of a staggering blow upon the authority
	Boniface.	of the papacy. Yet Boniface was no
		ordinary man. Though he was be
tween seventy and eighty when he became pope,
he showed no trace of the weakness of age; his
will was unbending, his mind clear and logical.
But his whole heart was set on power. In some
ways he reminds of Gregory VII, and he could
no more hope to escape conflicts than could the
unflinching Hildebrand. But he did not in the con
flict show the moral loftiness of _ Hildebrand
to say nothing of that of such men as Nicholas I
and Innocent III. Nor is his personality without
moral flaws. He had no scruple in using the funds
he had raised for the recovery of the Holy Land
in his own wars; nor is the reproach unfounded that
he used the privileges of his position to surround
his own family with princely splendor. When he
strove for peace, as between England and France,
his determining motive was plainly the desire to
show himself the supreme arbiter of nations; when
he had nothing to gain, he was ready enough to
set them against each other, as lie set Albert I and

8on!laoe	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	226
Edward I against Philip. Fair criticism must, however, reject the accusations of debauchery entirely, since they rest on no trustworthy testimony; and quite as groundless is the charge of heresy brought against him by his foes. Clement V had good foundation for the doubtful praise which he bestows upon Boniface when he calls him a destroyer of heretics; for he not only confirmed, but even strengthened the laws passed against heresy by Frederick II. He had a great influence on the development of the canon law by the issue in 1298 of his so‑called Ltber sextus, ‑a continuation of the five books which Gregory IX had put together in 1234; it contains his own decrees as well as those of his predecessors since Gregory's time. It must be mentioned to his credit that he erected higher schools at Avignon and at Fermo in the March of Ancona, modeled after the University of Bologna, for the study of theology, civil and canon law, medicine, and the liberal arts; and he has a special title to the gratitude of Rome for the refounding of the Roman University, originally established by Charles of
Anjou in 1265. 	(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Walter de Heminghburgh, Chronicon de peatia repum Anglia, ed. H. C. Hamilton, pp. 39 eqq., London, 184&, Rishsnger, Chronica, ed. H. T. Riley, pp. 145 x]q., 483 eqq., ib. 1885; Annalea Partners" majores, in MGH, Script., xviii (1863), 715 eqq.; Chronicon Colmar, ib. zvii (1881), 283; Guilelmue de Nangiaco, Chronieon, ib. xxvi (1882), 847 eqq. The bulls Clerici8 laic
and Unam sanctum are translated in Thatcher and MeNeal, Source Book, pp. 311‑313 314‑317, and other relevant documents on pp. 278, 313; the bulls are also in Henderson, Documents, pp. 435‑437; Unam aanctam is in Robinson, European History, i, 348‑348; the Clerieia laicos is also in Gee and Hardy, Documents, pp. 87‑88; the Lat. text is in Reich, Documents, pp. 191‑195. Valuable for sources is also G. Digard, M. Fauaon, and A. Thomas, Lee Repietrea de Bonifaa VIII. Recueil de a bu1lea de ee papa . . . d'aprEa lea MSS. originaux de: archives du Vatican, b vole., Paris, 1884‑90; T. H. Finks, Aue den Tagen Boni/az VIII., Milnater, 1902.
For Boniface's life and activities consult: L. Tosti, Staria di Bonifazio VIII., 2 vQls., Monte Cassino, 1848; Jorry, Hiatoire du pays Boniface VIII., Plancy, 1850; W. Drumann, Geachichte Bonilacius VIII., 2 vole., Konigaberg, 1852 (critical); A. roan Reumont, Geachichte der Stadt Ram, ii, 818, Berlin, 1888; A. Potthast, Regeata pontificum Romanorum, ii, 1923‑2024, 2133, Berlin, 1875; F. Gregorovius, Gsechichta der Stadt Rom, v, 502, Stuttgart, 1878, Fng. transl., London, 1898; W. Wattenbach, Geachichte des ramiaehen Papattuma, 218 eqq., Berlin, 1878; Balan, Il Process& di Boni/az%o V?IL, Rome, 1881; F. Roequain, La PapaufE au moyen Bge. . . Boni/ace VIII., Paris, 1881; idem, Philippe Is Bel at la bulls AuacuZfa fili, in BibliothEqus do 1'Ecole des chartea, 1883. pp. 393‑394; B. Jungmann, Dissertation" selects, vol. vi, Regensburg, 1888; J. Berchtold, Die Bulls Unam aanctam, Munich, 1887; W. Martens, Daa Vaticanum and BonilaaVIIL, Freiburg, 1888; Neander, Christian Church, iv, 87, 832, v, 1‑13 and passim; Hefele, Conciiicngeachichte, vi, 281 eqq.; Bower, Popes, iii, 43‑5b. 84; R. Scholz, Die PubZiziatik sur Zeit , . , Bonifaz VIII., Leipeic, 190.
On his relations to the various European states consult: F. C. Dahlmann, Geuhichte roan Danemark, i, 425 eqq., Hamburg, 1840; R. Pauli, Geachichte roan England, vol. iv, Goths. 1855; E. Boutaric, La France Boaz Philippa Is 3e1, pp. 88 eqq., Paris, 1881; A. Baillet, Hiatoire des dEmEZEa du gape Boni/ace Vlll. arox Philippe to Bel, Paris, 1818; E. Engelmann, Der Anaprwh der Pdpate auf Konrs»tation bei dun dsufsrhan KBnipetoahlan, Breslau, 1888; Feeder, Guchichte van Unparn, i, 451 eqq., ii, 3 eqq., Leipeic, 1887‑89; J. B. Sagmntter, Die Tkaeigkeit and Skilunp der Cardinals big Bonitos VIIL, Freiburg, 1898: J. Carp. Guchichts Polsna, Goths, 1883.
Boniface I% (Pietro Tomacelli): Pope 13891404. He came of a noble Neapolitan family, and was made a cardinal by Urban VI, whom he succeeded Nov. 2, 1389. He is said to have been judicious, affable, and pious, but without learning or knowledge of affairs. His principal aim was the restoration of the papal authority in Rome and the States of the Church, for which he labored not unsuccessfully. The Romans, it is true, expelled him from the city in 1392, but fearful that he might fix his residence permanently elsewhere, they recalled him in the following year. He returned on condition of the surrender of a great part of the civic liberties; and another rising in 1398 gave him the opportunity to limit them still further. He was fortunate also in regard to Naples, where things were in a condition very unfavorable to the papacy; owing to the confused policy of Urban VI. Clement VII and Louis II of Anjou thought the time had come to make a thorough conquest of the kingdom, but Boniface made a close alliance with King Ladislaus and finally gained a complete victory over the French, holding Naples in the Roman obedience. By the aid of his political influence, Boniface hoped to succeed in ending the great schism, at first depending on the German king Wenceslaus, whom he invited to Rome for coronation as emperor; but matters were in too critical a state in Germany for him to leave. An appeal to Charles VI of France in 1392 to abandon his allegiance to Clement had no good result; nor had a similar attempt in Castile. The hope of accommodation raised by the death of Clement VII (Sept. 16, 1394) was destroyed by the action of the Avignon cardinals, who elected Benedict XIII. In the contests resulting in the deposition of Wenceslaus and the attempt to put the punt palatine Rupert in big place, Boniface wavered from side to aide, and only expressed his willingness to recognize Rupert in 1403 from a fear that he would be thrown into the arms of the king of France. Boniface acquired an unenviable reputation for avarice, nepotism, and simoniacal transactions. He died Oct. 1, 1434. (A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Some of the sours for a history of Bonita~ sX are the following: The bulls are in O. Raynaldus, Annalea ecclesiaetici„ ed. Baronius, continued by A. Theiner, Paris, 1884 eqq.; the Diplomats are in Monuments vatieana h%atoriam $unparia illustrantia, vol. iii, Budapest, 1588; Dietrich roan Nieheim, De Schiamate, book ii, chap. 8 eqq., ed. G. Erler, pp. 129 eqq., Leipeic, 1880; Gobelinua Peisona, Coanwdromium, in H. Meibom, Rerum German"rum, i, 318 eqq., Helmatadt, 1888; and a Vita in L. A. Muratori, Rerum Italicanam script., III, ii, 830, 25 vole., Milan, 1723‑38. Consult further: M. Jansen, Papat Bonifatiua 1%., Freiburg, 1904; Hiatoria . . . de Boni/azio now, Venice, 1813; N. Valois, La France et le grand ecAiame, ii, 157, Paris, 1898; Creighton, Papacy, i, 111‑183; Pastor, Popes, i, passim; Neander, Christian Church, vol. v, passim; Bower, Popes, iii, 143‑152; Hefele, Concilienpeschuchte, vi, 812.
BOIYIFACE, SAIJYT: The apostle of the Germans; b. at Crediton (8 m. n.w. of Exeter), Devonshire, between 675 and 683; d. a martyr on the banks of the Borne near Dokkum (13 m. n.e. of Leeuwarden), in Friesland, June 5, 755. He was an Englishman of a distinguished family of Wessex, and was originally named Winfrid or Wynfrith. His studies were begun at the monastery of Ades‑

227	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Boniface
cancastre (Exeter?), and continued at Nutshalling or Nursling, near Winchester. Here he won distinction for learning and practical wisdom, and at an early age was made master of the monastic school.
Disregarding brilliant prospects at home, from 717 Boniface gave himself to missionary work on the Continent. After a brief effort in Frieslandthe field of his countryman Willibrord (q.v.)he went to Rome and received a commission from the pope (Gregory II) as missionary to Central Germany. He began his labor in Thuringia and Hessia, the easternmost of the lands of the Franks, where he found not only heathen but Christians
and priests who knew nothing and Early wanted to know nothing of Roman
Missionary discipline and order. They were probWork. ably conyerte and disciples of Iro‑
Scottish and British monks, who had long been lai,oring among the tribes from the Rhine to the Saale and southward to the Alps (see CELTIC CHURCH IN BRITAIN AND IRELAND, II, 2, § 3, III, 2, § 2). For two or three years Boniface's activity was diverted to Friesland, but then he returned to the Franks, and, with the help of two landed proprietors, founded a central settlement for himself and companions at Amoneburg on the Ohm in Hessia. His success was great and led to a summons to Rome from Gregory II. There he was consecrated bishop and swore fidelity to the canons of the Church; he was charged to be on his guard against heretical priests and anti‑Roman bishops. About 724 he returned to Germany, provided with letters of recommendation to the major domus, Charles Martel, to the clergy, chieftains, and people. Charles Martel granted him protection, and, after confirming recent converts in Hesaia, and felling the sacred oak of Thor near Geismar, Boniface went eastward into Thuringia, and established its first monastery at Ohrdruf. He founded many churches, converted the heathen, expelled the anti‑Roman priests, and in ten years had won a new province for the Church and the pope.
Being promoted to the dignity of archbishop, Boniface organized his Church by founding the sees of Wiirzburg, Buraburg, and Erfurt, and by building monasteries and nunneries, which he filled with monks and nuns from England and endowed and improved with the help of English money. Bavaria next claimed his attention. Anti‑Roman influence was strong there and among the neighboring Alemanni (q.v.), but, with the authorization of Gregory III, in a few years, Boniface placed men in sympathy with Rome in the sees of Regensburg, Passau, Salzburg, and Freiaing, and substituted the Benedictine rules for those
of Columban in the monasteries. On Organiza‑ the death of Charles Martel (741),
tion.	h:a sons Karlman and Pepin, who had
been brought up under monkish influence, succeeded to his power. In 742 Karlman called upon the papal legate to regulate the affairs of the Church for the East Franks. Under the guiding influence of Boniface two synods were held and measures were adopted concerning the
monastic and scholastic discipline, the restoration of church estates which had been lost, the introduction of Roman marriage laws, celibacy of the clergy, the expulsion of the old British itinerant priests and bishops, the extirpation of remnants of heathenism, the establishment of the hierarchical order, and the like. There was some opposition from the nobles, certain of the bishops, and the people, who were attached to their old customs, but at court and in the Council the adversaries of the " reformation of the Church " lost all authority.
	In 744 Pepin followed the example of his brother.
A synod was held at Soiasona, and Boniface was
given a free hand, notwithstanding resistance
from the Frankish clergy. For a long time, how
ever, he was unable to alienate the people from
their old priests and bishops, such as Adalbert
and Clement (qq.v.). A general Frankish synod
in 745 published new agenda for both divisions of
the country and promised Boniface the metro
politan see at Cologne. In 747 the Frankish
bishops with Boniface at the head signed in due
form a bill of submission in which they acknowl
		edged the papal rights, laws, and power,
	Arch‑	and promised obedience and faith
	bishop.	fulness. By this action the bond
		between the Frankish empire and
Rome was sealed; the " Prince of the Apostles "
was to be head and master in the countries north
of the Alps. Pope Zacharias had every reason to
be grateful to his legate. Instead of Cologne,
Boniface received Mainz as his see. Here he was
near his old mission field in Hessia and Thuringia,
and from Mainz he could direct the building of his
favorite foundation, the abbey of Fulda (q.v.).
Worldly affairs now occupied him little. After
the death of Willibrord he desired strongly to
continue the Friesian mission. In 754 he spent
some time in Friesland. The next year he again
descended the Rhine with a large following and
pitched his camp on the little river Borne, expecting
the newly baptized would come thither for con
firmation. But the camp was attacked by night
by a band of heathen and Boniface and his entild
company were massacred. He is buried at Fulda.
An English synod shortly after his death proclaimed
him patron of the English Church by the aide of
Gregory the Great and Augustine. Plus IX in
1875 ordered to invoke his name because of troubles
in Germany and England. Many churches in
Germany are dedicated to him. [A number of
writings have been attributed to Boniface.. Those
most commonly regarded as genuine are letters,
a collection of ecclesiastical statutes, a Latin poem
called tEnigmafa de virtutibus, and several shorter
poems.]
A. WERNER.
B7BLIO6aAPH7: S. Bonifacii opera quos extant omnia, ed. J. A. Giles, 2 vols., London, 1844, contains, besides the genuine and supposed works of Boniface, his life, written within ten yearn of his death by Willibald, a presbyter of Mains. The works, Willibald's life, and a life by Othlo, a mock of St. Emmeram'a at Regensburg, written at Fulda between 1082 and 1088, are in MPL, lxxxix. Better editions are: Of the letters, Willibald's life, the so‑called Paeaio S. Bonifalii (11th century), and extracts from Othlo and a life by an unknown writer of Utrecht in Monuments Mopuntina, ed. P. Jaffd, Bibiiotheca rar.

Bonitatine‑Verein	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	228
Bonnet
Germ., vol. iii, 1888; the biogrsphiasl matter also issued
separately with title, Vita S. Bonifatii, Berlin, 1886; cf.
also Vito 3. Bonifatii, ad. W. Levieon, Hanover, 1905; of
the letters, ed. E. IHianmler, in MGH, Elviet., iii (1892),
Epistold Meraroingici et Carolini aroi, i; of the poems, ed.
idem, in MGH, Poet. Lat. cevi Car., i (1881), pp.
1‑23; of, Willibsld's life, ed. A. Niirnberger, Breslau,
1895, ad, with Othlo's prologue, in biGll, Script., ii
(1829). For the letters consult F. Loofs, Zur Chrono
logie der auf die frllnkiachen Synodert des htilipen Boni
fatius bezuglichen Briefs der bonifaxiachan BriafaamfnZung,
Leipaie, 1881; G. Pfahler, Die bonifatianiache Baiqt
aammtung chronolog%ach peordnrt, Heilbronn, 1882.
	For modern accounts in German from the Roman
Catholic standpoint, consult: J. C. A. Seitera, Bonifacius,
		. reach aeinem Laban and Wirken 9eechilderl, Mains,
1845; G. Pfahler, St. Bonifaciua and seine Zeit, Regene
burg. 1880; F. J. von Buss, Winfred Bonifacius, ed. R.
von Scherer, Gram, 1880. From the Protestant stand
point: J. P. Moller, Bonifaciua. Eena kerkhistoriache
Studie, 2 vole., Amsterdam, 1889‑70; A. Werner, Boni
faeiua . . . and die Romaniairung von Miftelewopa,
Leipsic. 1875; O. Fischer, Boni/alias der Apoatel der
Dautachen, ib. 1881; J. H. A. Ebrard, Bonifatiue, der
ZeratOrer des cotumbaniaehen Kirchenthuma suf dent
Featlande, Giitereloh, 1882, cf. his Iroacho#ischa biis
aionakirche des Bten‑Bten Jahrhunderta, ib. 1873; G.
Traub, Bonifatius. Eire Lebenebitd, Leipaic 1884. For
life in Eng. consult: G. w. Cox, Life of Eoniface, London,
1853; Mrs. Hops. Boniface and the Conversion of Germany,
ib. 1872; G. F. Maelear, Apostles of Maditeral Europe, pp.
110‑128, Loudon, 1888; I. G. Smith, Bonifaee, in Fathers for
English Readers, ib.1898; J. M. Williamson, Life and Times
	of St.. Bonitaa, ib. 1904. Consult also: H. Hahn, Bona
	faz and Lut, Leipaio, 1883; G. Woelbing, Die mi#elalter
	iichen Labenabeechretbungan des Bonifatiue urateraucht, ib.
	1883; Moeller, Christian Church ii, 74‑83; Schaff, Chris
	tian Church, iv, 92‑100; DCB, i, 324‑327; DNB, v,
	348‑350; Neander, Christian Church, iii, 48‑‑98 et pas
	sim.
	BO1fIFAT1US‑VE1tEIft (°` Boniface Society',):
A Roman Catholic society of Germany, having as
its object " to promote the spiritual interests of
Catholics living in Protestant parts of Germany,
and the maintenance of schools" (by‑laws, § 1).
The tendency toward freer relations between dif
ferent confessions and shifting of confessional
connections in Germany in the earlier years of the
nineteenth century aroused the anxiety of the
Church of Rome. According to' a statement in
the Ultramontane Miinchener historisch‑politische
Bl6tter (lxviii, 45) the Roman Church lost between
1802 and 1870 more than ,500,000 souls in South
Germany, whereas the loss in North Germany
between 1802 and 1850 was estimated at one
million. The " Francis Xavier Society," which
had its headquarters at Lyons in France, and prop
erly speaking was a missionary society, took care
of the " missions " in Germany as far as possible;
but until 1848 no Roman Catholic church or school
could be established in Germany without the consent
of the government. These restrictions were done
away with in 1848, and when the third convention
of Roman Catholics met at Regensburg, Oct. 4,
1849, at the suggestion of DiSllinger, at that time
an ardent champion of Rome, and of Count Josef
von Stolberg, son of the famous convert Frederick
Leopold non Stolberg, the Bonifatius‑Verein was
founded. Paderborn was chosen as the center of
operation. Pius IX approved the society, Apr. 21,
1852, and Leo XIII favored the priests belonging
to it with indulgences, Mar. 15, 1901. In Bavaria
the society was not favorably received at first
on account of similar societies already existing,
and in North Germany it seemed to be a failure by 1853. But after 1857, owing to the exertions of Bishop Martin of Paderborn and of Alban Stolz, it progressed rapidly and in 1899 celebrated the golden jubilee of its successful activity.
The society obtains the means necessary for carrying on its work in various ways: (1) from collections in, the churches; (2) from private persona who obligate themselves to pay for a number of years the minister's salary in a certain congregition; (3) from donations to a permanent endowment fund; (4) from societies which collect seemingly worthless objects, as cigar ends, corks, and the like; the income from these societies, used particularly for orphan asylums and like institutions, amounted from 1885 to 1891 to 1,490,539 marks; (5) from the profits of the Bonifatius printing‑house and the Bonifatius second‑hand book‑stall at Paderborn; (6) from periodicals and pamphlets; (7) from academical Bonifatius societies, which built the Catholic church at Greifawald; (8) from societies of alike character, as the " Boniface Society of the Catholic Noblemen of Silesia," the " Boniface Society of Catholic Ladies for Church Vestments and Furniture," and others. The aggregate receipts from all these sources between 1849 and 1899 were 36,000,000 marks; and between 1849 and 1901 more than 29; 000,000 marks were expended for 2,240 stations. In 1902 the revenues aggregated 442,000 marks, and expenditures 310,000 marks.
	The territory of the Bonifatius‑Verein comprises
Germany, Austria with Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Switzerland, Denmark, and Luxembourg. In
Germany special attention is paid to the Protestant
parts of Prussia, above all Berlin; Saxony, Bruns
wick, and Mecklenburg are also regarded as mis
sionary fields. In Bavaria, Nuremberg, formerly
wholly Protestant, is especially an object of the
propaganda in order to connect the northern and
southern parts of Bavaria. 	C. FEY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. J. Kleffner and F. w. woker, Der Bonifacius‑Verein. Seine Geachichte, seine Arbeit and aein Ar‑
Leitafeld, 181,9‑1899, 2 parts, Paderborn, 1899; Bonifw
ciuabla#, ib. 1853 aqq.; Schlesischea Bonifaciua‑Vereina‑
Bta#, Breslau, 1880 aqq.

BONI HOMINES: A name borne by several monastic brotherhoods, particularly by the Grammontenaians (see GanhlMOxr, ORDER OF), the Fralres saccati, or Sack Brethren (q.v.), and an order of canons regular founded in Portugal by John Vicenza (d. 1463), physician and professor at Lisbon, afterward bishop of Lamego, and later bishop of Vizeu. In 1425 Vicenza and his followers, who had made pilgrimages throughout Portugal, received the Benedictine cloister of San Salvador in Villar de Fradea. They adopted the dress and statutes of the canons regular of San Giorgio in Alga, at Venice, and received papal confirmation under this title. In another house near Lisbon they received the name Canons Regular of the Congregation of St. John the Evangelist. The Boni homines of San Salvador were later included under this title. They gradually attained a strength of fourteen houses in Portugal, and also maintained missions in India and Ethiopia.

		Bonii3j,tius‑Yerei>i
229	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bonnet
After the Minims (q.v.) had come into possession of the house of the Grammontensians at Vincennes they, too, came to be called bons hammer. Even at an earlier date it seems that the Minima in Paris had been contemptuously called bona hommes. The same name was also appropriated by certain heretical sects, for instance, by the Cathari (see NEw MalvlcaEnlsa) and by the Brethren of the Free Spirit. In Florence, in the thirteenth century, the twelve men elected to restore order after the withdrawal of the Ghibellines were called buoni uomini, likewise the overseers of the thirteen city districts in Rome in the fourteenth century.

BOIQIZO (BOIQTHO): Bishop of Sutri; b. at Cremona c. 1045; d. at Piacenza July 14, probably 1090. As a young cleric he joined the Patarene movement (see PATARFJNEa) in Cremona and Piacenza. He came to Rome in 1074, possibly in consequence of his conflict with Bishop Dionyaiua of Piacenza, and was himself made bishop of Sutri in 1075 or 1076. In the spring of 1078 he was in Lombardy as legate, and back in Rome by November, when he took part in the synod that discussed Berengar's teachings. A zealous partizan of Gregory VII, he was imprisoned by Henry IV in 1082 and entrusted for safe‑keeping to the antipope Guibert of Ravenna (Clement III). He contrived to escape, but never returned to his nee. In 1085 he found shelter with Countess Matilda, and in the summer of 1086 was chosen bishop of Piacenza by the Patarene party. His election being uncanonical, Anselm of Milan, the metropolitan, refused to install him; but he succeeded in gaining the approval of Pope Urban II in 1088 or 1089. He did not long enjoy his triumph, meeting a violent death in a rising of the imperialist party. The most important of his writings, the Liber ad amicuna (ed. E. Diimmler, MGH, Libelli de life, i, 1891), composed between the death of Gregory VII and the accession of Victor III (1085‑86), besides discussing the question whether a Christian may bear arms in the defense of the Church (which he answers in the affirmative), shown by an extended historical sketch that the Church grows under persecution. The chief value of the work is due to its presentation of the ideas of Gregory and his adherents; it informs us how the papal camp judged of the numerous theological and ecclesiastico‑political controversies of the time, and as .a whole is one of the moat noteworthy productions of the Gregorian party. Often as it has been appealed to as a contemporary source, it has to be used with caution, owing not only to carelessness and errors of detail, but to demonstrable perversions of history, as in the account of the Canossa episode. In fact, it is colored throughout by the author's subjective standpoint. The Leer in Httgonem schismaticum (presumably Cardinal Hugo Cancjidus) has un= fortunately been lost. As a canonist Bonito left a large Decretum in ten books, from which Mai published extracts in 1854. CARL MInsT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. $sur, Studies fiber Bonito, in Forsrhungas fur deutschas Geachichts, viii, 397‑484, Gbttingen, 1888; E. $teindorff, Jahrbildur des dautscMn Re cha aster Heinrich Ill., i, 457‑462, ii, 473‑482, Leipsie, 1874, 1887; w. Martens, Uebar die ceaehiehaehraiauna
Bonitos, in TUbinper lhtologische Quartalachrift, 1883, pp. 457‑483; idem, Gregor VIL, 2 vole., Leipsic, 1894; H. LehmgrObner, Ueber du Lebes den Bonito . , in Bento van Albs, pp. 129‑151, Berlin, 1887; G. Meyer von Knonau, Jahrbilcher den deutachen Reicha unter Heinrich IV„ vole. i, ii, Leipsie, 1890‑94; C. Mirbt, Die Pubdiaiatik im Zeitalter Gregory VIL, ib. 1894; idem, Die Wahi Grapora VIL, Marburg, 1892.
BONNER, EDMUND: Bishop of London; b., probably at Hanley, Worcestershire, about 1500; d. in the Marshalsea prison, at Southwark, near London, Sept. 5, 1569. He studied at Pembroke College (then called Broadgate Hall), Oxford (B.C.L., 1519; D.C.L., 1525), and was ordained about 1519. He received his first preferment from Cardinal Wolsey; after the death of Wolsey (1530) he served the king, received a number of benefices, and was employed at different times as ambassador to the pope, to the king of France, and to the emperor; he was made bishop of London in 1539. He fell out with the privy council, which undertook to govern under Edward VI (1547), and in 1549 was reprimanded for not enforcing the use of the new prayer‑book, deprived of his‑bishopric, and imprisoned. The accession of Mary (1553) brought his release and reinstated him in his nee. He is remembered chiefly by his connection with the religious persecutions of the reign of Mary and it is said that in three years he condemned more than two hundred persons to the stake. In 1559, after the accession of Elizabeth, he refused to take the oath of supremacy and was imprisoned and kept in confinement till his death. It has been usual to represent Bishop Bonner as unprincipled and cruel; yet his firmness in following the unpopular course and the suffering undergone in consequence do not indicate a lack of principle; to judge and condemn heretics was one of the duties of his position, and it is not clear that he took delight in undue severity; there is documentary evidence that he acted under pressure from the queen and her husband (Philip II of Spain). He was unpopular in London apart from the persecutions. He wrote a preface for the second edition of Gardiner's De very obedienl4.a (Hamburg, 1536) and published a collection of Homilies for his diocese (London, 1555, and many later editions).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources for s life are in the itate Papers of Henry VIII, in the Roils Series, 15 vole., ed. by various hands, London, 189‑. Consult also: 8. R. Maitland, Subjects Cones with the Reformation in England, London, 1849; DNB, vi, 358‑380.
BONNET, beli"nY, ALFRED MAXIMILIElY: French classical scholar; b. at Frankfort Nov. 3, 1841. He was educated at Bonn University, and, after being a professor at the academy of Lausanne in 1866‑74 and at the Rcrole Monge and the Itcole Alsacienne at Paris in 1874‑81, was successively lecturer and instructor in the faculty of letters at Montpellier. Since 1890 he has been professor of Latin in the same institution. In 1898 he was elected a corresponding member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and has writtah, among other work, Narratio de miraculo a Michaels archangels Chonis patrato, adjecto Sy»aeonis Metaphrmstte de eadem re libello (Paris, 1890) and Le Latin de Gregoire de Tours (1890); and has prepared editions

sonnet
Bonosns	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	230
of the Llber de miraculis bead Andrea? apostoli, in MGH, Script. rer. Merov., i (1885), 821‑846, the Acts of Thomas (Leipaic, 1883) and of Andrew (1895), and the Acts apostolorum apocrypha (1891 sqq.; in collaboration with R. A. Lipsius).

	BONNET, JULES: French Protestant layman;
b. at Nimes (40 m. n.e. of Montpellier) June 30,
1820; d. there Mar. 23, 1892. He was educated
as a lawyer, but became a professor in the University
of France and gained recognition by his works
on the history of the Reformation. He was also
secretary of the Socidtd d'Hiatoire du Proteatantisme
Frangais and editor of its publications. Among
his works special mention may be made of the
following: Olympia Morals, episode de la renais
sance en Italie (Paris, 1850; Eng. transl., Edin
burgh, 1852); Lettrea franFaisea de Calvin (2
vole., 1854; Eng. transl., 4 vole., Edinburgh,
1855‑57); Calvin au val d'Aoste (1881); Aonio
Paleario, etude sur la rEforme en Italie (1863;
Eng. transl., London, 1864); R&‑its du seizi~me
aikle (1884); Nouveaux recita du seizi~me sikcle
(1889); La Rsforme au ehdteau de Saint Privat
(1873); Notice our la vie et les emits de M. Merle
d'Aubignd (1874); Derniers recita du seizi~me sacle
(1875); Quelquea souvenirs sur Augustin Thierry
(1877); Famine de Curione, rEcit du seizibme sibcle
(Basel, 1878); Hiatoire des sou f francea du bienheurevx
martyr Louis de Marolles (Paris, 1882); Souvenirs de
Z'‑0gliae rdformee de la Calmette (1884); and Recits
du aeixibrne sacle, troisibme s6rie (1885). He also
edited the Mthrwirea de la vie de Jean de Parthenay
Larehevtque, sieur de Soubise (Paris, 1879), while
his own letters from 1851 to 1883 have been edited
by E. de Bude (Geneva, 1898).

BONftIVARD, ben"nf"vtlr', P'RAftVOIS DE: The "Prisoner of Chillon"; b. at Seyeeel on the Rhone (21 m. s.w. of Geneva) c. 1493; d. at Geneva 1570. As a younger son he entered the Church and became prior of St. Victor near Geneva; certain other benefices to which he thought he was entitled he failed to receive through the intrigues of Charles III, duke of Savoy; in consequence he joined the party of the young Genevan patriots who were resisting the duke's attempts to gain control of the city. When the duke entered Geneva in 1519, Bonnivard fled, but fell into the hands of the duke, and was .imprisoned for twenty months. On May 28, 1530 he was arrested near Lausanne, taken to the castle of Chillon at the east end of Lake Geneva. and kept there for six years. It is this imprisonment which Byron has immortalized in verse more musical than truthful. The first two years were tolerable; but after a visit from the duke in 1532 he was put in the dungeon now shown to visitors. It is only a local tradition that he was chained to a pillar. In the spring of 1536 the Berneae took the castle and freed Bonnivard. During his incarceration the priory and church of St. Victor had been razed and the income of the estates applied to the city hospital. As iAdemnification he was pensioned and given a liberal sum to pay his debts. He adopted the Reformation and married four times, but no time happily. He made the city of Geneva his heir on condition that it should pay his debts;
but his estate consisted only of certain books which formed the beginning of the city library. Bonnivard's literary activity was the chief reason for the forbearance which his contemporaries showed him; his career was somewhat wavering, time‑serving, and dishonorable. In 1517 he was entitled " poetlaureate," and after his liberation he was commissioned by the magistracy to write a history of the republic of Geneva. This work, Les Chroniquea de Gene (published at Geneva, 2 vols., 1831), ends with 1551, is full of anecdotes and interesting, but unreliable. Other works which have been published are: Advis et devil des langues (Geneva, 1849); Advis et devia de la source de l'idolatrie et tyrannie papale (1856); De l'aneienne et nouvelle police de Genhe (1885).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. J. Chsponnibre, MEmoire our Bonniroard, Geneva, 1848; F. Dribble, Lake (3eneroa and its Literary Landmark*, London, 1901.
BONNUS, HERIIfANNUS (Hermann Gnde?):
German Reformer; b. at Quackenbrtlck, in Osna^ brilck, 1504; d. at LUbeck Feb. 12, 1548. He was educated apparently first at Munster, then in Bugenhagen's school at Treptow, but certainly entered the University of Wittenberg in 1523, coming under the influence of Luther and Melanchthon. In 1525, probably, he migrated to Greifawald, and about two years later went to Gottorp to act as tutor to the six‑year‑old son of Frederick 1 of Denmark. Thence he was called to Lubeck in 1530, and (on Bugenhagen's oganization of the Evangelical Church there) made superintendent in the following February. Here he remained until his death, in spite of calls to Hamburg in 1532 and to Liineburg in 1534. He represented his town in the conference of the six free cities of Ltibeck, Bremen, Hamburg, Rostock, Stralsund, and Liineburg, held at Hamburg in 1535 to concert measures for dealing with Papists, Anabaptists, and Sacramentarians. In 1543 he visited Osnabriick to take part in the establishment of a Reformed system and liturgy which received the approval of the bishop, Franz von Waldeck, and was later extended to the whole diocese. The attempt to carry it into that of Munster was forcibly resisted by the chapter, but met with partial success in the country districts. His influence was extended by his Low German catechism (1539) and by his services to the hymnody of this dialect.. He certainly edited and revised several collections of both German and Latin hymns, and probably contributed some of his own. He took a courageous part against the democratic revolution in Lubeck under Wullenweber, and in his Chronika der kaiserlichen Stadl Liibeck (1539) pointed out the dangers of innovating tendencies. After the formal adoption of the Augsburg Confession in 1535, he contended successfully against the efforts of the Roman Catholic party to regain control and against the propaganda of the Anabaptists. His office required him to expound the Scriptures, and his discourses on the Acts and on the liturgical epistles for the Sundays were published. In accordance with the Hamburg decisions, which had required preachers to dwell upon the examples of the saints, he published in 1539 a compilation of hagiographical

231	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bonnet
		Bonosns
extracts. The king of Denmark tried to secure
him for an important office (probably the bishopric
of Sleswick), but he refused to leave Lilbeck, where
his body was deposited amid universal mourning
in St. Mary's church.	(G. Kew>1sAU.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Spiegel, Hermann Bonnua, GSttingen,
	1892; G. Boseert, in TLZ, 1892, pp. 280 eqq.
			BONOSUS AND THE BONOSIANS.
		Heresy and Suspension of Bonoeus (§ 1).
		Final Condemnation of Bonosus (§ 2).
		Bonoeiane in Spain and Southern Gaul (¢ 3).
		Sympathy between Bonosians and Arians (§ 4).
		Relation between Bonoeue and the Bonosians (¢ b).
	From a letter written to Anysiua of Theesalonica
and the other Illyrian bishops, soon after the Synod
of Capua (winter of 39192), by either PopeSiricius
or	an unknown Italian bishop, we learn certain
facts about a bishop Bonosus, whose see is not given.
He had been accused, apparently by neighboring
bishops, but of what does not clearly appear in the
letter, except that he had asserted that Mary bore
other children to Joseph, after the birth of Jesus.
The case came before this synod at Capua, called
by the emperor Theodosius to put an end to the
schism at Antioch (see MELETIUB oF AxTloca);
but the synod referred it to the bishops whose
dioceses bordered on those of both parties, espe
cially the Macedonian ‑prelates. The decision was
in favor of suspension, a temporary provision being
				made for the administration of Bono
	r. Heresy sae's diocese. He wrote to St. Am
	end Sue‑ brow to know whether he was bound
	pension of to heed this sentence, and Ambrose
	Bonosus. counseled patience.	Meantime the
				bishops hesitated to make the sen
tence absolute, and would have been glad of the
opinion of the writer of the letter. He, however,
whether Siricius or some one else, declared that
it did not belong to him " to decide as if by au
thority of a synod "; the responsibility, he told
them, rested on them of forming such a decision
that neither the accused nor the accusers should be
able to evade it. So much consideration was not
usually shown to " heretics "; there may have
been circumstances connected with the case which
we do not know. But to deny. the perpetual vir
ginity of Mary was a serious offense from the stand
point of the time (see HELVIDIUB). Ambrose
speaks (De instit. virg., v, 35) of a bishop being
accused of this " sacrilege "‑probably meaning
Bonosus. It is, therefore, evident that at this time
Bonosus was accused of no worse or further here
sies.
	Some twenty years later we hear more of Bono
sue in two letters of Innocent I‑one to Marcian of
Naiesus, northwest of Sardica, and a later one to
the bishops of Illyria. From them it appears that
				Bonosus had been definitely condemned
	a. Final	by his fellow bishops, and had then
Condemns‑ founded a separate ecclesiastical organ
		tion of	ization of his own. For the avoiding j
	Bonosua of scandal, those who had been or
				dained by him were, if they wished it,
received back into the Church as clerics. Innocent
allows this only in the case of those ordained by
Bonosus before his condemnation; but here again
his heresy is not specified. Twenty years later still (431), Marius Mercator names Marcellus, Photinus, " and lately the Sardican bishop, Bonosus, who was condemned by Pope D&IriBRUH, among the followers of Ebion." There is practically no doubt that this is the same Bonosus; in this case, and accepting the statement of Marius, we have learned that Bonosus was bishop of Sardica, and that his errors had grown, after 392, into dynamistic Monarchianism. We have no further information as to the fate of his following in the Balkan peninsula. The mention of him in the so‑called Decretum Gelasii, even if it was written by Gelasius, and the anathemas pronounced against him by Vigiliua in 552 and 553 prove nothing on this point. If Gregory I in his Epistola ad Quiricum really named the Bonosiaei, with the Cataphrygians as heretics who needed rebaptiam because they did not believe in Christ the Lord, this is not very strong evidence for the continued existence of the body, and tells nothing of its locality.
The case is different with the repeated mentions of Bonosidci, or Bonosiani by the writers of Spain and southern Gaul. Gennadius quotes the Spanish bishop Audentius (end of fourth century) as having specially written against them, which proves at least that Gennadius knew them; he speaks in another place of " Photinians, who now are called Bonoaiana." A little later Avitua of Vienne mentions them in two well‑known passages; in one he expresses himself in relation to
3. Bono‑ King Gundobad (see BuRaurtDlnrrs)
slang in as willing to accept their baptism.
Spain and The 17th canon of the so‑called Second Southern Synod of Arles (generally placed 443‑
	Gaul.	452) shows the same conciliatory
		attitude; but the Third Synod of
OrMaas (538) tells us that the Bonosians rebap
tized their converts, which may be taken to show
that their baptism was not then recognized by
the other side. About the same time, according
to Isidore of Seville, Justinian of Valencia was
writing against them his lost Layer reaponsionum
contra Bonosianos, qui Christum adoptivum fitium
et non prolorium dicunt. While for Gaul the latest
reference is given by the Synod of Clichy in 626
or 627; showing thus their gradual extinction there,
in Spain they were attracting attention fifty years
later; the Synod of Toledo in 675, declaring that
Christ was the Son of God by nature, not by adop
tion, was plainly directed against them. On the
other hand, the mention of Bonosus‑not of the
Bonosians‑in the Adoptionist controversy (see
ADOPTIONI6M).dOeB not prove that they lasted to
the eighth century in Spain, nor is the medieval
view that Adoptioniem was a revival of the heresy
of Bonosus worth considering. They really dis
appear with the end of the seventh century.
That these mentions of Bonosians from the fifth to the seventh centuries are not merely the survival of an old term of opprobrium, but that they really existed in Spain and southern Gaul at that period has long been .justly accepted. It is still further confirmed by a passage of Avitus, whose true reading (Bonosiacorum for bonorum) has only lately been established. Writing to Sigismund, his con‑

Bonosus	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	232
Bora
vert, son of the Arran king Gundobad, he gives
the information that the latter had formally prom
ised to set up a Bonosian community in his kingdom
		by the establishment of a bishop of
;. Sympathy their faith, and that this body was
	between	recruited from theArians. This would
	Bonosians explain the attitude of Gennadiua
and Arians. toward their baptism.	Avitus took
		an opposite view, either to conciliate
the king, who at that time gave hopes of
his conversion, or from motives of general policy.
The Bonoaiana began to be absorbed into, the Arran
body; toward the end of Gundobad'a reign Avitus
had hopes that they would entirely disappear,
if the king could be induced to let his promises
to them lapse into oblivion. The later history
ahowa'that this hope proved false, because the sect
was not confined to Burgundian territory; and
it is not surprising that sharp measures were taken
against those who remained obdurate in their
heresy under Catholic rule. Only one thing can be
urged against the correctness of the account here
given‑the recognition of the validity of Bonoaian
baptism by the synod said to.have been held at
Arles about 450; but this really tells the other way,
for general support is now accorded to the theory
put forth in the eighteenth century that this second
synod of Arles never had any existence, the canons
attributed to it being nothing but a collection of
various older synodical decisions made toward the
end of the fifth century, and canon xvii having then
first been heard of. Accordingly it is safe to say
that the Bonosians in the generally Arran terri
tories of the Burgundians and the Nest‑Goths
were the followers of Bonoaus of Sardica, though
the name Bonosus was not an uncommon one.
Isidore of Seville says expressly that they had
sprung " from a certain bishop Bonosus," and the
" plague of the Bonoeians " did not begin in the
		Burgundian kingdom, since Avitus
5. Relation speaks of it as ab infernalitnes latebris
	between	excitata. The district in which Bono
	Bonosus aus of Sardica labored bordered on
	and the	territories held in his time by the
	Bonosians. West‑Goths, and relations may well
		have remained close between that
region and the West‑Goths of the south of Gaul;
so that the passage of his teaching from the Balkan
peninsula into the Burgundian kingdom, which was
in close contact ‑with the West‑Goths, is perfectly
possible, and we may safely conclude to accept the
statemeL' . of Marius Mercator.	(F. Loo>rs.)
The wide‑spread acceptance of the Adoptioniat
view of the person of Christ from the apostolic time
throughout the Middle Ages and beyond (Ebionitea,
Shepherd of Hernias, Theodotas of Rome, Paul of
Samosata, the Pauliciana, moat medieval sects,
many Anabaptists, and others) makes it easy to
account ~ for this aspect of the teaching of the
Bonoaians as well as for the Spanish Adoptionism
of the eighth century without the supposition of
its independent origin in either case. For much
valuable information on the early origin and the
persecution of Adoptioniat Christology cf. F. C.
Conybeare, The Key of Truth; A Manual of the
Paaliciase Church of Armenia. The Armenian Text
edited and translated tenth illustrative	Documents
and Introduction (Oxford, 1898). 	A. H. N..
Barcoosere:: Ceillier, Auteure Via, v, 708‑711; C. W. F. Walch, Hietorie der Ketsereien, iii, 598‑82b, Leipeie, 1786; A. Helfferich, Der.uxatpothyacha Arianiamua, Berlin, 1860; C. finding, Do# burpundiach4omaniaehe Kbnipreich, Vol. i, Leipeic, 1888; Hefele, Conciliengeachichte, vole, ii, iii; DCB, i, 330‑331.
BOftWETSCH, ban"veteh', GOTTLIEB RATHARAEL: German Protestant theologian; b. at Nortla, Russia, Feb. 17, 1848. He was educated at the universities of Dorpat (1866‑70), Gottingen (1874‑75), and Bonn (1877‑?8), the time between his residence at these universities being spent in practical pastoral work. He became privat‑docent at Dorpat in 1878 and associate professor of church history four years later, while from 1883 to 1891 he was full professor in the same university. Since 1891 he has been professor of church history at G6ttingen. In addition to numerous contributions to theological journals and religious encyclopedias, he edited Thomasius's Dogmertgeschichte der alien Kirche (Erlangen, 1886) and the Sttedien zur Geschichte der Theologie tend Kirche in collaboration with R. Seeberg (Leipsie, 1897 sqq.); and has written Die Sehriften Tertullians tente;rsteclat (Bonn, 1878); Die Geschichte des Montanismus (Erlsngen, 1881); Unser Reforrieator Martin Luther (Ibrpat, 1883); Krlrtl' l .and 1Vlethodius, die Lehrer der Slaven (Erlangen, 1885); Methodius von Olympus,, i, Schriften (Leipaie,1891); Sttedien zu den Kommentaren Hippolytus zum Buche Daniel tend Hohenliede (1897); Hippolytus Werke (Berlin, 1897; in collaboration with H. Achelis); and Die Apokahypae Abrahams, das Testament der roierziq MBrtyrer (1898). He also edited, in collaboration with P. Tschackert, the thirteenth and fourteenth editions of J. H. Kurtz's Lehrbuch der Kircheregescleicltte (2 vole., Leipaie, 1899, 1906).
BOOS, MARTIN: Roman Catholic priest; b. at Huttenried near Schongau, Bavaria, Dec. 25, 1762; d. at Sayn, near Coblenz, Aug. 29, 1825. He studied at Dillingen under Sailer, Zimmer, and Weber. He followed the extreme practises of asceticism as a penance for sin, all to no avail, as he believed, and then developed a doctrine of salvation by faith.which came very near to pure Lutheranism. This he preached with great effect. He was driven from Bavaria by the opposition of the ecclesiastical authorities and other priests and lived in Austria from 1799 to 1816, when he was compelled to leave that country. His last years were spent at DUeeeldorf and Sayn.
Bxscroaserar: His autobiography was edited by J. Gone, ner, Leipeie, 1831, Eng. travel., London, 1838, who also issued two volumes of his sermons Berlin, 1830. Con. salt also F. W. Bodemmn, Cuammette Briefs won, an and
fiber Martin Boa, Frankfort, 1854.
BOOTH, BALLI1fGTOR: General‑in‑chief and president of the Volunteers of America; b. at Brighouse (4 m. e.s.e. of Halifax), Yorkshire, England, July 28, 1859. He was educated at a private school in Bristol and subsequently at Trenton Collegiate Institute sad Nottingham Seminary, Nottingham, England. He was commander of the Salvation Army in Australia from 1885 to 1887, and held the same office in the United States from

933	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bonosns
Born
1887 to 1896. In the latter year his connection with the Salvation Army ceased, however, and he established a similar though not identical organization known as the Volunteers of America (q.v.), of which he has since been the head. He was ordained at Chicago in August, 1896, a presbyter in the Christian Church.

BOOTH, CATHERINE (MUMFORD): " Mother of the Salvation Army"; b. at Ashbourne (13 m. n.w. of Derby), Derbyshire, England, Jan. 17, 1829; d. at Clacton‑on‑Sea (13 m. s.e. of Colchester), Essex, Oct. 4, 1890. She was educated chiefly at home, and in 1844 removed with her parents to London. In the same year she joined the Wesleyan oongiegation at Brixton, but four yearn later was debarred from that organization, together with others. These "Reformers," as they called themselves, then formed a separate congregation, and in 1851 she became acquainted with her future husband, William Booth (q.v.), likewise an excommunicated " Reformer." Four years later they were married, and in 1858 she first took public part in her husband's pastoral work at Gateshead, Durham, where he was then located. Two years later, after the publication of a pamphlet defending the right of women to preach, she delivered her first sermon in her husband's pulpit, and within the next three years began to conduct independent religious meetings, leading successful missions at Margate in 1867 and at Portsmouth in 1873. Meanwhile the plan which resulted in the formation of the Salvation Army (q.v.) was maturing, and the new organization was definitely formulated in 1877. Mrs. Booth herself took an active part in the work, especially among women and children. Her greatest work as a revivalist was done in 1886‑87, but is the following year she was stricken with cancer, which ultimately caused her death. She wrote Papers on Practical Religion (London, 1879); Papers on Aggressive Christianity (1881); Papers on Godliness (1882); Life and Death (1883); The Salvation Army in Relation to the.Church and State (1883); and Popular Christianity (1887).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. $t. G. de L. BOOthTUCker, TIIC L1.feOf Catherine Booth, 2 volB., London and Chicago, 1892; T. Chappell, Four Nobly Women and their Work, ib. 1898.

BOOTH, WILLIAM: Commander‑in‑chief of the Salvation Army; b. at Nottingham, England, Apr. 10, 1829. He was educated by a private theological tutor of the Methodist New Connexion Church, and began his carer as an open air preacher at the age of fifteen. He entered the ministry of the Methodist New Connexion Church in 1852, and was successively a traveling evangelist and a circuit preacher until 1861, when he left the denomination to devote himself entirely to evangelistic work. In 1865 he founded at London the Christian Mission for the amelioration of the condition of the destitute and vicious population of the eastern portion of London, and this developed, in 1878, into the Salvation Army (q.v.). He has traveled extensively in the interests of his Army, and has written Salvation Soldiery (1890); In Darkest England and the Way Out (1890); and Religion for Every Day (1902).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. St. G. de L. Booth Tucker, Life of General William Booth, Chicago, 1898; T. F. G. Coates, The ProPlut'of the Poor; the Life Story of General Booth, London, 1905.
BOOTH TUCKER, EMMA MOSS: Salvation Army worker; b. at Gateshead, Durham, Jan. 8, 1860; d. near. Dean Lake, Mo., Oct. 28, 1903. She was the daughter of William Booth (q.v.), the founder of the Salvation Army, and from 1880 to 1888 was in charge of the international training homes of that organization. In the latter year,ehe married Frederick St. George de Lautour Tucker (see the following article), and went with him successively to India and London, whence she came to the United Staten in 1896. She held the rank of consul in the Salvation Army, and had equal powers with her husband in its control. She died from injuries received in a railroad accident. A volume of selections from her writing has been published under the title The Cross and Our Comfort (London, 1907).

BOOTH TUCKER, FREDERICK ST. GEORGE DE LAUTOUR: Secretary for Foreign Affairs of the Salvation Army; b. at Monghyr (80 m. e. of Patna), Bengal, Mar. 21, 1853. He was educated at Cheltenham College, England, and passed the examinations for the India Civil Service in 1874. After two years of additional study, lie was appointed to the Punjab, where he was successively assistant commissioner and treasury officer. He resigned from the service, however, in 1881 to join the Salvation Army, which he established in India in the following year. He remained in command of the Army there until 1891, when he was transferred to London as secretary for international work. He held this office for five years, and from 1896 to 1904 was commander of the Army in the United States. Since the latter year he has been Secretary for Foreign Affairs of the Salvation Army, with headquarters in London, and is thus responsible to General William Booth (q.v.) for all work of the organization outside of the British Isles. In 1888 he married the daughter of Gen. William Booth (see the preceding article) and subsequently assumed the name of Booth Tucker. He has written Ire Darkest India and the WayOut (Bombay, 1891); The Life of Catherine Booth (2 vole., Chicago, 1892); Life of General William Booth (1898); and Favorite Songs of the Salvation Army (1899).
BOOTHS, FEAST OF. Sae TABERNACLES, FZAsT OF.

BORA, BATHARINA VON: Luther's wife; b. of an old family of Klein‑Laussig, near Bitterfeld in Meissen, Jan. 29, 1499; d. at Torgau Dec. 20, 1552. She was placed in the Cistercian convent of Nimpsch at Grimma (17 m, s.e. of Leipsic) when a child and became a nun in 1515; with the cognizance of Luther she and eight other nuns fled from the convent Apr. 4, 1523, and repaired to Wittenberg. She is said to have refused an offer of marriage from Dr. Keeper Glata, vicar at Orlamiinde, and at the same time to have expressed a preference for Amadorf or Luther. She was married to the latter June 13, 1525, and bore him six children. She proved a true wife, was a good housekeeper, and the marriage was a happy .one. After Luther's

Borborites
Borowski	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	234
death (Feb. 18, 1546) she remained at Wittenberg, much of the time in poverty. Her death was due to an accident which occurred as she was on the way, with her children, to Torgau to escape the plague at Wittenberg.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Beets, Die (ieachichte Katharinaa von Bora, Halls, 1843; F. G. Hofmann, RatAarina von Bora odor Luther ale (3atte and Voter, Leipeio, 1845; A. Stein, Katharina von Bora, Lathers Ehegenwhi, Halls. 1897; A. Thoma, Katharina ‑von Bora, Berlin, 1900. Consult also the various biographies of Luther. The chief of the many libels concerning Luther's marriage is Eueebius Engelhard's (Michael Kuen) Lucifer lYittenberpenaia, 2 vole., Landsberg, 1747‑49.
BORBORITES, BARDELITES. See GNOSTICISM.
BORDELU)fHANS: A separatistic sect formed at Bordelum, a village of Sleawick, about 1739, under the leadership of a pietistic Saxon theological student named David Bahr. They originally consisted of fifteen or twenty persona, and claimed to be saints who had advanced further than Paul according to Rom. vii, 24. Since they believed that they had received special gifts from God, they decried the Church as the house of the devil, and despised the eacramanta. As being pure, to whom a?l things were pure, they rejected marriage in favor of free love, and instituted a communism of property for their financial support. An edict of Christian VI, issued June 11, 1739, condemned the leaders to imprisonment; those who had led an immoral life were punished according to the laws, and the remainder were admonished. The leaders managed to escape the punishment, however, Bahr, who had seduced a married woman, fleeing to Jena. Expelled from that city, he returned to Holstein, and was imprisoned at Gliickstadt., Having become a cripple in consequence of the rough treatment to which he had been subjected in prison, he was released, and died wretchedly, still unconverted, at Bredst5,dt in 1743. His adherents caused much trouble to the pastor of Bordelum.
PAUL TBCHAC%EAT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Acts hietarico‑.aafesiastica, vol. v, part 29, p. 853 eqq., and Supplement, pp. 1014 eqq., 2(1 vole., Weimar, 1734‑38, continued in 13 vole., till 1790.
BORDIER, b8r"dye', HENRI LEONARD: Reformed Church of France; b. in Paris Aug. 8, 1817; d. there Aug. 31, 1888. He was educated at the f,cole de Droit and the Pcole des Charles in Paris, and licensed in law and as paleographic archivist in 1840; thereafter he devoted himself to historical studies. He was successively assistant to the historian Augustin Thierry; assistant in the Academy of Inscriptions; secretary par interim of the jecole des Chartea; a member of the commission on the departmental archives of the minister of the interior (1846); archivist of the national archives (1850), and dismissed on the establishment of the Empire. He was, during the siege of Paris, on the commission upon the papers of the Tuileries; and in 1872 was nominated honorary librarian in the department of manuscripts in the Biblioth6que Nationals. He was for many years on the committee of the Socidtk d'Hietoire du Protestantisme Frangais, and prepared numerous works, noted for their accuracy. Among them may be mentioned: various notices in the Biblioth2que
de l1cole des ~Chartes (Paris, 1841‑86); Histoire g4nErale de toua lee di'putg d'archives existant en France (1855); Les Pglises et monastlres de Paris (1856); an edition of the Libri miraeulorum aliaque opera minors of Gregory of Tours, Latin text with French translation (4 vole., 1857‑64); a French translation of the Historia Francarum of Gregory of Tours (2 vole., 1859‑61); Les Inventaires des archives de l'Empire (1887); Une Fabrique de faux atetographes (1869); Chansonnier huguenot du seizibme sibcle (1869); L'Allemagrte aaex Tuileries, de 1850 6,1870, collection de documents tirEs du cabinet de l'Empereur (1872); La Saint‑BartUlemy et la critique moderns (Geneva, 1879); Llcole hiatorlque de J&6me Bolsee (Paris, 1880); Nicolas; Castellin de Tournay, rtfttgie a Genwe, 1661,‑1576 (1881); Description des peintures et autrea tmnements contenus Bans lee manuaerita greca de la Bibliothkque Nationals (1885). With E. Charton he published in 1860: Hiattrire de France d'apr~s lee documents origanaux et lea monuments de fart de ehague Epoqtte. At the time of his death he was engaged upon a new and enlarged edition of the brothers Eugbne and smile Haag's La France protestante (originally 12 vole., Paris, 1845‑59), and had brought out the first five volumes (1877‑86).
BOREEL, bo"r51', ADAM: Preacher and sectary; b. at Middelburg, in Zealand, 1603; d. in Amsterdam 1666. He was pastor of a Reformed congregation, but resigned his office, and became the leader of a separatistic party, which acknowledged no other religious authority than the Scripture. His work, Ad legem et teatimonium (1645), attracted great attention. Here he developed that the written word of God, without any human commentary, was the sole means of awakening faith; that the Church had fallen completely away from the Lord; that the Christian ought to shun all connection with the Established Church, and confine himself to his private devotion, etc. His minor writings, fifteen in number, were collected at Amsterdam, 1683. His followers, known as Boreelists, never attained to much importance.

BORNEMANN, b8r'ne‑mdn, FRIEDRICH WILHELM BERNHARD‑ German Lutheran theologian; b. at Liineburg (68 m. n.n.e. of Hanover) Mar. 2, 1858. He was educated at the universities of GSttingen (Ph.D., 1879) and Leipaio, and was successively tutor at Bremen (1879) and Medingen (1880). Two years later he became inspector of the seminary at GBttingen, and in 1884 was privatdocent for church history in the same university. In 1886 he was appointed inspector of the seminary for theological candidates at Magdeburg, where he became professor in the following year. From 1898 to 1902 he was professor of theology at Basel, and since the latter year has been pastor of the Luther Church at Frankfort. His works include In inveatiganda monachattts origins quibus de causis ratio habenda sit Origenis (Giittingen, 1886); Die Unztelknglichkeit des theologischen Stadiums (Leipsic, 1886; anonymous); %irchenideale and %irchenreformen (1887); Schulandachten (Berlin, 1889); Bitters. Wahrheitett (5th ed., Gdttingen, 1891); Untetricht im Christentum (1891); Die Thessaloni‑

236	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Borborites
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cherbriefe (1894; in Kritisch‑exegetischer Kommentar caber da.s R'eue Testament); Historische and Praktische Theologie (Basel, 1898); Die Allegoric in Kunst, IVissenschaft and Kirche (Freiburg, 1899); Einfiihrung in die evangelisehe Missionskunde (Tiibingen, 190`?); and Bete, and Arbeite I (Leipsic, 1904; a collection of sermons). He likewise translated the " Confessions " of St. Augustine (Goths, 1889).
BORIYHAEUSER, b8rn‑hei'zer, EARL BER1YH:ARD: German Lutheran; b. at Mannheim (43 m. s.w. of Frankfort) May 19, 1868. He was educated at the universities of Halle and Greifswald, and was pastor at Sinsheim (1890‑94) and Carlsruhe (1894‑1902). In 1902 he became associate professor of systematic and practical theology a• Greifswald, and in 1905‑06 was also assistant to the professor of practical theology at Halle. Bocame professor of systematic and practical theology at Marburg, 1907. He has written Vergottungslehre des Athanasius and Johannes Damascenes (Giitereloh, 1903); and Wollte Jesus die Heidenmisaionf (1903).
BORNHOLMERS: Danish sect of the nineteenth century. During the first part of the century different parts of Sweden were permeated with sects which emphasized the gospel of the free and unmerited grace of God in Christ. About 1805 the Nya Lasare (" New Readers") originated in the congregation at Pitch in Norrbotten, deviating from the old Llisare, who adhered to the Lutheran doctrines, by asserting that saving faith may be found in those whose hearts are still attached to sin and the world, and by regarding the importance attributed to the law as a temptation to pharisaical self‑righteousness. In the course of time this party, headed by a soldier named Erik Stalberg, broke with the State Church, and finally the " New Readers " declared that the ministers of the latter preached the doctrine of the devil. In the fifth decade of the century, the Finnish preacher Frederik Gabriel Hedberg, afterward provost and preacher at Kimito in the archbishopric of Abo, evolved similar views in a work on " Pietism and Christianity," in which he accused Spener and his followers of teaching that man must be holy and pure before he can rely on the unmerited grace in Christ, whereas Hedberg seems to have regarded man as a soul hungering for grace, but utterly unable to aid himself in the attainment of salvation. In 1846 a party of Hedbergians was formed at Stockholm and Helsingland which rejected all preaching of repentance. A like tendency was manifested by the sect headed by Karl Olof Rosenius (b. 1816; d. 1868), who had been greatly influenced by the Methodist George Scott, who labored in the Swedish capital. Rosenius, who sought to remain a true Lutheran throughout his life, emphasized the grace of God in Christ. His sermons and his magazine, which he entitled Pietivten, although he was opposed to the legalism of the Pietista, exercised an important influence on the religious life of Sweden. Hedbergianiam and the writings of Rosenius gave rise between 1850 and 1870 to a new evangelical party in many parts of Sweden, whose sole dogma was the for‑
giveness of sins without merit of the sinner, and whose watchword, " the world is justified in Christ," won them many proselytes not only in Sweden and Norway, but also in the American Synod of Missouri.
	The new evangelism found a fertile soil in the
Danish island of Bornholm (in the Baltic Sea, 90
m. e. of Zealand), which became the center of
propaganda for a part of Denmark. The move
ment was inaugurated by P. C. Trandberg, a
powerful preacher of repentance, who had broken
with the State Church, and by 1863 had gathered
about him almost a thousand followers. Trand
berg sent out laypreachers, and the " Bornhohvers,"
as they were called, were soon found in North
Zealand, Copenhagen, Lolland, Falater, and West
Jutland. His adherents gradually lost confidence
in him, however, and in 1877 he resigned. Later
he became professor in the Dano‑Norwegian de
partment of Chicago Theological Seminary and died
in 1896. As a rule, the Bornholmers are pious and
earnest, and their antinomiatic theory usually be
comes nomiatic, and even quasipietiatic in practise,
thus forming a bond of union between them and
the " Inner Mission"in Denmark, and making them
one of the means to awaken spiritual life in many
of the Danish people. 	F. NiELaENt.

BOROWSKI, bo‑rev'sks, LUDWIG ERNST VON: A prominent Prussian evangelical preacher; b. at Konigsberg .Tune 17, 1740, of a well‑to‑do Polish family which had emigrated on account of its religion; d. in Berlin Nov. 10, 1831. In his fourteenth year he went to the University of KtSnigeberg, where he was one of Kant's earliest pupils, practised oratory, and showed an inclination toward literature. His theological convictions were not influenced by Kant, despite a lasting personal devotion, but rather by the supernaturalist school. In 1758 Kant recommended him to General von Knobloch as a tutor in his family; but before long Field‑marshal von Kunheim, impressed by Borowski's oratorical gifts, urged him to become a military chaplain. This career he finally took up in 1762, being ordained by SUsamilch, and joining his regiment in the camp at Sorau soon afterward. He remained with the army until 1770, when Susamilch had him appointed superintendent of the district of Schaaken in East Prussia. Here he labored diligently for twelve years, until he was called to a pastoral charge in his native town. The development of his preaching powers and theological knowledge won him increasing prominence; in 1793 the king appointed him a member of the special commission on churches and schools, and he received the title of consiatorial councilor in 1804. When the storms of war burst over Germany, he rose to the height of the occasion, and his eloquent exhortations had a deep effect on Frederick William III and his queen, who resided in K6nigsberg from 1807 to 1809. The king's warm affection and respect continued to be shown through the years that followed. In 1812 he made Borowski general superintendent, in 1815 first court preacher, in 1816 a bishop, and in 1829 archbishop of the Prussian Evangelical Church. These last years of his life, old as he was, were full of incessant activity;

Borrhaus
Bosse	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	238
he was president of the Bible Society and of the Missionary Union founded in 1822. Outside of his preaching, however, he gave more thought to the training of his candidates for ordination than to anything else, and even in the wanderings of his last illness his mind was occupied with them.
(HERMANN HERING.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Selected sermons and lectures, with sketches of his activities by von Kahle and E. Oesterreich, were
published by his grandson, K. L. Volkmann, KSnigaberg, 1833. Consult also ADB, iii, 177.

BORRHAUS, MARTIN (generally known as CELLARIUS): German theologian; b. at Stuttgart 1499; d. at Basel Oct. 11, 1564. Being educated and adopted by his kinsman Simon Cellariws, he called himself Cellarius until about forty years of age, although the name of his parents seems to have been Burreas or Borrhus. In 1515 he was made magister artium at Tiibingen, where he became intimately acquainted with Melanchthon, two years his senior. He was made bachelor of theology under Reuchlin at Ingolstadt in 1521, and became a friend of Marcus Stiibner at Wittenberg. The eight sermons delivered by Luther after his return from the Wartburg impressed Cellariua deeply, but his zeal in defense of Stiibner was such that he left Wittenberg, where he had treated Luther with rudeness, and went to Switzerland, whence he traveled by way of Austria and Poland to Prussia, which had just embraced the Evangelical faith. There he was tried, and required to sign a bond in which he promised to return at once to Wittenberg. His interview with Luther in 1526 filled the latter with respect for Cellarius, who now settled in southern Germany, winning the hearts of Capito and Butzer in Strasburg. ‑ In 1527 he published his first work, De operibvs Dei, and in 1544 he was appointed professor of the Old Testament at Basel, where, in collaboration with Castello and Curio, he composed a polemical treatise under the name of Martin Bellius, directed against Calvin in the Servetua controversy. He rejected infant baptism, but was a firm believer in predestination. CARL ALRRECHT BERNOULLI.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: ADB, iii (1878), 381; E. Egli, Zwinpliana,
	i, 30‑31, Zurich, 1904; C. Gerbert, Geachichte der Slraaa
	burger Saktsnbaioapunp sur Zeitdsr Reformation , 16.9/,‑S4,
	Strasburg, ,1889. References will be found in the lives
	of the Reformers Luther, Melanchthon, But:er, Zwingli.

BORROMEO, CARLO: Italian prelate and reformer; b. at Arona (on the s.w. shore of Lago Maggiore, 37 m. n.w. of Milan) Oct. 2, 1538; d. at Milan Nov. 3, 1584. He was the nephew of Giovanni Angelo Medics (afterward Pope Pius IV), and even in his boyhood showed an inclination for the priesthood, receiving his first benefice at the age of twelve through the resignation of an uncle. Four years later he went to Pavia, where he studied law, and had just taken his degree in 1559, when the newly elected Pies IV invited him to Rome. His rise was extraordinary, and at the age of twentytwo he was a cardinal and the archbishop of Milan. `then the Council of Trent was reopened on Jan. 18, 1562, Borromeo used his influence in securing the sharp formulation of questions relating to discipline and faith. He also governed the Romagna
and the March, both of which had been added to
the papal dominions in the course of the fifteenth
century. In foreign politics nothing took place
without him and he was also an active member of
the Congregation of the Inquisition, besides being
the protector of the Franciscans, the Knights of
Malta, and the Carmelites. He could maintain such
an activity, however, only while he lived at Rome;
conforming to the decision of the Council which
required all bishops to reside in their own dioceses,
he removed to Milan, where he had already pre
pared a house for the Jesuits, who acted as his
instruments in reorganizing his diocese of Milan.
Borromeo's activity here had scarcely begun when
Pius IV died, but his successor Pius V assisted the
archbishop in the reorganization of the largest of
the Italian dioceses, which was to be a model for
all. Borromeo founded seminaries for the better
education of the clergy in the strictest ecclesiastical
spirit, and also introduced rigid church discipline,
beginning with the clergy; his efforts to popularize
synodical work and to improve the existing orders,
as well as his introduction of others, such as the
Theatinea, into Italy were all designed to further the
same object. In revenge, some degenerate monks
who had been affected by his reform, planned his
murder, but by a miracle, as it was claimed, he
escaped the bullet of his would‑be assassins. Hand
in hand with the reform within the Church went a
merciless sevfhity against every form of " heresy "
in Lombardy, the Valtellina, and the Engadine,
as well as against " witches " in Valcamonica.
During the plague of 1576 he heroically cared for
the sick and buried the dead, while the officials
fled in terror from the city. His statue near Arona
still recalls the memory of Borromeo, who became,
by his canonization in 1610, the saint of the Counter
reformation. 	K. BENRATH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Opera omnia appeared in Milan, 1747. The earlier biographies are antiquated by the works of A. Sala: Documents circa la roils e k opera di San C. Bomomeo, 3 vole., Milan, 1857‑61, and Bioprafia di C. Bonorneo, ib. 1858; The Life of 3t. Charles Borromeo, ed. E. H. Thompson, London, 1858, new ed., 1893; St. Charles and his Fellow Labourers, ib. 1889; C. Bylvsin, Hiatoire de 3. Charles Barromee, 3 vole., ib. 1884; C. Camenieeh, Carlo Barrorneo and die Gepenreformation im Yeltlin, Chur, 1901; E. Wymann, Der )urilipa Karl Borrorneo, 6tana, 1903.

BORROW, GEORGE (HENRY): English adventurer and writer; b. at East Dereham (15 m. w.n.w. of Norwich), Norfolk, July 5, 1803; d. at Oulton (15 m. s.e, of Norwich), Suffolk, July 26, 1881. His boyhood was unsettled, his father, a soldier, moving about the country with his regiment. In 1819 he was articled to a solicitor at Norwich, but abandoned the work, went to London, and lived as a hack writer for the publishers. Then he took to wandering about England, and visited France, Spain, and Italy. In 1833 he was sent by the Biitiah and Foreign Bible Society to St. Petersburg to superintend the publication of a Manchu translation of the New Testament (published in eight volumes, 1835); he continued in the service of the Society, moat of the time in Spain, till 1840. Then he married and adopted a more settled life in England. He had much aptitude for languages

237	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Borrhans
Bosse
and acquired a knowledge, though not scientific, of many tongues, being particularly noted for his acquaintance with the Romany, the dialect of the Gipsies, with whom he associated much both on his wanderings and after his return to England. He published a Romany word‑book (London, 1874), translations, and romances which tell the story of his life with more or leas fiction interwoven. He edited a translation of the New Testament into Spanish (Madrid, 1837) and translated the Gospel of Luke into the dialect of tile Gitanos (Spanish Gipsies; 183?) and into Basque (1838). Complete editions of his works were published in five volumes in London and New York. The beat known of them are The Zincali ; or an Account of the Gipsies in Spain (2 vole., London, 1841) and The Bible in Spain (3 vole., 1843).
BIBLIOaBAPHY: W. I. Knapp, The Life, Writings, and Correspondence of George Borrow, 2 vols., London, 1899; W. A. Dutt, George Borrow in East Anglia, ib. 1898; DNB, v. 407‑908.
BOSCHI, bea'kf, GIULIO: Cardinal; b. at Perugia, Italy, Mar. 2, 1838. He was educated in his native city and completed his studies at Rome, where he became the secretary of Cardinal Pecci (afterward Pope Leo XIII) in 1861. In 1888 he was consecrated bishop of Todi, and seven years later was translated to the see of Sinigaglia. In 1900 he was elevated to the archbishopric of Ferrara, and in the following year was created cardinal priest of S. Lorenzo in Paniaperna.
' BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA: Two provinces of the Austro‑Hungarian monarchy. Previous to the Treaty of Berlin (1878) they formed the extreme northwestern part of Turkey in Europe, but since 1908 they have been part of Austria. Bosnia has the Hungarian and Austrian provinces of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia on the north and west, Servia to the east, and to the south Herzegovina, which is bounded on the east by Montenegro and on the south and west by Dalmatia. The capital is Sarajevo in Bosnia, the chief town and former capital of Herzegovina, Mortar. The area is about 16,200 and 3,500 miles respectively; the population (1896) 1,591,036, of whom 219,511 are credited to Herzegovina. The natives are nearly all Slavs of the Servian branch. The number of foreigners living in the land is estimated at 71,000, moat of them having entered the country since the Austrian occupation.
The religious statistics for 1895 were as follows: Greek‑Orientals, 673,246 (43 per cent.); Mohammedans, 548,632 (35 per cent.); Roman Catholics, 334,142 (21 per cent.); Jews, 8,213; other religions (mostly Protestants), 3,859. The Mohammedans, in the main converts from Christianity since the Turkish conquest in the fifteenth century, are not of the most rigid kind, although they made a brave stand against the Austrian government. They are the landed proprietors of the country and merchants in the towns. They are under the Sheik ul Islam in Constantinople and a Rais al Ulama in Sarajevo. They have a large endowment fund for mosques, schools, hospitals, and the like, which is now administered under government supervision.
The free exercise of their religion is guaranteed to them. The Roman Catholics are descendants of the older population and constitute the larger number of the artisans in the cities and the farmers. They are most numerous in the districts of Travnik and Mortar. The Franciscans have been active among them since the thirteenth century and have done much for them. Their condition has much improved since the Austrian occupation. There is an archbishop of Bosnia, who since 1881 has resided at Sarajevo, and there are suffragan bishops of Banjaluka, Moatar and Duvno, and Marcana and Trebinje. The provincial seminary is at Banjaluka,where there are also four schools for boys and four for girls and an orphan asylum under the charge of Trappist monks. The adherents of the Greek Church are under the patriarch of Constantinople and the metropolitans of Sarajevo, Dolnja Tuzla, and Moatar. They are most numerous in the north, are farmers and traders, and are inferior to both the Latins and Mohammedans in education. Less than ten per cent. of the entire population can read or write, and the church schools are poor. Public schools are being established and there are three higher schools (two gymnasia and a Realschttle), ten trade schools, and a normal school.
BIBLIOaEAPHY: The church statistics are included in those for Austria (q.v.). Consult: V. Klaia, Geachichte Boaniena trda sum Zerfati lea Ktwnipreicha, Leipaie, 1885; Bo8niena Gepenmart and n&chete Zukunft, Leipeie, 1888; Die Laps der Mohammedaner in Boanien, Vienna, 1900 (answered by Kallay and Boanien‑Herzegovina, Budapest, 1900).
BOSO: Third English cardinal; d. after 1178. His nallie was Boso Breakapear and he was a nephew of Pope Adrian IV (Nicholas Breakspear). He belonged to the Benedictine monastery of St. Albans, but went to Rome probably under Eugeniua III. From Nov. 6, 1149, to May 3, 1152, he calls himself Romance ecclesiee scriptor. Adrian IV made him his chamberlain early in his pontificate, probably therefore in 1154, and later made him cardinal deacon of Sts. Cosmaa and Damian; under Alexander III he became cardinal priest of St. Pudentiana. With the latter title his signature appears to a number of papal bulls from March 18, 1166, to July 10, 1178, soon after which he appears to have died. He was a strong supporter of the policy of Adrian and Alexander. He wrote nine poetical lives of female saints, which are still in manuscript and was a poet of considerable merit. For the papal biographies composed by him see LIBER PONTIFICALIS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources for s life are in Thietmar of Merseburg, Chronrocon, MGH, Script., iii (1839), 750. Consult Migne, Encbclopbdia th4oiopique, vol. xxxi, D%otionnaire lea Cardinaux, s.v.; T. Greenwood, Cathedra Petri, London, 1858; DNB, v, 421; KL, ii, 1129‑30. Consult also the biographies of Adrian IV and Alexander Ill. .
BOSSE, FRIEDRICH: German Lutheran; b. at Rosela (38 m. w. of Halls) Aug. 23, 1884. He was educated at the universities of Tiibingen, Berlin (Ph.D.,1886), Marburg, Heidelberg, and Greifewald, completing his studies in 1890. In the following year he became privat‑docent at the University of Greifswald, and from 1892 to 1894 was provisional

Bossuet
Bouquet	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	238
professor in Konigaberg. In the latter year he was appointed associate professor of church history at Kiel, and five years later returned in a similar capacity to Greifswald, where he still remains. He has written Prolegomena zu einer Geschichte des Begriffes "Nachfolga Christi" (Berlin, 1895).

BOSSUET, bes"aii"6', JACQUES BEiNIG1YE: Bishop of Meaux (about 27 m. e.n.e. of Paris); b. at Dijon Sept. 27, 1627; d. in Paris Apr. 12, 1704. He began his studies in the Jesuit school of Dijon, and finished at the College de Navarre, Paris. He became priest and doctor of theology, 1652; after some time spent in retirement at St. Lazare, he went to Metz, where he was canon and archdeacon, acquired great fame as a preacher, and engaged in controversy with representatives of the Reformed Churches. At the request of his bishop he published his first work (1655), a Refutation of the catechism of Paul Ferry (q.v.). In 1669 he was made bishop of Condom, Gascony, but resigned this office after he was appointed tutor to the dauphin (1670). When the education of his pupil was finished, in 1681, he was made bishop of Meaux. Bossuet adopted the Cartesian philosophy, to which he added the Thomist theology and .a great admiration for Augustine. He is generally considered the foremost of French preachers; and, il_ so far as the art of eloquence is concerned, his six Oraisons fttnebres (beat collected eda., by Lequeux, Paris, 1762, and, with notes, etc., by A. Gastk, 1883) moat be ranked among the finest specimens of Christian oratory, though they reflect the splen(:or and greatness of Louis Quatorze more vivi "y than the power and humility of the Gospel. As tutor to the dauphin he wrote De la connaissance de Dieu et de soi‑m5me (1722; bettered., 1741) and Discours sun l'histoire ureivergelle depuis Is commencement du monde jusqu'h l'empire de Charlemagne (1681; 5th ed., enlarged, 1703; the continuation to 1661, published 1806, was printed from his notes), the latter of which is a strikingly original attempt to construct a Christian philosophy of history on the principle that the destinies of nations are controlled by providence in the interest of the Roman Catholic Church. Among his controversial writings against the Protestants, the two most remarkable are Exposition de la doctrine de l1glise eatholique stir lea matieres de controverse (1671) and Histoire des variations des.9glisea protestantes (2 ‑vole., 1688; beat ed., 4 vole., 1689). The latter was sharply criticized by Jurieu and Basnage, and involved its author in a long and vehement controversy. He characterized the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) as "le plus bet usage de 1'autoritk," but he was no ultramontaniat. He presided in 1682 over the assembly of the French clergy which the king had convened to defend the royal prerogatives and the liberties of the Gallican Church against the claims of the pope. Nor was he in the least tainted by mysticism. His attacks on Fenelon and the Quietists approached very near to persecution. He was one of the greatest of the many distinguished men who lent brilliancy to the century of Louie XIV, but he was a representative of his time, and his ideas of church polity corresponded to,
if they were not dictated by, the king's " 1'Stat, c'est moi."
BIBLIOGRAPHY: There have been many editions of his works; the basis of moat of them is that prepared by the Abbd Perau, at government expense, 20 vole., Paris, 17431750; three volumes of (Euvrea poathumea, ed. by C. F. Leroy were published in 1753; the beat edition is the (Fhavrec compUtea, by F. Lechat and others, 31 vole., 1862‑8B; with 'appendix of (Euvree inEditea, 2 vole., 18811883. Besides many single sermons accessible in English translation, the following works may be mentioned: Select Sermons and Funeral Orations, 1801; A Survey of Universal History, 1819; A Conference [between Bossuet and J. Claude, Mar. 1, 1679] on the Authority of the Church, London, 1841; An Exposition of the Doctrine of the Catholic Faith, 1841; Elevations to God, 1850; The History of the Variations of the Protestant Churches, 2 vole., Dublin, 1836; Meditations, London, 1901.
For a bibliography consult H. M. Boursesud, Hiatoire et description des MSS. et des Editions originates des ouvragea de Boeauet, Paris 1898 (includes translations).
For his life and writings and his relations to F6nelon, Jansenism, Quietism, etc., consult: L. F. de Bauseet, Hietoire de Jacques Bdnigae Bosauet, 4 vole.; Paris, 1814, Besangon, 1848; M. M. Tabaraud, Supplement aux histoirea de Bossuet . . . compost par . . . de Bauaeet, Paris, 1822; F. Is Dieu (his secretary), Mimoirea et journal our la vie et lea ouvrapea de Boeauet, 4 vols., ib. 1858‑57; A. Rkaume, Hiatoire de J. B. Bossuet et de see assures, 3 vole., ib. 1889; Mrs. H. L. (Farrer) Lear, Boaauet and his Contemporaries, London, 1874; C A. $ainte‑Beuve, Eaaaya on Men crud Women, ib. 1890; R. de la Broise, Bosauet et la Bible, Paris, 1891; G. Lanson, Boasuet, ib. 1891 (s study of the writings); A. R6belliau, Boaauet, hiatorien du proteatantiame, ib. 1891; Sir J. F. Stephen, Horse Sabbaticm, vol. ii, London, 1892; C. E. Freppel, Bossuet et Z'eZoquence eacr6e au zvii, aidcle, Paris, 1893; J. Denis, Quenelle de Bossuet et de Fenelon ib. 1894; L. Crousl6, Finelon et Boaavet. ‑Otudea moralea et ZittErairea, 2 vols., ib. 1894‑95; A. M. P. Ingod, Bosauet et jana6niame, ib. 1897.
BOST, PAUL AMI ISAAC DAVID : Swiss evangelist; b. at Geneva June 10, 1790; d. at La Force (6 m. w. of Bergerac), France, Dec. 14, 1874. He devoted four years to theology at the University of Geneva, but gained little spiritual profit from his studies, and was ordained in 1814 in a spirit of empty formalism. In 1816 he accepted a call as assistant pastor at Moutiers‑Granval in the Canton of Bern, where he remained two years, ascribing to this period his firm belief in the doctrines of grace and justification. A parish proved too small for his energies, however, and in 1818, under the auspices of the " London Continental Society," he began the missionary journeys which were to occupy almost thirty‑five years of his life. After the first of these trips, he withdrew from the Church of Geneva, and in the following year was in Colmar. He was expelled from France, however, and began a roving life, oppressed by poverty and burdened with a large family, yet preaching in Offenbach, Frankfort, Hanau, Friedrichsdorf, and Carlsrnhe. In 1825‑28 Bost was in Geneva as the pastor of the free church of Bourg‑de‑Four. In answer to the attacks of the State Church, he published his Defense de cevx des fuleles de Geneve q2ti se sont constitues en eglises indePendantes (Geneva, 1825), charging the national Church with abandoning the Gospel and adopting Arianism. He was accordingly tried for slander, but was acquitted, although he was fined 500 francs for his libelous statements regarding the" Compagnie des pasteurs." Despite the fact that this trial marked a union of the divergent elements of the Free Church, Bost resigned

239	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	8oasuet
		Bouquet
his pastorate at Bourg‑de‑Four and founded a new
congregation at Carouge near Geneva, which he
dissolved after two years in favor of a more di
versified activity, establishing the religious and
political magazine L'EspErance in 1838. Two years
later he successfully sought readmission to the
clergy of Geneva, without retracting any of his
views. After a brief pastorate at Asnibres and
Bourges in France, he was appointed chaplain of
the prison of the Maison Centrale at Melon, where
he remained until 1848, then living successively
at Geneva, Nimes, Neuchh,tel, Jersey, and Paris, and
spending his last years at La Force. The chief works
of Boat, who also gained a certain amount of reputa
tion as a writer of hymns, are as follows: Genwe
religieuse (Geneva, 1819); Histoire des frlres moraves
(2 vols.,1831; abridged Eng. transl., London, 1834);
Sur la primatit8 de Pierre et son tpiacopat (3 pam
phlets, 1832); Hiatoire g6n&ale de lWablissement du
Christianiame (a revised translation of Blumhardt's
Versuch einer allgemetnen Missimtageschichte der
Kirche Christi, 4 vole., Valence, 1838); Lea 7rropUtes
protestanta (Melon, 1847); and Mftoirea pouvant
aervir ct l'histoire du rweil religietwx (Paris, 18.54‑55).
		(E. BAxnat.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Guers, Premier rheil h Gentve, Paris,
	1871; Lichtenberger, EBR, ii, 373‑374.
	BOSTON, THOMAS: Church of Scotland; b.
at Dunse (13 m. w. of Berwick‑upon‑Tweed),
Berwickshire, Mar. 17, 1677; d. at Ettrick (40
m. s. of Edinburgh), Selkirkshire, May 20, 1732.
He studied at the University of Edinburgh; be
came minister at Simprin, Berwickshire, 1699;
at Ettrick, 1707. By circulating the Marrow o f
Modern Divinity among his friends he started the
Marrow Controversy (q.v.). He wrote much and
has exercised great influence in the Presbyterian
Churches both of Scotland and England. The
works by which he is now best known are Human
Nature in its Fourfold State of Primitive Integrity,
Entire Depravation, Begun Recovery, and Con
summate Happiness or Misery (Edinburgh, 1720),
commonly called " Boston's Fourfold State "; The
Sovereignty and Wisdom of God Displayed in the
Afflictions of Men (1737; reprinted as The Crook in
the Lot, with memoir, Glasgow, 1863). He left an
autobiography published as Memoirs (Edinburgh,
1776; ed. G. H. Morrison, 1899), and printed
from Boston's manuscript, with introduction, notes,
and bibliography by G. L. Low, under the title
General Account of my Life (Edinburgh, 1907).
His Whole Works edited by S. McMillan were pub
lished in twelve volumes at Aberdeen in 1848‑52.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the autobiography mentioned above,
	ooneult: A. & Wood, Athena; Oxonienaea, ed. P. Bliss,
	iii, 407‑409, 4 vole., Oxford, London, 1813‑20; Jean L.
	Watson, Life and Times of Thomas Boston, Edinburgh,
	1883; A. Thomson, Thomas Boston, London, 1896; DNB,
	v, 424‑428.
	BOTTOMS, MARGARET (McDONALD): Foun
der of the King's Daughters; b. in New York City
Dec. 29, 1827; d. there Nov. 14, 1906. She was
educated at a private school in Brooklyn, and
in 1850 married the Rev. Frank Bottoms. She
had already become interested in religious and
philanthropic work, and in 1876 began to give
Bible talks in the homes of prominent New York women, continuing them for twenty‑five years. In 1886 she organized the order of King's Daughters, basing her system on Edward Everett Hales Ten Times One is Ten. In the following year the society was enlarged to include men, and the name was changed to the present International Order of the King's Daughters and Sons. In 1896 she was elected president of the women's branch of the International Medical Mission. She was also an associate editor of the The Ladies' Home Journal, and in addition to a few pamphlets and a large number of contributions to religious magazines wrote The Guest Chamber (New York, 1893); Crumbs from the King's Table (1894); and A Sunshine Trip to the Orient (1897).
BpUDINOT, bu"ds"nb', ELIAS: American man of affairs and philanthropist; b. at Philadelphia May 2, 1740; d. at Burlington, N. J., Oct. 24, 1821. He was a lawyer and eminent in his profession; represented New Jersey in the Continental Congress 1778‑79 and 1781‑$4, was chosen president in 1782, and, as such, signed the treaty of peace with Great Britain; he was member of the first three national congresses, and director of the United States mint 1795‑1805. He was a member of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (1812‑21), and first president of the American Bible Society (1816‑21). He was wealthy and gave liberally for philanthropic purposes during his life and in his will. He wrote The Age of Revelation ; or the age of reason shown to be an age of infidelity (Philadelphia, 1801), in reply to Thomas Pains; The Second Advent or Coming of the Messiah in Glory shoran to be a scriptural doctrine and taught by divine revelation (Trenton, N. J., 1815); and A Star in the West ; or a humble attempt to discover the long lost tribes of Israel (1816), in which he advocated the view that the American Indians are the ten lost tribes. He also published anonymously in the Evangelical Intelligencer for 1806 a memoir of William Tennent (reprinted New York, 1847). His Journal or Historical Recollections o f American Events during the Revolutionary War was printed at Philadelphia in 1894:
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Life, Public Services, Addresses, and Letters o/ Elise Boudinot, edited by Jane J. Boudinot, 2 vole., Boston, 1898.
BOUHOURS, b>Z"hiar', DOMINIQUE: Jesuit; b. in Paris May 15, 1628; d. there May 27, 1702. He entered the Society of Jesus at sixteen, and acquired such renown as a teacher that the young Longueville princes and the son of Colbert were put under his care. Btaidea a number of biographical and other works, he made (with two other Jesuits, Tellier and Bernier) a translation of the New Testament from the Vulgate into French (Paris, 16971703).
BOUQUET, bli"%6', MARTIN: Benedictine of St. Maur; b. at Amiens Aug. 6, 1685, d. in Paris Apr. 6, 1754. He entered the Benedictine order at St. Faron, Meaux, in 1706, and was ordained priest. His knowledge of Hebrew and Greek secured his appointment as special assistant to Montfaucon in his editorial labors. When the

B°°auin
Bouaset	THE NEW‑ SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	240
great edition of the Scriptores rerum Galticarum et Francicarum came to be made (it had been projected by Colbert as early as 1878, and was entrusted to the Benedictines of St. Maur in 1723), he was placed in charge of it. Difficulties were encountered owing to his opposition to the bull Unigenitus, which caused the king to banish him from Paris; but he succeeded in preparing the first eight volumes for publication (1738‑52). Other members of ‑the congregation brought out five more after his death (1757‑88). Interrupted by the Revolution, the work was taken up again by the Institute, and later by the Academy of Inscriptions, by whom ten more volumes were published in the nineteenth century.,
BOUQUEY, bit"kan', PIERRE (PETRUS BOQUIlYUS): French Calvinist; b. either in the province of Saintonge or in that of Guienne; d. at Lausanne 1582. The first certain date in his life is his taking the degree of doctor of theology at the university of Bourgea Apr. 23, 1539. He was a Cartxielite monk at Bourges and rose to be prior; but, embracing the Reformation, he left his monastery in 1541 and went first to Basel, then to Leipsic and Wittenberg, where he had letters to Luther and Melanchthon. The latter recommended him to Butzer when a theologian was required to continue the lectures which Calvin had delivered in Strasburg. Here he began to lecture on Galatians in September, 1542. Later he returned to Bourges, where he lectured on Hebrew and the Scriptures, gaining protection and a pension from Margaret of Navarre, and being allowed by the archbishop to preach in the cathedral. . The Protestant leaders, Calvin, Farel, and Beza, seem to have suspected lulu of intending to desert the Reformation; but his teaching brought him again into conflict with the Roman authorities, and he left Bourges once more for Strasburg in 1555. Here he remained until the elector Otto Henry appointed him in 1557 to a provisional professorship in the University of Heidelberg, which was made permanent the next year. In the internal dissensions of Protestantism he took an increasingly decided Calvinistic stand, and in the reign of Frederick III was thus the only Heidelberg theologian to retain his position, and was made head of the faculty and a member of the new Reformed church council (1560). This period of prosperity ended, however, with the death of Frederick III, after which he was deprived of his position (1577), and became, a year later, professor and preacher at Lausanne. His numerous works are mainly polemical treatises against the Lutherans and Roman Catholics.
(E. F. KARL MtYLLER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Biographical materiel is found in his Breroia notatio . . . de ciana domini, pp. 140‑179, Heidelberg, 1682. Consult further: M. Adam, Vitas aruditorurn, ii, 72 eqq., Heidelberg, 1708; E. and 1J. Haag, La France proteataate, ad. H. L. Bordier, ii. 875 aqq., Paris, 1879.
BOURDALOUE, biir"da"lu', LOUIS: Jesuit preacher; b. at Bourges Aug. 20, 1632;.d. in Paris May 13,1704. He was for some time a teacher in literature and philosophy; in 1665 he was sent. to preach in the provinces, in 1669 was recalled to Paris; after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
he was sent to Languedoc to preach to the Protestants; his last years he devoted to the service of the poor and unfortunate in Paris. As a man he was justly esteemed and loved; as a preacher his strength is in the clearness of his argument, its readiness and its cogency. The first edition of his works was edited by Bretonneau (16 vole., Paris, 1707‑34); a good recent edition is that of Lille, 1882 (6 vole.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. PSUthe, BOUTdOIOL6, d'apr~s lea dOCU‑
nunta nouveaux. Paris, 1900: A. Feugbre. Bourdaloue, as
predication et son temps, ib 1874; M Laurse, Bourdaioue,
as role et see aearorea, 2 vole., ib. 1881; E. de Mdnorval,
Bourdaloue, Paris, 1897; F. Casters, La Vie et la pr6dica
tion dun relipieux au xvii. eilcle, vol. i, Montpellier, 1901.

BOURIGHOlY, bfl"rf"isyen', DE LA FORTE, ANTOINETTE: Fanatical enthusiast; b. at Ryssel (Lille), then in the Spanish Netherlands, Jan. 13, 1616; d. at Franeker, Friesland, Oct. 30, 1680. She grew up neglected and solitary on account of a facial deformity, afterward removed by an operation, and came to love isolation and communion with God. For a time her older sister drew her into the world; but she shrank from marriage, and once thought she heard the voice of God asking her, " Canst thou find a lover more perfect than I 7 " She thought of becoming a Carmelite, but concluded that the true Christians were not to be found in the cloisters, and sought another way to leave the world. Her father tried to force a marriage upon her ip 1636; she fled in a male disguise, and after many romantic adventures was brought home, but took refuge at Mons under the protection of the archbishop. When her plans for founding au ascetic community on a primitive model were hindered, she went to Liege and made another unsuccessful attempt. On her father's death she brought suit against her stepmother for his entire property and won it. Now she fell under the influence of a doubtful friend of mysticism, Jean de St. Saulieu, who induced her to take charge of a home for orphan girls (1653), which she put under the Augustinian rule and made cloistered (1658). Her rule there came to an untoward end in 1662, when she took flight under serious accusations of cruelty. She went first to Ghent and then to Mechlin, where she found an adherent in the superior of the Oratorians, Christian de Cort. Soon she developed a fantastical system, based on alleged revelations. As the " woman clothed with the sun " of the Apocalypse, she was to revive the teachings of the Gospel and gather her spiritual children around her into a communistic, prieatlesa brotherhood; she was the second revelation of the Son of Man on earth.
The books which Antoinette now began to publish contain the bitterest condemnation of the Roman Catholic Church, reject infant baptism, and the Trinity was exchanged for a sacred triad of truth, mercy, and justice. She had dealings with the Jansenists, but rejected their teaching on predestination. In 1667, with De Cort, she went to Amsterdam sad lived for a while in the happy exchange of views with the moat various heretics and fanatics. The following years are occupied with the history of the attempt to find a home for her elect on the

241	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	BBonqnfa
		onsset
island of Nordstrand in the North Sea, which De
Cart had discovered as the destined place. His finan
cial troubles, which make up a large part of the
story, ended only with his imprisonment at Amster
dam and his death in 1669. Antoinette, as his heir,
was for several years more much occupied with
courts of justice, not without danger of imprison
ment, and went from Amsterdam to Haarlem,
thence to Sleswick, and finally to Husum to be as
near as possible to Nordatrand. Here she might
have been left in peace if she would have given up
her claims. But she set up a printing‑press and
carried on the liveliest literary controversy, until
her press was confiscated by the government.
So her story proceeds, amid quaint and vivid
details too numerous to give here, until she is
found at Hamburg in 1679 formally charged with
sorcery by a former adherent, an eccentric colonel
of artillery named La Coats. She fled to escape
arrest, and remained in hiding until her death the
next year. The points of her quietiatic mysticism
need no discussion; for herself the important one
was her own position as bride of the Holy Ghost
and channel of revelation. Though she was prob
ably more of an adventurers than even an enthusiast
or an insane woman, the solemn prophetic tone of
her visions and divine messages continued for some
time to attract readers who believed in her inspira
tion; but her community seems to have been
entirely scattered at her death. (G. KAwrawu.)
	Antoinette had many followers in Scotland, more,
it is said, than in any other country. Pronenent
among them were the Rev. James Garden (1647
1726), who rose to be professor of divinity at King's
College, Aberdeen, and was deprived in 1696 be
cause he had refused to sign the Westminster Con
fession of Faith, and his younger brother, Rev.
George Garden (1649‑1733), who after being one of
the ministers of St. Nicholas, the town parish of
Aberdeen, was " laid aside " by the privy council in
1692 because he refused to pray for William and
Mary and in 1701 was deposed from the ministry be
cause he had advocated Bourignonianism in his book,
An Apology for M. Antonia Bourignon (1699), a reply
to books by his brother‑in‑law, the Rev. John Cock
burn (1652‑1729), entitled Boxcrignianism Detected ;
or, the Delusions and Errors of A. Bourignon and
her Growing Sect. Narrative i. (London, 1698),
Narrative ii. (1698), and A Letter to his Friend
giving an account why the other Narratives about
Bovrignianism are not yet published, and answering
some Re fiections passed upon the first (1698).
	The General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
in 1701, 1709, and 1710 passed deliverances against
Bourignonia,na in which their views are thus de
scribed: I. They denied (1) the divine permission
of sin and that divine vengeance and eternal damna
tion were inflicted upon it; (2) the decrees of elec
tion and reprobation; and (3) the doctrine of the
divine foreknowledge. II. They asserted (1) that
Christ had a twofold human nature, one produced
of Adam before the woman was formed, and the
other born of the Virgin Mary; (2) that in each
soul before birth are a good and an evil spirit;
(3) that the will is absolutely free, and there is in
man some infinite quality which makes it possible
		IL‑16
for him to unite himself to God; (4) that Christ's nature was sinfully corrupt, so that by nature he was rebellious to the will of God; (5) that perfection may be attained in this life; and (6) that children are born in heaven.
Notwithstanding these deliveraneea, the views of Antoinette Bourignon continued to exist in Scotland and in 1711 Bourignonianiam was put among the heresies which candidates for the ministry were required formally to disown when applying for ordination.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: An edition of the works of Antoinette Bourignon was published in 19 vole., et Amsterdam, 188()‑88. She wrote two accounts of her life: La Parole de Dieu, ou as vie inttsrieare (1834‑83), Mechlin, 1683; and La Vie ext&ieure (1818‑81), Amsterdam, 1668. These were continued by her disciple, Pierre Poiret, in Sa Via continues, reprise dapuia as ttaiasauce at euirie juaqu'd as mart, appended to a later edition of the preceding. Her autobiography in Eng. travel. under the title The Light of the World; a Moat True Relation of a PiN grimeaa Travelling Towards Eternity, 3 parts, London, 1898, reprinted, ib. 1883; abridged, ib. 1788. Consult especially A. van der Linda. Antoinatte Bouripnon, Daa Licht der Welt, Leyden, 1895 (cf. on this G. Kawerau, in GGA, 1895, pp. 428 eqq.).
BOURNE, FRANCIS: Roman Catholic archbishop of Westminster; b. at Clapham (a suburb of London) Mar. 23, 1861. He was educated at St. Cuthbert's College, Ushaw (1869‑75), St. Edmund's, Ware (1875‑80), St. Thomas's Seminary, Hammersmith (1880‑81), St. Sulpice, Paris (18811883), and the University of Louvain (1883‑84). He was ordained to the priesthood in 1884, and after serving as assistant at Blackheath, Mortlake, and West Grinstead for five years, was appointed rector of Southwark Diocesan Seminary, holding this position until 1898, also acting for several years as professor of moral theology and Holy Scripture. He was named domestic prelate to the pope in 1895, and in the following year was consecrated titular bishop of Epiphania and coadjutor to the bishop of Southwark. He was bishop of Southwark from 1897 to 1903, and since the latter year has been archbishop of Westminster. He practically refounded St. John's Seminary at Wonersh, and has been most active in movements for social reform in the diocese of Southwark. He represented the Roman Catholics of England at the St. Augustine celebrations at Arles in 1897, as well as the English Roman Catholic bishops at Autun in 1899, and led the English pilgrims to Lourdes in 1902.
BOURNE, HUGH. See METHODISTS, L, 4.

BOUSSET, bil"set', JOHANN FRANZ WILHELM:
German Protestant; b. at Lflbeck Sept. 3, 1865. ~He was educated at Erlangen, Leipsic, and Gottingen (Th.Lic:, 1890) and became privat‑docent at the latter university in 1890, being made associate professor of New Testament exegesis six years later. Theologically he belongs to the liberal historical school. In addition to minor contributions, he has written Evartgelieneitate Justina des Mdrtyrera (Gottingen, 1891); Jean Predigt in Gegensatz ztem Judentum (1892); TextkritiBChe Studien (Leipaic, 1894); Antichrist (Gottingen, 189b;

Bontut111er	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	242
Boyd
	Eng. transl. by A. H. Keane, London, 1898);
Kommentar zur Offenbarung des Johannes (in the
	Kritiseh,‑exegetischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testa
ment, 1896); Religion des Judentuma im neutesfament
	lichen Zeitalter (Berlin, 1903; 2d ed., 1906); Das
	lYesenderReligion (Hal1e,1903); Was wissenwirvon
	Jesus t (1904); Jesus (Ha11e,1904; Eng. tranal., Lon
	don, 1906); sad Erkhlrung des Galater‑and eraten and
	zweiten Korintherbriefes, in J. Weiss's Schriften des
	Netcert Testaments neu iibersetzt (Giittingen, 1905).
	Since 1897 he has edited the Theologische Rund
	schau in collaboration with W. Heitmiiller, and the
	Forsehungen zur Religion and Literatur den Alten
	and Netten Testaments in collaboration with H.
	Gunkel since 1903.
			i
		BOUTHILLIER, bil"tfl'1yA', DE RANCE, AR
	1lIAftD JEAN LE. See TRAPPoTs.
		BOWEN, GEORGE: Methodist Episcopal for
	eign missionary; b. at Middlebury, Vt., April 30,
	1816; d. in Bombay, India, Feb. b, 1888. He
was graduated at Union Theological Seminary,
	New York City, in 1847; was ordained by the pres
	bytery of New York, and the same year went to
	Bombay under the American Board. He spent the
	rest of his life in that city, but severed his connection
	with the American Board in 1855 and was an inde
	pendent missionary till 1872 when he connected
	himself with the Methodist Episcopal missionary
	society. He edited the Bombay Guardian from
	1854 on; and was also the secretary of the Religious
	Tract Society of Bombay. By the volumes which
	have been made up from his writings he has
	helped many spiritually. They are: Daily Medi
	tations (Philadelphia, 1865); Discussions by the Sea
	side (Bombay, 1857); Lone revealed. Meditations on
	the parting words of Jesus with his disciples in John
	xiii. to zwii. (Philadelphia, 1872); Verily, Verily.
	The Amena of Christ (1879).
		BOWEN, JOHN WESLEY EDWARD: Methodist
	Episcopalian; b. at New Orleans, La., Dec. 3,
	1855. He was educated at the University of New
	Orleans (B.A., 1878) and Baton University (Ph.D.,
	1887). After acting as professor of ancient lan
	guages at Central Tennessee College, Nashville,
	Penn., from 1878 to 1882, he held successive pas
	torates at Boston (1882‑85), Newark, N. J. (1885
	1888), and Baltimore and Washington (1888‑92),
	while during the latter incumbency he was likewise
	professor of church history sad systematic theology
	in Morgan College, Baltimore, and also professor
	of Hebrew in Howard University, Washington,
	in 1891‑92. Since 1893 he has been president and
	p tofeaeor of historical theology in Gammon Theo
	logical Seminary, Atlanta, G a. He was a member
	and examiner of the American Institute of Sacred
	Literature in 1889‑93, as well as secretary and
	librarian of the Stewart Missionary Foundation
	for Africa. He was likewise a member of the gen
	eral conferences of 1898, 1900, and 1904, sad from
	1892 to 1900 was a member of the board of control
	of the Epworth League. He is the editor of The
	Voice, The Negro, and the Stewart Missionary
	Magazine, and has written National Sermons,
	Africa and the American Negro (Philadelphia, 1891);
University Addresses (Atlanta, 1895);. Discussions in Philosophy and Theology (1895); and The United Negro (1902).
BOWER, ARCHIBALD: Professed convert from Roman Catholicism to Protestantism; b. at Dundee Jan. 17, 1686; d. in London Sept. 3, 1766. He was educated at Douai, went to Italy, became a Jesuit 1706, and in 1723 was made a counselor of the Inquisition at Macerate, Italy. In 1726 he fled secretly to England, and, after some years, joined the Established Church; he gained influential patrons, who procured him employment in literary work and teaching. In 1745 he was readmitted into the Society of Jesus, but, after two years, again professed to leave the Church of Rome. His principal publication was the History o/ the Popes (7 vole., London, 17486; reprinted with a continuation by S. H. Cox, 3 vole., Philadelphia, 1844‑45), which was attacked by Alban Butler and John Douglas as a mere translation of Tillemont and earlier writers without proper acknowledgment. Bower's character for virtue as well as veracity is not above suspicion.
BIBLIO(3RAP8T: The DNB, vi, 48‑b1, furnishes a succinct
account of his life and the charges against him, with a list of literature upon him.
BOWMAN, THOMAS: The name of two contemporary American bishops.
1. Methodist Episcopal bishop; b. at Berwick, Pa., July 15, 1817. He was educated at Dickinson College (B.A., 1837), and two years later entered the Baltimore conference of the Methodist ministry. He taught in the grammar‑school of Dickinson College in 1840‑43, and five years later founded Dickinson Seminary, Williamsport, Pa., of which he was the president until 1858, when he was chosen president of Asbury (now De Pauw) University, Greencastle, Ind. In 18641865 he was also chaplain of the United Staten Senate. He resigned the presidency of Asbury University in 1872, when he was elected bishop, and since that time has officially visited all the conferences of his denomination in the United Staten, Europe, India, China, Japan, and Mexico.
2. Bishop of the Evangelical Association; b. in Lehigh township, Northampton County, Pa., May 28, 1836. He studied at the Vanderveera Seminary, Easton, Pa., and entered the ministry of the Evangelical Association. He was pastor in the eastern Pennsylvania conference 1859‑75, and was presiding elder of the same conference 1870‑75. He has been a bishop since 1875, and since 1896 principal of the Union Biblical Institute at Nor peraville, Ill., which is the theological seminary of the Evangelical Association. He characterizes his theological position as "Arminian‑evangelical." He has published a revision of the catechism of his Church, also an account of the disturbance in the Evangelical Association.

BOWNE, BORDEN PARKER: American educator; b. at Leonardville, N. J., Jan. 14, 1847. Died at Brookline, Mass., Apr. 1, 1910. He was educated at the University of New York (B.A., 1871), and studied at Halle, Giittingen, sad Paris. From 1876 he was professor of philosophy at Bos‑

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
8onthillier Boyd
ton University. He was chairman of the Philosophical Department at the St. Louis World's Fair in 1904 and an honorary member of the Imperial Education Society of Japan. His writings are: The Philosophy of Herbert Spencer (New York, 1874); Studies in Theism (1879); Metaphysics (1882); Philosophy of Theism (1887); Introduction Lo Psychological Theory (1887); Principles of Ethics (1892); Theory of Thought and Knowledge (1897); The Christian Revelation (Cincinnati, 1898); The Christian Life (1899); The Atonement (1900); Theism (Deems lectures for 1902; New York, 1902); and The Immanence of God (Boston, 1905).
BOWRING, SIR JOHN: English Unitarian; b. at Exeter Oct. 17, 1792; d. there Nov. 23, 1872. He served his country as member of Parliament (1835‑37 and 18419), in the public service in China and the Far East (1849‑59), and as member of various governmental commissions; he was an ardent Utilitarian and first editor of the Westminster Review (1825). He was a remarkable linguist and an enthusiastic student of literature. His writings relate to public affairs, give the results of his travels, and include numerous translations, particularly of the popular poetry of Eastern Europe; he edited the works of Jeremy Bentham with biography (11 vole., London, 1838‑43). He is mentioned here for his hymns, many of which are in general use, as " God is love, his mercy brightens," " From the recesses of a lowly spirit," "In the cross of Christ I glory," " Watchman, tell us of the night," " We can not always trace the way," and others.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Autobiographical Recollections, with Memoir by [his son] Lewin Bowring. London, 1877; DNB, vi, 78‑80; 3. W. Duffield, English Hymns, pp. 28o‑283, New York, 1888; J. Julian, Dictionary of Hymnology, pp. 168187, London, 1907.
BOY‑BISHOP: A popular custom of the Middle Ages to provide a diversion for the boys of a church or cathedral choir or school, and to reward the moat deserving. One of the number was chosen " bishop," moat commonly on St. Nicholas's day (Dec. B), and in episcopal dress and attended by his fellows as priests, he went through the streets bestowing his blessing. Often he entered into the church and conducted some part of the service, at times delivering a sermon, prepared for the purpose by an older head (cf. the Concio de puero Jesu of Erasmus, edited by S. Bentley, London, 1816, which was spoken by a boy of St. Paul's School, London, on such an occasion). The boys occupied the seats of the clergy while the latter sat in the lowest places. In some localities the game lasted from St. Nicholas's day until Holy Innocents' day (Dec. 28). It was very popular in England, where it was observed not only in the churches and schools, but at the court and in the castles of the nobility; the boys were called " St. Nicholas's clerks:' The custom was forbidden in 1542 but was restored under Mary. It was also common in France, although repeatedly forbidden there (by the papal legate, 1198; the synods of Paris 1212, Cognac 1260, Nantes 1431; the chapter of Troyes 1445). In some places, as Reims and Mainz. it lasted till the eighteenth century. See
Fools, r EAaT OF, and consult the works mentioned in the bibliography of that article.
BOYCE, JAMES PETIGRU: American Baptist; b. at Charleston, S. C., Jan. 11, 1827; d. at Pau, France, Dec. 28, 1888. He was graduated at Brown University 1847; studied theology at Princeton Theological Seminary, 1849‑51; became pastor of the Baptist church at Columbia, S. C., 1851; professor of theology in Forman University, Greenville, S. C., 1855; chairman of the faculty, and 'professor of systematic theology in the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, opened at the same place in 1859. He was opposed to secession, but went with his State into the Civil War; was chaplain of the Sixteenth South Carolina volunteers 1861‑62; member of the legislature 1862‑65; of the State council and on the staff of Gov. A. G. Magrath 1864‑65; member of the State convention for reconstruction 1865. At the close of the war he returned to his duties in the seminary, reopened it and reestablished it with much labor, and made considerable contributions to its support from his own means. In 1872 he was transferred to the chair of church government and pastoral duties, but was absent much of the time for the next few 'years arranging for the removal of the seminary to Louisville, Ky., which was accomplished in 1877. In 188? he returned to his old department of systematic theology. He was president of the Southern Baptist Convention 1872‑79 and in 1888. Besides sermons, speeches, and articles he published Three Changes in Theological Education (Greenville, 1856); A Brief Catechism of Bible Doctrine (Memphis, 1872); An Abstract of Theology. (Louisville, 1882; rev. and enlarged ed., Baltimore, 1887; rev. and annotated by F. H. Kerfoot, Philadelphia, 1898).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. Broadub, Memoir of Jamey Petipns Boyce, New York, 1893.

BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON:
Established Church of Scotland; b. at Auchinleck
(28 m. s. of Glasgow), Ayrshire, Nov. 3, 1825;
d. at Bournemouth, Hampshire, England, Mar. 1,
1899. He studied at King's College and the Middle
Temple, London, and at the University of Glasgow
(B.A., Glasgow, 1846); was ordained minister of
Newton‑on‑Ayr 1851; minister of Kirkpatrick
Irongray, near Dumfries, 1854‑59; of St. Bernard's,
Edinburgh, 1859‑85; first minister of the city of
St. Andrews from 1865. He won distinction both
as a clergyman and a writer (over the signature
A. K. H. B., and the sobriquet " The Country Par
son "), and was perhaps the moat widely known
minister of the Scottish Church. In 1868 he was
made chairman of a committee to prepare a new
collection of hymns and filled the place with much
judgment and tact. He was moderator of the
General Assembly in 1890. The most notable
of his many books were Recreations o f a Country
Parson (3 series, London, 1859‑78); Leisure Hours
in Town (1862); Graver Thoughts of a Country
Parson (3 series, 1862‑75); The Commonplace
Philosopher in Town and Country (1882‑64);
Counsel and Comfort Spoken from a City Pulpit
(1863); The Autumn Holidays of a Country Parson

Boyle
Bradley
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
244
(1864); Critical Essays of a Country Parson (1865); Sunday Afternoons in the Parish. Church of a University City (1866); Lessons of Middle Age (1867); Changed Aspects of Unchanged Truths (1869); Present Day Thoughts (1870); Seaside Musings (1872); A Scotch Communion Sunday (1873); Landscapes, Churches, and Moralities (1874); From a Quiet Place (1879); Our Little Life (2 aeries, 1881‑84); Towards the Sunset, Teachings after Thirty Years (1882); What Set him Right, with other chapters to help (1885); Our Homely Comedy and Tragedy (1887); The Best Last, with other papers (1888); To Meet the Day through the Christian Year (1889); East Coast Days and Memories (1889); Twenty‑five Years of St. Andrews (2 vole., 1892), autobiographical reminiscences, continued in St. Andrews and Elsewhere (1894), and Last Years of St. Andrews (1896).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Consult, besides the autobiographical sketches mentioned above: A. Lang, in Longman's Mapasina, May, 1899; DNB, supplement vol. i, 244‑245.
BOYLE, ROBERT, AND THE BOYLE LECTURES: Robert Boyle was born at Lismore Castle (30 m. n.e. of Cork), Waterford, Ireland, Jan. 25, 1627, son of Richard Boyle, earl of Cork; d. in London Dec. 30,1691. He studied at Eton and (1638‑44) at Geneva and elsewhere on the Continent; on his return to England he lived at first on his estate, Stalbridge, Doraetahire, after 1654 in Oxford, and after 1668 in London. As a scientist he holds a high rank and has been considered the heir to both the methods and abilities of Francis Bacon. He was one of the founders of the Royal Society (1662), and was constantly engaged in investigations which resulted in numerous publications. He wrote many theological, moral, and religious essays, gave freely for the translation of the Bible into various languages, and was liberal in private charity. He was governor of the Corporation for the Spread of the Gospel in New England (see ELIOT, JOHN). In his will he left an endowment of E50 annually for the Boyle Lectures, a series of 8 sermons, to be delivered each year in some church, against unbelievers. For the lectures St. Paula was used in 16.99 and 1701, the pariah church of St. Mary le Bow 1711‑1805, Westminster Abbey 1852‑53, the Chapel Royal, Whitehall, 1864‑85, while the lectures of 1903‑Ob were delivered in the Church of St. Edmund, Lombard St. The first course was given by‑Richard Bentley (1692); his successors have included some of England's most prominent theologians. A selection from the sermons was published by Gilbert Burnet, vicar of Coggeshall, in 4 vole., London, 1737. A partial list of the published Boyle Lectures down to 1892‑93 is given in J. F. Hurst, Literature of Theology (New York, 189G). Since then there have been published the lectures for 1895, W. C. E. Newbolt, The Gospel of Experience (London, 1896), , and for 1903‑05 by R. J. Knowling, The Testimony of St. Paul to Christ (London, 1905).
Boyle's complete works with life were published by Thomas Birch (5 vols., London, 1744; 2d ed., 6 vole., 1772).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Aside from the life by Birch there are available: A. L Wood. Athena Oxonienaaa. ed. P. Bliss, ii. 286,
4 vols., London, 181r3‑20; A. C. Brown, Development of the Idea of Chemical Composition, pp. 9‑14, Edinburgh, 1869; DNB, vi, 118‑123.
	BRACE, CHARLES LORING: American philan
thropist; b. at Litchfield, Conn., June 19, 1826;
d. at Campfer in the Engadine, Switzerland,
Aug. 11, 1890. He was graduated at Yale 1846
studied at the Yale Divinity School 1847‑48 and
at Union Theological Seminary, New York, 1848
1849; traveled and studied in Europe for two years;
in 1853 he became first secretary and execu
tive agent of the Children's Aid Society of New
York, and remained such till his death. He
planned and developed the work and supported
it in the earlier days with much self‑sacrificing
labor; industrial and night schools were established,
lodging‑houses provided for newsboys and for
girls, reading‑rooms opened, summer charities
instituted, and nearly 100,000 boys and girls
were assisted to new homes and occupations with
healthful and moral surroundings. By thus re
moving incipient criminals a marked diminution
in juvenile crime was shown in the police reports
of New York. The history of the work was given
by Mr. Brace in his annual reports and in his two
books, Short Sermons to Newsboys, with a history
of the formation of the Newsboys' Lodging House
(New York, 1866); and The Dangerous Classes of
New York, and twenty years' work among them
(1872; enlarged ed., 1880). He published several
works of travel of a popular character such as
Home Life in Germany (1853); The New West
(1869); and as results of considerable thinking
and study, Geata Christi, a history o f humane prog
ress under Christianity (1882; 4th ed., 1884); and
The Unknown God, or inspiration among Pre
Ch*istian races (1890).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. L. Brace, His Life, chiefly told in his own Letters, edited by his daughter, Emma Brace, New York, 1894.
BRACB:MANN, ALBERT: German Protestant historian; b. at Hanover June 24, 1871. He was educated at the universities of Tiibingen, Leipsic, and G&ttingen, and occupies the position of associate professor of history at the University of Marburg. He is a collaborator of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Gottingen for the publication of early papal documents, and in addition to a number of contributions to historical periodicals has written: Urkundliche Geschichte des Halberstadter Domkapitels im Mittelaltcr (Wernigerode, 1898).

BRADFORD, AMORY HOWE: American Congregationalist; b. at Granby, N. Y., Apr. 14, 1846. He was educated at Geneses College, IIamilton College (B.A., 1867), Andover Theological Seminary (1870), and Oxford University. Since 1870 he has been pastor of the First Congregational Church, 111ontclair, N. J. He was associate editor of The Outlook from 1894 to 1901, member of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions deputation to Japan in 1895, and moderator of the National, Council of Congregational Churches in 1901‑04. He is also first secretary and second president of the American Institute of Christian Philosophy, and was elected president of the American Missionary Association in 1904. He

848	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Boyle
Bradley
was Southworth Lecturer at Andover Theological Seminary in 1902‑03 and George Sheppard Lecturer at Bangor Theological Seminary in 1906. In theology he is a liberal evangelical. He has written Spirit and Life (New York, 1888); Old Wine, New Bottles (1892); The Pilgrim in Old England (1893); Heredity and Christian Problems (1895); The Growing Revelation (1897); The Sistine Madonna (1897); The Holy Family (1899); The Art of Living Alone (1899); The Return to Christ (1900); The Age of Faith (Boston, 1900); Spiritual Lessons from the Browninga (New York, 1900); Messages of the Masters (1902); The Ascent of the Soul (1905); and The Inward Light (1905).

BRADFORD, JOHN: Church of England Protestant martyr; b. at Manchester about 1510; burned at Smithfield July 1, 1555. He was in the service of Sir John Harrington, the king's paymaster in France; began to study law in the Temple 1547, but the next year turned to divinity and entered St. Catherine's Hall, Cambridge (M.A., by special grace, 1549); was elected fellow of Pembroke Hall 1549; became prebendary of Kentish Town in the church of St. Paul, 1551; was chaplain to Bishop Ridley, in 1552 one of the king's six chaplains in ordinary, and preached in many localities with great fervor and earnestness. In August, 1553 (six weeks after the accession of Mary), he was arrested on the charge of preaching seditious sermons and committed to the Tower; lie was examined before Bishops Gardiner, Bonner, and others in January, 1555, and condemned as a heretic. His writings (chiefly sermons, letters, and devotional pieces) were edited for the Parker Society by Aubrey Townsend (2 vols., Cambridge, 1848‑53).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: w. Stephens, Memoirs of John Bradford,
London, 1832; The Life of John Bradford, vol. iii of Library of Christian Biography, London, 1855; DNB, vi, 157‑1b9.
BRADLAUGH, CHARLES: English freethought advocate and politician; b. at Hoxton (a suburb of London) Sept. 26,18,33; d. at London Jan. 30,1891. He was educated in local schools until the age of twelve, when his business life began. A few years later he became an advocate of freethought, and rapidly achieved notoriety for his propaganda. His attitude seriously affected his career,' and at the age of seventeen he enlisted as a private soldier, remaining in the army three years. He then entered a solicitor's office, and soon rose to a position of responsibility. Meantime he had resumed his campaign for freethought, and in 1858 began a platform tour of the provinces, advocating not only radicalism in religion, but also in politics. From 1862 until his death, excepting in 1863‑66, he was the proprietor of the republican National Reformer, and in his advocacy of radical .politics was secretary of the fund raised in 1858 to defend E. Truelove for publishing a vindication of Orsini's attempt to assassinate Napoleon III. He was likewise a member of the parliamentary reform league of 1866, and drew up the first draft of the Fenian proclamation issued in the following year, while three years later he was the envoy of the English republicans to the Spanish republican leader Castelar, and was likewise nominated as candidate
for a division of Paris on the foundation of the French republic in the same year. He then attempted to go to Paris on the outbreak of the Commune to be an intermediary between Thiers and the insurrectionists, but was arrested at Calais and forced to return to England.
In 1868 Bradlaugh's attempts to gain a seat in the House of Commons began, but his avowed principles caused his defeat both in that year and in 1874. Six years later, however, he was returned, and by his refusal to take the required oath on the Bible initiated a struggle which involved him in repeated scenes in the House of Commons and in eight legal actions. He was again and again excluded from the House, his willingness to take the oath as ‑a mere matter of form, or to affirm, being overruled by the plea that he was an avowed freethinker. Nevertheless, he was reelected for Northampton by special elections after his expulsion in 1881 and 1882, and at the general election in 1886 was once more returned, being permitted this time to take his seat, which he' retained until his death. During this troubled period of his life he was also involved in a contest for the abolition of all restrictions on the press, beginning with his refusal, in 1868, to give security to the government against the publication of blasphemy and sedition in his National Reformer. In the following year another legal contest resulted in the passage of the Evidence Amendment Act, by which the evidence of freethinkers was declared admissible, a judge having refused to take his testimony on the ground that he was a freethinker. A few years later, in 1874, he became associated with Annie Besant (q.v.), who was assistant editor of the National Reformer until 1885, when she resigned on account of his opposition to socialism. In 1876 they were sentenced to six months' imprisonment and a fine of £200 for the publication of the Fruits of Philosophy, which advocated the artificial restraint of the increase of population. The sentence was suspended, however, and the contest resulted in the passage of an act removing the remaining restrictions on the press.
In Parliament Bradlaugh was active in securing the passage of a number of measures, of which the chief was one permitting the substitution .of an affirmation for the oath both in the House of Comcoons and in the courts. In 1889 he visited India, and during his final illness the resolutions of his expulsion from the House of Commons were unanimously expunged. The writings of Bradlaugh were chiefly brief controversial pamphlets and contributions to the press. Among them the most
important are The ImpepChlliCnt of the H011Se . of Brunswick (London, 1872); Autobiography (1873); Land for the People (1877); The New Life of David (1877); Genesis, its Authorship and Authenticity (1882); and The True ,Story of my parliamentary .Struggle (1882).
BIHLIOaaAPBT: A. 8. Headingley. Biography of Charles Bradlauph, London, 1880; C. R. Mackay, Life of Charles
Bradlauph ib. 1888: A. Bonner (his daughter), char"
Bmdlauph: A Accord of his Life and Work, 2 vole., ib. 1894.
BRADLEY, GEORGE 6RARVILLE: Dean of Westminster; b. at High Wycombe (30 m. w.n.w.

Brad ehaw
Brah~manism
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
of London), Buckinghamshire, Dec. 11, 1821; d. in London Mar. 12,.1903. He studied at Rugby under Arnold (1837‑40), and at University College, Oxford (B.A., 1844 M.A., 1847); was fellow of University College 1844‑50; became assistant master at Rugby 1846; head master of Marlborough College, Wiltshire, 1858; master of University College, Oxford, 1870; dean of Westminster, London, succeeding Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, 1881; resigned his deanery 1902. He edited and revised Arnold's Latin Prose Composition (London, 1881), and published Aids to Writing Latin Prose (1884); Recollections of Arthur Penrhyn Stanley (1883); Lectures on Ecclesiastes (Oxford, 1885; new ed., 1898); Lectures on the Book of Job (1887); and assisted R. E. Prothero in preparing the Life and Correspondence of Arthur Penrhyn Stanley (2 vole., London, 1894).
BRADSHAW, WILLIAM: Puritan; b. at Market Bosworth (12 m. w. of Leicester), Leicestershire, 1571; d. at Chelsea 1818. He studied at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and became fellow of Sidney Sussex College in 1599; took orders but never received a living owing to his Puritan principles, and spent much of his time in retirement in Derbyshire, whence he made many journeys in behalf of the cause to which he was devoted. His chief work was English Puritanism : containing the main opinions of the rigid sort of those that are called Puritans in the Realm of England (London, 1805; Latin transl., by William Awes, Frankfort, 1810; an abstract is given in Neal's History of the Puritans, part ii, chap. i). The main point of his system was that he would subject no congregation to any ecclesiastical jurisdiction " save that which is within itself:' He would have the members delegate their powers to pastors and elders, retaining that of excommunication. No clergyman should hold civil office. He was strongly opposed to " ceremonies:' He was not a separatist and held that the king as " the archbishop and general overseer of all the churches within his dominions" had the right to rule and must not be resisted except passively. He published many other works and tracts, most of them anonymously.
Brsirooawray: A fair biography end references to the somewhat abundant literature may be found in DNB, vi, 182‑18b.
BRADWARDIIYE, THOMAS: Archbishop of Canterbury; b. probably at Chichester, Sussex, 1290; d. in London Aug. 28, 1349. His name is variously spelled (Bragwardin, Brandnardin, Bredwardyn, etc.), in public documents he is usually called Thomas de Bradwardina, and a title often given him is Doctor Pro f undue. He studied theology, philosophy, mathematics, and astronomy at Merton College, Oxford; lectured there; became chan‑
cellor of St. Paul's Church at London; in 133
accompanied Edward III as his confessor in
campaigns in France; in 1349 was chosen archbishop of Canterbury, was consecrated at Avignon
and died a few weeks afterward. He was highly
esteemed by Wyclif, Jean Gerson, and Flacius. H was the author of a large work entitled De cave
Doi contra Pelagium [ed. Sir Henry Savile, London
248
e
1818], in which he attempted to show that the
theology as well as the Church of his time were
Pelagian. He gave the name Cainites to those who
gave up hope in God and depended upon their own
merits; his personal experience gave him a differ
ent conception: " In the schools of the philosophers
I rarely heard a word concerning grace, . . . but
I continually heard that we are the masters of
our own free actions." Rom. ix, 18 had seemed
to him to be wrong; " but afterward . . . I
came to see that the grace of God far preceded all
good works both in time and in nature‑by grace
I mean the will of God:' Bradwardine wished to
support this position on theoretical grounds. He
acknowledged Augustine as his master. The sum
of his teaching is as follows: God is complete
perfection and goodness, is good action itself,
free from the potentiality of imperfection. He is
not limited by mentality. He is the first cause,
the absolute principle of being and motion. There
fore, no one can act nor can anything "happen ";
God works or orders events. Divine foreknowl
edge is will exercised long before, or predestination
of [man's] will. God's will, moreover, is unchan
ging. Everything takes place by virtue of the
immutable antecedent necessity caused by the
divine volition. Hence man can say nothing " more
useful or efficacious . . . than `thywill be done."'.
The effects of predestination are the gift of grace
in the present, justification from sin, award of merit,
perseverance to the end, and unending bliss in the
world to come. The result of this line of thought is,
of course, determinism of a Thomistic type. In
spite of this theory, Bradwardine, like Augustine,
asserted the reality of free will. His historical
importance consists in the fact that he was one of
the most powerful champions of the Augustinian
movement which took place toward the end of
the Middle Ages. This movement contributed to
the dissolution of scholasticism and to a new
understanding of Christian doctrine from the point
of view of personal faith. 	R. ~,f7E'F.B)T.Ftd.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The scanty notices of his life are collected by Sir Henry savile in the preface to his edifice of the Cauaa Deft. For his mathematical works consult M. Cantor, (#asehichte der Mathsrnatik, ii. 102 eqq.. Leipeie. 1892. Consult.further G. V. Lechler, De T)wma Bradvxirdino, Leipaic, 1882; idem, Johann rocs Widsf and die Vorgoaehiehta der Reformation, i, 229 eqq•. Leipaie. 1873; Eng. travel., pp. 88‑98. London, 1878; K. Werner, Der AvpwHnismua do der Bcholaatik du ap8teren Mi#elaltera, pp 337 eqq.. Vienna, 1883; R. fieeberB. Do9nu'geechichte, ii, 192, Leipeia, 1898; DNB, vi. 188‑190.
BRADY, NICHOLAS: Church of England clergy‑
man and poet; b. at Bandon (20 m. s.w. of Cork), County Cork, Ireland, Oct. 28, 1659; d. at Richmond, Surrey, May 20, 1728. He studied
at Christ Church, Oxford (B.A:, 1882), and Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1685; M.A., 1888; B.D. and D.D.,1899); took orders in Ireland and received
9 two livings in the diode of Cork. He was a zealous
his promoter of the Revolution of 1888 and soon there‑
after removed to England; became lecturer at
St. Michael's, Wood Street, London; minister at
y St. Catherine Cree, 1891; ‑rector of Richmond,
1696, and of Clapham, 1706. He was also rector
a of Stratford‑on‑Avon, 1702‑05, and conducted a
school at Richmond. He was chaplain to William

247
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bradshaw
Brahmanism
III, to Mary, and to Queen Arms. He published two volumes of sermons (1704‑08); but is remema tragedy, The Rape, or the innocent Impostera bered chiefly for his share in the New Version of the (London, 1692), a translation of the Xneid of Psalms of David, produced jointly by himself and Vergil (4 vole., 1728; now extremely rare), and Nahum Tate (q.v.).

BRAHMANISM.
I. Vediam, the Age of the Vedas and their Ancillary Literature.
The People of the Vedas and their Gods (§ 1).
The Rig‑Veda (§ 2).
The Same, and Ysjur‑Vedas (§ 3).	The Six Orthodox Systems of Phf
The Atharva‑Veda (§ 4). 		loeophy (§ 2).
II. Brahmanism and the Pantheism of III. The Age' of the Buddhistic and
	the Upanishads. 	Jainietic Heresies.
The Upanishads (§ I).
Brahmanism is the orthodox religion of India, the most ancient of all Indo‑Germanic faiths of which there is record. In itself the moat catholic and elastic of cults, its test is the recogpition of the divine authority of the Vedas; its outward sign is reverence for the gods, some of whom are comparatively late and foreign in origin; and, for the Brahmans, its end is emancipation from the sorrow of existence and the misery of reincarnation through reabeorption into the divine essence of the Ail‑Soul.
Brahmanism may be divided into three periods: I. The Age of the Vedas and their Ancillary Literature; II. Brahmanism and the Pantheism of the Upanishads; III. The Ago during which the Buddhistic and Jainietio Heresies Prevailed. The two phases which are included in the Brahmanistio eounterreformation and rise of the Hindu sects, and modern Hinduism and the unitarian movements are treated under Hinduism (q.v.).
I. Vedism, the Age of the Vedas and their Ancillary Literature (the Brahmanas and Sutras‑the former a sort of Hindu Talmud; the latter brief verses in technical language, a favorite form of expressing rules): At a period of remote antiquity, possibly between 2000 and 1500 B.c., a section of the Indo‑Germanic peoples known by various names, of which the most common are Indians and Aryans, broke off from the kindred Iranian stock and wandered southward and eastward through Afghanistan into the Punjab or the " Five Waters," in the extreme northwest of the Indian peninsula.
Like the Iranians of Persia., they were z. The divided into the three classes of priests,
People of warriors, and husbandmen, whence
the Vedas were to be formed later the three
and their higher castes, and were a nomadic and
Gods.	agricultural people, filled with the joy
of living, valiant in was, dating freebooters, hot in love sad reveling in wine, almost everything, in short, that the later Hindus were not. Their gods were like themselves, concrete and strong: Surya, the bright deity of the sun; Indra, the blinding lightning which ushers in the rainy season; Agni, the god 'of fire; and Soma, the deified inspiration of strong drink and of the divine courage which it gives. Few are the deities which show the softer side of the early Aryan mind, such as Ushas, the goddess of the dawn, or Varuna, the god of the sky‑ocean, who watches over all and even later in this period receives praises which almost savor of monotheism.
The beliefs of the Aryans of this period are contained in the Rig‑Veda, a book of hymns, the earliest literary records of the Indo‑Germanic race, to
which the most probable date assigned is 1500500 H.c. This Veda is divided into ten books containing 1,022 hymns. Books ii‑
s. The vii form the "family books," comRig Veda. posed by successive generations of families of bards. Book ix is restricted to the Soma hymns, while i and viii, and especially x, the latest of all, are more diverse in contents and authorship. Within this range of space and time are represented many phases of religious thought, ranging from crass polytheism through intricate henotheism or syncretism to a quaaimonotheism, or rather pantheism; varying from earnest faith to incipient skepticism; touching, too, on daily life as well as on worship and sacrifice.
It must not be supposed, however, that the faith of the Veda is naive or childlike. It is, on the contrary, quite developed and occasionally even corrupt. Many of the hymns were undoubtedly composed for the ritual, although it is scarcely possible to regard the entire collection as subservient to the liturgy. Untenable also is the theory of the French school which reduces the entire Rig‑Veda to a mass of allegory, nor are the conclusions of the realistic school, which regards this Veda as entirely Indic and interprets it rationalistically, altogether free from criticism. To the ehicidation of a collection so extended both in apace and time no single method of interpretation is adequate. Naivetk and mature thought, liturgy and hymnology, allegory and realism moat each be recognized as occasion demands, must even be combined at times to give a true representation of the Vedic Hinduism.
The basis of the Vedic religion is nature‑worship. Each element is deified, the fire as Agni, the dawn as Uahas, the sky as Varuna, and the lightning of the storm as Indra. A single object in nature may be represented by many gods, as when the sun is venerated under the names of Surya, " the glowing one "; Savitar, " the enlivener "; Bhaga, " the bestower of boons "; Pushan, " he who causeth to flourish "; and Vishnu, "the mighty one." While these names may represent the deity in different aspects, as do the Egyptian Ra and Turn, the gods of the rising and the setting sun, it must not be forgotten that variance in name and even in concept of the same divinity may have been in its origin mere local divergence in expression for one and the same god, for the Rig‑Veda was composed by many minds, at many places, in many periods. Behind nature‑worship doubtless lay the earlier phase of animism, although its traces are obscured in the Vedic texts. Still mole scanty are the evidences of ancestor‑worship, or the cult of ghosts,

Brahmaaiam	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	248
though this phase was perhaps rather officially ignored than popularly absent. The eschatology of the Rig‑Veda is comparatively simple, and resembles in its meagerness the poverty of early Semitism as represented by the Asayro‑Babylonian religion. Allusions to the future state of the dead are practically confined to the late tenth book. I Yams, the first of men to die, is the king of the
dead; and apparently the blessed, i.e., the brave ~, and generous, go when they die to the sun, where they engage in revelry like that of the Norse heroes of Asgard. The unblessed dead merely disappear, for hell is, in Indian thought, a late theological invention, devised to counterbalance the joys of heaven. In the latest portion of the Rig‑Veda, moreover, appear the chief hymns later rubricized in the ritual, if indeed they were not, at least in part, designedly composed for an already existing liturgy.
Beside the Rig‑Veda exist two other canonical Vedas, and a fourth which is uncanonical. The Same or " Song " Veda is composed of verses taken chiefly from the eighth and ninth books of the Rig‑Veda and arranged for the liturgy. Far more important is the Yajur or " Sacrificial "
Veda, which exists in several recen‑
3. The sions, the chief being the Vajasaneyi Same‑ and or " White " Yajur‑Veda, so called
Yajur‑	from being composed only in verse,
Vedas.	and the Taittirya and Maitrayani,
which are termed " black," since the verve of the text is intermingled with a quasicommentary and amplification in prose.
The arena implied is no longer the Punjab but the " middle district," around the modern Delhi, which the Aryans had reached in their slow migration eastward. The change of locality, however, is dwarfed into insignificance by the alteration in religious tone. The frank delight in life which characterizes the Rig‑Veda is changed to mysticism and an ever‑increasing ritualism. Religion has given place to magic. The principle of henotheism which is so marked a feature of the Rig‑Veda, through which poetic enthusiasm comes to attribute to one divinity the names and attributes of another, thus elevating him for the nonce into the supreme and only object of adoration, becomes in the Yajur‑Veda symbolism carried to its limit. A. thing is no longer dike something else, it is something else. The Brahman is no longer merely a priest, he is a god with all the attributes of divinity, while prayer and sacrifice are now means of compelling the deity to perform the will of his worshipers, instead of being modes of propitiation or bargaining. The religion of India now centers in the sacrifice, and a ritual is developed which is perhaps the most elaborate that the world has ever seen. While the power of the Brahmans was thereby increased until they were apotheosized, the view is antiquated which regards the development of the liturgy as the ecclesiastical device of a cunning and self‑interested priesthood, despite the enormous fees which were given for the performance of sacrifice.
The pantheon of this period suffers little diminution as compared with the epoch of the Rig Veda,
but the gods have declined in power, although some have been greatly magnified, such as Kala (Time), who played no part in the earliest Veda. The epithets and the functions of the gods become separate divinities in many cases, and an All‑God now gains the full recognition which is only suggested even in the latest portions of the Rig‑Veda. The legends of the deities, on the other hand, are richly developed, though their quantity is more admirable than their quality. This, however, is a recrudescence of popular beliefs previously not officially recognized, rather than new speculations of the Brahmans, though this faith of the people finds its application in the explanation and proof of the sacrifice. The rules for the Brahmanic ritual are contained not only in the various recessions of the Yajur‑Veda, but in the still more important Brahmanas, of which each school of each of the Vedas has at least one, while the Tandin recession of then Same‑Veda has three. Additional details are contained in the Srautasutras, and the ritual for daily life may be found in the various Grihyasutras.
Beside the three canonical Vedas and their ancillary literature, representing the official religion of the Vedic and Brahmanic periods, stood a Veda of magic‑‑‑the uncanonical Atharva‑Veda. The pantheon of the Rig‑Veda is here a jumbled confusion of divinities, at their head a supreme
4. The god of all, while eschatology has so
Atharva‑ far developed as to recognize a place
	Veda.	of torment for the malignant dead.
		The predominant note of the Atharvar
Veda is magic. It is‑ filled with all manner of
charms and incantations for wealth and for chil
dren, for long life and good health, for love and for
revenge, charms for plants, animals, and diseases,
curses and maledictions for the destruction of
enemies and for counteracting the enemy's black
magic. Linguistically and chronologically far later
than the Rig‑Veda, the material of the Atharva
Veda is in all probability as old in some of its parts
as the most ancient portions of the Rig. It is
an invaluable document for early Hindu religion
as the oldest monument of its popular faith.
II. Brahmanism and the Pantheism of the Upanishads: The enormous structure of ritualism erected by the Yajur‑Veda, the Brahmanas, and the Sutras gradually became a burden too heavy to be borne; liturgy was then undermined by philosophical speculation. Traces of this are already evident in the later portions of the RigVeda, as in the famous hymn (x, 121) whose refrain rune: " To whom (as) god shall we offer sacrifice? " thus affording a basis for the Brahmanas to create a god " Who:' By this time, moreover, an AllGod was definitely recognized in Prajapati, " the lord of creatures," but it was reserved for the close of the Brahmanic period to ignore the gods and arrive at God.
The Upanishads, the literary records of this phase of thought, represent a perfection of pantheism which has never been equaled, and their influence is a mighty factor in Hindu thought of the present day. Salvation is no longer to be attained by works, but by knowledge, and the entire teaching of the Upanishads may be com‑

249	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	brabmanism
prised in the one famous phrase found in the Chandogya Upanishad: Teat team asi, "That art
thou," or, in other words, " Thou z. The art the Infinite:' Though the sumUpani‑ mum bonum of the Upanishads is this shads. saving knowledge and the reunion with the All‑Soul which it brings, such a consummation is not requisite for all, since there are many who do not desire it, and for them minor blessings are reserved in a future life. The existence of the gods is not denied, though they be but phases of the All‑Soul, nor is the advantage of sacrifice denied, for such offerings are still imperative. Herein lies, perhaps, the secret of the origin of the Upanishads.
The concluding portion of each Brahmans is an Aranyaka, or " forest‑book," designed for the use of those forest hermits who had passed beyond the need of sacrifice, and in each Aranyaka is an Upanishad. Primarily, therefore, the Upanishads represented the text‑books of those who had passed through the sacrificial stage of their religious life and were henceforth free to meditate on sacred things as seemed beat in their own eyes. Later, however, the Upanishads became a special form of the sacred writings of the Hindus; and served as the basis of the most lofty of all their six orthodox systems of philosophy. To see in them a religious revolt of the second, or warrior, caste against Brahman control, as certain scholars have sought to do, seems, on the whole, scarcely warranted.
Somewhat subsequent to the Upanishads were developed the six orthodox systems of Indian philosophy, the Samkhya and Yoga, the Vaiaeahika and Nyaya, and the Purvamimamsa and Vedanta.
Of these the Vaiseahika and Nyaya s. The Six are systems of logic rather than of Orthodox philosophy; the Samkhya and Yoga, Systems which supplement each other, are of Phi‑ essentially dualistic; while the Purlosophy. vamimamsa and Vedanta, of which the former is the least important of all the systems, represent the spiritual aftermath of the Upanishads, and are, accordingly, rigidly pantheistic.
III. The Age of the Buddhistic and Jainistic Heresies: Beneath the excessive ritual of the Brahmanistic~ period and the pantheistic speculations of a chosen few still lay the popular faith of the Aryan invaders of India. Meanwhile, however, the course of immigration had moved still further to the east and become centered about the holy city of Benares. The doctrine of the misery of all earthly existence was by this time accepted by all, and the teachings of metempsychosis were fully established. The worship of Siva, originally a local godling of some aboriginal western tribe, was attaining such popularity that he was opposed as the Destroyer to the Vedic sun‑god Vishnu, who was worshiped as the Preserver (of the universe). For the sake of symmetry, Brahma, denoting in the Rig‑Veda " prayer," was developed by the priestly theologians into Brahma, the Creator, who, though on the whole a pale abstract deity, respected rather than worshiped, formed the third member of the trimurti, or triad.
The religious texts of this period are comparatively few, though from them may be gleaned data of the greatest importance for a knowledge of India's faith. The principal sources are the law books, especially the famous code of Manu, and the Mahabharata, the great epic of India and the longest poem of all literature. From the point of view of orthodox Hinduism, however, the epoch, possibly because of the comparative scantiness of material, presents less of interest than any of the others. It was, on the other hand, essentially the age of heresy, this term denoting in India simply a formal denial of the divine authority of the three canonical Vedas. There had, of course, been heretics and infidels long before this period; traces of them occur as early as the tenth book of the Rig‑Veda, but it was not until the period under consideration that heresies of lasting importance were able to develop. In the sixth century a.c. arose two independent teachers, both from the Kshatriya, or warrior, class and both accordingly more or less antagonistic to the Brahmans. Forebodings of such a struggle between the two upper castes are not lacking in the Upanishads, where, in more than one instance, a warrior rose superior to a Brahman in theological learning.
Rebelling against Brahman supremacy, ignoring salvation by sacrifice, rejecting the authority of the Vedas, teaching emancipation from the pain of life and the misery of rebirth by personal service to all living creatures however lowly, and choosing, moreover, with pointed significance, as their linguistic medium the despised popular dialects instead of the hallowed Sanskrit of the Brahmans, Sakya Muni (Buddha) and Mahavira founded the religions which still exist as Buddhism and Jainism (qq.v.). When, after the lapse of nearly a millennium, those two religions lost their hold upon India, a new form of Brahmanism arose in what is known as Hinduism (q.v.), the basis of which was a compromise between the orthodox and philosophical Brahmanism of pre‑Buddhistic times and the religions of the Dravidian and other non Aryan peoples of southern India. See IxmrA.

Brsrroaawrax: The literature of India itself is enormous, and that upon it is almost as great. A bibliography of India is much needed. The moat accessible and convenient body of sources for the English reader is the SBE, more than half of which is devoted to translations from the various departments of Indian literature. Outside of this collection, the following texts and translations are important: Sanskrit Texts, Sacred Hymns, 8 vole., London, 1849‑74, new ed., 1890‑92; H. H. Wilson, RigVeda Sanhita, 8 vole., ib. 1850 aqq. (a translation); Rig Veda, a travel. by P. Peterson, ib. 1888; H. Grassmann, Ripveda fiberaetzt, 4 vole., Leipeic, 1878‑77; Rig‑Veda, by A. Ludwig, in B vole., Prague, 187588 (Germ. travel., introduction and commentary); Same‑Veda, T. Benfey, Leipeic. 1848 (text and Germ. travel.); R. T. Griffith, Hymns of the Ripveda, Tranal. wish Commentary, 4 vole., Benarea, 1889‑92; idem, Hymns of the Samavala, Travel. with Commentary, ib. 1893; idem, Hymns of the AthartraYeda, ib., 2 vole., 1895‑98; Atharvaroeda, by A. Ludwig, 2 vole., Prague, 1878 (Germ, travel.); Atharva‑Veda, live vii (viii, xiii) traduit , . , par V. Henry, Paris. 18911892; The Aitareya‑Brah.ma,w,, tranal. by M. Haug, 2 vole., Bombay, 1863; the Brahmamas of the Sama Veda have been edited by A. C. Burnell, 8 vole., London, Trtibner, n.d.; Atharva‑Veda Samhita, Translation and . . . Commentary by w. D. Whitney, ad. C. R. Lanmsn, 2 vole.,

sr~cnW
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	860
Boston, 1908; The Vedantaeam, A Manual of Hindu Pantheism, travel. by G. A. Jacob, ib. 1881. Parts of some of the Upanishads have been edited and translated by E. Roar, 19 parts, Calcutta, n.d., and by E. B. Cowell, 2 parts, ib. 1881. Important is J. Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, 5 vole., London, 1888‑73. The Sutras are repreaerated in the Germ. trans]. by A. F. $tensler, Leipsic, 1878, in the Eng, travel. of W. D. Whitney, New Haven, 1871, and of G. Thibaut, London, TrBbner, n.d.
On the history of Indian literature consult: A. Weber, The White Yajur Veda, Berlin, 1849; idem, A Hint. of Indian Literature, London, 1882 (critical and brief); F. Max Mifller, Hint. of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, ib. 1860 (now out of print); A. Ksegi, Dar Rigseda Leipeic, 1881, Eng. tranal., London, 1888; F. Nave, Lea E#poquea lit1& rairea de I'Inde, Paris, 1887; J. C. Oman, The Great Indian Epics, London, 1884 (a condensation of the stories, with notes); A. A. Macdonell, Hint. of Sanskrit Literature, ib. 1900; E. w. Hopkins, The (bent Epic of India, New Haven, 1901.
On the philosophy the beat single book is F. Max Mtiller, Six Systems of Indian Philosophy, London, 1899, ef. his Three Lectures on the Vedanta Philosophy, ib. 1894. Other works are J. Davies, The Sankhya Karika of lawara Krishna. An Exposition of the System of Kapilb, ib. 1881; A. E. Gough, Philosophy of the Upanishads, ib. 1882; Ram Chandra Bose, Hindu Philosophy popularly Explained, Calcutta, 1888• M. Williams, Indian Wisdom, London, 1893; R. .Garbs, Philosophy of Ancient India, Chicago, 1897 (an excellent " first book "); J. Kreyher, Die Weiaheit der Brahmanen and den Chrietentuma, GUtereloh, 1901; P. Doveaen, Philosophy of the Upanishads, Edinburgh, 1905; idem, Die Geheimlehre den Veda, Leipaio, 1907; idem, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Berlin, 1907; L. D. Barnett, Some Sayings of the Upanishads, London, 1908; $. A. Desai, A Study of the Indian Philosophy, ib. 1907.
On the religion of India the beet single book is R. w. Frazer, Literary Hist. of India, New York, 1898. H. T. Colebrooke, Essays on the Religion and Philosophy of the Hindus, 2d ed. by his son, 3 vols., London, 1873, is a classic, with which should be put C. Lassen, Indischs Alterthumakunde, 4 vole., Bonn, 1847‑81. Of high value is J. H. Wilson, Essays on the Religion of the Hindus, 2 vols., London, 1861‑82. Other treatises are: $. Johnson, Oriental Religions, India, Boston, 1872; F. Mss Miiller, Lectures on . . . Religions of India, London, 1879; A. Berth, Religions of India, ib. 1882; W. J. wilkina, Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic, ib. 1882; A. w. walne, Cosmology o/ the Rip vela, ib. 1887; M. williams, Religious Life and Thought in India, ib. 1887; G. A. Jacob, Hindu Pantheism, ib. 1889; J. Doweon, Clasrioal Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, ib. 1891; Religious Systems of the World, ib. 1893; H. Oldenberg, Die Religion den Veda, Berlin. 1894; idem, Ancient India, its Language arid Reigions, London, 1898; E. w. Hopkins, Religions of India, Boston, 1895 (very useful, systematic and clear, gives list of works); idem, India, Old and New, New York, 1902; M. Phillips, The Teaching of the Vedas, London, 1895; Z. A, Ragosin, Vedic India, ib 1895; A Weber, Valiache Beitrupa, Berlin, 1895; A. Hillebrandt, Vediachs Mytholopie, 3 vole., Brealau, 1902; J. C. Oman, Mystics, Aacatica and Saints of India, London, 1903; J. M. Mitchell, Great Religions of India, New York, 1905; E. B. Haven, Benarea the Sacred City. Sketches of Hindu Life and Religion, London, 1908.
BRAHMO SOMAJ: A Hindu theistic society. Its aim is the monotheistic reform of the Hindu polytheistic religion. The founder, Rammohan Roy (b. 1774), of Brahman descent, through the study of the Koran and the Bible became estranged from his ancestral belief, and was attracted by Christianity, without, however, getting beyond a rationalistic pantheism. He endeavored to formulate a universal monotheism based upon various ancient scriptures. He denounced ethnic impurities, but maintained the institution of caste. In 1816 he gathered a small community at Calcutta, the Atmiya Sabha, of which he was the leader till his death, Sept. 28, 1833, at Bristol, England, where he acted as political agent.
The weakened reform party was strengthened in 1839 by the founding of the Tatwabodhini Sabha, whose leader was Babu Devendranath Tagore. He held aloof from Christian influences in the patriotic effort to restore (what he regarded as) the pure religion of the Vedas, but finally conceived a deistic system on the basis of reason, rejecting all scriptures. In 1862 the religious community was reorganized as the Adi Somaj. Meanwhile a follower named Dayanand Saraswati had turned again to the Vedas, which he regarded as teaching a purely theistic religion, and as anticipating also the results of modern culture. He founded the Arya Somaj, the adherents of which came afterward under spiritualistic influences. The two societies last named found a competitor in the adherents of Babu Keshav Chandra Sera (b. Nov. 19, 1838, at Calcutta), who, through European culture had become dissatisfied with the religion of his ancestors, and attempted to find rest in philosophy. But this brought no satisfaction to his religiously disposed mind. After much study of the Bible he came to a decision, and in 1858 joined the Adi Somaj. For a time he cooperated with Devendranath Tagore, but finally found himself at variance with this conservatively disposed leader, who did not approve his bold denunciation of the shameful practises of heathenism, and even of caste. After the rupture which naturally resulted, in 1863 he founded the Brahirlo Smnaj of India, which soon developed an activity that almost rivaled the Christian propaganda. He went to England in 1870, where he was much honored. Many Christian ideas tending to promote his cause were brought back by him to India, and the Brahmo Stmtaj found many adherents. But he grew more conservative and gradually drew away from Occidental influences. The representatives of progress separated and founded the Sadharan Brahmo Somaj. Only the less important members of the former community adhered to Chandra Sen, who lost himself more and more in a dark mysticism. Finally he appeared as the founder of a world‑religion (" The New Dispensation "), as he claimed by divine command. For the new Church he prepared a ritual and teaching. Nevertheless, his success was not striking, though by his small circle of adherents he was almost worshiped. He died January 8, 1884. His successor, Babu Protap Chandra Mozumdar, had great difficulty in preventing the further disruption of the community, and little progress was made. In 1891 it numbered 3,051 members, mostly in Bengal.
The Arya Somaj had a larger success, developing especially in the United Provinces and the Punjab, numbering some 40,000 members. But few of the Brahmo Somaj have accepted Christianity. See Ixnlw, III, 1. R. GxmNnn>utxrt.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources: Indian Mirror, Calcutta, 1881
	1880; Sunday Mirror, ib.1880‑82• The Liberal and the New
	Dispensation, ib. 1881 eqq.; Theistic Annual, ib. 1872
	eqq.; Theistic Quarterly Review, ib. 1879. Consult also:
	Mary Carpenter, Last Days is England of ILamohu>a Roy,
	London, 1888; A. Chunder Sen. Brahmo Somaj, ib. 1870;
	J. Hesse, Dar Brahmo Soma] . , in Basler Missions
	Mapazin, 1878 PP. 385 eqq : Keaavacbandra, Brahmo
	Somaj, Calcutta, 183: F. Max Mailer, in Biographical Es‑

251	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Brahmo 8omQ
Bramhau
says, London, 1884 (gives accounts of recent religious movements); T. E. Slater, Keahah Chundra Son and the Brahma Samaj, Madras, 1884; P. C. Moaoomdar, Life and Teachings of Chunder Sen, Calcutta, 1887; H. Baynes, Evolution o/ Religious Thought in India. London, 1889 (s full account); L. J. Frohmeyer, Neuere Retormbeetrebungen in Hinduiemua, in Basler Missions Mapaain, 1888, pp. 129 eqq.; The Offering of Devendranwlh Tagore, trans]. by hf. M. Chatterji, Calcutta, 1889; Rsmmohun Roy, Enpliah Works, 2 vola., London, 1888; Navaksnte Chattopadhyaya, Life and Character of Ram Mohun Roy. Dacca, 1890; C. N. Aitchison, The Brahmo 8omaj, in Church Missionary In6ellipenar, 1893. pp. 181 eqq.

BRAIG, KARL VON BORROMAEO: German Roman Catholic; b. at Kanzach (a village near Buchau, 30 m. s.w. of Ulm) Feb. 10, 1853. He was educated at the University of TUbingen (Ph.D., 1877), where he was instructor in dogmatic theology in 1879‑83, and was parish priest at Wildbad and district inspector of schools, except for tours of Austria, Germany, France, Italy, and England, from 1883 to 1893. In the latter year he was appointed associate professor of apologetics and dogmatics at the University of Freiburg, and four years later was promoted to his present position of full professor of the same subjects. He is also director of the dogmatic seminar in the univereity, and has written Ztikttnftsreligion den Unbewtisaten (Freiburg, 1882); Kunst den Gedankenleaena (Frankfort, 1886); EncykloP6die der theoretischen Philoaophie (Stuttgart, 1886); Gottesbeweia oder Gottesbeweisef (1888); APologie des Chriatentums (Freiburg, 1889); La Mature (Paris, 1891); Die Freiheit der philosophischen Forschung (Freiburg, 1894); Vom Denken (1896); Vom Sein (1896); Vom Erkennen (1897); Leibniz, sein Leben and die Bedeutung seiner Lehre (Frankfort, 1901); Zur Erinnervng an Franz Xavier Krauss (Freiburg, 1902); Wesen des Chriatentums (1903); and Der Papst and die Freiheit (1903).

BRAINERD, DAVID: Missionary to the American Indiana; b. at Haddam, Conn., Apr. 20, 1718; d. at the home of Jonathan Edwards (to whose daughter Jemima he was engaged), Northampton, Mass., Oct. 9, 1747. He entered Yale College in 1739 and was expelled in his junior year; it was the time of the Great Awakening and Brainerd, who was " sober and inclined to melancholy " from childhood, sympathized with the " New Lights " (Whitefield, Tennent, and their followers); he attended their meetings when forbidden to do so, and criticized one of the tutors as having " no more grace than a chair"; as a consequence he was expelled. He was licensed at Danbury, Conn., July 29, 1742; was approved as a missionary by the New York correspondents of the Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge, Nov. 25, 1742, and labored among the Indiana at Kaunaumeek (Brainerd, Rensselaer County, N. Y., 18 m. s.e. of Albany) Apr., 1743‑Mar., 1744; was ordained as a missionary at Newark, N. J., June 12, 1744; ten days later began work at what was intended to be his permanent station, at the forks of the Delaware, near Easton, Penn.; in October he visited the Indiana on the Susquehanna, and June 19, 1745, began to preach at Croeaweeksung (Crosewick, 9 m. s.e. of Trenton), the scene of his greatest success. His life among the Indiana was
one of hardship and suffering borne with heroic
fortitude and self‑devotion; his health gave way
under the strain and he relinquished the work,
Mar. 20, 1747, dying from consumption. The
portions of his diary dealing with his work at Croea
weeksung (June 19‑Nov. 4, 1745, and Nov. 24,
1745‑June 19, 1746) were published before his
death, by the commissioners of the Society (Mira
bilia dei inter Indicoa : or the rise and progress of a
remarkable work of grace among a number of the
Indians in the provinces of New Jersey and Penn
sylvania ; and Divine Grace Displayed: or the
continuance and progress o f a remarkable work o f
grace, etc., both published at Philadelphia, 1748,
and commonly known as " Brainerd's Journal ").
All of his papers, including an account of his early
life and the original copy of his diary, were left
with Jonathan Edwards, who prepared An Account
of the Life of the Late Rev. David Brainerd (Boston,
1749), omitting the parts of the diary already
published. The life and diary entire, with his
letters and other writings, were edited by S. E.
Dwight (New Haven, 1822) and by J. M. Sherwood
(New York, 1884). His place as missionary was
taken, at his request, by his brother John (b. at
Haddam, Conn., Feb. 28, 1720; d. at Deerfield,
N. J., Mar. 18, 1781). He was graduated at Yale,
1746. His work was hindered by disputes about
title to Indian lands, war, and opposition from.
the Quakers; he was dismissed by the Society in
Scotland in 1755, reengaged in 1756, again dis
missed in 1757, and again asked to return in 1759;
the funds provided by the Society and by the Synod
of New York and New Jersey were insufficient,
and he gave freely from his own scanty means;
he served the whites no less faithfully than the
Indians and was at the same time both foreign and
home missionary; after 1777 he had charge of a
church at Deerfield. Consult his life by Thomas
Brainerd (Philadelphia, 1865).
BRAINERD, THOMAS: American Presbyterian; b. at Leyden, Lewis County, N. Y., June 17, 1804; d. at Scranton, Penn., Aug. 22, 1866. He gave up the study of law for theology, and was graduated at Andover in 1831; was pastor of the Fourth Presbyterian Church, Cincinnati, 1831‑33; of the Pine Street (Third) Presbyterian Church, Philar.. delphia, 1837 till his death. He was a leader of the New School branch of the Presbyterian Church, a personal friend of Lyman Beecher and Albert Barnes; was distinguished for patriotic ardor and services during the Civil War. Ha wrote much for religious periodicals, edited the Cincinnati Journal, a Presbyterian religious paper (1833‑36), and a young people's paper, and wrote the Life of John Brainerd (Philadelphia, 186b). His greatgreat‑grandfather was an uncle of David and John Brainerd, the missionaries.
BIHLioa$APBY: Mary Brainerd, Life at Rev. Thomas Brainerd, Philadelphia, 1870.
BRAMH.ALL, JOHN: Protestant archbishop of Arfns
	.~gh; b. at or near Pontefract (22 m. s.e.w.
of York), Yorkshire, 1594; d. at Omagh (30 m. s.
of Londonderry), County Tyrone, Ireland, June
25, 1663. He studied at Sidney Sussex College,
Cambridge (B.A., 1612; M.A., 1616; B.D., 1623;

Brandenburg
Braetow	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	252
D.D., 1630); took orders about 1616 and distinguished himself in Yorkshire, where he received several appointments. In 1633 he went to Ireland as chaplain to Wentworth (afterward Earl of Strafford); became archdeacon of Meath, and, in 1634, bishop of Derry. He did much to increase the revenues of the Irish Church, and tried to establish episcopacy more firmly. Most of the time from the Irish insurrection of 1641 till the Restoration he spent on the Continent, was made archbishop of Armagh in 1661, arid as such displayed a commendable moderation in striving to secure conformity. His works were collected by John Vesey, archbishop of Tuam, and published at Dublin in 1677; they include five treatises against Romaniats, three against sectaries, three against Hobbes, and seven miscellaneous, in defense of royalist and Anglican views. The works are reprinted in the Library of Anglo‑Catholic Theology (5 vols., Oxford, 1842‑45) with life.
BRANDENBURG, BISHOPRIC OF: A diocese established .by Otto the Great in 948, including the territory between the Elbe on the west, the Oder on the east, and the Black Elster on the south, and taking is the Uckermark to the north. It was originally under the archiepiscopal jurisdiction of Mainz, but in 968 was transferred to that of Magdeburg. The disturbances of 983 practically annihilated it; bishops continued to be named, but they were merely titular, until the downfall of the Wends in the twelfth century and the German settlement of that region revived the bishopric. Bishop Wigers (1138‑60) was the first of a series of bishops of the Premonatratenaian order; which chose the occupants of the see until 1447; in that year a bull of Nicholas V gave the right of nomination to the elector of Brandenburg, with whom the bishops stood in a close feudal relation. The last actual bishop was Matthias von Jagow (d. 1544), who took the aide of the Reformation, married, and in every way furthered the undertakings of Elector Joachim II (q.v.). There were two more nominal bishops, but on the petition of the latter of these, the electoral prince John George, the secularization of the bishopric was undertaken and finally accomplished, in spite of legal proceedings to have the bishopric declared immediately dependent on the empire and so to preserve it, which dragged on into the seventeenth century.

BRANDENBURG, CONFESSIONS or CONFESSIONS OF THE MARK (Confessioneamarchicee, i.e., Brennoburgenses): The confessions of the mark Brandenburg during the Reformation. They are three in number: (1) the Confession prepared by order of Johann Sigismund elector of Brandenburg, 1614, which was intended to reconcile the views of Luther with those of Calvin (see Sr(11$MUND, JOHANN); (2) the Leipsic Colloquy, 1631, i.e., the declarations of the theologians who took part in the Colloquy of Leipsic (q.v.),1631; (3) the Declaration of Thorn, 1645 (see THORN, CoN1EftENCE OF).
BIBLIOGRAPHY; The text of the three confessions is in J. C.
	W. Auguati, Corpus lzbrorum eymboliconsm pP 369 aqq.,
	Elberfeld, 1827 and in H. A. Niemeyer, Collectio confss.
	eaonum in	reformato publicalorum PP 642 aqq Wcksia
Leipeic, 1840. Consult Schaff. Cracde, ii, 5b4‑b83.~~
BRAftDES, br8n'dez, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH: German Reformed; b. at Salzuflen (48 m. sw. of Hanover) Apr. 25, 1825. Educated at the University of Berlin, he was successively second preacher and rector at Salzuflen from 1853 to 1856, and pastor at GSttingen from 1856 to 1901. Since the latter year he has been court‑preacher at Biickeburg. Among his numerous writings those of theological interest are: Wir werden leben, Geaprache fiber Unsterblichkeit (Gbttingen, 1858); John Knox, der Reformator 6chottlGnds (Elberfeld, 1862); Katechismus der christliehen Lehre (Gottingen, 1865); Verfassung der Kirche nach evangelischen Grundsatzen (2 vole., Elberfeld, 1867); Zur Wiedervereinigung der beiden ea;angelischen Kirchen (Gottingen, 1868); Des Apostel Paulus Sendsehreiben an die Galater (Wiesbaden, 1869); Geschichte der kirchlichen Polizei des Houses Brandenburg (2 vole., Goths, 1872‑73); Blieke in das Seelenlebert des Hewn (Giitensloh, 1888); Unser He" Christus. i, Seine Person (1901); and Einigungen der evangelischera Kirehen sin Befehl des Herrn (Berlin, 1902).
BRANDT, WILHELM: Dutch Protestant; b. at Amsterdam July 22, 1855. He was educated for the ministry of the Dutch Reformed Church and was a pastor until 1891, when he went to Berlin, where he resided for two years. Since 1893 he hoe been professor of New Testament exegesis and the history of religions at the University of Amsterdam. In theology lie belongs to the hiatorico‑critical school, and has written Die mditdkische Religion (Leipsie, 1889); Manaldische Schri/ten (G6ttingen, 1893); and Die evangelische Geschichte und der Ursprung des Chriatenthums (Leipsic, 1893).
BRA", HENRY ATHANASIUS: Roman Catholic; b. at Parkatown (27 m: s.w. of Drogheda), County Meath, Ireland, Aug. 15, 1837. He came to the United States at the age of ten, and was educated at St. Mary's College, Wilmington, Del., St. Francis Xavier's College, New York City (B.A., 1857), St. Sulpice, Paris (18570), and the American College, Rome (D.D., 1862). He was ordained to the priesthood at Rome in 1862, being the first priest of the American College, and from 1862 to 1864 was vice‑president of Seton Hall College, South Orange, N. J., where he also taught theology. Four years later he became director of au ecclesiastical seminary at Wheeling, W. Va., where he remained until 1870, when he was appointed rector of St. Elizabeth's Church, Fort Washington, N. 1'. Twenty years later he became rector of St. Agness Church, New York City, where he still remains. He is archdiocesan censor of books and has written Curious Questions (Newark, N. J., 1867);

Truth and Error (New York, 1871); Essay on the Popes (1875); The Age of Unreason (1881); The j,,
mortality of the Soul (1882); and Life of Archbishop
Hughes (1892).
BAN, MARCUS: German Jewish historian; b. at Rawitach (G4 m. s. of Posen) July 9, 1849. He was educated at the University of Breslau (Ph.D., 1873) and the rabbinical seminary in the same city, from which he was graduated in 1875. He was

283	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Brandenburg
		Braetow
then a rabbi in various cities of Germany until
	1891, when he was appointed to succeed H. Graetz
as professor of history and Biblical exegesis in the
	Jewish theological seminary at Breslau, where he
	still remains. He has written: De Herodis Magni
	filiis Patrem in imperio seeutis (Breslau, 1873);
	Die Sohne des Herodes (1873); Geschichte der Gesell
	schaft der Briider in Breslau (1880); Geschichte der
	Juden and ihrer Literatur (2 vole., 1893‑94);
	Geschichte des Rabbinate in Schneidemiihl (1894);
	Geschichte der Juden in Schlesien (3 parts, 1895
	1901); Bin kurzer Gang durch die jiidische Ge
	schichte (1895); Ein kurzer Gang durch die Ge
	schichte der jiidischen Literatur (1896); Lehrbuch
	der jiidischen Geschichte (4 vole., 1900‑03); and
	Geschichte des j iidischera theologischen Seminars
	(1904). He has likewise edited the Jahrbttch
	xur Belehrung and Unterhaltung since 1890, and
	from 1892 to 1899, in collaboration with D. Kauf
	mann, edited the Monatsschrift fur Geschichte and
	Wissenschaft des Judentums, becoming its sole
	editor on Kaufmann's death in the latter year.
	He likewise collaborated with F. Rosenthal in
	editing the Gedenkbuch zur Erinnerung an David
	Kaufmann (Breslau, 1900).
		BRANT, brunt, SEBASTIAN: German satirist; b.
	at Strasburg 1457; d. there May 10,1521. He was
	but ten years old when his father died, and, after
	being educated privately, entered the University
	of Basel in 1475, where the strife between realism
	and nominalism had been revived as a struggle
	between humanism and scholasticism. There Brunt
	devoted himself half‑heartedly to the study of law,
	but his preference for philosophy and poetry
	proved too unremunerative to yield him a liveli
	hood, so he was obliged to take up the study of
	jurisprudence in earnest, and finally received the
	degree of doctor of civil and canon law in 1489.
	Meanwhile he had developed a literary activity
	which led him, in addition to the lectures which he
	delivered after 1484, to write book upon book,
	partly on jurisprudence, both in Latin and the ver
	nacular, and partly in verse, chiefly in German.
	Filled with longing for his native city, he applied
	for the vacant position of syndic, and secured it
	in the early part of 1501, both through his own
	reputation and through the recommendation of
	Johann Geiler. Two years afterward he was
	appointed secretary of the municipality, and later
	was made imperial councilor to the emperor Maxi
	milian.
		Though Brunt was either the author or the editor
	of a long series of books, there is but one which
	has preserved his fame to the present day, the
	Narrenschiff (Basel, 1494). The end of the Middle
	Ages, which marked the wreck and ruin of all the
	ancient conditions in Church and State, as well as
	in moral and social life, was felt most keenly in
					Germany, where it evoked a spirit of
				His	satire which spared neither life nor
		"Ship of death. The most striking represent
			Fools."	ative of this tendency, next to the
					Dance of Death, is the Narrenschi ff of
	Brunt. Wherever the poet looked, he saw only
	folly, regardless of sex, age, or estate, and as at
carnival the mummers ran through the streets in the guise of fools, often with ships on wheels, he regarded life as a great carnival, where fool on fool took his seat in the ship of fools to voyage to Narrar gonia, the land of fools. Brunt was, therefore, in this sense the spokesman of his time, and his work has become immortal in that it is a mirror of the period. He remained true, moreover, to the genius of the German people, despite his attraction toward humanism and his numerous sentiments and parallels drawn from the classics. His views and his habits of thought were taken from the life around him, and his German, though evidently based on his Latinity, is neither as awkward nor as unintelligible as that of Niclas of Wyle immediately preceding him or that of his successor Hutten. He was so far from intending to restrict his work to the learned that he even considered those who did not know how to read, and accordingly adorned his book with pictures as a substitute for the letters. The Narrertschiff, therefore, alternates between picture.and text, thus giving a double representation of folly, an arrangement which divides the poem into disjointed fragments succeeding each other by chance rather than by design, although the diversity of the material would scarcely have permitted the author to mold it into a homogeneous whole. Yet Brunt was swayed by two opposing tendencies, and while, on the one hand, he did not hesitate to expose the faults in the external life of the Church with its lack of faith, and its lack of morality, he feared to touch its inner and higher teachings, and lamented the wavering bark of St. Peter, upbraiding the heretics and regarding the printer as an unmixed evil. (E. STEINMEYER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Narreruchijj was reprinted many times and was as frequently revamped, especially in the Latin translation of Jakob Locher Philomusus (1497). In 1497 it was translated into French, four years later into Latin verse by Jodocua Badius Ascenaius, in 1519 into Low German, and in 1835 into Dutch, while in 1509 it was rendered into English by Alexander Barclay (q.v.) under the title of the Ship o/ Fools. The best German edition is by F. Zarncke, Leipsic, 1854, next to it is that by K. Goedeke, ib. 1872. In 1498 s aeries of sermons was based upon the Narrenech%/j by Geiler of Kaiseraberg, and it was repeatedly imitated, as in the Von S. Uraulen‑Schifllein, by the Brotherhood of St. Ursula (Strasburg, 1497), and by Brunt's compatriot, Thomas Murner, in his Narrenbeaehtotrung (1512). Bibliographies are given by C. Schmidt, Hiatoire l%ttJraire de Z'Alaace. i, 189‑333, ii, 340‑373, Paris, 1879, and K. Goedeke, Gruradriaa zur Geachiehte der deutaclun Dichtunp, i, 383‑392, Dresden, 1884. The beat accounts of the life of Brunt are to be found in the introductions to the editions of the Narrenachig by Zarncke and Goedeke, ut sup. Consult also C. Schmidt, Notice Bur S&aetian Brunt, in the Revue d'Alaacs, new aeries, vol. iii, 1874.
BRASTBERGER, IMMANUEL GOTTLOB: Popular German preacher; b. at Sulz (40 m. s.w. of Stuttgart), Wiirttemberg, 1716; d. July 13, 1784, as SZoezialsuperintendent at Niirtingen. His sermons on the Gospels, Evangelische Zeugnisse der Wahrheit ztir Aufmunterung im toahren Christenthum (Stuttgart, 1758) are still read, the eightyfifth edition having appeared at Reutlingen in 1883, and a translation into Polish in 1905.
BRASTOW, LEWIS ORSMOftD: Congregationalist; b. at Brewer, Me., Mar. 23, 1834. He watt educated at Bowdoin College (B.A., 1857) and

Bratke
Brazil
Bangor Theological Seminary (18G0), and held successive pastorates at the South Congregational Church, St. Johnsbury, Vt. (1860‑73), and the First Congregational Church, Burlington, Vt. (1873‑84), in addition to being chaplain of the Twelfth Vermont Volunteers in the Civil War. Since 1885 he has been professor of practical theology in Yale Divinity School. He was a member of the Constitutional Convention of the State of Vermont in 1870. In theology he is a conservative liberal, and in addition to numerous briefer contributions has written Representative Modern Preachers (New York, 1904) and The Modern Pulpit (190G).
BRATB.E, EDUARD: German Protestant; b. at Neuhaus (a village near Waldenburg, 43 m. s.w. of Breslau), Silesia, Feb. 26, 1861; d. at Breslau Jan. 30, 1906. He was educated at the universities of Berlin, GSttingen (Ph.D., 1883), and Breslau (licentiate of theology, 1885). In 1886 be became privet‑docent of the latter university, but four years later was called to Bonn as associate professor of church history, remaining there until 1903, when he returned to Breslau as full professor of the same subject. He wrote Justus Geaeniua and seine Verdienate um die hannoveriache Landeakirche (Gottingen, 1883); Lathers fanfundneunzig Theaen and ihre dogmenhiatorischen Vorauasetzungen (1884); Weguxiser zur Quellen‑ and Literaturkunde der Kirchengeachichte (Goths, 1890); Daa neuentdeckte vierte Buck des Danielkommentara de,8 Hippolytus (Bonn, 1891); Des aogenannte Religionsgeapriich am Hot der Sasaniden (Leipsie, 1900); Die Weisheit ties Todea (Giitereloh, 1902); and Euagrii altercatio legis inter Simonem Juda'um et Theophilum Christian‑ (Vienna, 1904; text and commentary).

BRATTON, THEODORE DU BOSE: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Mississippi; b. at Winnsboro, S. C., Nov. 11, 1882. He studied at the University of the South, Sewanee, Tenn., but withdrew in 1882, a few months before graduation, because of trouble with his eyes. He was at once appointed proctor of the university, and in 1883 became a teacher in the preparatory school attached to the same institution. He pursued theological studies in St. Luke's Theological Hall, the seminary of the University, and was graduated in 1887. He was ordered deacon in the same year and was priested in 1888, after having been a missionary in his native State in the interval. He was then rector of the Church of the Advent, Spar tanburg, S. C., 1888‑99, also being professor of history in Converse College, Spartanburg, 1890‑99, after which he was rector of St. Mary's School for Girls at Raleigh, N. C. In 1903 he was consecrated third bishop of the diocese of Mississippi.

Bp JOHANN WILHELM JOSEF: Roman Catholio theologian and scholar; b. at Gronau (30 m. n.w. of Miinater) Apr. 27, 1801; d. at Bonn Kept. 30, 1863. He was associated with the University of Bonn as a student from 1821 to 1825, adjunct professor from 1829 to 1833, and professor of theology from 1833. For the part which he took in the Uermesian controversy see HE$ME6, GEORG. With J. H. Achterfeld, he published the Zeit‑
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
254
achrift fur Philosophic and katholiache Theologie from 1832 to 1852. His Bibliotheca regularum fidei (Bonn, 1844) and a number of occasional archeological studies should also be mentioned.
(A. Heuck.)

BRAY, GUIDO DE. See BxiLs.

BRAY, THOMAS: Church of England; b. at Merton, near Cherbury (17 m. s.w. of Shrewsbury), Shropshire, 1656; d. in London Feb. 15, 1730. He studied at Oxford (B.A., All Souls, 1678; M.A., Hart Hall, 1693; B.D. and D.D., Magdalen, 1696), took orders about 1678, and soon won friends and advancement by his " exemplary behaviour and distinguished diligence." In 1690 he became rector of Sheldon, Warwickshire. In 1696 Bishop Compton of London appointed him commissary for Maryland. He was unable to sail for the colony until Dec., 1699, landed in Mar., 1700, but after a residence of less than six months returned to England, finding he could better promote the interests of the province there. From 1706 he was rector of St. Botolph Without, Aldgate, London.
Bray's life furnishes a striking example of what can be accomplished by energy, good judgment, and disinterested benevolence. As soon as he was appointed commissary for Maryland he took up the work, and, while detained in England, tried to find there suitable men to send out as missionaries and formed a plan to provide them with books. He did not limit his good cervices to Maryland, and his plan grew into a scheme for a " Protestant congregation pro propaganda fide
Bray's by charter from the king." When
Varied this failed in spite of persistent enand deavor, he organized a voluntary
Effective	society to provide libraries at home
	Activity.	and abroad and to support schools
		and missions for the colonies and the
heathen. The first meeting was held Mar. 8, 1699,
and this was the beginning of the Society for the Pro
motion of Christian Knowledge (q.v.). In June,1701,
he divided its work and procured a royal charter for
a second society‑the Society for the Propagation of
the Gospel in Foreign Parts (q.v.). From his appoint
ment as commissary till he was able to sail he bore
his own expenses sad he paid the costs of his
voyage. By his return he forfeited his salary,
which was available only when he was in Maryland.
A present of £400 he devoted to public use. He
collected and managed a fund for the instruction
of the negroea in the provinces, and, at the age of
seventy‑one, became interested in the prisoners
in the London jails and undertook to ameliorate
their condition. It is believed that he influenced
General Oglethorpe to found the colony of Georgia.
His benefactions were continued by numerous
bequests in his will.
Bray's exertions resulted in the foundation of nearly forty libraries in America. In 1699, just before he sailed for Maryland, he
Libraries wrote that he had sent books to the in America. value of £2,400 into the plantations, " whereby thirty libraries have been already advanced, and a foundation is laid of seventy libraries more:' The greater number

:d68	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
		Braza
were in Maryland, but there were several in Virginia, two in North Carolina, and one each in Boston, Rhode Island, New York City, Albany, New Jersey, Philadelphia, and Charleston. That at Annapolis, Md., was the largest collection of books at the time in the plantations and was the first lending library in the British colonies. Its remains are now in the possession of St. John's College, Annapolis. The remnant of the Boston library is in the Boston Athenaeum.
After a severe illness in 1723 Bray chose four friends to assist in the management of the negro schools and continue his work after his death. Thus originated " Dr. Bray's Associates for Founding Clerical Libraries and Supporting Negro Schools," an association which has continued to exist and in 1908 reported 130 libraries maintained in England and Wales and 153 in sixty‑seven colonial and missionary dioceses; during the year two new libraries were founded and negro schools were maintained in Nova Scotia and the Bahama Islands. The
total number of libraries founded in The Bray Great Britain and the colonies is
	Associates.	over 500. About eighty of the total
		number were founded by Dr. Bray, ex
clusive of those established in America. A reorgani
zation of the"Associates" was effected in 1905,and
a division of the funds was made whereby the in
come of an endowment amounting to about £7,000
will be applied to the support of the schools; the
remainder of the funds, amounting to about E4,500,
will be used to establish, maintain, or augment
theological libraries in Great Britain or elsewhere
for the use of clergymen of the Church of England
and students who are candidates for holy orders.
While at Sheldon, Bray planned A Course of Lectures upon the Church Catechism, in l volumes, and completed vol. i, twenty‑six lectures, On the Preliminary Questions and Answers (Oxford, 1898); the book proved popular, brought him upward of £700, extended his reputation to London, and helped to secure his appointment as commissary; voLs. ii‑iv were not completed. In connection with his library plans he published: Bibliotheca
	parochialis, or a scheme o f such theo
	Writings. logical heads as are requisite to be
studied by every pastor of a parish, with a catalogue of books (London, 1897; 2d ed., much changed, 1707); An Essay towards Prorooting All Necessary and Useful Knowledge (1897), closing with a catalogue of sixty‑three books " designed to lay the foundation of lending‑libraries to be fixed in all the market‑towns in England "; Bibliotheca txttechetica, or the country curate's Wary (1702); and Primordia bibliothecaria (1728), in which he gives " several schemes of parochial libraries " and outlines a method " to proceed by a gradual progression from strength to strength, from a collection not much exceeding in value £1 to £ 100" Several Circular Letters to the Clergy of Maryland (1701) treats of the "work of catechising " and the " duty of preaching," with many practical directions for the use of books; a list for a " layman's library " is appended. Of interest as Americana are: a sermon on Apostolic Charily, preceded by A General View of the English Colonies
in America with Respect to Religion (London, 1698);
a sermon on The Necessity of an Early Religion,
preached before the Assembly of Maryland (Ann
apolis, 1700; the earliest extant work printed in
Maryland); The Acts of Dr. Bray's Visitation at
Annapolis, May 23‑26, 1700 (London, 1700;
reprinted in F. L. Hawks's Contributions to the
Ecclesiastical History of the United States, vol. ii,
New York, 1839, pp. 497‑523); A Memorial Rep
resenting the Present State o f Religion an the Conti
nent of North America (1700). He was a strong
Anti‑Romanist, and another noteworthy publica
tion was Papal Usurpation and Persecution (1712),
intended as a supplement to Fox's Book o f Martyrs.
The materials gathered for this volume and a con
tinuation of it, which he did not complete, he left
to Sion College, London.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bray's Life and Designs, written probably, by Richard Rawlineoa (d. 1755) and preserved in manuscript in the Bodleian Library, has been made the basis of all subsequent accounts (such as Public Spirit Illustrated in the Life and Designs of the Rev. Thomas Bray, London, 1748, 2d ed., with notes and the report of the " Associates " for 1807, by Henry J. Todd 1808), and has bean printed in full, with valuable notes and Selected Works Relating to Maryland, by B. C. Steiner. Maryland Historical Society Fund Publication no. 57, Baltimore, 1901. An article by Mr. Steiner in The American Historical Roroiew, ii (1897), b9‑7b, gives an account Qf Bray's American libraries. Some information concerning the fate of those in England may be found in the Transactions and Prooea3iups of the First Annual Meeting of the Library Aomeiatioa of the United Kingdom, pp. b1‑53, 145‑1b0, London, 1879. A paper by J. F. Hurst on Parochial Libraries in the Colonial Period, in Papers of the American Society of Church History, vol. ii, part 1, New York, 1890, deals with the Bray libraries. The " Associates " (address, 19 Delahay St., London, B. W.) publish an annual report which contains a brief Memoir of Dr. Bray.
BRAZIL: A republic of eastern South America; area, 3,218,100 square miles; population,15,000,000. Brazil became independent of Portugal by the creation of the Empire of Brazil in 1822, which was superseded without war in 1889 by the United States of Brazil, forming a republic with a new constitution framed in 1891. Each of twenty states sends representatives to the senate and house of deputies, but retains a large measure of selfgovernment. It is expressly forbidden to " create, support, of prevent religious denominations," the basal principle being the free exercise of all religions, so far as they are not prejudicial to the public welfare. No religion, therefore, receives aid from the State, and civil marriage before a magistrate is legal, while instruction in the schools is required to be secular, the religious orders being suppressed. Simultaneously with the promulgation of this constitution, and partly in consequence of it, there was a rapid increase in immigration from Europe to Brazil, although for many years previously s considerable number of Italians had been coming to the country. This, however, made little change in religious conditions, although in more recent times the German immigration has somewhat increased, and a small number of North Americans has been added to the Italians, particularly in the cities; this increase, predominantly Protestant, is almost negligible in comparison with the numbers of Its(iane, Portuguese, and Spaniards. NonGerman Ptotestant denominations are also rep‑

Brazil
Breed	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	256
resented, especially in the maritime towns, where there are English churches, which, however, do not always have permanent rectors. The Presbyterians, particularly from North America, have settled in considerable numbers in Sao Paulo, where they have established a college, and the American Seaman's Friend Society has an agent in the capital, Rio de Janeiro. In 1899 the Protestant Episcopal Church made the Rev. Lucien Lee Kineolving (q.v.) bishop of southern Brazil, with residence at Rio Grande do Sul (Sao Pedro). In 1907 his diocese was made an integral part of the American Episcopal Church.
German Protestantism is represented over an extensive territory and has numerous centers, as is shown by the existence of two great ecclesiastical bodies, the " Evangelical German Synod," subject to the jurisdiction of the higher church council of Berlin since 1869, and the " Evangelical Synodical Union " of 1884. The latter receives its clergy not only from Berlin, but also through the missionary societies of Barmen and Basel, especially in view of the number of Swiss immigrants to Brazil. Many German evangelical communities, as well as scattered members of the Evangelical Church are found both in Rio de Janeiro itself anFl the state of the same name (including Petropolis) and the state of Espirito Santo (including Leopoldina), and especially in the four southern states of Sao Paulo, Parang, Santa Catharina, and Rio Grande do Sul. In the latter state there are forty congregations, while in Santa Catharina 7,500 Protestants live in the German city of Blumenau alone, and of the 100,000 Germans in the state about two‑thirds are evangelical. All the districts with a German population are richly provided with schools,. even though all branches of instruction are not as thorough as might be desired. Evangelical schools, however, are not infrequently replaced by interdenominational religious schools. In the Roman Catholic German communities careful provision is made for schools, and in a number of colonies the educational activity of the clergy is such that they receive salaries from the State.
The Roman Catholic Church has two archdioceses in Brazil: (1) Bahia or Sao Salvador (founded as a bishopric in 1555, made an archbishopric in 1678), with the auffragan bishoprics of Alagoas (founded 1900; residence at Macei6), Amazon (1893; residence Mangos), Belem or Pard (1719), Fortaleza or Ceari (1854), Goyaz (1826; residence Uberava), Silo Luiz (1677; residence Maranhao) Olinda (1676), Parahyba (1893), and Piauhy (1902; residence Therezina) ; and (2) S&o Sebasti3o or Rio de Janeiro (1676; made an archbishopric 1893), with the suffragan bishoprics of Curitiba (1893), Cuyabg (1745), Diamantma (1854), Marianne (1745), Sao Paulo (1745), Petropolis (1893), Silo Pedro (1848; residence
Porto Alegre), Pouao Alegre (1900), and Espirito Santo (1896; residence Vitoria). There is also the exempt prelature of Santarem (1903).
While secular priests are chiefly employed in the service of the Church, they are lacking in many districts and their training is defective. Despite the suppression of the orders, therefore, many of
the larger ones have numerous representatives. Although they have few stations, they are actively engaged in the conversion of the Indians, among whom the Jesuits worked with great success in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in the ranges of the Cordilleras and along the Upper Amazon. In 1767 the Portuguese expelled the Jesuits from Brazil. The aborigines in the interior of Brazil still remain uninfluenced by any missionary activity. WILHELM GOFTZ.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the country and people consult: J. C. and D. P. Kidder, Brazil arid the Brazilians, New York, 1898; (Miss M. R. Wright], The New Brazil, its Resources arid Attractions, London, 1901; Santa‑Anna Nary, The Land of the Amazons, New York, 1901; United States of Brazil: a Geographical Sketch, with special Reference to Economic Conditions arid Prospects of Future Development, Bureau of Am. Republics, Washington, 1901; T. C. Dawson, The South American Republics, vo:, i, New York, 1903 On religious matters consult: F. Badaro, Lea Couventa au Bri'ail, Florence, 1897; H. P. Beach, Protestant Missions in South America, New York, 1900; J. 8. Dennis, Centennial Survey of Foreign Missions, ib. 1902; 13. C. Tucker, Bible in Brazil, ib. 1002. An ezhauative work of reference is A. L. Garraux, Bibtiopraphia brbaiLienne, Paris, 1898.
BREAD AND BARING: Bread was for the Hebrews the chief article of diet, as it is for modern Palestinian peasants. In early times it was made from barley, which was later displaced by wheat, except as it remained the staple for the poorer classes, though now it is not regarded as altogether wholesome. Primitive usage was to roast the ears of grain, which were so eaten especially at harvest time (Ruth ii, 14), and, thus prepared, still form a convenient food for travelers. In primitive preparation of grain for food, a sort of mortar was used to crush it into the coarser meal, a handmill for the flour. The latter, of primitive form, is still used in the East and consists of two stones, the lower one the harder, the middle surfaces not flat, but respectively concave and convex, the upper with a hole in the center in which the post of the lower is set and into which the grain is poured for grinding. The work of grinding fell to the women or to slaves, though the later and larger mills were turned by beasts. The preparation of meal or flour was a daily task, done as there was need for the product. The dough was mixed in a wooden kneading‑trough, and in early times was unleavened, as is the case generally with the modern Bedouin. The dough was made up round, flat or disk‑shaped, and baked on a layer of heated stones from which the coals were removed when the dough was placed upon the stones to bake and then replaced. Mention is made (Lev. ii, 5) of an iron plate or pan for baking. There came to be finally two forms of oven, both in common use among the modern peasantry, one of which is heated from the outside, the other from the inside. The art of baking was developed with the other arts till it became a handicraft or trade, and gave its name to a street in Jerusalem Per. xxxvii, 21; cf. Hoe. vii, 4). Bread was used in sacred offerings at first either
leavened or unleavened; later the former was
excluded (Ex. xxiii, 18; Lev. ii, II).
(I. BErrznNa>cg.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: An excellent account, nerhapa the best, is
to be found is DB, i, 315‑319. Consult also: E. Robin‑

257	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
eon, Bitliral Reamrehee, ii, 418‑417, New York, 1868;
C. M. Doughty, Arabia Deserts, i, 131 and passim, London, 1888; Bensinger, Archdolopie. pp. 82‑88. 2d ed.; H. Vogeletein, Die Landwirtechaft in Palbetin0. Berlin, 1894; BB, i, 804‑‑80b.
BRECBINRIDGE, JOHN: American Presbyterian; b. at Cabell'e Dale, near Lexington, Ky., July 4, 179?; d. there Aug. 4, 1841. He studied at Princeton and was tutor there 1820‑21; was chaplain of Congress 1822‑23; was ordained Sept. 10, 1823, and was pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church, Lexington, Ky., 1823‑26; of the Second Presbyterian Church, Baltimore, 1828‑31; corresponding secretary of the Board of Education of the Presbyterian Church at Philadelphia 1831‑36; professor of pastoral theology in Princeton Seminary 1836‑38; secretary of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions 1838‑40. He was president of the American Colonization Society, and at the time of his death was president‑elect of Oglethorp University, Georgia. He was a leader of the Old School party and an ardent controversialist. He published a discussion with Archbishop Hughes of New York under the title Roman Catholic Controversy (Philadelphia, 1836) and some minor controversial essays.
BRECKENRIDGE, ROBERT JEFFERSON: Presbyterian minister, brother of John Breckinridge (q.v.); b. at Cabell's Dale, near Lexington, Ky., Mar. 8, 1800; d. at Danville, Ky., Dec. 27, 1871. He was graduated at Union College, 1819; practised law in Kentucky, 1823‑31, and was s member of the State legislature, 1825‑29; studied theology at Princeton, 18312, was ordained Nov. 26, 1832, and was pastor of the Second Presbyterian Church, Baltimore, 1832‑4b; president of Jefferson College, Pennsylvania, 1845‑47; pastor of the First Presbyterian Church, Lexington, Ky., and at the same time State superintendent of public instruction, 1847‑53; professor of theology at Danville Seminary, 1853‑89. He was a stanch Old School Presbyterian and the author of the " Act and Testimony " (1834), complaining of the prevalence of doctrinal errors, the relaxation of discipline, and the violation of church order, which played an important part in the disruption of the Presbyterian Church; he opposed the reunion in 1869. He was a bitter opponent of the Roman Catholic Church. During the Civil War he defended the Union cause and was president of the national Republican convention at Baltimore in 1884 which renominated Abraham Lincoln for the Presidency. During his residence in Baltimore he edited The Literary and Religions Magazine (1835‑‑43), and The Danville Review at Danville (18615); his principal literary work is two volumes, The Knowledge of God, objectively and subjectively considered (New York, 1857‑59).

BRECg1,ING, FRIEDRICH: A forerunner of the Pietistic school; b. at Hanved near Flensburg, Sleswick, 1629; died at The Hague Mar. 16, 1711. He studied at Rostock, where he imbibed the theology of Arndt; then at KtSnigsberg, where syncretism was dominant, at Hehnetadt, where his relation Calixtus then was, at Wittenberg, Leipaic, Jena, and Giessen. Here his thesis for the master's IL‑17
degree (1&b3) was criticised as savoring of Weigel
ianiam, but he refused to alter it, and published it
at Amsterdam under the title Mysteritcm magnum,
Chrietus in nolris (1862). He became closely
allied with Tackius, and went deeper into theosophy
by the aid of Hermes Triemegistus, Paracelaus, and
Bdhme. Going to Hamburg, he read Betke's
Antichristentum, and was much influenced by its
conception of priestlesa Christianity. After some
years of wandering in search of knowledge, he was
ordained to be his father's assistant and ultimate
successor; but violent attacks on the local clergy
caused his deposition and imprisonment in 1660.
Escaping, he went to Amsterdam and got a charge at
Zwolle, where he spent eight years of comparative
quiet, but was again deprived of his office, and lived
in retirement at Zwolle (1668‑72), Amsterdam
(1672‑90), and The Hague (1690‑1711). He main
tained a correspondence with Spener and with
Gottfried Arnold, whom he helped in his church
history, and was busily engaged as a writer. In
spite of his weaknesses, he deserves remembrance
as a link in the chain of mystical natures who pre
pared the way for Spener and the Pietistic move
ment. 	(F. N1aLSErtt.)
Btsrrooturar: G. Arnold, Rirclben and %eichde, iii, 148‑149, iv, 1103‑04, Frankfort, 1729; A. Ritsohl, C3eacldehte lee Pieliamus, ii, 1, 128, 148, Bonn, 1884; L. J. Molteaen, F. Breckling, et Bidrap til Pietisnune Udviklingehistorie, Copgnhagen, 1893.

BREDENKAMP, KONRAD JUSTUS: German Lutheran; b. at Basbeck (a village near Stale, 22 m. w.n.w. of Hamburg) June 26, 1847; d. at Verden (21 m. s.e. of Bremen) Mar. 25, 1904. He was educated at the universities of Erlangen, Bonn, and Gsttingen, and was pastor at Kuppentin, Mecklenburg, from 1872 to 1878. He then resided at Gottingen for a year, and from 1880 to 1883 was privat‑docent at Erlangen. In the latter year he accepted a call to Greifswald as professor of theology, and remained there until 1889, after which he was honorary professor of Old Testament exegesis at Kiel until his death. He wrote Der Prophet Sacharja erkldrt (Erlangen, 1879); Ydticinium good de Immanuele edidit Jesaias (vii, iJix, 6) (1880); Gesetz and Propheten (1881); and Der Prophet Jesaia erldtitert (1887).

BREECHES BIBLE. See B1sLrs VF.&SIONB, B, IV, § 9.

BREED, DAVID RIDDLE: Presbyterian; b. at Pittsburg, Pa., June 10,1848. He was educated at the Western Univeraity~of Pennsylvania, Hamilton College (B.A., 1867), and Auburn Theological Seminary (1870), and was pastor of the House of Hope Presbyterian Church at St. Paul, Minn., from 1870 until 1885, when he organized the Church of the Covenant, Chicago, of which he was pastor until 1894. In the latter year he accepted a pall to the First Presbyterian Church of Pittsburg, and since 1898 has been professor of practical theology in the Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa. In theology he is conservative. In addition to numerous pamphlets, he has written Abraham, the Typical Life of Faith (Chicago, 1886); History of the Preparation of the World for Christ

Brafthaupt	THE NEW CHAFF‑HF.RzoG 	gas
Brendan
	(1891); Heresy and Heresy (1891); and The His
	tory and Use of Hymns and Hymn Tunes (1903).
		BREITHAUPT, brait'houpt, JOACHIM JUSTUS.
	First professor of theology at Halls; b. at Nord
	heim (12 m. n. of GtSttingen), Hanover, Feb.
	1658; d. at the monastery of Bergs (HIoater
	Bergen, s. of Magdeburg; the site is now a public
	park) Mar. 16, 1732. He studied at Helmatadt,
	became corector in Wolfenbiittel in 1680, and
	went thence to Kiel, where he continued theo
	logical studies under Christian Kortholt (q.v.)
	and became privat‑docent.	Then he lived for
some time in Frankfort and came completely
	under Spener'e influence. He returned to Kiel
as professor of homiletics; became court preacher
	at Meiningen in 16&5, went to Erfurt in 1687 as
	preacher at the Dominican Church and became
	professor of theology in the university. His Piet
	istic tendencies aroused much opposition, and in
	1691 he removed to Halls, where with August
	Hermann Francke and Paul Aston (qq.v.) he gave
	the theological study of the new university its
	peculiar character and direction. In 1705 he
	added to his other duties those of superintendent
	of the duchy of Magdeburg and in 1709 was made
	abbot at the monastery of Bergs (then transformed
	into a school). He was a man of much faith,
	prayerful, and took a deep interest in poor students.
	Besides minor writings, he published Institut4ones
	theologicw (2 vole., Halls, 1694; 2d enlarged ed.,
	1723; vol'iii, Inatitutionea theologies rnoralis, 1732);
	Theses credeTedorum et agendorum fundamentalea
	(1700). He was not without poetic talent and
	published a collection of Poemata. miscellanea
	(Magdeburg, 1720). Some of his hymns are still
	found in the German hymn‑books.
			(GEOH(f Mtrll,>>a;.)
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Memorial, ed. G. A. Francke, Halls,
		1730, contains the LebsasiMarAreibung by C. P. Leporin
		sad Baumgartene Memories incompornbilis theolopi J. J.
		Breithaupl. Consult also A. Ritechl, (#eechichte den
		Pietiamua, iii, 385 et passim, Bonn, 1884; Julian, Hynt
		noiogy, pp. 189‑170; W. Schrader, Oeachichte der Fried
		richa‑Uniroeraitdt zu Halls, vol. i, passim, Halls, 1894;
		ADB, iii, 291.
		BREITIIIGER, brai'tin‑ger, JOHANN JAKOB:
	Swim theologian; b. at Zurich Apr. 19, 1575; d.
	there Apr. 1. 1645. Not until his seventeenth year
	lid his spiritual gifts begin to manifest themselves,
	but from 1593 to 1598 he studied at Reformed
	seminaries in Germany and Holland, and in 1597
	became a member of the clergy of his native city.
	His prominence during the pestilence of 1611
	proved. him worthy of the appointment of deacon
	to the church of St. Peter. Two years later he
	was made pastor of the Groasmiinster, thus becom
	ing the moat important clergyman in Zurich, and
	in 1614 he was appointed school‑rector. His im
	portance was not due, however, to his religious
or theological originality, but rather to his political
	intelligence and practical skill in organization and
	execution, combining shrewd circumspection and
	patience with a versatile initiative. His sermons,
	though not deep, were characterised by warmth
of feeling, clearness, pithiness, and charm. The
most important of his works are his synodical
	addressee, in which he sought to exalt the position
of the clergy. These sermons, delivered at the semiannual sessions of the synod and collected by him in the latter years of his life, are models of pastoral wisdom, and received practical application in Breitinger's own activity. The status of the preachers was revolutionised on the basis of two of his speeches before the council in 1628, and he secured the general adoption of music in the churches, which Zurich had lacked altogether until 1598. He likewise'enriched the liturgy with sections which are still in use, as with the prayer for the dead and the morning prayer after the sermon . of 1638. Breitinger also successfully urged the need of religious instruction of the young, as is shown by repeated ordinances of 1613, 1628, 16371638, and 1643. He was, likewise, the ultimate author of the custom by which the Swiss Confederations celebrate the days of thanksgiving, repentance, and prayer at the same time, and it was he who introduced the rule of making a public announcement of marriage. In 1634 he introduced into the churches of Zurich and eastern Switzerland the use of parochial registers, which were to be returned every three years to the head of the clergy and thus served as a sort of census‑report. Four years later he instituted parochial visitations, and finally established the ecclesiastical archives of Zurich.
Breitinger was deeply interested in education,
and was also active is the establishment of scholarships for poor students. He was no less enthusiastic in his patronage of charity, and prepared statistics of the poor as early as 1821, while in 1623, at the request of the mayor, he published Gutac)Uzn der BetEler and Armen halter. Three years later, on the basis of further studies, Breitinger made noteworthy proposals for houses of correction for neglected youth, and was also active in the improvement of prisons sad hospitals. Ever watchful over the morals of the people, he opposed lack of refinement and excess, and nought to obviate the evil influences of the war in the neighboring kingdom, in addition to restricting lavish expenditure in clothing (1616, 1628), and in weddings and funerals (1621, 1628, 1640), as well as the drinking of toasts (1632), and occasionally even the stage and the cultivation of art. A watchful opponent of the hopes and propaganda of Catholicism and Anabaptism, he refrained from excessive hostility, contenting himself with remaining a constant protector of the Reformed. His personal preeminence and his interest in his church frequently involved him in political problems, and during the Thirty Years' War he was the leader of a Swedish party in Zurich. The fortification of the city was due, strictly speaking, to him, and had he had his way, Switzerland would have been involved in the struggle. (Ema. Eanl.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The chief work is by J. C. M&rikofer, J. J. Brsitinger and ZQrich Leipsic, 1874. Consult also G. R.
Zimmermann, Die Zfirdwr Ruche, pp. 143‑184, Zurich,
1877‑78.

BREMEN: A free city and state of the German Empire. The city is situated on the Weser, about forty‑six miles from its mouth and 215 miles by rail w.n.w. of Berlin. The state includes also the

269	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Breithaupt
		Brendan
harbor‑cities of Vegesack and Bremerhaven and
about ninety‑nine square miles of contiguous
territory. The total population in 1900 was 224;
697, of whom 163,292 belonged to the city of
Bremen. Ninety‑four per cent. are reported as
Evangelical Protestants, 4.9 per cent. as Roman
Catholics; the number of Jews is about 1,000. Of
the Protestants nearly ono‑third are Reformed.
The Protestants have no ecclesiastical organisation,
the government standing at the head of the Church
and managing its affairs through a commission,
which is also the school board. The various con
gregations are independent one of the other, but,
individually, take a worm. interest 'in missionary
and benevolent work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: w. von Bippen,(ieachiehte der Btadt Bremen,
	2 vole., Bremen, 1892‑‑98; Jahrbuclv fOr bremiache Statia
	tik, ib. 1905.
	BREMEN, BISHOPRIC OF: A former diocese
of Germany, whose foundation belongs to the
period of the missionary activity of Willehad (q.v.)
on the lower Weser. He was consecrated July 15,
787, at Worms, on Charlemagne's initiative, his
jurisdiction being assigned to cover the Saxon
territory on both sides of the Weser from the mouth
of the Aller, northward to the Elbe and westward
to the Hunts, and the Frisian territory for a certain
distance from the mouth of the Weser. Willehad
fixed his headquarters at Bremen, though the
formal constitution of the bishopric took place
only after the subjugation of the Saxons in 804 or
805, when Willehad's disciple, Willerich, was con
secrated bishop of Bremen, with the same territory.
The diocese was probably at that time ecclesias
tically subject to Cologne. When, after the death
of Bishop Leuderich (838,845), it was given to
Anegar, it lost its independence (see AN8(iAR),
and from that time was permanently united with
Hamburg. The new combined see was regarded
as the headquarters for missionary work in the
north, and new sees to be erected were to be sub
ject to its jurisdiction. Anegar'e successor, Rim
bert, the " second apostle of the north," was
troubled by onslaughts first of the Normans and
then of the Wends, and by renewed claims on
the part of Cologne. The see of Bremen attained
its greatest prosperity and later had its deepest
troubles under Adalbert (see ADALBERT or HnM
BURCi‑BREMEN). The next two archbishops, Liemar
and Humbert, were determined opponents of Greg
ory VII. Under the latter the archbishopric of Lund
(q.v.) was erected, and Bremen had euffragan sees
only in name, the Wendish bishoprics having been
destroyed. Schisms in Church and State marked
the next two centuries, and in spite of the labors
of the Windesheim and Bursfelde congregations
(qq.v.), the way was prepared for the Reformation,
which made rapid headway, partly owing to the
fact that the last Roman Catholic archbishop,
Christopher of Brunswick, was also bishop of Verden
and resided there. By the time he died (1558),
nothing was left of the old religion outside of a few
monasteries and the districts served by them. The
title of archbishop, with the secular jurisdiction,
was borne for a time by Protestant princes. The
Peace of Westphalia (1648) secularized it and made
it (with Verden) a duchy and an appanage of the crown of Sweden. In 1712 it passed into the possession of Denmark, and three years later was sold to Hanover, to which it was restored in 1813 after the Napoleonic disturbances. Its former territory was distributed ecclesiastically at this time among the neighboring dioceses of Hildesheim, Osnabruck, and Munster, the imperial city of Bremen and the surrounding district being administered by the vicar‑apostolic of the northern missions.

BRENDAN, SAINT, OF CLONFERT (called
" the Navigator"); Irish saint; b. at Tralee (on Tralee Bay, west coast of Ireland, County Kerry) 484; d. at the monastery of his sister, Brigh, at Annadown (on the east shore of Lough Corrib, County Galway), 577. After studying with the most distinguished Irish masters, he was ordained presbyter, and then undertook the expedition or expeditions which form the basis of " The Navigation of St. Brendan," one of the most popular legends of the Middle Ages. In 552 or 553 (according to others in 556 or 557) he founded the monastery of Clonfert (in the barony of Longford, County Longford) and ruled it for twenty years, during which time it was the most famous school in West Ireland. He is said also to have founded a monastery in Brittany. A visit to Columba on Hinba Island, near Ions, is recorded, which must have been after 583, and he is last heard of in 570, when he acted as bard at the inauguration of the first Christian king of Cashel.
According to an Irish life of St. Brendan, when he was ordained he pondered on the words in Luke xviii, 29‑30, and determined to forsake country and brethren and seek a mysterious unknown land which he saw in visions. Under angelic guidance he set forth in a coracle of wicker work and hides, but after seven years was directed to return, as work was waiting for him at home. Some years later the impulse to travel again sent him forth, this time in a fine ship, fully equipped, and with a crew of sixty. " The whole. story of the saint's adventures bears neither repetition nor criticism: but in the midst of much crude fiction we find occasional touches which have , evidently, been derived from the reports of genuine voyagers. In the course of their seven years' adventures they visit the Isle of Sheep, a full fair island full of green pasture: another fair island, full of flowers, herbs, and trees, where they thank God of his good grace: a little island wherein were many vines full of grapes: they meet with great tempests, in which they are greatly troubled long time and sore forlaboured; at other times calm sire and water so clear that they might see all the fishes that were about them, whereof they are full sore aghast: again they behold an hill all of fire and a foul smoke and stink coming from thence: and finally reach an attemperate land, ne too hot ne too cold, the fairest country that any man might see, in which the trees are charged with ripe fruit and flowers. Here they walk forty days, but find no end thereof, and at length lade their ships with its fruits and return home" (E. J. Payee,

Brent
Brena
History of the New World, i, Oxford, 1892, I06‑I07). The story was known in France, Spain, and Holland in the eleventh century, and was very popular with all classes. It exists in translation into eight languages. Some of its incidents are derived from classical sources; others resemble the Arabian Nights. An expedition to the Hebrides and northern islands may have furnished the basis of fact.
B113LIOQRAPEEY: Lanigan, Ecd. Hiat., ii, 2S‑38; St. Br andan, a
	metrical and a prose life, in English; ed. T. W right, in Percy
	Society Publications, vol. xiv, London, 1844; W. J. Rees,
	Lives of the Cambro‑$ritiah Saints, pp. 251‑254, 575‑579,
	Llandovery,1853;W. Reeves's Adamnun'aLifeof St. Colum
	ba, p. 221, Dublin, 1857; C. 3chriider, Sanct Brandon, sin la
	teiniaeher and drei deutsche Texts, Erlangen, 1571; A. P.
	Forties, Kalendara of Scottish Saints, pp. 284‑257, Edin
	burgh, 1872; F. Michel, Lee voyages merveilleux de S. Bran
	don, Paris; 1878; J. Healy, Inaula aanctorum et doctorum, pp.
	209 eqq., Dublin, 1890: D. O'Donoghue, Brendaniana, Dub
	lin, 1893;T.Olden, The Churchof Ireland, pp. 63‑84, Lon
	don, 1895; C. Plummer, Some New Light on the Brandon
	Legend, in Zeitachrift fist celtiache Philolopie, v (1904),
	124‑141; J. O'Hanlon, Lives of the Irish Saints, v, ~389
	472, Dublin, n.d.
BRENT; CHARLES HENRY: Protestant Episcopal missionary bishop of the Philippines; b. at Newcastle, Ont., Apr. 9, 1862. He was graduated at Trinity College, Toronto, in 1884, and was ordered deacon in 1886 and priested in 1887. He was then curate of St. Paul's Cathedral, Buffalo, N. Y., 1887=88, and of St. John the Evangelist, Boston, 1888‑91, and associate rector of St. Stephen's, in the same city, 1897‑1901, being also a member of the editorial staff of The Churchman from 1897 to 1900. In 1901 he was consecrated first bishop of the missionary district of the Philippine Islands. On May 6,1908, he was elected bishop of the diocese of Washington. He has written With God in the World (New York, 1899); The Consolations of the Cross (1902); The Splendor of the Human Body (1904); and Liberty and Other Sermons (1906).
BRENZ, JOHANN.
Early Advocacy of the Refor. Opposed by the Emperor
	motion (¢ 1). 	(§ 3).
Activity in behalf of the New	Activity, 1550‑53 (¢ 4).
	Movement (§ 2). 	Controversies (§ 5).
Later Years (§ 6).
	Jobs‑ Brenz, the German theologian and
Swabian Reformer, was born at Weil (8 m, s.
Of Stuttgart) June 24, 1499; d. at Stuttgart Sept.
11, 1570. He received his education at Heidel
berg, where, shortly after becoming magister and
regent of the Realistenbursa in 1518, he delivered
philological and philosophical lectures. He also
lectured on the Gospel of Matthew, only to be pro
hibited on account of his popularity and his novel
exegesis, especially as he had already been , won
over to the side of Luther, not only through his
ninety‑five theses, but still more by personal
		acquaintance with him at the disputa
	r. Early tion at Heidelberg in Apr., 1518. In ~
	Advocacy 1522 Brenz was threatened with a
of the Ref‑ trial for heresy, but escaped through
	ormation. a call to the pastorate of Ball. In
		the spring of 1524 he received a strong
ally in his activity as a Reformer in Johann Isenmann
(q.v.), who became pastor of the parish‑church at
Hall. The feast of corpus Christi was the first to
be discarded, and in 1524 the monastery. of the
THE NEW SCHAFF HERZOG
Discaleed Friars was transformed into a school. In the Peasants' War, on the other hand, Brenz deprecated the .abuse of evangelical liberty by the peasants, pleading for mercy to the conquered and warning the magistracy of their duties. At Christmas the Lord's Supper was administered in both kinds, and at Easter of the following year the first regulations were framed for the church and the school. Brenz himself prepared in 1528 a larger and a smaller catechism for the young, both characterized by simplicity, warmth, and a childlike spirit.
	Ile first	attained wider recognition, however,
when he published his Syngramma Suevicum on
Oct. 21,1525, attacking (Ecolampadius, and finding
the explanation of the creative power of the word
of Christ in the theory that the body and blood
of Christ are actually present in the sacrament.
Henceforth Brenz took part in all the important
conferences on the religious situation. In Oct.,
15'?9, he attended the Colloquy of Marburg, and in
the following year, at the request of the Margrave
George of Brandenburg, he was present at the
diet in Augsburg, where he seconded Melanchthon
in his efforts to reach an agreement with the adher
		ents of the ancient faith, but refused
s. Activity all association with the followers of
in behalf Zwingli. In 1532 he collaborated . in
of the New the church‑regulations of Branden‑
Movement. burg and Nuremberg, and furthered the Reformation in the margravate of Brandenburg‑Ansbach, Dinkelsbiihl, and Heilbronn, while three years later Duke Ulrich of Wiirttemberg called him as an adviser in the framing of regulations for the church, visitations, and marriage. In Feb., 1537, he was at Schrilalkald, and two months later undertook the difficult but successful task of the reformation of the University of Tiibingen. He likewise attended the conference on the use of images held at Urach, Sept., 1537, where he urged their abolition. Brenz returned to Hall in April of the following year, in June, 1540, attended the conference at Hagenau, was at Worms in the latter part of the same year, and in Jan., 1546, was at Regensburg, where he was obliged to deal with Cochla;us, although, as he had foreseen, he was unsuccessful. He devoted himself with great zeal to his pastoral duties, and side by side with his sermons was evolved a valuable series of expositions of Biblical writings.
After the last remnants of the ancient regulations of the church of Hall had been abolished, his new rules appeared in 1543. Calls to Leipsic in 1542, to Tubingen in 1543, and to Strasburg in 1548 were declined in favor of his position at Hall. Brenz had long opposed the adherence of Ball and the margrave to the Schmalkald League, since he regarded resistance to the temporal authorities as inadmissible. Gradually, however,
3• Opposed his views changed, through the hostile
by the attitude of the emperor. In 1538
	Emperor.	Hall entered the League, and after its
		defeat Charles V came to the city (Dec.
16 1546), and obtained possession of papers,
letters, and sermons of Brenz, who, despite the
bitter cold, was obliged to flee, although he re‑

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Brent
	BreLa
turned Jan. 4, 1547. The new Interim of the emperor ,(ace INTERIM), which Brenz called interitus ' (" ruin "), recalled him to the scene of action,' and he earnestly opposed its adoption. The imperial chancellor, Grauvella, demanded his surrender, and Brenz, warned by a note reading: " Flee, Brenz, quickly, more quickly, moat tquickly 1 " escaped on the evening of his forty‑ninth birthday, June 24, l:i‑18. He hastened to Duke Ulrich, who concealed him in the castle of Hohenwittlingen Bear Uraoh, where, under the pseudonym of Joannea R'itlingius, he prepared an exposition of Pa. xciii and cxxx. As the emperor was everywhere searching for him, Ulrich sent him by way of Strasburg to Basel, where he was kindly received and found time to write an exposition of the prophecy of Isaiah. Duke Christopher called him to Dlompdgard, where, in Jan., 1549, Brenz was notified of the death of his wife. The condition of his children induced him to go to Swabia, but owing to the pursuit of the emperor, he was often in great danger, and the duke sheltered him in the castle of Hornberg near Gutach. There he spent eighteen months under the name of Huldrieh Engster (Encaustius), always active for the welfare of the Church, both by his advice to the duke and his theological labors. He declined calls to Magdeburg, Koniga‑. berg, and England. In Aug., 1549, he ventured to, go tq'Urach, where his friend Isenmann was now minister, in order. to take counsel with the duke, his advisers, and Matthaeua Alber (q.v.), regarding the restoration of the evangelical divine service. In the autumn of 1550 he married for his second wife Catherine, the oldest daughter of Isenmann.
After Ulrich's death Brenz was asked to prepare the con fessio Wirtembergica for the Council of Trent, and with three other Wittenberg theologians and Johann Dlarbach of Strasburg, he went to. Trent,.
Mar., 1552,, to defend his creed (see ¢. Activity, BEURLIN, JAKOB). Great was the
I55o‑53• surprise of the fathers of the council,
but they refused to be instructed by those who were to obey them. The Interim was abolished. Brenz who had thus far lived at Stuttgart, Tiibingen, Ehningen, and SindeLfingen as counselor of the duke, was made provost of the Cathedral of Stuttgart, Sept. 24, 1554, and appointed ducal counselor for life. He was now the right hand of the duke in the reorganization of ecclesiastical and educational affairs in Wiirttemberg. The great church order of 1553‑59, containing also the confessio IT'irtembergica, in spite of its dogmatism, is distinguished by clearness, mildness, and consideration. In like manner, his Catechismus pie et utile explications illuatratais (Frankfort, 1551) became a rich source of instruction for many generations and countries. The proposition made by Kaspar Leyser and Jakob Andrea, in 1554 to introduce a form of discipline after a Calvinistic model was opposed by Brenz, since he held that the minister should have charge of the preaching, the exhortation to repentance, and dissuasion from the Lord's Supper, whereas excommunication belonged to the whole church. At the instance of the duke, Brenz moved in 1553 to Neuburg, to arrange the church affairs of the Palatinate.
The Oaiandric controversy about the doctrine of justification, in 1551 and the following years, which caused a scandalous schism in Prussia, was a cause
'			of much annoyance and defamation
	g. Contro‑ to Brenz, who saw in this controversy.
		versies.	nothing but a war of words. In 1554
			1555 the ~ question of the . Religious
Peace of Augsburg occupied his mind; in 1556 the
conference with Johannes a Lasco, in 1557 the'
Frankenthal conference with the Anabaptists
and the Worms Colloquy; in 1558 the edict against
Schwenckfeld and the Anabaptists, and the Frankfort
Recess; in 1559 the plan for 'a synod of those who
were related to the Augsburg Confession and the
Stuttgart Synod, to protect Brenz's doctrine of the
Lord's Supper against Calvinistic tendencies; in
1563 and 1569 the struggle against Calvinism in the
Palatinate (Maulbronn Colloquy) and the crypto‑.
Calvinistic controversies. The‑ attack of, the
Dominican Peter a Soto upon the Wiirttemberg
Confession in his Assertio fcdei (Cologne, 1562) led
Brenz to reply with . his Apologia confessionis
	(Frankfort, 1555). In 1558 he was engaged in a
controversy with Bishop Hosius of ~ Ermland.
The development of the Reformation in the Palati
nate led the aged man to a vehement renewal of
his negotiation with Bullinger, with whom he 'had
been forced into close relation through the Interim.
The question concerned the doctrine of the Lord's
Supper and also involved a peculiar development
of Chriatology, which was opposed by the Lutheran
theologians outside of Wiirttemberg, since Brenz
carried to its logical conclusion the concept of
	"personal union," thus favoring an absolute
omnipresence (ubiquity) of the ' body of Christ;
which did not begin with the ascension but with
the incarnation. ‑
Brenz took a lively interest in the Waldenaians and the French Protestants. But all efforts in behalf of the latter, the journey of the Wurttemberg theologians to Paris to advise King
6. Later Antony of Navarre in 1561 (see BEUR‑
Years. UN, Jagos), the meeting of the duke and Brenz with Cardinal Guise of Lorraine at Zabern, the correspondence and the sending of writings, all ended in bitter disappointment. The Protestants of Bavaria, who had to suffer under Albert, also had his full sympathy. To the citizens of Strasburg Brenz expressed his doubts as to the advisability of following the procession with the monstrance and advised them not to attend mass. He was also deeply interested in the Protestants in Austria, for whom the first Slavic books were then printed at Urach. His last Reformatory activity was the correspondence with Duke William of Jiilich and Julius of Brunswick‑Wolfenbiittel (1568‑69). In addition to this he continued his exposition of the Psalms and other Biblical books, which he had commenced at Stuttgart. In 1569 he was paralyzed, and his strength was broken. He was buried beneath the pulpit of the cathedral; but the Jesuits demolished his grave. G. B088TRT.
Brsrroassra:: An index of the works, printed and in MS.,
of Brans, and of works about him is furnished in W.
KShler, Bibliopraphia Brentiana, Berlin, 1904. There is

y	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	282
no complete ed. of Brenx's productions, though selected works, in 8 vole., were published, Tiibingen, 1578‑90. The letters ate given in T. Preeeel, Aneodota Brsntiana, ib. 1888, and in Beilrdga zur bayeriachere Kirchenpeachirhte, ed. T. Kolde, i, 273, ii. 34. The earliest sketch of his life is by J. Heerbrand, Oratio funebria, TQbingen, 1570. For later accounts consult: J. Hartmann and C. Jager, Johann Braes, 2 vole., Hamburg, 1840‑‑42 (still the beet account); J. Hartmann, Johann Brew, Elberfeld, 1882; G. Boeaert, Doe Interim do Wfirtlemberp, Halls, 1895; E. Schneider, W7Rrttembergvsche Geachichte, Stuttgart, 1896.
On the theology of $renx consult: H. Schmid, Dar Kampf der luthenachen Kirche um Luther's Lehre vom Abendmahl im Rtfornwtioneaeitalter, Leipaio, 1888; A. Hegler, J. Brew und die Reformation im lierxoplum ;Virteml berg, Freiburg, 1899; C. W. Kiigelgen, Die Rech(fertigangaJehre deg J. Brew, Leipeie, 1899; G. Traub, Beitrw cur Geachichte des Rech!/ertigungsbepr%ifa, in T3K, Ixxiii, 1900.
BRAS, bra, GUY DE (Guido de Bray): Reformer in the Netherlands; b. at Mons 1522; executed at 'Valenciennes May 31, 1567. He was brought up strictly by his Roman Catholic mother, but before his twenty‑fifth year had become a thorough Protestant. When persecution broke out in 1548, he fled to England, where he spent four years. Then he came back and settled at Ryssel (Liege), where he won great popularity as a preacher. In 1556 his congregation was dispersed by a fresh persecution, and he was obliged to flee, going apparently for a while to Ghent, then to Frankfort, and probably to Switzerland. Early in 1559 he returned to the southern Netherlands, with Tournai for his headquarters, but serving also Rysael and Valenciennes, and visiting Antwerp and Mons in the cause of his religion, often in disguise for safety's sake. The public singing of Marot's psalms in Sept., 1561, gave rise to a judicial investigation, which exposed Bri's to fresh danger. Undaunted, he undertook to secure justice for his comrades by laying before the authorities his confession of faith (known as the Belgic Confession, q.v.) in thirtyseven articles, on the model of that adopted by the French Reformed churches in 1559. This modest, sober, positive statement, which he hoped would show the authorities that his friends were not revolutionary Anabaptists, failed to atop the persecution; but the frequent editions of it show that it met with popular approval; it won thousands to the cause of the Reformation, and was soon recognized as a standard formula. Once known, however, as its author, the Reformer was obliged to escape from Tournai to Amiens, and thence possibly to Antwerp. In 1564 he was in Brussels for a conference with William of Orange, and took part in the negotiations at Metz for a union of the Lutherans and Calvinists. Then he found a refuge at Sedan with Henri Robert de la Merck, Sieur de Bouillon, but was called back to a post of danger in the summer of ‑1566 by the conaiatory of Antwerp‑ In August he settled at Valenciennes, where by this time more than two‑third, of the inhabitants were in sympathy with the Reformation. At first he preached in the open air, but after the iconoclastic outbreak of Aug. 24 took possession of St. John's church. The governor's attempts to suppress the movement led to the siege of the city in December, and its surrender in the following March. Once more Bras was forced to flee, but he and his fellow preachers were captured a few
hours later at Saint‑Amand, and sent as prisoners to Tournai and then back to Valenciennes. The letters which he wrote to comfort his wife and his aged mother give an insight into his faith and the nobility of his character. He was sentenced to be hanged in front of the town hall, and thus ended a life full of toil and peril, which is one of the glories of the Reformation in the southern Netherlands. (L. A. vAN LANaERAAn.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. A. van Lsngeraad, Guido de Bray; xya
levee en werken. Bydrape tot do peschiadenia van hat zuid‑
Nederlandache Proteatantisme, Ziexikaee, 1884; W. C. van
Manen, Guy de Bray; opateIler van do Belydeniaae des
peloofa der peraformarde Kercken in Nederland, Amster‑
dam, 1885.
BRESLAU, BISHOPRIC OF: A diocese which is shown to be already in existence at the date of the foundation of the archbishopric of Gnesen (1000). Probably it was established not long before that date, presumably not by Otto III, but by Duke Boleslav Chrobry of Poland. The original extent of the diocese can not be determined, but in later times it was nearly coextensive with the present province of Silesia, including also the MeiBaen district on the western side of the Queis.
(A. HAUCK.)
A line of unusually excellent bishops administered the see with success until the sixteenth century; but Jacob von Salza (1520‑39) was too weak to stand against the rising tide of the Reformation, and his successor, Balthasar von Promnitz, was even inclined to Lutheran doctrines. From 1608 to 1664 the see was occupied by three archdukes of Austria and a prince of Poland, who had little care for religion, and when Silesia came under Frederick II of Prussia Protestantism was still more encouraged. In 1821 the diocese, which is now partly in Germany and partly in Austria and numbers about two million souls, was made an exempt bishopric.
BRETHREN, BOHEMIAN; BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE, and similar titles. See BOHEMIAN BRETHREN; COMDION LIFE, BRETHREN OF THE, etc.
BRETSCHNEIDER, bret'shnai"der, KARL GOTTLIEB: German theologian; b. at Geradorf (40 m. e. of Dresden), Saxony, Feb. 11, 1776; d. at Goths Jan. 22, 1848; studied at Leipaic; appointed minister at Schneeberg, 1807, superintendent at Annaberg, 1808, and superintendent‑general at Goths, 1816. Ha was a prolific writer and took an active part in controversies. .Among, his principal works may be mentioned: Lexicon manuals Grceco‑Latinum in libros Novi Testamenti (Leipsie, 1824; 3d ed., 1840); Systematiaehe Entwickelung filler in fist Dogmatik vorkommenden Begriffe (1805; 4th ed., 1841); Handbuch tier Dogmatik (1814; 4th ed., 1838). He founded the series of reprints called the Corpus reformatorum (Halls, 1834 sqq.), in which the works of Melanchthon and Calvin have appeared, to which Zwingli will be added. His standpoint was that of the so‑called rational supernaturalism‑a rather untenable ground between rationalism and supernaturalism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: K. G. Bretechneider, Aua meinem Zrben;
8elbatbiopraphia, ed. H. Bretachneider (his eon), Goths,
1852.

263	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bras
		Breviary
		BREVIARY: The name of the Roman Catholic
service‑book containing what i° called the " divine
office " or the services for the canonical hours,
as	distinguished from the missal, which contains
the altar‑service, and the ritual; which has the
rites for. the administration of the sacraments, etc.
It is a practically arranged, well‑divided collection
of prayers with numerous brief extracts from
	Scripture, and the Fathers and ancient hymns.
From the subdeacon upward every Roman cleric
is bound to recite the whole office daily.
		The breviary is based on the idea of realizing,
in the spirit of the Church, at least symbo:ically,
the apostolic command to " pray without ceas
	ing"; the whole life of the Christian is to appear
as a continuous prayer, not only in heart and works,
but also in words; at all hours and places of the
earth the prayer of the Church is to ascend to God.
The custom of the synagogue (Dan. vi, 10, 13;
Ps. iv; 18) in regard to morning and evening hours
				(I Chron. xxiv, 30) as well as other
			The	times of prayer (Pa. exix, 62, 64)
	Canonical was taken as a standard. At first
		Hours.	there were the three hours, the third,
				sixth, and ninth, or 9 A.M., noon, and
3 P.m. (cf. Acts ii, 15, 46; iii, 1; x, 9). To these
were added midnight, the hour when Paul and
Silas prayed in the prison (Acts xvi, 25), and the
beginning of the day and the night. This arrange
ment of prayer is mentioned in Tertullian, Cyprian,
Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, and the
Apostolic Constitutions. In the fourth century,
Athanasius (De virginitate, xii‑xx) knows of seven
hours; Gregory Nazianzen speaks with approval
of the nightly vigils and the antiphonal singing.
All these hours were adopted in the monasteries
	especially, as Jerome (Epist., vii, cviii, cxxx), Basil,
and Augustine attest. From the monasteries
these hours of prayer (called canonical as a part
of canonical life) spread to the cathedral and
	collegiate chapters. Benedict added the seventh
	(compline, completorium), and since the sixth
	century the order and number of hours have not
varied. The day‑hours are prime (normally at
6 A.M.), terce (9 A.M.), sext (noon), none (3 P.m.),
and vespers (6 P.m.); nowadays compline and lauds
are usually reckoned with them. (See the articles
under these titles.)
		Matins, answering to the three Roman vigils,
is divided into three nocturnes, and was originally
followed by the present lauds.
		The bulk of the prayers for all these hours was
taken from the Psalms, to which antiphons were
added, giving the psalms a special meaning appro
	priate to the occasion. Afterward collects were
				added, which were intended to pre
		Sources	vent distraction and excite devotion,
	and Revi‑ and are accordingly brief. The pos
	sions of the tore varied between standing, sitting,
	Breviary. arid kneeling. The whole structure
				was enriched and completed by the
addition of other prayers, responeoriee, versiclea,
etc. The musical element was provided for by
official books known as antiphonaries, especially
that composed under Gregory I, and the so‑called
	Micrologus	(twelfth century). Cassian attests
that each three psalms at matins were followed by three lessons, taken from Scripture, on Sunday only from the New Testament; later on the lives of the saints and exegetical passages from the moat prominent teachers of the Church were inserted. The introduction of metrical hymns was long opposed (Council of Brags, 553), especially in Rome. So many arbitrary additions made the offices too long, and Gregory VII reduced them; other revisions were made under Gregory IX, Clement VII, who had the assistance of the Franciscan general, Cardinal (Zuignonez (1536), Clement VIII (1602), and Urban VIII (1631). The late Vatican Council also introduced some changes.
At present the Roman breviary, which has at last succeeded in supplanting the many local or diocesan uses, consists of four parts, corresponding, to the four seasons of the year. Each
Contents	part again has four divisions: (1) The
of the psalter, or ordinary week‑day service Roman for each day and hour; (2) the " proper
	Breviary.	of the season," the service for the fes
		tivals of Christ and the Sundays of
the various seasons; (3) the "proper of saints," the
special service for the festivals of particular saints;
and (4) the "common of saints," providing, under
separate classes, services for those saints who have
no special one. Appendices contain the office for
the dead, the gradual and penitential psalms,
prayers for the dying and for travelers, and grace
before and after meals.
	The analogous service‑book in the Greek Church
is called Horotogium. In the Evangelical Church
a similar service was often retained in cathedral
and collegiate chapters, for which Luther's sug
gestions of 1523 and 1526 furnished a basis. The
matins and vespers were especially retained.
Attempts have lately been made, with varying
success, to restore the other hours; but the prob
lem can not be considered as solved. The Anglican
Church, in its Book of Common Prayer, has made
skilful use of important portions from the ancient
order. 	M. H>,1to1.D.
The calendar of the Roman breviary is a complicated affair, especially since the multiplication of festivals in the last two or three centuries. These are cussed as double or simple. The simple dorm the lowest class, and have no second vespers. The double (so called from the antiphons being doubled, or recited entire both before and after the psalms and canticles at lauds and vespers) are classed in order of importance as doubles of the first class (with or without an octave), second class, greater, and lesser. Where two feasts occur, i.e., fall on the same day, or concur, i.e., the first vespers of one conflict with the second vespers of the other, the difficulty is met, according to detailed rules based on the rank of the feasts, either by "transferring" the leas important to the first unoccupied day, or by " commemorating " it with the recitation of its chief antiphon, versicle and response, and collect, after the collect for the day at lauds and vespers.
Bismoaxerar: A complete Eng. tranal. of the Roman Breviary was made by John Marquess of Buts, 2 vole.,
London, 1879. Consult also: C. H. Collette, The Roman

Brewer
Bridget	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	`•
Breviary, London, 1880; G. Schober, Explaaatio critics . breoiarii Romaai, Regensburg, 1891; S. Bsumer, Geachichte den Breoiera, Freiburg, 1895, Fr. tranal., Paris, 1908: P. Batiffol, Histoire du brlviaire Remain, Paris, 189$, Eng. transl., London, 1898; Bingham, Oripiate, book mii, chap. 9; J. Baudot, Le Brftiaire romaia, sea oripCata, son hiatoire, Paris, 1906.
On the Scripture reading consult E. Rsnke, Dae kirchliche Perikopenayatem aua den Sltaeten.Urkunden der rSmiachea Liturpie, Berlin, 1847.
On the hymns consult: F. Probst, Brevier and Breviergebst, Tiibingen, 1868; J. Kayser, BeitrBge zur Geachrochte and Erklurung der alien Kirchenhymnea, 2 vols., Paderborn, 1881‑86; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 170‑181. A rich bibliography of Breviaries is to be found in the British Museum Catalogue, s.v. Liturgies.
BREWER, LEIGH RICHMOND: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Montana; b. at Berkshire, Vt., Jan. 20, 1839. He was educated at Hobart College (B.A., 1863) and the General Theological Seminary (1866), and was ordered deacon in 1866 and ordained priest in the following year. He was successively rector of Grace Church, Carthage, N. Y. (1866‑72), and Trinity Church, Watertown, N. Y. (1872‑80), sad in 1880 was consecrated missionary bishop of Montana.
BREWSTER, CHAUNCEY BUftCE: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Connecticut; b. at Windham, Conn., Sept. 5, 1848. He was educated at Yale College (B.A., 1868) sad Berkeley Divinity School, Middletown, Corm. (1872). He was a tutor at Yale in 1870‑71, was ordered deacon in 1872, and was advanced to the priesthood in the following year. He was curate of St. Andrew's, Meriden, Conn., in 1872, and was then rector in succession of Christ Church, Rye, N. Y. (1373‑81), Christ Church, Detroit, Mich. (1881‑8a), Grace Church, Baltimore (1885‑88), and Grace Church, Brooklyn Heights (1888‑97). In 1807 he was consecrated bishop‑coadjutor of Connecticut, and became bishop in 1899. His theological position is that of a High‑churchman with liberal sympar thies. He has written The Key of Life (New York, 1894); Aspects of Revelation (1901; the Baldwin lectures for 1900); and The Catholic Ideal of the Church (1904).
BREWSTER, WILLIAM: Leader of the "Pilgrim Fathers"; b. of good family probably at Scrooby (37 m. s. of York), Nottinghamshire, England, 1560; d. at Plymouth, Mass., Apr. 10, 1644. He matriculated at Peterhouae, Cambridge, but apparently did not graduate. From 1584 till 1587 he was in the service of William Davison, ambassador to the Low Countries and afterward secretary of state. About 1587 he retired to Scrooby, where he lived in the manor‑house and was keeper of the post, a position of considerable importance at that time. He was a prominent member of a separatist congregation of which Richard Clifton (q.v.) was pastor, holding its meetings regularly at Brewster's house. Because of persecution in England they made an unsuccessful attempt to flee to Holland in 1607, and in 1608 escaped to Amsterdam with John Robinson (q.v.) as " teacher " and Brewster as " elder." In 1609 they settled at Leyden, where Brewster, having exhausted his means, gave lessons in English and also set up a printing‑press. He favored the emi‑
gration to America, was influential in securing a grant of land in 1619, and sailed with the first company in the Mayflower, Sept., 1620. He continued as elder of the congregation at Plymouth, and preached regularly until the first ordained minister, Ralph Smith, came in 1629, but as he was not ordained, he never administered the sacraments. See CONGREGATIONALISTS, I, 1, §§ 5‑7; 4,11.
Bxsraootcera:: Memoir, written by his colleague, William Bradford, the governor and historian of the Plymouth colony (b. 1590; d. 1657), in Young's Chronicles of the Pilgrims, Boston, 1841, and in the Collections of the MassaehuseUe Historical Society, series 5, vol. iii; A. Steels, Chief of the Pilgrims. Life and Time of 1V. Brewster, Philadelphia, 1857; J. Savage, Genealogical Dictionary of the First Settlers of New England, 4 vols., Boston, 1860‑62; W. Walker, History of Congregational Churches, pp. 56, 59, 61‑74, 77, 227, New York, 1894; DNB, vi, 304‑305.
	BREYFOGEL, brai'fo‑gel, SYLVAffUS CHARLES:
Bishop of the Evangelical Association; b. at Read
ing, Pa., July 20, 1851. He was ordained to
the ministry of the Evangelical Association in
1873, was elected presiding elder of the same
organization in 1886, and has been bishop since
1891. In this capacity he has made tours of
inspection throughout the United States, Can
ada, and Europe, as well as China, and Japan.
He is chancellor of the Correspondence College
of the Evangelical Association at Reading, Pa.,
has lectured frequently before the Ocean Grove
School of Theology, the Winona Assembly, and sim
ilar summer assemblies, and has written Landmarks
o f the Evangelical Association (Cleveland, 1887).
BRICONNET, bri"sen"ne3', GUILLAUME: French prelate; b. at Paris 1470; d. at Esmana (near Montereau, 20 m. e.s.e. of Melun) Jan. 24, 1534. He was a descendant of a noble family of Touraine, and, after completing his theological studies at the college of Navarre, was appointed bishop of Lod6ve and was also made abbot of St. Germain‑des‑Pros in 1507. Four years later he attended the Council of Pisa, and during his absence a spirit of licentiousness spread among his monks, whom he was unable to control. Francis I then appointed him bishop of Meaux and sent him on a mission to Rome, where he remained two years. On his return, he sought to improve the morals and customs of his diocese, and accordingly convoked several synods, and also extended invitations to a number of evangelical preachers, such as Lefcvre, Roussel, and Farel, who preached in thirty‑two different places in his diocese, and introduced French translations of the Gospels and Epistles. When Farel attacked Rome, however, Brigonnet deprived him of his office and convoked two synods, the first condemning the teachings of Luther and forbidding the purchase or the reading of his works, and the second prohibiting all heterodox interpretations of the Gospel. Brigonnet found himself between two factions; one turning against Rome by denying the authority of the pope, the worship of the Virgin and of the saints; and the other clinging to the old traditions. In his effort to avoid extremes, he published certain proclamations between Dec., 1524, and Jan., 1525, threatening to excommunicate those who had burned the bull

265	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Brewer
		Bridget
of Clement VII and destroyed images of the Virgin.
Notwithstanding this, he wary charged by the
Cor<leliers before the Parliament of Paris with be
ing in sympathy with the Lutherans (Mar., 1525
Oct., 1526), whereupon a commission ordered that
Lefevre's translations be burned, and forbade
evangelical preaching. The preachers accordingly
fled to Strasburg, although Briconnet himself was
acquitted. Taking advantage of the absence of
Francis I, who was held captive in Madrid, the
Cordeliers renewed their charges, and two of the
new preachers, Jacobus Pauvan and Matthaeus
Saunier, were convicted of heresy by the Sorbonne
and burned at the stake. Briponnet wrote a letter
of submission to the Parliament, and Francis
quashed the case. His works were as follows:
Synodalis oratio (Paris, 1520); Syrtodalis oratio
(1552); and a correspondence with Margaret of
Navarre, sollie of which, with other fragments,
is contained in G46nin, Lettres de Marguerite d'Angou
leme (1841) and Nouvelles lettres de la refine de
Navarre (1842), and Herminjard, Correspondance
des rEformateurs (Geneva, 1878).
		G. BONET‑MAURY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Bretonneau, Hiatoire ghnEaZopiqus de la
	maieondeaBri.Sonnet, Paris, 1820; M. T. C. Duplessis, Hiatoire
	de 1'Lpliae de Measa, ib.1731; V. Duruy, Histoire de France,
	i, 575 sqq., fib. 1856; A. L. Herminjard, Correapondance
	des reformateura, vol. i, fib. 1878; E. and P. Haag, La
	France Protestants, ed. H. L. Bordier, fib. 1877 eqq.; Lich
	tenberger, ESRf ii, 423‑429; S. Bergen, in ButleEin de to
	aociete du proteatantiame fran,fais, 1895.
	BRICTINANS (Brittinaas, Brittiniaas, so named
from S. Blasius de Brictinis, a desolate region not
far from Fano in Umbria): An Italian hennit
society founded during the pontificate of Gregory
IX, who confirmed it in 1234 by an edict, enjoining
upon the members the moat rigorous asceticism,
especially as to fasting and the total abstinence
from flesh in any form between Sept. 14 and Easter
of every year. Innocent IV sought, apparently
with success, to merge them, as well as the anchorite
orders of the Williamites and John‑Bonites (qq.v.),
in the new order of the Augustinians (q.v.). A
bull of Alexander IV, however, dated in 1260
(Potthast, Regesta, no. 17,915), assures them the
right of independent existence. O. ZOCgr,ERt.
	BRIDAINE (BRYDAINE), JACQUES: French
Roman Catholic preacher; b. at Chusclan (15 m.
n.n.w. of Avignon), Department of Gard, Mar. 21,
1701; d. at Roquemaure, near Avignon, Dec. 22,
1767. He studied at the Jesuit College and the
Mission Seminary of St. Charles de la Croix in
Avignon; visited as a missionary preacher or evan
gelist nearly every city and village of France, pro
ducing a profound impression by his somber and
vehement sermons. He almost always preached ex
temporaneously, appealed to the emotions of his
hearers, and sought to terrify them. He prepared
a volume of Cantiques sPiritxtels (Montpellier, 17481),
which has passed through fifty editions. Certain
works have been published from his manuscripts,
including Lectures et mEditalions (Avignon, 1821);
ftlement de vie pour une pieuse demoiselle (1821);
and five volumes of sermons (1823).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abbt; Carton, Le Modelt des pretrea, Paris,
	1804.
BRIDEL, blrt"del', PHILIPPE LOUIS JUSTIN: Swiss Protestant; b. at Lausanne Nov. 27,1852. He was educated at the Academy (now the University) of his native city and in the theological faculty of the Free Church of the same institution, being graduated from the former in 1870 and from the latter in 1876. He also studied at the University of Gottingen, and after the completion of his education held successive pastorates in the Canton of Vaud (187rr‑78), Paris (1879‑87), and Lausanne (1887‑94). Since 1894 he has been professor of philosophy and the history of theology in tha theological faculty of the Free Church at Lausanne. He has been associate editor of the Revue de thcologie et de philosophic since 1895 and of the LibertE chrEtienne since 1898. In theology he is, to a certain extent, a follower of C. Secr6tan and A. R. Vinet, and has written La Philosophic de la religion d'Immanuei Kant (Lausanne, 1876); La Palestine illustrtse (4 vole., 1888‑91); Roger Holland, Pasteur d Paris (1902); and Charles Renouvier et la philosophic (1905).

BRIDGE, WILLIAM: Puritan; b. in Cambridgeshire about 1600; d. at Clapham, near London, Mar. 12, 1670. He was a fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and, as rector at Norwich, was silenced by Bishop Wren for nonconformity (1637), and excommunicated; he remained in Norwich, however, till the writ de excommunicato capizndo came out against him, when he fled to Holland and became pastor of the English Church at Rotterdam, succeeding Hugh Peters and associated with Jeremiah Burroughs; he returned to England in 1642 and was a member of the Westminster Assembly; was minister at Great Yarmouth till ejected in 1662, and spent the rest of his life at Clapham. He was an Independent (Congregationalist) and Calvinist, a learned man, and had a library rich in the Fathers and schoolmen. His collected works in three volumes were published at London, 1649, and, with memorial, in five volumes, 1845.

BRIDGET (Brigit, Brigida, Bride), SAINT, OF KILDARE: Patron saint of Ireland; b. at Fochart (Faugher, 2 m. n. of Dundalk), Leinster, c. 453; d. at Kildare (30 m. w.s.w. of Dublin) Feb. 1, 523. She was the daughter of a certain Dubhthach and his bondmaid or concubine named Brotsech. At the age of fourteen she received .the veil in Meath from the hand of Bishop Machille (Mel), and during a long life won renown for piety and benevolence, and as a founder of monasteries. Her first and most important foundation was Kildare (till dara, so named from a large oak under which her cell was first placed), which was followed by Breagh in Meath, Hay in Connaught, Cliagh in Munster, and others. She was buried at Kildare, where the nuns of her monastery (the " fire‑house ") kept the so‑called " St. Bridget's fire " continually burning in her honor till 1220, when the bishop of the time ordered it extinguished to make an end of the many superstitions connected with it. Thus far the notices of her life are well authenticated
but in very early times legend began to associate
marvels of the wildest sort with her name‑a tend‑

Bridget	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	288
ency not unknown to her oldest biographers. An aged seer foretold her future greatness to her mother before she was born.
While still a child Bridget prophesied her coming spiritual rule over Ireland by stretching her arms over the green fields and crying "it will be mine." As nun and monastery‑head she performs numerous miracles of benevolence and love like those of Elijah at Zarephath and Jesus in feeding the multitude. The milk which she gives to a poor man, instead of making it into butter, is restored in a wondrous way; so likewise the bacon which she gives to a hungry dog instead of cooking it. She gives seven sheep, one after the other, to a beggar who comes to her in seven different forma, but the number of her flock is not diminished. She changes the water drawn. from a spring for a sick man into a delicious liquor. She satisfies a whole company of episcopal guests with the milk of a single cow which had already been milked three times the same day.
Some of her dream‑miracles and visions are more credible; but here, on the one hand, a Roman‑clerical tendency is easily recognizedas when she finds herself transported to Rome and hears a mass read there which awakens in her the desire to transplant the seine to Irelandand, on the other hand, we meet with characteristics of a benevolent nature‑deity, which the legends mentioned above also indicate by ascribing to her manifold miracles connected with the giving of food and drink. It is thus not unlikely that the old heathen nature‑goddess Ceridwen (the Ceres of the Celts), transformed into a Christian saint, survives in Bridget. The fire also which was kept burning in her honor at Kildare speaks for this supposition. It is said that the foundations of a temple of Ceridwen, with great vaults for the storing of fruits, have been found beneath the chapel of the monastery (cf. Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, iii, 1789, Ant., 75‑85). In old Irish legend and song, Bridget is likened to the Virgin Mary, or even extolled as the Mary of the Irish by expressions such as " mother of Christ," " mother of the Lord," and the like. A hymn, attributed to Bishop Ultan (d. 856) and in any case very old, calls her " beloved queen of the true God," and the old Offecium S. Brigidce (printed at Paris, 1822) speaks of her as " another Mary," " like to Mary," etc. The monasteries, churches, and villages named after her are almost without
number. 	O. ZOC%LERt.

BIHLIOOHAPHr; The three oldest lives (by Brogan Cloen, Cogitosus, and Ultan), dating from the sixth and seventh centuries, with three later lives, from the ninth to the twelfth centuries, were published by J. Colgan in his Trim thaumalurpa, pp 51b‑g28 Louvain, 1847; the ASB gives three of these lives with two others and a preface, Feb., i, 99‑18b. The life by Cogitoaue is m MPL lxxii. For later presentations consult J. Lanigan, Eccleeiusticat History of Ireland, i, 88, 336, and chaps. viii and is passim, Dublin, 1829• J. H. Todd, The Book of Hymns of the A»cieut Church of Ireland i, 84‑70, Dublin, 1855; idem, St. Patrick, PP. 10‑28, Dublin, 1884; A. P. Forbea ICalewdare of Scottish Saints, pp. 287‑291 Edinburgh,1872; J. Healy, Insula aa>actorum pp. 108‑121 Dublin, 1890; T. Olden, The Church o/ Ireland, pp, 38‑48. London, 1895; J. O'Han_ ton, Liven of the Irish Saints, ii, 1‑224, Dublin, n.d.
BRIDGET,	SAINT, OF SWEDEN AND THE
	BRIGITTIftE ORDER.

Bridget's Early Life (¢ 1). Bridget's Revelations and Later Life (§ 2). Her Works (¢ 3). The Brigittine Order (§ 4).
Bridget, the famous Scandinavian mystic and monastic founder, was born probably at Finatad, not far from Upsala, in 1303; d. in Rome July 23, 1373. Her father, Birger Persaon, was one of the principal landowners of the district, and charged with both administrative and judicial functions. Her family on both aides had been distinguished for religious devotion, and the child received a careful education in spiritual things. Her imagination, nourished on the lives of the saints, brought her her first vision at the age of seven. Others followed, the reality of which neither she
:. Bridget's nor her parents doubted. After her
Early	mother's death, Bridget was entrusted
	Life.	to an aunt at Aepanlis, whose strict dis
		cipline laid the foundation of her aeceti
ciam and strength of will. In 1318 she was married,
in pursuance of her father's political plane, to Ulf,
son of the governor of the province of Nerike, and
took up her residence at Ulfisa in that province,
where she acquired great influence by the renown
of her piety and unselfishness. By degrees she col
lected around her a group of devout and learned
men‑Nicolaus Hermanni, renowned as a Latin
poet, and later bishop of Linkbping, who was the
instructor of her children; Matthias, her confessor,
the foremost theologian of the time in Sweden;
Prior Peter of Alvastra; and another Peter, who
succeeded Matthias as her confessor. Through
Matthias, who was the author of a commentary
on Revelation, she gained an insight into the
religious movements and the rich apocalyptic
literature of the day. After King Magnus Erica
son's marriage with Blanche of Namur, Bridget
became chief lady‑in‑waiting to the queen, and
soon acquired a great influence at the court.
	No remarkable visions of revelations seem to have
marked this period. When, however, she was
approaching the age of forty (probably between
1341 and 1343), she and her husband made a pil
grimage to the shrine of St. James at Compoatella
(see COMP08TELLA). On the way back, Ulf fell
ill at Arran; and as she watched by his bedside,
she thought she saw St. Denis, the protector of
France, who told her that she was under the special
care of heaven. Her husband's recovery, which
was indicated as a sign of this, was only temporary.
He died in 1344, and Bridget believed the last tie
which bound her to earth had been broken. Not
		long afterward, she thought she saw
s. Bridget's Christ himself, who said to her: "Thou
Revels‑	art my spouse, and the link between
lions and me and mankind; thou shall see and
Later Life. hear marvelous things, and my Spirit shall be upon thee all thy days." This was her first revelation, strictly so called. She and those around her were fully convinced of the reality and the divine origin of these revelations. She used to write or dictate them in Swedish; later they were somewhat freely put into Latin

287	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Hrldget
by Matthias, by Prior Peter, and after 1365 by the Spanish prelate Alphonsus, formerly bishop of Jaen. Bridget felt herself called to be a divine instrument for the religious and moral awakening of her age. Soon she was convinced that she should found a new order in honor of the Savior, and dictated to Peter the rules revealed to her. King and nobles joined in building and endowing a home for the order; the approval of the archbishop of Upsala was secured. To obtain that of the pope, Bridget undertook the long journey to Rome in 1349, arriving in the jubilee of the following year. Here she spent the rest of her life, except for pilgrimages, in works of mercy and in warning great and small against sin. She did not gain the papal sanction for her order until 1370, when her rule was confirmed by Urban V. A pilgrimage to Palestine in 1372 was the last notable event in her life. She was canonized by Boniface IX in 1391. The connection between Sweden and the South was much furthered by her fame and by the permanent use of her Roman house by monks from her convent of Vadstena (on the east shore of Lake Vettern, 110 m. s.w. of Stockholm); its head in the Reformation period was Peter Magnus, who, after his return to Sweden, consecrated the Lutheran bishops there, affording a basis for a claim to apostolic succession.
The authorized edition of Bridget's works contains eight books of revelations, besides another of Revelationes extravagesntes, or supplement, from the collection of Prior Peter, with his own notes; the rule of her order; and a collection of edifying readings for the community, with certain prayers (known as the Quattttor orationea). The works
were first printed at Liibeck in 1492 3. Her from the official copy preserved at
Works.	Vadstena; the Roman edition o
1628 is considered the best. The " Revelations " have been translated into moat European languages and into Arabic. With much that is superstitious and fantastic, they contain a pure mysticism, rich in thought, and marked by deep insight into the inner mysteries of the devout life. Bridget's views are of course medieval and those of a submissive daughter of the Roman Catholic Church. None the less, they show traces of admirable anticipations of Reformation ideas. The conception of the universal priesthood appears here and there; in her personal devotion, she goes back to the eternal source of life and truth; and her rule commends the preaching of the Word to the people in the vernacular.
The Brigittine Order (Ordo Sancti Augustini sancti Salvatoris nuncupdtus) was intended by her as an instrument for spreading the Kingdom of God upon earth. Its convents (as, e.g., at Font& vraud) were for both monks and nuns, though
their dwellings were separate. The 4. The age of entrance was twenty‑five for
Brigittine men and eighteen for women. The
Order.	convent was to be ruled by an abbess
selected by the community. Originally the monks were governed by a prior independent of the abbess, but before long the pope subjected them also to her rule, the former
prior being called only confessor‑general. At the same time they were placed under immediate papal jurisdiction, though provision was made for a yearly visitation by the bishop. They were strictly cloistered; silence was observed, except at certain hours, but the rule of fasting was not rigorous. The monks were admitted to the nuns' convent only to adminiater.the sacraments to the dying or to carry out the dead. The rich endowments of the convent of Vadatena, which remained the mother house, show the popularity of this national foundation among all classes. Not a few Brigittine convents, however, sprang up in other countries, prominent among which were Ni£dendal in Finland, Munkaliv near Bergen, Mariendal near Revel, Marienwald near Lilbeck, 'Marienkron near Stralsund, and Sion House, Richmond, near London. The importance of the order during the later Middle Ages for the civilization of the North, and especially of Sweden, can hardly be overestimated. Vadatena has been called the first high‑school of the North; on it and on its daughter house at NAdendal the literary life of Sweden before the Reformation depended. Vadatena had the largest library in Sweden; and here were made the first attempts toward a complete Swedish version of the Bible. In 1495 a printing‑press was set up; but it was destroyed by fire the same year, and published nothing so far as known.
	The order was so deeply rooted in Sweden that
it survived the Reformation, though with dimin
ished strength. Not even Gustavus Vase's hatred
of the " popery " of the Brigittines could entirely
destroy the devotion of all classes to them. During
the sixteenth century his wife, sons, and daughters,
and many others of the highest nobility, as well
as numbers from other classes are found among
the benefactors of Vadstena, which, however, was
suppressed by Duke Charles in 1595. The Refor
mation abolished most of the houses outside of
Sweden, but an attempt was made to revive it in
the Counterreformation, to which period belong the
Fratres ntwissimi Birgittini in Belgium, confirmed
by Gregory XV, and the reformed order for women
introduced only into Spain by the visionary Marina
de Escobar (d. 1633) and confirmed by Urban VIII.
Thin is said to have a few houses in Spain now; and
four convents of the original order still exist‑at
A1tomUnater in Bavaria, St. Bridget's Abbey in
Devonshire, and two in Holland. 	:i
(HERaU' AN LUND$TnVM.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The two earliest lives, by the two confeseore of Bridget in the year of her death, were published by Dr. C. Anneretedt in Script. rerum Sroecicarum medi% awi, III, ii, 188‑208 Upsets, 1876. The Vita give ehronicon by Margaret& Clauedota was published in Script. Suecici med%i nevi, ed. J. E. Rieta, pp. 193‑240, Lund, 1844. Early material is found also in ASS, Oct. 4th, pp. 388b80. The best modern accounts are in H. 8ch0ek, Svanak Liteqaturhiatoria, pp. 129 eqq., Stockholm, 1890, and in Illuatarad Svenak Litieraturhietoria, i, 84 eqq., ib. 1898. Consult. also L. Clarus, Daa Leben der heiligen Birgitta, Regensburg, 1856; J. B. Schwab, Johannes Gerpon, pp. 3,64 eqq., Wiirsburg,. 1858; F. Hammerich, St. B%rgitta, die nordiarAa Prophetin and tlrdanaat%ttenn, Goths, 1872 (Germ. travel. from the Swedish); Bettina von Rinsgeis, Lsben der heilipsn B%rgitta, Regensburg, 1890; G. Binder, Din hcilipa B%rpitta won Schwadan and ihr Kloster.

8ridgett
Briessmann	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	288
orden, Munich, 1891; Comtesse Flavigny, Ste. Brigitte de
Su%de, Paris, 1892; A. Brinkmann, Den hellipe Birgitta, Copenhagen, 1893.
For the order consult: Rerum Suevicarum script, medii wi, ed. E. M. Font, I, i, 1818 eqq., Upsals, 1818; History of the Enp..Brigittine Nuns, Plymouth, 1886; Geaammelte Nachrichten itl.er die einat beatandenen Kloster Vom Orden der heiligen Birgitta, Munich, 1888; Binder, ut sup., and Geachichte der bayriachen Birgi#en‑Kl6ater, ib. 1896; Helyot, Ordrea monaatiquea, ii, 146 aqq., Currier, Religious Orders, pp. 185‑187; Heimbueher, Orden and Kongregationen; i, 440, 505‑510.
BRIDGETT, THOMAS EDWARD: English Roman Catholic; b. at Derby (35 m. n.n.e. of Birmingham), Derbyshire, Jan. 20, 1829; d. at Clapham (a suburb of London) Feb. 17, 1899. His parents were Baptists, but in 1845 he was baptized into the Church of England. Two years later he matriculated at St. John's College, Cambridge, but just before taking his degree ?n 1850 lie refused to take the oath of supremacy and was received into the Roman Catholic Church. He then studied for six years on the Continent, and was ordained .priest in 1856, after having joined the Redemptorist Order. His life‑work lay in the mission field to which his order is particularly devoted, and in 1868 he established the Confraternity of the Holy Family connected with the Redemptorist church at Limerick, Ireland. In addition to his activity as a missioner, he wrote The Ritual of the New Te;,tament (London, 1873); Our Lady's Dowry, or, how England Gained and Lost that Title (1875); The Discipline of Drink (1876); History of the Holy Eucharist in Great Britain (2 vole., 1881); Life of Blessed John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester (1888); The True Story of the Catholic Hierarchy Deposed by Queen Elizabeth. (in collaboration with T. F. Knox; 1889); Blunders and Forgeries: Historical Essays (1890); The Life and Writings of Sir Thomas More (1891); and Sonnets and Epigrams on Sacred Subjects (1898). He likewise edited a number of works, of which the most important were Bishop T. Watson's Sermons on the Sacraments (London, 1876); R. Johnson's The Suppliant of the Holy Ghost (1878); Cardinal W. Allen's Souls Departed (1886); The Wit and Wisdom of Blessed Thomas .More (1892); Lyra Hieratica : Poems on the Priesthood (1896); Poems on England's Reunion with Christendom (1896); and Characteristics from the Writings of Nicholas Cardinal Wiseman (1898).
BRIDGEWATER TREATISES: A series of books written in accordance with the will of Francis Henry, eighth earl of Bridgewater (d. Feb. 11, 1829), who left eight thousand pounds to the Royal Society, to be paid to one or several authors, selected by the president, for writing a treatise
On the power, wisdom, and goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation." The following eight authors were selected, and their treatises published (12 vole., London, 1833‑36): (1) Thomas Chalmers, The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral ,and Intellectual Condition of Man; (2) John Kidd, The Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man; (3) William Whewell Astronomy and General Physics considered with Reference

to Natural Theology; (4) Charles Bell, The Hand, its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evincing
Design; (5) Peter Mark Roget, Animal and Vege
table Physiology considered with Reference to Nat
ural Theology; (6) William Buekland, Geology and
Mineralogy considered faith Reference to Natural
Theology; (7) William Kirby, The Habits and
Instincts of Animals with Reference to Natural
Theology; (8) William Prout, Chemistry, Meteor
ology, and the Function o f Dige soon considered
with Reference to Natural Theology.

BRIDGMAN, ELIJAH COLEMAN: Congregational foreign missionary; b.' at Belcher town, Mass., Apr. 22, 1801; d. in Shanghai,. China' Nov. 2, 1861. He was graduated at Amherst College in 1826 and at Andover Theological Seminary in 1829 and that year on October 14 sailed for Canton under the appointment of the American Board. He arrived there on Feb. 25, 1830, and lived there till 1847, when he removed to Shanghai to supervise the translation of the Bible. In 1832 he began, as a labor of love, the valuable monthly The Chinese Repository and was its editor till 1851. In 1841 he brought out his Chinese chrestomathy. In 1844 he was one of the two secretaries of legation to Hon. Caleb Coshing when on his special mission to China and rendered important services. In February, 1852, he left Shanghai for a visit to America, arrived there June 16; on his return he left New York on October 12, and arrived at Shanghai on May 3, 1853.
I BIeLIOCaAPaY: E. G. Bridgman, Life of E. C. Bridgman,,
New York, 1864. ,

BRIEFS, BULLS, AND BULLARIA: Written mandates of the pope, differing in form, the bull being more solemn than the brief; bullaria are collections of both kinds of documents. At first the Roman bishops sealed documents with a ring, but from the end of the sixth century seal‑boxes or seal‑forms (bulhe), usually of lead, began to be attached to all public documents, whereas for the others the signet stamped in wax by the ring was used.' Since the thirteenth century it has borne the same device, the apostle Peter casting a net into the sea (Matt. iv, 18, 19), whence it is known as the " ring of the fisherman " (annulus Piscatoris, q.v.). The oldest bullte have on one aide the name of the pope, on the other the word Papa. The present form has on the obverse the heads of Peter and Paul with the distinguishing inscription S. P. A.‑S. P. E. (i.e., Sanctus Petrus or Paulus Aloostolus,‑ Sanctus Petrus or Paulus Episcopus); on the reverse, the name of the pope with his number. The string by which they are attached is of red and yellow silk or hemp. From designating the seal, the word bulls passed to the document itself.
The bull is written upon strong parchment; the brief on thin parchment or paper. Instead of having the seal attached to it, it is issued sub annulo piscatoris, which to‑day is only a stamp on the paper. Both begin in an invariable form with the name of the pope and a salutation. In the brief the number is added to the name, in the bull the title Episcopus servos servorum Dei takes the place of the number. At tile close of the brief

289	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
merely the place and date aie given; the bull gives the date according to both the ancient Roman and the Christian calendars and the year of the pope's reign. The most solemn form is used for bulls issued in the consistory (bullce consistoriales). They are signed by the pope and the cardinals, and are sent out not in the original but in an authorized copy (transcriptum). Of other bulls (non consistOriales) the pope signs only the minute (minuta), and the completed document is signed by the various papal officers who helped in its preparation. The briefs are signed only by the secretary of briefs. Briefs are drawn up in accordance with the special rules of the department in the apostolic secretariats or dataria (see CURIA); bulls in the chancery. Leo XIII simplified the procedure in 1878 by ordering that bulls other than consiatorial should be written in ordinary script on parchment and sealed only with a red stamp containing the pictures of Peter and Paul and the name of the reigning pope.
	The more important briefs and bulls are con
tained in collections known as bullaria. The oldest
collections contained mostly only a small number.
TG these belong: Bulks diversorunt ponti frcorum a
Joanne XXII ad Julium 111 a bibliotheea Ludovici
Domes (Rome, 1550), containing only some fifty
documents; another from Boniface VIII to Paul IV
(1559), with about a hundred and sixty; and one
from Gregory VII to Gregory XIII (1579), with
723 documents. The Magnum bullarium Romanum,
covering the period from Leo I to the year 1585,
was published in 1586, and since has been continued
in revised and completed editions. The latest as
well as most convenient and complete edition is
the Bullarium magnum Ramanum, published at
Turin by order of Pius IX and under the auspices
of Cardinal Gaude (1857‑72, 24 vols., covering
the years 440‑1740). For delimiting bulls (bulls;
CiPC'td)nSCripti0n'1S), see CONCORDATS AND DELIMIT
ING BULLS. 	E. FRIEDBERG.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Marini, Diplomatica pontifcia., Rome, 1841; H. Breslau, Handbuch der Urku»denlehre, i, 67 sqq., Leipeie, 1888; G. Phillips, KirchenrechE, iii, 640 aqq., Regensburg, 1889; E. Friedberg, Lehrbuch den kafholischen and evangeliachen Kirchearechta, Leipsie, 1895.

BRIEGER, bri'ger, JOHANN FRIEDRICH THEODOR: German Protestant; b. at Greifawald June 4, 1842; educated at the universities of Greifswald, Erlangen, and Tubingen from 1861 to 1864 (Ph.D., Leipsic, 1870). He became privat‑docent at Halls in 1870, and was appointed associate professor of church history in the same university three years later. In 1876 he was called to Marburg as full professor of the same subject, and since 1886 has been professor of church history at Leipsic. In addition to numerous contributions to theological periodicals, he has written Gasparo Cgltarini and das Regensburger Coneordienwerk des Jahres 15/ft (Goths, 1870); De formulte Ratisbonensis origins atque indole (Halls, 1870); Constantin der Grosse als Religionspolitiker (Goths, 1880); Die angebliche Marburger Kirchenordnung von 1527 (1881); Luther and sein Werk (Marburg; 1883); Aleander and Luther, 15%1 (Goths, 1884); Die Torgauer Artikel (Leipsie, 1888); Die theologisehen Promotio‑
nen au/ der Uniroersitdt Leipzig 1h28‑1539 (1890); Der Glaube Lathers in seiner Freiheit von menachlichen Autoritdten (1892); Die fortschreiEerule Entfremdung von der Kirche im Licht der Geschichte (1894); Das Wesen des Ablasses am Ausgange des Mitlelalters (1897); and Zur Gesehiehte des Augsburger Reiehstages von 1530 (1903). He was also one of the founders of the Zeitsehrift fur Kirchengeschichte in 1876, and has been its editor to the present time.

BRIESSMANN, bris'mdn, JOHANN: Reformer; b. at Cottbus (on the Spree, 43 m. s.s.w. of Frankfort), Brandenburg, Dec. 31, 1483; d. at Konigsberg Oct. 1, 1549. He belonged to a prominent family, and as a Franciscan he studied after 1518 at Frankfort‑on‑the‑Oder, and after 1520 at Wittenberg, where he was promoted in 1521 as licentiate and in 1522 as doctor of theology. Influenced by Luther's appearance at the Leipsic disputation with Eck (1519), but OIOre especially by Luther's great reformatory writings of the year 1520, he soon found, himself one in the Evangelical faith with his beloved friend. When the Franciscans had to leave Wittenberg, Briesamann went to Cottbus, but on the initiative of Luther he was able to return in 1522. He addressed a reformatory epistle to the congregation at Cottbus, Uuterricht and Ermahnung (Cottbus, 1523), and at the instance of Luther wrote a powerful refutation of the attacks of the Franciscan Schatzgeyer upon Luther's De votis monasticis (Wittenberg?, 1523), stating in his declaration to Spalatin that he could not refuse the wish of Luther, " since he felt himself in agreement not so much with a Luther as with the Evangelical truth"
On the recommendation of Luther, he was called in 1523 as preacher to Konigsberg by Albert, the grand master of the Teutonic order (see ALBERT or PRUSSIA). A Konigsberg chronicler thus describes his life and work: he preached the word with gentleness but with all serious‑
Preacher ness; many became pious Christians in Konigs‑ and better men; " on account of his berg, godly, honorable, moral life he was
	xgz3‑z7.	beloved by many and his sermons
		were gladly heard." About the time
when he entered upon his pastoral duties he pub
lished his Flosculi de homine interiors et exteriors
de fide et operibus (ed. P. Tschackert, Goths, 1887),
containing 110 verses in which, following Luther's
work "Concerning Christian Liberty," he defends
the Evangelical doctrine against Rome and the
fanatics. His influence upon Bishop George of
Polentz (q.v.) is seen in the.latter's sermon delivered
on Christmas day, 1523, in which he publicly
expressed his belief in the Evangelical teaching of
justification by faith alone. As the bishop did
not preach himself, he appointed as his substitute
" the learned Dr. Johann Briessmann, a man well
versed in the holy scripture:' In 1524 the bishop
issued his first reformatory mandate, enjoining the
ministers to use only the German language in their
ministerial acts, and to read Luther's writings,
especially his translation of the Bible. Of lasting
effect were also certain writings of Briessmann,

8rlermann
8riackeriaok
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HER.ZOG
as his Umsehree'bung and Erkldrung des Vater Urtsera als Anleitung zum wahrhaft evangelischen Gebetsleben inn Gegenaatz gegen die Mariengebete; a Sermon von dreierlei heilaamer Beichte, as guide to Evangelical confession in opposition to auricular confession; and his sermon Von der Anfechtung dew Glaubena and der Hoffnung, with reference to the Gospel‑lesson on the woman of Canaan (Matt. xv. 21‑28). For the benefit of the more cultured members of the congregation he delivered lectures on the epistle to the Romans. He laid stress upon the inwardness of the Christian life in opposition to the impetuous zeal of Amandua in forcibly doing away with ancient usages and forms. With Luther, who greatly rejoiced over the rapid progress of the Reformation in Prussia, he entertained a lively correspondence, and on June 12, 1524, one day before Luther, he was married, being the first married minister of Prussia.
After the secularization of the territory of the Teutonic Order (q.v.) ill 1525 under Polish feudal supremacy, Briessmann and his colaborera, Speratus and Poliander, faithfully assisted Duke Albert at the diet, Dec., 1525. He accepted a call
from the citizens of Riga to complete In Riga, the reformatory movement there,
rgsy‑3r. with the consent of the duke, Oct.,
1527. By preaching and teaching he brought about the necessary reformation and published in 1530 Rurze Ordnung des Kirehendienates sarremt einer Vorrede von Ceremonien.
After four years of faithful work he returned to KSnigeberg in 1531 as cathedral preacher. With his colleagues he had soon to oppose the fanatical tendencies of Schwenckfeld, which the ill‑advised duke had favored at first. As he labored for the purity of Evangelical doctrine, he also labored for the upbuilding of the inner life of the Church by
the new Landesordnung (1540), by Activity in the articles concerning the appointKiinigsberg ment and support of the ministers
I53r‑49• (1540), by the introduction of a new
order of marriage and divine service (1544). He recommended the lectio continua, or continuous reading of the whole Bible in divine service, thus making the congregations acquainted with Holy Scripture, and a thorough instruction in the catechism besides the preaching; he introduced church‑singing by the use of a hymn‑book, the first in Prussia. Repeated calls to Rostock he declined. He also devoted his energies to the development of the schools and higher education. He formed the plans for the university which was founded in 1544. During the sickness of Bishop Polenta in 1546, the business of the episcopal see was entrusted to Briesemann, and in 1547 he made a tour of inspection to correct abuses which still existed in the diocese. He opposed especially teachings brought thither by refugees from the Netherlands, represented by the humanist. Gulielmus Gnaphaeus (or Fullonius, q.v.), a sympathizer with Carlstadt. It was also due to Briessmann'a energy that the troubles caused by the first rector of the university, Georg Sabinus, had no lasting influence. Against Andrews Osiander, whom the duke had called to Kbnigaberg, he defended the
270
genuine Lutheran doctrine and confession. Painful as was this Osiandrian controversy for Briesemann, yet he rejoiced toward the end of his life that the Moravian Brethren, driven from Poland by the intrigues of the Polish‑Catholic clergy, were in 1548 received into the Prussian state church, after being settled in Prussia with the permission of the duke. In opposing the Osiandrian errors, Briessmann also opposed the duke who at first adhered to Osiander. To the suggestion of the duke to hear the opinion of churches from abroad, Briesamann replied: " Since the present controversy concerns doctrinal points which have been preached in Prussia for over twenty‑four years, the opinion and judgment of others is not to be awaited." These are the last words from his mouth and pen, "the testament of the first Reformer of Prussia, and therefore especially valuable for the history of the Prussian Reformation" (Tachackert). In the spring of 1549 he retired from his arduous duties. He is buried in the choir of the cathedral at Ktinigsberg. Davln ERDMANN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Tachackert, Urkundanbuch cur Refor. mationageeehiehte dew Heraoptutna Preuaeen, vole. i., ii., in Publikationen aua den k6niglichm prsuaeiachen Staataarchirosn, vola. xliii.‑alv., Leipeic, 1890.

BRIGGS, CHARLES AUGUSTUS: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at New York City Jan. 15, 1841. He was educated at the University of Virginia (18570), Union Theological Seminary (1881‑63), and the University of Berlin (1868‑69). From 1863 to 1866 he was in business with his father. He was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry and was pastor at Roselle, N. J., from 1870 to 1574, when he was appointed professor of Hebrew at Union Theological Seminary. In 1891 he was transferred to the chair of Biblical theology, and since 1904 has been professor of theological encyclopedia and symbolics. In 1892 he was tried for heresy by the Presbytery of New York, but was acquitted, although in the following year he was suspended by the General Assembly. In 1899 he was ordained to the priesthood in the Protestant . Episcopal Church. He is a member of the American Oriental Society, the Deutsche MorgenlAndische Gesellschaft, and the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis. He was editor of the Presbyterian Review from 1880 to 1890, and collaborated with S. D. F. Salmond in editing the International Theological Library (New York, 1891 sqq.), with S. R. Driver and A. Plummet in editing the International Critical Commentary (1895 aqq.), and with F. Brown and S. R. Driver in preparing the Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (12 parts, Oxford, 1891‑1906). In addition to numerous studies in various theological periodicals, he has written Biblical Study (New York, 1883); .American Presbyterianism (1885); Mm= aiareic Prophecy (1886); Whither? A Theological Question for the Times (1889); The Authority of Holy Scripture (1891); The Bible, the Church, and the Reason. (1892); The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch (1893); The Messiah of the Gospels (1894); The Messiah of the Apostles (1895); General Iretr,r dudio» to the Study of Holy Scripture (1899); The Incarnation of the Lord (1902); New Light ors the

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Brieaamana
Briaokerlao~
Life of Jesus (1904); Ethical Teachings of Jesus (1904); and Critical Commentary on the Psalms (1906).
	BRIGHT, WILLIAM: English church historian
and patristic scholar; b. at Doncaster (30 m. s. of
York), Yorkshire, England, Dec. 14, 1824; d. at
Oxford Mar. 6, 1901. He studied at Rugby and
University College, Oxford (B.A., 1846; M.A.,
1849), and became fellow 1847; was theological
tutor in Trinity College, Glenalmond, Perthshire,
1851‑58; tutor of University College, Oxford,
1862; appointed regius professor of ecclesiastical
history and canon of Christ Church, Oxford, 1868.
His publications were very numerous and have
gone through many editions; besides sermons
and addresses, poems, and devotional works they
include: Ancient Collects and Other Prayers selected
from various rituals (London, 1857); A History of
the Church from the Edict of Milan, A.D. 313, to
the Council o f Chalcedon, A.D. 451 (1860); Eight
een Sermons of St. Leo 1, surnamed the Great, an
the Incarnation, translation and notes (1862);
Euaebius's Ecclesiastical History, text and intro
duction (1872); Orations of St. Athanasius against
the Arians, text, with life (1873); Socrates's Eccle
siastical History, text and introduction (1878);
Chapters of Early English Church History (1878;
3d ed., 1897); Select AntirPelagian Treatises of
St. Augustine (1880); St. Athan ius's Historical
Writings (1881); Later Treatises o~St. Athanasius,
translation, notes, and an appendix of St. Cyril
(vol. xlvi. of A Library o f the Fathers, ed. E.
B. Pussy and others, 1881); Notes on the Canons
of the First Four General Councils (1882); Lessons
from the Lives of Three Great Fathers (1890); Mo
rality in Doctrine (1892j; Waymarks in Church
History (1894); The Roman See in the Early Church
and Other Studies in Church History (1896); The
Law of Faith (1898); Some Aspects of Primitive
Church Life (1898). With P. G. Medd he edited
a	Latin translation of the English prayer‑book
(1865), and he contributed the section on the Litany
to J. H. Blunts Annotated Book of Common Prayer
(1866).
BIHLIOaaAPHr: W. Bright, Selected Letters, ed. B. J. Kidd,
with Memoir by P. G. Medd, London, 1903.
BRIGHTMAN, FRANK EDWARD: Church of England; b. at Bristol June 18, 1856. He was educated at University College, Oxford (B.A., 1879), and was ordered deacon in 1884 and ordained priest in the following year. He was chaplain of University College from 1884 to 1887 and assistant curate of St. John the Divine, Kennington, in 1887‑88, while from 1884 to 1903 he was Pussy Librarian. He was also examiner in the Theology School in 1899‑1901, and since 1902 has been fellow and tutor of Magdalen College, Oxford, as well as prebendary of Carlton with Thurlby in Lincoln Cathedral. He has written Liturgies Eastern and Western (vol. i., Oxford, 1896) and What Objections have been made to English Orders f (London, 1896), and has also translated the Preces Privata; of Lancelot Andrewea (1903).

BRIGHTMAN, THOMAS: Puritan and Presbyterian; b. at Nottingham 1562; d. at Hawnes (5 m.
s. by e. of Bedford) Aug. 24, 1807. He studied at Queen's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1581; M.A., 1584; B.D., 1591), became a fellow there in 1584, and rector of Hawnes in 1592. He was one of the fathers of Presbyterianism in England; as Thomas Cartwright Bays, " The bright star in the Church of God." He subscribed the Presbyterian Books of Discipline. He was a famous expositor of Revelation (Apocalypses Apocalypeeos, Frankfort, 1609, Heidelberg, 1612, Eng. tranal., A revelation of the Revelation, Amsterdam, 1615, Leyden, 1616) and of Daniel from xi. 36 to end of xii. (Basel, 1614, which edition has notes on Canticles; Eng. transl., London, 1644). He opened up a new path in the exposition of the Apocalypse by making two distinct millenniums: the first, from Constantine until 1300, in this corresponding with the common orthodox view; the second, from 1300 to 2300, which was a new departure, by which he was enabled to find a place for the future conversion of the Jews, and a more glorious condition of the Church on earth, which he gains by a symbolical interpretation of Rev xxi. and xxii. His views greatly modified the Puritan interpretation of the Apocalypse, and were expounded by different writers and reproduced in different forma long after his death. His collected works appeared London, 1644.
BRIGIDA, SAINT, BRIGITTINES. Bee BRIDGET, SAINT, OF SWEDEN.

BRILL, JAKOB: Mystic; b. at Leyden Jan. 21, 1639;. d. there Jan. 28, 1700. He was a follower of Pontiaan van Hattem; between 1685 and 1699 he published about forty works of a myatica(devotional character, which were much read; but epiritualizing Christ to such a degree that the historical Christ almost disappeared, and the sacrifice on the cross became a mere symbol of the sacrifice which shall take place in us, he at last got lost in a mystical pantheism, far away from Christianity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A eulogy of Brill is found in Poiret's Cata‑
logue des 6crivaina mystiques (Lot. tranal., Amsterdam, 1708). Consult also Ypey en Dermont, Do hervornde Kerk in Nederland, vol. iii., Breda, 1824.

BRINCgERINCg, JAR: A popular preacher and spiritual director in connection with the Brethren and Sisters of the Common Life; b. near Ziitphen, Guelderland, 1359; d. at Deventer Mar. 26, 1419. Thomas h, Kempis, who wrote his life, says that he came of a good family, but tells nothing further of his early life except that, living in the days of the great religious awakening under Groote's influence, he was profoundly impressed by it. He came into intimate personal relations with Groote and his disciples, and devoted himself to forwarding the " new devotion " and the education of the young. He was ordained priest in 1393, and not long afterward took charge as rector of the house for women founded at Deventer by Groote, " Meeater Geertahuia " as it was commonly called (see COMMON LIFE, BRETHREN OF TAE). He introduced a strict discipline into the life of the inmates, and was practically the founder of the sisters whose houses afterward became eo,

British Church	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	272
Brooks
numerous. Under his direction the numbers
	grew so, considerably that new buildings were
	needed. After three years the church and convent
were ready for occupancy; at first of wood, they
were rebuilt of stone in 1407. The foundation was
	placed under the Windesheim chapter, who named
	Brinckerinck as its confessor. Numbering in that
	year twelve sisters and novices, by the middle of
	the century the community had grown to con
	siderably over a hundred, including all classes.
	It was self‑supporting; the sisters copied and
	illuminated manuscripts, or occupied themselves
	profitably in other ways according to their gifts.
	In 1408 a new house was erected at Diepenveen,
	a few miles away, in the choir of whose church
	Brinckerinek was buried. He was known far and
	wide for his popular preaching, which, according
	to the testimony of Rudolf Dier, one of his hearers,
	and of the Brethren of the Common Life, gave to
	all the impression that he had sat at the feet of
	Jesus. From a manuscript biography by Elizabeth
	of Delft, one of the twelve first sisters, we learn
	that she wrote down some of his sermons, and
	Rudolf Dier adds that out of such materials eight
	vernacular " collations " were formed, containing
	his admonitions to the sisters. These were dis
	covered not long ago, and published by Moll in
	1866. They read like notes of spoken discourses,
	sometimes apparently combinations of different
	ones. Like the usual " collations " of the Brethren
	of the Common Life, they were not formal sermons
	following a rhetorical method, but simple and art
	less talks which pass readily from one topic to an
	other, and are rich in short, pithy sentences of a
	kind to be easily understood and remembered by
	his hearers:	L. SCHULZE.
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Vita by Thomas A Kempis is in the
		Chronicon monasterii S. Apnetia, ed. H. Rosweyde, Ant
		werp, 1615; another by J. Buschius is in the latter's Ch roni
		con Windeahmenae, ed. K. Grube, Halle, 1888. Consult:
		G. Dunbar, Analecta, Yol, i., Deventer, 1719; idem Het
		Kerkelyk en Wereltlyk Deventer, ib. 1732‑88; W. Moll,
		Kerkgeachiedenia van Nederland voor de Heruorm4np, ii. 2,
		209 aqq., Utrecht, 1871.
		BRISTOL, FRANK MILTON: Methodist Epis
	copal bishop; b. in Orleans Co., N. Y., Jan. 4, 1851;
	elected bishop, 1908.
		BRITISH CHURCH. See CELTIC CHURCH.
		BRITISH HONDURAS. See CENTRAL AMERICA.
		BRITTINANS, BRITTIfNIANS. See BRICTINAN$.
		BRIXEN, BISHOPRIC OF: A diocese which
	takes its name from Brixen, a town of the Tyrol,
	situated 40 m. s.s.e, of Innsbruck.	The present
	Tyrol became a part of the Roman Empire 15 A.D.,
	and the rapid spread of Christianity in north Italy
	gives ground for the supposition that it penetrated
	comparatively early into the Alpine region. The
	earliest authentic mention of a bishopric in southern
	Rhaetia, however, dates from the end of the sixth
	century. Among the bishops of Venetia and
	Rhfetia Secunda who addressed a letter to the
	emperor Maurice in 591 appears the name of a cer
	tain Ingenuinus, whom Paulus Diaconus and the
	author of the Versus de ordine conprovincialium
	portti ficum describe as bishop of Sabiona, the
present Seben. 'The existence of the bishopric
seems to have been continuous from this time.
It embraced to the south of the Brenner the upper
Eisackthal and the Pusterthal, to the north of the
Brenner almost the whole of what is now the Tyrol.
Probably under Otto IL, the see was removed
from Seben to Brixen; in a document of 967
Bishop Richpert is designated as Prihsinensis
,cclesiee episeopus. 	(A. HAUCK.)
Brixen counts among the most ancient examples of exemption from the secular jurisdiction, having received it from Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. Its territory increased largely by donations from successive emperors, and Frederick I. (1179) gave its incumbent the princely title and rights. Henceforth the bishops received investiture immediately from the emperor, and had a seat and a voice in the imperial diet. The secular privileges, however, were gradually absorbed by the powerful magnates of the Tyrol, and at the Peace of LunSville the principality was formally suppressed, to be conferred the next year on the house of Austria. Brixen was the meeting‑place in 1080 of a council of imperialist prelates who undertook to depose Gregory VII. and elect Guibert of Ravenna pope in his place. Cardinal Nicholas of Cuss, occupied the see from 1450 to 1464, and Caspar Ignatius, Count Kiinigl (17021747), was among the greatest and most active prelates of his day. The nomination to the see is vested in the emperor of Austria.
BROAD CHURCH. See ENGLAND, CHURCH OF.
BROADUS, JOHN ALBERT: American Baptist; b. in Culpeper County, Va., Jan. 24, 1827; d. in Louisville, Ky., Mar. 16, 1895. He was graduated at the University of Virginia 1850, and was assistant professor of Latin and Greek there, 1851‑53, chaplain to the University 1855‑57, pastor of the Baptist church in the place until, in 1859, on its organization, he became professor of the interpretation of the New Testament and of homiletics in the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, then in Greenville, S. C. In 1877 the seminary was removed to Louisville, and in 1888 he became its president. He attained high rank as teacher, preacher, and scholar, and published two notable volumes in the field of homiletics, The Preparation and Delivery of Sermons (Philadelphia, 1870; 25th ed., by E. C. Dargan, New York, 1905) and Lectures on the History of Preaching (New York, 1876); also Sermons and Addresses (1886; 6th ed., 1905); a commentary on Matthew (Philadelphia, 1887); Jesus of Nazareth (New York, 1890); Harmony of the Gospels according to the Revised Version (1893); Memoir of James Petigru Boyce (1893). He also prepared a commentary on Mark (Philadelphia, 1905), and edited and revised the Oxford translation of Chrysostom's homilies on Philippiane, Colossians, and Theasaloniana, with an essay on St. Chrysostom as a homiliat, in vol. xiii. of Philip Schaff's Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers (New York, 1889).
13TELIOGRAPHY: A. T. Robertson, Life and Letters of John
Albert Broadua, Philadelphia, 1901.
BROCHMAND, brek'mdnd, JESPER RASMUSSEN: Bishop of Zealand; b. at Koge (20 m. s.w.

273	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	British Chnroh
		Brooks
of Copenhagen), Zealand, Aug. 5, 1585; d. at
Copenhagen Apr. 19, 1652. 'He studied at Herlufs
holm, Copenhagen, Leyden, and Franeker; became
rector of Herlufsholm academy 1608; professor
pa:dagogicus, University of Copenhagen, 1610; pro
fessor of Greek 1613; member of the theological
faculty 1615. In 1617 he was appointed teacher
to Prince Christian, son of King Christian IV.,
but returned to the university three years later.
At this time Denmark was disturbed by Roman
Catholic propaganda, and Brochmand made the
controversy with Rome a subject of his public
lectures. In 1626‑28 he published Controversice
aacrce (3 parts), a reply to Bellarmine's attacks
on the Lutheran Church, and in 1634, at the king's
order, he engaged in a polemic with the Jesuits,
who endeavored to defend the conversion of Mar
grave Christian William of Brandenburg to Cathol
icism. In their final reply the Jesuits stigma
tized Brochmand as a " disturber of the Roman
empire, the boldest despiser of His Imperial Majesty
and the Catholic rulers, a poisonous spider, and
a	degenerate Absalom." Against this pamphlet
Brochmalid delivered a series of lectures which
after his death were collected and published under
the title Apologia, speculi veritatia confutatio (Copen
hagen, 1653). He was ordained bishop of Zealand
in 1639, and during his long and fruitful activity
in this office reorganized the Danish church serv
ice, especially by abolishing the Latin choir, and
by introducing Wednesday services during Lent.
His reputation as a dogmatist was established by
his Universee theologise systems. (2 vole., 1633) in
which he proved himself a bitter opponent, not
only of the Roman Catholics, but also of the. Re
formed, whom he calls " enemies of God and of
truth." He wrote several devotional works, of
which his Sabbati sancti fecatio for more than two
centuries was a favorite collection of sermons
with the Danish people.		(k'. NIELSENt.)
	BROEMEL, brtr'mel", ALBERT ROBERT: Ger
man Lutheran pastor and author; b. at Teichel
(15 m. s.s.e. of Erfurt), Schwarzburg, Apr. 27, 1815;
d. at Ratzeburg (12 m. s.e. of Liibeck), Prussia,
Oct. 28, 1885. He was educated at Giittingen,
Jena, and Berlin, and after spending two years
helping Otto von Gerlach (q.v.) in both educational
and pastoral duties in the last‑named place, was
called in 1846 to be pastor of Lassahn in the duchy
of Lauenburg. In 1854 he became superintendent
of the whole district, with special charge of the
principal church of Ratzeburg. Besides the multi
farious duties which occupied him during the next
thirty years, he found time for a considerable
literary activity. His principal work was his
Homiletische Charakterbilder (2 vols., Berlin, 1869
1874), which is practically a history of preaching,
especially . the post‑Reformation and German.
As is natural from the character of his life, his
writings generally are more practical than theo
retical.		(WILHELM GLAMANN.)
	BROMLEY, THOMAS: English mystic; b. in
Worcester 1629; d. 1691. He held a fellowship
in Oxford until 1660, when, as a non‑conformist,
he refused to accept the Anglican Liturgy. But
		IL‑18
previously he had become a follower of Jakob Boehme the mystic (q.v.), and with John Pordage and Jane Lead had founded the Philadelphian Society (see LEAD, JANE); when he left Oxford he came to Pordage, and lived with him many years. He rejected the outward church and advocated virginity for all. The Way to the Sabbath of Rest (last ed., 1802) is his most important work.

BROOKE, FRANCIS KEY: Protestant Episcopal bishop of the missionary district of Oklahoma and Indian Territory; b, at Gambier, O., Nov. 2, 1852; graduated at Kenyon College, 1874. He was successively rector at College Hill, Portsmouth, Piqua, and Sandusky, Ohio; St. Louis, Mo.; .and Atchison, Kan., and was consecrated bishop in 1893.

BROOKE, STOPFORD AUGUSTUS: English Unitarian; b. at Letterkenny (16 m. s.w. of Londonderry), County Donegal, Nov. 14, 1832. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1856), and was ordained priest in the Church of England in 1857. He was successively curate of St. Matthew's, Marylebone (1857‑59) .and Kensington Church (1860‑63). He was then chaplain to the princess royal, Berlin (1863‑‑65), and after his return to England was minister of St. James's Chapel, York Street (1866‑75), and of Bedford Chapel (1876‑94), He was appointed chaplain to the queen in 1872, but in 1880 he withdrew from the Church of England, finding himself unable to accept the orthodox teaching concerning miracles. Among his writings special mention may be made of the following: Life and Letters of flee late Frederick W. Robertson (2 vola., London, 1865); Freedom in the Church of England (1871); Sermons (1868‑77); Theology in the English Poets (1874); A Fight of Faith (1877.); Spirit of the Christian Life (1881); Unity of God and Man (1886); The Early Life of Jesus (1887); History of Early English Literature (1892); Short Sermons (1892); History of English Literature (1894); Study of Tennyson (1894); God and Christ (1894); Jesus and Modern Thought (1894); Old Testament and Modern Life (1896); The Gospel of Joy (1898); and Poetry of Robert Browning (1902).

BROOKS, ELBRIDGE GERRY: American Universalist; b, at Dover, N. H., July 29, 1816; d. at Philadelphia Apr. 8, 1878. He was licensed at Portsmouth, N. H., 1836; became pastor in West Amesbury, Mass., 1837; in East Cambridge, 1838; in Lowell (First Universalist Church), 1845; in Bath, Me., 1846; in Lynn, Mass. (First Universalist Church), 1850; in New York (Church of our Savior), 1859; in Philadelphia (Church of the Messiah), 1$68. He was general agent of the board of trustees of the General Convention, 18671868. He was an eloquent preacher, courageous and energetic, an advocate of the Maine liquor law and of the cause of the Union during the Civil War, as well as.of the doctrine of remedial punishment in the‑future world. He published Universalism in Life and Doctrine and its Superiority as a Practical Power (New York, 1863) and Our New Departure, or the methods and works .of the

Brooks	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOCr	274
Brown
Universalise Church of America as it enters on its
second century (Boston, 1874).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. 8. Brooks, Life‑Work of E76ridps Gerry
	Brooks, Boston, 1881.
	BROOKS, PHILLIPS: American preacher and
bishop; b. in Boston Dec. 13, 1835; d. there Jan.
23, 1893. He was of distinguished New England
ancestry, being descended on his father's side from
John Cotton and on his mother's aide from Samuel
Phillips, the founder of Phillips Academy, Andover.
He was graduated at Harvard, 1855; studied at
the Protestant Episcopal Theological School, Alex
andria, Va., 1856‑59; became rector of the Church
of the Advent, Philadelphia, 1859; of Holy Trinity
Church, Philadelphia, 1862; of Trinity Church,
Boston, 1869; he was consecrated bishop of Massa
chusetts, 1891. He was one of the most eloquent,
spiritual, successful, and highly esteemed clergy
men of his time, and held this position both by
intellectual power and an engaging personality.
His preaching was preeminently the product of his
own experience; he was of broad sympathies and
tactful in his dealings with men. He was partic
ularly courteous in cultivating cordial relations
with those of other than his own denomination.
He gave the Lyman Beecher lectures on preaching
before the Yale Divinity School in 1877 (published
as Lectures on Preaching, New York, 1877), and
was Bohlen lecturer at the Philadelphia Divinity
School in 1879 (The Influence of Jesus, 1879).
He published five volumes of Sermons during his
life (1878‑90), and five have been added since his
death (1893‑1905) . His Letters o f Travel written
to his family appeared in 1893, and a volume of
Essays and Addresses, religious, literary, and social,
edited by his brother, John Cotton Brooks, in
1894. Individual sermons, addressee, etc., have
been printed in many forma and the number of
books of extracts from his preaching is very large.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The beat biography is his Life and Leuera
	by A. V. G. Allen, 2 vole., New York, 1900, condensed
	into 1 vol., ib. 1907.
	BRORSON, HAMS ADOLF: Bishop of Ribe;
b. at Randrup, on the west coast of northern Slea
wick, June 20, 1694; d. at Ribe, Jutland, June 3,
1764. He studied at the University of Copenhagen
(1712‑17), devoting himself more to history and
literature than to theology, and acted as tutor
in the house of an uncle at Lbgum in Sleswick,
where he caught the spirit of the religious revival
at that time making itself felt iii this province.
In 1722 he was appointed minister at Randrup,
and in 1729 he was called as deacon to Tandem.
Here he began collecting Danish hymns for the
nee of his congregation, to replace the German
ones previously sung before and after the Danish
sermon. In 1732 he published a small volume
of Christmas hymns which contains some of his
moat excellent compositions; later he published
other booklets, and in 1739 the first edition of his
Traena rare Klenodie (" The Faith's Rare Jewel "),
a collection of 250 hymns, mostly translations from
the German. In 1737 King Christian VI. appointed
him dean of Ribs stift, and two years later he
succeeded to the bishopric. Brorson was one of
the greatest of Danish hymn‑writers, and is pre‑
eminently the poet of Christmas. His hymns are
associated with the melodies of the people, and
he was essentially a singer for those who wor
ship in the privacy of their homes. While not
unable to write original hymns, it was especially
the hymns and melodies of German Pietism that
he transplanted into the church of Denmark. The
beat edition of his hymns is by P. A. Arland (Co
penhagen, 1867). 	(F. NIErsENt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. D. JSrgensen, H. A. Broraon, Copenhagen, 1887.
BROTHERHOODS, RELIGIOUS. See CONFRATERNITIES.
BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS.
See CHRISTIAN BROTHERS.

BROUGHTON, brau'tun, HUGH: Church of England Hebrew scholar; b. at Oldbury (near the border of Wales, 20 m. s.w. of Shrewsbury), Shropshire, 1549; d. in Tottenham, London, Aug. 4, 1612. He was helped in his efforts to obtain an education by Bernard Gilpin (q.v.), and became fellow of St. John's and Christ's colleges, Cambridge (B.A., 1570). In London he gained fame as a preacher of Puritan doctrine. In 1588 he published A Consent of Scripture, a treatise on Bible chronology; it was attacked at both universities and .Broughton undertook lectures in its defense at London. In 1589 or 1590 he went to Germany and thenceforth spent moat of his life on the Continent, where he disputed with Jews, Roman Catholics, and Protestants who did not agree with him, and wrote letters to. England asking for appointments. His learning and ability were unquestioned, but his unhappy temper and bad manners prevented his advancement. He was long anxious to assist in preparing a new version of the Bible, but when the translators were appointed by King James in 1604 he was not one of them, and when their work was done he made a bitter attack upon it. His writings were collected by Lightfoot, with the pompous title The Works of the Great Albionean Divine, Renowned in Many Nations for Rare Skill in Salem's and Athens's Tongues and Familiar Acquaintance with all Rabbinical Learning, Mr. Hugh Broughton (London, 1662); a sketch of his life is included.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the life prefixed to his works, there are available sketches in: B. Brook, Limes of the Puritans, 1215 eqq.. London, 1813; A. & Wood, Athena Ozonienaee, ad. P. Bliss, 1308 eqq.. 4 vole.. ib. 1813‑Z0.
BROUSSON, bru"etiti', CLAUDE: French Protestant; b. at Nimes 1617; executed at Montpellier Nov. 4, 1698. He practised as a lawyer at Castrea, Castelnaudary, and, after 1679, in Toulouse, and employed his talent with courage and self‑sacrifice to defend his coreligionists against the rigorous measures of the government. In 1683 he was compelled to leave Franca and lived for a time in Lausanne. He visited Berlin and Holland to bring about a coalition between the Protestant princess against Louis XIV. In 1689 he returned to France and traveled through the southern part of the country admonishing and exhorting his brethren, though a price was put on his head, and he was hunted by the officials like a beast of prey.

276	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Brooks
		Brown
In 1693 he again retired to Lausanne, and was
ordained there (1694). In 1695 he reentered
France through SSdan, and visited most of the
Reformed congregations north of the Loire, finally
escaping through Franche‑Comtk into Switzerland.
Once more, in 1697, he visited France, but was
caught at Oloron, and sentenced to death by
strangling. Among his works, of which a list is
given in La France protestante, vol. iii., the most
prominent are: tat des reformEs de France (The
Hague, 1685); La Manne mystique du d4aert (Am
sterdam, 1695); Lettres pastorales our le cantiqve
des cantiques (Delft, 1697).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Bowel. BiopraPhie de C. Broueaon, Nfmea.
	1852; H. 8. Baynes, The Evangelist of (he Desert. Life of
	C. Broueaon, London, 1853.
	BROWN, ARTHUR JUDSON: Presbyterian; b.
at Holliston, Mass., Dec. 3, 1856. He was
educated at Wabash College (B.A., 1880) and
Lane Theological Seminary (1883). He was
ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in 1883,
and held successive pastorates at Ripon, Wis. (1883
1834), First Presbyterian Church, Oak Park, Ill.
(1884‑88), and First Presbyterian Church, Port
land, Ore. (1888‑95). Since 1895 he has been one
of the secretaries of the Presbyterian Board of
Foreign Missions. In addition to numerous con
tributions to periodicals, he has written The New
Era in the Philippines (Chicago, 1903) and New
Farces in Old China (1904).
	BROWN, CHARLES REYNOLDS: Congrega
tionalist; b. at Bethany, W. Va., Oct. 1, 1862.
He was graduated from the University of Iowa
(B.A., 1883; M.A., 1886) and the School of The
ology of Boston University (1889). He was pas
tor of Wesley Chapel Methodist Episcopal Church,
Cincinnati, O. (1889‑92); of Winthrop Congrega
tional Church, Boston (1892‑96); since 1896 he
has been pastor of the First Congregational Church,
Oakland, Cal. He was special lecturer on ethics
in Leland Stanford University in 1900‑06, Lyman
Beecher lecturer at Yale in 1905‑06, and lecturer
on ethics in Mills College in 1906‑08. In 1897 he
made a tour of Egypt and Palestine, and has been
president of the board of trustees of Mills College
since 1902 and a director of the Oakland Asso
ciated Charities since 1899, and chairman of the
committee for the reconstruction of the San Fran
cisco churches after the earthquake of 1906. In
theology he is a liberal, and in addition to pam
phlets and sermons, has written Two Parables (Chi
cago, 1898); The Main Points : A Study in Chris
tian Belief (San Francisco, 1899); and The Social
Message of the Modern Pulpit (Yale lectures, New
York, 1906).
	BROWN, CHARLES RUFUS: Baptist; b. at
East Kingston, N. H., Feb. 22, 1849. He was
educated at Phillips Exeter Academy (1863‑6b)
and the United Staten Naval Academy (1865‑69),
and attained the rank of master. He resigned
from the navy, however, and continued his studies
at Newton Theological Institution (1874‑75, 1877
1878), Harvard University (B.A.,1877), Union Theo
logical Seminary (1878‑79), and the universities
of Berlin (1879,80) and Leipsic (1880‑81). He
was ordained to the Baptist ministry at Franklin, N. H., in 1881, and remained there as pastor until 1883. He was appointed associate professor of Biblical interpretation, Old Testament, in the Newton Theological Institution in 1883, and since 1886 has been professor of Hebrew and cognate languages there. He was also librarian of the institution in 1884‑85, 1889‑97, and 1900‑06, secretary of the faculty in 1887‑92, and registrar in 1892‑95. He has been a member of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis since 1883, and was formerly a member of the American Oriental Society (1886), the Archeological Institute of America (1899), and the department of archeology in the University of Pennsylvania (1902). He has written An Aramaic Method (2 parts, Chicago, 1884‑86); in 1893‑94 edited the course of Sunday‑school lessons in the Bible Study Minor Graded Lesson System, and made a critical translation of Jeremiah (Philadelphia, 1907).

	BROWN, DAVID: Free Church of Scotland;
b. at Aberdeen Aug. 17, 1803; d. there July 3,
1897. He studied at the University of Aberdeen
(M.A., 1821); was licensed 1826, and was assistant
to Edward Irving in London 1830‑32; was ordained
minister of a country chapel six miles southwest
of Banff 1836; he went with the Free Church 1843,
and the same year became minister of St. James's,
Glasgow; was elected professor of apologetics,
church history, and exegesis of the Gospels at the
Free Church College, Aberdeen, 1857;	elected
principal 1876, and resigned his professorship 1887.
He was a director of the National Bible Society of
Scotland, one of the founders of the Evangelical
Alliance, was deeply interested in the Alliance of
the Reformed Churches and a member of the third
General Council at Belfast, 1888. He was an
opponent of Robertson Smith in the controversy
which resulted in the dismissal of the latter from
Aberdeen, and as a member of the New Testament
revision company took a highly conservative posi
tion. He was moderator of the General Assem
bly of the Free Church in 1885. Besides numer
ous contributions to the periodicals, he published
Christ's Second Coming: Will it be Premillenial f
(Edinburgh, 1846; 6th ed., 1867), a classic; Crushed
Hopes Crowned in Death, a memorial of his son,
Alexander Brown, of the Bengal civil service, d.
Jan., 1860 (London, 1861); The Restoration of the
Jews: the History, Principles, and Bearings of the
Question (Edinburgh, 1861) ; "e e o f the late John
Duncan (1872); The Apocalypse : its structure
and primary predictions (London, 1891). He col
laborated with R. Jamieson and A. R. Fausaet in
preparing the Commentary, Critical, Experimental,
and Practical, on the Old and New Testaments (6
vole., Glasgow, 1864‑70), furnishing the portion
devoted to the Gospels, the Acts, and the Epistle
to the Romans; wrote the commentary on the
Epistles to the Corinthians for Schaff's Popular
Commentary on the New Testament (1882); and
prepared the Epistle to the Romans for Dods and
Whyte's Handbooks for Bible Classes (Edinburgh,
1883). 	'.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. G. BlSlk18, David Brown... A Memoir, London, 1898.

Brown	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	278
BROWN, FRANCIS: Presbyterian; b. at Hanover, N. H., Dec. 26, 1849. He was educated at Dartmouth College (B.A., 1870), Union Theological Seminary (1877), and the University of Berlin (1877‑79). He was assistant master in Ayers' Latin School, Pittsburg, Pa., in 1870‑72, and tutor in Greek in Dartmouth College in 1872‑74. He became instructor in Biblical philology in Union Theological Seminary, New York City, 1879; associate professor of the same, 1881; professor of Hebrew and the cognate languages, 1890; and also president, 1908. He was president of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis in 1895‑96 (member since 1881); president of the Society of Historical Theology (Oxford) in 1899‑1900 (member since 1891; member of the American Oriental Society since 1881). He was Ely lecturer in Union Theological Seminary in 1907; head of the American School for Oriental Study and Research in Palestine, 1907‑08. He has written: The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles (New York, 1384; in collaboration with R. D. Hitchcock); Assyriology, its Use and Abuse in Old Testament Study (1885); A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (12 parts, Oxford, 1891‑1906; in collaboration with S. R. Driver and C. A. Briggs); and The Christian Point of View (New York, 1902; in collaboration with A. C. McGiffert and G. W. Knox).
BROWN, HUGH STOWELL: English Baptist; b. at Douglas, Isle of Man, Aug. 10, 1823; d. at Liverpool Feb. 24, 1886. He learned surveying, and became a railroad engineer; at twenty‑one entered King William's College, Castletown, Isle of Man, to study :or the ministry of the Established Church; doubts concerning the baptismal teachings of the Church and the relations of Church and State led him to think of returning to his trade; in 1846 he joined the Baptists, in 1847 became minister of the Myrtle Street Chapel, Liverpool, and remained there till his death. He inaugurated Sunday afternoon lectures for workingmen, with whom, owing to his early experiences, he had great influence. He was president of the Baptist Union 1878, an active member of the Baptist Missionary Society, and president of the Liverpool Peace Society. He published numerous lectures and sermons.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hugh Stowell Brown, his Autobiography, his Commonplace Book, and Extracts from his Sermons and Addresses, a memorial Volume, edited by his eon‑in‑law, W. S. Came, London, 1887; DNB, supplement vol., i. 300‑301.
BROWN, JAMES BALDWIN: English Congregationalist; b. in London Aug. 19, 1820; d. there June 23, 1884. He studied at London University (B.A., 1839); studied law for two years and then studied theology at Highbury College; became minister of London Road Chapel, Derby, 1843; of Claylanda Chapel, Clapham Road, London, 1846, and remained with this congregation till his death; a new church on Brixton Road (Brixton Independent Church) was occupied in 1870. He was distinguished for the breadth of his theological views and strongly opposed to Calvinism. He took an active interest in public movements such as the relief of the laboring classes during the
Lancashire cotton famine. He favored the opening of the Crystal Palace on Sundays, and was a warm advocate of the admission of dissenters to the universities. He strenuously opposed the doctrine of conditional immortality as a deadly error. In 1878 he was chairman of the Congregational Union; at this time a movement to discover some common ground on which Christians of various ways of thinking might unite in independence of dogma and of the historic side of Christianity had made such progress as to call for repressive action oh the part of the Union in the opinion of many; he strongly opposed such action, but was overruled and outvoted. His more important books were: The Divine Life in Man (London, 1859), which brought upon him a charge of heterodoxy; The Soul's Exodus and Pilgrimage (1862); The Divine Treatment of Sin (1864); The Home Life in the Light of Us Divine Idea (1866); Idolatries, Old and New, their Cause and Cure (1867); The First Principles of Ecclesiastical Truth (1871); The Higher Life, its Reality, Experience, and Destiny (1874); The Doctrine of Annihilation in the Light of the Gospel of Love (1875); Home, its Relation to Dean and Society (1883).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fur his life consult Elizabeth B. Brown, J. Baldwin Brown Minister of Brixton Independent Church, London, 1884 (by his wife).
	BROWN, JOHN: English Congregationalist; b.
at Bolton‑le‑Moors (12 m. n.w. of Manchester),
Lancashire, June 19, 1830. He was educated at
Owens ~ College, Manchester, and the Lancashire
Independent College, Manchester (B.A., London
University, 1853), and was minister of Park Chapel,
Manchester, from 1855 to 1864, and of Bunyan
Church, Bedford, from 1864 to 1903, when he
became pastor emeritus. He was chairman of
the Congregational Union of England and Wales
in 1891, Congregational Union lecturer in 1898,
and Lyman Beecher lecturer at Yale in 1899.
He was also president of the County Association
of Free Churches in Bedfordshire from 1878 to
190'?, and chairman of the committee of the Con
gregational Union of England and Wales, 1893‑95.
He represented the latter body at the Triennial
Union of the United States at Minneapolis in 1892,
and at the Congregational Union of Ontario and
Quebec at Toronto in 1905. In Biblical criticism
he is a liberal conservative, and in theology belongs
to the evangelical school. In addition ‑to numerous
pamphlets and magazine articles, he has written:
Lectures on the Book of Revelation (London, 1866);
God's Book for Man's Life (1881); John Bunyan,
his Life, Times, and Work (1885); The Pilgrim
Fathers of New England (1895); The Bedfordshire
Union of Christians (1896); Apostolical Succession
in the Light o f History and Fact (Congregational
Union lectures, 1898); The Present Crisis in the
Church of England (1899); Puritan Preaching in
England (Yale Lectures for 1899, New York, 1900);
Eras cf Nonconformity (2 vols., London, 1904).
He likewise edited Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress,
Holy War, and Grace Abounding (3 vols., London,
1887‑88), and the same author's complete works
for the Cambridge University Press (2 vole., Cam.
bridge,1905‑06).

277	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Brown
BROWN, JOHN: The name of several Scotch ministers, the moat noteworthy being:
1. John Brown of Edinburgh: Scotch Burgher minister, eldest son of Rev. John Brown of Whitburn (21 m. w.s.w. of Edinburgh), Linlithgowshire (b. 1754; d. 1832), and grandson of John Brown of Haddington (q.v.); b. at Whitburn July 12, 1784; d. at Edinburgh Oct. 13, 1$58. He studied at Edinburgh and the divinity hall of the Burgher Church at Selkirk; was licensed 1805 and ordained minister of the Burgher Church of Bigger, Lanarkshire, 1806; became minister of the Rose Street Church, Edinburgh, 1822, and of the Broughton Place Church in the same city 1829; was professor of exegetical theology to the United Associate Synod after 1834. He was strongly in favor of the separation of ,Church and State, and in 1845 was tried (and acquitted) before the synod on a charge of holding unsound views concerning the atonement. He was a fine orator and a voluminous writer; the moat prominent of his works are: Expository Discourses on First Peter (3 vole., Edinburgh, 1848); Exposition of the Discourses and Sayings o f our Lord Jesus Christ (3 vole., 1850); The Resurrection of Life, an exposition of I Cor. xv. (1852); Expository Discourses on Galatians (1853); Analytical Exposition of the Epistle of Paul to the Romans (1857). He was the father of the wellknown John Brown, M.D. (b. 1810; d. 1882), author of Rob and his Friends (Edinburgh, 1859).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Cairns, Memoirs of John Brown, Edinburgh, 1861; DNB, vii. 18‑19.

2. John Brown of Haddington: Scotch Burgher minister; b. at Carpow, near Abernethy (on the Frith of Tay, 6 m. s.e, of Perth), Perthshire, 1722; d. at Haddington (12 m. e. of Edinburgh) June 19, 1787. He was poor and self‑taught, but acquired no small amount of learning;. was a herd‑boy, pedler, soldier, and school‑teacher; studied theology under Ebenezer Erskine and James Fisher of Glasgow; was licensed in 1750, and in 1751 settled as pastor of the Burgher branch of the Secession Church of Haddington, where he remained till his death, declining a call as professor of divinity in Queen's College, N. J. After 1768 he was professor of theology to the Associate Synod. His yearly income from his church never exceeded £50, and his professorship had no salary; nevertheless he brought up a large family, gave freely in charity, and wrote books (which brought him no pecuniary profit) not only popular but valuable. They include: Two Short Catechisms Mutually Connected (Edinburgh, 1764); A Dictionary of the Bible (2 vole., 1769; revised ed., 1868); The! Self‑interpreting Bible (2 vole., 1778; often reprinted); and A Compendious History of the Church of England and o f the Protestant Churches in Ireland and America (2 vols., Glasgow, 1784; new edition by Thomas Brown, Edinburgh, 1823).
BIBLIOGRAPHY‑ Sketches of his life are prefixed to various editions of his works; the beat is that by his eon, prefixed to his Select Remains, ed. his Sons J. and E. Brown, this edited by W. Brown, Edinburgh, 1868. Consult also DNB, vii. 12‑14.
BROWN, JOHN NEWTON: American Baptist; b. at New London, Conn., June 29, 1803; d. at
Germantown, Penn., May 15, 1868. He was graduated at Hamilton Institute (Colgate University), Hamilton, N. Y., 1823; preached at Buffalo, N. Y., Providence, R. L, Malden, Mass., and Exeter, N. H.; was professor of theology and church history in the New Hampton (New Hampshire) Theological Institution, 1838‑45; pastor at Lexington, Va., 1845‑49; editorial secretary of the American Baptist Publication Society 1849 till his death. He prepared (1833) and revised (1852) the " New Hampshire [Baptist] Confession of Faith." His moat important literary work was the Encyclopcedia of Religious Knowledge (Brattleboro, 1835).
BROWN, PETER HUME: Scotch historian, layman; b. at Haddington (18 m. e. of Edinburgh), Haddingtonshire, Dec. 17, 1850. He was educated at Edinburgh University (M.A., 1873), and had originally intended to enter the Church. He gave up thin plan, however, and ultimately turned his attention to history. In 1898 he was made editor of the Register of the Privy Council of Scotland, and three yearn later was appointed to his present position of professor of ancient (Scottish) history and paleography in the University of Edinburgh. He has written: George Buchanan, Humanist and Reformer (Edinburgh, 1890); Early Travellers in Scotland (London, 1891); Scotland before 1700, from Contemporary Documents (Edinburgh, 1893); John Knox: to Biography (2 vols., 1895); History of Scotland (2 vols., Cambridge, 1898‑1902); Scotland in the time of Queen Mary (Rhind Lectures for 1903; London, 1904); and George Buchanan and his Times (1906).
BROWN, PH(EBE ALLEN (HINSDALE) : Hymnwriter; b. at Canaan, Columbia County, N. Y., May 1, 1783; d. at Marshall, Henry County, Ill., Oct. 10, 1861. She was left an orphan at the age of two, and in early life suffered great hardship and even cruel treatment at the hands of strangers; she first learned to write at the age of eighteen. In 1805 she married Timothy Brown (d. 1853) and moved to East Windsor, Conn. In 1813 the family went to the neighboring village of Ellington, and in 1818 to Monson, Mass. Her husband was a village mechanic, the family was poor, and her life was hampered by care; nevertheless she read much, kept up systematic Bible study, and found money to devote to Christian work, especially to the cause of missions. She wrote for her own amusement, but published newspaper articles, tracts, and a volume of tales, The Tree and its Fruits (New York, 1836); she left an autobiography in manuscript. Her best known hymn,
"I love to steal awhile away
	From every numbering care,"
is said to have been written at Ellington at a time when poverty and domestic duties left little opportunity for meditation at home and she was in the habit of going out for a walk every day at dusk; some thoughtless remarks of neighbors being reported to her, she wrote " An Apology for my Twilight Rambles." The second line originally read " From little ones and can." The poem was first printed (abridged and revised) in Nettle‑

Brown
Browne	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	278
ton's Village Hymns (New York, 1824). The tune " Monson," to which it is often sung, was written by her son, Samuel Robbins Brown (q.v.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. M. Bird, in The Independent for Jan. 8, Jan. 20. and April 14, 1881; S. W. Duffield, English Hymns, pp. 24248, New York, 1888 (gives original text of the hymn mentioned in the text); Julian, Hymnology, p. 18b.
BROWN, SAMUEL ROBBIivS: The first American appointed missionary to Japan; b. at East Windsor, Conn., June 16, 1810, son of Phcebe (Hinsdale) Brown (q.v.); d. ax; Monson, Mass., June 20, 1880. He was graduated at Yale, 1832; studied at the Theological School, Columbia, S. C., 1835‑37, and at Union Theological Seminary, New York, 1837‑38; went to China in 1838 and took charge of a school founded and maintained by the Morrison Education Society (see MORRIBON, ROBERT), located first at Macao, in 1842 removed to Hongkong. He returned to America in 1847 bringing with him three Chinese boys, one of whom was Yung Wing, afterward at the head of the Chinese Education Commission; he taught at Rome, N. Y., 1848‑51, and was pastor of the Reformed (Dutch) Church and principal of a successful school at Owasco Outlet (Sand Beach), near Auburn, N. Y., 1851‑59; was one of the incorporators (1851) and first chairman of the executive committee of Elmira College, the first chartered woman's college in America. In May, 1859, he sailed for Japan as missionary of the Reformed (Dutch) Church, and located at Kauagawa till 1863, when he removed to Yokohama; returned to America in 1867 and for two years preached for his old church at Owasco Outlet; was again in Japan 1869‑79. Dr. Brown arrived in Japan immediately after the opening of the country; during the difficult transition period which followed he labored with rare judgment and unfailing zeal for both natives and foreign residents. His views and his methods were free from narrowness and he considered the advancement of civilization a part of the work of the Christian missionary. He wrote many articles and newspaper letters on Chinese and Japanese subjects; prepared school books for his pupils; published Colloquial Japanese (Shanghai, 1863), and Prendergast's Mastery System Adapted to the Study of Japanese or English (Yokohama, 1878); and assisted in the Japanese translation of the New Testament, completed just before his death and published the same yeas.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. E. Griffis, A Maker of the New Orient, Samuel R. Broom, New York, 1802.

BROWN, WILLIAM ADAMS: Presbyterian; b. in New York City Dec. 29, 1865. He was educated at Yale University (B.A., 1886), Union Theological Seminary (1890), and the University of Berlin (1890‑92). He was successively instructor in church history (1892‑93) and systematic theology (1893‑95) in Union Theological Seminary, where he was provisional professor of systematic theology from 1895 to 1898, and has been Roosevelt professor of the same subject since 1898. He is a member of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, and has written, in addition to contributions to Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Musical
Instruments and their Homes (New York, 1888); The Essence of Christianity (1892); Christ the YitaL. izing Principle of Christian Theology (1898); and Christian Theology in Outline (1907).

BROWN, WILLIAM MONTGOMERY: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Arkansas; b. near Orrville, O., Nov. 6, 1855. He was educated at Seabury Hall, Faribault, Minn., and by private tutors, and graduated from Bexley Hall, the theological seminary of Kenyon College, Gambier, O., 1884. He was ordered deacon in 1883, and priest, 1884. He was in charge of Grace Mission, Galion, O., 1883‑91, and during this period established seven other missions in adjacent places. In 1891 he was chosen general missionary and archdeacon of the diocese of Ohio, and in this capacity founded many new parishes, besides building twenty‑one mission chapels. He was likewise secretary of the Diocesan Missionary Committee and of the Diocesan Board of Trustees. In 1898 he was consecrated bishop‑coadjutor of Arkansas, and on the death of Bishop Henry N. Pierce in 1899, became bishop of the diocese. He has written The Church for Americans (New York, 1896).

BROWNE, EDWARD HAROLD: Bishop of Winchester; b. at Aylesbury (35 m. n.w. of London), Buckinghamshire, Mar. 6, 1811; d. at Shales, near Bitterns (2 m. n.e. of Southampton), Hampshire, Dec. 18, 1891. He studied at Emmanuel College, Cambridge (B.A., 1832; M.A., 1836; B.D., 1855); became fellow and tutor of his college, 1837; curate of Stroud, Gloucestershire, 1840; perpetual curate of St. James's, Exeter, 1841; perpetual curate of St. Sidwell's, Exeter, 1842; viceprincipal and professor of Hebrew in St. David's College, Lampeter, Wales, 1843; vicar of Kenwyn‑cum‑Kea, Cornwall, and prebendary of Exeter, 1849; vicar of Heavitree and canon of Exeter, 1857; in 1854 he was appointed Nornsian professor of divinity at Cambridge; in 1864 was consecrated bishop of Ely; in 1873 translated to Winchester; resigned 1890. He took a deep interest in the " Old Catholic " movement and attended the congress at Cologne in 1872; was a member of the Old Testament company of revisers; was prominent on the conservative side in the beginning of the controversy concerning Bible criticism and issued The Pentateuch and the Elohistic Psalms, in Reply to Bishop Colenso (London, 1863). He also published: The Fulfilment of the Old Testament Prophecies Relating to the Messiah (1836); An Exposition of the Thirty‑nine Articles (2 vols., 1850‑53; new ed., 1886)‑the work by which he is best known; and Position and Parties of the English Church (1875). He also contributed to Aide to Faith and wrote the introduction to the Pentateuch and the commentary on Genesis for the "Speaker's Commentary:'
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. W. Kitchin, Edward Harold Brown& . A Memoir, London, 1895; DNB, supplement vol., i. 304.
BROWNE, GEORGE: First Protestant archbishop of Dublin; d. 1556. He is first heard of in 1534, when, as provincial of the order of Austin Friars, he was employed to administer the oath of

279	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Brown
		Browns
succession to the friars of London and the south of
England; he was nominated to the see of Dub
lin, vacant by the murder of Archbishop Allen,
was consecrated the same year, and arrived in
Ireland in 1536. He worked diligently to intro
duce the Reformation in Ireland and to further
the cause of the king; he was deposed under Mary.
His opponents have described him as avaricious,
profligate, and unlearned.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A sketch and useful references to sourma
	are in DNB, vii. 43‑45.
	BROWNE, GEORGE FORREST: Bishop of
Bristol; b. at York Dec. 4, 1833. He was edu
cated at St. Catherine's College, Cambridge (B.A.,
1856), where he was fellow and lecturer in 1863
1865. He was ordained to the priesthood in 1859,
and after being chaplain of St. Catherine's College
and theological tutor at Trinity College, Glenal
mond, Scotland, was rector of Ashley, Hants, from
1869 to 1875. He was a member of the Council
of the Senate of Cambridge University in 1874
1878 and again in 1880‑92, and was Disney professor
of archeology in the same university from 1887 to
1892. He was treasurer of St. Paul's in 1891‑99
and canon in 1892‑97, and in 1895 was consecrated
bishop auffragan of Stepney, being translated to
the see of Bristol two years later. He was also
Bell lecturer in the Scottish Episcopal Church in
1862 and secretary to the Cambridge Local Exam
inations seven years later, and is president of the
Alpine Club. He has written: Ice Caves of France
and Switzerland (London, 1865); The Venerable
Belle (1879); University Sermons; The Ram
Crosses (1889); Lessons from Early English Church
History (1893); The Church at Home before Augus
ttne (1894); Augustine and his Companions (1895);
Off the Mill (1895); Conversion of the Heptarchy
(1896); Theodore and Wilfrith (1897); History of
St. Catherine's College (1902); and Life and Works
of St. Aldhelm (1903).
	BROWNE, JOHN: English Congregationalist;
b. at North Walaham (15 m. n. of Norwich), Nor
folk, Feb. 6, 1823; d. at Wrentham (33 m. n.e. of
Ipswich), Suffolk, Apr. 4, 1886. He studied at
Coward College and University College, London
1839‑44 (B.A., London University, 1843); was
minister at Lowestoft. Suffolk, 1844; at Wrentham,
1848 till his death. His chief publication was the
History o f Congregationalism and Memorials o f the
Churches in Norfolk and Suffolk (London, 1877),
which is of great importance for the beginnings of
English Congregationalism.
	BROWNE, PETER: Protestant Irish bishop;
b. in County Dublin soon after 1660; d. Aug. 25,
1735. He studied at Trinity College, Dublin; was
consecrated bishop of Cork and Ross 1710. He
opposed the custom of drinking healths in a aeries
of pamphlets (1713 aqq.) which won him much
notoriety, but has more enduring fame as an anti
deistical writer; in reply to John Toland he
published A Letter in Answer Lo a Book Entitled
Christianity not Mysterious (Dublin, 1697), and after
ward elaborated his argument in The Procedure,
Extent, and Limits o f Human Understanding (Lon
don; 1728), a critique of Locke's Essay; in Things
Divine and Supernatural Conceived by Analogy with Things Natural and Human (1733) he asserts that knowledge of God's essence and attributes can be only " analogical " and not direct.

BROWNE, ROBERT: Leader of the English Separatists (from whom they received their popular name of Browniata), and generally considered the founder of the Congregationalists; b. at Tolethorp (3 m. n. of Stamford), Rutlandshire, about 1550; d at Northampton after June 2, 1631. He was of good family and had influential relatives on both his father's and his mother's side, including the great chancellor, Lord Burghley. He studied at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge (B.A., 1572). It is said that in 1571 he was domestic chaplain to Thomas Howard, duke of Norfolk, and that the duke took his part in some obscure trouble with the ecclesiastical authorities; but this is doubtful. He taught school for three years (seventeenth century writers say in or near London) and made " enemies " by freely speaking his mind concerning "many things amiss, and the cause of all to be the woeful and lamentable state of the Church." In 1578 or 1579 he returned to Cambridge. At this time his views seem to have ripened. Holding that the true Church consisted only of such as led Christian lives and did not properly include all baptized persona, he declared that " the kingdom of God was not to be begun by whole parishes, but rather of the worthiest, were they never so few." He publicly harangued against " the calling and authorizing of preachers by bishops," preached constantly to Puritan audiences (acceptably, it would appear) although he had no bishop's license, and, when his brother obtained a license for him, disdained it. Naturally he was silenced, and illness compelled him temporarily to comply with the bishop's mandate.
About 1580 Browns went to Norwich, attracted thither by a friend, Robert (or Richard) Harrison (q.v.), who became his coworker. Here he organized his first church and soon extended the field of his operations as far as Bury St. Edmunds. The bishop of Norwich complained of him as a. preacher of " corrupt and contentious doctrine" and likely to mislead " the vulgar sort of people," but Burghley protected him. Nevertheless Norwich was made so uncomfortable for the little band that about Jan., 1582, most of them, with their pastor, emigrated to Middelburg in Zealand. Browne's impulsive and imperious character, as well as the principles of the congregation, did not promote unity. After two years of continual discussion and division, with four or five families, he left for Scotland. They arrived in Edinburgh Jan., 1584, and at once commenced the propagation of their peculiar doctrines. They " held opinion of separation from all kirks where excommunication was not rigorously used against open offenders not repenting; they would not admit witnesses [sponsors] in baptism, and sundry other opinions they had:' Within a week Browne was summoned before the session of the kirk; he was imprisoned, but only for a short time; and soon, unhindered, if not covertly encouraged by the secular authorities, he traveled

Browne	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	280
Bruce
over Scotland. He returned to England, and, pos
sibly, again visited Holland.
	It has generally been supposed that Browns
kept on as zealously and offensively as ever so far
as his strength‑which was beginning to break
owing to imprisonments and hardships‑per
mitted, continually harassed by the authorities and
favored by Burghley, until 1588; that in that year
the bishop of Peterborough excommunicated him,
and this so wrought upon him that he changed
completely, submitted to the Church, and thence
forth lived quietly, and, after a few years, in the
enjoyment of a good benefice. Mr. Barrage trans
fers the excommunication to a later period and
gives the date of Browne's submission Oct. 7, 1585.
In Nov., 1586, he was elected master of St. Olave's
Grammarechool in Southwark, binding himself
to abstain from propagating his peculiar doctrines
and to live as a member of the Church. His con
troversial powers were now employed against his
former associates, Henry Barrow and John Green
wood. In Sept., 1591, he received the living of
Achureh‑cum‑Thorpe, Northamptonshire; he was
ordained deacon and priest on Sept. 30, and he re
mained at Achureh for forty uneventful years.
For a period of ten years (1816‑28) the entries in
the parish register are not in his handwriting. Mr.
Barrage thinks that this was the time when he was
under sentence of excommunication by the bishop
of Peterborough, and that the cause was a mani
festation of Separatist tendencies encouraged by
Browns in his parish. If this be so he made sub
mission a second time, for his handwriting reap
pears in the register. His last entry is dated June
2, 1631, and in Nov., 1633, a new rector took his
place. He died in Northampton jail, committed
for striking a constable who came to him to collect
a debt, and having shown something of his early
fervid manner when brought before a justice in
consequence.
	Browne's biographers have been much puzzled
to explain or extenuate his extraordinary conduct
in making terms with the Church. It has been
urged that he was broken physically and mentally
in 1588; but he can not have been forty years old
at that time and he lived forty‑five years after
ward. Dr. Dexter's suggestion that he was nat
urally of unsound mind with a tendency to insanity
which at times became acute has found wide ac
ceptance. It would explain not only Browne's
own conduct but also the long forbearance and
continued kindness which he enjoyed from Burgh
ley and others. Mr. Barrage thinks that " at last
he had become wearied of the continua] criticism
to which his views in the past had subjected him,
and probably had honestly come to fee] that he
might be of really more service to the world, as it
was, not by wearing himself out by combating es
tablished ideas, but rather by accepting what the
world offered him and by using the advantage he
had thus gained to the furtherance of his higher
ideals."
	The starting‑point of Browne's views and system
seems to have been his conviction that the spiritual
welfare of true Christians required their separation
from others who were Christians in name only.
It was futile to hope that such separation would be brought about by the bishops and clergy of the Established Church or by the civil rulers. Yet the necessity for it was immediate. Hence the only course possible was for the faithful to secede and organize themselves. A voluntary association or covenant of true believers constituted a church, and each church had the exclusive right of discipline and the choice of its own officers. Two kinds of officers are designated in the New Testament: apostles, prophets, evangelists are temporary and belong to the past; the abiding officers are the pastor, teacher, elders, deacons, and widows who have their charge in one church only. The presence of these officers does not release any member from the duty of watching and helping the others, and a similar responsibility exists between churches. The civil authorities should have nothing to do with spiritual matters, and it is not their province to enforce conformity to any ecclesiastical system. He was thus the first Englishman to express the Anabaptist doctrine of complete separation of Church and State. See CONGREGATIONALISTS, L, 1, §§ 1‑2.
Browns published three treatises at Middelburg (1b82), entitled respectively: (1) A Book which Sheweth the Life and Manners of All Trot Christians, and how unlike they are unto Turks and Papists and heathen folk; also the points sad parts o/ all divinity that is of the revealed will and card of Gad are declared by their several definitions and divisions in order (extracts in walker, pp. 18‑27); (2) A Treatise o/ Reformation without Tarrying for Any, and o/ the wickedness of those preachers which will not reform till the mapistak command or compel them (reprinted. Boston, •• Old South Leaflet, no. 100 "; with biographical introduction by T. G. Crippen, London, 1903); (3) A Treatise upon the tJd of Matthew, both /or an order of studying and handling the Scriptures and also for avoiding the popish disorders and ungodly communion of all false Christians, esye_ dally of wicked preacher& and hirelings (extracts in Barrage, pp. 21‑25). These were intended primarily to further his cause in England and were spread abroad by his followers; two men were hanged in 1583 for disseminating them (see WPPIN, Jonx). Several other publications or manuscripts of Browne's are mentioned (Mr. Barrage, True Story, pp. 74‑78, enumerates twenty‑flue) and the following are known to be preserved: (4) A True and Sham Declaration both o/ the Gathering and Joining together o/ Certain Persons, and also of the lamentable breach and division which fell among them (1b84f; reprinted in The Congregationalist, London, 1882), the story of Browne's early life; (b) An Answer to Master Cartwright's Letter for joining with the English Churches (London, n.d.; extracts in Barrage, pp. 31‑38); (8) A Reproof of Certain Schiamatieaf Persona [Henry Barrow and John Greenwood] and their doctrine, touching the hearing and preaching of the word of God (manuscript written probably in 1588, discovered by Mr. Burrea.•e and published by him, Oxford, 1907); (7) A letter addressed " My good Uncle," and dated " the last of December, 1588 " [Jan. 10, 1589], discovered and published with introduction by Champlin Burrsge under the title A New Years Guift (London, 1904). The letter is quoted by Richard Bancroft, afterward archbishop of Canterbury, in a sermon at Paul's Cross, Feb. 9, 1b88, sad the manuscript discovered by Mr. Barrage is indoreed in what ie believed to be Brsncroft's handwriting " Mr. Browne': Answer to Mr. Flower's Letter." One sheet (4 pages) is lacking, but the part preserved contains more than 8,000 words, discusses the subject of church government at considerable length, and is particularly interesting for the idea which it gives of Browne's views concerning the Church of England at the time of writing; (8) A letter to Burghley, Apr. lb, 1590, printed by 13trype in the Life and Acts of John Wkitpitt, appendix, bk. iii., no. zlv. (appendix, pp. 133‑134, ed. London, 1718).
BIBLIOGRAPHY; T. Fuller, Church History of Great Britai»,
	book ix.. cant. zoi., acct. vi.. 45 1‑7. 61‑‑89. ed. J. 3.

281	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Browns
		Bruce
	Brewer, 6 vole., London, 1845; C. H. Cooper, Athenas
	Cantabrigienaea, ii. 177‑178, London, 1858‑61; H. Al.
	Dexter, Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred
	Years, New York, 1880; W. Walker, Creeds and Plat
	forms of Congregationalism, pp. 1‑27, ib. 1893; idem, His
	tory. of the Congregational Churches in the United Stales,
	31‑41, ib. 1894; DNB, vii. 57‑61; C. Barrage, The True
	Story of Robert Browns (Iu50‑1603), Father of Congre
	gationalism, Oxford, 1906.
	BROWNE, SIR THOMAS: Author of the Religio
Medici; b. in Cheapside, London, Oct. 19, 1605;
d. at Norwich Oct. 19, 1682. He attended Win
chester College and Broadgate Hall (Pembroke
College), Oxford (B.A., 1626; M.A., 1629); studied
medicine and practised in Oxfordshire; traveled
in Ireland, France, and Italy, continued his medical
studies at Montpellier and Padua, and received
his degree of doctor of medicine at Leyden about
1633; settled at Norwich in 1637, where he gained
much repute as a physician and still more as a man
of universal knowledge. The Religio Medici was
probably written about 1635 and not intended for
publication; two unauthorized editions appeared
in 1642, which led to an edition with the author's
approval, but anonymous, in 1643. The work is
peculiar from its blending of deep religious feeling
and skeptical views. " It appears to have been
composed as a tour de force of intellectual agility,
an attempt to combine daring skepticism with
implicit faith in revelation." The style is meta
phorical and artificial, with many Latinized words,
but striking and impressive. Browns also pub
lished: Pseudodoxia Epidemiea, or Enquiries into
very Many Received Tenets and commonly Presumed
Truths, which Examined prove but Vulgar and Com
mon Errors (London, 1646); Hydriotaphia or Urn
burial and The Garden of Cyrus (1658); many of his
manuscripts were published posthumously. The
best edition of his complete works is by Simon
Wilkin (4 vole., London, 1835‑36; reprinted,
abridged, by Bohn, 3 vole., 1851‑52). The Religio
Medici, with A Letter to a Friend upon Occasion
of the Death of his Intimate Friend (first published
1690) and Christian Morals (1716), and the Hydrio
taphia and Garden of Cyrus, have been carefully
edited by W. A. Greenhill (London, 1881 and 1896);
and the Religio Medici is ed. with introduction by
C. H. Herford (New York, 1907).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A rather extended sketch of Browne's life
	and writings is given in DNB, vii. 64‑72, where the liter
	ature and list of works is given at some length. Consult
	also E. Gosse, in English Men of Letters, London, 1905.
	BROWNISTS. See BxowlvE, ROBERT.
	BROWNLEE, WILLIAM CRAIG: American
(Dutch) Reformed clergyman; b. at Torfoot, Lan
arkshire, Scotland, 1783; d. in New York Feb.
10, 1860. He was graduated at Glasgow Univer
sity; was licensed and emigrated to America in
1808; was pastor at Mt. Pleasant, Washington
County, Penn., Philadelphia (1813), and Basking
ridge, N. J. (1819); professor of languages in
Rutgers College 1825; called to the Collegiate Re
formed Dutch Church, New York, 1826; made pastor
emeritus after a paralytic stroke in 1843. He was
a strong opponent of Roman Catholics and Quakers.
He published Inquiry into the Principles of Quakers
(New York, 1824); The Roman Catholic Contro‑
versy (Philadelphia, 1834); Lights and Shadows of Christian Life (New York, 1837); Popery an Enemy to Civil and Religious Liberty (1836); Romanism in the Light of Prophecy and History (1857). BIBLIOGRAPHY: A Memorial was published by the consistory of his Church (New York, 1860).
BROWNSON, ORESTES AUGUSTUS: Roman Catholic convert; b. at Stockbridge, Vt., Sept. 16, 1803; d. at Detroit, Mich., Apr. 17, 1876. His religious career is marked by its many changes. The influences of his boyhood were of the strictest New England orthodoxy; at nineteen he joined a Presbyterian church at Ballston, N. Y.; in 1826 he was ordained (at Jaffrey, N. H.) a Universalist minister; after two or three years he left the Universalists, and, influenced by Robert Dale Owen and his projects, became a socialist, entered politics, and helped form a " Workingmen's Party " in New York. He soon despaired of reform by means of political organization, and in 1831 again began preaching at Ithaca, N. Y., this time as an independent, attracted by the writings of William Ellery Charming. Later he had Unitarian parishes at Walpole, N. H., and Canton, Mass. In 1836 he organized in Boston " The Society for Christian Union and Progress " and continued its minister till 1843, when he gave up preaching. In Oct., 1844, he was received into the Roman Catholic Church in, Boston, and did not again change his faith, although he continued independent and combative within the Church and received a recommendation from Rome to be more guarded in his language. He wrote with great zeal and no small ability in advocacy of all of his successive beliefs. He started The Boston Quarterly Review in 1838 and wrote nearly all its numbers till it was merged in The Democratic Review of New York in 1843; from 1844 to 1864 and again 1873‑75 he published Brownson's Quarterly Review, at first in Boston, later in New York, where he lived 1855‑75. His books were: New Views of Christianity, Society, and the Church (Boston, 1836); Charles Elwood, or the Infidel Converted (1840); Essays and Reviews (New York, 1852); The Spirit Rapper; an Autobiography (Boston, 1854); The Convert, or Leaves from my Experience (New York, 1857); The American Republic, its Constitution, Tendencies, and Destiny (1865).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His son, Henry F. Brownson, has published a collected edition of his Works, 20 vole., Detroit, 1882‑87, and his Life, 3 vole., 1898‑1900.
BRUCE, ALEXANDER BALMAIN: Church of Scotland; b. at Aberargie (a hamlet in the parish of Abernethy, 7 m. s.e. of Perth), Perthshire, Jan. 30, 1831; d. at Glasgow Aug. 7, 1899. He was educated at. the University of Edinburgh (1845‑49) and the Divinity Hall of the Free Church of Scotland, which he entered in 1849. After the completion of his theological studies, he was an assistant minister at Ancrum, Roxburghahire, and Lochwinnoch, Renfrewshire, until 1859, when he accepted a call to the pastorate of Cardross, Dumbartonshire, where he remained nine years. He was then minister of the East Free Church, Broughty Ferry, Forfarehire, from 1868 to 1875,

smog	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	282
and in the latter year was appointed professor of apologetics and New Testament exegesis in the Free Church Hall, Glasgow, a position which he held until his death. In theology he declared himself to be " in sympathy with modern religious thought, while maintaining solidarity with all that is best in the theology of the past; in favor of freedom in critical inquiries on the basis of evangelic faith, and of a simplified and more comprehensive creed:' The boldness of his views brought him to the notice of the General Assembly of his denomination in 1890, but after consideration his writings were pronounced to be, on the whole, in accord with orthodox standards. He was Cunningham Lecturer in 1874, Ely Lecturer in Union Theological Seminary, New Work, in 1888, and Gifford Leotuner in Glasgow University in 1896‑97, and after 1894 collaborated with T. K. Cheyne in editing the Theological Translation Library. In addition to minor contributions, he wrote The Training of the Twelve (Edinburgh, 1871); The Humiliation of Christ (1878); The Chief End of Revelation (London, 1881); The Parabolic Teaching of Christ (1882); The Gulikean Gospel (Edinburgh, 1884); F. C. Baur and his Theory of the Origin of Christianity and of the New Testament (London, 1885); The Miraculous Element in the Gospels (the Ely lectures for 1886; 1886); The Life of William Denny (1888); The Kingdom of God, or, Christ's Teachings according to the Synoptic Gospels (Edinburgh, 1889); Apologetics : or, The Cause of Christianity defensively stated (1892); St. Paula Conception of Christianity (1894); With Open Face
or, Jesus mirrored in Matthew, Mark, and Luke (London, 1896); The Providential Order of the World (Gifford lectures for 1897; 1897); a commentary on the synoptic Gospels in The Expositor's Greek Testament (1897); The Epistle to the Hebrews
the first Apology for Christianity (Edinburgh, 1899); and The Moral Order of the World in Ancient and Modern Thought (Gifford lectures for 1898; London, 1899).
Biaiaoosepey: DNB, supplement i., 321‑322.
BRUCH, brae, JOHANN FRIEDRICH: German theologian; b. at Pirmasens (13 m. e.s.e. of Zweibriicken), Rhenish Bavaria, Dec. 13, 1792; d. at Strasburg July 21, 1874. He was educated at the gymnasium of Zweibrucken and the Protestant academy of Strasburg, after which he was successively tutor at Cologne (1812), vicar at Lohr in German Lothasing',a, and private tutor in Paris (1815). In Nov., 1821, he was appointed professor at the Protestant seminary at Strasburg, and a few months later became full professor in the theological faculty. His position, both then and later, was rationalistic. His conception of revelation, miracles, Christ and his works, sin, and salvation, therefore, frequently diverged widely from the teachings of the Church and of tradition. His lectures were at first restricted to Christian ethics and the synoptic Gospels, but later embraced also systematic theology and the New Testament, in addition to practical homiletics. After 1831 he was preacher at the Nicholaikirche, where he sought to instruct and calm the religious excitement
caused by the attacks of orthodox Pietism on liberal theology, aiming to further a faith based on reason and a life of true Christianity, as well as unity and peace within the Church.
Brach's influence was also felt in the development o£ the religious life of his city, and in the foundation and administration of religious and ecclesiastical projects. The first infant schools, the evening schools for poor children, Sunday lectures for workingmen, the society for the improvement of young criminals, and the society for the evangelization of Protestants scattered in the departments of the East were among those inspired and palled into existence by him. He was also the president of the Strasburg Bible Society and until his death conducted the pastoral conference of his city. After 1828 he likewise acted as the director of the Protestant gymnasium. In 1849 he was appointed inspector of the district of St. Thomas, in 1852 a member of the supreme consistory, and in 1886 of the directory. Amid all these tasks he found time and strength to treat the most obscure problems of theology and philosophy, although he was obliged, for lack of sympathy, to abandon his plea of writing in French to supply the deficiency of Protestant theological literature in France. The Franco‑Prussian War brought devastation into Church and school, and Brach was accordingly appointed rector of the new university and placed in control of the provisional direction of ecclesiastical affairs, the final efforts of his life being devoted to a reorganization of the theological faculty and of the ecclesiastical situation, which he sought to protect against the domination of the system prevailing at Berlin.
	Brach was a prolific writer, his works, in ad
dition to numerous pamphlets and articles in
learned periodicals, being as follows: Lehrbuch
den christlichen Sittenlehre (2 vols., Strasburg,
1829‑32); Christliche Vortrage (2 vols., 1838‑42);
etudes philosophiquea scar Is ehriatianisme (Paris,
1839); Ideen zur Abfaasung einer den Bediirfnissen
den deutsch‑Protestantischen Kirche Frankreichs
entspreehe»den Liturgie (Strasburg, 1839); Die
Lehre von den gottlichen Eigenachaften (Hamburg,
1842); Zuatdtnde den protestantischen Kirche Frank
reichs (1843); Betrachtungen caber Christenthum
and christliehen Glauben in Brie f en (2 vole., Stras
burg, 1845‑46); Weisheitslehre den Hebraer, sin
Beitrag zur Geschichte den Philoaophie (1851); Das
Gebet.des Hewn (1853); Ueber daa PrinziP den
weltiiberunndenden Macht des Christenthtcms (Goths,
1856); Die protestantische Freiheit (Strasburg,
1857); Die Lehre von den Prtdexistenz den mensch
lichen Seele (1859); and Theorie des Betvuastaeins
(1864).
T. GEROLD.

B:araoaaeper: Bruoh's life‑story is told is K%ndhedt‑ and
Jupendsrinnerunpen von Dr. Fr. Brach, Strasburg, 1889,
and Johann Friedrich Bruda, wine W%rkammlce%t %n Schule
and Kirche. 1881‑72, 1890, both edited from his romaine by his eon‑in‑law, T. Gerold.

BRUECg, brick (POftTAIYUS, real name HEINSE, HElYISCH, HEINCZ), GREGORIUS: German ju‑
rist; b. at Briick (22 m. n. of Wittenberg) c. 1484; d. at Jena Feb. 15, 1557. He studied at Wittenberg and Frankfort‑on‑the Oder, and became co famous

283
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bruce
Brugmsna
as the secretary and representative of the jurist Hennig GSde that princes and critics sought his advice. Frederick the Wise invited him to his court, and after the death of the electoral councilor Degenhard Pfeffinger (1519), Brack seems to have taken his place. He was soon interested in Luther, and it was not without significance that he accompanied the elector to Cologne and Worms. Having returned to Wittenberg, Brack received the degree of doctor of law, and soon afterward was appointed chancellor. His tact and ability greatly helped the cause of the Reformation, and the development of the Evangelical Church. He was instrumental in bringing about the Torgau‑Magdeburg confederations; he advised the elector at the diets held at Speyer in 1526 and 1529, and it was due to him, next to Luther, that the Pack‑disturbances did not lead to a general war. But his greatest services were rendered at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530. He not only gave the first impulse to the composition of the Augsburg Confession, but he took part in the preparation of its details, wrote the introduction to it, caused it to be read in public, and gave to the emperor the Latin copy in the name of the Evangelical estates. He would not be intimidated, but, on the contrary, encouraged the timid, and acted as spokesman in all public debates, so that his eloquence and ability were even recognized by his opponents. Cochhus, well aware of the importance of Bruck, vainly tried to induce him to abandon the Lutherans by an "Admonition to Peace and Unity." Briiek's reply is unknown, for at the time he was engaged in writing a true account of events at the Diet of Augsburg, 1530, which was first printed in Foratemann's Archiv fur die Geschichte der kirchlichen Reformation (Halls, 1831). Briiek attended all diets held during his lifetime, and he also strove for the consolidation of the Church, finally succeeding in 1542 in forming a permanent consiatory. For a time he resided at Wittenberg, but after the disastrous end of the Schmalkald War, which he had consistently opposed, he followed the sons of the Elector to Weimar, remaining a loyal friend of the imprisoned Frederick. Still later Bruck retired to Jena, where he died.
(T. KOLDE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY'. CR, xii. 351 contains the Orntio de Gregorio Pontano (by Melanchthon); J. A. Wimmer, Vita Gregorii Pontani, Altenburg, 1730; T. Holds, in ZHT, 1874, pp. 34 eqq.
BRUECKNER, briik'ner, BENNO BRUNO: German Protestant; b. at Rosawein (23 m. w. of Dresden) May 9, 1824. He was educated at the University of Leipsic, and after serving as pastor at Hohburg from 1850 to 1853 was appointed associate professor and second university preacher at Leipaic. Two years later he was made full professor, and in the following year was appointed university preacher and director of the seminary for practical theology. He became canon of Meissen and consistorial councilor in 1860, and nine years later went to Berlin as provost of St. Nicholas and St. Mary, honorary professor, university preacher, and member of the high consiatory, of which he
became clerical vice‑president in 1877. In 1872 he
was chosen general superintendent of Berlin, and in the following year was appointed canon of Brandenburg. He became high conaiatorial councilor in 1880, a member of the Prussian council of state in 1884, and president of the united synods of the district of Berlin in 1889. His works include Epistola ad PhiliPpenses Paulo auetori vindicata contra Bauriurra (Leipaie, 1848); Betrachtungen caber die Agende der evangeliachrlutherischen. Kirche in Sachsen (1865); and numerous sermons, both individual and collected, many of which ran through several editions. He also edited the second and third editions of W. M. L. De Wette's commentary on the Catholic Epistles (Leipaic, 1853‑67) and the fifth edition of his commentary on the Gospel of John (1863).
BRUEGGLERS. See KOHLER, CHRISTIAN AND HIERONYMUS.
	BRUGMANN, brtlg'mdn, JAN: A theologian
and reformer of the Franciscan order in the Nether
lands and Germany. The date of his birth is un
known, but from the way in which he speaks of
his age in 1473, the year of his death, he was prob
ably born about 1400, at Kempen. He was edu
cated and admitted to the clerical state in a monas
tery of the northwestern Netherlands, perhaps
Groningen. He joined the Franciscans at Saint
Omer in Artois, where the community was full of
the spirit of St. Bernardin of Sienna, the founder
of the strict or Observant Franciscans. Here
he taught theology, until in 1439 he was charged,
at the request of the town council of Gouda, with
the erection of an Obaervantine house there, and
later took part in a similar work at Stuis, Leyden,
and Alkmaar. Learning to know the moral and
spiritual condition of the people while discharging
these missions, he set himself to elevate it by
popular preaching, at the same time effecting a
reform in the convents of Gronigen, Gorinchem,
Haarlem, Warnsveld, and Nymwegen between
1450 and 1455. At Amsterdam he founded a house
in 1462, and composed a. bitter factional strife
among the citizens. He brought about the foun
dation of the Obaervantine province of Cologne, of
which he was provincial for several years. Feeling
his end approaching, he retired to Nymwegen,
where he died. His influence went far beyond
the reform of the Franciscan houses; he ranks
with the great popular preachers of the Nether
lands at that time, such as preachers and Florentiua
Radewyns, with whom he was in close alliance.
A few of his sermons have been printed (see be
low). He wrote also a life of Christ, which in
some particulars resembles those of Bonaventura
and Ludolf of Saxony, though adhering more
closely to the Gospel narrative. In spite of its
frequently erroneous exegesis and its arbitrary
mystical interpretations, it is so full of simple piety
and warm devotion that it awakens respect. He
wrote also, in three different versions, the life of
Lidwina of Schiedam, a mystical ascetic considered
a saint in the Netherlands (1350‑1443); it has
recently been discovered that he was a vernacular
spiritual poet of no alight importance.
L. SCHULZ)m.

8rally
Bravo	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	284
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The one hook is W. Moll, Joh. Brug‑mann, en het Godadienslig Levers, Amsterdam, 1854. One of his sermons is given in Moll's biography, but other sermons and writings of his appear in Handelingen . . . Maatechappij der Nederlardaclae letterkunde, The Hague, 1887: De Katholik, xx.; Archief voor Nederlandache Kerkgeachiedenia i. (1885), iv. (1892‑93).

BRULLY, brii"yi' (BRUSLY), PIERRE (Petrus Brulius): The successor of Calvin in Strasburg; b. at Mersilhaut (Mercy‑le‑Haut, about 2 m. s.e. of Metz) c. 1518; burned at the stake at Tournai (14 m. e. of Lille), Flanders, Feb. 19, 1545. Educated for the Church, he became lector in the Dominican convent at Metz and was expelled in 1540 or 1541 for sympathizing with the Reformation. In July, 1541, he was in Strasburg and intimate with Calvin, in whose house he lived, and when Calvin was recalled to Geneva (1541) succeeded him in the pastorate. In September, 1544, he undertook a missionary journey to Flanders on the invitation of persons in Tournai who wished instruction in the Reformed faith; preached there and in neighboring cities with earnestness and success, but necessarily in secret, as to preach Protestant doctrine was forbidden. He was arrested at Tournai in November, condemned, and executed, notwithstanding efforts made to save him from Strasburg and by the Protestant princes of Germany.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Paillard, Le Proe~a de Pierre Brolly, Paris, 1878; R. Reuss, Pierre Brolly, Strasburg, 1879.

BRUftETIERE, brii"ne‑tyar', MARIE FERDIlYAND: French Roman Catholic critic; b. at Toulon (42 m. e.s.e. of Marseilles) July 19, 1849; d. in Paris Dec. 9, 1906. Educated at Marseilles and at the Lycte Louis le Grand, Paris, he became secretary of the editorial board of the Revue des deux mondes in 1875 and editor in 1893. He was appointed professor of the French language and literature at the lecole Normale Superieure, Paris, and in 1893 became a lecturer at the Sorbonne. He delivered a course of lectures in the United States in 1897. In 1887 he was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honor, and in 1893 was admitted to the French Academy, while in 1895 he was appointed a commander of the Order of Pius IX. His theological attitude was noteworthy in that, like Cop‑ I pee, Huyamans, and other distinguished literary men of France, he became convinced of the truth of the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church, abandoning the agnosticism which be had formerly professed. His writiuga, which mark a new epoch in French criticism, include 9tudea critiques our l'histoire de la litterature franFaise (7 vole., Paris, 1880‑1903); Histoire et litterature (3 vols.,1884‑86);

Questions de critique (2 vole., 1889‑90); 9volutiondes genres dens l'histoire de la littbrature (1890); Nouvellea questions de critique (1890); Les ‑Opoques du theatre frartvais 1656‑1850 (1892); Essais Sur la litterature contemporaine (2 vole., 1892‑95); LIvolution de la Poesie.lyrique en France au dixneuvieme elects (2 vole., 1894); education et instruction (1895); La Morahte de la doctrine evolutive (1896); La Renaissance de l'idealisme (1896); Le Roman naturalists (1896); Manuel de l'histoire de ht litterature frany~aise (1897; Eng. tranal., New York, 1898); and Discours academiques (1901); Les
motifsd'esperer (1902); Cinq lettressurErnestRenarz (1903); Les diffzcultes de croire (1904); and Sur les chemins de la croyance (1904).
	BRUNFELS, OTTO: German humanist and
Reformer. The date of his birth can not be deter
mined; d. at Bern Nov. 23, 1534. His father was
an artisan at Mainz. At an early ago he entered
the Carthusian order, but the spirit of the age soon
drew him out of his convent into the polemics of
the time. At first he was a follower of Hutten,
for whom he broke a lance with Erasmus, and
whose library he used in compiling a small collection
of the writings of Huss, which he published in 1524,
with a dedication to Luther. He served the Refor
mation as a preacher, first at Steinheim, and then
at Neuenburg in the Breisgau. When the attitude
of the imperial government made his position there
insecure, he went to Strasburg, where he supported
himself by teaching, wrote against tithes, and
studied medicine. He was a friend of Luther
and also of Carlstadt, but was still more strongly
attracted by Zwingli, whose influence procured
him a medical position at Bern. His importance
lies chiefly in the fact that he was a successful
botanist, and a pioneer in this science for Germany,
with his extensive illustrated Herbarium (Strasburg,
3 vols., 1530‑40, translated into German, 2 parts,
1532‑37, 2d ed., 1546). 	(W. VOGT.)
BRUNNER (FOBTAftL1S), LEONHARD: German Reformer; b. probably at Esslingen (7 m. e.s.e. of Stuttgart) c. 1500; d. at Landau (18 m. n.w. of Carlsruhe) Dec. 20, 1558. In 1527 he was called from Strasburg, where he was a deacon, to Worms, as pastor of the congregation. By his discretion he soon restored harmony in the community, which had been endangered for a time by the activities of the Anabaptists Denk, Hetzer, and Kantz. In 1531 he published his Christliche Betrachtung, one man sick bei den Kranken and Sterbenden halter soll ; and in 1543 he prepared a Catechismua and Anweisuaxg zum chriatlichen Glauben, of which the few fragments still extant show his catechetical ability. In the doctrine on the Lord's Supper he followed the Strasburg theologians. Through the Interim he was obliged in 1548 to resign his bffice at Worms and fled to Strasburg, where he soon became assistant pastor. With the other Strasburg ministers he adopted the Lutheran teaching, and remained faithful to it in Landau, whither he was called in 1553 by the Treaty of Passau. Here he contributed much toward the amelioration of the moral and religious life of the people. Besides the works already mentioned, he published Concordantz des Neuen Testaments (Strasburg, 1524) and Coneortlantz and Zeiger alter bibliachen Blither (1530).
JULIU$ NEY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Weckerling, L. Brunner, Worms, 1895;
A. Decker, Beitrdge our Geachiehte von Worms, pp, 54 eqq., ib. 1880.
BRUNO OF COLOGNE: Archbishop of Cologne 9.53‑965; b. in the spring of 925, the youngest son of Henry L, the Fowler; d. at Reims Oct. 11, 965. He was educated from his fourth to his fourteenth year in the cathedral school of

285	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Utrecht. His brother Otto I. recalled him in 939 to the court. As early as 940 he was invested with the functions of chancellor, and ordained deacon a year or two later. In 951 he was made archicapellanus and thus exercised a great influence on the administration of the whole kingdom. In 947 he took part in the Synod of Verdun, where German ecclesiastics settled the question of the archbishopric of Reims, important to the later history of France. In 951 he went with Otto to Italy, and supported his brother faithfully in the disturbances of the next year. Otto had him chosen archbishop of Cologne in 953, and added to his spiritual sovereignty the government of Lorraine. He was consecrated Sept. 25. Lorraine was a very troublesome possession; it was not until after the banishment of Count Raginar of Hainault in 958 that he succeeded in establishing peace and order there. The relations with France often offered difficult problems, too. After the death of King Louis d'Outremer and Duke Hugh the Great, Bruno was made a sort of supreme judicial arbiter for France in his brother's name. Peace was his constant aim, together with the assertion of Carolingian sovereignty. On Otto's second absence in Italy (961), the administration of the empire was confided to Bruno and William of Mainz. Bruno's importance is mainly political, as a representative of the close alliance of the episcopate and the crown which marked Otto's policy. As a bishop, however, he did much to promote a real and living piety and to encourage education. (A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Vita Brunoni.a, by Ruotger, ed. G. H. Pertz, is in MGM, Script., iv. 252‑275, Hanover, 1841; and another Vita by an unknown author, ib., pp. 275‑

279. Consult: Pieler, Erzbiachof Bruno I: von K6nArnsberg, 1851; E. Meyer, De Brunone I. archiepiacopo Colonienai, Berlin, 1867; C. Martin, BeitrtFge zur Geachichta Bruno 1. von Ksln, Jens, 1878; Hauck, KD„iii. 40 sq4.
BRUNO, (FILIPPO) GIORDANO: Italian philosopher of the Renaissance; b. at Nola (14 m. e.n.e. of Naples), Campania, 1548; burned at the stake at Rome Feb. 17, 1600. He joined the Dominicans at Naples at the age of fourteen or fifteen, but study and reflection and particularly the influence of the works of Nicholas of Cusa and Raymond Lully made him doubtful of dogma and restive under the strict rules of his order. In 1576 he fled to Rome and thenceforth led a wandering life. He first visited various cities of North Italy; about 1580 he reached Geneva, stayed there two years, and went on to Paris through Lyons and Toulouse; at Paris he gave lectures on philosophy; from 1583 to 1585 he was in England, where he had the friendship of such men as Sir Philip Sidney, and composed his most important works; between 1586 and 1588 he was lecturing at Wittenberg; he visited Prague, Helmstadt, Frankfort, Zurich, and Padua, and reached Venice early in 1592. Here he was arrested in May, tried before the Inquisition, and his case adjourned to Rome, Jan., 1593. On Jan. 7, 1600, after a confinement of seven years, he was condemned as an apostate and heretic and given over to the civil authorities for execution. He was the first philosopher to espouse the Copernican hypothesis; in his metaphysical interpretation
of it he radically opposed the philosophy and science of his time, and subverted also the most cherished teachings of the Church. His .fundamental principle, as against Aristotle, was the absolute boundlessness of the universe. The supernatural in its traditional sense was thus eliminated. No heaven existed separate from the universe. The world‑the phenomenal aspect of the universe‑and God are not the same, but God is identified with the universe; or God may be designated as matter conceived of in extended substance, essentially immaterial, the immanent cause or soul of the world. Later philosophers, Descartes, Spinoza, Leibnitz, Boehme, and Hegel owe much to Bruno. Just three hundred years after his execution, Feb. 17, 1900, on the very spot where he was burned, a monument was dedicated to his memory.
Bruno's most important works were the Spaccio dells bestia trionfante (Paris, 1584); Dells causa, prineipio ed uno, and Del in fenito universo a mondi (Venice, 1584); De triPlici minimo et mensura, and De monade nurnero et ftgura (Frankfort, 1591). His Italian works were edited by Wagner (2 vole., Leipsic, 1830) and by Paul de Lagarde (2 vols., Gottingen, 1888); his Latin works by Fiorentino (2 vole., Naples, 1879‑91) and by Tocco (Florence, 1889). The Dells causa has been translated into German by Lasson (3d ed., Leipsic, 1902), and st German translation of his collected philosophical works begun by L. Kuhlenbeck (Jena, 1904, vol. v., 1907), who has also edited Lichtstrahr len aus Giordano Bruno's Werken (Leipsie, 1891). There is an English translation of " The Expulsion of the Triumphant Beast" by W. Morehead (London, 1713; only 50 copies printed and now extremely rare), and of the‑ " Heroic Enthusiasts" (Gli eroici fuxori, Paris, 1558) by L. Williams (London, 1887); a general account and synopsis of the " Infinite Universe," written by Bruno in his dedication of the work to Lord Castelnau, was translated by John Toland and printed, with a Latin essay on the death of Bruno (in A Collection of Several Pieces of Mr. John Toland, vol. i., London, 1726, pp. 304‑349).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the life of Bruno a noteworthy produo‑
lion is J. L. McIntyre, Giordano Bravo, London, 1903.
Phases of his life and philosophy are presented in F. J.
Clemens, Giordano Bruno and Nicolaua von Cuaa, eine
philosophiache Abhandlunp, Bonn, 1847; C. J. G. Bar
tholmeae, Jordano Bruno, 2 vols., Paris, 1846‑47; D.
Berti, Vita di Giordano Bruno, Milan, 1868; Mrs. Besant,
Giordano Bruno, London, 1877; R. Mariano, Giordano
Bruno, la vita a Z'uomo, Rome, 1881 (important); M.
Carriere, Die philosophiache Weltanschauung der Refor
mationazeit, Leipsic, 1887 (the work of a specialist); Miss
I. Frith, Life of Giordano Bruno, London, 1887; D. Bern,
Giordano Bruno .... aua vita a sua dottrina, Turin, 1889;
R. Landseek, Bruno der Marlprer der neuen Weltanachauunp, Leipsic, 1890; J.Owen, Giordano Bruno, inSkepticsof the ltalianRenaiasauce, London, 1893; H. Brunnhofer, Giordano Bruno's Weltanschauung and Verhanpnisa, Leipsie, 1899; G. Louis, Giordano Bruno. Seine Weltan•achauunp and Lebensauffasaunp, Berlin, 1900; A. Richl,
Giordano Bruno, Leipsic, 1900, Eng, travel., London
1905. Consult also the works on the History of Philosophy, by Ueberweg, Ebrard, etc.
BRUNO (B0NIFATIUS) OF f?UERFURT: Missionary to the Slavs and Prussians, among whom he suffered martyrdom, Feb. 14, or Mar. 16. 1009.

t Bruno	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	288
He was a Saxon nobleman, educated at the cathe
dral‑school at Magdeburg, and accompanied his
cousin, the Emperor Otto III., to Rome (996),
where he took holy orders. Pope Sylvester II.
entrusted to him a missionary expedition to the
Slavs in the east, which the Polish duke Boleslav
had asked for, and he was rained to the rank of
archbishop. His chief task was to be the conver
sion of the heathen Prussians, to whom Adalbert
of Prague (q.v.) had fallen victim but a short time
before. Being detained at Magdeburg by wars
between Germans and Poles, he wrote the Vita
S. Alberti. Peace being reestablished, he went
to Poland and was gladly received by Bolealav,
but being unable to enter into Prussia, he con
verted the Petchenegs and organized their church
affairs. Remaining for some time in Poland, he
wrote the Vita qtsinque fratrum Polonicc, Christian
martyrs slain in 1003 near Meseritz, and when at
last he took upon him the teak he was entrusted
with, he and his companions, like St. Adalbert,
lost their lives by the swords of the heathen not
far from Braunsberg. Boleslav, who was deeply
afflicted, ordered the remains of the martyrs to be
gathered and brought to Poland, where they were
solemnly buried and became an object of moat
devoted reverence. 	A. WERNER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources for a life are: the Chronican of Dietmar, ed. J. M. Lappenberg, Hanover, 1889; Da, mian'e Vita St. Romualdi, ed. G. H. Peru. in MCH, Script., iv. 850‑854, ib. 1841; Chronieon Magdeburgenae, ed., Meibom, in Script. rer. Germ.,pp. 289‑378. Consult: W. von Gieeebrecht, Geachichte der deuGcAen Kaiaerzeit, ii. 104, 192 eqq., Brunswick, 1875; idem, Erzbiaehof Brun‑BoniJatiua in Neue yreuasische Provinziatbt8tter, i. (1859); Hauck, KD, vol. iii.; ADB, iii. 433.
BRUNO, SAINT: Founder of the Carthusian order. See CARTHUSIANa.
BRUNO OF SEGNI: Bishop of Segni (28 m. s.e. of Rome); b. at Solero (6 m. w, of Aleseandria), Lombardy, between 1045 and 1049; d. at Segni July 18, 1123. He was educated in a monastery near his birthplace and at Bologna, became a canon at Sienna, and came to Rome in 1079. Here he came in contact with the leaders of the Church, and moat have soon attracted the attention of Gregory VIL, if it is true that it was at his request that he disputed with Berengar on the Eucharist. In any case he accomplished his teak so well that the pope made him bishop of Segni in the Campagna the same year. He was even more closely connected with Urban IL, whom be accompanied to France in 1095. In 1099 he entered the monastery of Monte Cassino, gut without resigning his see or severing his relations with the outside world. He undertook an important mission to France for Paschal II. in 1106, and remained with the pope for some time after his return, finally going back to his cloister, where he was elected abbot in 110?. Paschal made no objection to this pluralism until in the conflicts of 1111 Bruno took the part of the antipope Maginulf (Sylvester IV.), and was forced to resign his abbacy and return to Segni. Lucius III. canonized him in 1181. His works (in MPL, clxiv., clxv.) are principally exegetical. His Libeltua de sy»wniacis, written before 1109,‑is important for its discussion of the meaning of simony, and
especially for its attitude on the sacraments of a
aimoniacal priest. 	CARL MIRBT.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources for a life are the Chronicon Caeai.,	nenae, book iv., chaps. 31‑42, ed. W. Wattenbaoh, in MGH, Script., vii. 778‑783, Hanover, 1848, and an anonymous Vita in ASB, 18 July, iv. 478‑488. The fullest and beat modern treatment is by B. Gigalaki, Bruno, Biachof von Segni. . . aein Leben and seine Sehriften, Miineter, 1898. Consult also I3efele, Concilienpeechichte, vol. v.; C. Mirbt, Die Publiziaiik in Zeitaiter Grcpore VII., pp. 384‑385, 423‑424, 522‑523, Leipaic,1894; Meyer von Knonau, Jahrbficher den deutachen Reieha ureter Heinrich IV., pp. 92 aqq., ib. 1904.

BRUNO OF TOUL. See LEO IX., Pope.

BRUNO OF WURZBURG: Bishop of Wiirzburg 1034‑45. He was the son of Duke Conrad I. of Carinthia, and thus a nephew of Pope Gregory V. and a cousin of the emperor Conrad II. The latter made him bishop of Wiirzburg in 1034. In the spring of 1045 he accompanied Henry III. to Hungary, and died May 26 from the results of injuries received in the fall of a building at Persenbeug in what is now Upper Austria. As a theologian he is remembered for his commentary on the Psalms, made up mainly of extracts from older authors, especially Cassiodorus, but including Augustine, Gregory the Great, the pseudo‑Bede, and the Brevutrium in Psalmos ascribed to Jerome. A catechetical exposition of the Lord's Prayer and the Apostles' and Athanasian Creeds attributed to him is probably older. (A. HAUCK.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bruno's Commentary is in MPL, cxlii. Consult: J. Baler, Dar heidige Bruno . . . ale Katechet, Wiirzburg, 1893; ADB, iii. 435.

BRUNSWICK: A North German duchy, consisting of three larger territories and six small exclaves, bounded on the north by Hanover, on the east by Saxony, on the south by Hanover, and on the west by Westphalia; area, 1,424 square miles; population (1900), 464,333, of whom 432; 570 (93.1 %) are Lutherans; 4,406 (.9 %) Reformed; 24,175 (5.2 %) Roman Catholics; 1,358 of various sects; and 1,824 (.39 %) Jews. The Lutheran Church was established in the duchy in 1568, but received its first official organization in 1657 and 1709, while in 1755 and 1764 the administration was placed under six general superintendencies, which are now located at Wolfenbuttel, Brunswick, Helmstadt, Blankenburg, Gandersheim, and Holzminden. The act of Oct.12,1832, emphasized the ecclesiastical power of the duke, which is enforced with the cooperation and counsel of an evangelical consistory composed of both clergy and laity. At the same time the appointment of church‑directors for the administration of individual churches was considered, but these officials were not actually created until Nov. 20, 1851. Where the congregation has the right of electing its pastors, these " church‑deputies," together with an equal number of representatives elected by the community, choose the ministers, and in other cases extend the invitation to the candidates proposed by the duke or by patrons. The congregations, however, have the right to reject candidates who are deficient either in morality or in ability. The number of deputies has increased with the population from

287
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
four to sixteen, and they are chosen by secret ballot, serving for a term of six years.
About twenty years after the organization of the parishes, a general synod was created (May 31, 1871), consisting of twelve clergymen and sixteen laymen from seven electoral districts, in addition to two clerical and two lay delegates appointed by the duke. This synod, which holds its sessions in public, controls all modification, interpretation, and promulgation of laws for the churches, except in matters of doctrine. The committee of the synod is composed of two clerical and two lay members with a fifth chosen from one of the two main bodies, and is required to decide, together with the consiatory, on the rejection of candidates by individual congregations, and to discipline pastors and teachers of religion.
Shortly after the creation of this synod, inapeotoral synods were introduced by a law of Jan. 6, 1873, which enacted that each pariah should be inspected every two yearn, and that this must take place annually for the city of Brunswick in one of the local churches. A lay inspector may also be appointed by the duke in addition to the regular synod. These regulations control twenty‑eight auperintendencies with 230 parishes and 428 buildings for religious purposes, of which 333 are churches. A seminary for preachers is conducted at Wolfenbiittel by the consistory, and numerous institutions and associations exist in the duchy. Among the latter special mention may be made of a missionary society, a house of deaconesaes, the sisterhoods at Marienberg near Helmatadt, and, above all, of the " Evangelical Association for the Duchy of Brunswick," with its many affiliated interests. Few sectaries have found their way into Brunswick, although Baptists and Mennonites are found here and there, the latter having an establishment for missions in the capital itself.
		(WILHELM GOETZ.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Beets, (lesckichte der braunachmeigiachen i
	Landeakirche, Wolfenbilttel, 1889; Entiourf einer Ver
	fasaunga‑Urkunds tilt die evanpeiiacA‑lutherieche Xirche
	den Herzogtuma Braunschweig, Brunswick, 1850; J. Bu
	genhagen, Bupenhapene Xirthenmdnunp for die Stadt
	Braunschweig, 1688, Leipeic, 1885; F. Koldewey, Bei
	frrYye zur Kitchen‑ and Schulpeechichte den . . . Braun
	achweig, R olfenbilttel, 1888; Beitrttpe zur Statfatik des, i
Herzogtuma Braunechu%eig, Brunswick, part xx., 1907.I
BRUSTON, brti"at8n', CHARLES AUGUSTE:
French Reformed; b. at Bordeaux (90 m. n. of Marseilles) Mar. 6, 1838. He was educated at the lyceum of Grenoble (bachelier 6s lettres, 1854), the seminary at Montauban (bachelier en thCOlogie, 1859), and the universities of Geneva, Halls, Berlin, GBttingen, and Heidelberg. He was then successively pastor of Reformed churches at Chhtillonen‑Diois in 1861‑62, Die in 1862‑4i4, Bordeaux in '' 1864‑88, and Orleans in 1868‑74. In the latter
year he was appointed professor of Hebrew in the I Protestant faculty of theology of Montauban, and since 1894 has been dean of the same faculty. He is a member of the synodical committee of studies and other committees, and was elected a corresponding associate of the Socidtk den Antiquairea de France. In theology he is progressive, but is opposed to arbitrary speculations. He has written:
Brano
Bryant
De l'authenticite des Actes des Apotres (Toulouse, 1859); Les Psatlmes traduits de l'Hebreu (Paris, 1868); Du Texts primitif des Psai2.mes (1873); De lapsu homiatis (Or1E:ana, 1873); Histoire critique de la LittErature prophktique des Hebreuz (Paris, 1881); Les Quatre sources des loin de l'Exode (1883); etudes sur l'Apocalypse (1884); Les Deux JAnovistes, etudes sur lee sources de l'histoire saints (Montauban, 1885); Lea Origines de l'Apoealypse (Paris, 1888); La Vie future d'aprhs l'enseignement de Jesus‑Christ (1890); La Sulammite, mi'lodrame en sing actes (1891); Les Cinq Documents de la loi mosaique (1892); Le Parallde entre Adam et Jesus‑Christ, etude exEg6tique sur Rom. v. 12‑21 (1894); La Vie future d'apr~s St. Paul (1895); Le Dix*me congr& deg Orientalistes et Z'Ancien Testament (1895); etudes our Daniel et l'Apocalypse (1896); La Descents de Christ aux enferc d'aprh lea ApOtres et d'aprPs l',61glise (1897); Las: Paroles de Jesus dtcouvertes en tgypte (1898); Les: Predictions de Jesus (1899); Le Cantiquz de Debora (1901); etudes pherticiennes (2 vole., 1903‑06); L'Inseription de Silos et cells d'Eshmoun‑azar (1904); Yraie et fausse critique biblique (1905); Fragments d'un ancien rerueil de parolee de Jesus (1905); and L'Hiatoire sacerdotale et Is Deut6ronome primitif (1906), in addition to numerous contributions to theological periodicals and works of reference.
BRUYS, PIERRE DE. See PETER of BRUY9.
BRYANT, JACOB: English antiquarian; b. at Plymouth 1715; d. at Cypenham, in Farnham Royal (4 m. n. of Windsor), Nov. 14, 1804. He studied at King's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1740; M.A., 1744), and became fellow; was tutor and in 1756 became secretary to the Duke of Marlborough, and enjoyed the patronage of the family during his life and had free access to their famous library at Blenheim. He was a learned man, but his fondness for paradox and other eccentricities render his writings of slight 'permanent value. He published works upon a variety of subjects, classical literature and antiquities, the gipsy language, the Marlborough collection of gems, etc. Those which have religious interest are Observations arid Enquiries Relating to Various Parts of Ancient History (Cambridge, 1767), in which he defends the reading Eurodydon in Acts xxvii. 14, and maintains that Melita was not Malta; A New System or an Analysis of Ancient Mythology (3 vole., London, 1774‑76; 3d edition with account of the author, 6 vole., 1807), an attempt to substantiate the Bible by a study of the traditional remains of all nations; Vindictce Flaviance : a Vindication of the Testimony of Josephus concerning Jesus Christ (1777); A Treatise on the Authenticity of the Scriptures (1791); Observations on a. Controverted Passage in Justin Martyr; also upon the Worship of Angels (1793); Observations upon the Plagues Inflicted upon the Egyptians, with maps (1794); The Sentiments of Philo Judteus concerning the Logos (1797); Observations upon Some Passages in Scripture (relating to Balsam, Joshua, Samson, and Jonah, 1803).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century
	(9 vole., London, 1812‑15) and Illustrations of the Lifer‑

B hWa,ld	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	288
ary History of the Eighteenth Century (8 vole., ib.1817‑58),
both by John Nichols, contain very numerous references to Bryant. Consult also DNB, vii. 155‑157.
BRYCE, GEORGE: American Presbyterian; b. at Mount Pleasant, Ont., Apr. 22, 1844. He was educated at the University of Toronto and Knox College, Toronto (B.A., 1871), and was examiner in natural history in the former institution in 18701872. In 1871 he was chosen by the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church of Canada to organize a church and college in Winnipeg, and accordingly established Manitoba College in the same year and Knox Church, Winnipeg, in 1872. Five years later he was one of the founders of Manitoba University, where he was examiner in science and chairman of the faculty of science until 1904. In the following year he was appointed to his present position of professor of English literature and financial agent in Manitoba College. For many years he has been active in Presbyterian home missions in Manitoba, and was moderator of the general Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in Canada in 1902‑03. He has written: Manitoba; Infancy, Progress, and Present Condition. (London, 1882); Short History of the Canadian People (1887); TheAPostleof Red River (Toronto, 1898); Remarkable History of the Hudson's Bay Company (London, 1900); and Makers of Canada (Toronto, 1903).
BRYEftMOS, bri‑en"ni'sa, PHILOTHEOS, fi'7o‑
the'es: Greek metropolitan of Nicomedia; b. at Constantinople March 26 (old style), 1833. He was educated at the " Theological School in Chalce of the great Church of Christ" (1856), and the universities of Leipsic, Berlin, and Munich. In 1861 he became professor of ecclesiastical history, exegesis, and other studies at Chalee, of which he was appointed master and director in 1863, although he soon resigned the latter positions. In 1867 he was called to Constantinople to be the head of the " Great School of the Nation " in the Phanar, or Greek quarter of Constantinople, and remained there until in 1875 he was sent by the Most Holy Synod of metropolitans and patriarchs to the Old Catholic conference at Bonn, where he received the patriarchal letter announcing his appointment as metropolitan of Serras in Macedonia. In 1877 he was transferred to the metropolitau see of Nicomedia, sad three years later went to Bucharest as commissioner of the Eastern Orthodox Patriarchal and other independent churches, to decide concerning the Greek monasteries which had been plundered in Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1882, at the instance of the Holy Synod of Metropolitans in Constantinople, and the patriarch Joachim Ill., he wrote a reply to the encyclical letter of Pope Leo XIII. concerning the Slavic apostles Cyrillus and blethodius, which was published at Constantinople in 1882 with the approbation and at the expense of the Holy Synod. His fame rests upon his discovery in 1873 in the Jerusalem Monastery of the Most Holy Sepulcher in the Greek quarter of Constantinople of a manuscript containing (1) a synopsis of the Old and New Testaments in the order given by St. Chrysostom; (2) The Epistle of Barnabas; (3) The First
Epistle of Clement of Rome to the Corinthians; (4) The Second Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians; (5) The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles; (6) The spurious letter of Mary of Cassoboli; and (7) Twelve pseudo‑Ignatian Epistles. He edited the Epistles to the Corinthians with prolegomena and notes at Constantinople in 1875, and published the " Teaching of the Twelve Apostles " in the same city in 1883. See D1nwcH>r.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: p. Schaff, Teaching of the Twelve Apodke, pp. 8‑9, 289‑295, New York, 1890.
BUCER, MARTIN. See BUTZER.

BUCHANAN, CLAUDIUS: A pioneer of modern Anglican missionary work in India; b. at Cambuslang, near Glasgow, Mar. 12, 1766; d. at Broxbourne (5 m. s.e. of Hertford), Hertfordshire,. Feb. 9, 1815. At sixteen he went to the University of Glasgow, intending to study law, but, after finishing his course, spent three years in a careless wandering life. Smitten by repentance, he placed himself under the care of John Newton, the celebrated evangelical preacher in London, one of whose friends enabled him to spend four years at Cambridge. In 1796 he went to Calcutta as a chaplain in the East India Company's service. He found the conditions there very unfavorable for earnest work. All the Company was willing to do for sixty millions of souls was to place a chaplain here and there, who was told not to meddle with the native population. While Buchanan was waiting for a chance to do real work, he learned Hindustani and Persian. In 1800, being transferred to Calcutta itself, he found a like‑minded helper in Lord Mornington (later Marquis of Wellesley), the Governor‑general, who founded a college 'in Calcutta for the teaching of the Oriental languages and placed Buchanan in charge of it. It was c3oscd, however, three years later, and all looked as dark as ever. But after a while a new institute was founded, on a smaller scale, and Buchanan took hope once more. In 1805 he published his Expediency o f an Ecclesiastical Establishment for India, in which he developed the first plan for the establishment of regular dioceses and bishops. While waiting for his seed to bear fruit, he translated the New Testament into Hindustani and Persian, and founded an institute for such work. In 1806 he made an extended journey along the Malabar coast, partly for his health and partly in the missionary interest, publishing his observations in Christian Researches in Asia (Cambridge, 1811, new ed., London, 1840). He returned to Calcutta in 1807, full of plane for which the time was once more unfavorable. Lord Wellesley had been recalled, and his successor, Lord Minto, looked coldly on such projects, as did the Company in general. To push his views in England was the most necessary thing, and Buchanan returned thither in 1808 to press upon the ministry the setting up of a theological seminary in each presidency, the granting of licenses to missionaries, and the appointment of bishops. Lord Liverpool approved this plan, but the House of Commons agreed to the appointment of only one bishop. Middleton, the first bishop of Calcutta, was con‑

289	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bryce
		Buehwsld
secreted in 1816, and when his successor was
provided with suffragans for Madras and Bombay,
Buchanan's plan had been realized in its essentials,
though he did not live to see it.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Pearson, Memoirs of the Life and Wri
	tings of . . Claudius Buchanan, 2 vole., London, 1819;
	R. Vormbaum, H. Martyn, D. Brown urul C. Buchanan,
	Elberfeld, 1865; DNB, vii. 182‑184.
	BUCHANAN, GEORGE: Scotch scholar; b. in
the parish of Killearn (44 m. w.n.w. of Edinburgh),
Stirlingshire, early in Feb., 1506; d. in Edinburgh
Sept. 28, 1582. He studied in Paris, 1520‑22,
at St. Andrews, 1525, and again in Paris, where
be became teacher in the College of Ste. Barbe,
1538;	returned to Scotland 1535. He inclined
toward Protestant views and wrote two satires on
the monks, the Strmnium and the Franciscanus et
fratres, for which he was obliged to leave his country
in 1539. He taught at Paris, Bordeaux, and Coim
bra, and was active in the production of literary
works; to this period belong his translations into
Latin of the Medea and of the Alcestis and his Latin
tragedies, Jephthes and Baptistes (translated into
English verse by A. Gibb, Edinburgh, 1870; and
by A. Gordon Mitchell, Paisley, 1903‑04); he
began his translation of the Psalms into‑ Latin
(published at Paris, 1566) while confined in a
monastery by the Inquisition at Coimbra. In
1562 he was acting as tutor to Mary Stuart in
Scotland; he now openly embraced Protestantism
and became influential in both Church and State;
was an ardent supporter of Moray (who made him
principal of St. Leonard's College, St. Andrews, in
1566), and an active opponent of the queen. In
1:170 he became tutor to the young James VI. and
keeper of the privy seal; his royal pupil he under
took to make " the greatest scholar in the land."
During the last period of his life he wrote his two
greatest works, the De jure regni spud Scotos
(Edinburgh, 1579; Eng. transl., 1680), a defense
of limited monarchy, suppressed by act of parlia
ment in 1584 and again in 1664 and burned at
Oxford in 1683; and the Rerum Scoticarum historia
(1582; 19th ed., 1762; Eng. transl., 1690). His
works have been edited by Ruddiman (2 vols.,
Edinburgh, 1715; reprinted by Barman, Leyden,
1725).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Leyden ed. of the Works contains a
	full bibliography. The Life, by David Irving, Edin
	burgh, 1817, is an excellent literary history of the times.
	Consult also: P. H. Brown, George Buchanan, Humanist
	and Reformer, Edinburgh, 1890; idem, George Buchanan
	and his Times, ib. 1906; D. Macmillan, George Buchanan,
	a Biography, London, 1906; D. A. Miller, George Bu
	chanan, a Memorial, 1508‑1906, London, 1907; DNB,
	vii. 186‑193.
	BUCHANITES: The followers of Elspat (or
Elspeth) Simpson, wife of Robert Buchan, a
journeyman potter at Greenock, Scotland. She
was born at Fatmacken, between Banff and Port
soy, 1738 was brought up in the Scottish Episco
pal Church; while a servant at Greenock she mar
ried and followed her husband into the Burgher
Succession Church. In 1781 she separated from
him and removed with her children to Glasgow.
In 1783 she joined the Dowhill Relief church at
Irvine, whose pastor was the Rev. Hugh White.
		IL‑19
She had already adopted fantastic views as to religion and claimed to be a teacher sent from heaven. She got a hearing, her chief converts being Mr. White, who proclaimed that she was the woman spoken of in Rev. iii. 1 sqq. and that he was the man‑child she had brought forth. The Relief presbytery deposed Mr. White from the ministry, and when converts to Mrs. Buchan's pretensions began to gather, the parish authorities in Slay, 1784, compelled the whole band to leave. They settled on a farm at New Cample, near Closeburn, Dumfriesshire, and there the sect grew to about fifty members, some of whom were superior persons. Mrs. Buchan was called " spiritual mother " by her followers, and professed to be able to impart the Holy Spirit by breathing on the candidate; also to be a prophetess, and as such foretold that neither she nor her followers would ever die but would meet the Lord in the air in the advent which she taught was at hand, basing her teaching on I Thess. iv. 17. The usual charge of sexual immorality was brought against the sect, the most distinguished witness being the poet Robert Burns, who is said to have had a lady‑love in the sect (see his letter to John Burness, dated August, 1784). His song " As I was a walking " was set to an air which was a favorite with the Buchanites. In May, 1791, Mrs. Buchan. died. This, being in direct contradiction to her teaching, had a disastrous effect on her sect which then began to disintegrate, but the last adherent of it did not pass away till 1848.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Joseph Train, The Buchanitea from First to Last, Edinburgh, 1846; Eight Letters between the People called Buehanitea and a Teacher (J. Purvea); Throe of which are written. by Mr. White, and one by Mrs. Duchan, together with two Letters from Mrs. Buchan and one from Mr. White to a Clergyman in England, ib. 1785.
BUCHEL, ANNA VON. See RONSDOxir' SECT.

BUCHWALD, buH'vdld, GEORG APOLLO: German Protestant; b. at Grossenhain (19 m. n.n.w. of Dresden) July 16, 1859. He was educated at the University of Leipsic (Ph.D., 1882), and was successively a teacher in the real‑school of 'ifittweida (I882‑83) and the royal gymnasium of Zwickau (1883‑85), after which he was diaconus at Zwickau (1885‑9'?) and Leipsic (1892‑96). Since 1896 he has been pastor of the Michaeliskirche, Lcipsic. In addition to numerous minor contributions to theological periodicals and to collaborating on the Weimar and Erlangen editions of the works of Luther, he has written Luther and die Juden (Leipsie, 1881); Wachklang der EPistoke obscurorum trirorum (Dresden, 1882); Logosbegriff ties Johannes Scotus Erigena (Leipsie,1884); Luthzri Schoke in librum Jx:dicum (1884); Ungedruckte Predigten D. Martin Lathers 150 auf der Coburg gehalten (Zwickau, 1884); Sechs Predigten Johannes Bugenhagens (Halle, 1885); Andreas Poaehs handschriftliche Sammlung ungedruclcter Predigten D. Martin Lathers aus den Jahren 1528‑46 (2 vols.,
Leipsie, 188‑1‑85); Allerlei aus drei Jahrhicnderten (Zwickau, 1887),; Eine saehsisehe Pilgerfahrt each Palastina, vor freer hundert Jahren (Barmen, 1889); Elf ungedruckte Predigteat Lathers gehalten in der Trinitatiszeit, 1539 (Werdau, 1888); Lathers letzte

Buck	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	290
Bnddear
Streitachrift (Leipeic, 1893); Zur Wittenberger
Stadt‑and Univeraitatsgeschichte finder Reforniations
zeih (1893); Entstehung der Katechiamen Lathers
and the Grundlage des grosser Katechismus (1894);
Wittenberger Ordinierten‑Buch (2 vole., 1894); Se
lige Pilgerachajt (1896; extracts from the writings
of Luther); Philipp Melanchthon (1897); Lathers
grosser Katechismus (1897); Paul. Eber (1897);
Geschichie der evangelischen Gemeinde zu Kitzingen
(1898); Lathers deutsche Briefs ausgeudhlt and
erliiutert (1899); Reformationsgeachichte der Stadt
Leipzig (1900); Konrad Stiirtzel von Buehheim
(1900); Die evangelische Kirche im Jahrhundert
der Reformation (1900); Dr. Martin Luther (1901);
So sprieht Dr. Martin Luther (Berlin, 1903; selec
tions from the writings of Luther); Deutachlands
Kirchengeachichte fur das evangelische Haua (Biele
feld, 1904); Lutherlesebuch (Hamburg. 1905);
and Ungedruckte Predigten aua den Jahrer: .16Y7
16ly0 (Leipsic, 1905).
	BUCK, CHARLES.: English Independent; b.
at Hillsley (15 m. n.e. of Bristol), Gloucestershire,
1771; d. in London Aug. 11, 1815. Ile held pas
torates at Sheerness and London. He is mentioned
for his Theological Dictionary, containing definitions
of all religious terms; a comprehensive view of
every article in the system o f divinity; an impartial
account of all the principal denominations which
have subsisted in the religious world from the birth
o f Christ to the present day; together with an accurate
statement of the most remarkable transactions and
events recorded in ecclesiastical history (2 vola.,
London, 1802; many subsequent editions and
reprints). He also published Anecdotes, Religious,
Moral, and Entertaining (1799), which proved a
highly popular work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Buck's Memoirs and Remains were edited
	by J. Styles, London, 1817.
	BUCgLAND, AUGUSTUS ROBERT: Secretary
of the Religious Tract Society; b. at Newport
(20 m. n.w. of Bristol), Monmouthshire, Apr. 18,
1857. He was educated at Pembroke College,
Oxford (B.A., 1881), and was ordained to the
priesthood of the Church of England in 1881. He
was curate of Spitalfields, London, in 1880‑84. In
1,887 he became editor of the Record and has since
engaged largely in journalistic work. He has also
been morning preacher in the Foundling Hospital,
London, since 1890, and was chosen secretary of
the Religious Tract Society in 1902. He has
written: Strayed East (London, 1889); The Patience
of Two (1894); The Heroic in Missions (1894);
John Hoyden, Missionary Bishop (1894); Women
in the Mission Field (i895); The Confessional in
the English Church (1900); and The Missionary
Speaker's Manual (1901; in‑ collaboration with
J. T). Mulling). In addition, he has edited many
works for the Religious Tract Society, notably its
Devotional Commentary.
	BUCKLEY, JAMES MONROE: Methodist Epie
oopalian; b. at Rahway, N. J., Dec. 16, 1836. He
was educated at Wesleyan University, Middletown,
Cons., but did not graduate, and he also studied
theology at Exeter, N. H. He held various pas
torates in New Hampshire (1859‑‑63), Central
Church, Detroit (1863‑66), Brooklyn, N. Y. (I8861869, 1872‑75, and 1878‑80), and Stamford, Conn. (1869‑72 and 1875‑78). Since 1880 he has been editor of the New York Christian Advocate. His general theological position is that of his denomination, although he reserves all rights to individual judgment concerning non‑essentials. He has written: Appeals to Men of Sense and Reflection to begin a Christian Life (New York, 1869); Christians and the Theatre (1875); Supposed Miracles (Boston, 1875); Oats or Wild Oats f (New York, 1885); The Midnight Sun, the Czar and the Nihilist (Boston, 1887); Faith Healing, Christian Science, and Kindred Phenomena (New York, 1892); Travels in Three Continents (1895);, History of Methodism in the United States (1897); Extemporaneous Oratory for Professional and Amateur Speakers (1899); and The Fundamentals of Religion and their Contrasts (1906).
BUCKMINSTER, JOSEPH STEVENS: New England clergyman; b. at Portsmouth, N. H., May 26, 1784; d. in Boston June 9, 1812. He was graduated at Harvard, 1800; studied theology while teacher at (Phillips) Exeter Academy and private tutor at Waltham; was called to the Brattle Street Church, Boston, 1804; appointed lecturer on Biblical criticism at Harvard, 1811. In theology he was liberal, a forerunner of the Unitarian movement; he belonged to the " Anthology Club," was a frequent contributor to the Monthly Anthology, and one of the founders of the literary reputation of Boston. He superintended the publication of the American edition of Grieabach'a Greek Testament (1808); two volumes of sermons, with memoir by Rev. S. C. Thacher, were published after his death (Boston, 1814; 1829), and his Works appeared in two volumes in 1839.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His Memoir (together with that of his father, Rev. Joseph Buokminatsr of Portsmouth, N. H.; b. 1751; d. 1812) was published by his sister, Eliza B. Lee, Boston, 1861.
BUDDE, biid'de, KARL FERDINAND REINHARD : German Protestant; b. at Benaberg (9 m. e. of Cologne) Apr. 13, 1850. He was educated at the universities of Bonn, Berlin, and Utrecht from 1868 to 1873, although his studies were interrupted in 1870‑71, when he served in the Franco‑Prussian War. He became privatdocent for the Old Testament at Bonn in 1873, and was also teacher at the Schulbring'sche hbhere TSchterschule in 1873‑89 and inspector of the theological seminary of the university in 1878‑85. In 1879 he became associate professor of Old Testament theology at the same university, and in 1889 was called to Strasburg in a like capacity, shortly thereafter being promoted to full professor. Since 1900 he has been professor of Old Testament theology at Marburg. Chosen rector of the University of Marburg for 1910‑11. He has written: Beitrdige zur Kritik des Buchea Hiob (Bonn, 1876); Die biblische Urgeachichte unteraucht (Giessen, 1883); Die Bucher der Richter and Samuel, ihr Aufbau and ihre Quellen (1890); The Books of Samuel, Critical Edition of the Hebrew Text (in the Polychrome Bible, Leipsie, 1894); Daa Buck Hiob (in the Handcommentar rum Alter Testament, Giittingen, 1896); Due Buch

891	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Back
		Buddeas
der Richter (in the Kurzer Handeommentar zum
Alters Testament, Freiburg, , 1897); Hohelied and
Klagelieder (in the same series, 1898); The Religion
of Israel to the Exile (The American Lectures on
the History of Religions for 1898‑99, New York,
1899); Die sogenanrcten Jahvelieder and die Bedeut
ung den Knechtes Jahvea in Jesaija I,0‑66, sin
Minoritatsvotum (Giessen, 1900); Der Kanan des
Alters Testaments (1900); Die Biieher Samuel (m
Kurzer Handcommenlar zum Alters Testament,
Freiburg, 1902); Das Alte Testament and die i
Ausgraburgen (Giessen, 1903); Die Schdtzung des
Konigtums im Alters Testament (Marburg, 1903);
Was soll die Gemeinde nus dem Streit um Babel and
Bibel lernen f (Tiibingen, 1903); and Hebrdische
Litteraturgeschichte (Leipaic, 1906). He also trans
lated A. Kuenen's National Religions and Universal
Religions (Hibbert Lectures for 1882, London,
1882) under the title Yolkareligion and Weltreligion
(Berlin, 1883), and a number of the same scholar's
monographs as Geaammelte Abhsndlungen cur bibh
achen Wis8en8chaft (Freiburg, 1894). He has likewise
edited the eighth and ninth editions of J. Hollen
berg's Hebrdiachea Schulbuch (Berlin, 1895, 1900)
and Edward Reuss' Briefwechael mit aeinem Schislet
and Freunde Karl Heinrich Graf (in collaboration
with H. J. Holtzmamm, Giessen, 1904).
	BUDDERSIEG, lifid"den‑sig, OSKAR GOTTLIEB
RUDOLF : German Lutheran; b. at Greusaen
(25 m. n.w. of Weimar) Sept. 5, 1844. He was
educated at the universities of Leipaic and Berlin
(1864‑&7; Ph.D., Berlin, 1871), and studied in Lon
don in 1867‑73. Returning to his native country,
he was a teacher successively at the Andreanum in
Hildesheim (1873‑74) and at the Vitzthum gym
nasium in Dresden (1874‑87), declining a call to a
professorship in the University of Vienna in 1886.
From 1887 to 1894 he was director of a normal
school for young men in Dresden, and thereafter
held a similar position in a normal school for young
women there. In 1883 he founded the Wyclif So
ciety in London. He wrote: Die asayrischen Auagra
bungen and das Alte Testament (Heilbronn, 1880);
Johann Wiclifs lateiniache Streitschriften zum craters
Male aus den Handachrv.; jten herausgegeben (2 vole.,
Leipsic, 1$83; Eng. ed., under the title John Wio
Zif's Polemical Works, 2 vole., London, 1884‑85);
Johann Wiclif and seine Zett (Halls, 1884); John
Wielif, Patriot and Reformer (London, 1894); and
Johann Widifs De veritate aacrte scriptures (3 vole.,
Leipsic, 1904; Eng. ed., 3 vole., London, 1905‑07).
Died at Dresden Oct. 13, 1908.
	BUDDEUS, biid"d6'Os, JOHANNES FRARCIS
CQS (Johann Franz Budde): German theologian
and philosopher; b. at Anclam (47 m. n.w, of
Stettin), Pomerania, where his father was pastor,
June 25, 1667; d. at Goths Nov. 19, 1729. He
early received a thorough education in classical
end Oriental languages, and had read the Bible
through in the original before he went to the Uni
versity of Wittenberg in 1685. He was appointed
adjunct professor of philosophy there soon after
taking his master's degree in 1687, sad in 1689
exchanged this for a similar position at Jena, where
he also paid much attention to the study of history.
In 1892 he went to Coburg as professor of Greek and Latin, and the next year to the new University of Halls as professor of moral philosophy. Here he remained until 1705, when he went to Jena as second professor of theology. His lectures embraced all branches of this science, sad frequently touched on philosophy, history, and politics. Respected by all as a man and a Christian, he remained at Jena for the rest of his life, several times acting as rector of the university temporarily and being head of his department and an ecclesiastical councilor from 1715. He was considered the most universally accomplished German theologian of his time. In philosophy he professed an eclecticism which rested on a broad historical foundation; but he recognized in Descartes the originator of a new period, and in attacking the " atheist " Spinoza followed especially the upholders of the law of nature, such as Hugo Grotius, Puffendorf, and Thomasius. His theological position was determined by the tradition of Musxus at Jena, partly through his close relations with Baser; but on another side he was inclined toward Pietism. His association with Spangenberg, Spener, and Zinzendorf brought him under suspicion and actually gave rise to a formal investigation of hid doctrineIn certain ways, too, he was influenced by the federalist theology, but without allowing it to lead him beyond the bounds of Lutheran orthodoxy. In all departments he showed himself a man of sound learning and scholarly instincts. His work was epoch‑making in church history, especially that dealing with the Old Testament and the apostolic age. Taken as a whole, the life of Buddeus belongs to the transition period which follows that of simple orthodoxy; the influence of anew age and new leading interests appears in him, and at times he seems to be conscious of the change. Yet in his Biblical criticism he did not get so far as to make the slightest concession; not a verse of a canonical book can be touched without injuring the perfection of the whole. As as academic teacher he attained great success, and he had the gift of a striking and pregnant style, especially in Latin. His works, great and small, number over a hundred. Of those published in the Halls period may be mentioned Elements philosophise prsuxicse (1697) and Elements philosolOhica eclecticce (1703). To the second Jena period belong among others the Institutimiea theologise moralis (1711; German transl., 1719), a work strictly in accordance with his philosophical ethics; the Hiatoria ecclesiastics veteria testaments (1715‑18); Theses theologicce de atheiamo et superaCitio7Ze (1716), which, directed especially against Spinoza, attracted
much attention; Institutional theologice dogmatic, (1723), a work once very influential, obviously founded on Baler's Compendium; Hiatorische und theologiache Einleitung in die vornehmaten Religions. atreitigkaiten (1724, 1728), edited by Walch; Isagoge h'iatorico‑theologica ad theologiam univerasm (1727),
dealing with the problems methods, and history of theology in a way remarkable for that time; and
Ecdesia apoatolica (1729), intended as an introduction to the study of the New Testament.
(JOHANNES KuNZEJ

Buddhism	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	292
BIHLIO6AAPAY: Buddeus himself issued a Nntitia dieaertationum . . . acriytarumque a J. F. Buddeo . . editorum, Jens, 1728 (a list of his writings); and the Ehrengeddlchtniea den . . . J. F. Buddeua, ib. 1731, also contains a catalogue of his productions. Consult: w. Schrader, Geachichte der Friedrichauniveraitfit zu Halle, i. 80, Berlin, '1894; W. Gass, Geachichte der proteatantischen Dogmatik, iii. 30, 149 sqq., 214 sqq., Berlin, 1862; G. Frank, Geachichte der proteafantiachen TlaeologiR, ii. 148, 214 sqq., Leipaie, 1865; C. E. Luthardt, Gerehichte der chriatlichen Ethik, ii. 203 aqq., ib. 1893.
BUDDHISM.
Life of Buddha (§ I).	Buddhist 1lfonks (§ 5).
Legendary Additions	Development after Buddha's
	(§ 2).		Death (§ 6).
Buddha's Teaching (§ 3).	Buddhist Sects (§ 7).
Nirvana (§ 4).	The Dhyani Buddhas (§ 8).
Buddhism and Christianity (§ 9).
Buddhism is the religion established in India by Buddha in the sixth, century s.c., and having, socording to a conservative estimate, upward of 100,000,000 adherents at the present time, chiefly in Ceylon, Nepal, Tibet, Farther India, China, and Japan. While frequently regarded as a new religion, it is, strictly speaking, only a reformation of Brahmanism, and can not be understood without some knowledge of the conditions preceding it. The religious system of India as outlined in its oldest religious books, the Vedas, had reached in the Brahmanas and Sutras a degree of ritualism such as, perhaps, never existed elsewhere (see BRAHMANIBM). This formalism produced a revolt, and from time to time arose various teachers, philosophers, and reformers, of whom the most influential was Siddhartha, also known as Sakya, Sakyamuni, Gautama, and, most frequently, as Buddha.
Buddha, the son of Suddhodana, king of Kapilavastu, a city in the district of Gorakhpur, Oudh, was born in 557 s.c, in the grove of Llunbini, two miles from the capital. He was, therefore, like Mahavira, the founder of the rival system of Jainism (q.v.), a member of the Kshatriya or warrior caste. The details of the life of the Buddha, or " The Enlightened One," so far as they may be verified historically, are comparatively few. He lost his mother, whom the later texts name Maya, at a very early age, and he married while still young, according to Hindu custom, and had a son called Rahula. At the age of twenty‑nine (528 a.c.), he renounced his succession to the throne and became a hermit. Herein there is nothing extraordinary, for Brahmanism divided life into the four stages of student, householder, hermit, and ascetic. Two of these the prince had already performed; two more yet remained for him, and he went forth
:. Life of to win knowledge of the truth by Buddha. penance and meditation. From the first he gained nothing, nor could his teachers help him, while his five companions abandoned him as unfitted to receive a knowledge of the truth. In his wanderings he came to Uruvela, the modern Buddha Gaya in Bengal. There, in 521 Ex., after seven years of struggle, he received illumination while sitting in meditation beneath the sacred bo‑tree (Ficus religiosd or pipul‑tree). Thus the Bodhisattva, or potential Buddha, became a true Buddha or Tathagata, " the Perfected One:' He now entered upon the fourth and the
last stage of life, and became a wandering ascetic and teacher. His earliest followers were the five monks who had turned from him before, and as other converts were made they were sent as apostles of the doctrine. Favor was his in high places also, for Bimbisara, king of 11lagadha, became an adherent of the faith. Over all ranks and classes Buddha exercised a powerful influence, due, it is very possible, rather to his personal charm of manner than to any essential novelty of the doctrine which he taught. It was undoubtedly in great part the result of his disregard of the fundamental Hindu principle of caste that he won for himself so large a following. Peaceably and calmly the life of Buddha passed, with little opposition, save from his cousin Devadatta, who attempted, from motives of personal ambition, to rouse hostility against his kinsman. At the age of eighty the Buddha felt that his end was drawing near, and for the first time in his life severe illness befell him. At the village of Kusinara, about thirty miles west of Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal, the master passed away (477 s.c.).
About the life here outlined the mythopeic tendencies of the Oriental mind wove a web of legend. In course of time Buddha no longer stands alone. He is the successor of twenty‑seven Buddhas and himself received recognition from twenty‑four of them, passing through a hundred thousand world cycles and countless reincarnations before he reached the perfection which was requisite for his high mission. When in him all perfection and all knowledge was united, the gods besought him to be born on earth, and in answer to
z. Legend‑ their prayer he entered the womb of MY Maya in the form of a white elephant,
	Additions.	while thirty‑two signs of wonder ap
		peared and the ten thousand worlds
trembled at the coming of the savior of the world.
At the end of ten months, the Buddha was born
beneath a sal‑tree in the grove of Lumbini, while
gods and men did homage unto him. On tile
fifth day of his life the Brahman Kondanna
prophesied to Suddhodana the king that the
child was destined to become a Buddha when he
should see four signs of evil omen, an old man, a
sick man, a corpse, and a monk. By every means
within his power the father sought to keep his
son from seeing these sights, surrounding him
with every luxury, and marrying him in his six
teenth year to his cousin Yasor‑'hara, the daughter
of Suprabuddha. It was all in vain, however, for
Siddhartha beheld the four signs, realized the
misery of life, and abandoned the palace. On the
expiration of his seven years of wandering, he
realized that he was at last to gain Buddhahood,
and amid many marvels he sat down beneath the
bo‑tree facing the East. Fruitlessly did Mara,
the leader of the host of evil, endeavor to terrify
the Bodhisattva. The blandishments of his daugh
ters, Desire, Pining, and Lust, and his more subtle
temptation that the Buddha should at once enter
Nirvana without proclaiming his saving knowl
edge to mankind, failed ignominiously. From
the time of his illumination until his death few
myths gather about the Buddha, but when he was

298	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Buddhism
about to die there were marvels, and the course of nature was again disturbed, until the Tathagata passed to Nirvana.
The key‑note of Buddhism is the 'transitorinesa and vanity of life, which is conditioned by karma, the fruit of deeds done in countless previous lives; nor can existence be ended before the expiration of many reincarnations devoted to works of holiness and spent in unceasing efforts to gain Nirvana. Three
elements common to all post‑Vedic 3. Buddha's Hindu thought are at once discernible
	Teaching,	in this teaching; viz., transmigration,
		karma, and the dissolution of individ
uality. In its shortest form Buddha's teaching
may be summarized as follows: Birth is sorrow,
age is sorrow, sickness is sorrow, death is sorrow,
clinging to earthly things is sorrow. Birth and
rebirth, the chain of reincarnation, result from
the thirst for life together with passion and desire.
The only escape from this thirst is to follow the
Eightfold Path: Right belief, right resolve, right
word, right act, right life, right effort, right think
ing, right meditation.
The goal of Buddhism is Nirvana. A definition of this term is almost impossible for the simple reason that Buddha himself gave no clear idea, and in all probability possessed none, of this state.
He was indeed asked by more than 4. Nirvana. one of his disciples whether Nirvana
was poatmundane or poatceleatial existence, or whether it was annihilation. To all these questions, however, he refused an answer, for it was characteristic of his teachings that they were practically confined to the present life, and concerned themselves but little either with problems of merely academic philosophy or with the unknowable. Some measure of light, however, may be gained from the orthodox systems of Indian philosophy which are based upon the doctrine of the divine inspiration of the Veda. According to all of these, the sumrnum. bonum is release from karma and reincarnation, a goal which is to be attained by knowledge, and which consists in absorption into or reunion with the Over‑Soul. This involves the annihilation of individuality, and in this sense Nirvana is nihilism, so that with the tacit ignoring of any real conception of the divine in the teachings of Buddha, Nirvana seems to imply the annihilation of the soul rather than its absorption. It is noteworthy, furthermore, that the word Nirvana etymologically denotes " a blowing out," the extinguishing of the fires of hatred, infatuation, and all passions. Nirvana seems to have been twofold, a secondary condition which may be reached by the righteous in this life, and the blessed state of freedom from rebirth.
Surpassing the teachers who had preceded him, Buddha denied both the authority of the Vedas, whose recognition, however formal, constitutes orthodoxy in India, and the power of sacrifice, while he practically ignored the existence of the divine. He rejected the entire system of caste, thus unconsciously preparing his doctrines to be potentially a world‑religion instead of an ethnic faith. In the later Buddhist theology an elaborate cosmology is developed, with thirty‑one
worlds inhabited by fourteen classes of beings, of which the three highest are the supreme Buddhas, Pratyekabuddhas, and Arhats, the latter being those who are almost ready to attain Nirvana, while the Pratyekabuddha has attained the knowledge necessary to Nirvana but does not preach it. In addition to these must be noted the Bodhisattva, a potential Buddha who will attain to Buddhahood in due time.
	Even in	his lifetime Buddha established an
order, thus forming the " triple jewel," Buddha,
Dhamma (the law), and Sangha (the congregation).
In this order were gathered the followers of the
teacher, who were bound by the ten vows: neither
to kill nor to steal, to abstain from impurity, false
hood, and intoxicating drinks, not to eat at for
bidden times, to abstain from the folly of dancing,
		singing, music, ‑nd the theater, to use
g. Buddhist no manner of adornment, not to sleep
	Monks.	in a high or a broad bed, and to receive
		neither gold nor silver. The monks,
who were bound to celibacy and poverty, and were
called, in old Hindu fashion, bhikkus, or beggars,
might be received as novices at the age of seven or
eight, although they could not be ordained before
their twentieth year. Twice a month the monks
of each monastery assembled for the confession of
sins, and annually in the rainy season a retreat was
held both for rest from the pilgrimages of the pre
ceding year and to gain new strength for the coming
season. Even in the lifetime of Buddha women
were admitted to the order and nunneries were
built for their accommodation.
The history of Buddhism is a curious bit of irony; the founder who had ignored the existence of a god himself became a god. In Southern India, r`)wever, the religion remained relatively pure, although some heretical doctrines crept in at an early period and a number of councils were held to maintain the faith in its integrity. The first of these took place at Rajagaha in the year of
6. Develop‑ Buddha's death, the second at Vaisali meat after about a century late% the third, a Buddha's sectarian meeting, at Pataliputra
	Death.	about 246 B.C., and the fourth at Jal
		andhara under the Indo‑Scythian king
Kaniahka in 78 A.D. The religion gained royal
approval at an early date, its great kingly adherent
being Aeoka, who was crowned at Pataliputra in
Madagha about 259 B.C. and reigned thirty‑seven
years. Not only did he spread the faith through
out his dominions, but his son Mahendra carried
the new creed to Ceylon. In the second century
s.c. the Indo‑Scythian kings of Cabul and Bactria
established Buddhism in their lands, whence it
was promulgated in Northwestern India. Thus
the faith spread by degrees over all the country
north of the Vindhyas, existing side by aide with
Brahmanism and Jainism in harmony and peace.
Its downfall in the land of its birth was due to two
causes, the conflict of the sects which arose within
itself and the Mohammedan invasion of India,
but there was no persecution by the other Hindu
sects. In Ceylon, on the other hand, Buddhism
still exists, especially in the southern part of the
island, and it is there that the purest Buddhism
is found.

Buddhism Knell
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	294
It was but natural that divergent opinions should arise within the faith itself. These remained comparatively unimportant, however, until the schism into the Mahayana and Hinayana, or the " Great Vehicle " and " Little Vehicle." The latter still adhered strictly in the main to the original tenets of Buddhism, although it was subdivided into the Vaibhashikas and the Sautrantikas,
Buddhist	the former laying special stress on the
	Sects.	" Abhidhammapitaka " or metaphys
		ical section of the sacred booms of the
religion, and the latter on the " Suttapitaka " or
discourses of the Buddha. The Mahayaniata, on
the contrary, who form by far the larger sect, devo
ted themselves to all manner of speculation, being
influenced not only by Hinduism but at a later
period by Shamanism (q.v.) as well. The Mahayana
postulates the existence of a thousand Buddhas
with a supreme god, the Adibuddha, and prefers
beneficent activity to the passivity of the Buddha's
own doctrines, although both the principal sub
divisions of this sect, the Yogacaras and the Mad
hyaxnikas, are strictly idealistic, and in so far are
orthodox Hindus.
Buddhism was introduced into Tibet about the seventh century A.D., when it was already permeated by Saivaite and Tantric Hinduism and by Mahayanism, while under the influence of Mongolian Shamanism it departed still more from its original ideal. Here is evolved the concept of the DhyaniBuddhas, the celestial types of the
8. The Buddhas which appear on earth as
Dhyani‑	men (Manushi‑Buddhas). These Dha‑
	Buddhas.	yani‑Buddhas, who are five in number,
		watch over the welfare of the world
between the incarnations of the Manushi‑Buddhas,
although they themselves never become incarnate.
Three of them correspond to the three Buddhas
who preceded Gautama in the present age of the
world; one, Amitabha, to the historical Buddha,
whose earthly reincarnation is the lesser Lama
of Tibet; and the fifth is the Dhyani‑Bodhisatva
Padmapani or Avalokitesvara, who is represented
on earth by the Dalai‑Lama at Lhassa, and is the
type of the Bodhisatva Maitreya, the future earthly
Buddha and the savior of the world. See LAMAISM.
Buddhism was introduced into China in its Mahayaniatic form by the emperor Mingti in 61 A.D., and despite persecutions, especially under the Tang dynasty (620‑907), it has survived there until the present day, although overlaid with superstition and consisting in great part in the worship of pictures and relics. It has gained, however, only a subordinate place in China, being unable to compete either with the popular Taoism or the cultured Confucianism, despite the fact that the three religions exist peaceably side by aide. From China Buddhism was carried to Japan, where numerous sects have arisen, although the results have been little more than a further departure. from the original faith (see CHINA, L, 3; JAPAN, L, IL, 2).
Some scholars would like to derive the gospel narrative from Buddhism, but it is a significant fact that an overwhelming majority of Oriental scholars have decided that the story of Buddha has had no influence on the canonical life of
Christ. They reach this conclusion by a com
parison of elements of the Buddha legend com
posed long	after the death of the teacher with
the Gospels. The Buddhist parallels are drawn,
moreover, in the main, from the texts of the
Northern school, which are confessedly late and
mythopeic to a degree which almost totally ob
scures the	figure of the historic Buddha, while
	some of the so‑called cogent Christian
	g. Bud‑	parallels are based upon the apocry
dhiam and phal Gospels. Considering the canon
Christianity. ical Gospels on the one hand and the
		texts of the Southern Buddhism on
the other, the parallels between the lives of Jesus
and Buddha seem to resolve themselves into those
which are natural in the case of great religious
teachers. Thus of five parallels mentioned by
Seydel, the ablest advocate of the theory of Bud
dhiatic influence on Christianity, the three most
important are the presentation of the infant Jesus
in the temple compared with that of the infant
Buddha; the fast of Jesus and that of Buddha;
and the preexistence of Jesus and of Buddha in
heaven. Of these the presentation of Buddha is
found neither in the writings of the Southern school
nor in the ancient text of the Northern, while at the
time of Jesus it was usual for a pious mother to
attend the temple for the redemption of the first
born and her own ritual purification. The account
of the fasting and temptation is not entirely har
monious in both accounts. Buddha first over
comes Mara and then fasts forty‑nine days, while
Jesus fasts forty days and is then tempted by the
devil. Not only is the account of the Gospels the
more accurate psychologically, but it may be paral
leled with similar events in the lives of Moses and
Elijah, while the story of the temptation is found
not only in Buddhism and Christianity, but also
in Zoroastrianism. The third parallel of the pre
existence of Jesus and Buddha is equally discrepant.
Jesus existed in heaven from all eternity and is
unique in such existence, while Buddha merely
shares the history of all other Buddhas and was
reincarnated on earth countless times. It must
be borne in mind that the spirit of the two religions
as of their founders is entirely divergent. The
tragedy and the majesty of the Christ is very differ
ent from the peacefulness and the sweetness of
Buddha. Jesus sought to save the world, not
himself. Buddha began by saving himself and then
taught the world. The aim of Jesus is faith and
individual existence in heaven in the presence of
God; the surrcmum bonum of Buddha is knowledge
and the annihilation of self in Nirvana. In the
face of such essential divergencies, the parallels
alleged to exist between Buddha and Jesus seem
to be cases of accidental coincidence, and it is
almost certain that, despite the travel between
Palestine and India, which may have influenced
to some degree the apocryphal Gospels on the one
hand and late Northern Buddhism on the other,
Christianity and Buddhism developed to all intents
and purposes independently. For esoteric Bud
dhism (so called), see THEOSOPHY.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The literature on Buddhism is enormous,
and it is possible to cite here only a few out of the many

298	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Buddhism
books on the subject, while reference may be made for more complete bibliographies to the works of Kern and Aiken mentioned below.
General works and Indian Buddhism: K. KBppen, Die Religion des Buddha, Berlin, 1857‑59; BarthAemy $sintHilaira, Ls Bouddha et ea Religion, Paris, 1860; R. Hardy, Manual of Buddhism in ifs Modern Development, London, 1860; E. Burnout Introduction a l'hiatoire au Bouddhiame Indian, Paris, 1878; H. Oldenberg, Buddha, assn Leben, seine Lehre, seine Gemsinde. Berlin, 1897, Eng. transl. by W. Hoey, London, 1882; E. 8enart, Eeaai our la legends du Bouddha, Paris, 1882; M. Williams, Buddhism in ifs Connection with Brahmanism and Hinduism and its Contract with Christianity, London, 1889; T. W. Rhys Davide, Buddhism, its History arid Literature, New York, 1896; idem, Buddhism, London, 1899; H. Kern, Geaehiedenta van hat Buddhism in India, Haarlem, 1884; idem, Manual of Indian Buddhism, Strasburg, 1898; E. Hardy, Der Buddhiamus each Ulkren Pall‑TVerluu, Tltlneter, 1890; idem, Buddha, Leipsic, 1903; R. Copleaton, Buddhism, Primitive and Present, in Mapadha and Ceylon, London, 1892; K. Neumann, Buddhialiacha Anfhologie, Berlin, 1892; idem, Die Reden des Gotama Buddhas, Leipsic, 1897; idem, Theragatha and Theripatha, Berlin, 1899; H. Warren, Buddhism in Translation, Cambridge, Mass., 1898; J. Dahlmann, Buddha, Berlin, 1898; and for special topics consult among other works: B. Hardy, Eastern Monachiam, London; 1880; A. Bastian, Der Buddhiamus is seiner Paycholopie, Berlin, 1882; idem, Der Buddhismus ale religions‑philosophiechas System, ib. 1893; J. Dahlmann, Nirvana, ib. 1898; W. St. C. Tiadsll, The Nobly Eight/old Path, London, 1903; A. Menzies, The Religions of India, Brahmanism and Buddhism, ib. 1904.
Exceedingly important for the legendary development of Buddhism is the Jataka: or Stories of the Buddha's Former Births, Pali text edited with its commentary by V. Fauab511, 8 vole., London, 1877‑97; translation by various hands edited by E. B. Cowell, vole. i.‑v., ib. 18951905. Consult also Port/olio of Buddhist Art, Historical and Modern, Chicago, 1908 (a collection of 31 plates).
Extra‑Indian Buddhism: H. Alabaster, The Wheel of the Law, London, 1871; P. Bigandet, The Lice or Legend of Gaudama, the Buddha of the Burmese, ib. 1880; E. Schlagintweit, Buddhism in Tibet, Leipsic, 1883; W. Rockhill, The Life of the Buddha, London, 1884; L. A. Waddell, The Buddhism of Tibet or Lamaism, ib. 1895 (contains bibliography, pp. 575‑583): A. GNawedel, Mythologic des Bvddhiamue in Tibet urad der Mongolei. Leipeia, 1900; J. Edkine, Chinese Buddhism, London, 1880; S. Beak Buddhism in China, ib. 1884; idem, Siyu‑ki, Buddhist Retards o/ the Western World, from the Chinese, ib. 1908; B. Nanjio, Twelve Japanese Buddhist Sects, Tokyo, 1887; R. Fujiehima, Le Bouddhieme Jayonafs, Parse, 1887.
Buddhism and Christianity: R. 8eydel, Dye Eroangelium von Jesus in seineu VerhltLtniaseu zu Buddha‑Sage and Buddha‑Lehre, Leipaic, 1882; idem, Die Buddha‑Zegende and day Leben Jeau, ib. ed. 1897; Rhys Davide, Buddhism and Christianity, London, 1888; R. Falke, Buddha, Mohammed and Chriatua, Giitersloh, 1900; C. Aiken, The Dhamma of Gotama the Buddha and the Gospel of Jesus the Christ, Boston, 1900; A. Bertholet, Buddhiamua and Chriateutum, TBbingen, 1902.
Reference may also be made to the general works on comparative religion and the religions of India, especially E. Hopkins, Religions of India, Boston, 1895, pp. 298347; Chantepie de la $suaeaye, Lehrbuch der Religions.. peachichte 3d ed Freiburg, 1905; C. von OreIG, Allpomeins Rel. PP, 448‑493, Bonn, 1898, and the bibliographies there given.
BUDE, WIWI, GUILLAUME: French humanist; b. at Paris 1467; d. there Aug. 23, 1540. He studied law at Or15sne, and, after leading a dissipated life for several years, began to apply himself to Greek, philosophy, theology, and science. Well received at curt, he was repeatedly entrusted with diplomatic missions to Rome. On Aug. 21, 1522, Francis I. appointed him librarian of the royal library at Fontainebleau and royal councilor, and it was owing to Budd's initiative that the king
enlarged the Royal Library of Paris and also the Royal College, which afterward became the Collrige de France. Long before Luther, Buds had felt the necessity of reforms in the Church, but, like many scholars and bishops of his day, he feared a rupture with Rome. Among his numerous works, special mention may be made of the following: De Asse et partibus ejua (Paris, 1514); De Studio bortarunt litterarum recta et commode inatituendo (1527); Commentarii Zinguee gra'eTe (1529); De trartsitu Hellenismi ad Christianismum (1535); Forenaia quibus vulgares et vere latince jurisconsultorum loquendi formuhe dantur (1548); and Lexicon grtecolatirtum (Geneva, 1554 etc.). G. BONET‑MAU$Y.
BIBLTOa6APHT: The beet account of his life la by E. de Buds, Vie de Guillaume Budd, Paris, 1884. Consult also E. and It. Haag, La France Protestans, ed. H. L. Bordier, ib. 1877‑88; Rebittk, G. Buds, eaeai hiatorique, Parse, 1848; A. Moquet, Los Seipnaurs de Marty. Paris, 1882.
BUDER, bolder, PAUL VON: German Protestant; b. at Leutkirch (40 m. e. of Ulm) Feb. 15, 1836. He was educated at the University of Tiibingen (Ph.D., 1858), and, after being lecturer at the theological seminary attached to that institution from 1861 to 1885, was successively deacon and inspector of schools at Backnaag from 1865 to 1868 and second court‑preacher, as well as assistant in the consietory and a member of the theological examining board, in Stuttgart from 1868 to 1872. In the latter year he became associate professor of dogmatics and New Testament exegesis and supervisor of the theological seminary of the University of Titbingen, where he was full professor from 1877. Retired from active duties, 1910. He has written Ueber die apologetische Aufgttbe der Theologie der GegentvarL (Tilbingen, 1876).
BUECHAER, bila'ner, GOTTFRIED, get'frfd. German Lutheran theologian; b. at Riideradorf (the district of Saxe‑Altenburg) 1701; d. at Querfurt (18 m. w. of Merseburg) 1780. He studied at Jena, and lectured there from 1725 until he was called as rector to Querfurt. where he died. He is best known as the author of Biblische Real‑ and Verbal‑Hand‑Concordant; (Jena, 1740; 23d ed., Berlin, 1899; ed. H. L. Heubner, Philadelphia, 1871). A list of Bilchner's other theological works is given in Jtfcher and Adelungs Allgemeines Gelehrten‑Lexikon, s.v.
BUECHSEL, bija'sel, KARL: German Lutheran theologian: b. at Schtjnfeld (a suburb of Prenzlau, 71 m. n.n.e. of Potsdam) May 2.1803; d. at Berlin Aug. 14, 1889. After completing his studies, he became minister in his native place, superintendent at Brtlseon, and in 1846 pastor of St. Matthew's at Berlin. In 1853 he was made superintendent general, but retired from the ministry in 1884. He belonged to the moat prominent and influential preachers of the German capital, and was the author of Erirarterungen aua dam Lebert eines Lartdgeistlichen (5 vole., Berlin, 1888‑97), which went through many editions.
BUELL, MARCUS DARIUS: Methodist Episcopalian; b. at Wayland, N. Y., Jan. 1, 1851. He was educated at New York University (B.A., 1872) and the Boston University School of Theology

13uir Bible	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	296
(1875): He entered the Methodist ministry in 1875, and held successive pastorates at Portchester, N. Y., Brooklyn, N. Y., and Hartford, Conn., in 187r84. In the latter year he studied at the universities of Cambridge, Berlin, and Heidelberg, and returned to the United States as professor of New Testament Greek and exegesis in Boston University, a position which he still holds. He was also assistant dean in 1885‑89 and dean in 1889‑1904. He is a member of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis and of the Harvard Biblical Club, and has written, in addition to a number of minor contributions, Studies in the Greek Text of the Gospel of Mark (Boston, 1890).
BUG BIBLE. See BIBLE VERSIONS, B, IV., § 9.

BUGEf1HAGEft, bu"gen‑h6'gen, JOHANN: A leader of the German Reformation b. at Wollin (29 m. n. of Stettin), Pomerania, June 24, 1485; d. at Wittenberg Apr. 20, 1558. He was educated at the University of Greifawald, paying special attention to the Latin classics. In his eighteenth year he was placed in charge of the school at Treptow on the Rega, which he made famous far and wide by the thorough Renaissance devotion to study which he inculcated. In 1509 he was ordained priest, though without any special theo‑
logical training Humanism, in fact,
Early Life. strongly influenced his theology. He
turned away from the schoolmen to seek s purer doctrine in the early Fathers, and by Erasmus, whom he considered to represent them, was brought to a deep study of the Bible. In 1517 he was appointed to lecture on the Bible and the Fathers in the new monastic school of Belbuck. A journey throughout Pomerania in search of documents to aid in Spalatin'a historical work led to the publication of its results in his Pomerania (1518), in which he foreshadows his later career by incidental attacks on the preachers of indulgences; and a sermon delivered before a clerical assembly in 1519 (or 1520) is even more outspoken in its reproof of abuses. Not long after, Luther's writings fell into his hands. He was at first shocked by the Captxuitas 13abylonica, but further reading convinced him of its truth. An earnest correspondence with Luther followed, and in 1521 Bugenhagen went to Wittenberg. sending back to Treptow a long letter in which he declared his adhesion to his new master's doctrines.
He matriculated at the university, made friends with Melanehthon, and began to expound the Psalms to an increasing audience. The swift development of practical reform carried him with it, and he married m 1522, in spite of the uncertainty of his future. Luther exerted himself to find a position for him, and, a vacancy occurring in the principal church of Wittenberg, put his useful
follower in, despite the protests of the
At Wit‑ capitular body to whom the right of
tenberg. nomination really belonged Here
Btlgenhagen busied himself in many practical pastoral works, finding time for literary activity also; he helped in the Low German edition of Luther's New Testament (1524), and in the same year published his lectures on the Psalms and Latin
commentaries on several other books of Scripture. These, as well as some‑German treatises on practical piety, made his name known, and he was called to St. Nicholas's church at Hamburg. The town council objected, and the proposal fell through. Bugenhagen came, however, to the help of the evangelical community in Hamburg in the following year by his tractate Von denx Christentoven and rechten guden 1Verken (published 1526; High German version in Vogt), which is one of the best popular presentations of the Lutheran teaching. In 1525 he officiated at Luther's marriage, and wrote a defense of the married clergy. Besides his faithful pastoral labors, continued even through the plague of 1527, lie took part in the general movement of the Reformation by a letter " to the Christians in England " (1525), by taking a prominent part against Zwingli and Butzer in the eucharistic controversy, and by new exegetical works.
Bugenhagen's forte, however, was organization, which he carried forward in many parts of North Germany, in both ecclesiastical and educational matters. The results of his activity were seen, for example, in the new church constitutions of Brunswick, Hamburg, Liibeck, and Pomerania. In 1535 he came back to spend two years in his duties at Wittenberg, and became a member of the theological faculty. He was called away once more in 1537 to superintend the carrying out of the reforming movement in Denmark, which had been begun the year before, when
	Christian III. had broken the power
His	of the bishops and confiscated their
	Ability as property. He revised the proposed
	an Organ‑ constitution, crowned the king and
	izer.	queen at Copenhagen, ordained seven
		evangelical theologians as superin
tendents to take the place of the expelled bishops,
and reorganized the university, which he governed
for a time as rector, working meanwhile at his great
commentary on the Psalms, not completed till 1544.
Returning home in the spring of 1539, he took part
in the thorough revision of Luther's Bible, and stood
by him in the conflict with Agricola (see ANTI
N011iIA_NISSi AND ANTINOMIAN CONTROVERSIES,
IL, 1, § 3). He declined a call to the bishopric of
Sleswick, and another to the University of Copen
hagen; but he visited Holstein in 1542, at the king's
invitation, to assist in the adoption and adaptation
of the Danish church constitution for the duchies.
No sooner had he returned than the success of the
arms of the Schmalkald League against Henry of
Brunswick laid a new task upon him, together with
Corvinus and Gbrlitz; viz., that of organizing an
Evangelical Church in the conquered territory.
The constitution for Brtmswick‑Wolfenbiittel which
appeared in the autumn of 1543 is mostly his work,
and that adopted for Hildesheim in the following
year is practically derived from it. Yet the diffi
culties which he had experienced in this visita
tion were sufficient, it would seem, to make him
reluctant to accept the invitation of the duke
of Pomerania to take the place of the deceased
bishop of Kammin; and when the duke would
have no conditional acceptance, he declined abso‑

287
lutely, though professing his willingness to assist for a time in organization.
Bugenhagen remained, accordingly, at Wittenberg, a help and strength to Luther in his last years, and preached his funeral sermon on Feb. 22, 1546. In the troublous times that followed, he adhered undauntedly to the cause of the Wittenberg church, encouraged the citizens during the siege, and went on preaching even after the emperor had entered the city as conqueror. The consideration with which he was treated by Charles V. and the new
elector Maurice, and his desire to Last serve the university and to remain
Years.	connected with it, combined to recon‑
cile him to the new state of things more readily than some ardent evangelicals thought fitting. There was much criticism of his action from his own. Ride, and calumny even went so far as to accuse him of venality. 13e was drawn into the policy of the Interim still further, as conducted by Maurice of Saxony and represented theologically by Melanchthon. His personal share in the negotiations was, indeed, a slight one; he was in the opposition at Alten‑Zelle, and was consequently not summoned to Jiiterbogk. But the concessions made to the Roman Catholic ceremonial found a sympathizer in the man who had impressed upon North German Lutheranism a conservative approximation to the old forms; he overlooked the fact that, as Hering has truly said, what had originally been consideration for the weak brethren might now be only obsequious deference to the powerful.
His attitude cost him the confidence of the deposed
elector and of Albert of Prussia, and not a few
his old friends turned from him. As an attempt to set himself right, he published in 1550 his commentary on Jonah, in which he gave vigorous expression to his undiminished protest against the Roman Catholic Church, undertakin to derive its doctrines and practises from the to
heresy. He raised his voice during the troubles of 1556 in a warning to all pastors to prepare for the end of the world by confession of sin and firm adherence to their faith. Decaying bodily strength forced him to give up preaching in 1557, and a year later he went to his long rest, being buried near the
altar in the church he had served so long. He le
behind him many a trace of his organizing abilities throughout northern Germany, especially in Lower Saxony, of his wisdom in practical matters, his sensible views on education, and his liturgical institutions, which substantially determined the abiding character of North German Lutheranism. (G. Kew>&xtm.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: His Brie/werheet, ad. 0. Vogt, appeared Stuttgart, 1888. The best treatment is to be found in H. Hering, Doktor Pofneranua, J. Bupenhapen, Halle, 1888. Special treatises are: G. H. Goetze, De J. Bur penizapii meritia . , oratio, Leipsic, 1704; J. D. J>;neke, Lebenapeachichte J. Bupenhapena, Rostock, 1757; R. F. L. l:ngelken, J. Bugenhapen, sin troogsaphiacher Aufaatz far die evanpetiache Kircite, Berlin, 1817; J. H. Zietz, J. Bupenhapen. Ein biopraphiacher yerauch Leipsic, 1834; M. Meurer, J. Bupenhapen a Leben ib. 1862; K. A. T. Vogt, J. Bupenhagen Pomeranua, Elberfeld, 1867. Consult further: J. Kdethn, bfariin Luther, ed. G. Kawerau, passim, 2 vole., Berlin, 1903• Schaff, Christian Church, n. 347, 487, 587 621‑22; ~Moeller, Chrxatian Church, Vol. iii. Passim; KL, u. 1453‑58. BugenLagen's yermahnunp
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
8
Buiguria
an die Behmsn was published in Zeitpem8aae Tralaate aua der Retormadionaurot, part 2, ed. C. von Kiigelsen, Leipsic, 1903.
BURL, b111, FRAftTS PEDER WILLIAM MEYER:
Danish Semitic scholar; b. at Copenhagen Sept. 6, 1850. He was educated at the University of Copenhagen (Ph.D., 1878), and was successively professor of Old Testament exegesis at Copenhagen (1882‑90) and Leipsic (1890‑98). In 1898 he was recalled to the University of Copenhagen as professor of Semitic languages, a position which he still holds. In theology he is dogmatically conservative, but liberal in iaagogics. Since 1900 he lies been a member of the Royal Society of Sciences at Copenhagen. In addition to numerous briefer contributions, he has written: Jesaja overeat og fortolket (8 parts, Copenhagen, 1889‑94); Gennesaret So og dens Omgivelser (1889); Palastina i kortfattet geografisk og topografisk Fremstilling (1890); hanon u^xd Text des Alten Testaments (Leipsie, 1891; Eng. tranal. by J. Macpherson, Edinburgh, 1892); Det israelitiske Folks Histtmie (Copenhagen, 1892); Geschichte der Edomiter (Leipaie, 1893); De messianske Forjtettelser i det Gamle Testament (1894); Til Vejledning i de gammeltestamentlige Undersogelser (1395); Geographie des alten Palastina (Freiburg, 1896); Hebraisk Syntax (Copenhagen, 1897); Die socialen Verhkltnisse der Israelites (Berlin, 1899); Psalmerne oversttlte og fortolkede (12 parts, Copenhagen, 1898‑1900); and Muhammeds Liv (1903). He has also collaborated in editing the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth editions of the Hebraisches and aramdii_ehes Handwarterbuclt fiber das
of ~ `4N Testament of Gesenius (Leipsie, 1895‑1905).
BULGARI (BOURGES): Name of a heretical sect. See NEw MANICHEANS, II.
BULGARIA: A principality under the suzerainty of Turkey in the northeastern part of the Balkan Peninsula, bounded on the north by Rumania, on the east by the Black Sea, on the south by Turkey, on the west by Servia. It was created by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878 and attained its present extent in 1885 by the addition of Eastern Rumelia (the territory south of the Balkan Mountains) after a revolt of the Bulgara there; in 1908 it proclaimed its independence; area, 38,080 square
ft ( miles; population (1900), 3,744,283.
In race and religion the population is very diverse. The majority are the Bulgars, who number some 2,880,000 and belong to the Oriental Orthodox
Church, their prince Boris having Bulgarian adopted Christianity in 864, two cen‑
Church. turies after they had entered the
region south of the Danube (see BuLGARIANB, CONVERSION OF THE. Simeon, the successor of Boris as prince or czar, established an autonomous Church for his extensive domains,
placing at its head a bishop, or exarch, who had his seat at Ochrida on the frontier of Albania. This diocese lapsed after the fall of the Bulgarian
state, nor was it revived when the principality was reorganized. The Slavic bishoprics were grad‑
ually replaced with Greek, and the Bulgarian Church was first restored in 1870‑72, when, through the insistence of Russian diplomats, the Sultan Permitted the Bulgarian Church to separate from

sulffaxis
Bullinger	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	298
the patriarchate and to appoint an exarch in Conatantinople who should be the Slavic head of all those communities which might wish to join the new ecclesiastical body. Although condemned by the patriarch in 1872 as schismatic, large numbers of Slavs in the Turkish provinces soon declared themselves Bulgarians.
The governing body of this Church is the Holy Synod, which consists of four bishops chosen for four years by secret ballot of all the bishops and presided over by the exarch; it meets annually in May. The rights and external organization of the Bulgarian Church are recognized throughout the principality by the constitution, which declares it to be the State Church. Other religions are tolerated, however, while the exarch can issue commands to his bishops only after reaching an agreement with the minister of foreign affairs.
According to the exarchial statute of Organize‑ 1883, the laity exercise a considerable lion. influence on the election of bishops,
and, with the Turkish districts of the Bulgarian Church, even on the choice of the exarch. In each eparchy, or diocese, three clerical and three lay members form a committee which selects two names from a large list of candidates, sending these names to the Holy Synod, by which the list in question is drawn up and constantly renewed.
In the principality of Bulgaria there are eleven d_oceaes, or eparchiea, at Varna, Ruatchuk (Cherven and Doroatol), Tirnova, Lovatz, Vrataa, and Widin north of the Balkans, and Sofia, Philippopolis, Stars Saghra, and Sliver south of this mountain range. These dioceses receive from the State au annual revenue of 800,000 francs, while the monasteries supply the funds for twenty‑four archimandrites. One of the richest monasteries is that of St. John in the Rilo mountains, and other important cloisters are those of St. Nicholas near the Shipka Pass and Tcherepis at the northern end of the Iaker gap. The majority of the parish clergy lack the requisite education, and the monks are very inferior in education to those of Servia. The pariah priests are accordingly reverenced but little by the peasants and citizens. They number nearly 2,000, and there are 240 monks in seventy‑eight monasteries.
Not all the Slavs recognize the authority of the exarch, and in the southeast 60,000 Greeks have the four small dioceses of Varna, Meaembria, Sozopolis, and Anchiolo, as well as the metropolitanate of Philippopolis. Roman Catholicism has but scant representation in Bulgaria. Nicopolia is the name of the bishopric for Danubian Bulgaria, but in reality the bishop resides at Ruatchuk. In the
south is the apostolic vicariate of other Sofia and Philippopolis, in charge of
	Churches.	the Capuchins since 1841. The ma
		jority of the Roman Catholics are
Bulgara, partly descended from the Pauliciana,
who were formerly numerous (see PeutlclAxa).
The minority are immigrants from Austria‑Hungary
and other Roman Catholic countries, and have
churches and small congregations in various cities
along the Danube, as well as in Sofia, Philippopolie,
and Barges. The Armenians have their own bishop
in Ruatchuk. Bulgarian Protestants are mainly
the result of American missionary propaganda. [The Methodists entered the country north of the Balkans in 1857 and the American Board commenced work south of the Balkans at about the same time. The educational work of Robert College near Constantinople has done much for the Bulgarians.] There are also Protestant communities of some 500 Germane in Sofia and Rustchuk.
The Jews in Bulgaria are for the moat part descendants of exiles from Spain in the sixteenth century. I The Gipsies number about 50,000, although some
I	of them declare themselves Orthodox.
	Non‑Chris‑ The great majority of the Moham
		lien medana are Turks; the number has
	Religions. decreased owing to extensive emigrar
		lion since 1878. They have many
schools, including a theological school at Shumla.
	[The religious statistics of the census of 1900 are:
	Orthodox Greeks, 3,019,296; Mohammedans,
643,300; Jews, 33,663; Roman Catholics, 28,569;
Armenian Gregorians, 13,809; Protestants, 4,524;
Unknown, 1,122.] 	W11.xElm GOETZ.
lixsiaoaasrax: C. Jirecek, OeachichEe der Bulparen, Prague, 1878 (authoritative); idem, Das Furstentum Bulparien, Vienna, 1891; J. l3emueleon, Bulgaria, Past and Present, London, 1888 (best general account in English); L. Lamouohe, La Bulparie dana la paeab d dare Is prE,aent, Paris, 1892; A. Strauss, Die Bvlparan, ethnopraphiache Studien, Leipeie, 1898; Aeta Bulparim ecdeaiaetira, 1686‑1799, collegit C. Fermendsiu, ASram, 1888; A. d'Avril, La Bulparie chr&Lenne, Paris, 1898; J. $. Dennis, Centennial Surrey of Foreign Missions, New York, 1902.
	BULGARIAN NATIONAL CHURCH IN THE
UNITED STATES, THE: There are, according to
moderate calculations, about 25,000 Bulgarians in
the United States and Canada, the immigration of
Bulgarians becoming greater since 1903. They have
settled in large numbers at Granite City and Madi
son, Ill.; Hopkins, Mich.; and St. Louis, Mo., and
are scattered also farther westward, while a con
siderable number of them are to be found in New
York City, and also in Toronto and parts of northern
Canada. The first Bulgarian church in the United
States was built in 1907 in Madison, Ill., being fol
lowed by those at Granite City and St. Louis. There
are at present three Bulgarian priests in the United
States. 	A. A. STAMOULl.

BULGARIANS, CONVERSION OF THE: According to Jire6ek, who follows Schafarik, the Bulgarians were originally related to the Finns. Jor dania says that they lived on the shores of the Black Sea in the fifth century, clashing frequently with the Oatrogoths in the reign of Theodoric, who, according to Ennodius, checked their victorious advance toward the west in 487; Cassiodorua mentions another victory in 504. But their attacks were directed also against the Byzantine Empire. Under Constantine Pogonatua a Bulgarian horde established itself in 679 between the Danube and the Balkans, extending their conquests gradually as far as the mouth of the Save. This territory seems to have been inhabited by people of Slavic race, who first gave their language to the conquerors and then gradually amalgamated with them. The race formed by this fusion was so strongly pagan that it resisted, the introduction of Christianity, which had its martyrs in the first half of the ninth

299	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bnllin~er
Balearic
century. A change set in under Bogoria (c. 852888), who in his contests with both Franks and Greeks held out hopes of a conversion as an inducement for peace. In 864 he seems to have entered the Greek Church, and received in return a considerable slice of territory. In Constantinople his conversion was considered genuine, and Photiua took pains to instruct him at some length in the duties of a Christian prince. The Bulgarians were apparently less delighted, and rose in armed revolt. The wily barbarian, however, had one eye on the West, and at the same time sent an embassy to Pope Nicholas L, with a number of questions on which he sought enlightenment from Rome. Nicholas immediately sent two bishops to take possession of the Bulgarian territory for the Church, and answered the questions of Bogoris with much more painstaking seriousness than they deserved. Another embassy went to Louis the German to ask that Christian missionaries might be sent. In 867 Louis commissioned Bishop Ermanrich of Passau and a numerous retinue of priests to set out for the Danube. Charlemagne followed by raising a large sum to provide books and church utensils for the Bulgarians. But all this interest was thrown away. When Ermanrich reached Bulgaria, he found the field already occupied by priests from Rome, and returned to Germany. The communion with Rome lasted but a few years longer. Bogoria requested the appointment of Formosus of Porto (one of the two original Roman missionaries) as archbishop, and proposed another candidate when Nicholas declined; when this second nomination was rejected by Adrian II. he lost patience and turned to Constantinople. His envoys took part there in the final session of the Eighth Ecumenical Council (870j, and after its close, in spite of the protests of the Roman legatee, declared that Bulgaria belonged to the patriarchate of Conatantinople. The Roman clergy were obliged to leave and the patriarch Ignatius organized the church by the consecration of a metropolitan and several bishops. Adrian II. protested (871), but in vain, and the efforts of John VIII. to reopen the question were equally fruitless; Bulgaria remained, as, indeed, its geographical situation demanded, a part of the Greek Church. (A. HAUCK.)
131BLIOGRAPHY: C. Jirebek, Geschichle tier Bulgaren, Prague, 1878; idem Daa Furatentum Bnlgarien, ib. 1891; La Bulgaria chrilienne. etude hiatorique, Paris, 1881; LEgendea religieuaea buLgarea, baduitea par Lydia Sehiachmanofl, ib. 1898.

BULGARIS, bul‑gd'ris, EUGEIQIOS, 5"u‑g6'n3‑es: Russian prelate; b. in the island of Corfu Aug. 10, 1716; d. at St. Petersburg June 10, 1806. He was educated at Padua, and taught in various schools and at the academy of Athos from 1755 to 1759. His orthodoxy being impugned, he went to the bleat, and was recommended by Frederick the Great to Catherine II. of Russia, who appointed him bishop of Slovensk and Kherson. In 1801 he retired to the monastery of Alexander Nevaky. Bulgaria was a very gifted and learned man, and contributed toward malting Western culture accessible to his people. Together with Korafa, he may be regarded as the founder of modern culture in
L~A~:~'Ii4.s..a~,‑
Greece. He was an eclectic in philosophy, and
was familiar with all branches of theology. Among
his numerous works (in Greek), special mention
may be made of his " Orthodox Confession "
(Amsterdam, 1767), written against the Jesuit
Leclerc, but also opposing the Protestants; and
his " Address on Tolerance " (1768), denying. the
State the right of intolerance toward adherents
of other creeds than that of the national church.
His principal work was th^. " Dogmatic Theology "
(ed. Lontopulos, Venice, 1872), the first real Greek
treatise on dogmatics since the Middle Ages. It
is divided into four parts, treating of God, the
Trinity, anthropology, and Chriatology. Among
his historical writings the most important was the
" First Century from the Incarnation of Christ
the Saviour " (Leipsic, 1805), while to the depart
ment of practical theology belongs the " Pious
Talk " (2 vole., 1801), a moralistic exposition of
the Pentateuch. He also translated several wri
tings of Augustine, and such works as the De Pro
cessions Spiritus sancti of Zoernikau ( St. Petersburg,
1797). He likewise edited the works of Joseph
Bryennius, and assisted in the editing of the works
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Theodoret (Halls, 1768). PHILIPP MEYER.
17IHLI(laRAPRy: P. ati8hl, Dae gBlEhrft RWBIand, IR1pe1C,
1828 (from Russian sources); A. P. Vretos, Biopraphie de Z'archevt3que E. Bulgari, Athens, 1880; A. D. Kyriakos, Geechichte tier orientaLischen Xircfun, Leipeie, 1902.
BULL, GEORGE: Bishop of St. David's; b. at Wells, Someraetahire, Mar. 25, 1634; d. at Brecon, Wales, Feb. 17, 1710. He studied at Oxford but did not take a degree; became minister of St. George's, near Bristol, 1655; rector of Suddington St. Mary's, ,near Cirencester, 1658, to which was joined the vicarage of the adjoining pariah of St. Peter's 1662; rector of Averring, Gloucester, 1885. From 1678 to 1686 he was a prebendary of Gloucester; from 1686 to 1705 archdeacon of Llandaff. He became bishop of St. David's, Wales, in 1705. His fame rests upon his Defensio futei Niccence, pub•, lished originally in Latin in 1685 and received with marked approval by Protestant and Roman Catholic (e.g., Boeauet and Jurieu) scholars everywhere; it is still a classic. In English translation, it appears in the Library of Anglo‑Catholic Theology, together with his Harntonia Apostolica (4 vols., Oxford, 1851‑53).
BIBLIOaRAPRY; His complete works appeared in 7 vols.,
	1827, with the life by Robert Nelson (originally 1713,
	separately 1840). The DNB, vii. 236‑238, gives a very
satisfactory account of his life.
BULL, PAPAL. See BRIEFS, BULLS, AND Bur,
LARIA.
BULLINGER, bul'lin‑gar, HEINRICH.
Conversion to Protestantism Eucharietic Teachings (§ 8).
	( § 1).	The Helvetic and Zurich Con
Friendship with Zwingli (§ 2)		feeeiona and the Coneen
The Successor of Zwingli		sue Tigurinus (§ 7).
	(§ 3)~	His Part in the Second Hel
Politioal Activity (§ 4)		vatic Confession (§ 8).
Pastoral and Educational Ac‑ Views on the Relation of
tivity (§ s). 	Church and State (4 9).
The Works of Bullinger (§ 10).
Heinrich Bullinger was a Swiss Reformer; b. at Bremgarten (14T1 m. e.s.e. of Aargau) July 18, 1504;
d. at Zurich dept. 17, 1575. He was the son of a priest, who looked after his bringing up. After receiv‑

8ullinger	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	800
ing his elementary education in the schools of his na
tive town, he was sent to Emmerich on the Lower
Rhine to the Brethren of the Common Life, and
in 1519 he went to Cologne. There, in the seat of
opposition to the Reformation, Bullinger gradually
became a convert to the new doctrines. When he
began the study of theology, his text‑books were
the Sententicr of Peter Lombard and the Decretum
of Gratian,	but noting that these were based on
the Church Fathers, he resolved to study the lat
ter more closely, thus learning from Chrysostom,
Ambrose, Origen, and Augustine how widely the
scholastics	had diverged in their treatment of
Christian truths. At the same time he came into
possession of some pamphlets of Luther which
	convinced him that the Wittenberg
:. Conver‑ Reformer marked an advance over the
sion to scholastics. Since, however, Luther
Protestant‑ like the Church Fathers, appealed
	ism.	to the Scriptures, Bullinger obtained
		a New Testament, which nourished
his opposition to Roman doctrine. He was also
strongly influenced by Melanchthon's Loci com
munes, and by 1522, despite a bitter inward struggle,
he had broken definitely with the Roman Catholic
Church. Being thus debarred from an ecclesias
tical career, he resolved to become a teacher, and
after nine months he secured a position in the Cis
tercian monastery at Kappel, where he remained
from Jan., 1523, to Pentecost, 1529. Not only
did he introduce his pupils to the classics, but he
also interpreted a portion of the Bible to them
daily, in addition to lecturing on other theological
subjects in the presence of the abbot, the monks,
and many of the residents of the city. Through
his preaching of a reformation of doctrine and life
the movement was completed in 1525‑26, although
Bullinger's life was imperiled by the hostility of
the adherents of the ancient faith. In the early
part of 1527 the monastery was transferred to the
authorities of Zurich and the monastery church
became the parish church of the community, with
Bullinger as the preacher. In close harmony with
Zwingli, whom he had known since the end of 1523,
and in consultation with Leo Jud, he began the
active preparation of a large number of tracts
		designed to work for the Reformation
s. Friend‑ in central Switzerland. After being
ship with invited by Zwingli in Jan., 1525, to
	Zwingli.	attend a conference with the Ana
		baptists, he combated them, and in
1528 he accompanied Zwingli to the Disputation of
Bern, where the leading Reformers of Switzerland
and South Germany became acquainted with each
other.
In June, 1529, Bullinger succeeded his father as pastor of Bremgarten, but his position was a perilous one, and the Reformed strongholds were fortified in expectation of the war between the Con‑ ', federates, which threatened to break out in 1529. Despite the so‑called " land‑peace " and the sermons delivered by Bullinger at the diets held at Bremgarten in the summer of 1531, in which he urged upon his hearers the horrors of civil war and sought to reconcile the adherents of both creeds by the weapons of the spirit and the word of God
without the effusion of blood, the Reformation had long been political rather than religious, and on Oct. 11, 1531, the battle of Kappel was fought, in which the leaders of the Zurich Reformation fell. The progress of the entire movement was checked. and at Bremgarten at heavy cost a peace was made from which the clergy were excepted. In the night of Nov. 20 Bullinger fled to Zurich. The difficult task of the reconstruction of the Reformed Church and the maintenance of Zwingli's life‑work now devolved upon him, and on Dec. 9, 1531, he was
chosen pastor of the Grosamunster to 3. The Suc‑ succeed the great Swiss Reformer. At
censor of the same time, however, a controversy
Zwingli. arose between the adherents of the
ancient conditions, who advocated peace at any price, and the evangelical party, resulting in a decision to prohibit the clergy from touching on political questions in their sermons. After consultation with his colleagues, Bullinger declared himself ready to promote peace, but declined to refrain from political problems which were connected with religion. The liberty which he demanded was granted him after long deliberation, and the clergy accordingly placed themselves in opposition to the reactionaries. The sermons of Bullinger and Jud, however, resulted in their being cited before the council. They were honorably discharged, but were requested in future to lay their political complaints before the council on the chance that they might be settled without the necessity of publicity. Through this recognition of the spheres of Church and State as distinct but not opposed, Bullinger sustained a more healthy relation to the political body than Zwingli, and he also avoided the struggles made by Calvin to make the State subservient to the Church. A
still more difficult task was the stemq. Political ming of the Catholic reaction, and
Activity. it was chiefly due to him that the
disaster of Kappel had no worse results. The evangelical communities, however, suffered severely, and turned to Zurich for help, and the council, in their eagerness to refute the charge of Roman tendencies, unwisely inserted in their manifesto words which the Catholics claimed were an insult to the mass. In the controversy which ensued, Zurich was cited before the council of the Confederation, whereupon Bullinger, while blaming the city for its folly, advised the mutual surrender of the old letters of confederation, the peaceable division of the common territories, and the formation of a new union with such bodies as held to the word of God. Although it proved possible to preserve peace without this dissolution of the Confederation, the result was a partial humiliation of Zurich.
In the earlier years of his pastoral activity Bullinger was an indefatigable preacher, delivering between six and eight sermons each week, nor was it until 1542 that his labors were lessened to two addresses, on Sunday and Friday. Like Zwingli, he was accustomed to interpret entire books of the Bible in order, and his sermons were esteemed far and wide, especially in England. He was also active in education, and brought the schools of

301	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bullinger
Zurich to a	high standard of excellence, propo
sing an admirable scheme, which comprised both
teachers and pupils and prescribed their duties.
lie likewise	promoted theological training by the
establishment of scholarships and secured the
canons' fund for the maintenance of the schools,
in addition	to preparing regulations for preachers
and synods. The first of these, drawn up by him
and Leo Jud, remained unchanged for almost
	three centuries. The synod met twice
g. Pastoral annually, and had as representatives
and Educe‑ of the State a non‑officiating burgotional master and eight members of the
	Activity.	great council. The chief duty of the
		synod was a complete report of the
activity, qualifications, and conduct of each and
every pastor. Bullinger was highly esteemed as
a pastor, especially in time of pestilence, while his
Quo pacto cum cegrotantibus et morientibus agendum
sit parcenesis (1540) is a work of unusual excellence.
A generous friend and patron of fugitives from
Germany, Locarno, and England, he also wrote an
enormous mesa of letters, numbering among his
correspondents Lady Jane Grey, Henry II. and
Francis II. of France, Henry VIII. and Edward VI.
of England, Elizabeth, Christian of Denmark,
Philip of Hesse, and the palsgrave Frederick III.
Bullinger took part in the controversy over the Lord's Supper as the chief representative of German‑Swiss doctrine. After the death of Zwingli both the Romanista, headed by Johann Faber, and Luther assailed the doctrines of his followers, only to be answered by Bullinger in his Auf Johannsen urienischen Bischofs Trostbiichlein tr6stliche Verantwortung (Zurich, 1532) and in the introduction to Leo Jud's translation of the treatise De corpore et sanguine Domini of Ratramnus, a monk of Corvey. Even in these earlier works he emphasized the objective aide of the sacrament, the work of Christ in the faithful, whereas Zwingli
6. Eucha‑ had taught rather the subjective ristic aspect as a memorial. The contro‑
	Teachings.	verey involved the Protestant party
		in Germany, and in the ensuing efforts
for reconciliation Butzer and Bullinger were active
figures, the latter preparing a confession for the
former, showing how far a union with Luther was
possible. This confession was sent in Nov., 1534,
to the remaining Swiss cities and was gladly ac
cepted by the majority, Bern alone refusing to
subscribe to it until after the Conference of Brugg
in Apr., 1535. This wee, however, little more than
an agreement of the clergy, and the desirability
of an understanding with Luther, as well as the
expectation of a general council, rendered it advi
sable for the Swiss Church to make an official formu
lation of its creed. The result was the First Helvetic
Confession (see HELVETIC CONFESSIONS), framed at
Basel in 1536, Bullinger being one of its authors.
Meanwhile Butzer had framed the Wittenberg Con
cord (q.v.), which was accepted by the cities of Upper
Germany, but was opposed by Bullinger in Zurich
and rejected by Bern. The Swiss responded with
an elucidation of the Helvetic Confession prepared
by Bullinger and addressed directly to Luther
(Nov., 1536), seeking the middle way between
transubstantiation and the concept of a mere memorial meal. The reply was conciliatory, but the peace was soon broken by Luther, who bitterly attacked the Zwinglian doctrines of the Lord's Supper in 1544. Bullinger replied in the Zurich Confession of 7545, and, though no understanding was reached between the Swiss and the Lutheran churches, the French and German sections of the Swiss Church were drawn together all
7. The Hel‑ the closer, a matter which was the
vetic sad more momentous since the Reformed
	Zurich	had found a second center in Geneva,
Confessions thus giving rise to the danger of a
and the schism like that headed by Luther Consensus and Melanchthon in Germany. The
	Tigurinus.	peril was averted, however, by the
		Consensus Tigurinus, which was qui
etly prepared by Bullinger and Calvin in 1549 and
which was in complete harmony with the previous
views of Bullinger on the Lord's Supper, while it
emphasized the divine work of grace, though it
restricted it to the elect. In his later years he was
involved in a controversy with Brenz, who defended
the doctrine of the ubiquity of the sacraments
but reached no definite conclusion. The views
concerning the Lord's Supper. were closely con
nected with the doctrine of predestination. While
still in Kappel, Bullinger had maintained that free
will was incompatible with the foreknowledge
of God, but later he was gradually led to accept
the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination, his views
finding their ultimate expression in the famous
Second Helvetic Confession, which he prepared
in consultation with his friend Peter Martyr to
serve as a posthumous testimony of his own belief
and that of his church. It was published, how
ever, in 1566, when Frederic III., who was accused
of Calvinism, wished to defend himself before the
Diet of Augsburg. At his request Bullinger sent
		him the confession, which he printed
	8. His Part	and which was accepted not only by all
		is the	Swiss churches with the exception
		Second	of Basel, but also by the Reformed
		Helvetic	in France, Scotland, and Hungary
	Confession. and highly praised in Germany, Eng
			land, and Holland. It was, strictly
	speaking, the bond uniting the scattered members
of the Evangelical‑Reformed churches.
In the. controversies concerning the relation of Church and State, Bullinger regarded the two as united, Christian citizens forming both Church and State, and temporal officials being likewise the servants of God. The chief duty of the Church was the unrestricted preaching of the word, and the power of admonishing the authorities, when necessary, of their obligations. Neither Church nor State, however, should interfere in g. Views on each other's affairs. External admin‑
the Rela‑ iatration of the property of the Church,
tion of on the other hand, was to be left to Church the State, which was also to execute and State. ecclesiastical punishments. With this was closely connected his attitude toward heretics. While in his earlier career he had expressed the utmost tolerance, he later reached the conclusion that preaching and writing against

SulBnff°r	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	302
8nntiuir
heresy moat be supplemented by state punish
ment. Roused by Anabaptism, he urged in 1535
that no heretics should be admitted to the city
and that, if all efforts at conversion proved fruitless,
they should be punished by the secular arm, though
with due consideration of the circumstances of
each individual case. This position did not ex
clude capital punishment, and while Bullinger
did not avail himself of it in the case of the Ana
baptists, it is easy to see how he could counsel the
execution of Servetus and the exile of Ochino.
	The years 1564‑65 were marked with sorrow for
Bullinger, who lost many of his relatives and
closest friends by death, and was himself so seri
ously ill with the plague that his life was despaired
of. Even after his apparent recovery his health was
shattered, and his sufferings from calculi increased
until he was repeatedly near death. His last
sermon was delivered on Whitsuntide, 1575, and
four months later he died.
	Bullinger's works are extraordinarily numerous
but have never been published in collected form
and some are extant only in manuscript. The
catalogue of the municipal library of Zurich lists
about 100 separate works, and this number is
raised to 150 by J. J. Scheuchzer. Especially
noteworthy are his Latin expositions of all the books
of the New Testament with the exception of the
Apocalypse, which were prepared up to 1548,
when their place was taken by collections of ser
mons, the majority also in Latin, comprising 100
on the Apocalypse, sixty‑six on Daniel, 170 on
Jeremiah, and 190 on Isaiah. His sermons on the
decalogue, the Apostles' Creed, the sacraments,
etc., were highly esteemed and published under
			the title, Sennonum decades quinque
		ro. The	(Zurich, 1557; translated into Dutch
	Works of and French; Eng. transl., The Decades,
	Bullinger. London, 1577, ed. for the Parker So
			ciety by. T. Handing, Cambridge, 1849
1851). Among his theological works special mention
may be made of his De yrovidentia (Zurich, 1553);
De gratis Dei justi ficanle, and De seripturte sancta
suctoritate et certitttdine deque episcaporum institu
fione et functions (1538, Eng, transl., Woorthynesse,
authoritie, and sufftcitmeie of the holy Scripture, Lon
don, 1579). He was likewise the author of a drama
on Lucretia and Brutus and of a hymn beginning:
" O holy God, have mercy nowi " Bullinger also
wrote a chronicle and description of Kappel, and
later prepared a similar work entitled Antiquitates
aliquot ecclesice Tigurince, which is preserved in
manuscript in the municipal library. An important
source for the history of the Anabaptists is found
in his Den' ZViedertdiifem UraPretng, Fiirgang, Sekterl
(Zurich, 1560), but his chief historical work was his
detailed chronicle of the Swiss, the moat valuable
part being the history of the Reformation up to
1532 (ed. J. J. Iiottinger and H. H. VSgeli, 6 vole., I
Frauenfeld, 183$‑40).	(Emir, Earl.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources: Ballinger's autobiography was
	Printed in Miscellanea Tipurini, iii. 1‑171, Zurich, 1722;
	valuable also is his Raformati3 vole., Frau
	enfeld. 1838‑40. Other early sources are; J. W. $tucki,
	Oratio funebria, Zurich, 1575; J. $immler, De onto, vita,
	at °bitu Heinrici Budlingeri ib. 1b75; Archiro fir die
~aaa Rat°"ati°naguchichte, VOL i., Solothurn,
1868. For his life consult: J. F. Franc, Merkururdipa Zilge sue dam Leban des . . . H. Bullinger, Bern, 1828; $. Hess, Lebsnapeachichte Bullingera, 2 vole., Zurich, 18281829; G. Friedlsnder, Beitrilpe zur Reformationspeachichte. Sammlunp unpedruckter Briefs des Bullinger, Berlin, 1837; C. Peatalossi, Heinrich Bullinger, Elberfeld, 1858; R. Christoffel, H. Bull%nper and seine Gattin, Zurich, 1875; G. R. Zimmermann, Die Ztircher Kirche and ihre Antiafia, ib. 1877; Schaff, Christian Church, vii. 206‑214, 514, 618; Moeller, Christian Church, vol. iii. passim.
BUIWBURY, THOMAS: Protestant bishop of Limerick; b. at Shandrum, County Cork, 1832. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1852), ordered deacon 1854, and priest the following year. ITO was curate of Clonfert, County Galway (1855‑58), and of Mallow, County Cork (18581883), rector of Croom, County Limerick (1863‑72), rector of St. Mary's, Limerick, and dean of Limerick (1872‑99). From 1895 to 1899 he was also chaplain to the bishop of Limerick, and in the latter year was himself consecrated to that see. Died at Shandrum Jan. 19, 1907.
BUftD, EVAlYGELISCHER (" Evangelical Union"): An alliance of German Protestants fnr maintaining Protestant interests in Germany. The occasion of the formation was the modern aggressions of the papacy (leading to the Iiulturkampf) and the arrogance of Ultramontanis^i, the dream of which is to reestablish Catholicism in Germany. Its founder was Prof. W. Beyschlag of Halls who, finding others interested in the scheme, called a preliminary meeting at Erfurt, October 5, 1886, which was attended by seventy men representing different types of Protestant theology. After a thorough discussion, an organization was effected under the presidency of Count von Wintzingerode‑Bodenatein. The confessional basis of the alliance is: " Belief in Jesus Christ, the.only begotten Son of God, as the only mediator of salvation, and adherence to the principles of the Reformation." In the beginning of the year 1887 a circular containing 243 names was sent out, and when the alliance held its first annual meeting in Frankfort, August 15‑17, 1887, 10,000 members were reported. The ecclesiastical authorities, who were at first indifferent, anon perceived the great importance of the Buhd and expressed their ap‑
proval of the purposes of the alliance, which in various ways has developed a great activity in opposition to the Roman propaganda. In public lectures the burning religious questions of the day are treated with the intention of sharpening and
strengthening the Protestant consciousness. As the Bund has its own publication house at Leipsic, it publishes not only a monthly in behalf of Protestant interests, but also pamphlets intended to expose and to refute the claims of Ultramontanism and to repel attacks, especially directed against the memory and work of Luther and Gustavus Adolphus. The Bund has also the practical end of affording material help to weak institutions in the" Diaspora," The effect of the Bund is felt
by the Ultramontanea, and their attacks upon it only show its necessity. (W, BEyacalaot,)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Wsrneek Der toanpeliache Bund and seine Gepnar, Leipaic, 1889; H. Meyer‑Herrmann, Der
Kampj des eroanpeliachen Bundes pepen Rom and seine Wirkaamkeit in der eaanpeliachen Kirche, Barmen, 1890;

303	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Nippold, Ziele and VorpeacAschk den evangelischen Bundes, 1890; L. Witte, Der svangelische Bund, aein pules Recht and aein pethanaa Work, Barmen,.1898; Blankmeiater, Des Reich muse una dock bkiben, Leipeia, 1898; also the pamphlets published by the Bund.
	BUNGENER, biro" je‑n5' (LAURENT LOUIS),
FELIX: Swiss Protestant; b. at Marseilles Sept.
14, 1814; d. in Geneva June 14, 1874. He was
graduated B.L. at Marseilles, 1832, B.S. at Geneva,
1834, studied theology at Geneva and was grad
uated at Strasburg, 1838; ordained in Geneva,
1839, and lived there as teacher, writer, and occa
sional preacher. His books and articles were very
numerous and exerted a wide influence, especially
those of a controversial character against the Church
of Rome. From 1849 till his death he was one
of the editors of .9trennea religieuses, an annual
chronicle of religious events, particularly those
connected with Geneva. His more noteworthy
books were: Un sermon soul Louis XIY (Paris,
1843; Eng. travel., The Preacher and the King,
or Btrurdaloue in the Court of Louis XIY, London
and Boston, 1853); Histaire du concite de Trente (2
voLs.,1847; Eng. travel., Edinburgh, 1852; by J. Mc
Clintock, New York, 1855); Troia sermons so= Louis
XV (3 vole., Paris, 1849; Eng. trand., The Priest
and the Huguenots, or Persecution in the Age o f Louis
XY, 2 vole., London, 1853); Voltaire et son temps
(2 vo1s.,1850; Eng. travel., Edinburgh, 1854); Julian
ou la fin d'un sikle (4 vole., Paris, 1854; Eng. tranal.,
London, 1854); Christ et le s*cle (Paris, 1856); Rome
et la Bible (1858); Calvin, as vie, son oeuvre et see
ecrits (1862; Eng. tranBl., Edinburgh, 1863); Trois
fours de la vie d'un pbre, written after the death of his
two years old daughter (Paris, 1863; Eng. travel.,
Edinburgh, 1864, New York, 1867); Lincoln, sa vie,
son oeuvre et sa mort (Lausanne, 1885); Saint Paul,
sa vie, see tezevrea et see .epitres (Paris, 1867; Eng.
travel., London, 1870); Pape et corteile au zix.
sikle (Paris, 1870; Eng. tranal., Edinburgh, 1870).
A volume of " Sermons" was published after* his
death (1875).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jean Gaberel, in Ettrenne relipieuae for 1875; Henri Gambier, F€Zia Bunpener, Geneva. 1891.
BUNSEN, bun'zen, CHRISTIAN KARL JOSIAS: Baron; German scholar and diplomat; b. at Korbach (28 m. s.w. of Cassel) Aug. 25, 1791; d. at Bonn Nov. 28, 1860. He studied theology and philology in Marburg and Gottingen (1808‑13). Resigning his hopes of journeying to India, Bunsen followed his friend Brandis to Rome in 1816, first as secretary to the Russian embassy, over which Niebuhr presided. Two years later he succeeded Brandia in the diplomatic service, and represented Prussia at Rome (where he became a close friend of Tholuck and Rothe) from 1823 to 1839. In the latter year he was sent as minister to Bern, and in 1841 to London as minister plenipotentiary and envoy extraordinary of his Majesty Frederick William IV. at the Court of St. James. In 1854 he returned to Germany and was ennobled by the king of Prussia. In the same year he retired to Heidelberg, devoting himself to literary pursuits. Shortly before his death he moved to Bonn, where he continued his studies until the last. Bunsen's influence and position enabled him to assist not only scholars like Birch, Cureton,
Max Miiller, Richard Lepsius, and Hoffmann, but also to found institutions, like the German hospitals in Rome and London, and the archeological institute at Rome. He helped to establish the Anglo‑Prussian bishopric at Jerusalem (see JERU9A• LEM, ANGLICAN‑GERMAN BISHOPRIC IN) 88 a basis of a larger union between the German evangelical and the Anglican churches. A complete list of his writings would include contributions to Roman and Egyptian Antiquities, as well as to politics, liturgy, and hymnology. His chief works of theological interest are as follows: Ignatius von Antiochiert and seine Zeit (Hamburg, 1847); Hippolytus, and his Age (4 vole., London, 1851), which, together with his Analecta Ante‑Nica,'na and Outlines of the Philosophy of Universal History as Applied to Language and Religion, form his great work Christianity and Mankind (7 vole., 1854), for which many scholars wrote contributions. Soon after his return to Germany he published Die Zeichen der Zeit (2 vole., Leipaie, 1855; Eng. travel., Signs of the Times, London, 1858), in which he assailed the anarchy existing in political, religious, and intellectual life, advocating toleration and liberty of conscience, and opposing the sophistical and fanatical doctrines of Stahl and Ketteler. Another work which involved Bunsen in controversy was his Gott in der Geschichte, oder der Fortschritt des Glaubens an sine sittliche Weltordnung (3 vole., 1857‑58; Eng. travel., God in History, 3 vole., London, 1868‑70), but his most important book. was his Yollstandiges Bibelwerk far die Gemeinde (9 vole., 1858‑70). Bunsen lived to see the publication of vole. i., ii., and v.; after his death Adolf Kamphauaen, continued the work with the help of Johannes Bleak, H. Holtzmann, and others; the work gave a marked impetus to the revision of Luther's Bible version, and was diligently consulted by the German revisers. A. KAMPHAU6EN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The chief work on Bunsen's life is by his widow, Memoir of Baron C. C. J. Bunsen, 2 vole., London, 1888‑89, translated and enlarged by Nippold, 3 vole., Leipeic, 1888‑71. Consult also A. J. C. Hare, Life and Letters of Baroness Bunsen, London, 1878, Germ. travel. by F. A. Perthes, Goths, 1885. Both works have had a large circulation on both aides of the Atlantic.
BUNTING, JABEZ: The "second founder of Methodism "; b. at Manchester May 13, 1779; d. in London June 16, 1858. He received a good school education in Manchester, and began to preach at the age of nineteen; was stationed first in Manchester, then at Macclesfield (1801), London (1803), Manchester (1805), Sheffield (1807), Liverpool (1809); Halifax (1811), Leeds (1813), London (1815), Manchester (1824), Liverpool (1830); from 1833 he lived in London and filled the moat important positions at the denominational headquarters. He was one of the founders of the Wesleyan Missionary Society and its secretary for eighteen years; was first president of the Wesleyan Missionary Institute in London, from 1835 till his death; was president of the conference in 1820, 1828, 1836, and 1844. He perfected the Methodist organization, and it was his influence which gave steadily increasing powers to laymen. He edited the seventh edition of Crttden'a Concordance (Liverpool, 1815) and Memoirs of the Early

Banyan
Burgos	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	804
Life of William Cotvper (1816). Two volumes of sermons, edited by his eldest son, W. M. Bunting, appeared posthumously (1861‑62).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His Life was written by T. P. Bunting (brother of W. M. Bunting, above), vol. i., London, 1859, vol. ii., completed by G. S. Rows, 1887. Consult also DNB, vii. 273‑275, where other literature is given.
BUNYAN, JOHN: "The immortal dreamer of Bedford jail;" b. at Harrowden (1 m. s.e. of Bedford), in the pariah of Elstow, christened Nov. 30, 1628; d. in London Aug. 31, 1688. He had very little schooling, followed his father in the tinker's trade, was in the parliamentary army, 1644‑47; married in 1649; lived in Elatow till 1655, when his wife died and he moved to Bedford. He married again 1659. He was received into the Baptist church in Bedford by immersion in the Ouse, 1653. In 1655 he became a deacon and began preaching with marked success from the start. In 1658 he was indicted for preaching without a license; kept on, however, and did not suffer imprisonment till Nov., 1660, when he was taken to the county jail in Silver Street, Bedford, and there confined, with the exception of a few weeks in 1666, till Jan., 1672. In that month he became pastor of the Bedford church: In March, 1675 (the original warrant, discovered in 1887, is published in facsimile by Rush and Warwick, London), he was again imprisoned for preaching and this time in the Bedford town jail on the stone bridge over the Ouse. In six months he was free and was not again molested In Aug., 1688, on his way to London he caught a severe cold from being wet, and died at the house of a friend on Snow Hill.
All the world knows that Bunyan wrote The Pilgrim's Progress, in two parts, of which the first appeared at London in 1678, and was at all events, begun during his imprisonment in 1676; the second in 1684. The earliest edition in which the two parts were combined in one volume was in 1728. A third part falsely attributed to Bunyan appeared in 1693, and was reprinted as late as 1852. The Pilgrim's Progress is the most successful allegory ever written, and like the Bible is adapted to man in every clime. It is indeed commonly translated by Protestant missionaries after the Bible. It is this read in all literary languages and is a worldclassic. Two other works of Bunyan's would have given him fame, but not as wide as that he now enjoys; viz., The Life and Death of Mr. Badman
(1680), an imaginary biography, and the allegory The Holy War (1682). The book which lays bare Bunyan's inner life and reveals his preparation for his appointed work is Grace Abounding to the chief of sinners (1666). It is very prolix, and being all about himself, in a man less holy would be intolerably egotistic, but his motive in writing being plainly to exalt the grace of God and to comfort those passing through experiences somewhat like his own, his egotism makes no disagreeable impression.
The works just named have appeared in numerous editions, and are accessible to all. There are several noteworthy collections of editions of the Pilgrim's Progress, e.g., in the British Museum, and in the New York Public Library, collected by the late James Lenox.
Bunyan was a popular preacher as well as a very voluminous author, though most of his works consist of expanded sermons. In theology he was a Puritan, but not a partizan; nor was there anything gloomy about him. The portrait 'which his friend Robert White drew, which has been often reproduced, is a most attractive one and this was his true character. He was tall, had reddish hair, prominent nose, a rather large mouth, and sparkling eyes. He was no scholar, except of the English Bible, but that he knew thoroughly. Another book which greatly influenced him was Martin Luther's Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians, in the translation of 1575.
	[Some time before his final release from prison
Bunyan became involved in a controversy with
Kiffin, D'Anvera, Deune, Paul, and others. In
1673 he published his Differences erences in Judgement about
Water‑Baptism no Bar to Communion, in which he
took the ground that "the Church of Christ hatli
not warrant to keep out of the communion the
Christian that is discovered to be a visible saint of
the word, the Christian that walketh according to
his own light withGod." While he owned "water
baptism to be God's ordinance," he refused to
make " an idol of it," as he thought those did who
made the lack of it a ground for disfellowshiping
those recognized as genuine Christians. Kiffin and
Paul published a rejoinder in Serious Reflections
(London, 1673), in which they ably set forth the
argument in favor of the restriction of the Lord's
Supper to baptized believers, and received the ap
proval of Henry D'Anvera in his Treatise of Bap
tism (London, 1674). The result of the contro
versy was to leave the question of communion with
the unbaptized an open one so far as the Partic
ular (Calvinistic) Baptists were concerned. Bun
yan's church admitted pedobaptiats to fellowship
and finally became pedobaptist (Congregational
ist). 	A. H. N.]
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The best edition of Bunysn's Complete Works is by G. Offor and R. Philip, 3 vols., London, 1553, new ed., 1862. The best biography is by John Brown, London, 1885, new ed., 1902, the author of which was for many years the minister of the Bunyan chapel at Bedford. Other good biographies are: J. A.. Froude, in English Men of Letters, 1887 E. Venables, in Great Writers Series, 1888; and W. H. White, in Literary Lives series, 1904.
BURCHARD OF WORMS: Bishop of Worms; d. Aug. 20, 1025. He was a Hessian by birth, and was educated at Coblenz and under the famous Olbert in the Flemish monastery of Laubach.
Willigis of Mainz ordained him, and employed him in a number of important affairs. Otto III. gave
him the bishopric of Worms (1000), which had fallen into a bad condition. He improved the city in many ways; established the episcopal power more firmly and even increased it; demolished the fortress of Duke Otto and built a monastery with the stones from it, placing over the door the inscription Ob libertatem civitatis. In 1014 Henry II. gave him secular jurisdiction over the inhabitants, which he used to promote uniformity and security of law. He rebuilt the cathedral, consecrating it in 1016; but his fame rests chiefly on his collection of canon law, which had a very wide circulation not only in Germany but in Italy. (A. Hevcs.)

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Sreurnoawrar: The Dsaetnram h2ri eipinti era in ilLPL,
	exl. Materials for a life are in. Lax. Imsiiim Wwxta&waaia
	eadeada, M()H, Lepum, section iv., Conatitutionea et acts:
	ed. L. Weiland, i. (1883) 639. no. 4.38; and the annoy,
	moos Vita, ad. Ci. $. 1lrta in MCFI, Scrip v iv. (1841)
	829‑5!t8, sad MBL, oxr. 607‑b38. Consult: Hauck,
	SD iii. 435;. H. G. Geagler. Dan Holreoh! des Burchard
	von Worm, Erlangen, 1859; A. M. xSniger., Barchard r.
	roan Worms, Munich, 190E.

	BIFRCHARD QE WuBZBUEG: Bishop of Wilrz
burg 741‑754. He was an Anglo‑Saxon who left
England after the death of his kinsfolk and joined
Boniface in his missionary labors, some time after
732. When Boniface organized bishoprics in
Middle Germany, he placed Burchard over that of
WUrzburg; his consecration can not have occurred
later than the summer of 741, since in the autumn
of that year, we find him officiating as a bishop at
the consecration of Willibald of Eiehstadt. Pope
Zacharias confirmed the new bishopric in 743.
Burehard appears again as a member of the first
German council is 742, and as an envoy to Rome
from Boniface in 748. With FuIrad of Saint‑Denis,
he brought to Zacharias the famous question of
Pepin, whose answer was supposed to justify the
assumption of regal power by the Merovingians.
		(A. Hwve>z.)
B113LIOGRAPHY: Two anonymous lives, one of the ninth or
	tenth, the other of the twelfth century,	cal. Holder‑Egger,
ere is MBH, Script., aT (18$7) 47‑62. Consult. A. Narn1er8er. Aua der iitteraiaahsn $interlaaae»achaft den . Bxrchardue, Neisee, 1888; R.ettberg, KD, ii. 313;
Hauck, KD, i. 487 end passim; Neander, Christian Church, is 203.
BBRDER, GEORGE: English Congregationalist; b. in London June 5, 1752; d. there May 29, 1832. He, was. trained for an artist, but began preaching nder the influence of Whitefield and his associates; became minister at Lancaster, 1778; Coventry, 1783; Fetter Lane, London, 1803. He was one of the founders of the London Missionary $oeiety (1795), of the Religion Tract Society (1799), and of the British and Foreign Bible Society (1804), and from 1803 to 1827 served gratuitously as secretary of the first‑named, bides editing The Evangelical Magazine for many years. The moat successful of his many publications were Village Sermons (7 vole., London, 1798‑1816), and d Collection of Hymns, Intended as a Supplement to Watts (1784), which went through some fifty editions sad contained three or four hymns of his own.
Btsrtoaasna:: There are. Memoirs by his eon, H. F. Burden, London, 1833, sad by L Cobbin, 1858. Consult. also DNB, vii. 294‑295, and for his hymns, $. W. Duffield, Enpliah Hymns, pp. 121, 808, New York, 1886; Julian, Xymnolopy, P. 194.
BURDII(US, MAURITIUS. See Gnaaosx VIII., Aatipope.
BURGER, KARL HEIRRICH AUGUST VON:
German theologian; b. at Baireuth (126 m. n. of Munich) May 1, 1$05; d. at Schtlnau (a village near Berchtesgaden, 12 m. s. of Salzburg) July 14, 1885. He studied theology and philology at the University of Erlangen (1823‑27), and is 1827 was appointed teacher at the gymnasium there. Eleven years later be became curate at Furth near Nuremberg, and in 1846 he was trsneferred II. 20
is the same capacity to Munich, where he. was appointed dean in 1849. and councilor o£ the high oonsiatory in 1855, holding this office until his resignation in 1883.. Under the guidance of his father‑in‑law, Johann Christian Krafft, of Erlahgen, he gained a thorough knowledge of the Bible. which was evinced by his Die Briefs Pauli an, die Korinther (2 vole., Erlangen, 1859‑&0); Die Evangelien nach Dffatthdus, Marcus and Lucas (NSrdlingen, 1865); Des Evangelium naeh Johannes (1868); and Die GRffenbarung St. Johann4s (Munich, 1877). Interpreting the Bible by the Bible, he sought to render his work available for the educated laity, while clergymen also find it valuable in the preparation of sermons. His interpretation of Revelation has met with. special favor in Wilrttemberg. While his sermons were not couched in popular style, and while they demanded close attention on account of their logic and depth, they appealed effectually to serious auditors, and two collections of them were published, Predigten in den protestantischen Stadtpfarrkirclte zu. Miinchen gehalten (Erlangen, 1857) sad Predigten Pr alle Sonn‑ and Festtage den Kirehenjahres (2 vole., Niirdlingen, 1864). As a member of the high consistory, Burger sided the Bavarian Church to surmount rationalism sad to become a true evangelical Lutheran body, and his teak was facilitated by his thorough. knowledge of philosophy, history, and theology, as well as by his tact and discretion. Despite his reserved and quiet nature, which shunned all publicity, he enjoyed the deep esteem and gratitude of the clergy and their congregations,, as well as the confidence of the three kings of Bavaria under whom he served, Louie L, Maximilian IL, sad Louis II.
KA,ler, Btn3aa$ f .

BURGES, bfh'jes, CORNELIUS: Presbyterian; b. is Someraetahire (date undetermined, probab1g15S9); d. at Watford (7 m. s.w. of St. Albans), buried there June 9, 1665. He was educated at Oxford is Wadham and other colleges; was vicar of Watford (16135), also (1626‑4T) rector of 3t. Magnus Church in London, holding the two charges at the same time. On the accession of Charles I. (1625), he was appointed one of the chaplains in ordinary. He was appointed a member of the Westminster Assembly in 1643. July 8 he was chosen by them assessor with Dr. White, and generally occupied the chair on account of the illness of Dr. Twisae. He was chairman of the first of the three grand committees of the Assembly, sad one of the most energetic members of the body, being active especially is the discussion of Church Government and the Directory for Worship. He was energetic in political as well as ecclesiastical affairs. On the Restoration his handsome property was confiscated, sad he died in want. His chief works are: A Chain of Graces Drawn out at Length for Reformation of Manners (London, 1622); The Fire of the Sanctuary newly Discovered or a Comyleat Tract of Zeal (1625); and Baptismal Regeneration of Elect Infants (Oxford, 1629). In the latter he maintains: " It is moat agreeable to the Institution of Christ that all elect infants that are baptized (uillesa in some extraordinary cases doe, ordinarily, receive, from Christ, the Spirit in

NuAsa	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	308
Baptism, for their first solemn initiation into
Christ, and for their future actual renovation, in
Gods good time, if they live to yeares of discretion,
and enjoy the ordinary means of grace appointed
of God to this end" He delivered a large num
ber of sermons before Parliament and other civil
bodies, which were published from time to time.
He is credited also with the paper subscribed by
the London ministers, entitled A Vindication of
the ministers of the Gospel in and about London
from the unjust Aspersions cast upon their former
Adinga for the Parliament, as if they had promoted
the Bringing o f the King to Capital Punishment,
London, 1648. 	C. A. BBIdQ9.
BIBLIOGRAPHY‑ A. i; Wood, Athena Ozonu3neea, ed. P.
	Bliss, iii. 881; D. Neat, History of the Puritans, ii. 38b,
	388, iv. 332, Dublin, 1759; DNB, vii. 301‑304 (quite
	detailed). 	..
BURGESS, ANTHONY: Non‑conformist clergyman. He entered St. John's College, Cambridge, in 1823 and became fellow of Emmanuel; was vicar of Sutton Coldfield, Warwickshire, in 1635; member of the Westminster Assembly; ejected by the Uniformity Act of 1662 after the Restoration, and lived afterward in retirement at Tamworth (14 m. n.w. of Birmingham). He wrote: Yindicite Legis (London, 1846); The True Doctrine of Justification Asserted (1648); Spiritual Refining, 120 sermons (1652; 2d ed., 161. sermons, 1658); Expository Sermons (145) on John xvii. (1656); The Scripture Directory (a commentary on I Corinthians iii.), to which is Annexed the Godly and Natural Man's Choice, upon Psalm iv. 8‑8 (1659); The Doctrine of Original Sin Asserted (1659).
BURGESS, DANIEL: English Presbyterian; b. at Staines (15 m. w.s.w. of London), Middlesex, 1845; d. in London Jan. 26, 1713. He studied at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, but would not conform and so did not graduate; went to Ireland in 1667 with Roger Boyle, earl of Orrery, and became master of a school founded by his patron at Charleville, County Cork; was ordained by the Dublin presbytery; in 1685 he settled in London, where he gained influential friends and preached to a large congregation attracted by his lively and witty style. Besides preaching he took pupils and was tutor to Henry St. John (Lord Bolingbroke). His publications were numerous, mostly sermons; they include: Directions for Daily Holy Living (London, 1690); The Golden Snuffers; or Christian Reprovera and Reformer's Characterized, Cautioned, arid Encouraged (1697); Proof of God's Being and of the Scriptures' Divine Original, with Twenty Directions , for Readingthem (1697).
BURGESS, FREDERICK: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Long Island; b. at Providence, R. L, Oct‑ 8, 1853. He was educated at Brown University (B.A., 1873), the General Theological Seminary (1874‑75), and Oxford University (1878), and was successively rector of Grace Church, Amherst, Mass. (1878,83), Christ Church, Pomfret, Cc
(1883‑‑89), Grace Cliurch, Bale, Pa. (1889‑gg), Christ Church, Detroit (1896‑98), and Grace Church, Brooklyn (1898‑1902). In 1902 he was consecrated bishop of Long Island.
BURGESS, GEORGE: First Protestant Episcopal bishop of Maine; b. at Providence, R. Lj Oct. 31, 1809; d. at sea while returning from the West Indies Apr. 23, 1866. He was graduated at Brown 1828; tutor there 1829‑31; studied at Bonn, Gbttingen, and Berlin 1831‑34; was rector of Christ Church, Hartford, 1834‑47; consecrated bishop Oct. 31, 1847. He published a translation of the Psalms into English verse (New York, 1840), Pages from the Ecclesiastical History of New England between 17/f0 and 1840 (Boston, 1847), and other works.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Memoir of Life or Rev. Goo. Burgess, by his brother, A. Bargees. Philadelphia, 1889.
	BURGESS, HENRY: Church of England clergy
man and scholar; b. in Newington, London, Jan.
29, 1808; d. Feb. 10, 1886. He studied at the
Dissenting College, Stepney; aftergraduation (1830)
was for a time a Baptist minister, but deci
ded to join the Church of England in 1849, was
ordained deacon 1850, and priest 1851; became
curate at Blackburn 1851; perpetual curate of
Clifton Reynes, Buckinghamshire, 1854; vicar of
St. Andrew, Whittlesea, Cambridgeshire, 1861.
His principal works were translations from the
Syriac of the Festal Letters of St. Athanasius (Lon
don, 1852) and of Select Metrical Hymns and
Homilies of Ephraem Syrus, with an introduction
and historical and philological notes (1853); The
Reformed Church o f England in its Principles and
their Legitimate Development (1869); Essays, Bib‑
lical and Ecclesiastical, relating chiefly to the authority and interpretation of the Holy Scriptures (1873); The Art of Preaching and the Composition of Sermons (1881). He edited The Clerical Journal 1854‑88, The Journal of Sacred Literature 1854‑62, and the second edition of Kitto's Cyclopcedia of Biblical Literature (2 vole., Edinburgh, 1856).
BURGHERS AND ANTIBURGHERS. See PRE6BYTEBIANB.
BURGON, JOHN WILLIAM: Church of England scholar; b. at Smyrna (the son of a Turkey merchant) Aug. 21, 1813; d. at Chichester Aug. 4, 1888. He studied at London University (University College) 1829‑30 and then entered his father's
counting‑house; matriculated at Worcester College, Oxford, 1841, and was graduated B.A., 1845; I elected fellow of Oriel 1846, graduated M.A., 1848, B.D., 1871; ordained deacon 1848 and held curacies in Berkshire and Oxfordshire; became vicar of St. Mary's Oxford, 1863; Gresham professor of divinity 1867; was installed dean of Chichester 1876. He has been described as °` a High‑churchman of the old school," and he won distinction at Oxford as a vehement " champion of lost causes and impossible beliefs." He was the ablest and most learned as well as the bitterest adverse critic
of the Revised New Testament and of the revised Greek text. His publications, including sermons,
articles in the periodicals, and controversial tracts,
were very numerous; among the most noteworthy
of his books were; The Life and Times o f Sir Thomas
Gresham (2 vole., London, 1839); A Plain Com
metttary on the Four Holy Gospels (8 vole., 1855);
Ninety Short Sermons for Family Reading (2 series,

307	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Burgess
		Burial
each 2 vole., 1855, 1867); Historical Notices of the
Colleges of Oxford (1857); Portrait of a Christian
Gentleman, a Memoir of P. F. Tytler (1859); In
spiration and Interpretation, seven sermons in
answer to Essays and Reviews (Oxford, 1861);
The Last Twelve Verses of the Gospel according to
St. Mark Vindicated and Established (1871); The
Revision Revised, articles reprinted from The
Quarterly Review against the Revised Version of
the New Testament (London, 1883); The Lives of
Twelve Good Men (2 vole., 1888). The Traditional
Text of the Holy Gospels Vindicated and Established
and Crtuses of the Corruption of the Traditional
Text, edited by Edward Miller, appeared in 1896.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. M. Goulburn, John Ti'. Burao>k: a Bi
	ography, with letters arid Journals, 2 vole., London, 1891;
	DNB, supplement vol. i. 335‑338.
	BUItGUNDIARS: A Germanic race, akin to the
Goths and Vandals, where ; arliest known home
was on the Baltic between the Oder and the Vistula.
In the middle of the second century they had begun
to move southward; in the middle of the third
they were driven further to the southwest, and
occupied what is now Franconia, north and east of
Lyons, With their neighbors on the southwest,
the Alemanni, they had many conflicts, and sum
moned the aid of the Romans; they are found co
operating on the Rhine with Valentinian I. against
them in 370. Next they occupied the right bank
of the river, and the Vandal invasion of Gaul in
the fifth century carried them across with it, to
receive an allotment of land in Germanic prima,
a province of Gaul, in 413, and become subject to
the empire. By this time they had adopted the
religion of their Roman neighbors, probably almost
in a body. Peaceful relations with the Romans
did not last long, however. In 435 King Gundicar
attacked the first Belgian province, but was driven
back by Aetius. A year later they were again
defeated by the Huns, acting with the Romans,
and lost their king and much of their power. But
they must have recovered before many years, for
in 457, with the consent of the West‑Goths, they
occupied the province Ltcgdunensis prima; in the
following decade they extended their rule over the
Provincia Yiennenais; and about 472 they added
the greater part of the Maxima. Seqttanorunt. After
Gundicar's death, his sons Gunduic and Chilperic I.
shared the kingship, and the latter reigned alone
after his brother's death. Gunduic's son, Gundo
bad, succeeded Chilperic; he had three brothers,
Godegiael, Chilperic IL, and Godomar. Godegisel
appears as a partaker of his sovereignty; Cliilperie
was said to have been put to death by his order,
but this is not certain, as Avitus speaks of Chilperic's death and Godomar's (which happened early in his reign) as a great blow to him. Gundobad was succeeded by his son Sigismund, who was captured by the Frankish kings in 5°3 and put to death in the next year. His brother Godomar II. maintained himself against the Franks for ten years; but he also succumbed, and in 534 the Burgundian territory became part of the Frankish kingdom.
	The religious development of the Burgundians
during the progress of these events is peculiar.
They had come from the Rhine to the Rhone as
Catholic Christians; but moat of them joined the
Arians in their new home. The royal house seems
to have been slow to change; Gunduic and Chil
peric II. were Catholics; but Gregory of Tours
mentions Gundobad, with his brother Godegisel,
as Ariana. The change to Arianism seems to have
followed from the feudal relations of the Burgun
dians to their more powerful West‑Gothic neighbors.
Gundobad was not a persecutor, though some
churches were taken from the Catholics; Avitus
of Vienna seems even to have had hopes of his
conversion. But, though the bishop failed with
the father, he succeeded with the son; Sigismund
returned to the Church in his father's lifetime,
followed by many of the people. But not until
Gundobad's death did the decisive movement away
from Arianism occur. ‑Sigiamund's son Sigeric
followed his father's example, and Godomar had
become a Catholic even earlier. In 517 a synod
was held at Epao, the present Alto, south of Vienna
(see Ereo, SYNOD OF), the decrees of which plainly
show that Arianism was no longer dangerous, and
that the time for its total suppression was believed
to have come. Certainly it disappeared from that
time, though no exact date can be assigned. By
the union with the Frankish kingdom, the Burgun
dian Church lost its independence and became
merely a part of the Frankish ecclesiastical organ
ization. 	(A. HAUCK.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are to be found in MGH, Lepum,
	section iii., Concilia, vol, i., ad. F. Msaaeen, 1893; MGH,
	lepta, ad. G. H. Parts, vol. iii., 1883; Chronica Minors
	sax. iv‑vii, ad. T. Mommsen, in MGH, Auct. ant., vole. ix.
	(1892), xiii., part i. (1894); G. g. A. Sidonius, Epiefofarum
	libri, Carmine, ad. C. Liltjohann, in ,JKGH, AuU. ant.,
	viii. (1887) 1‑284; A. E. Avid, Opera, ad. R. Pieper, in
	MGH, Auct. ant., vii., part 2 (1883). Consult: H. De
	riehsweiler, Geachichte der Burgunden, Maneter, 1883; A.
	Jahn, Die Geachichte der Burgundionen, 2 vole., Halls,
	1874; P. Mileand, Bibtiopraphie Zrourpuipnonna, 2 vole.,
	Dijon, 1885‑88; L. M. J. Chaumont, Hiatoire de Bour
	gopne, Lyons, 1887; Ratting, KD, vol. i.; Hauck, RD,
	vol. i.; Neander, Christian Church, vole. iii., iv., nseaim.
BURIAL.

I. Hebrew.	II. Christian. 	The Medieval Church (§ 3).
Preparation for Burial (¢ 1).	Early Practice and Ceremonies	The Reformation Burial Service
Place (§ 2).		(§ 1).		(§ 4).
Varieties of Graves (§ 3).	The Greek Church (§ 2).	Modern Developments (§ b).
I. Hebrew: In all periods interment was the customary Hebrew method of disposing of the dead. I Sam. xxxi. 12 and Amos vi. 10, in spite of the corrupt condition of the text, show that burning was exceptional; indeed, incineration implied something discreditable to the dead and in ancient custom and the priest‑code was an intensification
of the death‑penalty (Josh. vii. 25; Lev. xx. 14). Aversion to incineration accompanied ancient belief in the existence of a bond between soul and body even after death. The spirits of the unburied dead wandered restless on the earth, and in Sheol their lot was pitiable, driven as they were into nooks and corners (Ezek. xxii. 23). The grave con‑

Burial	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	308
fined the soul to the body so as to give it repose and save it from injury. Consequently it was not merely an awful disgrace but a terrible misfortune not to be buried (I Kings xiv. 11; II Kings ix. 10; Isa. xxxiii. 12). Hence it was a sacred duty to inter a body found unburied. In the case of criminals stoned to death a heap of stones over the body served as a grave (Josh. vii. 26).
The climate of Palestine necessitated the quickest possible disposition of the corpse; interment, therefore, took place on the day of death (Deut. xxi. 23). In the time of Christ the body was washed, anointed with fragrant spices, and more or less completely wrapped in linen (Acts. ix. 37; Mark xvi. 1; John
xi. 44). The Old Testament makes x. Prepare‑ no allusion to this custom. The
tion for belief that ,,the dead in Sheol might
Burial. be recognized by the habit implies
that in early times the corpse was buried in the apparel of daily life. Later, royalty and officials were buried with coetly apices, ornaments, gold, and silver (Joaephue, Ant., XIII. viii. 4; XV. iii. 4). And if the account by Joaephus of the plundering of David's tomb by Hyr.xnus and Herod may be trusted, this custom reached back into antiquity. Embalming was a custom foreign to the Hebrews; cases of it are Jacob and Joseph (Gen‑ I. 2, 26) and Atiatobulua (Joazphue, Ant., XIV. vii. 4). The use of coffins was poes,ezilic.
The place of burial was determined by the belief that the ties of kinship lasted beyond death. The value of a family burying‑place was in part due to the fact that burial therein involved union with kin in Sheol (Gen‑ w: 8, 17; II Sam. xu. 14). Therefore, family tombs were is the earliest ages on the estate and near the house (I Sam. xxv. 1). Therein might he. laid only members of the family. A public cemetery was provided for the very poor, for foreigners, and for criminals (Jer. xxvi. 23;
Isa. liii. 9; Matt. xxvii.7). The z. Plate. kings of Judah had tombs in Jerusalem,
and Ezekiel charges them with the serious offense of laying their dead next to the precincts of the sanctuary. To mica burial with one's kin was dire misfortune or divine punishment. For practical reasons people began quite early to locate tombs outside the cities, sad graves came to be regarded as ceremonially impure. In the time of Christ tombs were whitewashed in order that their character might be known at a distance and defilement avoided (Matt. axiii. 27; Luke xi. 44).
The grave was simple is its appointments. Wherever in Jewish tombs rich ornamentation is found, foreign influence (generally Greek) is recognized. Apart from the general lack of artistic sense displayed by the Hebrews, a religious consideration comes in to explain this: the stern opposition of the Yahweh‑cult to ancestor‑worship discouraged adornment of burial‑places, which thus differed widely from Egyptian and Pheniciaa tombs. This and the lack of inscriptions make it difficult to determine the date of Jewish graves. For situation, rocky chambers, natural or artificial, were preferred.
Four kinds of graves are known: (1) recessgravea, oblong, rock‑hewn, about six feet long by one and a half square, hewn lengthwise into the wall of the chamber, into which the body was placed from the end; (2) sunken‑graves, like those used in the Occident, but covered with atone;
(3) bench‑graves, set bench‑like in the 3. Varieties walls of the chamber, twenty‑two
	of Graves.	inches high, often arch‑roofed and
		hewn sidewise into the chamber‑wall;
(4) trough‑graves, a combination of (2) and (3)
above. Of the chambers there are three varieties:
(1) single chambers with a single sunken grave
in the floor; (2) single chambers with several
graves of one or more of the above‑mentioned
kinds; (3) larger burial‑places with more than one
chamber. All of the third variety so far found
belong to a late date, as is proved by the architec
ture. The oldest and commonest are of the second
type, single chambers with recess‑graves, which
are so typical that they may be named specifically
Hebrew. Such allow the largest number of inter
ments in a given chamber. Shaft‑tombs of the
Egyptian pattern have so far not been discovered
in Palestine.
The Phenician custom of marking an excavated grave by a grave‑stone other than the atone‑heap piled on it was not adopted by the Hebrews. The tombs built above ground date from the Greek period, or later, and are of foreign origin.
(I. BEIIZIN(iE$.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. I. Grundt, Die Trauerpebr'auche der Hebrlksr, Leipaic, 1888; w. M. Thomson, The Land and the Book, New York, 1888; F. $ehwaAy, Do# Leben oracle dem Tode naclsden Voratellungen lea alter laresl and des Judentums, Giessen, 1892; Bensinger, Asehdologie, pp. 13fr137; Nowaok, Archtlolopie, i. 187; H. B. Tristram, Eastern Cuatoma in Bible Laude, London, 1894; A. P Bender, Beliefs, Rites and Custom o f the rew8 connected with Death, Burial and Mourning, in JQR 1884‑95; G. M. Mackie, Bible Manners and Customs, London, 1895; KL, ii. 182r189; DB, i. 331‑333.
		II. Christian: From 1 he beginning the Chris
	tians regarded the final disposal of the dead as a
	congregational matter, and, whey possible, they
	had burial‑places, in which only those who were
	their members might be buried and which were
	called ccenceteria (°' resting‑places "), in allusion to
	the resurrection (see CEMETLRIE6). In deference
i to the body as the organ of the spirit and in the
	expectation of the resurrection, they were careful
	that the funeral should take place in a proper
	manner. The corpse was carried to the grave by
	bearers whom the Christian congregation had
		appointed, and the fact that the
		z. Early funeral took place, if possible, in
		Practise day‑time, was designed to express
		and Cere‑ joy and hope that the departed had
		movies. been set free and had entered into eter
		nal life. The pagan lamentation for the
	dead, as well as the crowning of the corpse, was
	not approved, but torches were carried in front, as
	befitting the victorious combatant, and hymns
	and psalms were sung, in praise of God. A me
	morial address was doubtless made on special
	occasions, but a funeral sermon in the modern sense
	seems to have been unknown. Prayers were

809	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Burial
		Huridan
offered at the grave, and the survivors gave food
and money to the poor. Prayers were made for
the deceased, not only in private, but also in public.
The third, seventh (or ninth), thirtieth (or fortieth)
day were memorial days, on which the church
ceremony for the dead took place, as well as on
the anniversary of death (see CEMETERIES, IL, 6).
These prayers and offerings were believed to have
a	beneficial effect for the dead, provided he be
longed to the saved.
	The Greek Church preserves a remnant of the
idea that the death of a Christian invites to praise,
		and on this account uses the Halle
	7. The	lujah in the celebration at the church
	Greek	The requiem‑mass is unknown, but
	Church. additional prayers are offered for the
		dead. The ceremony at the grave is
very brief, the priest throwing earth upon the
corpse with the spade and sprinkling it with oil
from the holy lamp or ashes from the censer.
	The Western Church of the Middle Ages also
knew only of burial as a means of disposal of the
dead. Charlemagne forbade the conquered Saxons
to cremate corpses on pain of death. The place
in which a Christian was buried was considered
		holy ground, but patrons or spiritual
	3. The	dignitaries were entombed in churches
	Medieval in token of distinction. Every Chris
	Church.	flan was to be buried in consecrated
		ground, but if special emergencies,
like war or shipwreck, necessitated a burial in
unconsecrated ground, the grave had to be pro
vided with a cross. The dead was washed, dressed
in linen or penitential robes, or, in case of one
in holy orders, in official dress. On the day of the
funeral he was carried by his peers, the layman by
laymen, and the clergy by clergy, first to the church,
where mass was celebrated, and afterward to the
grave, in which he was laid, with his face turned
toward the East. Various ceremonies had their
meaning; tile holy wager sprinkled on the .body
protected it from demons; charcoal indicated that
there was a grave there and thus kept it from prof
anation; incense kept away the odor of decay,
and was a symbol of prayer for the dead, as imply
ing that he was a sacrifice well pleasing to God;
ivy and laurel symbolized the imperishable life
of those who the in Christ. Tile custom of throwing
three shovelfuls of earth upon the body was known
in the Middle Ages, although the present Roman
ritual does not mention it. The modern Roman
Catholic Church has retained the old Christian.
view that the death of little children who have
been baptized is a joyful event and that their burial
should have the character of joy.
	The Reformation made a clean sweep of the
existing burial rites, in so far as they presupposed
the doctrines of purgatory, mass, and the mediation
		of the Church, .but it adhered to the
;. The Ref‑ view that the dead body is not a
	aatmation worthless thing but is to rise again,
	Burial	no matter how it has decayed. On
	Service.	this account it should have a Chris
		tian burial, and the burial‑places must
have a fitting appearance. The burial was a mat
ter of the church, and the congregation should take
part in it, if possible, and should also attend the funerals of the poor. Accordingly, the bells called the congregation together. The church was represented by the minister and the school‑children, or at least by the sexton and grave‑digger. As the procession was passing to the cemetery, the children or the mourners sang Christian funeral hymns, and at the grave such Biblical passages as I These. iv. 13‑18 or John xi. were read and prayer was offered, while basins were also placed to receive alms for the poor. The burial service of the Reformed was similar. In some countries the congregation recited the creed after the closing prayer.
The desire to instruct the congregation on every occasion was expressed in the burial service by the reading of Scripture and the singing of hymns. A shot discourse on death and the resurrection was read in the home, in the church, or at the grave, although a special sermon might be requested of the minister if he was specially paid for it, and in such eases he referred particularly to the life and death of the subject of his address. Thus arose the funeral sermon, which was originally designed to instruct the congregation in eschatology, and to honor the memory of the departed.
	In modern times the burial rites were extended
by carrying the cross before the procession, by
.casting earth upon the body thrice, and by pro
nouncing the benediction. The first two cere
monies were known even among the Protestants
		in former centuries and were occasion‑
5. Modern ally used, although they were generally
Develop‑ regarded with distrust, and were even meats. directly prohibited. The blessing is connected with the prayer for the dead. The Reformed rejected prayers for the dead unconditionally, while Luther and the Augsburg Confession permitted it, and Johann Gerhard endeavored to prove its validity by dogmatics. From tills developed the blessing of the dead, which, despite vehement opposition since the middle of the nineteenth century, has spread more and more. That the dead is addressed by " thou," may perhaps be explained on the ground that, according to the ancient Christian view, the congregation regards the departed as still belonging to it. The meaning of the solemn declaration: " I bless thee," however, is very uncertain, and the blessing should take the form of a wish.
It should be noted that the Church of Rome prohibits cremation, whereas the Protestant Churches have not yet reached a uniform conclusion.
W. CnsPeRl.
Btsztoasnrxr: On the general question consult C. Marfkne, De anfiquis ecclesim rilibue, Antwerp, 1738‑37; F. x. Kraus, Itealeneyklopddie car ahrieu:chen Alterthiitner, articles Tod, Totenbestdaunp, Freiburg, 1880‑96; T. Kliefoth, Liturgieche Abhandluropen, vol. i., part 2, Von Bepr6bnias. Halls, 1889; Bingham Oripinee, book iii. On the antiquarian and legal aides of English custom consult: J. Stutt, A ComP7eat View of the Manners, Custom . of the Inhabitants of E. 3 vole., London, 177b1778; C. A. Crippe, Law o/ Church and Claryy, ib. 1888; T. Baker, Law of Burials, 8th ad., by E. L. Thomas, ib. 1898: Encydopaadia Britannica, axvi. 468‑488.
BURIDAif, bvr'i‑clan or French bU"rf"d8d'. JEAN (Johannes Buridrsnus): Medieval French philosopher; b. at B6tdlune{25m. n.w. 'of Dousi),

Burke	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	310
Burma
in the latter partof the thirteenth century; d. after
1358. He was educated at Paris, and was made
rector in 132?. The story of his expulsion from
the city, like his love affair with a queen of France,
seems to be a myth, for it is clear that he occupied
a prominent position at Paris between 1348 and
1358. He was the author of the Summula de
dialectics, or Compendium logicce (Paris, 1487),
and also wrote on the " Politics," " Ethics," and
other Aristotelian writings, but he paid no attention
to theology. As an admirer and follower of Occam,
be was a consistent nominalist, and hence felt a
	special interest in ethical and psychological ques
tions, in which he showed the characteristic union
of skepticism and dogmatism. He became famous
	by his thorough research into the problem of the
	freedom of the will, but his works contain ingenious
	investigations rather than clear decisions, so that
it is doubtful whether he was a determinist or an
	indeterminist. His psychology allowed no de
	cision of the will without a motivating judgment
	of the understanding. The famous aphorism of
	the ass standing between two hay‑stacks, and
	obliged either to starve or to decide determinis
	tically for one or the other, is not found in his wri
	tings, and it is uncertain whether either he or his
	opponents used it, or whether later legend ascribed
	to him the example already found in Aristotle.
	His collected works were first edited at Paris by
	J. Dullardua in 1500, and were frequently reprinted.
	R. SCHMID.
	BIRWOCFRAPHT: Sketches of his life and philosophy will be
	found m the works on the history of philosophy by Ueber
	weg, Bitter, and Erdmann. Consult also A. 8tSek1,
	Geschiehte , der Philosopltie lea Mittelaltera, ii. 1023‑28,
3 vole., Maine, 1884‑‑88.
	BURKE, THOMAS MARTIN ALOYSITJS : Ro
	man Catholic bishop of Albany, N. Y.; b. in
	County Mayo, Ireland, Jan. 10, 1840. He came
	to the United States in childhood, and was edu
	cated at St. Michael's College, Toronto, St. Charles'
	College, Md. (B.A., 1861), and St. Mary's Semi
	nary, Baltimore (B.T., 1864). He was ordained to
	the priesthood in 1864, and was successively as
	sistant and rector at St. John's Church, Albany,
	N. Y. (1864‑74), and rector of St. Joseph's Church
	in the same city (1874‑94). He was appointed
	Vic‑general of the diocese of Albany in 1887 and
	consecrated bishop in 1894. He was created a
	Knight of the Holy Sepulcher in 1890, and a
Knight of the Grand Cross in 1894.
	BURgITT, FRANCIS CRAWFORD: Church of
	England theologian and Syrian scholar; b. at
	London Sept. 3, 1864. He was educated at Trinity
	College, Cambridge (B.A., 1886), where he was
	appointed University lecturer in paleography in
	1904‑05. Since 1905 he has been Norrisian pro
	fessor of divinity in the same university. He was
	elected fellow of the British Academy in 1905,
	and was also president of the Cambridge Philo
	logical Society m 1904‑05 and Jowett lecturer in
	1906. In addition to numerous contributions to
	theological periodicals and encyclopedias, he has
	written: The Rules of Tyconiva (Cambridge, 1894);
	The Old Latin and the Itala (1896); Fragments of
	Aquila (1897); Hymn of Bardaisan (London, 1899);
Early Christianity outside the Roman Empire (Cambridge, 1899); T'vw Lectures on the Gospels (London, 1900); Gospel Quotations of St. Ephraim (Cambridge, 1901); Evangelion da‑Mepharreshe (2 vols., 1904); and Early Eastern Christianity (London, 1905). He also made an English translation of the Lehrbuch der itgypto‑arabischen Umgangssprache of K. Vollers (Cairo, 1890) at Cambridge in 1895, and collaborated with R. L. Benaly and J. R. Harris in editing The Four Gospels in Syriac transcribed from the Sinaitic Manuscript (Cambridge, 189‑1), and with G. H. Gwilliam and J. F. Stenning in the Biblical and Patristic Relics of the Palestinian Syriac Literature from Manuscripts in the Bodleian Library (Oxford, 1896).
BUR1iITT, WILLIAM: Church of England; b. at Hitcham (12 m. n.w. of Ipswich), Suffolk, July 'i 25, 1650; d. at Dedham (10 m. s.w. of Ipswich), i Essex, Oct. 24, 1703. He studied at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge (B.A., 1668; M.A., 1672); became curate at Dsilden, Suffolk, about 1672, and vicar of Dedham, 1692. He is remembered for his Expository Notes with Practical Observations on the New Testament (the Gospels, London, 1700; ActsRevelation, 1703; many subsequent editions). It is a compilation and bears some resemblance to the commentaries of Matthew Henry.
BURMA: [At present the largest and easternmost province of British India, having been gradually annexed after three ware in 1826, 1852, and 1885. It extends southward from Tibet into the Malay peninsula a distance of 1,250 miles, with a breadth from east to west varying from 30 or 40 to 550 miles. According to the census of 1901 the area is 236,738 square miles, the population 10; 490,824 persona, classed by religions as follows: Hindus 457,391; Sikhs 3,147; Buddhists 8,951; 649 (85.3 per cent.); Mohammedans 533,973; Christians 248,628; Animists 294,787; other religions 1,049. The native peoples are of bialayChinese stock, belonging to many tribes. The capital is Rangun. Buddhism appears at its best in Burma; the prevailing form is of the southern type, mgt closely approximating the teachings of Gautama, and it has done much to uplift the people, who are better educated (by the Buddhist monks) than the people of India. Temples and shrines are numerous and have been built at much expense. The monasteries are well organized.]
Baptist Missions: The earliest attempt at Protestant missionary work in Burma was at Rangun, where Messrs. Chater and Mardon, of the Baptist Missionary Society of England, opened a mission in 1807. During a service of four years Chater translated thc: Gospel of Matthew into Burmese. Felix Carey, son of William Carey (q.v.), came soon after Chater and Mardon, remaining until 1814, when he entered the service of the Burman Government and removed to Ava. The London Missionary Society sent two missionaries to Ra,ngun in 1808, but within a year one died and the other left.
The first permanent Protestant mission in Burma was that of the American Baptist Missionary Union, which began work at Rangun in 1813. The first

811	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Barge
		Burins
missionary was Adoniram Judson (q.v.), who
translated the Bible into Burmese. Six years after
he landed in Rangun the first convert was bap
tized, and then the work among the Burmane pro
gressed, although slowly.
	The Karens, a hill tribe, early attracted the at
tention of the missionaries. They had strange
traditions that they once had known of the true
God, and that foreigners would restore to them
the lost knowledge and the book containing it. In
1828 the first Karen convert, a slave redeemed by
Dr. Judson, was baptized by Rev. George Dana
Boardman (q.v.). The Karens have been more
receptive of the Gospel than any other race in
Burmtr. They are divided into many tribes; the
chief dialects are the Sgaw and the Pwo, into
which the Bible hen been translated. Self‑support
has been a marked feature of the Karen churches.
They are distinctly missionary in spirit, represent
atives having gone from them to many other races.
A remarkable development in the Karen mission
is an independent evangelistic movement inaugu
rated and directed by a native leader, Ko San Ye.
Large buildings have been erected and an institu
tional work is carried on. In one year over 2,500
converts were baptized in two stations alone as a
result of this movement.
	Work is conducted also among the Shane, the
Chins, the Kachins, the Talains, the immigrants
from peninsulas India (mostly Telugus and Tamils),
the Chine, and the Eurasians and other English
speaking peoples. A movement of large propor
tions is taking place among the Lahu and other
hill tribes about Kengtung, in eastern Burma,
where over 2,000 were baptized in 1905. They
have peculiar traditions similar to those of the
Karene.
	Educational work has been emphasised, vil
lage day‑schools, station boarding‑schools, and the
Rangun Baptist College being conducted in co
operation with the government. The college has
over 1,000 students in all departments. There are
two theological seminaries at Insein, for Karens
and Burmans respectively. The American Bap
tist Mission Preen, at Rangun, has a fine equip
ment, sad prints literature in most of the languages
and dialects of the province.
	Statistics (1908): Stations, 29; churches, 843: members.
58,842; baptisms, 7,089; missionaries, 192, including 13
physicians; native workers. 1.909; schools. 898, pupils.
24,807: Sunday‑schools, 518, pupils, 19.730; college, 1:
theological seminaries, 2; high schools. 3: boarding‑schools,
31; hospitals, 31 in‑patients, 77, out‑patients, 23,093; dis
pensaries, 7; receipts in medical fees, =1,156; total eontri
butiona, 191,101 (benevolence, EI9,888).
	American Methodist Episcopal Missions: Amer
ican Methodists entered Burma in 1879, when a
church was organized by Bishop Thoburn. The
mission has now grown to nine stations, where work
is conducted for English‑speaking peoples, Bur
mese, Tamils, Telugus, and Chinese. Emphasis is
placed upon schools, colportage, and street preach
ing. The European high school in Rangun, for
boys and girls, is the only one for non‑conformists
in the city and has a well‑earned reputation for
thoroughness and moral training. Anglo‑vernacu
lar schools are conducted in several stations. A
number of strong schools are now being equipped with new and larger buildings. A training institute is held during the summer months. At Thandaung a successful orphanage is conducted. A monthly paper for Telugus is published.
Statistics (1905): Missionaries, 17; native helpers, 44; members, 581; probationers. 370; baptised adults, 48, children, 28; high schools, 4; day‑schools, 10; pupils, 943; Sunday‑schools, 28; Sunday‑school pupils, 988; churches and chapels, 3; contributions on field, 44,319 rupees [= E21,4941.
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel: This society conducts work among English‑speaking peoples, Burmese, Karens, Tamils, Telugus, and Chins. Educational work is vigorously pushed, the leading institution being St. John's College, at Rangun, whose graduates take high rank. A printing‑press at Toungoo provides Bibles, prayer books, and other literature. There are 35 missionaries, 13 being European.
Statistics (190b): Outstations, 198; churches, ib; boarding‑schools, 75; teachers, 125 (14 non‑Christian); boarders, 549; pupils in all schools, 3,388; catechists, 139; readers, 4; baptisms, adult 722, children 753; baptised persona, 10,403; oommuniaants, 4,047; catechumens, 3,531; confirmed during year, 273; native contributions, 11,759 rupees, 12 same [‑ 16.7031.
Wesleyan Methodist Missions: English Wesleyans began work in 1889 and have now four stations, with seven missionaries. Special features are the work among soldiers, evangelistic‑educational work, and a lepers' home, at Mandalay, which has 140 in its wards.
Statistics (1903): Chapels and other preaching places, 28; eatechiate, b: local preachers. 19: teachers (day‑school), 82; members. 270; on trial, 81; Sunday‑schools, 19: pupils in Sunday‑schools, 1,086; day‑schools, 25; pupils in dayechoola, 1.181; raised locally, £3,460 17e. 3d. The average attendance at public worship is 1,560.
Roman Catholic Missions: Roman Catholic missionaries have been on the ground for several centuries, and are about equally divided between French and Italian. Their work is in various parts of Burma. The statistics for the French Foreign Missionary Society, including those for Laos, are as follows (1906): Missionaries, 70; native workers, 3; charities, 65; total Roman Catholic population, 56,600.
	Miscellaneous:	Besides the organizations men
tioned, the Young Men's Christian Association and
the Young Women's Christian Association have
work at Rangun. The Mission to Lepers, the
Missionary Pence Association, and the Leipsic Mis
sionary Society also have work in Burma. The
China. Inland Mission has one missionary in Bhamo.
		STAGY RF,UBEN WARBURTON.
BIHLIOG$AP8Y: The Life of Adoniram Judson, by F. Way‑
land, Boston, 1853, and by E. Judson, Philadelphia, 1898;
Mrs. M. Wylie, Story of the Gospel in Burmah, New York,
1880; Mrs. Mason, Civilizing Mountain Men .... M4a
sion Work among the ICararu, ib. 1882; C. J. $. F. F.
Forbes, British Burnwh sad its People .... Manners,
Customs sad Religion, London, 1878; J. li. Titcomb,
Britiah Bu»nah and its Mission Work, ib. 1880; Mrs. I.
B. Bishop, Golden Cherameese, ib. 1883; C. $. Carpenter,
Serf Support in Bassein, Boston, 1884; A. R. Colquhoun,
Amongst the Shane. London, 18&5; L. P. Brockett, Story
of the Karen Mission in Bassein, Philadelphia, 1891;
W. N. Wythe, Missionary Memorials, Ann H. Judson,
Sara B. Judson, Emily C. Judson, 3 vole., New York,
1892; E. D. Coming. With the Jungle Folk, London, 1897;

Burmsaa	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	812
surrase
	A. Bunker, 30o Than. .	Making of the Karen Nation,
	New York, 1902; Julius Smith, Ten Years in Burnwh,
	Cincinnati, 1902; W. C. Griggs, Odds and Ends from
	Pagoda Land. Philadelphia,	1908.
	BURMAftN, FRANS: Dutch theologian; b. at
Leyden 1628; d. at Utrecht Nov. 12, 1879. At
twenty‑three he took the pastoral charge of a new
Dutch church at Hausu; in 1881 he became vioe
rector of the college at Leyden, and the next year
professor of dogmatic theology at Utrecht, combi
ning this position with a pastoral charge there, and
teaching church history also from 1871. His
principal work, Synopsis theologise (2 vole., Utrecht,
1871‑72), shows him to have been the clearest
systematic thinker of the school of Cocceius (q.v.).
He also wrote Dutch commentaries on all the his
torical books of the Old Testament (collected
edition Amsterdam, 1740), and several min~or~ works.
		(E. F. KARL M VYLLEA.)
	BURN, RICHARD: Legal writer; b. at Winton
(37 m. s.e. of Carlisle), Westmoreland, 1709; d. at
Orton, Westmoreland (10 m. w. of Winton), Nov.
12, 1785. He studied at Queen's College, Oxford
(B.A., 1734); became vicar of Orton 1736, and
was justice of the peace for Westmoreland and
Cumberland; chancellor of Carlisle 1785. His
works include two standard treatises, The Justice
of the Peace and Parish 0)ycCer, comprehending all
the law to the present time (2 vole., London, 1755;
29th edition, enlarged, edited by Chitty and Bere,
8 vole., 1845; 30th ed., 1889); and Ecclesiastical
Law (2 vole., 1783; 9th edition, with additions,
by Phillimore, 4 vole., 1842).
	BURNET, GILBERT:	Bishop of Salisbury; b.
in Edinburgh Sept. 18, 1643; d. at Salisbury Mar.
17, 1715. He was educated at Aberdeen; became
a probationer 1881; studied and traveled in Eng
land, Holland, and France till 1664; became minis
ter at Saltoun 1665; professor of divinity at Glas
gow 1869; removed to London 1674 and was made
chaplain at the Rolls Chapel, and lecturer at St.
Clement's, 1675. The popularity he enjoyed in
Scotland did not forsake him in London, but his
intimacy with Lord William Russell, whom he
attended on the scaffold (July 21, 1883), cost him
the court favor and he was dismissed from both
these positions. On the accession of James II.
he left England and, after visiting France sad Italy,
settled at The Hague and was active in promoting
the accession of William and Mary. He returned
to England with William in 1688 and by him was
made in 1889 bishop of Salisbury, in which office
he was a model. His family connections, wealth,
and ambition, his scholarship, friendships, and
positions, his employment in diplomacy and honor
able politics, all qualified him to write his admirable
History of his own Time (i., London, 1723; ii., 1734;
best ed. by M. J. Routh, 8 vole., Oxford, 1833; Part
I. The Reign of Charles the Second, edited by Os
mund Airy, 2 vole., 1897‑1900; a Supplement to the
History was edited by Miss H. C. Foxcroft, 1902),
a work of great accuracy and fairness. Other
works worthy of mention are: History of the Refor
mation of the Church of England (i., 1679; ii., 1681;
iii., 1714; ed. N. Pocock, ? vole., 1885); his works
against the Roman Catholic Church, The mystery
of iniquity unveiled (1673); Rome's glory, or a collection of divers miracles wrought by popish saints, (1673); Infallibility of the Roman Church confuted (1680); also his life of William Bedell (1685); Exposition of the XXXIX. Articles (1699), which was censured by the Lower House of Convocation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Life, by Lie eon. Thomas B. Burner, in prefixed to the Oxford edition of his works, in 8 vole., 1833, which contains also a list of the bishop's writings. A detailed account is given in DNB, vii. 394‑40b. Consult also S. A. Allibone, Critical Dictionary of English Literature, i. 298‑288, Philadelphia, 1891. Further sources are the History, and the Letters to Herbert in the Egerton M88, in the British Museum.
BURNET, THOMAS: Church of England; b. at Croft (40 m. n. of York), Yorkshire, about 1835; d. in London Sept. 27, 1715. He studied at Clare Hall and Christ's College, Cambridge (fellow of Christ's, 1857; M.A., 1858; LL.D., 1885?); became master of the Charterhouse 1885, and in 1686 incited the first stand made by any society in England against the royal dispensing power in the reign of James IL, and thereby prevented the illegal admission of a pensioner at the king's demand. He wrote fine English and excellent Latin, and was the author of several books which created much commotion. The Telluria theoria sacra (part i., London, 1681; Eng, version, revised, The Sacred Theory of the Earth, 1684; part ii. and Eng, version of the entire work, 1689; 7th ed., with life by Ralph Heathcote, 1759) was a fanciful attempt to explain the structure of the earth, and of no scientific value. In the Archeologiee philosoPhicce sine doctr<nca antiqua de rerum originiGus (1892; Eng. tranal., 1692) he interpreted the account of the Fall as an allegory, and the work teat him his position as clerk of the closet to William III. and marred his hope of advancement. In later life he wrote De fide et of/'tciis Chrlstianarum, in which " he regards the historical religions as based upon the religion of nature and rejects original sin and the ` magical ' theory of the sacraments"; and De state mortuorum et resurgentium, in which he defended the doctrine of the middle state, the millennium, and the limited duration of future punishment; these works were first authoritatively printed in 1727 (Eng. translations, 1727‑28).
Bcarrooasrar: R.. Heathcote, Life of Th.»nae Burner, prefixed to the 7th ed. of The Sacred Theory, 1759; DNB, vii. 408‑‑410.
BURNETT PRIZES AND LECTURES: A foundation by John Burnett, a merchant of Aberdeen, Scotland (b. 1729; d. 1784), who bequeathed his entire estate for charitable and philanthropic purposes. One of the provisions of his will vested a portion of his property in trustees to provide prizes for the beat and the next beat may intended to prove " that there is a Being, all‑powerful, wise, and good, by whom everything exists; and particularly to obviate difficulties regarding the wisdom and goodness of the Deity; and this, in the first place, from considerations independent of written revelation, and, in the second place, from the revelation of the Lord Jesus; and, from the whole, to point out the inferences most necessary for, and useful to mankind!' It was provided that the competition should be open to the whole world;

313	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	teen
that the prizes should be of not less than £1,200 and £400 respectively, and should be offered at intervals of forty years; and that three appointees of the trustees of the testator's estate, the ministers of the Established Church of Aberdeen, and the principals and professors of King's and Marinchal Colleges should act as judges. The first competition was in 1815, when fifty essays were submitted and the first prize was given to William Laurence Brown (b. 1755; professor at Utrecht, 1788‑95; at Marinchal College, 1795, principal from 1796; d. 1830) for a treatise On the Existence of a Supreme Creator (2 vole., Aberdeen, 1816), and the second to John Bird Summer (q.v.), afterward archbishop of Canterbury, for an essay entitled Records of Creation (2 vola., London, 1818). In the second competition, 1855, out of 208 essays the judges selected Christian Theism (2 vole., London, 1855) by Robert Anchor Thompson (b. 1821; curate of Binbrook, Lincolnshire, 1854‑58; from 1858 master of the Hospital of St. Mary the Virgin, .Newcastleon‑Tyne; d. 1894) for the first prize, and Theism (Edinburgh, 1855) by John Tulloch (q.v.) for the second prize. In 1881 the use of the fund was changed by being applied to the support of a lectureship at Aberdeen, the lecturer to be appointed at intervals of five years and hold office for three years, and the subject to be either that prescribed by Mr. Burnett or some topic of history, archeology, or physical or natural science, so treated as to illustrate the theme originally suggested. Leoturera and subjects have been as follows:
188388. George Gabriel Stokes, professor of mathematics at Cambridge, On Light (London, 1887).
1888‑91. W. Robertson Smith, professor of Arabic at Cambridge. On the Religion of the Semites (let aeries only published, Fundamental Institutions. London, 1889; 3d ed., 1907).
189194. William L. Davidson, minister of Bourtie, Aberdeenshire, Theism as Grounded in Human Nature Aietorically and ciatioadly Handled (London, 1893).
The funds are now devoted toward the endowment of a chair of history and archeology in the university.

BURNS, WILLIAM CHALMERS: Missionary; b. at Dun (6 m, w. of Montrose), Forfarahire, Scotland, Apr. 1, 1815; d. at Niu‑chwang, China,, Apr. 4, 1868. He studied at Mariachal College, Aberdeen; began the study of law, but decided to become a minister and reentered the university in 1832; studied theology at Glasgow and was licensed in 1839; preached first in Dundee, and then traveled through the British Islands and visited Canada (1844‑46) as an evangelist, meeting with much success. On June 9, 1847, he sailed as first missionary to China of the English Presbyterian Missionary Society; he adopted the Chinese dress sad life and lived in Hongkong, Canton, Amoy, Shanghai, Peking, and Niu‑chwaag, choosing not to stay long in one place. He was one of the most devoted missionaries of modern times and won the respect of both the natives of China and the foreign residents. He translated $unyan'a Pilgrim's Progress into Chinese.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: I. BUMS, Memoir of W. C. Burns, London, 1870 (by his brother); W. G. Blaikie, in Leaders in Modern Philanthropy, New York, 1884.
BURNT OFFERING. See SACRIFICE.
BURR, ENOCH FITCH: Congregationalist; b. at Westport, Conn., Oct. 21, 1818; d. at Hamburg, Corm., May 8, 1907. He was educated at Yale College (B.A., 1839), and devoted several years of study in New Haven to science and theology. He then traveled extensively, and after his return to the United Staten was called in 1850 to the pastorate of the Congregational church at Lyme, Corm., which he held till his death. He lectured on the scientific evidences of religion at Amherst College, Williams College, the Sheffield Scientific School, and other institutions, and wrote: The Mathematical Theory of Neptune (New Haven, 1848); Spiritualism (New York, 1859); Ecce Colum (Boston, 1867); Pacer Mundi .(1869); Ad Fidem (1871); Evolution (1873); Sunday Afternoons for Little People (New York, 1874); Toward the Strait Gate (Boston, 1876); Work in the Vineyard (1876); Dio the Athenian (New York, 1880); Tempted to Unbelief (1882); Ecce Terra (Philadelphia, 1884); Celestial Empires (New York, 1885); Theism as a Canon of Science (London, 1886); Universal Beliefs (New York, 1887); Lang Ago, as Interpreted by the Nineteenth Century (1888); Supreme Things (1889); Aleph the Chaldean (1891); Fabius the Roman (1897); and Autumn Leaves from the Martaetaood (Andover, Mass., 1905).
BURRAGE, BERRY SWEETSER: Baptist; b. at Fitchburg, Mass., Jan. ?, 1837. He was educated at Brown University (B.A., 1861), and entered Newton Theological Institution, but left it in 1862 and nerved in the 36th Massachusetts Volunteers throughout the Civil War, rising from private to brevet major and acting assistant adjutant‑general, first brigade, second division, ninth army corps. He was wounded at Cold Spring Harbor, June 3, 1864, and was a prisoner of war from Nov. 1, 1864, to Feb. 22, 1865. On the conclusion of the war, he resumed his studies at Newton Theological Institution (1867) and the University of Halls (1868‑69), and was successively pastor of the Baptist church at Waterville, Me. (1870‑74), and editor of Zion's Advocate, Portland, Me. (18741905). Since 1905 he has been chaplain of the eastern branch of the National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers, Togus, Me. From 1875 to 1905 he was recording secretary of the Maine Baptist Missionary Convention, and since 1876 has held a similar office in the American Baptist Missionary Union. Since 1889 he has been recorder of the Maine Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States, and chaplain‑in‑chief of the entire organization since 1899, while he was secretary of the Maine Society of the Sons of the American Revolution from 1891 to 1905, when he was elected its president for 19061907. He was secretary of the Maine Society of Colonial Wars in 1899‑1905, and is the president of the Maine Baptist Historical Society. He is a trustee of Colby College and Newton Theological Institution, and was also a trustee of Brown University from 1889 to 1903, when he was chosen one of the board of fellows. In addition to numerous articles in magazines and reviews, he has written:

BurreU	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	814
Burton
Brown University in the Civil War (Providence, R. L,
1868); The Act of Baptism in the History of the
Christian Church (Philadelphia, 1879); History of
the Anabaptists in Switzerland (1882); Rosier's
Relation of Weymouth's Voyage to the Coast of
Maine, 1605 (Portland, Me., 188?); Baptist Hymn
Writers and their Hymns (Boston, 1888); History
of	the Baptists in New England (1894); History
of	the Baptists in Maine (Philadelphia, 1904); and
Gettysburg and Lincoln (New York, 1906). He
has also edited Early English and French Voyages
(N. Y., 1907) and a number of works relating
chiefly to the history of Maine.
	BURRELL, DAVID JAMES: Reformed (Dutch);
b.	at Mount Pleasant, Pa., Aug. 1, 1844. He was
educated at Yale University (B.A., 1867) and
Union Theological Seminary (1870), and after
serving as a missionary in Chicago for four years,
held successive pastorates at the Second Presby
terian Church, Dubuque, Ia. (1878‑87), West
minster Presbyterian Church, Minneapolis, Minn.
(1887‑91), and the Marble Collegiate Church,
Manhattan, New York City (since 1891). Since
1903 he has also been acting professor of homi
letics in Princeton Theological Seminary. He has
been on the board of regents of the Theological
Seminary of the Northwest, Bennett Female Semi
nary, Elmira Female College, and McCormick Theo
logical Seminary; and is at present a member of
the board of managers of the American Tract
Society, the Pan‑Presbyterian Council, and the
American Sabbath Union; president of the New
York State Sabbath Association, a vice‑president
.of the National Temperance Society, and of the
Evangelical Alliance; and a trustee of the
United Society of Christian Endeavor and the
Board of Domestic Missions of the Reformed
Church: He is also a member ok the New
York and Pennsylvania Historical Societies. In
theology he is a conservative. He has written:
The Religions of the World (Philadelphia,
1888); Hints and Helps (3 vole., New York,
1891‑93); Gospel of Gladness (1892); Morning
Cometh (1893); Religion of the Future (1894); Spirit
of	the Age (1895); For Christ's Crown and Covenant
(1896); The Golden Passional (1897); The Early
Church (1897); The Wondrous Cross (1898); God
and the People (1899); The Gospel of Certainty
(London, 1899); The Unaccountable Man (Chicago,
1900); The Church in the Fort (1901); The Wonder
ful Teacher (1902); The Verities of Jesus (New York,
1903); Christ and Progress (1903); Teachings of
Jesus Concerning the Scriptures (1904); Christ and
Men (1906); The Wayfarers of the Bible (1906);
and The Evolution of a Christian (1906).
	BURRITI', ELIHU: American Congregational
layman, scholar, and philanthropist; b. at New
Britain, Conn., Dec. 8, 1810; d. there Mar. 6, 1879.
While earning his living by his trade of blacksmith,
he acquired before the age of thirty some acqusint
anoe with most of the languages of Europe, and
also with Hebrew, Samaritan, and Ethiopic. So al
though modest and deprecating notoriety, he be
came known as °` the learned blacksmith." In 1841
he	was invited to lecture, and prepared an address
on " Application and Genius," in which he argued that all attainments are the result of persistent will and application alone. His lecturing was successful, and thenceforth he was prominent before the public as orator, editor, and philanthropist. In 1848 he went to England. For the neat twenty‑five years he spent most of his time abroad. He organized " The League of Universal Brotherhood " to work for the abolition of war and to promote friendly feelings between different peoples, and was active in connection with the first Peace Congress at Brussels in 1848 and similar gatherings afterward. He developed the idea of an " ocean penny postage," i.e., the reduction of the high rates then charged on international letters to a sum not more than double the domestic rate. After the outbreak of the Crimean War he returned to America sad advocated the emancipation of the negro slaves, with compensation to the owners. From 1$65 to 1869 he was consular agent of the United States at Birmingham. After 1870 he lived in retirement at New Britain, but was busy with his pen. He was always active in church work and strove to promote Christian fellowship between different creeds and confessions. He published many works, including: Sparks from the Anvil (London, 1847); Thoughts and Things at Home and Abroad (Boston, 1854); Walk from London to John 0'Groat's House (London, 1864); Walk from London to Land's End and Back (1865); Walks in the Black Country and its Green Border Lands (1866); Lectures and Speeches (1866); The Mission of Great Suffering (1867): Prayers and Meditations from the Psalms (New York, 1869); Sanskrit Handbook (London, 1874). He founded and edited a number of periodicals for the promotion of his pleas, of which the most important were The Christian Citizen, devoted to " peace. frrPdom, temperance, and every good cause " (Worcester, Mass., 1844‑51), and Bonds of Brotherhood (London, 1846‑68),
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Northend, ELihu BuRIU; Sketch of laic
Life and Labors, New York, 1882.
BURROUGHES (BURROUGHS), JEREMIAH: English Congregationalist; b. about 1600; d. in London Nov. 13, 1646. He studied at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and was graduated M.A. in 1624, but left the university because of nonconformity; was assistant to Edmund Calamy (q.v.) at Bury St. Edmunds; in 1631 became rector of Tivetahall, Norfolk; suspended for nonconformity in 1636 and soon afterward deprived, he went to Rotterdam (1637) and became " teacher " of the English church there; returned to England in 1641 and served as preacher at Stepney and Cripplegate, London. He was a member of the Westminster Assembly and one of the few who opposed the Presbyterian majority. While one of the most distinguished of the English Independents, he was one of the most moderate, acting consistently in accordance with the motto on his study door: Opinionum roarietaa et opinantdwnt unites non aunt &ail‑ (« Difference of belief and unity of believers are not inconsistent,,). His publications were many, the most important being An Exposition with Practical Observations on the prophecy of
Hosea (4 vole., London, 1643‑57).

315	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Buiionl
BURROUGHS (BURROUGH), GEORGE: The most prominent victim of the Salem witchcraft delusion; b. about 1650; executed on Gallows Hill, Salem, Mass., Aug. 19, 1692. He was graduated at Harvard, 1670; preached at Casco (Portland), Me.; at Salem Village (Danvers), Mass., 1680‑83, where he suffered because of a church quarrel antedating his pastorate; was in Casco again in 1685, and when the town was destroyed by the French and Indiana in May, 1690. In 1692, while acting as preacher at Wells, Me., he was accused of witchcraft by certain of his old parishioners at Salem and arrested; was brought ‑to trial at Salem Aug. 5 and convicted on all indictments against him; before his execution he made an address which moved the hearers to tears and led Cotton Mather to remind the crowd that the devil often appeared as an angel of light.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. L. Sibley, Harvard Graduates, vol. ii., Cambridge, 1881; C. W. Upham, Sateen Witchcraft, ib. 1867.
BURROWS, WIftFRID OLDFIELD: Church of England; b. at London Nov. 9, 1858. He was Ed,1CatCd at Corpus Christi College, Oxford (B.A., 1881) and Christ Church, Oxford (M.A., 1885), and was ordered deacon in 1886 and priested two years later. He was a tutor of Christ Church from 1884 to 1891, after which he was principal of Leeds Clergy School until 1900. He was then vicar of Holy Trinity, Leeds, for three years (1900‑03), and since 1903 has been vicar of St. Augustine's, Edgbaston, Birmingham. He was commissioner for North China in 1894 and for Natal in 1901, as well ag surrogate for the diocese of Ripon in 19001903 and examining chaplain to the bishop of Wakefield in 1888‑1905. Since 1904 he has been archdeacon of Birmingham, and since 1905 has also been examining chaplain to the bishop of Birmingham. In addition to briefer contributions, he has written The Mystery of the Cross (London, 1896).
BURSFELDE, CONGREGATION OF: An association of reformed Benedictine monks, taking its name from the abbey of Bllrafelde on the Weser, about 10 m. west of GSttingen, founded by Count Henry of Nordheim and his wife Gertrude in 1093. It had been richly endowed, but by the beginning of the fifteenth century was so far fallen into decay that only a single monk lived there, and he in great poverty, while the church was used by traveling merchants as a stable. Johann of Minden, abbot of Rheinhausen, with Rembert ter List, prior of the Windesheim monastery of Wittenberg, was charged with reforming monastic life in Saxony and Brunswick after the Council of Basel; and the case of Bursfelde was specially commended to him by Duke Otto of Brunswick. He took up the teak in 1433, and obtained the monks he needed from the abbey of St. Matthias at Treves. Dying in 1439, he left as equally energetic successor an Johann Hagen, who thoroughly completed the task in the thirty years of his rule, and founded the Congregation, including four other monasteries, with a view to the strict observance of the monastic rule, after the model of the Windesheim Congregation (q.v.). The spirit grew until Hagen
could number thirty‑six monasteries, besides some
nunneries, under his leadership. The movement
spread into the Netherlands also, under the influ
ence of Jan Busch and Nicholas of Cuss. A yearly
chapter of the whole congregation was held, always
under the presidency of the abbot of Burafelde. It
received numerous privileges from the provincial
council held by Nicholas of Cusa in 1451, and was
confirmed by Pius II. in 1458 and 1461. It grew
after Hagen's death until it numbered 142 monas
teries; but in the sixteenth century it began to de
cline, though there was a brief revival about 1629
and during the Thirty Years' War. Many of the
monasteries came into the possession of Protestant
princes, including Bursfelde itself, whose Catholic
abbot was replaced in 1579 by a Lutheran. Since
the foundation of the University of Gottingen,
the senior professor of the theological faculty has
borne the title of abbot of Burafelde, with an in
come derived from the revenues of the foundation.
The last head of the Congregation was Bernhard
Bierbaum, abbot of Werden; who was elected in
1780 at a chapter held in Hildeaheim and died
in 1798. 	L. SCHULZE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: The Chronicon Windeahemenu by J. Busch, ed. with introduction by K. Grubs, Halls, 1886; J. G. Leuckfeld, Antiquitatu Burafeldeneea, Leipaic, 1713; Ewelt, Die Anfttnge der Burafelder Benediktiner‑Kanprepation, in Zeitechrift far vatcrlandiache Geachichte, 3d aeries, vol. v., Munster, 1885. Consult Heimbueher, Orden and Kongrtpationen, i. 141‑144, 159, 196.

BURT, WILLIAM: Methodist Episcopal bishop; b. at Padstow (38 m. n.w. of Plymouth), Cornwall, England, Oct. 23, 1852. He was educated at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. (B.A., 1879), and Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, N. J. (1881). He entered the New York East Conference in 1881, and after being successively pastor of St. Paul's Church, Brooklyn (1881‑83), and the De Kalb Avenue Church in the same city (1883‑86), he was transferred to the Italy Conference and made presiding elder of the Milan district. He then resided in Florence from 1888 to 1890, when he removed to Rome, where he remained fourteen years, having charge of the Methodist Episcopal churches and schools of Italy and establishing several churches and schools, as well as a publishing house and two colleges. He was a delegate to the Ecumenical Methodist Conference at London in 1901, and to the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1892, 1896, 1900, and 1904. He was also a fraternal delegate to the Irish Conference at Belfast in 1906 sad to the British Conference at Nottingham in the same year. In theology he is an orthodox, though liberal, member of his denomination. In 1904 he was elected bishop by the General Conference at Los Angeles, Cal. Since that time he has resided in Europe, with special jurisdiction over the Methodists of ‑the Continent. He was created a cavalier of the Order of Mauritius and Lazarus is 1903, and is the author of several works in Italian, and in 1889 founded the Italian weekly L'Etxingelista.

BURTON, ASA: Congregational minister; b. at Stonington, Conn., Aug. 25, 1752; d. at Them ford, Vt., May 1, 1836. He was graduated at

Burton	THE	,~ gf;g~, _HERZOG	818
Busch
Dartmouth, 1777; ordained minister at Thetford,
1779, and spent his life there, laboring for the
spiritual, social, and material welfare of the com
munity in the way of the old‑fashioned New Eng
land clergyman. It is said that he trained sixty
young men for the ministry. He published Essays
on Some of the First Principles of Metaphysics,
Ethics, and Theology (Portland, Me., 1824).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A Memoir by Thomas Adams was printed
	in The American Quarterly Register, a. 321‑341, Boston,
	1838.
	BURTON, EDWARD: Church of England pa
tristic scholar and church historian; b. at Shrews
bury Feb. 13, 1794; d. at Ewehne (10 m. s.e. of
Oxford) Jan. 19, 1838. He studied at Christ
Church, Oxford (B.A., 1815; M.A., 1818; D.D.,
1829); became curate of Pettenhall, Staffordshire,
1815; went to the Continent in 1818 and worked
in the libraries of France and Italy; took up his
residence at Oxford 1824, and in 1829 became
regius professor of divinity. Among the more
important of his works are: Testimonies of the Ante
Nicene Fathers to the Divinity of Christ (Oxford,
1828); Inquiry into the Heresies of the Apostolic
Ago (Bampton lectures, 1829); The Greek Testa
ment with English Notes (2 vole., 1831); Testi
monies o f the Ante‑Nicene Fathers to the Doctrine
of the Trinity and of the Divinity of the Holy Ghost
(1831); Lectures on the Ecclesiastical History of
the First Three Centuries (2 vole., 183133). His
edition of the Historla eeclesiastica of Eusebius
appeared after his death (teat, 1838; again 1856
and 1872; notes by Heinichen, Leipsic, 1840).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His collected works, with memoir, were
	published at Oxford in b vole., 1848.
	BURTON, ERNEST DE WITT: Baptist; b. at
Granville, O., Feb. 4, 185,6. He wee educated at
Denison University, Granville, O. (B.A., 1876),
and Rochester Theological Seminary (1882), and
also studied at the universities of Leipsic (1887)
and Berlin (1894). He was an instructor in Kala
mazoo College, Kalamazoo, Mich., in 1876‑77,
and a teacher in the public schools of Xenia and
Norwood, O., in 1877‑79. In 1882 he was appointed
instructor in New Testament Greek in Rochester
Theological Seminary, but in the following year
was called to Newton Theological Institution as
associate professor of New Testament interpre
tation, and was full professor there from 1888 to
1892. In the latter yeas he went to the University
of Chicago as professor of New Testament litera
ture and interpretation, and head of the depart
ment of Biblical and patristic Greek, a position
which he still holds. He has been a member of
the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis
since 1883 and of the Chicago Society of Biblical
Research since 1892. In theology and Biblical
criticism his attitude is that of a conservative
progressive. He has been associate editor of the
Biblical World since 1892 and of the American
Journal of Theology since 1897. He has also written:
Syntax of the Moods and Tenses in New Testament
Greek (Chicago, 1893); Harmony of the Gospels
for Historical Study (New York, 1894; in collabo
ration with W. A. Stevens); Handbook of the Life
of Christ (1894; in collaboration with W. A. Ste‑
vens); Records and Letters o f the Apostolic Age (1895);
Handbook of the Life of Paul (Chicago, 1899); Con
structive Studies in the Life of Christ (1901; in
collaboration with S. Mathews); Principles and
Ideals of the Sunday School (1903; in collaboration
with S. Mathews); Short Introduction to the Gospels
(1904); Studies in the Gospel of Mark (1904); and
Some Principles o f literary Criticism and their
Application to the Synoptic Problem (1904).
BURTON, LEWES WILLIAM: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Lexington, Ky.; b. at Cleveland, O., Nov. 9, 1852. He was educated at Kenyon College, Gambier, O. (B.A., 1873), and at the Divinity School of the Protestant Episcopal Church, Philadelphia, from which he was graduated in 1877. He was ordered deacon in 1877 and was priested in 1878. He was successively curate and rector of All Saints', Cleveland, 1877‑80, of St. Mark's, Cleveland, 1881‑84, rector of St. John's, Richmond, Va., 1884‑93, and rector of St. Andrew's, Louisville, Ky., 1893‑96. In 1896 he was consecrated bishop of Lexington. While in Virginia, he was an examining chaplain to the bishop of that diocese. He is now a trustee of Kenyon College and of the University of the South, as well as a member of the Joint Commission of the General Convention on Christian Education. In theology he belongs to the conservative school. His publications include sermons, charges, contributions to periodicals, and the section on the annals of Henrico Parish, Va., in J. S. Moore's Virginians (Richmond, 1904).

	BURTON, ROBERT: Author of the Anatomy
a f Melancholy ; b. at Lindley (20 m. e.n.e. of
Birmingham), Leicestershire, Feb. 8, 1577; d. at
Oxford Jan. 25, 1640. He studied at Brasenose
and Christ Church, Oxford (B.D., 1614); became
vicar of St. Thomas, in the west suburbs of Oxford,
1616, and in addition, about 1630, rector of Se
grave, Leicestershire. His life was spent among
his books at Oxford; Anthony Wood, a generation
after his death, describes him as a good mathema
tician, a philologist, and astrologer, a hard student
and well‑read scholar, considered by some melan
choly and morose, but by those who knew him
better esteemed for honesty and charity, and as a
merry and genial companion. His famous work
(Oxford, 1621), which is a vast collection of quo
tations and allusions, abundantly proves his learn
ing. Five editions appeared during Burton's life,
each with many alterations and additions and
a sixth was printed from his annotated manuscript
(1651‑52). The edition of 1800 contains an so
count of the author. There is a modern edition
by A. R. Shilleto, with introduction by A. H. Bullen
(London, 1893). The Philosophaster is a Latin
comedy written in 1606 and acted at Christ Church
on Shrove Monday (Fob. 16), 1618; with certain
Latin poemata it was printed for the Roxburghe
Club (London, 1862).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the Memoir in the ed. of 1800, ooaeult: A. & Wood, Atkenos Osoniansea, ed. P. Bliss, ii. 86?r
863.4 vole., London, 1813‑20; J. Nichols, History and Antiquities of the County of Leicester. Vol. iii., art i., pp.
41&r119, 4 vole., London, 1796‑1811. The account in DNB, viii. 12‑14 describes rather the book than the man.

317	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BURWASH, NATHANIEL: Methodist Episcopalian; b. at Argenteuil, Quebec, July 25, 1839. He was educated at Victoria College, Cobourg, Ont. (B.A., 1859), Yale College, and Garrett Biblical Institute, Evanston, Ill. (B.D., 1871). He entered the Methodist Episcopal ministry in 1860, and after acting as classical tutor in Victoria College in 18601861, held pastorates until 1866, when he was recalled to Victoria College as professor of natural science. He was made dean of the theological faculty in the same institution in 1873, and since 1887 has been its president and chancellor. He is also a member of the senate and council of the University of Toronto and of the council of education for the province of Ontario. He has been a member of successive general conferences of his denomination since 1874, and was president of the one held in 1889‑90, in addition to being secretary of education for the Methodist Episcopal Church in Canada from 1874 to 1886. He has written: Memorials of Edward and Lydia Jackson (Toronto, 1876); Genesis, Nature, and Results of Sin (1878); Wesley's Doctrinal Standards (188I); Relation of Children to the Fall, the Atonement, and the Church (1882); Handbook on the Epistle to the Romans (1887); Inductive Studies in Theology (1896); Manual of Christian Theology (1900); Life and Times of Egerton Ryerson (1902); and The Development of the University of Toronto as a Provincial Institution (1905).
BURY, RICHARD DE: Bishop of Durham; b. at Bury St. Edmunds (61 m. n.e. of London) 1281, the son of Sir Richard Aungerville; d. at Auckland (11 m. sm. of Durham) Apr. 14, 1345. He studied at Oxford, then entered the Benedictine order at Durham, became tutor to the future Edward Ill., who on his accession (1327) entrusted various offices W him, and sent him twice to Pope John XXII. as ~.,mbassador, and later in the same capacity to Paris, Hainault, and Germany, and as commissioner for the affairs of Scotland. He was made dean of Wells, and the name year (1333) bishop of Durham. t?seful as he was to the king and his country as a diplomat, and able as he was as an ecclesiastic, he is remembered solely as a bibliophile, perhaps the earliest in England worthy of the name. He has no claim to be considered a scholar, but he loved books and used all his personal and official influence in their accumulation. Wherever he was, he was on the lookout for MSS., and he also had agents on the Continent in the search for them. So he had more books than all the other English bishops put together. Some of these MSS. he stored in his palace, others he is said to have deposited in the library he founded in Oxford in connection with Durham College (on the site of the present Trinity College). His love of books comes out in that bibliophile's delight, the Philobiblon (first published at Cologne, 1473, neat at Speyer, 1483, and in Paris, 1500). It has been often republished, the beat edition, having both the Latin text and an English translation, being by Ernest C. Thomas (London, 1888), and Mr.
homas's translation was reprinted 1902.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: $anrcee for a biography are: $. Wharton,
Anglia Sacra, i. 765 eqq., London, 11181; Histories DuneL
menses, edited for the $urtees Society by J. Rains, Durham, 1839; T. Rymer, Fadera, vol. ii., best ed., London, 1816. Consult also DNB, viii. 25‑27.
BUSCH, JAN: Dutch monastic reformer; b. at Zwolle (52 m. e.n.e. of Amsterdam) Aug. 9, 1399; d. at Siilte, near Hildeaheim, c. 1480. Educated first in the school of Zwolle, which then, under its famous rector Cele, numbered about a thousand students, he went to Erfurt at the age of eighteen to study law; but his inclination was for the monastic life, and in 1419 he entered the Windesheim house, of which Vos was then prior. He labored diligently to overcome theoretical doubts by study of the Scriptures and spiritual writers, and to form himself practically in the devout life. Vos, on his death‑bed, exhorted him to constancy in reforming zeal, and he was soon sent to Bodingen near Cologne, where he was ordained priest. He remained four years at BtSdingen, and then, after a short stay in the mother house, received a more difficult commission, being sent to Ludinkerken in East Friesland, where conditions of shocking laxity prevailed, but the great papal schism, a contested episcopal election, and his own weak health prevented him from accomplishing much there. After some years of comparative rest, he began his more important work is 1437 as nubprior o€ the reformed monastery of Wittenberg near Hildeaheim, which was to extend over a large part of Germany and to embrace especially, in the spirit of the Council of Basel, the reform of the Augustinian, convents of both asses, particularly in Saxony. Working in harmony with the Burafelde Congregation. (q.v.), he began with the neighboring monastery of SUlte, of which he took charge himself, with the title of provost, commonly used in Saxony instead of prior. His success in restoring discipline there induced the archbishop of Magdeburg in 1446 to place in his hands the Premonstratensian house of Our Lady in the same city. In the following year be became provost of the rich Neuwerkstift at Halls, combining with it the office of archdeacon, which gave him authority over 700 secular priests. After the plague of 1450, he went on to Glauchau, where he enjoyed the powerful support of his friend Nicholas of Cusa, who had been sent to Germany as cardinal legate with special reference to monastic reform. After a provincial synod at Bergen, the legate entrusted Busch with the oversight of this work in the entire province, giving him full power to inspect all monasteries and reform whatever disorders he found, taking the Windesheim statutes as a standard. He went vigorously to work in Halls, Leipsic, and Halberstadt, but in 1452 the opposition aroused by his zeal led to demands for his removal being laid before the pope and the archbishop. At first they were fruitless, but when Busch found the archbishop cooling toward him, he resigned his office of provost, still retaining his powers as visitor. In 1456 he went to attend a general chapter at Windeaheim, and remained there several years, living as a simple brother and employing the time in literary work. He wrote the lives of the first twenty‑four brothers and of his teacher Cele (Liter de viria illustribus do Windeahem), as well as a chmn‑

Bneembanm	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	318
Butler
	icle of the house and congregation. He took up
	active work again as provost of Siilte, and exer
	cised his visitatorial powers over a still wider field,
at the same time writing an account of his work
	which is of some value. He resigned his office as
	provost in 1479, and probably died in the following
year. His Chronicon Windeshemense was first
	printed by Heribert Roaweyde at Antwerp in 1621,
	and an incollilete edition of his four books De re
	farmatione mtmasteriorum was prepared by G. W.
von Leibnitz, in Serilltnres reru‑m Brunsvicensium
	(3 vole., Hanover, 1707‑11); an excellent modern
	edition, with introduction and notes, is that of K.
	Grubs (Halls, 1886). A few smaller works, let
	ters, and sermons, have recently been discovered
	and published by J. M. Wiistenhoff (Ghent, 1890).
	L. SCHULZE.
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources for s life are best discovered
	in his own writings: Chronicon Windeahemenae, ed. K.
	Grubs, Halle, 1888; Liber de reformatimw.monasteriorum,
	ed. Grubs, with the Chronicon, ut sup. (contains a brief
	life by the editor). Consult also: K. Grubs, Johannes
	Bunch, Aupuatinerpropat zu Hildeshaim, Freiburg, 1881;
	W. Moll, Kerkpeachiedenia van Nederiande voor de Her
	roorming, IL, ii., pp. 115, 221 eqq., 349. Utrecht, 1871;
	J. G. R. Aequoy, Het Iflooster to Windeaheim en zijn in
	vloed, 3 vols., ib. 1875; L. Schulze, Des Johannes Bunch
	triaher unbekannte 3ehriJten, in ZKG, mi. (1890) 588‑598.
	BUSEMBAUM (BUSENBAUM), HERMANN: Ger
	man Jesuit, casuist; b. at Nottelen (a village of
	Westphalia) 1600; d. at Munster Jan. 31, 1668.
	He was a teacher at Cologne, and afterward
rector at Hildesheim and Munster.	His text‑book
	of casuistry, entitled Medulla theologise moralia
	(Milnster, 1645), in seven books, ran through 200
	editions before 1776, although it caused offense
	when it was published with a commentary in 1710.
	The book contained the Jesuitic teachings on
	regicide, and in France, when an attempt was made
	to assassinate Louis XIV., the matter was brought
before the courts.	The Paris parliament was
	satisfied with simply condemning the book, while
	that of Toulouse had it publicly burned and held
	the principals of institutions who used it respon
	sible. Meanwhile the moral theology of the Me
	dulla was incorporated in the classical text‑book
	of the order of Redemptorists, edited by Liguori.
	Busembaum'a Lilium inter spinal (Cologne, 1660)
is ascetic in character.	K. BENRATH.
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. J. I. D&llinger and F. H. Reusch, Ge
	schichte der Moratatreitigkeiten, vol, i., Stuttgart, 1890;
	F. H. Reuseh, Index der ver6otaiven Bficher, ii. 828, 898,
898, 920.
	BUSH, GEORGE: American Swedenborgian;
	b. at Norwich, Vt., June 12, 1796; d. at Rochester,
	N. Y., Sept. 19, 1859. He was graduated at Dart
	mouth, 1818; studied at Princeton Theological
	Seminary, 1820‑22; was tutor in Princeton College,
	1822‑23; went to Indiana for the Home Missionary
	Society in 1824 and was pastor of a Presbyterian
	church at Indianapolis 1825‑28; professor of He
	brew and Oriental literature in the University of
	the City of New York 18317; instructor of sacred
	literature in Union Theological Seminary in the
	same city 1836‑37. In 1845 he connected himself
	with the Swedenborgians and was preacher of the
	New Church Society in New York 1848‑b2, in
	Brooklyn 1854‑59. He was an active defender
of the tenets of his faith with both pen and voice, and edited the New Church Repository and Monthly Review 1848‑55. His writings on other subjects include: Life of Mohammed (New York, 1832); A Treatise on the Millennium (1832); A Grammar of the Hebrew Language (1835); Notes Critical and Practical on the Old Testament (Genesie‑Judges, 8 vole., 1840 sqq.); Anastasis (1845). against the doctrine of the resurrection of the body. He was justly esteemed as a Hebrew scholar.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Memoirs and Reminiacenaee of George Bush, a collection of contributions from friends, edited by Wood‑bury M. Fernald, Boston, 1880.
BUSHNELL, HORACE: Congregationalist; b. at Litchfield, Conn., Apr. 14, 1802; d. in Hartford, Corm., Feb. 17, 1876. He was graduated at Yale College, 1827; after an interval spent in teaching and journalism, he returned (1829) to study law in the Yale Law School, but after two years, during which he was a tutor in the college, was converted and studied for the ministry in the Yale Divinity School and graduated in the class of 1833. He was pastor of the North Church, Hartford, Conn., from May 22, 1833, till Nov. 22, 1859, when he resigned on account of his health, though he continued his ministrations with undiminished power. His distinction rests upon several great works: (1) His Christian Nurture (Hartford, 1846)‑a contribution of the first rank to religious thought‑in which he drew attention away from revivals to the training of children in Christian households as the law of growth in the Church. (2) His doctrine of the " Instrumental Trinity " (God in Christ, New York, 1849), showing affinities with Sabelliauism, but lifting the idea of the Trinity out of the region of speculation and making it available for actual life (see Cs1tIaToloaY, IX., 3, ,§ 4). (3) His supreme emphasis on ethical and religious values and his refusal of metaphysics; here he anticipates the Ritschlian attitude, the ground of which for him lay not in philosophy, but in a theory of language (" Dissertation on Language," in God in Christ; " Our Gospel a Gift to the Imagination," in Building Eras, New York, 1881) and in a profound Christian experience. (4) His moral view of the Atonement (q.v.), " grounded in principles of universal obligation " and universal vicariousness, later modified by the idea of God as propitiating himself in the forgiveness of the sinner (The Vicarious Sacrifice, New York, 1865; Forgiveness and Law, ib. 1874‑the two volumes published under the title The Vicarious Sacrifice, 1877). (5) In apologetics Bushnell related " Miracles " to " Law," and drew his matchless picture of " The Character of Jesus Forbidding his Possible Classification with Men " (Nature and the Supernatural, New York, 1858). (6) Many of his sermons are unsurpassed for insight, feeling, imagination, noble thought, and splendor 'of diction. Yet by his own generation he was generally called a heretic; and for his condemnation there was a demand throughout the American orthodox churchesl In 1849 and 1851 he was actually accused of helbay in formal fashion, and still more savagely attacked after 1866, but his congregation stood by him and he was not tried. The present generation in America ven‑

319	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Bneembaum
		Butler
erates him as one of the molders of religious opin
ion, and has been influenced by him more perhaps
than it knows. A centenary edition of his works
appeared in twelve volumes (New York, 1903).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. C. Trumbull, in MyFourReligiouaTeadt
	era, Philadelphia, 19(),3; M. B. Cheney, Life and Letters of
	Horace Bushnell, New York, 1880 (by his daughter);
	T. T. Munger, Borate Bushnell, Preacher and Theologian,
	Boston, 1899. His Spirit in Man, Sermons and Selec
	tions was published in a centenary ed., with classified
	and annotated literature, by H. B. Learned, New York,
	1903.
	BUTLER, ALBAN: English Roman Catholic;
b. at Appletree (70 m. n.w. of London), Northamp
tonshire, Oct. 24, 1710; d. at St. Omer (22 m. s.e.
of Calais), France, May 15, 1773. He was edu
cated at Douai and became professor there of phi
losophy and divinity; was ordained priest, 1735;
traveled through France and Italy, 174516, and
then was sent for a short time to the Roman Cath
olic mission in Staffordshire. Later he was tutor
to Edward Howard, duke of Norfolk, and accom
panied him to Paris; about 1766 he became presi
dent of the English college at St. Omer. He
labored for thirty years on his chief work, The
Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Other Principal
Saints, which was published anonymously in four
volumes (vol. iii., 2 parts) at London, 1756‑59.
The second edition, with notes and other matter
omitted in the first edition, edited by Dr. Carpen
ter, archbishop of Dublin, appeared at Dublin in
twelve volumes in 1778‑80. It has appeared in
several later editions and abridgments (as by F.
C. Huaenbeth, with omission of the notes and most
of the shorter lives, 2 vole., London, 1857‑‑60), and
was translated into French and Italian. His
nephew, Charles Butler (q.v.), prepared a continua
tion (London, 1823). A complete general index was
published in 1886.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Charles Butler, An Account of the Life and
	Writings of Alban Butler, Edinburgh, 1800, contained also
	in vol. iii. of the works of Charles Butler, London, 1817,
	and in many editions of the Lives; DNB, viii. 33‑34.
	BUTLER, ALFORD AUGUSTUS: Protestant
Episcopalian; b. at Portland, Me., Sept. 23, 1845.
He was educated at Griswold College, Davenport,
Ia., where he completed his theological education
in 1873. He was ordered deacon in the same year,
and was ordained priest in 1874. He was suc
cessively assistant in Grace Cathedral, Davenport,
Ia. (1873), and rector of Grace Church, Cedar
Rapids, Ia. (1873‑77), Trinity Church, Bay City,
Mich. (1877,84), Church of the Epiphany, New
York City (1884‑91), and Christ Church, Red Wing,
Minn. (1891‑94). Since 1894 he has been warden
and professor of homiletics, liturgies, and religious
pedagogy in Seabury Divinity School, Faribault,
Minn. He was active in organizing the Parochial
Mission Society of the United States, and was
chosen secretary of its executive committee, and
also took a prominent part in establishing the first
deaconess school in the Protestant Episcopal
Church. He is likewise a member of the Joint
Commission on Sunday Schools and of the General
Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church.
He has written: How to Study the Life of Christ
(New York, 1902); How shall we worship God?
(1904); and The Churchman's Manual of Sunday School Methods (Milwaukee, 1906).
BUTLER, ALFRED JOSHUA: Church of England layman; b. at Loughborough (10 m. n.n.w. of Leicester), Leicestershire, Sept. 21, 1850. He was educated at Trinity College, Oxford (B.A., 1874), and after being assistant master at Winchester from 1874 to 1879, was tutor to the Khedive of Egypt in 1879‑81. He was elected fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford, in 1877, and was appointed bursar four years later, both of which positions he still holds. He has written: Amaranth and Asphodel, Verses from the Greek Anthology (London, 1880); Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt (2 vole., Oxford, 1884); Court Life in Egypt (London, 1887); The Churches and Monasteries of Egypt and some neighboring Countries attributed to Abu Sali?t, the Armenian (1895, in collaboration with B. T. A. Evetta); and The Arab Conquest of Egypt (London, 1902).
BUTLER, CHARLES: English Roman Catholic layman; nephew of Alban Butler (q.v.); b. in London Aug. 14, 1750; d. there June 2. 1832. He studied at Douai, and for many years was a leading. lawyer of London. He was prominent in the movement to secure the repeal of the laws against Roman Catholics; in regard to the hierarchy and the relations of English Catholics to the pope he was an extreme Gallican, and found bitter opponents in the vicars‑apostolic in England. He was a. voluminous writer; among the more important of his works are Horse biblicte (2 pts., London, 17971802); Historical Memoirs respecting the English, Irish, and Scottish Catholics from the Reformation (4 vole., 1819‑21); Reminiscences (1822); The Book of the Roman Catholic Church (1825); biographies of Alban Butter (1800), F6nelon (1811), Erasmus (1825), Grotius (1826), and others. He continued his uncle's Lives of the Saints.
BUTLER, CLEMENT MOORE: American Episcopalian; b. at Troy, N. Y., Oct. 1.6, 1810; d. in Philadelphia Mar. 5, 1890. He was graduated at Washington (Trinity) College 1833, and at the General Theological Seminary, New York, 1836; was rector of various churches in New York, the District of Columbia, Massachusetts, and Ohio 18371, and from 1849 to 1853 chaplain of the United States Senate; chaplain of the United States embassy at Rome 1861‑64; professor of church history in the Protestant Episcopal Divinity School, Philadelphia, 1864‑84. Besides occasional sermons, he published: The Year of the Church, hymns and devotional verse for the Sundays and Holy Days of the ecclesiastical year for young persons (Utica, N. Y., 1839); The Book of Common Prayer Interpreted by its History (Boston, 1845; 2d ed., enlarged, Washington, 1849); Addresses and Lectures on Public Men and Public Affairs delivered in Washington City (Cincinnati, 1856); The Flock Fed, catechetical instruction preparatory to confirmation (New York, 1862); Inner Rome, political, religious, and social (Philadelphia, 1866); The Ritualiam of Law (1887); A Manual of Ecclesiastical History (from the first to the nineteenth century; 2 vole., 1868‑72); History of the Book of Common

Butler
Buttlar	THE NEW BCHAFF‑HERZOG 	820
Prayer (1880); History of the Reformation in Sweden (New York, 1883).
BUTLER, HENRY MONTAGUE: Master of Trinity College, Cambridge; b. at Gayton (4 m. n. of Towcester), Northampton, July 2, 1833. He was educated at Trinity College (B.A., 1855), and was ordained priest in 1859. He was fellow of his college in 1855‑60, sad was head master of Harrow School from 1859 to 1885. He was honorary chaplain to the queen in 1875‑77 and chaplain in ordinary is 1877,85, as well as examining chaplain to archbishops Tait and Benson of Canterbury from 1879 to 1887. He was also prebendary of Holborn in St. Paul's Cathedral in 1882‑85, dean of Gloucester in 188586, and vice‑chancellor of Cambridge in 1889‑91. Since 1886 he has been master of Trinity College, and honorary canon of Ely since 1898. He was select preacher at Oxford in 1877‑78, 1878‑80, 1882, and 1899, and at Cambridge in 1879, 1885, 1893, 1896‑98, 1901, and 1903, while in 1871 he was created a commander of the Order of the Crown of Italy. He is also a governor of Haileybury College, Hatrow School, Cheltenham College, Wellington College, and Westminster School, and has written: Sermons preached in the Chapel of Harrow School (2 vole., London, 1861‑69); Belief in Christ and other Sermons preached in Trinity College (1898); "Lift up your Hearts"
Words of Good Cheer for the Holy Communion (1898); University and other Sermons (1899); and Public School Sermons (1899).
BUTLER, JAMES GLENTWORTH: Presbyterian; b. at Brooklyn, N. Y., Aug. 3, 1821. He was educated at New York University (did not graduate), Union Theological Seminary (1846‑47), and Yale Divinity School, being graduated from the latter in 1849. After being a resident licentiate at the same institution in 1849‑50, he was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry late in 1862 and was pastor of the Walnut Street Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia, Pa., until 1868. He was then elected corresponding secretary of the American sad Foreign Christian Union, a position which he retained three years, after which be was pastor of the First Presbyterian Church, Brooklyn, for two years (1871‑73). In 1874 he retired from the active ministry, and has since lived the life of a private scholar. In addition to a number of briefer contributions, he prepared The Bible Reader's Commentary, New Testament (2 vole., New York, 1879), which was afterward enlarged under the title Bile Work (Il vole., 1892) and made to include the Old Testament; and Vital Truths respecting God and Man (Philadelphia, 1904).
BUTLER, JOHN GEORGE: Lutheran; b. at Cumberland, Md., Jan. 28, 1826. He was educated at Pennsylvania College (1846) and Gettyeburg Theological Seminary. Gettysburg, Pa (18471849), and was pastor of St. Paul's English Lutheran Church, Washington, D. C., from 1849 to 1873. Since the latter year he has been pastor of the Luther Place Memorial Church in the same city. He also served throughout the Civil War as a chaplain is and near Washington, was chaplain of the House of Representatives from 1869 to 1875, and of the
Senate from 1888 to 1893. He was likewise professor of homiletics and church history in Howard University, Washington, from 1871 to 1881, and for many years was Washington correspondent of the Lutheran's Observer sad the Lutheran Evangelist, and has also been the editor of the latter paper since 1893.

BUTLER, JOSEPH: Bishop of Durham; b. at Wantage (14 m. s.w. of Oxford) May 18, 1692; d. at Bath June 16, 1752. He was the youngest of the eight children of Thomas Butler, a retired linen‑draper and stanch Presbyterian, but was allowed to enter Oriel College, Oxford, and in 1718 the ministry of the Church of England. From 1719 to 1726 he was preacher at the Rolls Chapel, London, where moat of the congregation were lawyers and the pay small; from 1721 to 1738 he was prebendary of Salisbury; from 1721 to 1725, rector of Haughton‑le‑Skerne (2 m. n.e. of Darlington); and from 1725 to 1740 of Stanhope (26 m. n. of Darlington). From 1733 to 1740 he was a prebendary of Rochester; from 1733 to 1736 chaplain to the lord chancellor; from 1736 to her death in 1737 clerk of the closet to Caroline, queen consort of George IL; from 1738 to 1750 bishop of Bristol, the poorest see in England; from 1740 to 1750 dean of St. Paul's with a prebend and reeidentiary canony; from 1746 to 1750 clerk of the closet to the King (George IL); from 1750 till his death, bishop of Durham, the richest see in England. As appears from the above, he was a pluralist. He was not, however, avaricious, but generous to a fault. He was shy, reticent, sensitive, more of a
I	thinker than a reader, and he never married. His one great aim was to combat the current Deism and contempt for religion. This he did with unrivaled force. He had the very expensive taste of building sad spent much money in reconstructing his episcopal residences.
	His reputation rests upon his writings, all pub
lished by himself or in his lifetime, as his literary
remains were destroyed at his death, according to
his direction. These writings are few in number
but weighty in matter. This is the full list: Fif
teen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel (1726);
The Analogy of Religion Natural and Revealed to
the Constitution and Course of Nature (1736); six
occasional sermons of various dates; a part of his
episcopal charge at Bristol in 1749, and his episeo
pal charge at Durham in 1751; and the corre
spondence, down to 1714, between himself and
Samuel Clarks, which the latter published in the
fourth edition (1716) of his Boyle lectures on the
Being and Atlrz'butea o f God, and separately the
same year, but which has received additions.
To understand and appreciate these writings of Butler one must bear in mind two facts: Butler
lived in the " golden age of English Deism," when Christianity, as he himself says, was " not so much as a subject of inquiry; but that it is, now at length, discovered to be' fictitious,,; and secondly that he was intensely practical. He wrote his famous Fifteen Sermons, as J. H. Bernard says, " not to propound s new basis for speculative ethics, but to justify to practical men the practice

321	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Butler
of the common virtues, benevolence, compassion, and the like. He desires to take human nature as an existing fact, and to analyze its constituents just so far as is necessary to bring to light the obligations to right living." His Six Sermons are likewise practical: The first is a defense of foreign missions; the second is an appeal for the London hospitals; the third is on the true way to safeguard liberty; the fourth is a plea for charity schools; the fifth is upon the uses to which the union of Church and State should be put, and the sixth upon the proper management of infirmaries. Of like practicality is his more famous Analogy. He took the Deists on their own ground and strove to cut the ground from under their feet in order that he might bring them to the Christian foundation. To quote Bernard again: " We find in Butler's works no attempt to construct a philosophy of religion nor . . . an analysis of the religious consciousness. . . Religion is treated altogether from the historical point of view. Its main doctrines are facts and are susceptible of proof, just like any other facts . . . . It is an argumentum ad hominem all through, and is not intended to present an absolute and consecutive statement of the grounds of faith. . . His point was, not that the difficulties of revelation repeat the difficulties of nature, but rather the difficulties of revelation, admitted to be embarrassing in themselves, cannot be counted destructive of religious belief, inasmuch as difficulties of a similar nature beset the recognition of nature as a coherent and systematic whole"
The first part of the Analogy, consisting of seven chapters, is the Analogy of Natural Religion to the constitution and course of Nature; and is generally considered more successful than the second part, in eight chapters, on the Analogy of Revealed Religion to the constitution and course of Nature (or a kind of evidences of Christianity). But both parts are very hard reading, because, though perfectly clear, the argument is very profound. It has been a college and university text‑book for nigh 175 years and the quarry of innumerable works.
There are many editions of Butler. Two of remarkable excellence are that by the late W. E. (aadatone (two vols., Oxford, 1896, with a volume of Gladstone's Studies subsidiary to Butler's works) and that by J. H. Bernard (2 vela., London, 1900).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The earliest Life appeared in the Biopraphia Britannica, in the Supplement, London, 1753, and the Life by Kippis, which appeared in his ed, of the Biographie, London, 1778‑93, is often prefixed to the Works or to the Analogy. Consult further: T. Bartlett, Memoirs of Joseph Butler, London, 1839; John Hunt, Religious Thought in Englad, vela. ii., iii., ib. 1871‑73; C. J. Abbey sad J. H. Overton, English Church in the Eighteenth Century, 2 vela., ib. 1878; T. R. Pynchon, Bishop Butter, a Sketch of his Life with an Examination of the Analogy, New York, 1889; Bishop ‑Butler, An Appreciation, with the beat passages of his Writings. London, 1903; DNB, v15i. 67‑72.

	BUTLER, WILLIAlIf: Methodist; b. in Dublin,
Ireland, Jan. 31, 1818; d. at Old Orchard, Me.,
Aug. 18, 1899. He was graduated at Didsbury
College, near Manchester, Eng., 1844, and the same
year became a member of the Irish Wesleyan Con
ference. In 1850 he came to America and joined
		IL‑21
the New England Conference. In 1856 he was sent to India to be superintendent of a mission to be founded in that country. He located it in Oudh, Northwest India, but had scarcely begun work before the Sepoy rebellion broke out and he was for a time in extreme peril. Quiet being restored, he conducted the mission very successfully, making his headquarters at Bareilly. In 1865 he returned to America because, themisaion beingorganized into a conference, no superintendent was needed. He resumed his pastoral labors till in 1869 he became secretary of the American and Foreign Christian Union, in New York. In 1873 he was for the second time selected by his Church to found a mission, this time in Mexico, and was its superintendent till 1879. He revisited India in 1883 and 1884, and saw the great success which had attended the mission he had founded. His last days were passed at Newton Centre, Mass. He wrote: Compendium of Missions (Boston, 1852); The Land of the Veda (New York, 1872); From Boston to Bareilly and Back (1885); Mexico in Transition (1892).
BIBLIOGRAPHY! Clementine butler, William Butler, the Founder of Two Missions of the M. E. Church, New York, 1902.
BUTLER, WILLIAM ARCHER: Church of Ireland; b. at Annerville (2 m. e. of Clonmel), County Tipperary, 1814; d. at Raymoghy (5 m. n. of Raphoe), County Donegal, July 5, 1848. He studied at Trinity College, Dublin, and was professor of moral philosophy there from 1837 to his death. From 1837 to 1842 he was minister at Clondehorka, diocese of Raphoe, County Donegal, and then rector of Raymoghy in the same diocese. He was a brilliant and profound thinker, but his works are all posthumous and prepared for the press by others. They are Letters on the Development of Christian Doctrine in Reply to Mr. Netoman's Essay (ed. Thomas Woodward, Dublin, 1850); Lectures on the History of Ancient Philosophy (ed. William Hepworth Thompson, 2 vols., Cambridge, 1856, 5th ed., 1 vol., London, 1874); Sermons Doctrinal anal Practical (1st series, ed. with memoir by Thomas Woodward , Dublin, 1849, 3d ed., Cambridge, 1855; 2d series, ed. James Amiraux Jeremie, Cambridge, 1856), each series having twenty‑six sermons; the two series with his lectures were reprinted in New York, 1879.
BUTTERBRIEFE, BUTTERWOCHE. See Leo‑
77CINIA.
BUTTLAR, EVA VON: The leader in a disgraceful aberration externally connected with Pietism, which is in no way responsible for it; b. at Eachwege (26 m. e.s.e. of Cassel), Hesse, 1670; d. at Altona after 1717. Educated without religious instruction, she married at seventeen a French dancing‑master in Eisenach, named De VSsias. After ten years of a gay court life, she was touched by the Pietistic movement, left her husband, stopped going to church, and in 1702, with a group of friends, founded at Allendorf in Hesse a new Christian‑Philadelphic society, like several others which had sprung up in the Netherlands and western Germany. The esoteric doctrine of these i3ocietiea included the expectation of an approach

Butzer	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	822
ing millennium, the rejection of marriage as degrading, and the extinction of carnal ‑desires by unrestrained indulgence. Eva and her friends are said to have practised the moat lawless excesses, as sanctioned by their beliefs. Driven from Allendorf, they sought refuge in Wittgenstein, the common asylum of the persecuted; but even there the tribunals were obliged to interfere. Eva and her special intimates the theologian Winter and the physician Appenfeller, embraced Catholicism at Cologne pro forma as a means of protection, and then settled at Lude near Pyrmont, where their blasphemous insanity reached its height in 1706. They were all again arrested, but escaped. Appenfeller, who had been legally married to Eva, settled with her in Altona as a practising physician; and she is said finally to have lived a decent, regular life with him there as a member of the Evangelical Lutheran Church.
(F. W. Dlsxlrus.)
Barcoaawretx: Thomaeius, Godanken fiber allerhand gr
miechte yAiloeophische and juriatiechs Mandel, iii. 208‑824, Halle, 1726; Keller, Die BaUIarische Rotfe, in ZHT, 1845, Dart 4; M. Goebel, aeachic3vte du chrieRfchen Lebsns is der rheiniaeh‑voeetph8lisehan Kirche, Coblene, 1862.
BUTTZ, HENRY ANSON: American Methodist Episcopalian; b. at Middle Smithfield, Pa., Apr. 18, 1835. He was educated at Princeton College (B.A., 1858), and held pastorates at Millstone, N. J. (1858‑59), Irvington, N. J. (1859‑60), Woodbridge, N. J. (1860‑81), Mariner's Harbor, Staten Island (1862‑63), Prospect Street Church, Paterson, N. J. (1864‑66), and Morristown, N. J. (18671869). He was also instructor in Drew Theological Seminary, Madieoit, N. J., in 1867, becoming adjunct professor of Greek and Hebrew in 1868, and professor of New Testament Greek and exegesis two years later. Since 1880 he has been president of the seminary. He has edited, in addition to a number of briefer studies: The New Life Dawning by B. H. Nadal (New York, 1873) and The Epistle to the Romans in Greek (1876).

BUTZER, MARTIN.
Early Activity in the Protee‑ The Wittenberg Concord
tsnt cause (§ 1). 	(§ 4).
The Reformation in 8trae. Critique of Butaer'e Attitude
	burg (¢ 2).	in the Controversy (§ 6).
Endeavors to Reconcile Lu. Butaer in England (§ 8).
ther and Zwingli (§ 3). Death of Butter (§ 7).
	Martin Butler (Bucer) was born at Schlettatadt (26
	m. S.W. of Strasburg) Nov.11,1491; d. at Cambridge,
	Eng.. Feb. 28,1551. He received his first education at
	the excellent Lak:n school of his native town, and
	in 1506 joined the order of the Dominicans. In
	1517 he was at Heidelberg, where he studied the
	writings of the humanists, the Bible, and also the
	writings of Luther, whose personal acquaintance
	he made in 1518 and with whom he
r. Early	began to correspond in 1520. Being
Activity	suspected by his order and accused at
is the	Rome, Butter, who favored the evan
	Proteateat gelical cause, left the monastery in
Cause.	1520 to avoid further difficulties, and
	became an associate of Hutten am•
	Siekingen. The latter called him in 1522 to the
	pastorate of Landstuhl, and in the same year he
married, being one of the first priests to break his
vow of celibacy. When Sickingen was defeated
by the elector of Trevea, however, ,Butter had
to leave the city, and for a year he acted as
evangelical	preacher ,at Wieaenburg in Alsace,
supported by		the council and citizens, but attacked
by the Franciscan monks. In 1523 he went to
Strasburg, where the Reformation, prepared in dif
ferent ways, was already in progress. Together
with Zell, Capito, and Hedio, Butter became the
soul of the Strasburg Refotmation, and by preach
ing and writing, by letters and journeys, and by
personal relations with ecclesiastics and statesmen,
he exerted a reformatory and organizing activity,
not only in	Alsace but also in different countries.
He was pastor of St. Aurelia 1524‑‑31, and pastor
of St. Thomas 1531‑40, having already become in
1530 president of the newly founded church coun
cil which was the supreme ecclesiastical authority
in Strasburg. As spiritual spokesman of the
Strasburg citizens, who were eager for the Refor
mation, and	as leader of the evangelical ministers,
he appeared	before the council, which proceeded
cautiously and advisedly. He accomplished the
	abolition of ‑the mass on Feb. 20,
a. The 1529, by a decree of the lay assessors,
Reforms‑	and thus the introduction of the Ref ‑
tioa in ormation into the free imperial cit••
	Strasburg.	Strasburg was made a matter of his
		tory. But long before this the reor
ganization of the divine service and of ecclesiastical
life began. Butter's Ordnung and Inhalt deutacher
Messe (1524) was typical of the Reformed order of
worship. He devoted special attention to cate
chetica and published three catechisms between
1524 and 1544, while by the church ordinance of
1534 he introduced the lay presbytery into Stras
burg, and in 1539 he inaugurated confirmation in
the same city. Together with his friend Johannes
Sturm, he laid the foundations of the Protestant
educational system in Strasburg, founding the
gymnasium in 1538, and the seminary in 1544. In
the interest of ecclesiastical discipline he energet
ically opposed the Anabaptists and such radicals as
Carlstadt, Hetzer, Denk, Sebastian Frank, Schwenck
feld, Melchior Hofmann, and Clemens,Ziegler.
Outside of Strasburg Butter brought about the introduction of the Reformation into Hanau‑Lichtenberg (1544), while Wilrttemberg, Baden, and especially Hesse owed him much. For the elector of Cologne, Archbishop Hermann of Wied, Butter, together with Melanchthon, composed an order of reformation (1543). His influence even reached as far as Belgium, Italy, and France.
Butter's activity in ecclesiastical organization is treated too lightly in most works on church history, which lay their main stress on his efforts toward a union of the two main streams of the Reformation, and especially on his endeavors to reconcile Luther and Zwingli in the eucharistic controversy, which significantly interrupted the purse of the main events in the period of the Reformation. When Carlstadt had to leave Strasburg in 1524, Butter addressed a writing to Luther in the name of the Strasburg ministers, is which he and they expressed their position in regard to

gig	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	B t~
Carlstadt. Concerning the sacrament of the altar, they taught that the bread is the body of Christ and the wine his blood, but that greater importance should be attached to ;;he commemoration of the death of Jesus than to the question what one eats and drinks. At first Luther answered reassuringly, but in his work Wider die 3. Endeav‑ himmlisehen Propheten (1525) he ators to Rec‑ tacked the Strasburg theologians.
	oncile	The latter sent an envoy to appease
Luther and Luther, but he emphasized the bodily
	Zwingli.	presence of Christ in the Lord's Sup
		per more than ever, and gave the
Strasburgers to understand that they should not
be deceived by the light of reason. The Stras
burgers now saw themselves driven more and more
to the side of the Swiss, so far as the doctrine of the
sacrament was concerned. At the Disputation of
Bern (q.v.) in 1528 Butter made thetpersonal ac
quaintance of Zwingli, with whom he had been cor
responding since 1523. Luther again attacked his
opponents in his Grosses Bekenntnis vom Abend
mahl (1528), but Butter did not lose hope of com
ing to an understanding by a personal interview.
Together with the landgrave Philip of Hesse, who
was animated by the same interest in the union
and agreement of the Protestants, he brought about
the religious conference of Marburg (q.v.) in 1529.
Concerning the question whether the true body
and blood of Christ are actually present in the
bread and wine, no agreement could be reached;
nevertheless, each party was to show Christian love
toward the other, so far as the conscience of each
allowed. Butter visited Luther at Coburg in Sept.,
1530, and received the promise to examine a
new confession which Butter intended to prepare.
Butter now endeavored to induce the Protes
tants, at least in southern Germany, to prepare
a declaration which should approximately satisfy
Luther, since the Swiss opposed every further
advance, an additional incentive being the threat
ening attitude of the emperor toward the Prot
estants at this time. The outcome of these
endeavors wa the Wittenberg Concord (q.v.), which
		was agreed upon with Luther in 1536
q. The by a delegation of Upper German Wittenberg theologians under the direction of
	Concord.	Butter. In this Concor3 the con
		cession was made to Luther that the
body and the blood of Christ are truly and essen
tially present with the bread and with the wine and
are so given and received, the only modification be
ing that the unworthy, but not the unholy, actually
receive the body of the Lord. By this agreement
a certain sort of theological understanding was
reached between Luther and the South Germans,
but the rupture between Butter and the Swiss was
accomplished.
Whatever views be held of Butter's efforts for union, especially in the eucharistic controversy, his honest intention and his unselfish zeal to serve the Church are beyond all question. His diplomatic tactics were not always such as to inspire confidence, and they gave offense to other parties besides Luther. Butter himself felt it afterward and honestly acknowledged that he had not always
interfered in a discreet manner. The whole sub‑
ject of controversy was of less interest for But
		ter than for Luther, hence Butter's
	5. Critique readiness to make concessions and
	of Butter's ever new formularizationa. The real
	Attitude success of his endeavors was that the
	in the Con‑ South Germans were not only induced
	troversy. to make common political cause with
		the North Germane, but were also
drawn into the communion of Lutheranism, in spite
of their peculiar doctrine of the Lord's Supper
The fact that Melanchthon, influenced partly by
Butter, took an intermediate position, and was
thus drawn nearer to Calvin, was also far‑reaching
in its importance for the future formation of the
Evangelical Church in Germany. The outcome of
the Schmalkald War and the defeat of the Protes
tants (1547) gave the emperor power to settle
the religious troubles by the Augsburg Interim
(see INTERIM) in 1548, which was accepted by the
majority of the intimidated diet and was to be
forced upon the city of Strasburg. This was most
energetically opposed by Butzer and his youngercol
league, Paul Fagius, on the ground of the Romani
zing character of the document. But when the coun
cil, yielding to the force of circumstances, accepted
the Interim, Butter perceived that he could remain
in Strasburg no longer, and he accepted a call to
England, whither he had been invited, together
with Fagius, by Thomas Cranmer, archbishop of
		Canterbury, the soul of the Reforma
	6. Butter lion in England. In Apr., 1549, both
	is arrived at London, and were met by
	England. Cranmer and King Edward VI. The
		king wished them to translate the
Bible from the original into Latin, this version be
ing intended to serve as the basis of an English
version for the people. The work was commenced
at once. At the end of the summer of 1549 But
ter and Fagiua were to go to Cambridge as teachers
and assist in the education of candidates for the
ministry. Fagiua arrived first, but died of a slow
fever (Nov., 1549). In Jan., 1550, Butter com
menced his lectures at Cambridge, which were at
tended by large crowds of students, some of whom
afterward exercised a powerful influence in the
Anglican Church.. Butter was directed to exam
ine the Book of Common Prayer, and was thus led
into a public disputation held on Aug. 8, 1550, to
expose the opposition of the English bishops (who
still leaned toward Rome) to evangelical principles
and innovations. At the request of the young
king, Butter wrote his De regno Christi, which he.
prepared in less than three months. This work
was intended to teach the true nature of God's king
dom and the means by which it might be realized
in earthly form in a country like England. This
		work was Butter's last. Scarcely
	y. Death had the king expressed his warm ap
	of proval and the university conferred
	Butter. the degree of doctor of divinity un
		conditionally, a thing which never
happened before, when Butter died after a short
illness. He was buried with great honor in the
principal church at Cambridge; but in 1558 his
body was exhumed and publicly burnt. Four yearn

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	324
afterward, however, Queen Elizabeth again honored
his memory. 	PAUL GRUENBERG.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A complete collection of Butter's works has never been made, that begun by his associate Ii. Hubert never getting beyond the first volume, Basel, 1577 (known as Tomus Angticanus because it contained mostly writings published in England). A bibliography of Butter's published works and literature about him was issued by F. Mentz and A. Erichson in Vierhundertj&krige Ceburtsfeier M. Butter's, Strasburg, 1891. Consult: J. W. Baum, Capito and Butter, Straasburga Rejormatoren, Elberfeld, 1860 (from the sources); I. B. ltady, Die Reformatoren in ihrer Beziehung zur Doppelehe des Landprafen Philipp, Frankfort, 1890; C. Conrad, Martin Butzer, Strasburg, 1891; A. Eriehson, Die cnlviniatiach.e and die Altatrasaburger Gotteadienatordnung, ib: 1894; H. Von Schubert, in Beitrttpe zur Reformationageechichte, pp. 192‑228, Goths, 1896• A. Ernst and J. Adam, Katechetiache GeBChichte des Eleassea biazur Reformation, pp. 4272, Strasburg, 1897; F. Hubert, Strasaburger Katechiemen sue den Tagen der Reformation, in ZKG, xx. (1899) 395‑413; A. Lang, Der Evangelienkommentar Butters and die Grundzuge seiner Theologie, in Stud4en zur Geachichte der Theologie and Kirche, Vol. ii., Leipsic, 1900; S. 11I. Jackson, Huldredch Zurinpli, passim, New York, 1903; J. Kbstlin, Martin Luther, ed. G. Kawerau, passim, 2 vole., Berlin, 1903; J. M Iteu, Quellen zur Gesehichte des kirchlichen Unlerrichte, G(itersloh, 1904; J. Ficker, Thesaurus Baumianus, Strasburg, 1905: Moeller, Christian Church, Vol. iii., passim; Schaff, Christian Church, Vol. vi., passim.
BUXTORF: A family of scholars at Basel, noteworthy for their services in the study of the Old Testament and Hebrew language and literature.
1. Johann Buatorf the Elder: Orientalist; b. at Camen (8 m. s.w. of Hammy, Westphalia, Dec. 25, 1564; d. at Basel Sept. 13, 1629. He received his earliest education in the schools of Hamm and Dortmund, and then went to Marburg and Herborrl, where he began his Hebrew studies under Piscator. Leaving Herborn, he studied successively at Heidelberg, Basel, Zurich, and Geneva, returning to Basel and taking his degree in 1590. In the following year, after much hesitation, he accepted the chair of Hebrew at the University of Basel, and later added other duties to this position, including the direction of the gymnasium. In 1610, however, he declined an appointment to a professorship of theology, as well as calls to Leyden and Saumur. ‑ Buxtorf was the greatest rabbinical student among the Protestants, availing himself not only of the Hebrew commentaries on the books of the Old Testament and the writings of learned Jews, but also carrying on an active correspondence with Jewish scholars in Germany, Poland, and Italy. His close relations with Jews, however, frequently exposed him to suspicion, and on one occasion he was fined 100 florins for attending the circumcision of a son of a Jew who resided in his house as his assistant in the printing of his Hebrew Bible. He devoted his Hebrew knowledge to the defense of the original text of the Old Testament against the Roman Catholics, who regarded the Vulgate and the Septuagint as the more reliable authorities, and also against the doubts cast upon it by such Reformers as Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin, his services being the more important in view of the necessity of appeal to the purity of the Hebrew text in Protestant pclemica against Catholicism. His chief works are as follows: Manuale Hebraieum et Chaldaioum (Basel, 1602); Jttden‑
Schiil (1603; Latin transl., Synagoga JudUica, by H. Germberg, Hanau, 1604); Lexicon Hebraicum et Chaldaicum (1607); De abbreviaturis Hebraieis (1613); Biblia Hebraica cum paraphrase Chaldaira et commentaries rabbinorum (4 vols., 1618‑19); and Tiberias, sine eommentarius masorethicus (1620); but he did not live to complete his Concordantite Biblioram llebraicce or his Lexicon Chalddicum, Talmudicum et Rabbinicum, both of which were edited by his son (Basel, 1632, 1639).
2. Johann Buatorf the Younger: Orientalist; son of the preceding; b. at Basel Aug. 13, 1599; d. there Aug. 17, 1664. After receiving his first education from his father, he attended the high school of his native city, and in 1617 went to Heidelberg, where he remained two years, then going to Dort, where he attended the synod. After its conclusion lie made a tour of Holland, England, and France, in company with the delegates of the city, and then returned to Basel. At the age of twentythree he published his Lexicon Chaldaicum et Syriacum (Basel, 1622), and in the following year studied at Geneva, but declined a call to the professorship of logic at Lausanne, preferring to remain in his native city, where he served as a deacon from 16`.34 to 1630. Delicate health, however, obliged him to resign all hopes of becoming a preacher, and in 1630 he succeeded his father as professor of Hebrew. He declined calls to Groningen and Leyden, and in 1654 accepted the chair. of Old Testament exegesis, as being closely associated with the one which he already held. It was his task to defend the views of his father on the purity of the transmitted Masoretic text of the Old Testament against many attacks, particularly by Cappel (q.v.), who assailed the credibility of rabbinical tradition and regarded the Hebrew text as inferior in places to the ancient versions. In this and kindred controversies Buxtorf wrote De punctorum, vocalium atque accentuum in libris Veteris Testamenti Hebraicis origine, antiquitate et auctoritate (Basel, 1648), and Anticritica, seu vindicia; veritatis Hebraiece adversus Ludm;ici Cappelli criticam quam sacram vocat (16;13), but though the logical victory rested with Cappel, who could appeal both to the judgment of Elias Levita (q.v.), who exercised a powerful influence on the development of Old Testament studies among the Protestants, and could also claim the support of many of the Reformers, he was regarded as a dangerous man, who sought to deny the divinity of the Scriptures, while his opponent was looked upon as a defender of orthodoxy, and won the formal verdict. In a minor controversy with Cappel on the Eucharist he wrote his Vindicice exertitatiortis Sanctae Came contra Cappellum (Basel, 1646) and his Anticritica contra Cappellum (1653). He likewise made a Latin translation of the Moreh A'ebukim of Maimonides (Basel, 1629) and edited, with notes and a translation the Liber COSH, sine colloquium de religione of Judah ha‑Levi (1660).
3. Johannes Jakob Buatorf: Orientalist; son of the preceding; b. at Basel Sept. 4, 1645; d. there Apr. 1 1704. He was educated at the university of his native city, and succeeded his father as professor of Hebrew in Nov., 1664. In the following year

828	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	g
he received leave of absence and visited Geneva, France, Holland (wintering at Leyden), and London. The general suspicion of foreigners in London just.after the great fire, however, caused Buxtorf to take refuge in a neighboring village, whence he later went to Oxford and Cambridge. In 1669 he returned to Basel and resumed his duties at the university, in addition to acting as librarian Although regarded as an excellent scholar and a diligent student, he wrote little with the exception of a preface to his edition of his grandfather's Tiberias (Basel, 1665), and his emendations to the' Synagoga Jttdaica (1680).
	4. Johann Buatorf: Nephew of the preceding; .
b. at Basel Jan. 8 1663; d. there June 19,
1732. After completing his education at Basel,
he went to Holland to continue his Oriental studies.
In 1694 he was appointed preacher at Ariatdorf, a
village near Basel, and in 1704 he succeeded his
uncle as professor of Hebrew at the University,
holding this position until his death. His most
noteworthy book was his Catalecta philologico‑theo
logica cum mantissa epistolarum virorttm clartmtm
ad Johanrtem Bttxtorffcum patrem et filium acrtp
tarum (Basel, 1707). 	(CARL BE$TSESU.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Athena Rauricas, Basel, 1778 , (contains biographies and catalogues of their publications); K. R. Hagenbaeh, Die theoiopieche 3chule Baaela, pp. 27 eqq.. ib. 1860; C. H. H. Wright, Introduction to the O. T., London 1891; C. D. Ginsburg, Introduction to the Maaaoretdco‑critics Edition of the Hebr. Bible, ib. 1897; C. A. Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, passim, New York, 1899; Buxtorf‑Falkeieen, Johannes Buztorf Vater, Basel, .1880; E. Kautzaeh, J. Buxton/ den allere, ib. 1879. On the younger Johannes, L. Dieatel, GsaeAichte den after Teatamenta in den chriaUiciun Kireha, pp. 338 eqq., Jena, 1868. On Johannes Jakob, $. Werenfels, Vita . . . J. J. BuxtorX, Basel, 1705.
BYFIELD, ADOftIRAM: Puritan and Presbyterian; b. probably at Cheater, before 1615, the son of Nicholas Byfield (q.v.); d. in London 1660. He was educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and chosen chaplain to a regiment of Parliament's army in 1642. In 1643 he was appointed one of the two scribes of the Westminster Assembly, but was not a member of that body. The manuscript minutes (edited by Mitchel and Struthers, 1874), now in the Williams Library, University Hall, Gordon Square, London, ire in his handwriting. He also edited, by authority of Parliament, the various papers in the controversy between the Westminster Assembly and the Dissenting Brethren, published London, 1648, including Reasons Presented by the Dissenting Brethren against Certain Propositions concerning Presbyterian Government, The Answer of Aasemby of Divines, Papers for Accumulation, and The Papers and Answers of the Dissenting Brethren and the Committee of the Assembly of Divines. He was rector of Fulham in Middlesex (16447) and vicar of .Fulham (1645?‑1657), subsequently rector of Collingbourn‑
Ducia m Wiltshire. 	C. A. BRIGGS.
BYFIELD, NICHOLAS: Puritan and Presbyterian, b. in Warwickshire in 1579; d. at Isleworth (2 m. s. of Brentford), Middlesex, Sept. 8,1622. He
was educated at Exeter College, Oxford; was for seven years pastor of St. Peter's Church at Chester, when (1615) he became vicar of Isleworth in Middlesex, where he remained until his death. William Gouge describes him as " a man of a profound judgment, strong memory, sharp wit, quick invention, and unwearied industry." His works were numerous, anti greatly esteemed. His Marrow of the Oracles of God (London, 1620), eonttvining six treatises previously published apart, reached an eleventh edition in 1640. The Principles, or; the Pattern of Wholesome Words, dedicated in 1618, reached a seventh edition in 1665, and is a valuable tompend of divinity. His expository sermons on the Epistle to the Colossians were published M615, and several series on the First Epistle of Peter at various times, finally collected and enlarged in a Commentary upon the Whole First Epistle of St. Pier (1637). The Rule of Faith, or an Exposition of the Apostles' Creed was issued by his son Adoniram, after his death (1626), and is an able and instructive work. He must be numbered among the Presbyterian fathers in England:
C. A. BRIGGS.
BYRON, JOHN: Author of "Christians awake, salute the happy morn," a Christmas hymn in almost universal use in England; b. at Kersall Cell, Broughton, near Manchester, Feb. 29, 1692; d. there Sept. 26, 1763. Ire entered'Trinity College, Cambridge, 1708 (B.A., 1712; M.A., 1715), and became fellow, 1714; contributed to the Spectator; invented a system of shorthand and taught it with suttees; became F.R.S., 1724; succeeded to the family estate at Kersall, 1740, and spent his later years there. He was a mystic and a Jacobite; took deep interest in religious speculations, and knew most of the celebrities of his time; he wrote some of the best epigrams in the language. His Poems, written in easy, colloquial style for his own and his friends' amusement, were printed posthumously (2 vole., Manchester, 1773; again, with life and notes, London, 1814); the Chetham Society of Manchester has published his Private Journal and Literary Remains, ed. R. Parkinson (2 vole., 18541857),and the Poems, ed: A. W. Ward ‑(2 vols.,18941895).

BYRUM, ENOCH EDWIN: American clergyman sad editor of The Church of God; b. near Union City, Ind., Oct. 13, 1861. He was educated in the public schools, and also studied elocution and oratory in the Northern Indiana Normal School (1886) and Sunday‑school work in Otterbein University (1887). He was ordained a minister of " The Church of God " in 1892, and in addition to editing The Gospel Trumpet and The Shining Light since 1890, has written: The Boy's Companion (Moundsville, W. Va., 1890); Divine Healing of Soul and Body (1892); The Secret of Salvation (1896); The Prayer of Faith (I899); The Great Physician (1900); Behind the Prison Bars (1901); What shall l do to be Saved? (1903); Ordinances of the Bible (1904); and Travels and Experiences in other Lands (1905).

Cabala	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	326
Origin and Spread of the Cabala (§ 1~ Doctrine of God (§ 2). Creation and the 8efiroth (§ 3). Names of the 8efiroth (¢ 4). Triads of 8efiroth (¢ b). The Four worlds (§ 8). Origin of Evil (§ 7). Doctrine of the Messiah (§ 8).
CABALA, cab's‑la.
Doctrines of the Soul (¢ 9).
Metempsychosis (§ 10).
Mystic Biblical Exegesis of the Cabala (§ 11).
Biblical Interpretation by Gematria (§ 12).
Magic Powers of the Tetragrammaton (¢ 13).
The term Cabala designates the esoteric doctrines of Judaism. Although it claims to be a product of the tannaitic period and to be the work of such sages as Ishmael ban Eliaha, Simeon ban Yohai, and Nehunya ban ha‑ganah, modern investigation has proved thatit is purelyaproduct of the MiddleAgea. Nor does the name kabbalaJt (from ,kibbel, "to receive ")occurwiththisapecialconnotation before the thirteenth century, the term kabbatah denoting in the Talmud the Hagiography and the Prophets in contradistinction to the Torah, or‑ Pentateuch.
The Cabala originated at a period when a crassly anthropomorphic concept of God prevailed in Judaism. In Maimonidea rationalism had reached its climax, the literal meaning alone being accepted, while all allegorical interpretation was rejected. The study of the Talmud had become purely legalistic, and worship had degenerated into formalism. Against this stereotyped faith born of Aristotefianiam arose a reaction, the Cabala. This sought to give the soul the nourishment it craved by an esoteric interpretation of the Scriptures, vivid presentation, and dramatic narrative, even though, in its speculative fervor, it became
z. Origin involved only too often in hopeless
and Spread haze, and evoked a dark superstition of the through its juggling with the names
	Cabala.	of God. Arising in Provence, the
		reaction against rationalism passed
to Spain, the real home of the Cabala. Thence,
with the expulsion of the Spanish Jews, it was
carried to Palestine, whence it spread throughout
Europe. The fundamental doctrines of the Cabala
are derived from the Hellenistic Judaism, Neo
platonism, and Neo‑Pythagoreanism, with occa
sional traces of Gnosticism. These elements are
so interwoven, however, with the Bible and with
a midrashic method of presentation, that the whole
has been stamped with the seal of Judaism.
According to the Cabala, God is the eternal and boundless principle of all, and is therefore called En Sol (" The Infinite "). The attributes given him ass general, rather than specific. He is absolutely perfect, and is free from all blemish; heir unity and immutability; be is boundless
a. Doctrine and naught exists beside him; and since of God, he may be known neither by wisdom nor by understanding, no definition can be given of him, no concept be formed regarding him, and no question asked concerning him. To all beings he is the concealed of all concealed, the hidden of all hidden the ancient of the ancient; the first of all first and the primal principle.
The cardinal cosmogonic doctrine of the Cabala is creation a nihilo. The reconciliation of the im‑
The Early Period of the Cabala (§ 14). The Beier Yezirah (¢ 15).
Crystallisation of the Cabala (¢ 16). The Zohar (§ 17).
Closing Period of the Cabala (¢ 18).
Influence of'.he Cabala on Judaism ( § lil). Relation of the Cabala to Christianity (5 20).
perfect and transitory phenomenal world with the
perfection and immutability of God, and the mu
tual relation of the two formed never‑ending prob
lems for the cabaliats. To explain the riddle
they assumed the existence of a series of independent
and spiritual primeval potentialities, which were
intelligible substances or demiurgea emanating
from the deity. These demiurges (se firuth) are
mentioned as early as the Sefer Yezirah, where
their number is given as ten. According to this
work, the first emanation was the spirit of the living
God, from which proceeded the entire phenomenal
world. This same spirit, futhermore, caused
ether, water, and fire to emanate from each other.
From ether arises the intellectual world, from water
the material (the tohu wa‑bohu of Gen. i. 2), and
from fire the spiritual (the angels and the throne of
God). These four se ftroth are followed by the six
		bounds of apace, height, depth, east,
3. Creation west, north, and south. There is,
	and the however, no consistent view concern
	Sefiroth. ing the nature of the se ftroth, which
		are sometimes regarded as inter
mediaries between God and the visible world,
and at other times as the manifestations of the
powers and properties of God; and there is an
equal divergence of opinion as to whether they are
actual creations which form, in a sense, the basis
of later creations, or emanations whereby God
emerges from his concealment and assumes form.
All attempts to reconcile these conflicting views
by postulating the existence of God both in and
above phenomena proved unsuccessful. The issu
ance of the se (troth from God was regarded by the
cabaliats as imperiling the doctrine of his immu
tability and infinity. The first difficulty was
obviated by the hypothesis that God's design to
manifest himself had existed from all eternity.
Since, however, God in his infinity filled the entire
universe, no room was left for the seftroth, until
Moses ban Jacob Cordovero (1522‑70) and Isaac
Luria (7533‑72) postulated two concentrations,
one a contraction and the other a retraction. Many
cabaliats, however, felt themselves unable to accept
this theory of concentration, which was closely con
nected, moreover, with the Gnosticism of Valentin
ian and Basilides, and preferred to assume that the
emergence of God from his retirement was to be un
derstood in terms of concept rather than of space,
and someregardedtheentireprocessas metaphorical.
	The first se farah was Kether (°° Crown "), the
primal source of all existence. The second was
,Hokmah (" Wisdom "), which, though enveloped
in God, generated the ideas. The third was Bi,rtah
(" Intelligence "), which carries out Vic ides of

327	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Caboaa
eternal Wisdom. The fifth was Heaedh (" Love "; sometimes called (iedhulah, " Magnitude "), the fifth Din (" Law "; also called Gebhurah, " Might," or Pahadh, "Fear "), the sixth Tifereth (" Beauty"; also called Raldamim, "Mercy "), the seventh Ne?ah (" Firmness "), the eighth Hodh
q. Names (" Splendor"), and the ninth Yesodh of the (" Foundation"). The tenth se firah
	Sefiroth.	was Malkhuth (" Kingdom "; also
		called Shekhinah, " Royalty"), and
was united in marriage with the God who rules the
world. The number of the se firoth was doubtless
influenced by the fact that astronomy then pos
tulated the existence of ten spheres, and also by
the sanctity ascribed to the number ten.
	As early as the eleventh century Hai Gaon (998
1038) classified the ten primal potentialities into
two groups, the first including three which pro
duced the spiritual world, and the second com
prising two triads which were united by a seventh,
and these formed the source of the material world.
The main outlines of this classification were retained
by later cabalists. Azriel (1160‑1238) distinguished
three groups‑intellectual, spiritual, and mate
rial, a classification evidently due to Neoplatonic
influence. Each group forms a triad, and its
members stand in the mutual relation of thesis,
antithesis, and synthesis. The first two members,
moreover, sustain a polar relation to each other,
and are united by the third. Thus, in the first
triad, which consists of " Crown," " Wisdom,"
and " Intelligence," " Intelligence " forms the
connecting link. In the second triad, which con
sists of " Love," " Law," and " Beauty," " Beau
ty " (or " Mercy ") forms the bond of union, while
in the third triad of " Firmness," " Splendor,"
		and " Foundation," the last recon‑
	g. Triads ciles the first two. All three triads
of 	are subject to the tenth sefirah,
	Sefirnth.	" Kingdom," which binds them into
		a harmonious whole. The first triad,
moreover, contained the " authors of the plan of
the world," the second the " arrangers," and the
third the " creators." Although the se firoth are
by no means comparable with God and do not
condition his independence, they partake of his
infinity and transmit his streams of blessings to
the various worlds. For this purpose, on which
their existence and activity depend, they are
united with God by invisible canals (;inrwroth)
which proceed from the throne of the divine majesty.
In so far as the ae fcroth are the earliest manifestations of God, they form an ideal world which bears no relation to the material world, and in this aspect they are termed either " primeval man " (adham ,kacthmon) or " superman " (adham 'ilai), who is sometimes considered to be the sefiroth collectively, and sometimes regarded as the first manifestation whereby God revealed himself as the creator and ruler of the world. In this aspect he seems to be a revelation interposed between God and the universe, and thus a second god, as it were, or the Logos.
According to a later view, various grades of emanation produced four worlds, in each of which the ten se firoth were repeated. The first of these
was the 'Olam ha‑A,zilah (" World of Radiation "),
which contains the powers of the divine plan of the
worlds. These powers have the same nature as
the world of the se firoth or the Adham ,kadhmon,
while, according to the Zohar, it also contains the
throne of the Shekinah and God's mantle of light.
From the 'Olam ha‑Azilah emanated the 'Olam
ha‑Beriah (" World of Creation "), the home of
the organizing powers and potencies. There were
the treasuries of blessing and life, 6. The and there was the throne of the glory of Four God, as well as the halls of all spiritual Worlds. and moral perfection, where the souls
	of the righteous dwelt. In its turn,
the 'Olam ha‑Beriah produced the 'Olam ha‑Yezirah
(" World of Creation ") with the angels and Mela
lron as their chief. To him are subject the evil
spirits (.kelifoth, " husks "), who dwell in the planets
and other heavenly bodies, or in the ether. The
fourth world is the present material and phenomenal
'Olam ha‑'Assiyah (" World of Action"), which is
subject to constant change and delusion. Like
the sefiroth, the four worlds are closely connected
with God as the primal principle, and receive con
tinual streams of divine blessing. This cosmology
of four worlds is based on the theophany of Ezek.
i. and seems to be first mentioned in the Masaek
heth A;iluth, a small treatise of the first half of the
thirteenth century. The anthropomorphic tend
encies of the cabaliats led them to make distinc
tions of sex among the se firoth. The masculine
principle, which is white in color, appears chiefly
in " Love," although it underlies both the other two
se firoth of the right side (" Wisdom " and " Firm
ness "); while the passive red female principle, which
owes its existence to the male, dwells chiefly in
" Law," yet also forms the basis of the other aefiroth
of the left side (" Intelligence " and " Splendor ").
	Side by side with the heavenly sefiroth exist the
sefiroth of evil, and Adham kadhmon, in like manner,
has his counterpart in Adham Beliyya'al. The
realms are related to each other as the right and
the left wing. In the kingdom of evil, as in the
realm of good, there are ten grades. Under the
leadership of Samael and his queen, the great
adulteress, the dark sefiroth toil unceasingly for
the destruction of the world. Since, however, the
se firoth of darkness, like the se firoth of light, were
regarded as emanations, there was danger that the
Infinite might be considered the author of evil.
To obviate this, the older cabalists advanced the
hypothesis that the origin of evil was to be sought in
the distances of the emanations from q. Origin their divine author, since the further
	of Evil.	they went from God into the material
		world, the more degenerate they be
came. The younger cabaliata like Lucia, on the
other hand, held that the vessels of the se firoth
were unable to contain and conduct the fulness of
the divine blessing and burst, thus giving rise to
evil. Penance, elf‑mortification, prayer, and
rigid observance of the prescribed ceremonies,
however, would gradually reconcile the upper and
lower realms and restore the original harmony of
the universe. It is noteworthy that this doctrine
of the opposition of the two kingdoms is a late

Cabala	THE NEW W SCHAFF‑HERZOG	328
development of the Cabala, and that it was not fully developed until the thirteenth century.
The Messianic teachings of the Cabala are closely connected with the doctrine of the realm of the evil se firolh. When through their piety and virtue mankind shall steadily have diminished the kingdom of
the ,kelifoth, the Messiah will appear 8. Doctrine and restore all things to their original of the condition. Under his rule all will turn to
Messiah. thedivinelight, and idolatry will cease.
In its account of the nature and task of the Messiah the Cabala diverges a little from the views advanced by the Talmud and the Midrash.
	In its anthropology the Cabala generally adopts
the tenets of Talmudic and Gaonic mysticism, so
that its new developments may be summarized
briefly. Earthly man is a type of the prototype
Adham kadhnwn, and thus comprises within him
self all that the ideal creation contains. He is,
therefore, a microcosm. The Cabala also teaches
the dual nature of man, who consists of body and
soul. Every member has its symbolic meaning,
while the body, as the garment of the soul, typifies
the merkobah (the heavenly Throne‑Chariot of
Ezek. i., x.). The soul, however, is far superior
to the body, since it is derived from the divine
all‑soul, and through the " canals "canals" (;innoroth)
can influence the intellectual world and draw down
its blessings to the lower world. It appears under
the three designations of nzfesh, rualc, and neshamah.
The first is blind impulse, the second is the seat
both of good and evil impulses, and the third is
able to unite with God sad the kingdom of light.
The Cabala also teaches the pre9. Doctrines existence of the soul. All souls desof the tined to enter human bodies have Soul, existed from all eternity in a fixed
number, nourished by the sight of the divine radiance of the Shekinah. The entrance of the soul into a body is a misfortune, and it implores God to spare it such imprisonment. Before their entrance into human bodies souls are androgynous, while marriage unites the severed halves to a single whole. This doctrine, like the preceding, is reminiscent of Plato and Philo, as is the cabalistic doctrine that all earthly learning is but a reminiscence of what the soul had known before it came to earth. Of special interest is the cabalistic doctrine of reincarnation. Each soul which is united with a body is to undergo a period of trial in this world, and if it is found able to preserve its original purity it returns immediately at death to its place of heavenly origin. If, on the other hand, it falls into sin, it is subjected to a purification, and is obliged to remain in lower forms of existence, such as animals, trees, stones, and rivers, until it has fully atoned for its evil and has regained the purity requisite for its return to its celestial home. Occasionally, however, the sin‑laden soul
wanders in the world with its fellows, io. Metemp‑ naked and ashamed, until it finally
sychoeis. receives its purification in hell. New 'I
souls are seldom born, the greater number being reincarnations. This is a proof of the corruption of the human race, and though exalted spirits sometimes descend to earth for the
welfare of man and assume human form, all the souls created from the beginning have not yet been able to be born on account of the number of reincarnations necessitated by human wickedness, and the Messiah consequently has not come. During sleep the souls of the righteous frequently leave their bodies, ascend to the celestial regions, hold converse with the spirits there, and receive revelations of future mysteries. Evil souls, on the other baud, descend to the realms of darkness and impurity and converse with demons, who give them false and lying words. To enable mankind to hold communication with the world of light during terrestrial existence, the cabaliats exacted a scrupulous observance of the ceremonial law and, above all, prayer, to which was ascribed as influence over God himself. Among other agencies stress was laid on asceticism, flagellation, retirement from the world, the practise of all good works, the wearing of white garments, and the use of the phylacteries and the prayer‑mantle.
Aristotelian scholasticism gave rise in Judaism to a system of exegesis which resulted in a view of religion as a matter of the head, rather than the heart. Yet at this very time the increasing persecution of the Jews evoked a need for spiritual strength and revivification, and these requirements were met by the cabalistic opposition to the purely intellectual interpretation of the Bible and by the substitution of a new method of hermeneutics, which sounded the depths of the Scriptures and thus strengthened the sinews of religion. As early as the Talmudic and Mishnaic period the feeling had prevailed in certain quarters that in addition to the literal meaning of the Bible (Peshat) there was an allegorical meaning (derush). The cabalista went still further, and regarded the
letters, words, and names of the Bible
z z. Mystic as possessed of deeply hidden divine
Biblical mysteries, while such accounts as Exegesis of those of Hagar, Esau, and Balak the Cabala. contained far more than mere history.
They therefore laid little stress on the literal sense of the Bible, though not a letter might be added to it or taken from it. In their endeavor to unlock the divine mysteries they employed various systems of exegesis. Of these the chief was the gematria, or study of letters. As early as the Sefer Yefirah the twenty‑two letters of the Hebrew alphabet were divided according to sound, form, and numerical value. To the first class belonged the three " mothers," aleph, mem, and shin, which represented the three primal elements, aleph standing for air (avnuer), mem for water (mayim), and shin for fire (eah). The seven " double " letters which formed the second division (beth, gimel, daleth, kaPh, pe, resh, and taw) were symbolic of the seven planets, the seven days of
the week, the seven gates of the soul,
:z. Biblical the seven seas, and the like; while in
	Interpre‑	virtue of their twofold pronunciation,
	ration by	either aspirated or unaspirated, they
	Gematria.	typified the seven antitheses of man:
		life and death, wisdom and folly,
riches and poverty, peace and was, beauty and
hideousness, fertility and desolation, power and
slavery. The twelve " simple " letters, which

329	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cabala
constituted the remainder of the alphabet, symbolized the twelve activities of man: sight, hearing, smell, speech, eating, cohabitation, toil, walking, wrath, laughter, reflection, and sleep. The numerical value of the letters, moreover, rendered numbers sacred, so that twelve, for example, typified the twelve tribes, the twelve months, and the twelve signs of the zodiac. Subsequently gematria was divided into arithmetical and figurative, the first considering the letters according to their numerical value and the latter devoted to the mode of writing the letters.
A second exegetical system was the notarikon, the acrostic use of the letters in such a way that each letter of a word formed the initial letter of a new word. The third method was ziruf, the combination of letters, and the fourth was temurah, the creation of new words by the permutation and interchange of letters. The names of God were special subjects of cabalistic jugglery, since they were no longer the means whereby God had emerged from his concealment and become manifest to the understanding, but were now agencies to work upon the intelligible powers and to perform miracles of all kinds. The most marvelous powers were ascribed to the divine tetragrammaton YHWH. Whosoever possessed the true pronunciation of this name might come into relation with the upper world and receive revelations from the All‑Soul. Each letter of the name was portentous. The yodh represented the Father as creator,
13. Magic and the double he the upper and lower
Powers of Mother, while the waw typified the
	the Tetra‑	creation. Through permutation of
g: ammaton. the letters of the tetragrammaton was
		obtained a wealth of divine names,
to which, in like manner, were ascribed miraculous
powers. In the " practical " Cabala these new
names played an important part, being used in
formulas, amulets, and conjurations, their correct
enunciation and the gestures with which they were
spoken being leading factors in all these operations.
In like manner, the twelve‑lettered, twenty‑two
lettered, twenty‑four‑lettered, and seventy‑two
lettered name contained great mysteries, influenced
the Supreme Being and averted threatening doom,
while the names of the angels were subjected to
similar manipulation. The net result was the
total loss of any comprehension of the actual mean
ing of the text of the Bible.
The history of the Cabala comprises a period of a thousand years, since its beginnings may be traced to the seventh century, while its last adherents belonged to the eighteenth. This lapse of time may be divided into two periods, the first from the seventh to the thirteenth century, and the second from the fourteenth to the eighteenth. From the seventh to the ninth cenrq. The tury flourished the mysticism of the Early Merkabah, devoted to descriptions of
	Period of " the great and small halls," and de
	the Cabala. scribing the throne of God and his
	court of angels according to Byzantine
	models. God the Infinite, the se firoth, and transmi
	gration are still unlmown, and the authority cited on
	all occasions is the Tanna ]Ishmael ben Eliaha, who
	w 1Us,iL	_		,
flourished in the first and second centuries A.D.
The juggling with the alphabet is represented by
the " Alphabet of Rabbi Akiba,," which treats of
the letters according to name and form, and con
nects them with all manner of moral and religious
teachings.	With the appearance of the Sefer
Yezirala (" Book of Creation ") in the eighth cen
tury, the mystery of the Throne‑Chariot gave place
to the mystery of the creation, and a cosmogonic
element was introduced which increased steadily
in importance in the subsequent period. Here the
doctrine of emanation appears in the form in which
it had originated in Alexandria. The twenty‑two
letters are connected, moreover, with the ten divine
emanations,	and thus form the thirty‑two paths
of esoteric wisdom and constitute the basis of all
things. God is not only the creator, but also the
	auetainer and ruler of the world.
ig. The The letters of the alphabet are " real
Sefer powers " which underlie all pheYezirah.. nomena, while their permutation and their evaluation, like their connotation, are of importance. The Sefer Ye;irah is the earliest work which unites cabalistic speculation in a systematic whole. According to it there are four basal principles, emanating in order from each other ‑spirit, spirits, primeval water, and primeval fire, all united by the three dimensions and their antitheaea into a decade. All things are in continual flux, dissolving old combinations and forming new ones, while throughout phenomena rules the law of antitheses, which are united by the mean between them. A remarkable work of the same period is the Sefer Raziel, which teaches the influence of the planets and the figures of the zodiac on the earth. The angel Raziel here takes the place of Metayron, the angel of the presence, as he who possesses and communicates astrological and astronomical mysteries.
In the thirteenth century the crystallization of the Cabala began and the doctrine of the ae firoth was fully developed. To the same period probably belongs the composition of the " Luminous Book," also called the " Midrsah of Nehunya ben halKanah," which teaches the main outlines of metempsychosis, while the ten divine emanations, which are not yet caned sefiroth, but ma'amarim (" commands "), appear as categories posf x6. Crystal‑ aesaed of creative force and connected lization of with the attributes of God. A tendthe Cabala. ency toward visionary prophecy was impressed upon the Cabala by Abraham ben Samuel Abulafia (d. about 1304), who laid special stress on a knowledge of the divine name as determined by the exegetical methods of getrtatria, notarikon., ziruf, and temurah, while his pupil Joseph ben Abraham Gikatilla devoted himself to the mysteries of the alphabet, which he brought into close association with the doctrine of the aefiroth.. The cabalistic speculation begun by Isaac the Blind reached its climes in the Zohar, apparently written by Moses ben Shem‑Tob of Leon (d. 1305). If the Sefer Yezirah be called the Mishnah of the Cabala, the Zofeair is its Talmud. Ostensibly it is a midrashic commentary on the pericopes of the Pentateuch, but practically it is

Cabals	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	330
Cajdmon
filled with a mass of cabalistic and other mystical
speculations, and with allegoriam run mad, espe
cially concerning the names of God, the accents,
and the vowel‑points. In like manner, the kingdom
of evil, with its demons and evil spirits which con
tinually oppose the realm of righteousness, is
described in terms of wildest fantasy. Its state
ments are placed in the mouth of Simeon ben
Yoliai, a Tanna of the second century A.D., who,
according to the Talmud, lived in association with
the angel Metatron, who communicated to him
the divine mysteries. Yet it is by no means a
uniform work, among its older components being
the " Book of Mystery," which is devoted to the
		creation and the events which pre
	17. The	ceded it; the " Great Holy Assem
	Zohar.	bly," which forma a compend of
		cabalistic speculation and finds the
type of all se firoth in man, through whose mental
processes the upper world of light is united with
the lower world of sense, while the authropo
morphisms of the Old Testament are declared to be
mere metaphors; and the " True Shepherd," which
explains the nature of the primal emanations.
The later elements of the Zohar are as follows:
the " Small Holy Assembly," which gives a clearer
exposition of the subjects treated in the " Great
Holy Assembly"; the " Book of the Mystery of
Mysteries," devoted to physiognomy sad cheiro
mancy; the " Book of the Halls," which describes
the abodes of the souls in the Garden of Eden and
in hell; the " Hidden Midrash," which recounts
the return of the souls to their new and perfect
human forms after the resurrection, and portrays
the meal prepared for the righteous; the " Ancient,"
which describes the transmigration of souls and
the punishments of hell; the " Young," an expo
sition of various cabalistic teachings; and " Mish
nas and Tosefta," which is devoted chiefly to the
mystical meanings of the divine names. Despite
the opposition of Talmudiata and philosophers the
Zohar gained an enormous following and was
regarded as a revelation from heaven. Through
it Spain became the real home of the Cabala, and
even to the present day it is considered author
itative in some Judaistic quarters.
	With the exile of the Jews from Spain the Cabala
was carried into all lands, and Safed in Palestine
became its new center. There, in the sixteenth
century, Moses ben Jacob Cordovero and Isaac
Lucia systematized the Cabala and filled many a
gap which had existed in the Zohar, the former
emphasizing the metaphysical and speculative,
		and the latter the ascetic and ethical
	18. Closing aide. Through them the Zohar was
	Period of well‑nigh deified, and in a like spirit
the Cabala. many cabaliats of the seventeenth
		century, such as Shabbathai Zebi
and Jacob Frank, proclaimed themselves prophets
or asserted that the Shekinah or the soul of the
Messiah had become incarnate in them. From
this time on, however, the Cabala has steadily
declined, and the names of its representatives are
too unimportant to require mention here.
	Though the Cabala was devoted to a spiritual
ization of religion, the pagan elements which it
adopted brought to Judaism a view of the universe which was entirely foreign to it, and worked it grave injury. The Biblical concept of a monotheistic God was superseded by a vague Gentile theory of emanation with a pantheistic tendency, and the doctrine of the unity of God was thrust into the background by the ten se firoth, who were regarded as divine in essence. Since prayer was no longer addressed immediately to Cod but to the se firoth, a genuine se fcroth‑cult was evolved. The Talmud and philosophy were disdained by the cabalista, and even the study of the Bible was neglected, since it was no longer read for its own sake, but solely with the aid of cabalistic methods of hermeneutics. Nor did the ritual escape change and mutilation, and the phylacteries zg. Influ‑ and the prayer‑mantles were now put ence of the on to the accompaniment of various Cabala on cabalistic formulas, especially promJudaism. inept being the prayers to the se fcroth. Worst of all was the growth of superstition. That the soul might attain to the realm of light after death, the severest mortification of the flesh was practised, while the mysterious names of God were believed to heal the sick and quench the flames, and God altered his divine will at the prayer of the cabalist. The very kingdom of dankness was subject to the proper formulas of prayer, and the damned were freed from their torments by use of the magic names of God.
During the period of the Reformation the Cabala attracted wide attention because of the alleged kinship sad agreement of its doctrines with the dogmas of the Christian Church. The opinion accordingly prevailed that it formed the means by which Judaism and Christianity might easily be united, especially as it was believed to contain the doctrines of the Trinity, the Messiah as the Son of God, and his work of atonement. In his missionary zeal for the Saracens in the so. Rela‑ thirteenth century Raymond Lully flop of the (q.v.) considered the Cabala a divine Cabala to revelation, and after the converted Jew Christianity. Paulus de Heredia (about 1480) had shown in his " Letter of Secrets" that all the chief truths of Christianity were contained in the Cabala, Christian scholars became rivals in their eagerness to study esoteric Judaism. In 1486 Pico de Mirandola published at Rome his Septuagintaduce cmtclusiones cabballisticce, and invited all scholars to Rome to attend a disputation to convince themselves of the kinship between the Cabala and Christianity. The first German to investigate this subject was Reuchlin, who devoted to it his De verbo mini fico (Basel, 1494) and his De drte eabbcalistica (Hagenau, 1517). Latin translations of various portions of cabalistic works were made by Baruch of Benevento at the request of Cardinal lEgidius of Viterbo and by the convert Paul Riccio, physician in ordinary to the emperor Maximiliaa L, but the most important work which sought the truths of Christianity in the Cabala and gave translations from it was the Kabbala denudata of Christian Knorr von Roaenroth (4 vols., Sulzbach and Frankfort, 1877‑84), the source for all subsequent scholars.

331.	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	CabaU
	It is now recognized that the concepts of God
and the creation are entirely divergent in the
Cabala and Christianity; the first triad of the
sefcroth does not actually correspond to the Trinity,
nor does the Christian doctrine of Christ as the Son
of God find an analogue in the Adham k, adhmon of
the Cabala. According to Christianity, redemp
tion is possible only through Christ, while the Cabala
postulates that man can save himself by his mystic
influence on God and the world of light through
rigid observance of the law, asceticism, and similar
agencies. 	(AUGUST Wt1NSCHE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The literature up to about 1880 is arranged in J. Fiirat, Bibliotluca judaica, iii. 329‑33b. Leipsic, 1863. The best book in Eng. in C. D. Ginsburg, The Kabbalah, its Doctrines, Development, and Literature, London, 1885. A moat valuable work is A. Franck, La Kabbale, ou 7a philosophic relipeeuee des Hibraux, 3d ed., Paris, 1892 (Germ. trsnel., Leipsic, 1844). Of older literature the following may be mentioned: J. F. Buddeua, latroductio ad historian phidoeophiee Hebrdmwm, Halle, 1721; J. Baensge, Histoire de la religion des Juifa, vol. iii., Rotterdam, 1707‑11; J. F. Kleuker, Usher die Natty and den Uraprunp der Emanalioaelehre bei den KabbaLiaten, Riga, 1786; F. A. Tholuck, De ortu Cabbala, vol. i., Hamburg, 1837. Of later literature the following are suggested as worthy of study: A. Jellinek, ~Bsitrttpa our Geschiclvte der Kabbala, 2 vole., Leipsic, 1852 (of great value) idem, Auswahl kabbaliatiacher 3fyetik, ib. 1853; J. W. Etheridge, Jerusalem and Tiberias, Sora and Cordova, London, 1856; 8. Munk, Milangea do Phitosapbie juive et araba, pp. 481‑511, Paris, 1857; G. des Mouesesux, Le Jui,/. PP. 509 eq9., ib. 1889: C. Siegfried. Phi1o . als, Ausleger des .41ten Testaments, Jena, 1872; F. Veberweg, History of Philosophy, i. 417, New York, 1878; F. Weber, System der nZtaynagopaZen pal8atiniscAen Thoolopie, Leipsic, 1880; L. Wogue, Hiatoira de 1'0xppeas bibIique, Paris, 1881; Die Xabbala. Ihre Hauptlehre, Innsbruck, 1985; Simeon ban Yochai, Kabbala denudata. i:abbaZah Unveiled, London, 1887; I. Meyer, Qabbalah; Philosophical Writings of Solomon . . Gebirol or Aroicsbrou and their Connection with the Hebrew Qabbalah, Philadelphia, 1888; P. Bloch, Geachichk der Entyvickelunp der Kab6ala, Trier, 1894; J. Hamburger, RmLEncykloptidie f8r Bibel uud Talmud. Leipsic, 1898‑1901; The Canon; an Exposition of the Pagan Mystery Perpetuated in the Cabala, London, 1897: M. Mielainer, Introduction to the Talmud, Cincinnati, 1897; J. $. Weldon, The Cabbala of the Bible. 1897‑100: C. A. Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, chap. aviii., New York, 1899; W. Begley, Biblia mbalietica, London, 1903; E. Bischoff, Ds Kab6aia Inteidinp tot de joodache mgaEiek, Amsterdam, 1908; 8. A. Binion, The Rabbalah, in World's Beat Literature, ed. C. D. Warner, pp. 8425‑42; JE, iii. 45(f‑479, where other literature is mentioned. At the head of the article in HauckTIerzog, RE is a very full list of works, including periodical literature.
CADALUS: Antipope. See HONORIUa IL, antipope.
CADMAN, SAMUEL PARKES: Congregationalist; b. at Wellington (30 m. n.w. of Birmingham), Shropshire, England, Dec. 18, 1864. He was educated at Richmond College, London, graduating in theology and classics in 1889, and held successive Methodist pastorates at Millbrook, N. Y. (1890I893), Yorkers, N. Y. (1893‑95), and the Metropolitan Temple, New York City (189rr1900). He then became pastor of the Central Congregational Church, Brooklyn. His theological position is that of a liberal‑conservative.
CADOC (Cadocus, Docus): A Welsh saint, called "the Wise," son of a chieftain of South Wales and cousin of St. David of Meuevia; d., according
to one account, at his monastery of Llancarven (near Cowbridge, 10 m. w.s.w. of Llandaff, Glamorganahire), according to others, as a martyr at Beneventum, 570 (?). He early devoted himself to the religious life, refused to succeed his father in his principality, studied under Irish scholars at home, and visited Ireland, Scotland, Rome, and Jerusalem in quest of instruction. He founded the monastery at Llancarven and made it a famous center of learning. Tradition associates him with David and Gildas (who was one of the teachers at Llancarven) as training the " second order of Irish Saints " (see CELTIC CHURCH IN BRITAIAl AND IRELAND, IL, 2, § 1) and thus influencing the church life of Ireland. One of the earliest monuments of the Welsh language is The Wisdom of Cadoc the Wise, a collection of proverbs, manna, and the like (in The Myvyr‑ian Arehaiology of Wales, ed. O. Jones, E. Williams, and W. O. Push, iii., London, 1807; new txl., Denbigh, 1870, 754 eqq.). The Fables of Cadoc the Wise maybe found in lolo Manuscripts, ed. E. William (London, 1848).
BlsrroasArax: Lanigan, Eccl. Hint., i. 489‑492; W. J. Reee, Lives of the Cambro‑British Saints, 22‑98, SOB‑39b, 488, 587, Llendovery, 1853; A. P. Forties, Kalbndats of Scot" Saints, pp. 292‑293, Edinburgh, 1872.
C,ECILIARUS. See DONATIBM.
CADMON: The first Christian poet of England and, with the exception of Gynewulf (q.v.), the only Anglo‑Saxon versifier whose name is known; d. about 680. All information concerning him comes from Bede, who states (lust. eccl., iv. 24) that he was a brother in Hilda's monastery at Stretmaeehalch (see HILDA, SAINT) and learned the art of song, not from men, but from God. Till well advanced in years he lived a secular life, and he often left a merry company where all were called on to sing in turn, feeling his inability to comply. On one such occasion he went from the hall to the stable, it being his duty that night to watch the animals, and in his sleep he saw some one standing before him and commanding him to sing of the Creation‑which he thereupon was enabled to do. reciting an original poem, which Bede gives in Latin translation.' On awaking Caedmon remembered the poetry of his dream, and proceeded to add more of the same purport. Being brought before the abbess Hilda, he related his vision, and, at the request of the learned men there present, put passages of Scripture which they repeated to him into excellent verse. Thereupon he was received into the monastery and instructed in the Biblical stories, large portions of which he subsequently versified. Among these were the creation of the world, the origin of man, and the whole history of Genesis; the departure of the children

1 " Now ought we to praise the founder of the heavenly kingdom, the power of the Creator, sad his wisdom, the deeds of the Father of Glory; how be, since he is God eternal, is the author of all things wonderful, and the one who first created the heaven as a roof for the sons of men, then the earth‑‑the almighty guardian of the human race." Bede.eaplaine that he gives the sense, not the order of words, and wisely remarks that no verses can be transferred verbatim from one language to another, no matter how well it may be done, without losing much of their beauty and power.

Caedmon	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	332
Csesariue of Arles
	of Israel from Egypt and their entrance into the
	land of promise; the incarnation, passion, resurrec
	tion, and ascension of Christ; the descent of the
	Holy Ghost and the preaching of the apostles;
	the terror of future judgment, the horror of hell,
	and tile blessedness of heaven; and many other
	things by which he sought to lead men from the
love of the world and to the choice of a good life.
	He was a very religious man and the manner of his
	death was in complete accord with his devout and
tranquil life.	Beds was born before Caedmon's
	death and lived not far from his monastery; hence
	his account is worthy of belief. The attempt of
	Sir Francis Palgrave to show that the story is a
mere monk's tale is to be rejected.	No doubt a
	monk named Caedmon lived at Streanaeshalch
	and wrote poetry there, and evidently he was of
low origin and unlearned.	Several poems from
	a manuscript now in the Bodleian Library‑a
	paraphrase of Genesis of more than 2,900 lines;
	Exodus, about 600 lines; Daniel, about 800 lines;
	and portions of the New Testament, including
	the lament of the fallen angels, Christ's visit to
	hell, and the temptation of Christ, formerly known
	as the Christ and Satan‑were published by Fran
	ciscus Junius (Frangois du Jon) at Amsterdam
	in 1655 and attributed to Caedmon. At present
	it is conceded that only .the first of these poems
	has any claim to be considered the production of
	Cwdmon, and that even this has been transmitted
	in an interpolated and much modified form (see
	HELIAND, THE, AND THE OLD‑SAXON GENESIS); many
	think that it contains no work of Caedmon's at all.
	The hymn mentioned by Bede, however, is pre
	served in the Northumbrian dialect (Caedmon's
	own) by a Cambridge manuscript of the Historic
	ecclesiastics and is the oldest extant Christian poem
in a Germanic tongue.	(R. WLILKER.)
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the edition of Junius, the poems of
	the Bodleian manuscript have been published by the
	Society of Antiquaries of London‑C(rdmon's Metrical
	Paraphrase of Parts of the Holy Scripture in Anglo‑Saxon,
	with an English Translation, Notes, and a verbal Index by
	B. Thorpe, London, 1832. The same society also pub
	lished in their ArchceoZopia, xxiv. (1832), fifty‑two plates
	illustrative of the manuscript, including the illumina
tions, reissued separately London, 1833.	Later editions
	are by K. W. Bouterwek, 2 vole., Giitersloh, 1849‑54,
	and C. W. M. Grein, in his BibZiothek der arlpels5cltaiachen
	Poeaie, ii. 318‑562, new ed. by R. Wulker, Leipsic, 1894.
	Grein has also furnished a German translation in allitera
	tive verse in Dichtunpen der AnpeZaachaen ataLreimend
	tiberaetzt, Gbttingen, 1863. Consult further: Sir Francis
	Palgrave, in Archa'o7ogin, xxiv. (1832) 341‑343, reprinted
	by Cook, pp. 1‑2‑13 (see below); W. H. F. Bosanquet,
	The Pall of Man or Paradise Lost of Ca'dmon Translated
	in Verse, London, 1880; E. Sievers, Der Heliand unit die
	angela8chaiache Genesis, Halls, 1875; R. S. Watson, Cerd
	mon, the First English Poet, London, 1875; B. ten
	Brink, Geschichte der engZiscken Litteratur, i., 2d ed.,
	Strasburg, 1899, Eng. transl., London, 1883; J. Earls,
	Anglo‑Saxon Literature, London, 1884; R. Wiilker,
	Grundrias zur Geschichte der angeZa&chaiachen Litteratur,
	Lelpeie, 1885; Idem Geschichte der englischen Litteratur,
	Leipaie, 1898; A. Ebert, Allgemeine Geschichte der Lib
	teratur des Mittelaltera vol. iii., Leipeie, 1887; A. S. Cook,
	in the Publications of the Modern Language Association
	of America, vol. vi., part 1, pp 9‑28, Baltimore, 1891;
	Plummer's Bede, ii. 248‑258, Oxford, 1896; W. Bright,
	Early English Church History, pp, 311‑318, Oxford, 1897;
	R. T. Gaskin Cadmon, the First English Poet, London,
	1902. For the striking resemblance between parts of the
	Genesis and Milton's Paradise Lost, consult I. Disraeli,
Amenities of. Literature, pp. 37‑50, ed. B. Disraeli, London, 1875; S. H. Gurteen, The Epic of the Fall of Man, a Comparative Study o/ Cadmon, Dante, and Milton, London, 1898 (gives reduced facsimiles of the illuminations of the Bodleian manuscript).
CAELESTIUS. See PELAGIUS, PELAGIANISM.
	ClERULARIUS, MICHAEL:	Patriarch of Con
stantinople 1043‑58. The exact date and place
both of his birth and death are unknown, and few
details of 'his life are certain.	During the reign
of Michael the Paphlagonian (1034‑41) he was
banished for conspiracy, but he was raised to the
patriarchate by Constantine Monomachus, ‑who
hoped to find in him a firm ally. Caerularius,
however, strenuously defended the rights of the
Church, and his chief importance is due to the fact
that his course resulted in the complete cleavage
between the Greek and Roman Churches. At
the very time when the Norman War gave the
Byzantine court and the pope an opportunity to
draw more closely together, the patriarch violently
suppressed the Latin ritual observed in many
cloisters and churches, and renewed the ancient
charges of Photius (q.v.) in a letter to the bishop
of Trani in Apulia, reserving his special attack for'
the Roman use of unleavened bread in the Sacra
ment, which he condemned ‑as Jewish. Leo IX.
replied with a haughty defense of the primacy of
Rome, and at Constantine's request an embassy
was sent to Constantinople, headed by the Cardinal
Bishop Humbert. Their letters were intended to
win over the emperor and humble the patriarch,
and the feeble Constantine,. overawed by Hum
bert's attacks on the Greek Church, had neither
the courage to protect Caerularius nor to oppose
him openly. The patriarch, however, refused to
yield, and on July 16, 1054, the embassy excom
municated him and all his adherents. After the
departure of the envoys, Caerularius regained his
prestige with Constantine, and maintained it during
the reign of Theodora. Isaac Comnenus, on the
other hand, banished him on account of his arro
gance in 1058, and he seems to have died shortly
afterward. In addition to the letters already
mentioned, Cxrularius was the author of some
deeretals (De episcoporum jtediciis, De nttPtiis in
septimo gradxt non controhendis, De sacerdotis uxore
adulterio pollutes; edited by Rhalles and Potlis,
" Collection of Canons," v. 40‑47) and a few writings
still preserved in manuscript (De misses, Opus contra
Latinos; listed by Fabricius, Bibliotheca Grceca, ed.
Harlea, Xi. 195‑197). 	(PHILIPP MEYER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Will, Acta et scripts. , . , de conlroveraia eccleaice . ., Marburg, 1861; J. Hergenr5ther, Photina, vol. iii., Regensburg, 1889 (rich in original matter); A. Pichler, Geschichte der kirchlichen Trennung zvriachen dem Orient and Occident, 2 vole., Munich, 1884‑65; R. Baxmann, Die Politik der P&pate, vol. ii., Elberfeld, 18889; W. Fischer, Studien zur byzantiniachen Geschichte des eZften Jahrhunderta, Plauen, 1883; K. Krumbaeher, Geachichte der byzantiniachen Litteratur, passim, Munich, 1897.
C&SARIUS OF ARLES: Bishop of Arles; b. at Chalon‑cur‑SaBne (33 m, n. of MScon) 469 or 470; d. 'at Arles (44 m. n.w. of Marseilles) Aug. 27, 542. Little is known of his life before his eighteenth year, but at the age of twenty he went to the famous cloister on the island of Urina, although it was now

333	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Coon
Geessrius of Arles
declining under the weak abbot Porcarius. There Caesarius became acquainted with the writings of Faustus, who had been abbot of Urins for some thirty years, and these works exercised an influence on him throughout his life. Porcarius appointed him master of the refectory,
Early Life. but the discontent of the monks caused his removal, and he thereupon devoted himself so rigidly to fasting that it became necessary to send him to Arles in search of health. He there became acquainted with Firminus, arid at his request began the study of rhetoric with Pomerius of Africa, who is now generally regarded as identical with the author of the De vita contemplative. Pomerius was, moreover, a follower of Augustine, and seems to have won his pupil over to this teacher. Recognizing in Cxsarius a fellow countryman and kinsman, lEontius, bishop of Arles,‑ not only ordained him and placed him in charge of a monastery, but also induced the clergy, citizens, and king to appoint him his successor. In 502, therefore, Ca'sariua became bishop of Arles, though sorely against his will.
His first measure was to make daily attendance at church agreeable to the laity, largely by singing, and he also required them to learn passages from the Bible, in addition to the Creed and the Lord's Prayer. The administration of funds was entrusted to laymen and deacons, and he strove to maintain firm discipline, being apparently
Bishop, the author of the first Occidental
	502.	manual of ecclesiastical law, the
		Statutcc ecclesi,ce antique. In 505
Ciesarius was charged with high treason by his
secretary Licinianus, and was banished to Bordeaux
by Alaric IL, although he quickly proved his
innocence and was permitted to return. On Sept.
11, 506, he resumed the long interrupted aeries of
Gallic synods with the Synod of Agde (q.v.), and
the canons, evidently written by Caesarius, are
important documents for ecclesiastical history.
Particularly noteworthy among them are the
resolutions on ecclesiastical jurisdiction, slavery,
celibacy, and church property which was to be
regarded as set aside for the poor. The death of
Alaric shortly after the close of the synod ended
the kingdom of Toulouse, and in 508 the Franks
and Burgundians began the siege of Arles. A
relative of the bishop deserted to the enemy, and
Ciesarius himself was charged with treason and
imprisoned, escaping only when the treason of the
Jews who had accused him became known. In
510 the city was relieved, and Cxsariua cared for
the captives without regard to creed, in addition
to ransoming many with the money and ornaments
of the churches. Three years later, however, he
was cited to appear before Theodoric at Ravenna,
probably because of his expenditures of church
funds for the foundation of a nunnery at Arles
and similar purposes, but he won the king com
pletely to his side, and received such rich gifts from
all quarters for the ransom of Burgundian captives
that he was able to bring to Arles 8,000 solidi
(about E58,000). From Ravenna he went to Rome,
and in October gave the pope a petition, in which
he requested permission to employ church funds
for cloisters; to abrogate, in view of the lack of clergy in Gaul, the hieratic eursus honorum, on which strict stress was laid at Rome; and also asked information regarding the marriage of widows and nuns, bribery in the election of bishops, and the prohibition against naming a bishop without the knowledge of the metropolitan. On Nov. 6, 513, the petition was granted with a few reservations, Symmachus allowing only the usufruct to be devoted to cloisters and the like.
Little is known of the life of Cxsarius between 514 and 523, although the canons of the Council bf Gerunds in 51fi‑517 show that his influence was traceable in Spain. In 523, however, it became possible for him to exercise his metropolitan functions, since the peaceable intervention of Theodoric in the Franko‑Burgundian War brought ten cities of Burgundy under the sway of the Oatrogoths. Cwsarius now held five synods: Arles, 524; Carpentras, 527; Orange and Vaieon, 529; and Marseilles, 533. The disciplinary and legislative activity of Ciesarius accordingly lies in the Statute ecclesice antique and in the canons of the six synods,
to which should probably be added
Synods the decrees of what is commonly con‑
	after 523.	sidered the second synod of Arles.
		Stress should also be laid on his care
for the rural communities and for the erection of
schools for the education of the clergy. As early
as the Statute, moreover, Ciesarius had taken for
granted the right and duty of preaching, and he
insisted on it again in the Admonitio, which seems
to have appeared at the synod of Vaison. The
Council of Orange (June 3, 529) was the only one
devoted to a dogmatic question, and also the only
one which received papal sanction as an ecumenical
council. This was apparently the conference of
bishops of Vienne (mentioned in the Vita), who,
as Semi‑Pelagiana, attacked the doctrine of grace
taught at Arles, while Cyprian, bishop of Toulon,
represented Caesarius, who was prevented by illness
from attending, and defended the dogma of pre
venient grace. The epilogue of its resolutions,
apparently written by Caesarius himself, ascribes
free will to all the baptized, and rejects predes
tination to damnation. His own position toward
this problem first became clear in 1896, when Morin
edited the treatise Quid daminus Ccesari.‑us senserit
contra em qui dicunt guars aliis det Deus graham,
aliis non det, in. which he maintains that divine
grace works without regard to the merits of man,
while God acts according to his will and pleasure.
The close of the second decade of the sixth century saw the climax of the activity of Caesarius, and his relations with Rome changed for the worse. Pope
Agapetus charged him with cruelty and injustice in his proceedings against Contumeliosus, bishop
of Riez, although he had acted simply in accord with Gallican usage and had defended the discipline of the Church. Under Pope Vigilius he was
obliged, as vicar of the Roman See, to render a decision in a question of marriage, which was disregarded. Old and sickly, he took no personal part in the French synods, although the eccleaise‑
tical influence of his pupils remained important. He lived, however, to see the cloister which he had

a~na of Arles	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	334
founded on Aug. 26, 512 or 513, in a flourishing condition, and to complete a bishopric of forty years.
	No collected edition of the works of Cxsarius
exists as yet, although the Benedictine Germaine
Morin has long been preparing one, but the places
in which his scattered writings may be found
are given by Arnold, 435‑450 (cf. 491‑496), Mal
nory, v.‑xviii., and Fessler‑Jungmann, 438, 452.
In addition to the works already mentioned, his
moat important writings are his sermons. His
chief sources, often noted in his manuscript, were
Augustine, Rufinus, Faustus, Salvianus, and
Eucherius, and his generosity in giving of his
treasures to others has resulted in the ascription
of many of his sermons to Augustine, Faustus, and
similar authors. On the other hand, he prepared
homiliariea, represented by Cod. Leon. 121 (ninth
century) and Parisin. 10606 fol. 71 (thirteenth
century). A similar collection contains forty‑two
admonitions, and a third is devoted to sermons
		for the cloister. A special category
	Works.	is formed by the homilies for the Old
		Testament lessons for each fast, and
these are supplemented by interpretations of texts
of the New Testament. Another group of sermons
is eschatological and a third is important for the
history of penance. His monastery rules are
extremely valuable for the history of asceticism,
and his regulations for none, based on Augustine's
letter Ad sanctimoniales, the so‑called rules of
Macarius, and his own monastic rules, received their
final form in 534 and clearly show the various
strata of their development. Of the other writings
of Cresarius, only the letters need be considered,
for the Testamentum beati Ceesarii (MPL, lxvii.
1139‑‑42) is now recognized as spurious.
(F. ARNOLD.)

BIBLIOdaAPHY: Sources for a life are: Epist. Arelatenaea, in MGH, Epist., iii. 1‑83, ed. W. Gundlach, Hanover, 1891; Concilia cevi Merovingiti, in MGH, Leg., eectio iii., part 1, pp. 37‑81, ed. Msssaen, ib. 1893. The early lives are in MGH, Script. rer. Merovingicarum, iii. 457501, ed. B. Krusch, ib. 1898, and in ASS, 27 Aug., vi. 8483, with comment by $tilting, pp. 50‑84. Consult: A. Malnory, S. C€aaire Eupque d'Arlea, Paris, 1894; C. F. Arnold, Cdaariua von Arelate urd die galliache Kirche seiner Zeit, Leipaic, 1894; Hiataire litteraire de la France, iii. 190, iv. 1, x., p. xv., xii., p. vii.; J. M. Trichaud, HI8
	, de S. C6saire, i'vdque d'Ar7ea, Arles, 1858; U. Ville
vieille, Hiatoire de S. C€aaire, Aix‑en‑Provence, 1884;
P. Lejay, Lea Sermons de Cesaire d'Arlea, in Revue bi
blique, iv. (1895) 593‑810; J. Feeder, Inatiteetionea.patro
lopia, ed. B. Jungmann, ii. 438‑452, Innsbruck, 1898;
G. Pfeilschiiter, Der Oatgothen Konig Theoderich der Grosse
and die katholiache Rirche, pp. 123‑138, Monster, 1898;
Hefele, Conciliengeachichte, ii. 68‑77, Eng. tranel., iv. 131,
143 aqq.

CIESARIITS OF HEISTERBACH, hais'ter‑b(IH: Monk; b. probably at Cologne c. 1180; d. at Heiaterbach (20 m. s, of Cologne) c. 1240. He received an excellent education at Cologne and gained a good knowledge of the Church Fathers and classical writers. In 1198 or 1199 he entered the monastery of the Cistercians at Heisterbach and spent his life there in quiet seclusion. He became master of the novices, and also prior according to Henriquez (Monologium Ciaterciense, ad diem 25 Sept.). His literary activity is closely
connected with his monastic duties. Only six. teen of his many writings are extant and moat of these are still in manuscript. One of the best known is the Dialogus miraculorum or De miraculis et visionibtus sui temporis (ed. J. Strange, 2 vols., Cologne, 1831; index, Coblenz,1857; see bibliography below for title of German select transl.). As master of the novices Cwsariua had to acquaint the future monks with the regulations, opinions, and decisions of the order, and he believed the beat way to accomplish this was by means of examples. At the request of his abbot he committed his instructions to writing and the copiousness and variety of his material, drawn from the recent past as well as more remote antiquity, is surprising. His written sourt•^s belong mostly to the Cistercian order, but he a:ao drew from oral communications. Each narrative is intended to have a religious or moral practical application, but Caesariua knew how to include everything under these heads, and thus it happens that his stories contain many points of interest for contemporaneous history and the history of civilization. 7n a aeries of pictures he brings before us the life on the Lower Rhine, especially at Cologne, and we often meet with popular beliefs and superstitions in which survivals of old Germanic mythology may still be discovered. The Dialogus is especially important for information concerning ecclesiastical customs and conditions, especially in the monastic life. The regulations of the monasteries, especially among the Cistercians, the chorus‑singing and work, the sating and sleeping, the fasting and bloodletting of the monks‑alt comes before us in living examples. Caesarius is much in earnest about the evils of confession; he suppresses the worst, but what he tells is bad enough and his judgment upon it is severe (cf. iii. 41 and 45). For the rest the dialogue from beginning to end is a witness to the mania for miracles and the belief of the time in the marvelous. One finds everywhere an interference of partly divine, partly demonic powers with earthly happenings, and when it takes place the most incredible becomes credible. Here is the weak point of the book which must not be overlooked, despite the poetic charm of manynarrativea and the morally pure personality of Ca'sarius. He contributed his share to cause the belief in witchcraft and sorcery, in incubi and puccubi, and all sorts of devilish intervention, to be regarded as a constituent part of Christian belief. The praise bestowed on the Dialogus induced Caesarius to prepare a second work of the kind, not however in the form of dialogue, the Libri. VIII miraculorum, of which only three books are preserved (ed. Aloys Meister, Rome, 1901, supplementary vol. to the Ilomische Quartalschrift). Caesarius's historical works include a Catalogus episcoporum Coloniensium (in J. F. Bbhmer, Fontes rerum Germaniearum, ii., Stuttgart, 1845, 272‑282, and, ed. H.Cardauna, in MGH, Script., xxiv., 1879, 345‑347; Germ, tranal. by M. Bethany, Elberfeld,1898) and a Vita sancti Engelberti, an archbishop of Cologne who was murdered by arelative in1225 (in BlShmer, ut sup., 294‑329). This work insures to Caesariue a place among the most prominent biographers of the Middle Ages. The first book

336	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	C~na of Arles
describes the personality of Engelbert; the second describes in dramatic manner the dangers with which the arrogance of insubordinate vassals threatened the archbishop, and ends with a thrilling account of the final catastrophe. The third book treats of the miracles of Engelbert, who was revered as martyr. Lastly, Caesarius deserves no minor place among the preachers of his time. His homilies (edited by the Dominican J. A. Koppenatein, 4 parts, Cologne, 161;r28) are indeed monastic, not popular, sermons, like those of Bernard of Clairvaux. But both have in common the rich application of Holy Writ, the connection of moral and allegorical exposition, and the endeavor to edify their hearers. In spite of their simplicity they reveal an indeed unsought for, but not unconscious art in their plan. Peculiar to Cxsariua and corresponding to his method, already noted, is the very copious intertwining of historical examples from modern times. He was a true child of his time, and belongs to its beat. In him still lives the spirit of the old Cistercians, as Bernard impressed it on the order. He unites an earnest orthodoxy with fervent piety and a highly moral sentiment. Though implicitly devoted to the Church, nevertheless he has a keen eye for its obvious defects, and his judgment was incorruptible. Though a zealous monk, he did not lose all interest in the events of the world, and the political disorders of the time, with all the misery which they brought, concern him. S. M. DEBTBCH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Kaufmann, C6aariua von Heiaterbach, Cologne, 1850, 2d ed., 1882; W. Cave, 3criytorum ecclesiaaliconam hiatoria Ziteraria, year 1225, 2 vole., London, 1688‑‑98J. Hartzheim, BibliohecaColonseneis, pp. 42‑45, Cologne; 1747; Hiatoire littFmire de la France, xviii. 194‑201, Paris, 1835; Braun, in Zeitechrift fir Philosophic and katholiache Theologie, pp. 1‑27, Bonn, 1845 (contains a list of his writings prepared by himself); A. W. Wybrands, De Dialogue miracutonamvanCae:sariua van Heiaterbach, in Studien en Bijdrapen, ii. 1‑118, Amsterdam, 1871; K. Unkel, Die Homilien den Cdsariue won Hei'eterbach and ihre Bedeutung fur die Kuttur and S%tknpoachichte des zwolften oral dreizehnfen Jahrhurederte, in An‑
nalen den hiatmvaclwn Vereina far den Niederrhein,.
	xx]nv.
(1879) 1‑67; A. Kaufmann, Wunderbare and denkur5rdige
(;eachichtera sue den Werken den Cdaariua von Heesterbach,
in Annalen des hiatoriachen Vereina fur den Niederrhein,
Cologne, 2 parts, 1884‑91; Wattenbach, DGQ, ii. 412, 485.
CASARIUS OF SPEYER. See FiANC18, SAINT, OF Assisi, AND THE FRANCISCAN ORDER, L, § 4; IL, § 1.

CASAROPAPISM: A name applied to the conception of the relations between Church and State which contemplates the secular ruler's exercising spiritual power also. It is thus the converse of the theocratic system which the popes have attempted to carry into effect (i.e., in regard to the world at large, not to their limited states), which also underlies Calvin's teaching as to the relations of Church and State. Its principles are met with as early as 355, when Constantine addressed the Synod at Milan in the words: " Whatever 1 will, let that be acknowledged as a ` canon ' " (Athanaeius, Hint. Arian., xxxiii.; NPNF, 2d ser., iv. 281). It developed more rapidly in the Eastern Church because of the absence of the counterpoise which the papacy formed in the West. Justinian
may be regarded as a typical representative of it; but the Church managed during the iconoclastic controversy to free itself in a large measure from imperial dictation. Since Qlat time the term has not borne any strict application, though it is sometimes applied in a modified sense to the position of the Czars since Peter the Great in the Russian Church, and has sometimes, though with still less justice, been used of the German evangelical princes who have exercised authority in spiritual things, though even the territorial system recognizes a sphere for religion independent of the State.' See ERA‑STUB, THOMAS. (E. FRIEDBERG.)
	CAIAPHAS, tai's‑fae (more exactly Joseph, who
also was called Caiaphas; cf. Josephus, Ant., XVIII.
ii. 2): The Jewish high priest who held office
during the ministry and death of Jesus. He was
the last of the four high priests whom the Roman
procurator Valerius Gratus appointed successively
to this dignity. As Valerius was procurator from
15 to 28 A.D., his appointment of Caiaphas must
have occurred at the latest in 26 A.D.; moat likely
it happened c. 18 A.D., as Valerius Gratus probably
appointed Ishmael, the first of the four high priests,
immediately after his own inauguration, and as the
next two remained in office only about one year,
Caiaphas held his office until c. 36 A.D., when he
was removed by Vitellius, the legate of Syria.
His administration, therefore, lasted about eighteen
years‑a long term when compared with that of
most other high priests of the Roman period.
For this he was probably indebted less to his ability
than to his submissiveness to the anti‑Jewish
policy of the Roman government. Probably he
belonged to the party of the Sadducees and shared
their fondness for foreign ideas, as did his father‑in
law Annas (Acts iv. 1, 6; v. 17) and the latter's
son Annas the Younger (Josephus, Ant., XX, ix. 1).
See ANNA6. 	F. SIEFFERT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Edersheim, Lice and Times of Jesus the Messiah, ii. 547, London, 1885; D. F. Strauss, Leben Jean; iv. 30 sqq., Bonn, 1895; SehOrer, Geechichte, ii. 204, 218, Eng. tranel., II. i. 182, 199; DB, i. 338; EB, i. 171‑172; JE, ii. 493; and, in general, commentaries on the Gospels.
CAILLIN, SAINT, OF FENAGH: Irish saint of the " second order " who flourished about 560. His alleged history is a typical one among the stories of the Irish " saints," and is also noteworthy for the light it throws on the conditions of the time and the progress of Christianity in pagan Ireland. Caillin's kinsmen of Dunmore (County Galway) had determined to slay a part of their number, the land having become overpopulated; but, on the advice of the saint, who had received Christian education in Rome, they

i The term Caesaropapiem is somewhat opprobrious in its implications; but if it is to be kept is use at all it is applicable to all monarchical governments is which uniory of Church and State, with civil control, prevails. In a limited monarchy like Great Britain it is not as much the king as the cabinet, representing a majority of the representatives of the peope, that exercises authority iaeligious matters. Where imperial authority is leas limited, as in Germany, ecclesiastical control by the sovereign or his representative it more complete. Where imperial authority is absolute, se is Russia until recently, the term CeBearopapiem is applicable.
without qualification.	A. H. N.

Cain
Caius	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	388
desisted, and Caitlin undertook to find more land. In the course of the search he came to Fenagh (County Leitrim, 3 m. s.w. of. Ballinaviore), where he converted the king% son, Hugh, and a band of warriors sent to drive him away. The prince then gave the saint his fortress and the latter built a church there. When the druids came, at the king's behest, to expel Caitlin, he restrained his Christian followers from attacking them, and turned them into stones. Hugh succeeded to the throne on his father's death; he was known as " the Dark" from his personal appearance, but Caitlin made him of fair complexion. Notwithstanding his love of peace, Caitlin is said to have given the tribe a cat)iach or standard, a mighty talisman in battle.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Book of Fenagh, ed. D. H. Kelly and W. M. Hennessy, Dublin, 1875; T. Olden, The Church of Ireland, pp. 85‑87, London, 1892.
CAIN, B:EftITES: The Hebrew word %ayin occurs in the Old Testament as the name of a stock of nomads, associated with Midian, Amalek, and Israel, mentioned in Judges iv. 11 and Num. xxiv. 22, probably also to be read in I Said. xv. 6b. More often the form %ni, " Kenite," is met (Gen. xv. 19; Num. xxiv. 21; Judges iv. 11, 17, etc.). In the time of Moses this stock seems to have been dependent on the Midianites, since Hobab, Moses's father‑in‑law, appears (Judges i. 16) as the head of a Kenite family, and in Num. x. 29 is designated as a Midianite, as is Jethro in Ex.
The iii. 1 and Reuel in Ex. ii. 16. Midgenites. ianites is moat likely the larger term and includes the Kenites as one of the breaches. The Kenitea attached themselves to the Israelites during the wandering; at the time of Barak and Deborah the Kenite Heber was near the plain of Jezreel, detached from the rest of his tribe (Judges iv. 11). In Saul's time the Kenites were associated with the Amalekites. It is noteworthy that in I Chron. ii. 55 the Kenites are brought into connection with the Rechabitea, who retained primitive customs, suggesting their adherence to a nomadic form of life and to the primitive Yahweh‑religion of the desert (Jer. xxxv.).
This stock of Cain was apparently intended to be brought into connection with the patriarchs of the race (Gen. iv. 1‑16); the conclusion of Wellhausen, Budde, and Stade, however, is that originally the story of Cain had nothing 'to do with the Kenitea for the following reasons: Gen. iv. 17 sqq. deals with the world at large (verses 17, 20‑22); Gen. iv. 1‑16 with the laud of Israel and neighboring deserts. The Adhamah, " ground," of Gen. iv. 14 can be only the laud inhabited by Israel from which Cain was banished. Gen. iv. 20 makes
Their Jabal the ancestor of nomads, while Relation Cain's nomadic condition resulted to Cain. from his sin (iv. 14‑16). Abel, too, • was a shepherd of small cattle who dwelt in Yahweh's laud. The story of Cain in this passage can not be understood to deal with the earliest ages of mankind because of the advanced civilization it implies. Its region is the southern part of Palestine; it explained the separation of a people whose God was the same as Israel's by the commission of murder which is named fratricide
because of the close connection of Kenitea and Hebrews. The mark for Cain, worn on the forehead, must have denoted adherence to the worship of Yahweh (cf. Ex. xiii. 9, 16; Isa. xliv. 6; I Kings xx. 38, 41), and implied the same limits in exacting blood‑revenge as were obligatory on the Israelites.
The word %ayin also occurs as the name of an ancestor of a part of mankind. The name stands in J at the head of the so‑called Cainite table, Gen. iv. 17. In its present form this includes seven generations, and in the seventh four branches appear‑Jabal and Jubal, eons of Lamech by Adah, and Tubal‑eain and Naamah, son and daughter of Lamech by Zillah. Cain built the first city and named it after his son Enoch; Jabal was the ancestor of nomads, Juba] of musicians, and Tubal‑Cain of artisans. The table evidently is
Cain in an account of supposed origins of
	Gen. iv.	civilization, so is to be related to Gen.
		ix. 20‑27. Then Noah's earlier con
nection with the Cainite table through Lamech
is probable, though in Gen. v. 28 (P) he is a Sethite.
That the narratives are doublets appears on com
parison (cf. Cain and Kenan, Methusael and Methu
selah, Ired and Jared, as well as the fact that Adam
and Enos both mean " man "). The Sethite and
the Cainite tables are both traced to a single original,
and the Cainite line of J is believed to have been
originally a Sethite line, while Gen. iv. 2:r26
originally preceded iv. 17.
The present form of the text is probably attributable to the editor of the work of J who inserted the flood story. He borrowed the material from an old Sethite table, and setting Cain at the head formed a Cainite table and inserted the Cain‑story (Gen. iv. 1‑16) and the sword‑song of Lamech. He thus brought into juxtaposition the killing by Lamech and that by Cain, completed the identification of Cain [father of the Kenitea and Cain brother of Abel] through Cain, founder of the city. Thus he secured a contrast between the godless Cainitea and the pious Sethites on which was founded the ecclesiastical tradition that alienation from God was in the Cainite blood, while in the Sethite piety was instinctive.
Of the other names in the table little need be said. In II Sam. xxi. 16 %ayin means " a spear," in Arabic and Syriac " a smith," and possibly (Gen. iv. 1) is to be connected with the word to " make." Enoch (Hanokh) is the name of a Reubenite (Gen. xlvi. 9) and a Midianite (Gen. xxv. 4) stock (cf. the Annakus who was king of Phrygia, mentioned by Stephen of Byzantium). With Jubal should be connected the Hebrew for" ram's horn " (Joshua vi. 5). Tubal is the Tibaseni of Asia Minor (Gen. x. 2), while the addition of Cain, " smith," goes well with their reputation for metalwork. A goddess Adah was worshiped by Babylonians, and one named Naama,h by the Pheniciana. (Ii: GumaE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The subject is treated more or less ade‑
quately in the commentaries on Genesis, best in A. Dill‑
mann's, Edinburgh, 1897, and in H. Gunkel'e. G&ttin‑
gen, 1902. Consult further: I. Goldsiher, Der Mythoa
bei den Hebrttern, Leipaie, 1878, Eng, tranal., London,
1877; K. Budde, Bibliache Urpeachichk, pp. 117 aqq., Giea‑

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
sen, 1883; F. Lenormant, Lea Originze de‑ 'hiatoire d'aprda la Bible, vol. i., Paris, 1880, Eng. transl., Beginnings of History, London, 1883; J. wellhausen, Die Kamposition des Hexateucha, pp. 10 eqq.. 305, Berlin. 1889; H. E. Ryle, Early Narratives of Genesis, pp. 78‑83, London, 1892; B. 8tade, in ZATW. xiv. (1894) 250 sqq.; EB, i. 822‑825, iv. 4411‑17; DB, i. 338‑339. On the later Jewish mythology, J. A. Eisenmenger. Entdecktea Judenfhum, i. 462, 471, 832, 836, Frankfort, 1700.
CAIIQITES : According to Irenaeus (Her., i. 31), a sect of the Ophitea (q.v.) who worshiped Cain as an instrument of the Gnostic Sophia, treated with hostility by the demiurge. They saw in Judas the one who best of all knew the truth, celebrated his treason as a mystery, and had a " Gospel of Judas." The notices of Pseudo‑Tertullian (Ilter., vii.), Philastriua (Ilcer., ii.), and Epiphaniua (Hcer., xxxviii.) accord with these statements. Cain was generated of higher power than Abel, and Judas was the benefactor of the human race, either because by his treason he frustrated Christ's intention to destroy truth (Philastrius), or because he compelled the archona to kill Christ, and so assisted in obtaining the salvation of the cross (Epiphanius). When Tertullian (Prieacriptio hcrreliconcm, xxxiii.; of. De btcptiamo, i.) mentions " Gaiana hereais" he probably refers to the Cainites. Cf. also 'Clement, Strom., vi. 108; Theodoret, Hcer., i. 15; Hippolytus, Phil., ‑viii. 20. For Cainitea, descendants of Cain, Bee CAIN, KENITEB. ~ G. KROCiER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meander. Christian Church, i. 448. 478, 848; Harnaek, Litteratur, II. i. 538 sqq.; see literature under GNOBTICIeM; OPHITEB.
CAIRD, JOHN: Church of Scotland: b. at Greenock (23 m. w.n.w. of Glasgow), R,enfrewahire, Dec. 15, 1820; d. there July 30, 1898. He was ‑ educated at the University of Glasgow (18371838, 1840‑45; M.A., 1845), interrupting his studies in 1838‑39 while engaged. in his father's engineering works. After the completion of his education he was minister successively at Newton‑on‑Ayr (18451847),~Lady Yester's, Edinburgh (1847‑‑49), Errol, Perthshire (1849‑57), and the Park Church, Glasgow (18572). In 1862 he was appointed professor of theology in the University of Glasgow, where he became principal and vice‑chancellor in 1$73, retaining both positions until his death, although he announced his intention of resigning early in 1898. He was Croall Lecturer at Edinburgh in 1878‑79 and Gifford Lecturer at Glasgow in 1890‑91 and 1896, though a stroke of paralysis forced him to discontinue this second course. He wrote: Sermons (Edinburgh, 1858); Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion (Croall lectures for 1878‑79; Glasgow, 1880); Spinout (Edinburgh, 1886); and the posthumous University Addresses (Glasgow, 1898): University Sermons (1898); and The Fundamental Ideas of Christianity (Gifford lectures; 2 vole., 1899; ed., with a memoir of the author, by E. Caird).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Caird, memoir Prefixed to his edition of The Fundamental Ideas of Christianity' 2 vols.,Glasgow, 1899; DNB, supplement, i. 368‑369.
CAIRNS, JOHN: United Presbyterian Church, Scotland b. at Ayton Hill (7 m. n.w. of Berwickon‑Tweed) Aug. 23, 1818; d. in Edinburgh Mar. 12, 1892. After being the wonder of his first school, he became the wonder of the University of Edin‑
IL‑22
Cain
Canna
burgh, where he studied arts (1834‑40), and of Secession Hall, where he studied theology (1840‑43). In 1843‑44 he studied and traveled on the Continent and received impressions and made acquaintances, especially in Germany, which affected his life. From 1845 till 1876 he was minister of the Golden Square United Presbyterian Church, Berwick‑onTweed. In frame he was massive, and he had apparently great powers of endurance, but he toiled too much, responded to too many calls in every direction; and on all sorts of errands, and so in 1855 broke down and after that was frequently laid aside. He early became one .of the leaders of his denomination, and developed into one of the foremost Scotchmen. He was from 1867 to 1876 professor of apologetics in the theological hall of his denomination in Edinburgh; in 1872 moderator of its general assembly. In 1876 he gave up his pastoral charge, and moving to Edinburgh received the joint professorship (with the principal) 'of systematic theology and apologetics‑the terms of which had been lengthened from seven weeks to five months. In 1879 he succeeded to the principalsbip. 'In 1880 he visited America and was a prominent character in the second council of the Alliance of the Reformed Churches held in Philadelphia. He died of heart disease after a brief illness. . He never married.
.His beat work was done upon the platform and in the pulpit. The great respect felt for him there and as a man of affairs and counsel withheld criticism of him as an educator, for as such he was less successful. . He had considerable learning and remarkable gifts, especially in the way of language, and he acquired foreign languages readily, even such tongues as Assyrian and Arabic when in middle life. He was sprung from the common people, underaood how to address them, and was reverenced by them. His nature was genial, free from affectation and hauteur, and he was untiring in the service of others. He made a deep impression on his own generation by his broad‑mindedness, moral courage, and fervent eloquence.
The topics upon which he spoke with convincing power, springing from deep conviction, were the freedom of the Church from the State; home and foreign missions; temperance,, and (after, 1874) in advocacy of total abstinence; modification of the Confession of Faith, by a declaratory statement (adopted 1879); union of the United Presbyterian, the Free Church, and the Church of Scotland (realized as far as the first two are concerned in 1900); and the disestabiishment of the Church of Scotland.
	His literary work was small in amount. He
published aside from pamphlets a memoir of Rev.
John Brown, of the United Presbyterian Church,
father of the author of Rab and his Friends (Edin
burgh, 1860); Unbelief in the Eighteenth Century,
Cunningham lectures for 1881; and after his death
came a volume of his sermons, Christ the Morning
Star,*and ‑ Other Sermons (London, 1892).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. R. Maeewen Life and Letters of John Cairns; London, 1898; Principal Cairns, in the Famous
Scots Series, Edinburgh, 1903.
CAIIlS, k@'us: The name of several characters in Roman history, of whom only two need be included here.

caius	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	338
Calamy
	1. Roman author early in the third century,
mentioned by Hippolytus, Dionyaius of Alexan
dria, and Eusebius. What Theodoret and Je
rome tell of him rests on Eusebius; Photius's
account is worthless, as the tradition from which
he derived it confused Hippolytus and Caius.
It is doubtful whether he was a Roman presbyter,
to say nothing of the title of " bishop of the na
tions " given him by Photius from tradition. In
the library at Jerusalem Eusebiua found a work
of his, the " Dialogue with Proclus " (the head of
the Roman Dlontanists); but this is the only one
known. From the quotations of Eusebius it ap
pears that Caius rebuked the audacity of the Dlon
tanists in manufacturing new Scriptures, that he
rejected millenarianism and with it the Apocalypse,
and that he recognized only thirteen epistles of
Paul. Ebed Jean (in Assemani, Bibl. Orient., III.
i., p. 15) says that Hippolytus wrote some Capita
adversus Caium ; and this statement is now con
firmed by the discovery of John Gwynn, who found
in the British Museum and published five frag
ments of these very Capita (Hermathena, vi., Dublin,
1888). From the statements of Caius here attacked
it is clear that he spoke strongly against the
contents of the Apocalypse (presumably in the
" Dialogue "), and considered it as unworthy of
credence and conflicting with the Holy Scriptures.
Thus from one of Eusebius's references (Hilt. eccl.,
III. xxviii. 1‑2) the conclusion is almost certainly
justified that Caius held the Apocalypse to be
the work of Cerinthus. Since this view is also that
of the Alogians of Asia Minor, and since the method
of his polemic against the book strikingly suggests
theirs, a connection between them is a plausible
hypothesis.	(A. HARNACH.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Harnack, Die Gxoynn'achen Cajua and
	HippolyEuafra9mente, in TU, vi. 3 (1891), 121‑128; idem,
	Litteratur, i. 601‑003; Kriiger, History, pp. 320‑321 (gives
	further literature); DCB, i. 384‑386; NPNF, i. 129, 160,
	163, 208.
	2. Pope 283‑296. These dates, Dec. 17 for his
election and A,
pr. 22 for his death, are given in the Catalogus Liberianus ; Eusebius (Hist. eccl., VII. xxxii. 1) ascribes to him a pontificate of about fifteen years. In any case, his role falls in the peaceful period before the outbreak of the persecution of Diocletian, and for this reason, if for no other, the tradition that he died a martyr is incredible. According to the DePositio episcoioorum he was buried in the cemetery of St. Calixtus.
(A. HALC>;.)
CAJETAN, cd'je‑tdn or caj'e‑tan, THOMAS: Italian cardinal; b. at Gaeta Feb. 20, 1469; d. at Rome Aug. 9, 1534. His real name was Jacopo Vio, lie took the monastic name Thomas, and his surname is from his birthplace. At the age of fifteen he entered the Dominican order, and, devoting himself to studies in the Thomiat philosophy, became, before he was thirty, one of its noted teachers; he was made general procurator in 1507 and general a year later. Faithful, to the traditions of the Dominicans, he appears in 1511 as a supporter of the pope against the claims of the Council of Pisa, composing in defense of his position the Tractatus :?e Comparatione Etuctoritatis Papece et coneiliorum
ad invicem. At the Fifth Lateran Council (1512‑17) which Julius II. set up in opposition to that of Pisa, Cajetan played the leading r&le; and it was he who during the second session of the council brought about the decree recognizing the infallibility of the pope and the superiority of his authority to that of the council. For his services Leo 3. made him in 1517 cardinal presbyter of Saint Sisto, Rome, and bestowed on him in the following year the bishopric of Palermo. This he resigned in 1519 to take the bishopric of Gaeta granted him by the emperor Charles V., for whose election Cajetan had labored zealously. In 1518 he was sent as legate to the Diet of Augsburg and to him, at the wish of the Saxon elector, was entrusted the task of examining and testing the teachings of Luther. Treatises of his own, written, without knowledge of Luther's theses, in 1517 show that Luther was justified in his assertion that on the doctrine of dispensation the Church had as yet arrived at no firmly established position; the doctrine of confession Cajetan seemed also to regard as a subject open to controversy. Yet more than investigator and thinker he was politician and prelate, and his appearance at Augsburg in all the splendor of ecclesiastical pomp only served to reveal him to Luther as the type of Roman curialist, hateful to Germans and German Christianity. Cajetan was active in furthering the election of Adrian VI., retained influence under Clement VII., suffered a short term of imprisonment after the storming of Rome by the Constable of Bourbon and by Frundsberg (1527), retired to his bishopric for a few years, and, returning to Rome in 1530, assumed his old position of influence about the person of Clement, in whose behalf he wrote the decision rejecting the appeal for divorce from Catharine of Aragon made by Henry VIII. of England (March 23,1534; printed in Records of the Reformation, ed. N. Power, Oxford, 2 vola., 1870, ii. 532‑533). Of the Reformation he remained a steadfast opponent, composing several works directed against Luther, and taking an important share in shaping the policy of the papal delegates in Germany.` Learned though he was in the scholastics, he recognized that to fight the Reformers with some chance of success a deeper knowledge of the Scriptures than he possessed was necessary. To this study he devoted himself with characteristic zeal, wrote commentaries on the greater part of the Old and the New Testament, and, in the exposition of his text, which he treated critically, allowed himself considerable latitude in departing from the literal and traditional interpretation. In the very field of Thomist philosophy he showed striking independence of judgment, expressing liberal views on marriage and divorce, denying the existence of a material hell and advocating the celebration of public prayers in the vernacular. The Sorbonne found some of these views heterodox, and in the

(1 Cajetan bore witness to Luther's ability when be exclaimed, " Ego nolo amplius cum hac bestia colloqui: habet enim profundos oculos et mirabilea speculationes in capite auo." (I do not want to have any further parley with that beast; for he has sharp eyes and wonderful speculations m his head.)]

339
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
1570 edition of his celebrated commentary on the
Summa of Thomas Aquinas (counted among the
best; new ed., Lierre, 1892 sqq.) the objectionable
passages were expunged. A complete edition of
his works with life appeared in five volumes at
Lyons, 1639. 	(T. I>OLDE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the Life prefixed to his works, consult: R. Simon, Hiatoire critique du Vieux Testament, p. 319, Rotterdam, 1678; idem, Hiatoire des principaux commentateuradu N. T., p. 537, 1639: C. 1•'. J'tiger, in ZHT, 1858, p. 431.
CAJETANS. See THEATINEa.
CALAH. See AaaYRIA, IV., § 3.
CALAMY: The name of an English family which produced several distinguished clergymen in the seventeenth century.
1. Edmund Calamy the Elder: Presbyterian; b. in London Feb., 1600; d. there Oct. 29, 1666. He was educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge; became (1626) vicar of St. Mary's in Swaffham Prior, Cambridgeshire; thence in the same year removed to St. Edmund's Bury in.Suffolk as lecturer, where he remained ten years, until compelled to retire on account of his opposition to the Book of Sports, thereby identifying himself with the Puritan party. He accepted from the Earl of Warwick the rectory of Rochford in Essex, where he remained until in 1639 he was chosen pastor of St. Mary Aldermanbury Church in London, where lie labored until 1662. He composed in 1641 with others " An Answer to a Book entitled, An Humble Remonstrance in which, the original of Liturgy and Episcopacy is discussed : and Queries proposed concerning both. The Parity of Bishops &^ Presbyters in Scripture demonstrated. The occasion of their Imparity in Antiquity discovered. The Disparity of the Ancient cfC our modern Bishops manifested. The Antiquity of Ruling Elders in the Church vindicated. The Prelatical church bounded. Written by Smectymnuus [i.e., S(tephen) .11i(arshall), Edmund) C(alamy), Thomas) Voting), DI(atthew) N(ewcommen), and William) S(purstow)). This reply to Joseph Hall's Humble Remonstrance became the platform of the Presbyterians, as that became the platform of the Episcopal party, each side claiming jure divino. Several other tracts were issued in the controversy pro and con. Calamy was chosen a member of the Westminster Assembly of Divines (1643), and took an active part in its proceedings, being moderate in doctrinal position, and inclined to a union with both Independents and Episcopalians in some comprehensive polity. He also became one of the most energetic members of the Provincial Assembly of London; took part in the composition of the Vindication of the Presbyterian Government and Ministry, 1648; was the author of the Jus Divinum tllinisterii Evangelici, 1654, both adopted by that body. He had opposed the execution of Charles I. and was active in restoring Charles II. to the kingdom in 1659; was one of the divines sent to Holland to treat with him. At the Restoration in 1G3(l he was made one of the king's chaplains, and offered the
bishopric of Coventry and Lichfield Ivhich
	he	, how‑
ever,	declined. With Batter, Reynolds, and
others, be gave his energies for a comprehension
Caius
Calamy
of Presbyterians and Episcopalians through a
	revision of the Liturgy, and a reduction of Episco
	pacy on Archbishop Ussher's model. He took
	part in drawing up the Exceptions against the Lit
	urgy, and reply to the Reasons. of the Episcopal
	clergy. He was a great preacher, frequently de
	livering sermons before Parliament and the lord
	mayors on public occasions; and his lectures were
	frequented by the best people of London. A
	nunlbcr of these have been published. His most
	popular work is The Godly Alan's Ark (London,
	1657; 18th ed., 1709; reprinted, 1865). He was
	the compiler of The Souldier's Pocket Bible, issued
	for the use of the Commonwealth army in 1613;
	reprinted in facsimile 189;1. He was a practical
	man of affairs, rather than a scholar and writer.
	He was ejected for non‑conformity in 1662, and
	imprisoned in Neagate for a short time for having,
	preached after his ejection. But the king inter
	posed, on account of great public indignation, and
	he was released. 	C. A. BRIGGS.
B113LIOGRAPHY: The DNB, viii. 227‑230, contains an excellent account of his life, and adds details of references to literature.
2. Edmund Calamy the Younger: Non‑conforming minister, eldest son of Edmund Calamy the elder; b. at Bury St. Edmunds about 1635; d. at Totteridge, near Barnet; May, 1685. He studied at Sidney Sussex College and Pembroke Hall, Cambridge (B.A.; 1654; M.A., 1658); was made rector of Moreton, Essex, 1658; ejected on the passage of the Uniformity Act .(1662), and thenceforth lived a retired life in London, preaching occasionally in private or to friends.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bioqraphroa Brirannica, ed. A. HIppIS, iii. 136, London, 1784; DNB, viii. 230‑231.

3. Benjamin Calamy: Church of England, second son of Edmund Calamy the elder; b. in London on or before June 8, 1642; d. there Jan., 1686 (buried Jan. 7). He studied at Catherine Hall, Cambridge (B.A., 1664; M.A., 1668; D.D., 1680); became curate of St. Mary Aldermanbury, London, 1677, from which his father was ejected fifteen years saltier; king's chaplain 1680; vicar of St. Lawrence Jewry, with St. Mary Magdalene, Milk Street,
annexed, 1683; prebendary of St. Paul's 1685. Unlike his father and elder brother, he was a Hiohchurchman; he lived on very friendly terms, however, with his non‑conformist broteer and befriended the tatter's son. He published many sermons which are commended for beauty of language and excellent sentiments. His Discourse about a Doubting (in the second edition, Strupulou3
Conscience (1683) made a great sensation, it was
directed against dissenters and called forth a reply
from Thomas de Laune, a Baptist schoolmaster (A Plea for the Non‑Conformists, 1684). His
brother James Calamy edited a volume of his

sermons, containing also his funeral sermon by
Dean Sherlock (Lond
editions). 	OD, 1690; ssveral sUbmqUent

BIHLIOpRAPgy~ Big,.ajAia B~nn~ ~ A. Kippie, iii. 137, London..1784: DNB, viii. 228_2Z/ .
4. Edmund Calamy: The historian of noncon‑

formity, son of Edmund Calamy the younger;

C~eb	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	340
b. in London Apr. 5, 1671; d. there. June 3, 1732. He studied at several schools kept by ejected ministers in England, and at the University of Utrecht, 1688‑89; then spent nine months at Oxford; became assistant to Matthew Sylvester at Blackfriars, London, 1692; was ordained 1694; in 1703 settled as pastor of a church in Westminster, London. He was a man of winning manners and much tact, and succeeded in accomplishing his purposes without making enemies. His publications were numerous, for the most part sermons; those which have permanent value are his historical works on English non‑conformity. He edited Baxter's Narrative (Reliquice Baxterianee) and supplied an index and table of contents (1690); six years later he published an abridgment of the same work, adding a history of ministers ejected for non‑conformity down to the close of Baxter's life in 1691. The publication provoked much criticism, to which Calamy replied in a second edition (2 vole., 1713) bringing the history down to 1711; and in 1727 he published a continuation of the work in two volumes. Calamy's four volumes were condensed into two by Samuel Palmer, with the title The Non‑Conformist's Memorial (1775), sad a three‑volume edition was issued in 1803. He left an autobiography, An Historical Account of my Own Life, with some reflections. on the times 1 have lived in, edited by John Towill Rutt (2 vole., London, 1829). Calamy was welt qualified by his moderation and catholicity to be the fair‑minded historian of son‑conformity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the autobiography mentioned above, consult: BiApraphia Britannica, ed. A. Kippis, iii. 140, London, 1784; D1VB, viii. 231‑23b (quite in detail).
CALA3, ca"lay, JEAN. See RABAUT, PAUL.
CALASAlYZE, JOSE. See PIAR1S79.
CALATRAVA, ORDER OF: A knightly order, founded about the middle of the twelfth century, to defend the frontiers of Christian Spain against the Moors. The fortress of Calatrava (on the Guadiana, 65 m. s.e. of Toledo), on the borders of Andalusia, commanded the passes into Castile and was hotly contested. After being bravely held for several years by a company of monks and knights under the lead of a Cistercian monk and former soldier, Velasquez, and the abbot Raymond of Fitero, it was presented to the band by Sancho III., king of Castile, in 1158. The general chapter of the Cistercians gave the order a rule under the oversight of the monastery o€ Morimalld, and prescribed as dress a white ecapulary (or white cloak) with a garland of red lilies. The rule was confirmed by Pore Alexander III. in 1164. The knights of the order captured Cordova in 1177 sad performed other noteworthy deeds of arms. After 119.5 a long period of decline began. Calatmva was lost and the seat of the order was transferred to Sadvatierra (Mops Salutis) is the Sierra Morena. In 1212 Calatrava was again occupied, but was abandoned for New Calatrava, eight miles farther south, is 1218, the Order of Alcantara (q.v.) undertaking the defense of Calatrava. Toward the end of the Middle Ages the grand master possessed such wealth and power that he became an object
of suspicion to the crown. At the instigation of
Ferdinand and Isabella, Pope Innocent VIII, in
1486 deprived the order of the right of choosing
its master, and after 1523 the office was united
with the crown. Since 1808 the order has been
merely one of merit. Nuns of Calatrava were
instituted by the grand master Gonzalez Yanea
in 1219 at the time of the removal to New Cala
trava. They had their convent at Barrios near
Amaya, later at Burgos, but never attained to
importance. 	(O. ZtiCBLERt. )
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Helyot, Ordrea »ionaatiquea, vi: 34‑53, 88 eqq.; W. H. Prescott, History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, i. 308‑309, Philadelphia, 1873; P. B. Gams, Kirchenpeachichte Spaniena, iii. 54, Regensburg, 1879; Heimbucher, Orders and Kongregationen, i. 228‑227; Carrier, Religious Orders, p. 216.
CALDECOTT, ALFRED: Church of England; b. at Chester Nov. 9, 1850. He was educated at the University of London (B.A., 1873) and at St. John's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1879), and was ordered deacon in 1880, and ordained priest two years later: He was curate of Christ Church, Stafford, in I88(l, fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge, in 1880,86, and fellow and dean of the same college in 1889‑95, in addition to being curate of St. Paul's, Cambridge, in 1881‑82, vicar of Horningaey, Cambridgeshire, in 1882‑84, and principal of Codrington College, Barbados, and examining chaplain to the bishop of Barbados in 1884‑86. He was organizing secretary of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at Cambridge in 18891905, and was rector of North cum South Lophan, Norfolk, in 1895‑98. Since the latter year he has been rector of Frating cum Thorington, Essex, and has also been examining chaplain to the bishop of St. Albans since 1903. He was examiner in Moral Science Tripos in Cambridge in 1884, I888‑89, and 1893‑94, and was select preacher in the same university in 1884, 1890‑91, and 1894, while in 18911892 he was junior proctor. In addition to his duties as rector, he has been professor of moral and mental philosophy in King's College, London, since 1891, and examiner in theology in the University of London since 1902, as well as Cambridge Extension Lecturer in 1880,82 and 1886‑‑87. He has likewise been senior secretary of St. John's Cambridge Mission in South London in 1883‑86 and 1889‑95, vice‑president of the Cambridge Ethical Society in 1890‑1905, governor of Colchester Grammar School in 1900‑05, a member of the committee of the Christian Evidence Society since 1903, and a member of the Senate of the University of London since 1904. In 1906 he was elected a fellow of King's College, London. He has written: English, Colonisation and Empire (London, 1891); The Church in the West Indies (1898); and The Philosophy of Religion in England and America (1901).
CALDERWOOD, DAVID: The historian of the Church of Scotland; b. probably at Dalkeith (7 m. s.e. of Edinburgh) 1575; d. at Jedburgh (40 m. s.e of Edinburgh) Oct. 29, 1650. He studied at Edinburgh, and in 1604 was ordained minister of Crailing, near Jedburgh. He was a determined opponent of the scheme of King James to introduce prelacy into the Church of Scotland; in 1617 he

341
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
presented a remonstrance to the king, and argued so boldly and successfully in support of his position that he was imprisoned and ultimately ordered to leave the country. He went to Holland (1619), where he lived in quiet and obscurity; at one time it was rumored that he was dead and a false Recantation Directed to Such in Scotland as Refuse Conformity to the Ordinances of the Church, was published and ascribed to him (London, 1622). After the death of James (1625) he returned to Scotland, but did not obtain a charge until 1640, when he was appointed minister at Pencaitland, East Lothian. Gradually he came again into prominence and, with David Dickson and Alexander Henderson, was employed in drawing up the " Directory for Public I Worship." In 1648 the General Assembly voted him an annual pension of £800 Scots (£G6 13s. 4d. sterling) to enable him to complete his great work, the history of the Kirk of Scotland. He died, however, leaving it still in manuscript, and in three forms; the first and longest is now partially preserved in the British Museum; the second, " a digest of the first," was published with a Life by Thomas Thomson by the Wodrow Society in eight volumes, Edinburgh, 1842‑49; the third, another abridgment, was published in 1678 with the title The True History of the Church of Scotland from the Beginning of the Reformation unto the End of the Reign of King James VI. These histories have alight literary merit, but are invaluable as sources, their material having been collected with diligence and fidelity. The most notable of Calderwood's other publications was his Altar of Damascus, or the pattern of the English hierarchy and church obtruded upon the Church of Scotland (Leyden, 1621; Lat. transl., Altare Damascenum, with considerable additions, 1623; 2d ed., 1708), which became later the great storehouse of arguments in favor of Presbyterianism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the Life, by T. Thomeon, prefixed
to the Wodrow ed. of the History, and the Preface to Vol. Viii. Of the same, by D. Laing, consult: G. Grub, Eccdeaiasticat History of Scotland, vols. ii., iii., Edinburgh, 1881; J. Walker, Theology and Theologians of Scotland, ib. 1872; DNB, viii. 244‑246.
CALDERWOOD, HENRY: United Presbyterian Church of Scotland; b. at Peebles (21 m. s. of Edinburgh) May 10,1830; d. at Edinburgh Nov.19,1897. He studied at the University of Edinburgh and the theological hall there of the United Presbyterian Church; was ordained minister of Greyfriars Church, Glasgow, 1856 was appointed professor of moral philosophy, Edinburgh, 1868. As a philosopher " he tried to discover and explain the bearings of physiological science on man's mental and moral nature . . . . He believed it to be demonstrated by physiology that the direct dependence of mind on brain was confined to the sensory‑motor functions, the dependence of the higher forms of mental activity being, on the other hand, only indirect. He endeavored to establish the thesis that man's intellectual and spiritual life, as we know it, is not the product of natural evolution, but necessitates the assumption of a new creative cause." His interests were not confined to his professional work; he was chairman of the Edinburgh school board"
Galas Caleb
chairman of the North and East of Scotland Liberal Unionist Association, was a member of the mission board of his Church, and advocated temperance reform, Presbyterian union, and other philanthropic and religious movements. He edited The United Presbyterian Magazine, and published The Philosophy of the Infinite (London, 1854), a criticism of Sir William Hamilton prepared during his student days; Handbook of Moral Philosophy (1872); On Teaching, its Means and Ends (1874); The Relations of Mind and Brain (1879); The Parables of our Lord (1880); The Relations of Science and Religion, Morse lectures before Union Theological Seminary, New York, 1880 (1881); Evolution and Man's Place in Nature (1893; enlarged ed., 1896); several of these works have appeared in many editions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His Life was written by his son, W. L.
Calderwood, with David Woodside, with chapter on his
philosophical works by A. $. Pringle‑Pattison, London, 1900.
CALEB, CALEBITES: One of twelve scouts whom Moses sent from the Wilderness of Sin to spy out the promised land (Num. xii. 16‑xiii. 17a, 21, 25), and his descendants. According to Num. xiii. 6 he represented the tribe of Judah. Joshua xiv. 6, 14 designates him as " the Kenizzite," with which Joshua xv. 17 agrees in making Othniel, the brother of Caleb, the " son of Kenaz." The Kenizzites were a branch of the Edomitic stock, Kenaz being a grandson of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 11, 15). Then Caleb, and Othniel were originally not Israelites, but had left their people and united with the Hebrews, and this agrees with the location of their settlements in Hebron and Debir (Josh. xiv. 6‑15, xv. 13‑19; Judges i. 12‑15, 20). I Chron. ii. 42‑49 puts into the possession of Caleb Maresha, Hebron, Tappuah, Maon, Jokdeam, and Beth‑zur (Madmanna,h, verse 49, is a city of the Negeb, Josh. xv. 31). The Calebites occupied the same region in the time of Saul and David, and to them belonged a part of the Negeb (I Sam. xxx. 14). There David lived long as a freebooter, his first wife was of Calebite stock, and Abigail was from Moon‑Carmel. After Soul's death David occupied Hebron and its Calebite neighborhood and was there made king. His realm included the territory of Caleb and Judah, though the latter gave the name to his kingdom. In spite of the formal union of the two peoples, the Calebites maintained a practical independence with a residence in Judahitic territory. This explains Absalom's resort to Hebron in his insurrection against David.
The name Caleb was then originally that of a stock, and, personified, became that of the eponymous ancestor (see EroNym). With this the story of Achsah (Judges i. 12‑15, Josh. xv. 15‑19) is seen to agree when it is remembered that tribally " daughter " means a weaker stock which has lost its independence to a stronger.
The Calebites remained in the district mentioned till exilic times when the Edomites drove them, weakened by Nebuchadrezzar's measures, northward to the neighborhood of Jerusalem‑a change explained in customary genealogical phrasing (j Chron. ii. 18‑19), and the Calebites were reckoned to Judah (I Chron. ii. 5,' 9, 18, 50‑55).

Calendar Brethren
Calendar, The Christian
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
An early age can not be ascribed to the narrative which gives the story of the spies, since Caleb is there reckoned as a Judahite without any discrimination of stocks such as other passages cited above make necessary. The assumption in the representation of P in Num. xiii.‑xiv., and of the Chronicler, of the assimilation by the Hebrews of the Calebites is good for poatexilic times. (See
JUDEA.) 	(H. GuraE.)
While advanced scholarship generally takes the position indicated in the text (so, for example, J. A. Selbie in DB, i. 340), conservative criticism ineiata that Caleb was originally a personal name and declines altogether the idea 'of eponymity; cf. J. D. Davis, Dictionary of the Bible, Philadelphia, 1898, pp. 103‑104.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Wellhausen, De pentibw at familiia, 1
Chron. ii. 4. Giittingen, 1870; idem, Die Kompoaition des Hezakucha, pp. 338‑338, Berlin, 1889: H. Grkta, Die Kalubaiten oder Ralebilen, in Monatsschrift for OeecJeichte and Wiasenerhaft des Judentuma, xav. (1878) 481 eqq.; W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage, pp. 200. 219, London, 1885; idem in Journal o/ Philology, ix. (1878) 89; E. Meyer, Die Entefehunp des Jvdentums, pp. 114 eqq., 147‑148, Halle, 1898.
CALENDAR BRETHREN (Fratres Calendarii): A fraternity which arose in the second half of the Middle Ages, especially in lower Saxony, but also in other portions of Germany and occasionally in the neighboring countries. It might be termed a
842
clerical gild, for though men who were not members of the clergy were admitted, they were restricted to a minor position, and the statutes of many communities termed only the clergy " full brothers." The first fraternity of Calendar Brethren which is definitely known to have existed was that of Laer in Westphalia in 1279, but it was not until the fourteenth century that they became numerous. They seem to have originated in the official conferences held by the clergy of each archdiaconate on the first day of the month (Latin, Kalendce). They centered about religious worship, the members being required to say mesa for the repose of each other's souls or have it said, and to pray for one another. They were likewise bound, as in the gilds, to mutual support and social elevation. With the accession of wealthy laymen, the fraternities gained in importance and wealth, and became famous for their banquets. They made a firm resistance to the Reformation, since they refused to allow their wealth to be diverted to other purposes. Some maintained themselves for a considerable length of time in Evangelical districts, but they were finally suppressed even in Roman Catholic countries. (G. UHraoxxt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. von Ledebur, Die Kalandeuertmitdernn
	pen in den Landen des e7leheiechan Volksatammea, in Mfir
	kiache Forachungen, iv. 7 eqq., Bbrlin, 1850; BierGng, Die
Ralandetruderechaftsn, in Zcitxhrift tar Alfntumakunde and thachichk in Weatphalen, aeries 10, iii. 178 eqq.
CALENDAR, THE CHRISTIAN.
The Origin of the Christian Calendar Early Medieval Calendars (¢ 4).
(¢ 1)•	Greek and Slavic Calendars (¢ 6;
The Calendar in the Early Church (¢ 2).	Later medieval calendars (¢ 8).
Complications in Dating (¢ 3). 	Errors in Calculating Easter (¢ 7).
	The Christian calendar is an index of the year
arranged according to months and weeks, and
giving a list of feasts, fasts, and saints' days, to
which data of a more miscellaneous character may
be added. The dependence of the feasts on chro
nology renders it necessary to consider the systems
of reckoning time, especially as both the chrono
logical and liturgical portions of the calendar were
established by the Church, and remained in the
hands of the clergy throughout the Middle Ages.
In its most general aspect of an annual list of days
sad feasts, the Christian calendar dates from the
primitive Church, which found its model in classical
m t~tY) particularly among the Romans. Nu
~~ ~n man calendars of_ the imperial period
		Preserved either n whole or in part,
designed for public use within areas ran gjag fmm
a town to an entire country. These calendars con
		tain astronomical information as well
s. The Ori‑ as lists of religious feasts and civic
gin of the celebrations, Mme of which were con
		nected with the cult, each a8 may
Calendar. of the public games while others
	commemorated historic events. The
transition from pagan to Christian 	y ~
calendar,	wage ma
seen in two 	era from the middle of the fourth
&19 )~tOne Of b~ was ~ Mommsen, CIL i. 332
the.	drawn up at Rome in
~i~ °f Con	II. and is evidently a
revsion of a pages calendar, omitting all feasts of ,
a d~etinctively religious oar, both heathen
The Gregorian Reform (¢ 8).
Opposition to the Gregorian Calendar (¢ 9).
Attempts to Reform the Calendar (¢ 10).
and Christian, but retaining the purely civic feasts. Christian influence is visible, however, in the recognition of the Christian weeks beside the Roman system, since the year, which here begins with Jan. i, falls in two regular divisions, one of eight days each (the atcrtd%nce) represented by the letters A‑H, and the other of seven days, indicated by A‑G. The second calendar was prepared in 448 during the reign of Valentil118a Ill, and, though pagan in basis, contains for the first time a small number of Christian feasts, having five festivals of Christ and six saints' days. The oldest exclusively Christian calendar is a Gothic fragment, apparently prep ared in Thrace in the fourth century, containing the last eight days of October and the entire month of November. Seven days have the names of saints attached to them, two frolri the New Testament, three from the general Church, and two from the Goths.
Even before the inclusion of Christian feasts in the Roman calendar, however, the Church had
lists of saints' days arranges according to the date of their celebration,
The 	although not yet
s.	incorporated in a formal calendar,
Calendar Allusions t0 such Nt5 of memorial
the	days are found in Tertullian and Cyp_
Church‑	.`Ys	the earliest one extant was
Prepared at Rome in the middle of the fourth century. It consists of an martyrs for twenty‑four
enumeration of elve Roman bishops and a list of days, including feasts in

843
commemoration of the birth of Christ and of St.
Peter (Feb. 22), all the remainder being festivals of
martyrs, generally of local origin. The next oldest
calendar is a list of the festivals of the Church of
Carthage, which apparently dates from the end of
the fifth or the beginning of the sixth century, and
contains the names of bishops and martyrs, the
most of whom were natives of Carthage. From
such beginnings a wealth of calendars soon devel
oped throughout the Latin world, and the lists
	of the days of the month received an incieasing
	proportion of martyrological, hagiological, and
	heortological material. The active intercourse
	of the churches, especially of Rome with Africa,
	Gaul, Spain, and England, resulted in the addition
	of such numbers of foreign saints that those who
	received honor throughout the Church exceeded the
	saints of local fame, and finally there was no day
	of the year which did not have one or more saints.
		Since martyrs were commemorated in the early
	Church especially in the place where they had
	suffered, each community originally had its own
	list of feasts and its own calendar. This usage
	was of long duration, despite the frequent inter
	change of names and despite the increasing pres
	tige of the Roman calendar and list of feasts.
	The diversity of calendars was augmented, more
	over, by the reverence paid to the local saints of
	individual countries and dioceses, while a still
	more important factor was the discrepancy in the
	dating of the beginning of the year. The first of
	the year was reckoned from no leas than six days:
	(I) the Feast of the Circumcision !Jan. 1; used in
	conformity to the Julian calendar); (2) Mar. 1
		(Merovingian France, the Lombards, Venice, and,
	for a time, Russia); (3) the Feast of the Annun
	ciation (Mar. 25; first in Florence and Pisa, whence
	it extended to France, Germany, England, and
	Ireland, being retained in the latter two countries
		until the eighteenth century); (4)
		3. Compli‑ Easter (especially in France); (5) Sept. l
		cations in (Byzantine Empire, and, until mod
		Dating. ern times, Russia); (6) Christmas
		(Carolingian France, the Anglo‑Saxons,
		Scandinavia, Prussia, Hungary, and portions of
		Holland, Switzerland, etc.). The problem was
		further complicated by the various methods of
		indicating the day of the month, of which at least
		five systems were used contemporaneously: (1) the
		ancient Roman method of calends, ides, and nonea;
		(2) the Greco‑Christian consecutive numbering of
		the days of the month, now generally used; (3) the
		consuetudo Bononiensis, which divided the month
		into two halves, in one of which (mensia int,.an,,)
		the days were numbered forward from I, while in
		the other (mere e) they were reckoned back
	ward from 30 or 31; (4) the method of Ciaiojanua
	or Cisianus, which designated the days of the month
6y the syllables of (log Poular in	arbitrary mnemonic verses
(5)nthe designation of the and North Germany);
		day by the feast ~I~
brated on it. This confusion was worse confounded
by the various reckonings of Easter, while
movable feasts base
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Calendar Brethren
Calendar, The Christi=
In the Middle Ages calendars were multiplied, partly in consequence of the chronological intricacies already noted and partly because of the universal need for ecclesiastical data of this character. It is true that there are few calendars still extant which were prepared previous to the eighth century, but this deficiency is made good in various ways, especially by the sacramentaries which give the list of feasts, while liturgical books, particularly manuscripts of the Psalter, frequently have a calendar prefixed to them. Such calendars are usually perpetual, that is, available for any year, but are usually provided with methods for the determination of the movable feasts of any particular year. Not only are the letters ;. Early A‑G repeated in them from Jan. 1 to
Medieval designate the days of the week, but Calendars. they also contain the numbers L‑XIX.
to denote all new moons which fall, in the course of a cycle of nineteen years, on the day of the month designated by one of these numbers. By means of such a calendar, when the Dominical Letter and the Golden Number (qq.v.) of the cycle are known, may be obtained the day
I	of the week of any date and all new moons throughout the year. From the latter is derived the date of the spring new moon, which gives, when the day of the week on which it falls is determined by the Dominical Letter, the date of Easter. An Easter table for a series of years is also frequently added to the calendars.
All calendars of the Greek and Slavic churches begin their ecclesiastical year, as already noted, with, Sept. 1. The great majority of their immovable feasts are consecrated to the saints and the Virgin, while a number of the movable feasts are consecrated to Christ. The latter, like the Sundays of the year, are divided into three periods: Trioidion (beginning with the tenth Sunday before Easter), Pentekostarion (from Easter to the close of the second week after Whitsuntide), and Oktoechos (extending from the second Sunday after Whitsuntide into the Western Epiphany).
5. Greek The calendar of the Greek Church is
I and Slavic characterized by numerous fasts,
	I	Calendars. partly of single days and partly of
?		several weeks. To the latter belong
	!I the four "great fasts." Two of these are movable,
	the Easter fast of seven weeks, and the Fast of the
	Apostles, the latter lasting from the Feast of All
	Martyrs on the Sunday after Whitsuntide to the
	day of SS. Peter and peal (dune 29). The other
two, the Fast of the Virgin (August I‑15) and the
	Fast of Advent (Nov. 24‑Dec. 24), are immovable.
	In a number of the snore important feasts the Greek
	calendar harmonizes with the %sier, but it
	deviates in numerous instances from the latter in
	its dating of the feasts of saints and martyrs.
		In the Western Church the majority of calendars
	were written in Latin until the end of the Crusades.
	Among them special mention may be made °f the
	ancient list of feasts Prepared at Rome during the
the reign of Gregory II. or Gregory III., and noteworthy
	d upon it and running aide by~ gi~ng the Roman stations in which the feasts
side with the fixed festivals, ore
	ven crossing them, were celebrated and the
added their quota of perple~ty.	a lessons from the Gospels.
Other noteworthy Y calendars include one prep

CalfCalendar
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	344
in 781 by Godesscalc at the command of Charlemagne, a calendar from Luxeuil of the latter part
of the seventh century, a .marble 6.‑Later calendar drawn up at Naples by
Medieval Bishop John IV. between 840 and 850,
Calendars, and a calendar of Bishop Gundekar
II. of Eichstatt (1057‑79). Among other German calendars mention may be made of one from Freising of the latter part of the tenth century, from Salzburg in the eleventh century, from ‑Regensburg in the twelfth, and from Passau and Augsburg in the thirteenth. Toward the end of the Middle Ages the Latin calendars began to be translated into the vernacular, although a metrical calendar had been written in Anglo‑Saxon before the close of the tenth century. A French calendar of the thirteenth century is still extant in manuscript, but German calendars, which are tolerably numerous, are not found until a hundred years later. The invention of printing in the fifteenth century wrought important changes in the calendar, although the first printed specimens resemble these in manuscript and, like them, are perpetual. The first calendar for a definite year was printed at Nuremberg in 1475 in German and Latin. It was designed for the years 1475, 1494, sad 1513 as the first of a triple cycle of nineteen years each, and was so instructed that the dates for other years might be derived from these three, so that it really extended from 1475 to 1531. The ecclesiastical portions, however, were in perpetual form, since the calendar contained, in addition to the letters A‑G for the days of the week, only the names of the saints for a limited number of days without a division into weeks and without the movable feasts. It was not until the middle of the sixteenth century that calendars arranged according to the weeks and feasts of a definite year came into general use.
The reckoning of Easter hitherto employed had long been recognized as inadequate, and the elimination of the errors which this system had caused was one of the most urgent tasks which awaited solution after the close of the Middle Ages. Since the second half of the third century the rule had been adopted by the Alexandrian Church, and confirmed by the Council of Nicxa, that Easter should fall on the.Sunday after the spring full moon, that is,. on the first Sunday after the‑ full moon on or neat after the vernal equinox. The date of this
equinox was to be Mar. 21, while the 7. Errors is full moon was to be reckoned accord‑
Calculating ing to a cycle of nineteen years. This
Easter. system of reckoning was introduced
into the Roman Church in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus, and spread thence throughout Italy, Gaul, and Spain, and was given to the AngloSaxon churches by Bede in 729. This method, however, was vitiated by two faults which could not fail to become evident in the course of time. In the first place, by its assumption that the vernal equinox falls on Mar. 21 it adopted the entire Julian system which makes the •,ear 365 days in length and intercalates a day every four years. In reality this year is eleven minutes too long, so that an extra day is intercalated every 128 years. In the send place, by its reckoning of the spring full
moon according to a nineteen‑year cycle of 235 months or 6,939 days, it made the cycle as hour too long, thus making a discrepancy of the day between the real and the theoretical new moon every 210 years. It was not until the thirteenth century that this error attracted attention, the first works to note it being the Computus of Master Conrad in 1200 (extant only in a revision of 1396 in a Vienna manuscript) 'and the similar work of an anonymous author of 1223 (preserved in great part by Vincent of Beauvais). The problem was likewise taken up by Johannes de Sacro‑Busto about 1250 in his De anni rations and by Roger Bacon in a treatise addressed to Clement IV., De refornaatione calendorii, while among the Greeks the monk Isaac Argyroe wrote on the problem in 1272. In the fifteenth century the reformation of the calendar was discussed in the great councils of the Roman Catholic Church, especially by Pierre d'Ailly at Kostnitz in 1414 and by Nicholas of Gusa at Basel in 1436, the latter proposing to begin the correction of the calendar in 1439.
The actual reform of the calendar was first carried out by Gregory XIII. (1572‑85) in conformity with a resolution of the Council of Trent. in 1577 the pope appointed a committee which held its sessions at Rome to carry out the plan proposed by the Calabrian astronomer Aloigi Ligli, and eon&rnaed, this reformed calendar, which was .called the Gregorian in his honor, by a bull of Feb. 24,
1582. The reform was designed, on $. The the one hand, to regulate Easter with
Gregorian reference to the solar and lunar revo‑
Reform. lutions, thus restoring the yeas of the
lunar cycle according to the dabs and intention of the Nicene Council, and, on the other, to avoid any future shifting of the vernal equinox and the spring full moon. To restore the vernal equinox to Mar. 21, the ten days between Oat. 4 and 16 were dropped, while for the correction of the spring full moon the new moons were set back three days from Jan. 3 to Dec. 31. These corrections were assured by retaining the Julian system of intercalation and the nineteen‑year lunar cycle for a century. The interealary day was to be omitted thrice in four centuries, and the new moon was to be retarded one day eight times in twenty‑five eenturies (seven times after each three hundred years and the eighth time after four hundred). For the correction of the lunar cycle the reckoning of epacte, or the age of the moon on Jan. 1, was introduced according to the cycle proposed by Ligli.
The Gregorian calendar was adopted in Roman
Catholic countries either immediately or in the
course of a few years. The Protestant districts,
on the other hand, opposed it, partly on account
of their hostility to Rome and partly on account of
its chronological discrepancies. Its inaccuracies
		were recognized by the landgrave
	9. Opposi‑ William IV. of Hesse‑Cassel, and the
	tion to the Calvinistic Joseph Justus Scaliger is
	Gregorisn sued repeated warnings against it.
	Calendar. After the end of the sixteenth century
		the Julian calendar existed in Germany
aids by aide with the Gregorian, the two being des
ignated as old and new style, respectively. The

845	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Calendar
		Calf
movable feasts of the two faiths accordingly dif
fered, and the advocates of the new style dated the
days of the month ten days in advance of the old un
til the end of the seventeenth century. In view of
the discrepancies between the two systems the Ger
man Protestants devised a third calendar, whichwas
to agree neither with the Gregorian nor the Julian
and was to take effect in 1700. In its reckoning
of time it agreed with the Gregorian, but its feasts
were calculated astronomically according to the
meridian of Uraniborg and the Rudolphinian Tables
of Kepler. The result was ‑increased confusion
and embitterment between Roman Catholics and
Protestants, particularly in 1724, 1744, and 1783,
when there was a divergency of a week between the
Gregorian and the astronomical Easter. This
Protestant calendar was finally suppressed by
Frederick the Great in 1775, and the Gregorian
calendar became supreme throughout Germany.
German Protestants have sought in recent years
to transform Easter into an immovable feast, but
the plan as yet remains inchoate.
	The evangelical reforms of the calendar thus far
considered were concerned only with chronology,
without regard to the traditional Christian lists
of saints and martyrs. There is, however, a tend
ency among the Lutherans to revise the hagiology
of the Church, in view of the Protestant skepticism
regarding the existence of many of the saints of
tradition and the Christianity ascribed to others.
They are offended, furthermore, by the names of
such heroes of the Counterreformation as St.
			Ignatius Loyola and other opponents
:o. Attempts of their sect, while prominent Protes
	to Reform tants, it is felt, should be recognized
		the	in an ecclesiastical calendar designed
	Calendar. for Lutheran use. Such an attempt
			was made by Ferdinand Piper in his
Evangelischer Kalender (published from 1850 to
1870), in which he sought to transform the hagi
ology of the Western Church according to evan
gelical ideas. To increase the interest of the laity
in this new list of names, brief biographies were
added, and these, 399 in number, were later pub
lished separately under the title Zeugen der Wahr
heit (4 vols., Leipsic, 1874; Eng. transl., by H.
bZ. 1VIacCracken, 3 vols., Boston, 1879). Piper's
calendar, however, failed to secure official recogni
tion in any German church, although in various re
visions it has been included in a number of popular
calendars in Germany. It is self‑evident that only
partial success can be attained by any Protestant
hagiologieal calendar in view of the diversity of
Protestant conditions and requirements. Appar
ently, the most that can be done is to add new
dates and names, whether these be supplementary
or corrective, to the traditional hagiology of the
Church, so that, according to the requirements of
time or place, a choice may be made from the
names associated with any particular day.
				(O. ZOCSLERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the general subject consult: L. Ideler,
	Handbuch der . . . Chronologie, 2 vols., Berlin, 1825‑26;
	A. J. Weidenbach, Caiendarium hiatorico‑chriatianum
	medii et novi ami, Regensburg, 1855; W. 8. B. Woolhouse,
	Analysis of the Christian, Hebrew and Mahometan Calen
	dars, London, 1881; Ledouble, La Connaiseante den art‑
nEea et den joura. Traits . . . du calendrier, 6oissons, 1887; E. Mahler, Fortsetzunp der 7Vustenfeld'achen b‑erpleichunga‑Tabellen der multammedaniachen and christZichen Zei.trechnung, Leipsic, 1887; J. C. Macdonald, Chronologies and Calendars, London, 1897; F. Riihl, Chronologie den 3fittelaltera and der Neuzeit, Berlin, 1897; B. M. Lersch, Ein.lei.tung in die Chronologie, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1899 (YOI. ii. on Christian Calendar); Encpclopo> din. Britannica, iv. 664‑682 (gives comparative tables); DCA, i. 256‑258.
On the origin of the Christian calendar consult: T. Mommsen, Der Chronograph vom Johns 36/,, in Abhandlungen der attchaiachen Geaellachaft der Wisaenachaften, ii. (1850) 547 aqq.; A. J. Binterim, Denkvriirdigkeiten, i. 20 eqq., 7 vols., Mainz, 1837‑41; L. Coleman, Ancient Christianity, chap. xxvi., § 5, Philadelphia, 1852; F. Piper, Der Uraprung der chriatlichen Kalendarien, in Kbniglicher preuasiacher Staatakalerder, 1855, pp. 6‑25: A. Lechner, hlittelalterliche Kalendarien in Bayern, Freiburg, 1891; E. Berfried, Die Ausgeataltung der christlichen Oaterberechnung, Dlittelwalde, 1893.
On calendars of the Middle Ages useful works are: N. Nilles, Kalendarium manuals uCriuaque eccleaice, 4 col::., Innsbruck, 1879‑85, vols. i., ii., 2d ed., 1897 (a most valuable collection for the Eastern Churches); A. Cave, Scriptorum eccdeaiasticonam hiatoria Ziteraria, Appendix, part ii., London, 1698 (describes Eastern calendars); F. Piper, Kirchenrechnung, pp, vi. sqq., Berlin, 1841; idem, Karla den Groasen Kalendarium, ib. 1858; W. L. Krafft, Kirchengeachichte der germaniachen V biker I. i. 371, 385‑387, ib. 1854; F. Kaltenbrunner, Die Vorgeachichte der pregorianiachen Kalenderreform, Vienna, 1878; O. E. Hartmann, Der r6miache Kalender, Leipaic, 1882; J. Weals, Annlecta liturgies., 2 vols., London, 1889; H. Grotefend, Taschenbuch der Zeitrechnung den deutsche* Mitteldtera and der Neuzeit, Hanover, 1898; A. von Maltzew, Menolopien der orthodox‑katholiachen Kirche den Morgeniandea, part i., Berlin, 1900 (Sept.‑Feb., German and Slavic and reference to original Gk, text).
For the history of the Gregorian reform consult: F. ICaltenbrunner, Die Polemik fiber die pregorianiache Kalenderreform, Vienna, 1877; J. B. J. Delambre, Hiatoire de faetronomie moderns, i. 1‑84, Paris, 1821; G. 3. Ferrari, It calerulario Gregoriano, Rome, 1882; the literature under GREGORY XIII.
For modern Protestant calendars the following may be consulted: F. Piper, Die Verbeaaerung des Kalendera, in Evangeliacher Kalender, 1850, pp. I‑11; idem, Die Verbeaaerunp den evangeliachen Kalendera, Berlin, 1850; W. LShes, MartyroTogium. Zur Erklarung der herkommiichen Kalettdernamen, pp. 1‑12, Nuremberg, 1868; E. $charfe, Die chriatliche Zeitrechnung and der deutachevangeliac)te KaZender, pp. 18‑28, Stuttgart, 1893.
CALENDAR, HEBREW AND JEWISH. See DAY, THE HEBREW; MOON, SEMITIC CONCEPTIONS
OF; YEAR, THE HEBREW; SYNAGOGUE.
CALF, THE GOLDEN, AND CALF‑WORSHIP.
Origin of Calf‑worship among the Hebrews (§ 1).
Bull‑worship among Other Semites (§ 2).
Bull‑worship in Israel (§ 3).
Bull‑worship in Judah (§ 4).
The story of the worship of the golden calf during the desert journey is given Ex. xxxii. and
Deut. ix. 7‑21; cf. Neh. ix. 18; Ps. cvi. 19‑20; Acts vii. 39‑40. The authorized calf‑worship of Northern Israel is mentioned I Kings xii. 28‑33;
II Kings x. 29, xvii. 16; Hos. viii. 5‑6, x. 5‑6, xiii. 2; II Chron. xi. 15, xiii. 8. The Hebrew term generally applied to the calf is `egel ; `eglah in Hos. x. 5 is probably a mistake for `egel.
It has generally been supposed that the Israelites borrowed calf‑worship from the Egyptians, a supposition thought to be supported by the fact that Jeroboam had been recalled from Egypt. But the Egyptian animal‑worship was essentially different from the Semitic type, since the Egyptian

Calf
Caliatuo
worship was paid to living animals. The bulls or calves of Jeroboam‑the classical example in Israel‑were, on the other hand, intended to be symbols of Yahweh. In any case Jeroboam would not have introduced a foreign s. Origin of cult to strengthen his new and pre‑
Calf‑wor‑ carious government. The Hebrew ship calf‑worship did not reproduce the among the cult of Apis and Mnevis, which were Hebrews. living animals, one black, the other white, dedicated to Osiris, and he was believed to be incarnated in them (J. G. Wilkinson, Manners dad Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, iii., London, 1878, 86‑95, 306‑307). Suggestions of bull‑worship among the Hebrews are found in the horns of the altar, in the oxen under the lavers (I Kings vii. 25), and possibly in the cherubim. While examples of Hebrew bull‑worship are rare, the proof of its existence among neighboring nations is abundant. In the Babylonio‑Assyrian and Syro‑Phenician religions, the bull represented the masculine type of divinity, as was natural to a pastoral people. The primitive Aryans also explained the heavenly phenomena by comparisons drawn from the life of their herds. The Zendavesta makes mention of " the first bull." The bull represented power and strength, and at the same time the destructive and the re‑
s. Bull‑ productive omnipotence of the deity. worship The sun‑god is hardly to be recogamong sized in the bull, as has been supposed. Other The gold of the Hebrew bull idols does Semites. not necessarily point to the splendor of the sun, for the images of other gods were also of gold or gilded. Still less credible is the assertion that the strength of the bull represented the scorching blaze of the sun. Among the Babylonians the bull was sacred to the thundergod Ramman (Syrian Rimmon), Assyrian Adad (Syrian Hadad), who is represented in Layard's Monuments, plate 65, as having four horns and holding the lightnings in one hand and a battle‑ax in the other. The bull is also the emblem of Ramman‑Adad on the stele of Esarhaddon found at Zingirli in Northern Syria, as well as in the procession of the gods depicted on the rock at Maltai (cf. G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, Hiatoire de fart daps l'antiqUitk, ii., Paris, 1881 eqq., 64643). An image of the Syrian Jupiter of Douche, which was carried from Syria to Rome, represents him standing upon a bull (cf. F. Hettner, De Jove Dolicheno dissertatio philologica, Bonn, 1877; A. H. Kan, De Jovis Dolic)deni Cultu dissertatio, Groningen, 1901). The Jupiter of Hierapolia in Syria was pictured sitting upon bulls (Lucian, De detz Syria, xxxi.). The classical tale of the seduction of Europa is a form of the Baal myth, in which the god, in the shape of a bull journeys with Astarte (q.v.) to Crete (for the identity of Astarte with Europa, cf. De dea Syria, IV.). The sacredness of cattle among the Philistines also is demonstrated by the story of the return of the ark on a new cart drawn by two milch trine, on which there had come no yoke (I Sam. vi. 7 sqq.).
That bull‑worship among the Hebrews was ancient the foregoing makes quite possible. It was,
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
348
however, hardly practised before the final settlement in Canaan, since it was always characteristic of peoples who had either reached or passed the agricultural stage. The prohibition of the Book of the Covenant (Ex. xx. 23, cf. xxxiv.17) is, therefore, the first warning against this type of worship. Ex. xxxii. assumes, however, that it was practised during the journey in the wilderness. The leading features of the narrative are as follows: The people had become impatient under the continued absence of their leader, and Aaron made for them an image of the god who had led them out of Egypt. With the material furnished by the golden earrings of the women and children, " a molten calf " was fashioned, before which an altar was built, and to it divine honors were paid. The rest of the chapter tells of Yahweh's anger, of Moses's energetic intervention, of Aaron's apology, and finally of the destruction of the calf and of 3,000 of its worshipers. The narrative‑a composite of J and E‑has been, however, considered by many modern critics as unhistorical and really a polemic against Jeroboam's newly instituted worship. The cardinal passage on calf‑worship is I Kings xii. 28‑29 (cf . II Chron. xi. 15), where the story is told of the bulls set up by Jeroboam L, who ordained a non‑
levitical priesthood, and did not pre3. Bait‑ tend to do more than return to the worship Yahweh‑worship of the past. That in Israel he did thus return is proved by his
success. When Jehu destroyed the Baal‑worship, he did not touch the bulls, a clear proof that he acknowledged the bull‑worship as Yahweh‑worship (II Kings x. 29). Yet the spiritual prophets opposed the bull‑worship from the beginning. Indirect testimony to this may be seen in Amos (v. 5). Direct testimony is first found in Hosea. This younger contemporary of Amos is the only one of the prophets who alludes to bull‑worship; and to him the worship of an image is the worship of an idol (viii. 5‑6, xiii. 2, cf. x. 5‑6). With regard to the precise form and structure of Jeroboam's bulls there is no direct information. Gold being scarce and precious, it is probable that the images were small‑an assumption supported by the fact that they are called calves. Naturally these royal statues would be of pure gold and not merely gilded.
In the kingdom of Judah bull‑worship does not seem to have flourished, for nowhere is found a
reference to Judaic worship of this q. Bull‑ kind, and the polemics of Hoses exworship elusively against the calf of Samaria in Judah. at Bethel would be unintelligible, had
he been aware of the same cult in Judah. The Deuteronomic redactor of the book of Kings saw in the bull‑worship the special sin of Jeroboam, wherewith he caused Israel to sin (I Kings xiv. 16, xv. 26).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Baudieain, Studies, vol. i., Leipsie,1878: J. Selden De dia Syria, pp. 45_.g¢ tendon, 1817; C. T.
Beke, The Idol Of Horeb . _ . the Golden linage , , a Cone , . , sot a Calf, ib. 1871' A. Kuenen Religion of Israel, i. 73‑75, 235‑286, 28U‑262 346‑347 ib. 1874;
E. KSnig, Hauptprob7nne der adtseraeLitiachen Rdipiose_ Aewhicht°. PP' S3‑92 Leipeio 1884; idem Bildd6aipkeit des legit;‑ Jah~eukva, ib. 1886; F. Baetbaen, Bey_

347	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Calf Calixtus
trAge zur aemiliachen Religionageachichte, pp. 198 eqq., Berlin, 1889; J. Robertson, Early Religion of larael, chap. ix.. Edinburgh, 1891; F. W. Farrar, Was there a Golden Calf al Dan? in Expositor, viii. (1893) 254‑2&5; $. Oettli, Der Kultus bex Amos uml Hosea, in Creel/swalder Studies, 1895, pp. I‑34; DB, i. 344‑343; EB, i. 831‑832. Consult also the works on O. T. Theology, especially that by H. Schultz, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1892, and the works mentioned under IDOLATRY; IMAGES AND IMAGE‑WORSHIP.
CALIXTINES. See Huss, JOHN, Huss1T>;s. '
CALLXTUS, ca‑lix'tvs: The name of three popes and one antipope.
Calixtus (Callistus) L: Pope 217‑222. Through the discovery of the work of Hippolytus (q.v.) on heresies, a new aspect, differing in many particulars from the traditional one, has been assumed by the story of this early bishop. The old account ascribed to him the building of the church of Santa Maria in Trastevere. The Pseudo‑Iaidorian Decretals (q.v.) contain two in which, among other things, regulations are laid down for the ember fasts. He was called a martyr, but the sets of his martyrdom are purely legendary, probably composed in I the seventh century. The picture given by Hip
polytus, though bitterly hostile, is at least clear and sharp in its outlines. According to it, Callistus was the slave of a Christian official named Carpophorus, who entrusted him with considerable soma of money, which he lost. Taking flight to avoid a reckoning, he was pursued by his master, and jumped into the sea to escape him, but was pulled out and condemned to the treadmill. Then he got into a quarrel with the Jews in Rome, and was beaten and sent to the mines of Sardinia, from which he was released by the influence of Marcia, the mistress of Commodua. It is impossible to determine how far Callistua was morally blameworthy in this chequered career‑probably not as much as Hippolytus says. The events recited are said to have happened in the pontificate of Victor. The next bishop, Zephyrinus, brought Callistus back to Rome, probably already in orders, and gave him charge of the large cemetery which later bore his name. Under Zephyrinua he came into conflict with Hippolytus on the dogma of the Incarnation (see MONARCHIANIBM); and at the next vacancy a schism occurred, each party electing its own leader as bishop (see HIProLxTue). Callistua seems to have been, like Zephyrinus, a Modalist; it was lie who excommunicated Sabellius. The question of discipline also brought him into conflict with Hippolytus, according to whom he laid down the principle, unacceptable to the rigorists of the time, that all sine might be forgiven, and denied the necessity of deposing a bishop who should be guilty of deadly sin. Hippolytus accuses him of taking this position so as to increase the numbers of his own church; but it is undeniable that a clear‑sighted man could hardly fail to see the defects and inconsistencies of the then existing church discipline, and Callistus was probably seeking to establish a more logical system. The Calalogus Libehianus is authority for placing his death in 222. [The largest of the Roman catacombs is the Cemetery of St. Callistus; and De Rossi says it was the first common cemetery, given tc the pope by some noble family for the use of the
whole Christian community. Thirteen out of the
next eighteen popes after Zephyrinus are said to
have been buried there.] 	(A. Heuca.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Epiatolce are in MPG, vol. x. An anonymous Translation, eel. Holder‑Egger, is in MGH, Script., ::v. (1887) 418‑422. Consult: C. K. J. Bunsen, Hippolytus and his Age, 2 vols., London, 1852‑58; J. J. I. von D511inger, Hippolytus and Calliatus, Regensburg, 1853; K. J. Neumann, Der rdmiacha Stoat and die allgemeine Kirche, i. 312‑313, Leipaic, 1890; T. E. Rolffe, Daa Indus Benz‑Edikt des . . . Kalliat, in TU, xi. (1894) 3; H. Aehelis, Hippolytatudicn, Leipaic, 189?; Harnack, Litteratur, i. 603‑805; Jaff€, Regeata, i. 12‑13, ii. 731; Milman, Latin Christianity, i. 75‑79; Bower, Popes, i. 20‑21.

Calixtus II. (Gui, or Wido, son of Count William of Burgundy): Pope 1119‑24. He was made archbishop of Vienne in 1088, and under Paschal II. was legate in England, with little success. In the investiture controversy he was one of the leaders of the French opposition to the compromise of 1111 with Henry V. A synod called by him at Vienne in that year condemned lay investiture without reserve and excommunicated Henry, threatening the pope with renunciation of allegiance if he did not confirm its decrees. When he was elected pope by the cardinals assembled at Cluny (Feb. 2, 1119), Henry had reason to fear the accession of a second Hildebrand. He made conciliatory overtures to the new pontiff, offering to submit the controversy to a council called by Calixtus, and approved an agreement with the papal representatives by which, in return for the revocation of his excommunication, he surrendered his claims to the right of investiture. But the agreement proved impossible of execution, and soon, in a great council held at Reims (Oct. 29 and 30, 1119), Calixtus renewed his denial of the right and his excommunication of Henry and of Antipope Gregory VIII. Though the sentence remained ineffective in Germany, Calixtus strengthened his authority in France during his stay there, finding a firm ally in Louis the Fat. He went to Italy in the spring of 1120, and entered Rome in triumph, Gregory VIII. fleeing to Sutri, whose citizens delivered him up to his victorious rival in the following April. This strengthened Calixtus'a position still more against the emperor; but the final decision of the contest was brought about by the intervention of the German princes, assembled at Wilrzburg in the autumn of 1121. They counseled Henry to acknowledge Calixtus and the canonically elected bishops, undertaking in return to arrange a peace with the Church, and proposing the convocation of a general council, in which they promised to defend the honor of the Empire. Calixtus appointed Lambert of Ostia and two other cardinals to conduct the negotiations, which began at Worms in Sept., 1122. Archbishop Adalbert of Mainz continued to urge the strict Hildebrandine position. and it was due to Lambert's work alone that the discussion, instead of being fruitless, led to the Concordat of Worms (see CONCORDATS AND DELIMITING Buhta, L, § 1). This was solemnly confirmed by Calixtus in the First Lateran Council, opened on Mar. 18, 1123, which also renewed the canons against simony and clerical marriage, and proclaimed a "truce of God" and a new crusade. While the

Oaliztns
Qallenberg
THE NEW
plans for this undertaking were being made, Calix
tws died, Dec. 13 or 14, 1124. 	(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Epiatotos et Privitegia are in MPL, clxiii.; An Epiatola epuria, ed. W. Grundlach, is in MGH, Epiat., iii. (1891) 108‑109. The Vita by Cardinal Pandulfus Aletrinus, a contemporary, is in ASB, May, v. 14‑15, and in MPL, clxiii. Consult: lriber pontiftcaZie, ed. Duchesne, ii. 322, 376, Paris, 1892; H. Witte, Forechunpen zur Geachichte den Wormaer Concordats. G&ttingen, 1877; M. Maurer, Papat Calixt ll., Munich, 1889; F. Gregorovius, Gesehichte der Stadt Rom, iv. 369 sqq., Stuttgart, 1890, Eng. transl., iv. 390‑402, London, 1898; U. Robert, Hiatoire du gape Calixle IL, Paris, 1891; idem, Bulls%re du pape Catixls ll., ib. 1891; Jafft:, Repeats, i. 270; Milman, Latin Christianity, iv. 130‑149; Bower, Popes, ii. 458‑480.
Cqliatus III. (Johannes de Strums): Antipope 1168‑73, in opposition to Alexander III. (q.v.). After the peace of Venice, he maintained himself for a while at Albano, but on Aug. 29, 1178, he made his submission to Alexander and was restored to the communion of the church, being entrusted with the government of Benevento. (A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jaffd, Repeats, ii. 429, 430; Milman, Latin
Christianity, iv. 431‑437; Bower, Popes, ii. b14 51b.
Cali:tne III. (Alonso de Borja or Borgia): Pope 1455‑58. Born at Xstiva in Valencia [Dec. 31, 1378]. After a legal education he became bishop of Valencia in 1429 and cardinal in 1444. On Apr. 8, 1465, being then seventy‑seven years old, he was elected pope. He was s man of simple and blameless life, but too weak to cope with the disorders of the time, some of which arose directly from his own partiality for his relatives. Immediately afterhisaccession, he took a vow to carry forward a war against the Turks and atone.fnr the manner in which Europe had looked on supinely at the fall of Constantinople. Legates were sent throughout the Continent to preach a crusade and collect troops and money. Money, indeed, came in, especially through the help of the mendicant orders, is large sums; but the old crusading zeal had died down too far to be rekindled. The tithes which were required, on behalf of the undertaking, from the clergy of France and Germany aroused universal discontent. The doctors of the University of Paris and the clergy of Rouen appealed in 1456 to a general council against the tax, and a similar appeal was made in Germany, not only on this ground but on that of the failure to observe the Vienna Concordat of 1448 in regard to the system of clerical benefices. While endeavoring to put down this rebellious spirit, Calixtus succeeded in assembling a amen fleet which sailed (Map 31, 1456) to help the Knights of St. John in their dangerous position at Rhodes. The fleet, under the command of the cardinal legate Bcarampo, occupied some small islands of the Grecian archipelago, without venturing on a decisive engagement. The Greeks had not the courage to rise in force, and the Christian Princes and Italian cities took but a languid interest in the crusade. It was a piece of luck that the victory of the heroic Hunyadi at Belgrade (July 14 and 21, 1456) averted the mote Pressing peril. The pope was hindered by the consequences of his hostility to Alfonso of Naples, after whose death (June 27, 1458) ,he refused to acknowledge the claim of Alfonso's
aaturai son Fernando, asserting that the kingdom
SCHAFF‑HERZOG
reverted as a fief of the papacy to himself. This attitude was the outcome of his desire to advance his own nephews, one of whom, Rodrigo (the future Alexander VI.), he had made cardinal and vice‑chancellor of the Roman Church in spite of his being below the canonical age; another, Pedro, he had made duke of Spoleto, destining the Neapolitan crown for him. Calixtus died, however (Aug. 6, 1458), before his unscrupulous designs could break the peace of Italy. His nephews and their Spanish followers left Rome, where, in alliance with the Colonna family, they had been guilty of incessant crimes and violence. (A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: B. Plating. The Lives of the popes, ii. 2b0‑257, London, n.d. Consult: A. von Reumont, Geachichte der Stadt Rom, iii. 12fi eqq., Berlin, 1868; F. Gregorovius, Gearhichle der Stadt Rom, vii. 145 eqq., Stuttgart, 1870, Eng. transl., London, 1900; Pastor, Popes, ii. 317‑479; Creighton, Papacy, iii. 178‑201; Milman, Latin Christianity, viii. 120 aqq.; Bower, Popes, iii. 238‑240.
CALI%TUS, GEORG: The most influential continuator of Melanchthon's theology in the seventeenth century, spokesman of the so‑called "syncretism " in Germany at that time; b. at Medelbye (in the district of Tondern, 115 m. n.n.w. of Hamburg), Schleswig, Dec. 14, 1586; d. at Helmstadt, Brunswick, March 19, 1656. His father, pastor at Medelbye, a pupil of Melanchthon, wished to have his son educated in the same way, and after due preparation sent him to the university at Helmstfidt, where like‑minded friends of* Melanchthon, eg., the humanist Caseiius, were still in office. From 1803 to 1607 he studied philology and philosophy, then theology, paying especial attention to the study of early pstrietics. From 1609' to 1613 he traveled in Germany, Belgium England, and France, enlarging his ideas, and becoming acquainted with the conditions of the Reformed and Roman Catholic churches, comparing them with those of the Lutheran Church to which he belonged. Thus he developed an irenic tendency which he retained all his life. He was appointed in 1614 professor of theology at Helmstadt, and remained there until his death. A memorial tablet on his house in the little city in the duchy of Brunswick commemorates the activity of this enlightened mind. His life fell in the age of the Counterreformation and the Thirty Years' War, whenthehatred of the confessions towardeach other had reached its height. The main effort of this irenic theologian was inspired by the ides that theology must ‑have for its prime object not so much pure doctrine as Christian life. Thus he became the creator of theological ethics as a special theological discipline, and therein undoubtedly marks an epoch in the progress of theology; most moral philosophers still follow him in this formal principle. But the danger was thereby incurred of detaching ethics from dogmatics and building the former without the necessary religious foundation. In the second place he endeavored to bring about a union of all Christian churches, taking the Apostles' Creed and the consensus of the first five centuries as a dogmatically and ecclesiastically sufficient norm. He aspired to a union of all
Christian confessions. For this reason he took part in the Conference of Thorn (see Taoxrt, Corr‑

349	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Calixtus
		Callonberg
F>rRENCE OF) in 1645, where, however, he found
that the Lutherans would not work with him, since
they felt justifiably that from his point of view
the Reformation lost its essential importance:
a religious indifferentism would be the obvious
sequence, and it is certainly no accident that during
the seventeenth century many princes and prin
cesses left the Lutheran Church and joined the
Roman Catholic (John Frederick of Hanover,
Christine of Sweden, the daughter of Gustavus
Adolphus, and some others). On the other hand
the orthodox, not altogether from combativeness,
endeavored to maintain the religious content of the
Reformation; this is their merit against all syn
cretism. Finally Calixtus made himself a name
in scientific dogmatics by introducing the analytical
method. After his death the syncretistic contro
versies continued till they lost their interest through
the Pietistic movement.	Among his numerous
writings those of most interest are his academical
orations Orationes select& (Hehnstadt, 1660); his
influential exegetical writings, Expositiones and
Lucubratiortea on New and Old Testament books;
and, of his irenic writings, the Judicium de con
troversies theologises gate inter Lutlteranos et Re
formatos agitantur, et de mutua pdrtium fraternitate
algae tolerantia propter conaensum in fundamentis
(1650). His son and successor, Friedrich ITlrich
Calixtus (b. 1622; d. 1701), tried to continue the
work of his father, but met with no approval among
the Lutherans. They rather tried to supplant
syncretism in the Lutheran Church by a new ortho
dox confession, Consensus rePetitus false vere
Lutherance. But this confession, which would
have turned the Church into an orthodox school,
was nowhere officially accepted. The syncretistic
controversy remained for a long time of such im
portance that no interest was felt in the Pietistic
principles which soon sprang up. This can be un
derstood only from the course of the syncretistic
controversies. See SYNCRETISM.
		PAUL TSCHACKERT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Account should be taken of Calixtus's
	Brie/wechael, ed. E. L. T. Henke, Halls, 1883, of. is
	sues of Jena, 1833, Marburg, 1840. Consult: W. Gael,
	G. Calixt and der Synkretiamue, Breslau, 1846; E. L. T.
	Henke, G. Calixtus and aeiine Zeit, 2 vols., Halls, 1853
	1856; W. C. Dowding, German Theology during the Thirty
	Years' War; Life and Correspondence of G. Catixtua,
	London, 1863; H. Friedrich, Georg Catixtua, der Uniona
	mann den 17. Jahrhunderta, Anklam, 1$91; ADB, iii. 696
	s99.
	CALLAWAY, HENRY: Church of England,
missionary bishop of St. John's, Kaffraria; b. at
Lymington, Somerset, Jan. 17, 1817; d. at Ottery
Saint Mary (12 m. e.n.e. of Exeter) Mar. 26, 1890.
In early life he was a Quaker, and after teaching
from 1835 to 1839, was successively a chemist's
assistant and a surgeon's assistant. He then
studied surgery and was licensed by the Royal
College of Surgeons in 1842 and by the Apothe
caries' Society two years later. In 1852, however,
failing health obliged him to sell his lucrative prac
tise and to spend a year in France. In the following
year he graduated M.D. at King's College, Aberdeen,
and determined to be a physician, but his interest
in missions becoming active, he was ordered deacon
in 1854, having left the Society of Friends for the Church of England two years previously, and went as missionary to Africa. He was first stationed at Ekukanyeni near Pietermaritzburg, but on being priested in 1855 was made rector of St. Andrew's, Pietermaritzburg. Three years later he obtained a grant of land beyond the Umkomanzi River and settled at Inaunguze, which he renamed Spring Vale. There he began his studies of Zulu religion and customs, but was recalled to England in 1873 to be consecrated first missionary bishop of St. John's, Kaffraria. In the following year he left England, and in 1876 removed the seat of the diocese to Umtata, where he founded St. John's Theological College in 1879. His fragile health, however, had already necessitated the consecration of Bransby Key as bishop‑coadjutor in 1873, and in 1886 Callaway resigned his see and returned to England in the following year, nettling at Ottery Saint Mary, where he spent the remainder of his life. He wrote: Immediate Revelation (London, 1841); Memoir of James Parnell (1846); Nursery Tales, Traditions, and Histories of the Zulus (Spring Vale, 1868); The Religious System of the Amazulu (Natal, 1868‑70); and Missionary Sermons (London, 1875). He likewise translated the book of Psalms (Natal, 1871) and the Book of Common Prayer (1882) into Zulu.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. 8. Benham, Harry Callaway, M.D., D.D., first Bishop of Kaffraria; his Life‑History and Work, London, 1898.
CALLEGARI, c81"le"gfi'ri, GIUSEPPE: Cardinal priest; b. at Venice Nov. 4, 1841. He was ordained to the priesthood in 1864, and, after being successively a teacher and a parish priest, was consecrated bishop of Treviso in 1880, and two years later was translated to the see of Padua. He was created cardinal priest of Santa Maria in Cosmedin in 1903, and still retains his bishopric. He is likewise a member of the Congregations of Bishops and Regulars, the Council, Rites, and Studies.

CALLEIQBERG, cdl'len‑berx, JOHANN HEINRICH: German theologian; b. at Molschleben (a village of Goths) Jan. 12, 1694; d. at Halls July 16, 1760. He was educated at Halls, where in 1727 he was appointed associate professor of philology, becoming full professor in 1735 and being transferred to the faculty of theo ogy four years later. His deep interest in Protestant missions among the Jews and Mohammedans of the East led him, in 1728, to found the Institutum Judaicum for the education of missionaries. To this institution, which lasted until 1791 and was instrumental in the conversion of a large number of Jews, he later attached, at his own expense, a press for the promotion of the cause. Europe, as well as parts of Asia and Africa, was traversed by his pupils, for whom he printed Arabic translations of portions of the Old Testament, the whole of the New Testament, " The Imitation of Christ," and other works. His propaganda among the Mohammedans, however, met with little success. His independent works, which are of minor importance, include: Kurze Anleitung zur j,ulisch‑teutschen Sprache (Hal le, 1733); Berichte von einem Yersuch das judische Volk

Cslmlnget
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
zur Erkenntnisa des Christlichen anzuleiEen (3 vole., 1728‑36); sad De conversions Muhammedanorum ad Christum expetita ientaque (1733).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. M. H. Doering, D16 pCIBIbriCR TIIMIZOp6Ii Deutachlanda, i. 22: aqq., Neustsdt, 1831; J. C. F. Hoefer,
Nouvelle Biographic pen&ale, vii 202. 48 vole.. Paris,
1851‑68.

CALLING (vocation; Lat. vocatio, Gk. kliais): In dogmatic language as well as in the practical usage of the Church that act of divine grace (gratis applicatrix) with which the ordo sahuis (see ORDER OF SALVATION) begins.
The Creak terms kalein, kMoa, kleais are often used both in the Septuagint and in the New Testament in the sense of calling (e.g., Matt. ix. 13; Acts
iv. 18), then of summoning to court,
Biblical of inviting to dinner, etc. (e.g., III Usage. Mace. v. 14; Matt. xxii. 4, 8; Rev. xix.
9). But even in the Old Testament usage the Hebrew ,kara' or the Greek kalein has the meaning of calling some one effectually for some purpose (cf. Isa. xlii. 6, xlviii. 12, xlix. 1, li. 2), which may signify " to call into existence " (Wisd. of Sol. xi. 25; Baruch iii. 33, 34; cf. Pa. xxxiii. 9). From this point the solemn usage of the New Testament takes its departure. The call proceeds from God; it comes to man through the word of preaching, which is not the word of man but of God (I Cor. i. 9; II Pet. i. 3; I Thess. ii. 13; II Theea. ii. 14). Inasmuch as the call comes from God, it is a "holy calling" (II Tim. i. 9), a " heavenly calling" (Heb. iii. 1), a " high calling of God in Christ Jesus " (Phil. iii. 14). The call is a free act of the grate of God (Rom. ix. 11), in which the divine election and predestination realize themselves (II Thess. ii. 13, 14; II Tim. i. 9‑10; Rom. viii. 30). From this it is clear that it is always the effectual calling that is thought of; indeed it is precisely the divine election of grace which is made manifest in the calf. Hence those who became Christians were " called to be saints " (Rom. i. 7; I Cor. i. 2, cf. Jude 1: " called and kept "). That to which the Christians are called, or that which constitutes the content of the call is the blessing of the New Testament salvation, and this is expressed in the most diverse terms: to communion with Christ (I Cor. i. 9); to salvation (II These. ii. 14); to the peace of Christ (Col. iii. 15); to the kingdom and glory of God (I Thess. ii. 12); out of the darkness into a wonderful light (I Pet. ii. 9); to eternal life, to his glory and his inheritance (I Tim. vi. 12; I Pet. v. 10; Heb. ix. 15); to the hope of his calling (Eph. i. 18, iv. 4).
Inasmuch as the call indicates the New Testament salvation, it also procures the moral change comprehended in that blessing. As on the human side obedience corresponds to the call (Heb. xi. 6), so we are called " not for uncleanness, but in sanctification " (I Thess. iv. 7); the Christian's life is to be holy " as he who called you is holy " (I Pet. i. 15). If, therefore, the call is the effectual invitation of God to man, conveyed through the Word, for the kingdom and its blessings, so that everyone possessing these came by them through the call, the call, on the other baud, points beyond itself to the realization through God or through man:
380
" Faithful is he that calleth you who also will do it" (I Thess. v. 2=1) and "give the more diligence to make your calling and election sure " (II Pet. i. 10).
	Luther's use of the expression in the exposition
of the third article of his Shorter Catechism is
important for the history of the conception. But
the term did not immediately receive on that
account an independent place in dogmatics. In
the older Protestant literature it is used in con
		nection with election and the Church.
By the Re‑		It seems to have received a firm
	formers.	place in dogmatics for the first time
		in Hutter (Compendium, XIII. v. 8).
According to Calovius it opens the ordo ealutis,
and he defines it (Systems, x. 1) se an " effectual
bringing in to the Church" (ad ecclesiam efficax
adductio), whereas Hollaz (Examen theologicum,
III. i. 4, quajatio 1) makes it an offer of benefits
by Christ. Moreover, a distinction is made between
the vocatio generalis, which through nature, etc.,
comes to all men, and the vocatio a;oecialis, which
comes through the Gospel. The latter may be
ordinaries, i.e., through the Word, or extraordinarus,
and that immediate or mediate. The call is series
and efficax (in opposition to the view of the Re
formed), inasmuch as the Spirit regularly becomes
effectual in the Word. It is, moreover, universalis.
That many peoples do without it is their own
fault. Then comes the doubtful contention that
since Adam all peoples in one way or another have
been given the opportunity of hearing the Gospel
(the above is from Hollaz; for a full discussion cf.
H. Schmid, Die Dogmatik der evangelisch‑lutheri
aehen Kirche, Giitersloh, 1893, 320 aqq.).
Dogmatically considered, the doctrine of vocation is only the application of the doctrine of the Word of God to conversion. Therefore, this conception will disclose no new dogmatic knowl‑
In Dog‑ edge, but will only offer a confirms‑
	matics.	tion of such things as have been
		acquired elsewhere. But because the
Scriptures often apply the term and because it has
through the catechism gone over into the popular
religious consciousness, its right to a special treat
ment in dogmatics is not to be denied. The call
takes place the very moment a person‑be he a
non‑Christian or be he externally connected with
Cfiristianity‑beoomes aware that the heard (or
read) Word. as the Word of God efficaciously works
in him the divine will unto salvation, and as there
is no conceivable moment in the Christian life
in which that revelation of salvation in the Word
becomes superfluous, the vocation will be a con
tinual one and the Christian will always remain a
vocatva. We may, therefore, confine the conception
to the opening of the new life; but, starting from
the thought of the Word of God, we must define
the call as that influence of God upon man, through
the medium of the Word, which makes the beginning
of the new life and conditions its ‑continuation and
its completion. The call brings us the whole
salvation as the passages of Scripture above cited
show. If dogmaticians as a rule, in. speaking of
vocation, think only of the first influence of God,
this must be supplemented by the fact that this

351	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Calling
		Calmat
term comprehends within itself the further divine
activities. If now the call embraces the whole of
salvation in its relation to us, it is plain that its
content is the Gospel; as the old writers rightly
perceived. But since " law " and Gospel stand in
close connection, the law also must be indirectly
included in the call.	R. SEEBERG.
	CALLING, EARTHLY: The position in life
occupied by each individual, and the duties to
ward society which appertain to such a position.
These duties are primarily social rather than ethical,
and may be hedonistic' in motive, as when they are
performed for the sake of livelihood. The calling
may be ethicized, however, if the ends of the social
organism be served expressly for the glory of God,
thus transforming the calling into divine worship.
Since the calling conditions the class of services
rendered to society, it must form the basis of an
ethical activity. Each function resulting from
the divinely created nature of man may develop
into a calling, although the variety in callings does
not necessarily imply a distinction in the value of
personalities. Nor is it unethical to have no calling,
but only to desire to have none, since those who
are so conditioned that, through no volition of their
own, they are without a calling do not become un
ethical for that reason.
	In the rich development of Christian ethics in
the New Testament the earthly calling is com
paratively neglected. yet, from the point of view of
love toward one's neighbor, he who disregards
his duties to his family, and toward society and
the Church, must he considered unethical. The
earthly calling is, accordingly, individualistic rather
than universal in its obligations to society, and
represents one of the forms of Christian ethics.
Wilful neglect of the calling is immoral, since it is
the only means of intercommunication in society,
which would otherwise be incoherent and dis
organized. The bodily and mental gifts of man
are fruitless unless they are devoted to the welfare
of society through a definite calling, and their
neglect is not only contrary to nature but also to
the will of God
	The ethical signification of the earthly calling
forms an important chapter of philosophical ethics.
Through its recognition of the dignity of labor and
the worth of the individual, Christianity revo
lutionized the ethics of the pagan world, although
the full ethical evaluation of the calling began only
at the Reformation. Since God is served less by
self‑chosen cults than by the ethical obedience
which lie himself has commanded (Isa. i. 11‑17;
Hos. vi. 6; Matt. ix. 13, xii. 7), the believing Chris
tian performs a true worship corresponding to his
estate as a child of God in his faithful performance
of his calling. In a certain sense the principles of
the ethical value of the fulfilment of the calling
are merely a renewal of the New Testament doctrine
that the Christian confirmation of faith through
love bears a distinct and active relation to society
(I Cor. vii. 20‑24; Eph. vi. 5 sqq.; I Pet. ii. 12
aqq.), even though nowhere in the New Testament
is earthly calling specifically mentioned. The
distinction of callings begins in the family, whence
it develops successively into the acquisition and control of temporal benefits and into the charge over intellectual and spiritual blessings in religion, science, and art, the culmination being the constitution of society as a whole. Yet the individual can not make free choice of his own calling, but is restricted by certain social limitations; still, other things being equal, that calling should be chosen which is most in harmony both with talents and inclination. External conditions, however, frequently render impossible the development of the most gifted talent, yet in such cases there is no reason for the formation of a religious and moral personality to suffer injury, since such adverse circumstances demand full and complete fidelity to the calling, and thus strengthen true Christian piety, instead of impairing it. (L. LEMME.)

	CALMET, AUGUSTIN: French Roman Catholic
theologian and author; b. at Mesnil‑la.‑IIorgne
(a village near Commercy, 25 m. e. of Bar‑le‑Duc)
Feb. 26, 1672; d. at Senones (7 m. n.e. of St. Die)
Oct. 25, 1757. He was a Benedictine monk of the
congregation of St. Vannes, and studied at the
priory of Breuil, while lie learned Hebrew from
the Protestant clergyman Favre. After 1698 he
instructed the pupils of the order in theology and
philosophy at the abbey of Moyen‑Moutier in the
Vosges, and in 1704 was appointed subprior at
Munster. Fourteen years later the general chapter
of his order made him abbot of St. Leopold at
Nancy, whence he was transferred in 1728 to
Senones, and there he passed the remainder of
his life. His numerous works give evidence of
extraordinary reading and erudition, but lack
critical ability and insight. His best writings are
devoted to the interpretation of the Bible accord
ing to the principles of the Council of Trent. To
this category belongs his La Sainte Bible en Latin
et en frcanfais avec un commentoire littcrol et critique
(23 vols., Paris, 1707‑1G), the French translation
being that of Sacy and the commentary giving
simply a grammatical exegesis. The excursuses
on each book, dealing with chronology, history,
antiquities, and similar topics, were the most
valuable portion of the work, and were published
separately under the title Dissertations qui peuvent
servir de prolegompnes is l'‑Pcritrre Saints (3 vols.,
1720), and the Tresor d'antiiluitEs sacreea et pro
fanes des commentaires du P. Calmat (13 vole.,
Amsterdam, 1722) is the same work with a different
arrangement. The notes scattered in the com
mentaries are collected in alphabetical order in the
Dictionnaire historique et critique, chronologique,
geographique et ZittW al.de la Bible (2 vole., Paris,
1722, supplement, 1728; Eng. transl., 3 vole.,
London, 1732), which long remained the quarry for
similar works. Less important are the. Histoire
saints de l'Ancieyt et du Nouveau Testament et des
Juifs (2 vole., 1718) and the Hiatoire univeraelle
sacr& et profane (17 vola., Strasburg, Senones, and
Nancy, 1735‑71). Calmat's works are now little
read, with the exception of the Histoire ecclcaias
tique et civile de la Lorraine (4 vole., Nancy, 1728),
which is based on archives and accompanied with
valuable documents.	(C. PFENDER.)

Calovius
Calvin	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	352
Biaraooawrsr: The autobiography is contained in his Him foire do Lorraine, vol, iv., at sup. Consult: A. Fangd, Vie do Calmat, Benones,. 1782 (by his nephew; contains a complete list of Calmat's works); A. bigot, Notice Mopraphisue et liltEraire our A. Calme6, Nancy, 1881; KL, ii. 1717‑21. New material is presented in Documents irddita our lee cmreapondaneea do Dom Calmat, ed. P. ~. Guillaume. ib. 1875.
	CALOV!IUS, ca lo'vi‑us (gALAU), ABRAHAM;
	Lutheran dogmatic theologian; b. at Mohrungen
	(62 m. s.s.w. of Kiinigaberg), Prussia, Apr. 16, 1612;
	d. at Wittenberg Feb. 25, 1688. He was driven
	away by the plague from the first two schools he
	attended, at Thorn and at :K8nigsberg, but he
	prosecuted his studies at home to such good purpose
	that when barely fourteen he was able to enter the
	University of Kiinigsberg. Here he took his mas
	ter's degree six years later, sad was at once taken
	into the philosophical faculty. He lectured on
	philosophy sad mathematics, while eagerly con
	tinuing the study of theology. His polemical
	activity began with a tractate against the Reformed
	court preacher Berg (1635). In 1634 he migrated
	to the University of Rostock, of which he became
a doctor in 1637. Then he returned to KSaigeberg,
	was made assessor to the theological
	Education faculty, and resumed his lectures.
	and Early Two . years later he became adjunct
	Professorial professor, and visitor of the Samland
	Activity. district; in 1643 he went to Danzig
	as rector of the gymnasium there
	and pastor of Trinity Church. He was a delegate
	to the Thorn Conference of 1645, where he came
	in contact with Calixtus. From this time on a
	great part of his life was devoted to polemical
	activity, especially against Syncretism (q.v.) and
	Calvinism. In 1650, at the invitation of the elector
	John George L, he went to Wittenberg, where the
	rest of his life was to be spent. He began there as
	third professor and preacher at the pariah church,
	of .which he became pastor in 1652 and general
	superintendent of the district, and by 1660 he
	was head professor and dean of the faculty. The
	university increased considerably in numbers
	through the attraction of his teaching, though
	the increase fell off when the elector of Branden
	burg forbade his subjects (1662) to
	Calovina go there for theology or philosophy,
	at. Witten‑ on account of the opposition of the
berg.	principia Caloviana to the Reformed
	teaching. An iron constitution en
	abled him to work incessantly at his books and
	lectures, as well as to support the loss of five wives
	and thirteen children and to marry again at the
	age of seventy‑two. A complete record of his
	activity is left in his books, since be nearly always
	expanded his lectures into that form. His po
	lemical activity was directed chiefly against the
	Syncretistic school of Helmeta.dt and its Kiinigsberg
	allies Behm, Dreier, and Latermann, as well as
	later against the Hessian friends of Calixtus. He
	had paid his compliments to the letter's teaching
	even in his Danzig days, and in his Tnstitattionum
	theologicsrum Prolegomena (2 parts, 1649‑.50).
	More important onslaughts on this school were
	Synopsis controversiarum potiarum (1652), with an
	introduction specially directed against Calixtus;
Syncretismus Calixtinua (1653); and Flarmonia Caliztina‑hceretica (1655), in which he accuses the " innovators " not merely of tolerating false doctrine but of teaching it themselves, and proves his point by attempting to show their " harmony " with Calvinists and Papists, Armenians and Socinians. By the date of this publication Calovius thought the time was ripe for a step which he. had been urging for four years. The Consensus repetitus fcdet verce Luthersnce is undoubtedly in its essence the work of Calovius, in its first as well as in its final form. The purpose of this new dog‑
matic standard, the exclusion of the
His Contro‑ Syncretists from the Church and so versial from the protection of the religious Writings. truce, was not attained; in fact; after 1655, and still more after 1669, when definite instructions were conveyed to the Wittenberg theologians to restrain their polemical ardor, there is a noticeable slackening of anti‑Syncretist activity; and Csloviua turned his attention rather to the Jena school, and especially to Musmus. In 1682, finally, he published a complete account of the whole controversy is his TTistoria syncretistica. Owing to the prohibition of polemical publications, it appeared without any author's name or place of printing, described merely as the work of " D. A. C. [Dr. Abraham Calovius], a distinguished theologian." The elector John George III., who objected on political grounds to such literature, had all the copies bought up, so that this edition is very rant„ A second edition appeared in 1685, with. Calovius's approval sad with his name on the title‑page. He attacked the Roman Catholics in his Matwologia Papiatics (1647), and the Socinians in several small works, which when collected (1684) filled two folio volumes. As if the conflict within his own Church did not give him enough to do, he interposed in the controversies of the Calvinists with his Conazderatio Arminianismi (1655) and his Theses theologico: de Labbadi8mo (1681). His last work, the Anti‑Bohmitts (1684), directed against Jakob Biihma, shows a failure is power.
In the way of constructive theology, his Systems locorum theologicorum (12 vole., 1655‑7?) is; with the possible exception of Gerhard's, the most important dogmatic prodneti= of the centurythe true exemplar of what has been called Lutheran scholasticism. It takes the Lutheran doctrine, as it had developed on the basis of the Formula Concordice and the Scriptural principles, pushed to their extreme since the Regensburg conference of 1601, and defends it with unyielding logic and firmness against the intellectual forma of 8 new. age. Even his principal exegetical work, the
Biblia illustraia (4 vole., 1672‑76),
	His Con‑	has a polemical bearing, being intended
	structive	to correct the Annotate of Hugo
	Theology.	Grotius, which is incorporated in it.
		He accomplishes his task with great
acuteness, wonderful learning, and more feeling
for the sense of Scripture than his opponent, whose
preference was for secular authors, but with his
inevitable dogmatic limitations. The circum
etancea of his life render it difficult to pronounce
a summary judgment on the man and his career.

353	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Caloviuc
		Calvin
The party of Calixtus naturally hated and despised
him; but the fact that they found it necessary
to spread absurd fictions about his horrible end
shows clearly enough that nothing could justly
be said against his personal character. In his own
day he compelled the respect and admiration of a
great variety of men, and his talents have been fully
recognized by some who were far from agreeing
with him, like Buddeus, Walch, and Staudlin.
His incessant controversial activity has left a mis
leading impression of him; he himself says of this
branch of his work, " I come to this kind of writing
			unwillingly and by force; my dis
	Estimate position inclines me rather to stick
		of	to positive doctrinal work." As a
	Calovius. theologian he was a faithful member
			of the Wittenberg school. No one
has insisted more on the necessity of a Scriptural
basis for all teaching. It is true, of course, that
the defects of Lutheran orthodoxy‑its hardness
and its extremes‑are to be found in him. Faith
is essentially the acceptance of the orthodox system;
not only the essentials (and they covered a great
deal of ground in those days), but every derived
article must be accepted, for the faith is one. The
standard books of doctrine are theoretically sub
ordinate to the Scriptures; but the student is
required to accept them not hypothetically but
categorically‑not in so far as, but because, they
agree with the Bible. His firm conviction of the
truth of his system gives, however, a certain dignity
to his polemics; but his untiring activity never
reached its aim‑he did not succeed in raising the
Consensus repetitus to the dignity of a creed, and
a new era had dawned before he went to his rest.
				(JOHANNEa KUNZE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources for a life of Calovius are: his
	own Hiatoria eyncretiatica, 1882; a funeral discourse by
	his colleague J. F. Mayer, 1888; and C. 3. Schurzfleiach,
	Orationea panegyrico?, pp. 71 aqq., Wittenberg, 1897.
	Consult: H. Pigging, Memoria theoloporum, pp. 108‑136,
	Leipaic. 1705; J. C. Erdmann, Lebenabeachreibunpen .
	von den wittenberpiachen Tlaeolopen, pp. 88‑91, Witten
	berg, 1804; A. Tholuck, Der Geist der lutheriachen Theo
	lopen 1Vittevaberpa, pp. 185‑211; Goths. 1852; E. L. T.
	llen!ce, Georg Calixtua and seine Zeit, 2 vola., Halls, 1853
	1858.
	CALVARY. See HOLY SEPULCHER.
	CALVARY, MOUNT, ORDERS OF: Three relig
ious orders taking their name from the Mount of
Crucifixion.
	1. The Calvarists or Priests of Mt. Calvary: An as
sociationof secular prieatafounded byHubert Char
pcntier at Mt. Bdtharam, diocese of Leacar (4 m. n.w.
by w. Of Pau), France, in 1633 "in commemoration
of the sufferings of Christ and for the spread of the Catholic faith," five years later united with a similar association formed in Paris by a Capuchin named Hyacinths, primarily to convert Protestants. The chief seat of the united orders was Mont VaI6rien, Paris (hence popularly called Colline du Calvaire). They perished in the French Revolution.
2. The Nuns of Mt. Calvary (Benedictines de Notre‑Dame du Calvaire): Founded by Antoinette d'Orl6ana (d. 1618) and the Capuchin Joseph de Clerc de Tremblay in 1617 at Poitiers, properly a branch of the Order of Fontkvraud (q.v.). In the seventeenth century they had about twenty houses which were destroyed in the French Revolution. Since then the order has been revived and has a number of convents mostly in western France.
	3. The Daughters of Mt. Calvary (1%iglie del
Calvario): Founded at Genoa in 1619 by Virginia
Centurions (d. 1651), daughter of the dogs of Genoa
and wife of Grimaldi Bracelli, who undertook the
care of abandoned children in a time of great dis
tress from famine. She received help from the
Marchese Emanuele Brignole, from whom the
members of the order were called Le score Brignole
in Genoa. They spread in North Italy, were given
a house in Rome by Gregory XVI. in 1833, and
later established orphan asylums at Rieti and
Viterbo. 	(O. ZOCgLERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Helyot, Ordrea monastiquea, vi. 355‑370; Heimbueher, Orders and Xongrepationcn, i. 197, ii. 362,
427. Consult also A. M. Centurions, Vita d4 Virginia Cen‑
turione‑Bracelli, Genoa, 1873.
CALVERT, JAMES: Wesleyan foreign mission‑
ary; b. at Pickering, 25 m. n. by e. of York, England, Jan. 3, 1813; d. at Torquay, England, Mar. 8, 1892. When appointed by the Wesleyan. Missionary Society in 1838 to go to Fiji he was master of the printing and bookbinding trades and had been in 1837 a student in the Hoxton Academy. His industrial training stood him in good stead for he was able to do his own printing in Fiji and issue many books, among them a translation of the New Testament into the vernacular. He lived to see the complete abandonment of heathenism by the Fijians, a result to which his heroic labors contributed largely. From 1865 to 1872 he was supernumerary minister at Bromley, Kent, England, thence he went as missionary to the South African diamond fields. He returned in 1881 and settled at Torquay. In 1885 he paid a visit to Fiji and rejoiced in the marvelous change.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. S. Rows, James Calvert of Fiji, London.
1893.
CALVIN, JOHN.
Childhood (§ 1).	Publication of his "Institutes" (§ 7).	His Reforms (§ 12).
Student of Theology (§ 2).	First Residence in Geneva and in Stras‑	His Opponents (§ 13).
Student of Law and the Classics (¢ 3).		burg (§ 8).	His Ecclesiastical Influence (§ 14).
His First Publication. Conversion (§ 4). ,	Rising Fame. Recall to Geneva	His Character (§ 15).
Cop's Inaugural Address (§ 6).		(§ 9).	His Personal Appearance (§ 18).
" Years of Wandering:" Second Pub‑	Second Residence in Geneva ($ 10).	His Literary labors (§ 17).
	lication (§ 8). 	Calvin's Fundamental Ideas (§ 11).
	John	Calvin the Reformer, b. at Noyon (60 m. the Latinized form, a registrar of the government
n.e. of Paris), Picardy, July 10, 1509; d. in of Noyon, solicitor in the ecclesiastical court, fiscal
Geneva, Switzerland, May 27, 1564, was the son agent of the county, secretary of the bishopric, and
of Girard Cauvin, or Caulvin, of which Calvin is attorney of the cathedral chapter. Calvin's mother
		IL‑23

THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
354
was Jeanne Le Franc of Cambrai, noted for personal beauty and great religious fervor and strictness. Of the five eons of his parents he was the second,
and but one of his younger brothers :. Child‑ survived childhood. His mother died
	hood.	while he was still young and his father
		married a widow, whose name is un
known, who bore him two daughters. His father's
position and ambition for his sons was such that
he secured for them the best educational advan
tages at home, association with the children of
prominent families, and ecclesiastical patronage;
so that Calvin on :flay 19, 1521, when only twelve
years of age, received the chaplaincy attached to
the altar of La Gdsine in the cathedral of Noyon,
which gave him a regular income. It was expected
that he would become a priest and so he was given
the tonsure.
In 1523 he was sent to Paris to prepare for the priesthood. He attended for a few months the ColMge de la Marche, wherein Mathurin Cordier grounded him in Latin; next the College de Montaigu, where he remained till the opening of 1528. The high grade of his childish friendships and of those
	of maturer years reveals his own char
	s. Student acter, and refutes the insinuations his
of 	detractors have dared to whisper.
Theology. That he stood well with the eccle‑
siastics in his native city is shown by their giving him on Sept. 27, 1527, in addition to the chaplaincy mentioned, the (nominal) curacy of Saint Martin de Martheville, eight leagues from Noyon, which he exchanged on June 5, 1529, for the curacy of Pont I'RvAque, a village 1 m. w. of s. of Noyon, associated with his ancestors, who were boatmen on the Oise (not to be confounded with Pont 1tv5que, 25 m. e.n.e. of Caen). On Apr. 30, 1529, he resigned his chaplaincy in favor of his younger brother, but resumed it on Feb. 26, 1531, and held it till May 4, 1534.
As a student Calvin showed rare ability and was rapidly acquiring the priestly training when in 1528 his father, who had fallen out with the ecclesiastical authorities in Noyon, ordered him to change his studies to law. He meekly obeyed and left Paris for Orl€ans, whose university was then a famous law center, as there Pierre Taisan de 1'Eetoile lectured, and the next year went to
Bourges, where Andrea Alciati, a 3. Student rival of equal eminence, and more to
of Law and Calvin's taste, was the great attracthe tion. In both universities he came
Classics. under the influence of Melchior Wol‑
mar, a humanist of the front rank and favorable to the Reformation. On May 26, 1531, his father died, and Calvin left Bourges and returned to Paris, to classical study and the study of Hebrew, except that from the summer of 1532 to that of 1533 he was again a student of law at Orldans and there " annual representative " of the dean of the Picard students, another indication of his moral standing and popularity with the students, for students do not honor of their own accord dubious or disagreeable characters.
In Apr., 1532, he published in Paris at his own expense, and at a pecuniary loss, the text of Seneca's
De Chmensm, with s commentary, which showed that he was still a humanist within the Roman Church. But the Reformation was making headway in France among the humanistic class to which he belonged, and so moat have often been a topic of his conversation. Step by step he approached the position of the Reformers, but slowly, for, as he says himself, in the partly autobiographic preface to his commentary on the Psalms
g. His First (and it is about all that is known on Publication. the subject), he " was too obstiConversion. nately devoted to the superstitions of popery to be easily extricated from so profound an abyss of mire." But, some time in 1533, " God by a sudden conversion subdued and brought [his] mind to a teachable frame. Having thus received some taste and knowledge of true godliness, [he] was immediately inflamed with so intense a desire to make progress therein. that although [he] did not altogether leave off other studies, [he] yet pursued them with leas ardor. [He] was quite surprised to find that before a year had elapsed, all who had any desire after purer doctrine were continually coming to [him] to learn, although [he himself] was as yet but a mere novice and tyro."
Among those with whom he discussed Reformed doctrine was his bosom friend Nicolas Cop, and when Cop was elected rector of the university of Paris it seemed to them a splendid opportunity to commend the Reformation to the cultured and brilliant audience which would be gathered in the Church of the Mathurins to hear the inaugural address. Accordingly they planned it together and on Nov. 1,1533, Cop delivered it. He announced his theme as "Christian Philosophy," and proceeded to speak in a manner which greatly g. Cop's In‑ amazed his audience. By "Chris‑
augural	tian Philosophy" he meant the Gospel.
	Address.	The phrase and the treatment in the
		opening part, of the address were derived
from Erasmus. The burden of it was on the rela
tion of Law and Gospel, and here Luther's influence
appears. The concluding part was more independ
ent, and in it was struck that note of certainty as
to salvation, which was to be a feature of Calvin
ism.
Perhaps all would have gone well, for there must have been many secret sympathizers with their views in the audience, had Cop not criticized the theologians of the Sorbonne as " sophists." This infuriated them, and they stirred up the government against the audacious speaker, and Cop had to fly. Calvin also fled, because his intimacy with Cop was known, although it is not certain whether it was even suspected that he had any share in the composition of the address as it is now certain that he had. Being assured that his fears
6. Years of of personal injury were groundless, he
Wandering. ventured to return shortly afterward. Second But his sympathy with the ReformaPublication. tion could not be hidden, and so he did not feel safe in the city where ac many already had been imprisoned for their faith's sake, and in Jan., 1534, he went forth a wanderer, usually living under an assumed name.

855	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Calvin
These wanderings lasted for two years and a half. As well as they can be made out their course was this: he went first to Angoul@me, where he studied in the excellent library of his friend Louis du Tillet and began his " Institutes "; next to NArac in Apr., 1534, where Marguerite d'Angoul6me, duchess of Berry and sister of King Francis I. of France, held her court; in May he was at Noyon, where he resigned his benefices, and where he was for some reason imprisoned; in the closing part of the year he was at Paris again, and then it was he met Servetus for the first time. Next he appeared at Orleans, whence he issued his second publication, his Psychopannychia, a refutation of the theory that the soul sleeps between death and the Last Judgment. In Dec., 1534, he was at Angoulr;me, and thence with Du Tillet he removed to Strasburg to escape threatened persecution.
In Jan., 1535, he was at Strasburg, and the same month at Basel. There he put the finishing touches on his " Institutes of the Christian Religion," and issued it Mar., 1536. The persecution of the Reformed in France was its immediate occasion. He thus speaks of this famous book in the preface to his commentary on the Psalms: " My objects were, first, to vindicate my brethren whose death was precious in the eight of the Lord; and next that, se the same cruelties might very soon after be exercised against many unhappy individuals, foreign nations might be touched with at least
some compassion toward them and y. Publics‑ solicitude about them. When it was lion of his then published it was not the copious "Institutes." and labored work which it is now,
but only a small treatise, containing a summary of the principal truths of the Christian religion; and it was published with no other design than that men might know what was the faith held by those whom I saw basely and wickedly defamed by those flagitious and perfidious flatterers. That my object was not to acquire fame appeared from this, that immediately after I left Basel, and particularly from the fact that nobody there knew that I was the author." It was prefaced by a letter to King Francis I. of France, who was an archperaecutor of Protestants in his kingdom while cultivating friendly relations with them outside, which ranks as one of the masterpieces in apologetic literature.
After publishing it he went to Ferrara to stay a while in the court of the Duchess Renee, wife of Ercole II. In May 1536 he was in Aosta and a little later in Paris once more. There he met, his younger brother Antoine and his half‑sister Marie, and with them left for Strasburg. The war then going on compelled him to make a detour and so he arrived in Geneva in the IattRr part of July,
1536, intending only to spend the 8. First night there. But F9re1 (see FAAEL,
Residence GUILLAUME), who was trying with
in Geneva zeal not always directed by discretion and in to keep the Genevans whom he won
Strasburg. for the Reformation at peace among
themselves, learned of his presence and seeing in the young scholar, who wanted nothing so much as to be allowed to pursue his studies in
quiet, a valuable ally, besought him to stay with him, and then, as Calvin himself says in the preface mentioned above, " finding that he gained nothing by entreaties proceeded to utter an imprecation that God would curse [his] retirement and the tranquillity of the studies which [he] sought if [he] should withdraw and refuse to give assistance when the necessity was so urgent." Calvin felt as if " God had from heaven laid his mighty hand upon [him] to arrest [him]." Unable to resist, he laid aside all his plans and stepped to Farel's aide. But the city could not brook the drastic reforms which the Reformers would institute, and so on Easter Monday (Apr. 23), 1538, less than two years from his arrival, he and Farel were ordered by the General Assembly to leave the city within three days. Calvin went to Basel, and then to Strasburg where on Sept. 8, 1538, he became minister to the French refugees, in the Church of St. Nicolas auy Oudes. He married early in Aug., 1540, Idelette de Bure, widow of Jean Stordeur of Liege, an Anabaptist whom Calvin had converted to the pedobaptiat position. She had had a son and daughter by her first husband, but they had died in infancy. To Calvin she bore a son on July 28, 1542, but he lived only a few days. She herself passed away on Mar. 29, 1549, and Calvin did not marry again.
When Calvin went to Strasburg he thought he had done with Geneva.. He was very poor, and his position was comparatively obscure, but his abilities soon brought him into prominence and appeals for advice from friends in Geneva kept him in touch with that city. He utilized his position to study and also to put into practise certain reforms he could not carry out in Geneva. And his fame rapidly spread. He was asked to share in the cathedral lecture course, next he was sent as delegate of the city to the
g. Rising Colloquies of Worms and Regensburg.
Fame. When on Mar. 18, 1539, Cardinal Recall to Jacopo Sadoleto wrote a letter to the
	Geneva.	city of Geneva which was a plea for
		it to return to the Roman obedience
and it was sent to Bern, it was Calvin who was
requested by the Bern government to answer,
and he did in his masterly fashion. A change took
place in the government in Geneva and the friends
of Calvin got the upper hand. Then his virtues
and extraordinary powers were remembered, and
on Sept. 21, 1540, the Little Council voted to try
to induce him to return. More and more the
impression spread that he was the man to rule
the city. There was no intention of going back
to'Rome, but the city was torn by faction and
contained many unruly elements which needed an
iron hand to hold in check. On Oct. 19 and 20
the Two Hundred and the General Assembly
formally invited him to return, but the invitation
was unwelcome and he would give no decided an
swer. But when in Feb., 1541, the impetuous
Farel urged him to go, he found him as irresistible
as before, and so on Sept. 13,1541, he entered again
the city of Geneva and took up the heavy task of
ordering her affairs according to his high standards.
He came without illusions, knowing that he was

Calvin
not even the choice of a majority, that he had many personal enemies, and would encounter many difficulties; but he believed that God had called him and would sustain him.
He received an honorable reception from the government, and was given a house to live in, and, for salary, five hundred florins, twelve measures of wheat, and two tubs of wine. From that time on, Geneva was his home and his parish, his center of activity, but by no means his cirro. Second cumference of influence. Under his&rm
	Residence	rule the city assumed a new aspect.
	in Geneva.	Immorality of every sort was sternly
		suppressed. It was well for the suc
cess of this system that Geneva was a refuge for
the persecuted in every land. Hollanders, English,
Italians, Spaniards, and more particularly French
men, settled in the town, and readily lent their
aid in maintaining Calvin's peculiar methods.
But not refugees alone came: his lectures and those
of Beza attracted many thousands of students,
and thus spread their fame far and wide. But
incessant study, a vast correspondence, " the
care of all the churches," his sedentary life
these conspired to make him the victim of disease,
and at fifty‑five years of age he breathed his last.
He had spent little on himself, but given generously
both in money and service, so he left behind him only
a hundred and seventy dollars, but an incal
culable fortune in fame and consecrated influence;
and from him Geneva inherited faith, education,
government, brave citizens, and pride in an honored
name.
Calvin based his system upon the Apostles' Creed, and followed its lines. Ethics and theology were handled in the closest connection. His reformation in theology was preeminently a practical affair. Even the doctrine of predestination was developed, not as a speculation, but as a matter of practical concern. By the extraordinary emphasis put upon it, the Genevans were taught to consider it almost the cornerstone of the Christian faith. In opposition to the lax views of sin and grace which the Roman Church inculcated, he revived the Augustinian doctrine in order by it to conquer Rome. In so doing he was one with Zwingli, (Ecolampadius, Luther, and Melanchthon. But in his supralapsarian views he stood alone among the Reformers. His views of
ii. Calvin's ecclesiastical authority and discipline lo'vadamen‑ are also important. He allowed to tal Ideas, the Church a greater authority than any other Reformer. Here, again, the influence of Augustine is seen. He says, " The Church is our mother" (" Institutes," IV. i. 1). Outside of the Church there is no salvation. Her ministry is divinely instituted, and to it believers are bound to pay deference. Her authority is absolute in matters of doctrine; but, when gull cases arise, she hands the offenders over, to the State for punishment. State and Church have, therefore, separate and exclusive jurisdiction; yet they exist side by side, and cooperate. They mutually support each other. The ideal govern.. went embraced s democracy, an aristocracy, and s king or autocrat. Calvin taught obedience to the
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
powers that be. In this scheme he had in mind the Israelites. He aimed at a theocracy. He bowed before the majesty of the righteous Judge. His fear of God led him to unquestioning submission. In a sense it was his very breath; and so in his system justice is more prominent than love. God as the ruler, rather than as the lover of all in Christ, was the object of his reverence.
In accordance with his principles was his work. During his first residence in Geneva he showed his determination to separate Church and State; and therefore he and his fellow preachers protested against the interference of the State in the matter of the use of fonts, of unleavened bread in the Lord's Supper, and in the celebration of the church‑
fe$tivals, as these were properly within the ecclesiastical province. When, also, he refused the Eucharist unto the city, because of its immorality, he asserted for the Church freedom from the civil authority. This determined stand cost him temporarily his position; but, when he resumed his work in Geneva, he and the citizens knew that he aimed to rule absolutely. The reforms he instituted are famous, and often condemned as infamous. They are, however, not only defensible, but commendable, if judged by the standard of
that age. We can not withhold our admiration
of the moral courage, the self‑forgetfulness, the
stern morality, and the uncompromising zeal with
which Calvin addressed himself unto the apparently
hopeless task of curbing the passions of the loose
		populace, and gaining the cordial co
	rn. His operation of the upper classes. He
	Reforms. succeeded. Geneva came to be re
		garded as a normal school of religious
life. Religion was the life of the greater part of
the inhabitants. With a correct insight into the
necessities of the case, Calvin declared imme‑
diately after his victorious reentry that he could
not take up work without a reorganization of the
Church; viz., by the formation of a church‑court,
which should have full authority to maintain dis
cipline. On Nov. 20, 1541, at a popular meeting,
the scheme he drew up was ratified. This pro‑
vided for a consistory, composed of the pastors of
the city churches, who were five in number, and
three assistants, and twelve elders‑one of the
latter to be a syndic and their president‑which
met every Thursday, and put under church‑dis
cipline, without respect of persons, every species
of evil‑doers. The rigor and vigor of this admin
istration quickly awakened natural indignation,
in part even among those who on the whole favored
Calvin. His life was at times in danger. Some
showed their terrified contempt for him by naming
their dogs after him. In s city like Geneva, full of
refugees of ev8ry description, there were many
who looked upon all restraint as oppression; others
who objected to Calvin's measures as going too
far, or criticized his methods. In order still fur
ther to increase the authority a£ the church‑court,
Calvin secured (I55S) an important modification
of the city government, whereby the Coneeil Gen&ad
(the " General Council "), the highest law‑malting
body, was only called twice a year‑in February
to elect syndics, and in November to fill some

357	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Wvin
minor offices, and fix the price of wine. But nothing might be discussed in this meeting which had not been previously determined upon in the Council of Two Hundred; nor in the latter which the Council of Sixty did not approve of; nor could this council take up anything not previously agreed to in the highest council, which thus practically governed the State. The General Council became in this way a superfluity, without the power of initiative. It had, however, accomplished its mission‑accepted the Reformation.
Most prominent among the means Calvin used to reform the city was preaching. Every other week he preached every day in plain, direct, convincing fashion, without eloquence, but still irresistibly; and the life that the preacher led constituted his strongest claim to attention. The reports of his sermons are probably from notes made by his hearers; which was the easier done, because, being asthmatic, he spoke very slowly. Every Friday the so‑called " Congregation " was held, in which questions were answered, and debates even carried on. Minors were carefully instructed in a catechism originally prepared by Calvin in French and Latin, 1545. In 1537 he had issued a French, and in 1538 a Latin catechism, which was a mere abridgment or syllabus of his " Institutes," and was not in the form of question and answer; but the catechism of 1545 was in the usual form.
Calvin has the credit of first introducing congregational singing into the worship of the Reformed Church in Geneva. The first songs were some of his own metrical renderings of the Psalms.
Like Zwingli and Luther, Calvin had his difficulties with the Anabaptists. He met them in public debate Mar. lfi‑17, 1537, and in the opinion of the Council of Two Hundred effectually disposed of their arguments. So on Mar. 19 it passed a sentence of perpetual banishment against them.
But he had personal controversies, the chief of which were‑(1) first with Pierre Caroli, a French refugee and pastor in Lausanne, a religious chameleon, whose latest hue was that of a stickler for
orthodoxy. Calvin was very indif‑
i3. His ferent to the terminology of theology, Opponents. so long as the truth was expressed.
In discussing the nature of 'the Godhead during his first residence in Geneva, he avoided using the words " Trinity " and " Person," although he had no particular objection to them; and so they did not occur in the Confession of Faith which he drew up, and to which the citizens of Geneva were compelled to assent; nor did the Geneva Church subscribe formally to the Athanasian Creed. Caroli accused Calvin and his fellow divines of Arianism and Sabellianism; and so plausible was the charge, that Calvin was greatly troubled. However, in the synod of 1537, held in Bern, the Genevan divines fully cleared themselves, and Caroli was deposed and banished. (2) Philibert Berthelier, the son of a martyr for freedom, was forbidden the communion (1553) by the coneistory. The council absolved the ban. Calvin from the pulpit, two days before the
September Communion (one of the four yearly occasions), declared that he would die sooner than give the Lord's holy things to one under condemnation for despising God. Perrin, who was then syndic for the second time, ordered Berthelier to stay away from communion, and so ended a dispute from which the enemies of Calvin had hoped a great deal. (3) JdrBrze Herm~s Bolaec (q.v.), whose presumption in denying predestination, and abusing the ministers at a "Congregation," drew upon him, not only Calvin's indignant reply at the time, but also imprisonment and banishment (1551). (4) Sebastian Castellio (q.v.), a learned but arrogant man, won Calvin's opposition because of his denial of the inspiration of the Canticles and of the descent of Christ into hell. (5) But by far the moat famous of all Calvin's opponents .was Michael Servetus (q.v.), who seems to have been a rather flippant person. It is said he desired Calvin's banishment in order that he might be installed in his place. To this end he accused Calvin of perfidious, tyrannical, and unchristian conduct. It is no wonder, therefore, that Calvin treated him harshly. It is idle to shield Calvin from the charge of bringing about Servetua's death, although it is true that the mode adopted (burning) did not meet with his approval‑he wished to have him beheaded; but at the same time it is easy to excuse him on the ground of the persecuting spirit of his age. The Protestants who had felt the persecution of Rome were ready to persecute all who did not follow them. The burning of Servetus (Oct. 27, 1553) for the crime of heresy, specifically antitrinitarianism, was approved by the Helvetic Church, and, what is more remarkable, by the mild Melanchthon; but it failed even then to win universal approval, and now it is usually considered a sad, ineffaceable blot upon Calvin's character. Many who know nothing else of either Calvin or Servetus are very indignant over the tragedy, and apparently reject Calvinism because of it. We ought rather to mourn than to censure. Servetus knew the danger he braved in coming to Geneva. He had as early as 1534 been in debate with Calvin, although they did not meet personally. On his intimating an intention to visit Geneva, Calvin gave him fair warning, that, if he came, he would prosecute him to the death.' While, therefore, Calvin may be held responsible for Servetus's death, he must be cleared of the charges of having allured Servetus to Geneva, and of rejoicing in his death on personal grounds.
No good came of the execution, only evilridicule from the Roman Catholics, and the adverse criticism from many friends. It likewise failed to check the antitrinitarian heresy. Calvin defended himself, and Beza aided him; but no defense could excuse the facts. In 1903 a penitential monument was erected on the place of his burning.
By his lectures Calvin attracted students from every quarter. He often had as many as a thou‑

I "Nam ai modo valest mea auctoritan vivum epre nunduam patisr (I shall never permit him to depart alive if my authority is great enough)." Calvin to Farel, Feb. 13, 1546 (of. Calvin's Letters, Eng. tranal., ii. 33).

Calvin
Calvinism
THE NEW
sand: therefore his influence was constantly aDreading. As was natural, it was moat formative in France, whence most of his pupils came, and to
whose Protestants Calvin way leader I4• Elis Ec‑ and spiritual father. But ire other clesiastical lands he exerted his power. In Italy Influence. he came to the aid of the troubled duchess of Ferrara. To England he sent his commentary on Isaiah, with a dedication to the youthful king, Edward VI. To Cranmer he wrote letters; and through Knox he molded Scotland. He counseled the Moravian Brethren. He helped the Poles in the Trinitarian controversy, and likewise the Reformed cause in Hungary. He also prepared, in his way, the present interest in foreign missions by his unfortunate mission to Brazil in 1555 (Bee VILLE(iA(iNON, NICOLAS DURAND DE).
Calvin's relations with Switzerland and Germany were unpleasant. He strove moat earnestly to unite the different branches of the Protestant Church. But unhappily he was suspected by many Swiss of Lutheran views on the Lord's Supper‑for this was the controverted point‑and by many Germane of too much Zwingliaw'am; so that he made but an indifferent mediator. He had high hopes of the Consensus of Zurich (1549), which harmonised the Swine 'churches; but the controversy with the Lutherans was violently renewed by HesBhuB.
The common conception of Calvin is erroneous. He was not the stony‑hearted tyrant, the relentless persecutor, the gloomy theologian, the popular picture represents him to have been. Men, by a blessed inconsistency, are qften kinder than their creeds. $o, at all events, was Calvin. To the superficial observer he is not attractive; but it is the opinion of every one who has studied him that i he improves upon acquaintance. Granted that he was constitutionally intolerant; that he did
draft and sternly carry out regulations I5. His which were vexatious and needlessly Character. severe; that he knew no other standpoint in government, morals, or theolog• than his own‑he had qualities which entitle him to respect and admiration. He was refined, conscientious, pure, faithful, honest, humble, pious. He attracted men by the strength of his character, the loftiness of his aims, and the directness of his efforts. He had the common human affections. He loved his wife, and mourned her death. He grieved over his childlessness. He took delight in his friends; and they were the noblest in the Protestant Church. Somewhat of the forbidding aspect of his life may perhaps be accounted for by the unnatural life he was forced to lead. He desired to spend his days in study; whereas he was forced to incessant, multifarious, and most prominent labor. Experience shows there is no harder master than a timid man compelled to lead. Again, his ill‑health must be taken into account. He was a chronic invalid. Such men are not apt to be gentle. The wonder rather is that he showed so patient a spirit. The popular verdict has been given against him; but vox Populi is not always vox dei. What Beza, his
SCHAFF‑HERZOG
358
biographer, wrote is nearer truth: " Having been
an observer of Calvin's life for sixteen years, I
may with perfect right testify that we have in
this man a moat beautiful example of a truly
Christian life and death, which it is easy to ca
lumniate, but difficult to imitate." Ernest Renan
finds the key to his influence in the fact that he
was " the most Christian man of his generation "
(Studies o f Religious History and CritieiBm., New
York, 1864 pp. 286 aqq.).
Calvin was of middle stature, and, through feeble health, of meager and emaciated frame. He had a
i	thin, pale, finely chiseled face, a well‑
	I6. His	formed mouth, a long, pointed beard,
	Personal	black hair, a prominent nose, a lofty
Appearance. forehead, and gaming eyes. He was
		modest, plain, and scrupulously neat
in dress, orderly and methodical in all his habits,
temperate, and even abstemious, allowing himself
scarcely food and sleep enough for vigorous work.
(The famous portrait by Ary Scheffer is too much
idealized.)
Leaving out of view his correspondence, the writings of Calvin divide themselves into the theological and the exegetical. In regard to the latter it suffices now to say that they have never been excelled, if, on the whole, they have beep equaled. He possessed all the requisite qualifications for an. exegete‑knowledge of the original tongues, good common sense, and abundant piety. His expositions ass brief, pithy, and clear.
	Iq. His	His theological writings are remark
	bitertuy	able for their early maturity and their
	Labors.	unvarying consistency. Besides his
		minor writings, we possess that master
piece of Protestantism, the " Institutes of the
Christian Religion." He produced at twenty‑six
a book in which he had nothing essential to change
at fifty‑five. The repeated enlargements were mere
developments of its germinal ideas. The first
edition (Basel, 1536) contained 519 pages, measuring
6j by 4 inches, was divided into six chapters,
and was intended merely as a brief apology of
the Reformed doctrine: (1) Of law, with an expo
sition of the decalogue; (2) Of faith, with an
exposition of the Apostles' Creed; (3) Of prayer,
with an exposition of the Lord's Prayer; (4) Of,
the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Sup
per; (5) Of the other so‑called sacraments; (G) Of
Christian liberty, church government and disci
pline. The French translation made by Calvin
himself appeared in Basel, 1541. The final form
was given to the " Institutes " in the Latin edition
of Geneva, 1559, when it was made into a treatise
of four books, divided into a hundred and four
chapters.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For s comprehensive bibliography, giving full details as to the successive publications of Calvin, their later editions, also of books written on Calvin's life and theology, consult A. Eric6eon, Bibiiopraphia Calviniana. Berlin, 1900.
The complee edition of Calvin's Works, superseding
previous editions, is Joannis Cafroini Opera qua; super
aunt omaia, vol. i.‑lix., ed. J. W. Daum, E. Cunita, E.
Reuss, P. Lobetein, and A. Eriaheon. The last was
assisted by W. Baldeneperger and L. Horst. The edition
was begun by the three firahnamed, Berlin, 1880, and
finished by Eriehaon in 1900. There is an excellent

369	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Calvin
		Calvinism
translation of the commentaries, his Institutes, and his
Tracts relating to the Reformation, by H. Beveridge, pub
lished by the Calvin Translation Society, 52 vole., Edin
burgh, 1844‑55. :he fullest collection of Calvin's letters
is in the Berlin edition. In 1854 is Paris Jules Bonnet
published s collection, and this has been translated,
volumes i., ii., by D. Constable, Edinburgh. 1865‑57;
volumes iii., iv., by M. R. Gilchrist, Philadelphia, 1858.
The four volumes are now published by the Presbyterian
Board of Publication, Philadelphia. The letters to cor
respondents living in French‑speaking lands are given in
their original Latin or French with careful and scholarly
annotations by A. L. Herminjard (d. 1900) in the nine
volumes of his‑Comepondanee den r6fornwtsuradane ies
pays de langue fn,n~aiae, 1618‑.¢4, Geneva, 1888‑97. The
first letter of Calvin's is no. 310 in vol. ii., 2d ed., 1878.
	For the life of Calvin the original source is the sketch
by his friend and coadjutor Theodore Bees, Geneva,
1564, 2d ed., Lausanne, 1575; edited by Neander, Berlin,
1841, Eng. trsnal., by H. Beveridge, in Tracts relating to
the Reformation, in the Calvin Society translation, vol. i.,
Edinburgh, 1844. Much information comes out inci
dentally in his correspondence.
	Modern lives of Calvin, derived from independent study
of the works and other sources, which can be com
mended are those by T. H. Dyer, London, 1850; F. Bun
gener, 2 vole., Paris, 188Tr83, Eng. travel., Edinburgh,
1863; E. $t)<helin, 2 vole., Elbarfeld, 1883; F. W. Kamp‑
schulte, ed. W. Goat:, 2 vole.. Leipeic,1899; P. Schaff, Chris
tian Church, vii. 257‑844; E. Doumergue, Lausanne, 1899
eqq. (to be in five volumes of which the second appeared
in 1902 and the third in 1908, a life‑work, aims et being
exhaustive, is illustrated by numerous reproductions of
old drawings, plane, pictures, etc., and hundreds of spe
cial sketches by H. Armand‑Delilbe); A. M. Fairbairn, in
The Cambridge Modern History, vol. ii., The Reformation,
chap. xi., pp. 342‑378, New York, 1904; by W. Walker, is the Heroes of the Reformation Series, New York, 1908; and by A. Boeaert, Paris, 1908. Mention should also be made of the material on Calvin and French church history generally constantly appearing in Paris in the BuY letin de la pcUt6 do f')sietoire du proteetantiame frangaia, under the editorship of the learned Nsthanael Weiss, secretary of the Society.

CA1.VIlYISM.
Meaning and Uses of the Consistent Development of
	Term (§ 1). 	Calvinism (5 e).
Fundamental Principle (§ 2). Varieties of Calvinism (§ 7).
Reiatron to Other Systems $upralapasrianiem and Infra‑
(¢ 3). 	Ispearianiem (¢ 8).
Calvinism and Lutheranism Poatredemptioniem (§ 9).
	( ¢ 4).	Present Fortunes of Calvin
$oteriology of Calvinism (§ b). 	ism (§ 10).
Calvinism is an ambiguous term in so far as it is currently employed in two or three senses, closely related indeed, and passing insensibly into one another, but of varying latitudes of connotation. Sometimes it designates merely the individual teaclnng of John Calvin. Sometimes it designates, more broadly, the doctrinal system confessed by that body of Protestant Churches known hietorically, in distinction from the Lutheran Churches, as " the Reformed Churches " (see P80TEBTANTIBM); but also quite commonly called " the Calvinistic
Churches" because the greatest sciea:. Meaning ti5e exposition of their faith in the and Uses of Reformation age, sad perhaps the the Term. moat influential of say age, was given
by John Calvin. Sometimes it designates, more broadly still, the entire body of conceptions, theological, ethical, philosophical, social, political, which, under the influence of the master mind of John Calvin, raised itself to dominance in the Protestant lands of the post‑Reformation age, and has left a permanent mark not only upon the
thought of mankind, but upon the life‑history of men, the social order of civilized peoples, and even the political organization of States. In the present article, the term will be taken, for obvious reasons, in the second of these senses. Fortunately this is also its central sense; and there is little danger that its other connotations w 1 fall out of mind while attention is concentrated upon this.
On the one hand, John Calvin, though always looked upon by the Reformed Churches as au exponent rather than as the creator of their doctrinal system, has nevertheless been both reverenced as one of their founders, and deferred to as that particular one of their founders to whose formative hand and systematizing talent their doctrinal system has perhaps owed most. In any exposition of the Reformed theology, therefore, the teaching of John Calvin must always take a high, cud, indeed, determinative place. On the other baud, although Calvinism has dug a channel through which not merely flows a stream of theological thought, but also surgPa a great wave of human life‑filling the h rt with fresh ideals and conceptions which have revolutionized the conditions of existence‑yet its fountain‑head lies in its theological system; or rather, to be perfectly exact, one step behind even that, in its religious consciousness. For the roots of 'Calvinism are planted in a specific religious attitude, out of which is unfolded first a particular theology, from which springs on the one hand a special church organization, and on the other a social order, involving a given political arrangement. The whole outworking of Calvinism in life is thus but the etflorescenoe of its fundamental religious consciousness, which finds its scientific statement in its theological system.
The exact formulation of the fundamental principle of Calvinism has indeed taxed the acumen of a long series of thinkers for the last hundred years (e.g., Ullmann, Semiech, Jiiagenbach, Ebrard, Herzog, Schweizer, Baur, Schneckenburger, Gilder, Schenkel, Schtsberlein, Stahl, Hundeshagen; for a discussion of the several views cf. H. Voigt, Fundamentuldogrnati7c, Goths, 1874, pp. 397‑480; W. Hastie, The Theology of the Reformed Church in its Fundamental Principles, Edinburgh, 1904, pp. 129‑177). Perhaps the simplest statement of it is the best: that it lies in a profound apprehension of God in his majesty, with the inevitably accompanying poignant realization of the exact nature of the relation sustained to him by the creature as such, sad particularly by the sinful creature. He who believes is God without reserve, and is determined that God shall be
s. Funds‑ God to him in all his thinking, feeling,
mental willing‑in the entire compass of his Principle. life‑activities, intellectual, moral, spiritual, throughout all his individual, social, religious relations‑is, by the forte of that strictest of all logic which presides over the outworking of principles into thought and life, by the very necessity of the case, a Calvinist. In Calvinism, then, objectively speaking, theism comes to its rights; subjectively speaking, the religious relation attains its purity; soteriologically speak‑

THE NEW scHnFF_HF~tzoG	sec
ing, evangelical religion finds at length its full expression and its secure stability. Theism comes to its rights only in a teleological conception of the universe, which perceives in the entire course of events the orderly outworking of the plan of God, who is the author, preserver, and governor of all things, whose will is consequently the ultimate cause of all. The religious relation attains its purity only when an attitude of absolute dependence on God is not merely temporarily assumed in the act, say, of prayer, but is sustained through all the activities of life, intellectual, emotional, executive. And evangelical religion reaches stability only when the sinful soul rests in humble, self‑emptying trust purely on the God of grace as the immediate and sole source of all the efficiency which enters into its salvation. And these thin are the formative principles of Calvinism.
	The difference between Calvinism and other
forms of theistic thought, religious experience,
evangelical theology is a difference not of find
but of degree. Calvinism is sot a specific variety
of theism, religion, evangelicalism, set over against
other specific varieties, which along with it con
stitute these several genera, and which possess
equal rights of existence with it and make similar
claims to perfection, each after its own find. It
		differs from them not as one species
3. Relation differs from other species; but as a
	to Other	perfectly developed representative dif
	SYstems.	fens from an imperfectly developed
		representative of the same species.
There are not many kinds of theism, religion,
evangelicalism, among which men are at liberty to
choose to suit at will their individual taste or
meet their special need, all of which may be pre
sumed to serve each its own specific uses equally
worthily. There is but one find of theism, relig
ion, evangelicalism; and the several constructions
laying claim to these names differ from each other
not as correlative species of a broader class, but as
more or less perfect, or more or less defective, ea
emplifications of a single species. Calvinism con
ceives of itself as simply the more pure theism,
religion, evangelicalism, superseding as such the
less pure. It has no difficulty, therefore, in recog
nizing the theistic character of all truly theistic
thought, the religious note in all actual religious
activity, the evangelical quality of all really evan
gelical faith. It refuses to be set antagonistically
over against any of these things, wherever or in
whatever degree of imperfection they may be
manifested; it claims them in every instance of
their emergence as its own, and essays only to
point out the way in which they may be given
their just place in thought and life. Whoever
believes in God; whoever recognises in the rep
of his soul his utter dependence on God; whoever
in all his thought of salvation hears in his heart of
hearts the echo of the soli Deo gloria of the evan
gelical profession‑by whatever name he may
call himself, or by whatever intellectual puzzles
his logical understanding may be oonfused‑‑Cal
vuuem recognizes as implicitly a Calvinist, sad
as only requiring to permit these fundamental
principles.‑which underlie and give its body to
all true religion‑‑to work themselves freely and fully out in thought and feeling and action, to become explicitly a Calvinist.
It is unfortunate that a great body of the scientific discussion which, since Max GSbel (Die religi.ose Eigenthumlichkeit der lutheriachen unrl reformirtcn Ffirchera, Bonn, 1837) first clearly posited the problem, has been carried on somewhat vigorously with a view to determining the fundamental principle of Calvinism, has sought particularly to bring out its contrast with some other theological tendency, commonly with the sister Protestant tendency of Lutheranism. Undoubtedly somewhat different spirits inform Calvinism and Lutheranism. And undoubtedly the distinguishing spirit of Calvinism is rooted not in some extraneous circumstance of its antecedents or origin‑as, for example, Zwingli's tendency to intellectualism, or the superior humanistic culture and predilections of Zwingli and Calvin, or the democratic
instincts of the Swiss, or the radical 4. Calvinism rationalism of the Reformed leaders
	and	as distinguished from the merely
Lutheran‑ modified traditionalism of the Luther‑
	ism.	ins‑‑but in its formative principle.
		But it is misleading to find the for
mative principle of either type of Protestantism
in its difference from the other: they have infi
nitely more in common than in distinction. And
certainly nothing could be more misleading than
to represent them (as is often done) as owing their
differences to their more pure embodiment respect
ively of the principle of predestination and that
of justification by faith. The doctrine of predes
tination is not the formative principle of Calvin
ism, the root from which it springs. It is one of
its logical consequences, one of the branches which
it has inevitably thrown out. It has been firmly
embraced and consistently proclaimed by Cal
vinists because it is an implicate of theism, is
directly given in the religious consciousness, and is
an absolutely essential element in evangelical
religion, without which its central truth of com
plete dependence upon the free mercy of a saving
God can not be maintained. And so little is it a
peculiarity of the Reformed theology, that it under
lay and gave its form and power to the whole
Reformation movement; which was, as from the
spiritual point of view, a great revival of religion,
so, from the doctrinal point of view, a great revival
of Augustinianism There was accordingly no
difference among the Reformers on this point:
Luther and Melanchthon and the compromising Butter were no lees jealous for absolute predestination than Zwingli and Calvin. Even Zwingli
could not surpass Luther in sharp and unqualified assertion of it: and it was not Calvin but Melanchthon who gave it a formal place in his primary scientific statement of the elements of the Protestant faith (cf. Schaff, Creeds, i. 451; E. F. Karl Miller, Synabolik, Leipsic, 1896, p. 75; C. J. Niemijer, be SMjd over de Leer. de,. pin de IX. Eeuco, Groningen, 1889, p. 21; H. Voigt, Furtdwreentaldogm, Goths, 1874, pp, 469‑470). Just as little can the doctrine of justification by faith be represented as specifically Lutheran. Not

881	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Calvinism
merely has it from the beginning been a substantial element in the Reformed faith, but it is only among the Reformed that it has retained or can retain its purity, free from the tendency to become a doctrine of justification on account of faith (cf. E. Bohl, Van der Rechtfertzgung durch den Glauben, Amsterdam, 1890). Here, too, the difference between the two types of Protestantism is one of degree, not of kind (cf. C. P. Iirauth, The Gonaervative Reformation, Philadelphia, 1872). Lutheranism, the product of a poignant sense of sin, born from the throes of a guilt‑burdened soul which can not be stilled until it finds peace in God's decree of justification, is apt to rest in this peace; while Calvinism, the product of an overwhelming vision of God, born from the reflection in the heart of man of the majesty of a God who will not give his glory to another, can not pause until it places the scheme of salvation itself in relation to a complete world‑view, in which it becomes subsidiary to the glory of the Lord God Almighty. Calvinism asks with Lutheranism, indeed, that most poignant of all questions, What shall I do to be saved? and answers it as Lutheranism answers it. But the great question which presses upon it is, How shall God be glorified? It is the contemplation of God and zeal for his honor which in it draws out the emotions and absorbs endeavor; and the end of human as of all other existence, of salvation as of all other attainment, is to it the glory of the Lord of all. Full justice is done in it to the scheme of redemption and the experience of salvation, because full justice is done in it to religion itself which underlies these elements of it. It begins, it centers, it ends with the vision of God in his glory: and it sets itself before all things to render to God his rights in every sphere of life‑activity.
	One of the consequences flowing from this fun
damental attitude of Calvinistic feeling and thought
is the high supernaturalism which informs alike
its religious consciousness and its doctrinal con
struction. Calvinism would not be badly defined,
indeed, as the tendency which is determined to do
justice to the immediately supernatural, as in the
first, so also in the second creation. The strength
and purity of its belief in the supernatural Fact
(which is God) eaves it from all embarrassment
in the face of the supernatural act (which is miracle).
In everything which enters into the process of
redemption it is impelled by the force of its first
principle to place the initiative in God. A super
natural revelation, in which God makes known to
man his will and his purposes of grace; a super
natural record of this revelation in a supernaturally
given book, in which God gives his revelation per
manency and extension‑such things are to the
		Calvinist almost matters of course.
g. Soteri‑ And, above all, he can but insist with
ology of the utmost strenuousness on the
	Calvinism.	immediate supernaturalness of the
		actual work of redemption itself,
and that no teas in its application than in its im
petration. Thus it comes about that the doctrine
of monergistio regeneration‑or as it was phrased
by the older theologians, of " irresistible grace "
or " effectual calling "‑is the hinge of the Cal‑
vinistic aoteriology, and lies much more deeply embedded in the system than the doctrine of predestination itself which is popularly looked upon as its hall‑mark. Indeed, the soteriological significance of predestination to the Calvinist consists in the safeguard it affords to monergistic regeneration‑to purely supernatural salvation. What lies at the heart of his soteriology is the absolute exclusion of the creaturety element in the initiation of the saving process, that so the pure grace of God may be magnified. Only so could he express his sense of men's complete dependence as sinners on the free mercy of a saving God; or extrude the evil leaven of Synergism (q.v.) by which, as he clearly sees, God is robbed of his glory and man is encouraged to think that he owes to some power, some set of choice, some initiative of his own, his participation in that salvation which is in reality all of grace. There is accordingly nothing against which Calvinism sets its face with more firmness than every form and degree of autosoterism. Above everything else, it is determined that God, in his Son Jesus Christ, acting through the Holy Spirit whom he has sent, shall be recognized as our veritable Savior. To it sinful man stands in need not of inducements or assistance to save himself, but of actual saving; and Jesus Christ has come not to advise, or urge, or induce, or aid him to save himself, but to save him. This is the root of Calvinistic soteriology; and it is because this deep sense of human helplessness and this profound consciousness of indebtedness for all that enters into salvation to the free grace of God is the root of its soteriology that to it the doctrine of election becomes the cor cordis of the Gospel. He who knows that it is God who has chosen him and not he who has chosen God, and that he owes his entire salvation in all its processes and in every one of its stages to this choice of God, would be an ingrate indeed if he gave not the glory of his salvation solely to the inexplicable elective love of God..
Historically the Reformed theology finds its origin in the reforming movement begun in Switzerland under the leadership of Zwingli (1616). Its fundamental principles are already present in Zwingli's teaching, though it was not until Calvin's profound and penetrating genius was called to their exposition that they took their ultimate form or received systematic development. From Switzerland Calvinism spread outward to France, and along the Rhine through Germany to Holland, eastward to Bohemia and Hungary, and westward, across the Channel, to Great Britain. In thin broad expansion through so many lands its voice was raised in a multitude of confessions; and in the course of the four hundred years which have elapsed since its first formulation, it has been
expounded in a vast body of dogmatic 6. Consist‑ treatises. Its development has natent Devel‑ orally been much,richer and far more opment of many‑sided than that of the sister Calvinism. system of Lutheranism in its more
confined and homogeneous environment; and yet it has retained its distinctive character and preserved its fundamental features with

CalvinLam	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	362
marvelous consistency throughout its entire history. It may be possible to distinguish among the Reformed confessions, between those which bear more and those which bear less strongly the stamp of Calvin's personal influence; and they part into two broad classes, according as they were composed before or after the Arminian defection (c. 1618) demanded sharper definitions on the points of controversy raised by that movement (see ARMINIUB, Jwcosvs, AND Axnsirtrwxrsm; REMONBTRANT9). A few of them written on German soil also bear traces of the influence of Lutheran conceptions. And, of course, no more among the Reformed than elsewhere have all the professed expounders of the system of doctrine been true to the faith they professed to expound. Nevertheless, it is precisely the same system of truth which is embodied in all the great historic Reformed confessions; it matters not whether the document emanates from Zurich or Bern or Basel or Geneva, whether it sums up the Swiss development as in the Second Helvetic Confession, or publishes the faith of the National Reformed Churches of France, or Scotland, or Holland, or the Palatinate, or Hungary, Poland, I Bohemia, or England; or republishes the established Reformed doctrine in opposition to new contradictions, as in the Canons of Dort (in which the entire Reformed world concurred), or the Westminster Confession (to which the whole of Puritan Britain gave its assent), or the Swim Form of Consent (which represents the mature judgment of Switzerland upon the recently proposed novelties of doctrine). And despite the inevitable variety of individual points of view, as well as the unavoidable differences in ability, learning, grasp, in the multitude of writers who have sought to expound the Reformed faith through these four centuries‑and the grave departures from that faith made here and there among them‑the great stream of Reformed dogmatics has flowed essentially unsullied, straight from its origin in Zwingli and Calvin to its debouchure, say, in Chalmers and Cunningham and Crawford, in Hodge and Thornwell and Shedd.
It is true an attempt has been made to distinguish two types of Reformed teaching~from the beginning; a more radical type developed under the influence of the peculiar teachings of Calvin, and a (so‑called) more moderate type, chiefly propagating itself in Germany, which exhibits rather the influence, as was at first said (Hofstede de Groot, Ebrard, Heppe), of Melanchthon, or, in its more rent statement (Gooszen), of Bullinger. In all that concerns the essence of Calvinism, however, there was no difference between Bullinger and Calvin, German and Swiss: the Heidelberg Catechism is no doubt a catechism sad not a confession, but in its presuppositions and inculcationa it is as purely Calvinistic as the Genevan Catechism
or the catechisms of the Wes' minster y. Varieties Assembly. Nor was the substance of of Cal‑ doctrine touched by the peculiarities
vinism. of method which marked such schools
as the so‑called Scholastics (showing themselves already in Zanchius, d. 1590, and culminating in theologians like Alsted, d. 1638, and
Voetius, d. 1676); or by the special modes of statement which were developed by such schools as the so‑called Federalists (e.g., Cocceius, d. 1669, Barman, d. 1679 Wittaius, d. 1708; cf. Dieatel, Studien zur Federaltheologie, in Jahrbiic)aer fur deutache Theologie, 186?, ii.; G. Vos, De Verbandsleer in de Gereformeerde Theologie, Grand Rapids, 1891; W. Hastie, The Theology of the Reformed Church, Edinburgh, 1904, pp. 189‑210). The first serious defection from the fundamental conceptions of the Reformed system came with the rise of Arminianism in the early years of the seventeenth century (Arminius, Uytenbogaert, Epiecopius, Limborch, Curcelleeus); and the Arminian party was quickly sloughed off under the condemnation of the whole Reformed world. The five points of its " Remonstrance " against the Calvinistic system (see REMUNaTRANTa) were met by the reassertion of the fundamental doctrines of absolute predestination, particular redemption, total depravity, irresistible grace, and the perseverance of the saints (Canons of the Synod of Dort). The first important modification of the Calvinistic system which has retained a position within its limits was made in the middle of the seventeenth century by the professors of the French school at Saumur, and is hence called Sahnuriauism; otherwise Amyraldism, or hypothetical universalism (Cameron, d. 1625, Amyraut, d. 1884, Placa3us, d. 1655, Teetardus, d. c. 1650; see Arum, MoisE). This modification also received the condemnation of the contemporary Reformed world, which reasserted with emphasis the importance of the doctrine that Christ actually saves by his spirit all for whom he offers the sacrifice of his blood (e.g., Westminster Confession, Swiss Form of Consent).
If " varieties of Calvinism " are to be spoken of with reference to anything more than details, of importance in themselves no doubt, but of little significance for the systematic development of the type of doctrine, there seem not more than three which require mention: supralapsarianiem, infra. lapsarianiam, and what may perhaps be called in this reference, Postredemptionism; all of which (as indeed their very names import) take their start from a fundamental agreement in the principles which govern the system. The difference between these various tendencies of thought within the limits of the system turns on the place given by each to the decree of election, in the logical order‑
ing of the " decrees of ~ God." The 8. Supra‑ Supralapsasians suppose that election lapsarian‑ underlies the decree of the fall itself; ism and and conceive the decree of the fall as Infralap‑ a means for carrying out the decree sarianism. of election. The Infralapsariane, on the other hand, consider that election presupposes the decree of the fall, and hold, therefore, that in electing some to life God has mankind as a masaa perditionis in mind. The extent of the difference between these parties is often, indeed usually, grossly exaggerated: and even historians of repute are found representing infralapsarianiam as involving, or at least permitting, denial that the fall has a place in the decree of God at all: as if election could be postpoeited in the ordo decreto‑

883	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Calvinism
rum to the decree of the fall, while it was doubted
whether there were any decree of the fall; or as if
indeed God could be held to conceive men, in his
effecting decree, as fallen, without by that very act
fixing the presupposed fall in his eternal decree.
In point of fact there is and can be no difference
among Calvinists as to the inclusion of the fall in
the decree of God: to doubt this inclusion is to
place oneself at once at variance with the fundamen
tal Calvinistic principle which conceives all that
comes to pass teleologically and ascribes everything
that actually occurs ultimately to the will of God.
Accordingly even the Postredemptionista (that
is to say the Salmurians or Amyraldiana) find
		no difficulty at this point. Their
	g. Postre‑ peculiarity consists in insisting that
	demption‑ election succeeds, 'in the order of
	ism. thought, not merely the decree of the
		fall but that of redemption as well,
taking the term redemption here in the narrower
sense of the impetration of redemption by Christ.
They thus suppose that in his electing decree God
conceived man not merely as fallen but as already
redeemed. This involves a modified doctrine of
the atonement from which the party has received
the name of Hypothetical Universalism, holding
as it does that Christ died to make satisfaction for
the sine of all men without exception if‑if, that
is, they believe: but that, foreseeing that none would
believe, God elected some to be granted faith
through the effectual operation of the Holy Spirit.
The indifferent standing of the Poatredemption
ista in historical Calvinism is indicated by the treat
ment accorded it in the historical confessions. It
alone of the " varieties of Calvinism " here men
tioned has been made the object of formal con
fessional condemnation; and it received condem
nation in every important Reformed confession
written after its development. There are, it is
true, no aupralapsarian confessions: many, how
ever, leave the questions which divide supralap
sarian and infralapsarian wholly to one side and
thus avoid pronouncing for either; and none is
polemically directed against aupralapsarianism.
On the other hand, not only does no confession
close the door to infralapsarianiam, but a consid
erable number explicitly teach infralapsarianism
which thus emerges as the typical form of Calvinism.
That, despite its confessional condemnation, Poat
redemptioniam has remained a recognized form
of Calvinism and has worked out a history for itself
in the Calvinistic Churches (especially in America)
may be taken as evidence that its advocates, while
departing, in some important particulars, from
typical Calvinism, have nevertheless remained, in
the main, true to the fundamental postulates of
the system. There is another variety of Post
redemptioniam, however, of which this can scarcely
be said. This variety, which became dominant
among the New England Congregationalist Churches
about the second third of the nineteenth century
(e.g., N. W. Taylor, d. 1858; C. G. Finney, d. 1875;
E. A. Park, d. 1900; see NEw ENGLAND THEOLOGY),
attempted, much after. the manner of the " Con
gruista " of the Church of Rome, to unite a Pelagian
doctrine of the will with the Calvinistic doctrine
of absolute predestination. The result was, of course, to destroy the Calvinistic doctrine of " irresistible grace," and as the Calvinistic doctrine of the " satisfaction of Christ " was also set aside in favor of the Grotian or governmental theory of atonement, little was left of Calvinism except the bare doctrine of predestination. Perhaps it is not strange, therefore, that this " improved Calvinism " has crumbled away and given place to newer and explicitly anti‑Calvinistic constructions of doctrine (cf. Williston Walker, in AJT, Apr., 1908, pp. 204 aqq. ).
It must be confessed that the fortunes of Calvinism in general are not at present at their flood. In America,, to be sure, the controversies of the earlier half of the nineteenth century compacted a body of Calvinistic thought which gives way but slowly: and the influence of the great theologians who adorned the churches during that period is still felt (especially Charles Hodge, 1797‑1878, Robert J. Breckinridge,1800‑71, James H. Thornwell, 1812‑62, Henry B. Smith, 1815‑77, W. G. T. Shedd, 1820‑94, Robert L. Dabney, 1820‑98, Archibald Alexander Hodge, 1823‑86). And in Holland recent years have seen a notable revival
of the Reformed consciousness, ea>co. Present pecially among the adherents of the
Fortunes Free Churches, which has been felt as of Cal‑ widely as Dutch influence extends,
	vinism.	and which is at present represented
		in Abraham Kuyper and Herman Ba
vinck, by a theologian of genius and a theologian
of erudition worthy of the best Reformed tra
ditions. But it is probable that few " Calvinists
without reserve" exist at the moment in French
epeaking lands: and those who exist in lands of
German speech and Eastern Europe appear to
owe their inspiration directly to the teaching of
Kohlbriigge. Eves in Scotland there has been
a remarkable decline in strictness of construction
ever since the days of William Cunningham and
Thomas J. Crawford (cf. W. Hastie, The Theology
of the Reformed Church, Edinburgh, 1904, p. 228).
Nevertheless, it may be contended that the future,
as the past, of Christianity itself is bound up with
the fortunes of Calvinism. The system of doctrine
founded on the idea of God which has been expli
cated by Calvinism, strikingly remarks W. Hastie
(Theology as a Science, Glasgow, 1899, pp. 97‑98),
" is the only system in which the whole order of the
world is brought into a rational unity with the
doctrine of grace . . . . It is only with such a
universal conception of God, established iF7 a
living way, that we can face, with hope of com
plete conquest, all the spiritual dangers and terrors
of our time. . . But it is deep enough and large
enough and divine enough, rightly understood, to
confront them and do battle with them all in vin
dication of the Creator, Preserver, and Governor
of the world, and of the Justice, and Love of the
Divine Personality." See FIVE POINTS of CAL
VINISM. 		BENJAMIN B. WARFIELD.
BIBL1ooAAPH7: The Reformed Confessions have often been
	collected; the fullest collection is E. F. K. Milller, Die
	Bekenntniaeehriften der reformierten Kirche, Leipsic, 7903.
	For Eng, readers the most convenient is Schaff, Creeds,
	vol. iii. (vol. i. contains a history of creeds). An older

Calvinism
Cambridge Platoniets	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	884
collection is H. A. Niemeyer, Colkctio Confcsaionum in eccleaiia reformalia publscataaum, Leipeie, 1840. Consult also: M. $chneckenburger, Verplnrhenda Darstallunp des lutheriarlaen and raformierlen Lehrbeprifja, Stuttgart, 1865; G. B. Winer, Comparative Daratcllunp den Lehrbegrd/fa der verachiedensn chriatlichen Kirehenparkien, Berlin, 1888, Eng. tranal., Edinburgh, 1873; and the various works on Symbolics, especially E. F. K. MOller, Spdmbolik, Erlangen, 1898. Attempts more or lees suooesaful have been made to present the Reformed system from the writings of its representative theologians. For examples of these consult: A. Schweizer, Die Glauben8lehre der evangdiaeh‑reformierten Kircha, 2 vole., Zurich, 18441847; J. H. $cholten, De Leer der lleroornvda Kerk in tiara Grondlxginaekn, Leyden, 1848. 2d ed.. 1870: H. Heppe, Die Dogmatik der enanpeiiachrraformiartan Kirche. Elberfeld, 1861; cf. B. de Moor, Commantariue perpedma in Jolwnnie Marckii compendium theologies ehristianoe, 7 vole., Leyden, 1781.
For the " principle " of Calvinism consult: H. Voigt; Fundamentaldopmatik, pp. 397‑480, Goths, 1874; W. Hmtie, The Theology of the Reformed Church in its Fundamental Principles, Edinburgh, 1904; cf. $eholten and $cbneckenburger, ut sup., where lisle of the literature are given. A good history of the Reformed theology is still a desideratum. Sketches have been given in: W. Gael, Gesehichte der proteatantiacAen Dopmatik. Berlin, 1854‑87; G. Frank, GeaAichte der proteatantiachen Tluologie. 3 vole., Leipai0. 1882‑7b; I. A. Dorner, Gesdtiehte der proteefantisehan Thsolopis, Munich, 1887, Eng. tranal 2 vole., Edinburgh, 1871. Contributions have been made by: C. M. Pfaff, Introdudio in historiam thaologim diterariam, pp. 268 B44•. Tdlbingen, 1724; B. Pictet. Theodogia chrir liana, part iii., Leyden, 1733‑34; J. G. Walch Bibliot>eCa theolopsca seiecta. i. 211 eqq., Jena, 1757‑88; A. M. Toplady, Historic Proof of the Doctrinal Calvinism of the Church of England, London, 1774; A. Ypey (Ijpeij), Bekttopta latterkundipa peachiedenia der system. godpeIcerd (Utrecht?), 1793‑98; A. Schweizer, Die grotesfantiachen Cantraldopman in ihrer Entwickdunp innerlealb der rafarmisrten Kirche, Zurich, 1854; J. H. $cholten, ut sup., i. 87 eqq.: H. Heppe, Die confesedonelk Entwicklunp der allprotatantischen Kircha Deutachlanda Marburg, 1864 idem, Dopmadik du deutachen Proteatantismue im sedr zehntan JahrhunderE, Gotha, 1867; W. Cunningham, The Reformers and the Theology of the Reformation, Edinburgh, 1882; idem, Historical Theology, 2 vole., ib. 1884; J. H. A. Ebrard, Chriatlicha Dopmatik, i. 44, KSnigaberg, 1883; J. Walker, The Theology and Theologians of Scotland, Edinburgh, 1872; C. Sepp, Het Godpeleerd onderwiis in Neder• land . . 18s an 17e osuw, Leyden, 1873‑74; A. Milroy, The Church of Scotland Past and Present, ed..R. H. Story, London n.d.; idem, Scodt4e>< Theologians and Preachers, 16101638, Edinburgh, 1891. Consult also onthegeneraleubject: A. Kuyper, Calvinism, New York, 1890 (an admirable statement, summing up a aeries of brochures in Dutch); J. A. Fronde, Calvinism, London, 1871, and in Short Studies On Great Subjects second aeries, ib. 1871; J. L. Girardeau, Calvinism and Evangelical Armin%aniam, Columbia. 1893; B. B. Warfield, The Significance of the Westminster Standards as a Chad, New York, 1898; E. W. Smith, The Creed of Presbyterians, ib. 1901. Some of the chief Calvinistic dogmatists find mention in the teat; a list of the more important is given in Heppe and Schweizer, ut sup, at the beginning. The aeries may be fairly represented by the following names: Calvin, Ureinue. Zanchiue, Pohmue, Aleted, Voetiue, Barman. Turretin, Heidegger, Van Maetircht. The brief compende of Bucanue (lusbi3utionea O,cologicos, Geneva. Ifi09), Wollebiua (Compendium theologies, Cambridge, 1648). Ames (Medulla Jheologica. Amsterdam, 1858, Eng traneL, London, 1842).
sad Msrok (Compendium theolopia. Amsterdam, 1705)
present the system in briefest form. The more recent theologians are indicated in the teat.

CAMALDOLITES (called also Ctuualdolensians, Camaldoleae, Cttmalduleg, Cttmaldulians, from the monastery at Camaldoli near Arezzo): A religious order springing from the movement for monastic reform which also gave rise to the congregations of Cluny and Lorraine, with which it is allied in
some respects, though it differs from them in others. The Italian movement is wholly independent of the French, and began later‑not before the close of the tenth century, after the Cluniac monks had already reformed numerous monasteries in upper and central Italy. It was more enthusiastic than the French, and had for its object not so much the strict enforcement of the Benedictine rule as the commendation, in opposition to the moral corruption which was even deeper in the south than in the north, of the severest form of the ascetic life, that of hermits. This recalls the Greek monastic originators; and the fact is easily explicable by the strong influence of Greek traditions in Italy, especially in the south.
8t. Romuald is the moat prominent, but by no means the only, representative of this idea. Before or with him were working for the same end the Armenian hermit Simeon, St. Dominic of Foligno, the founder of Fonts Avellttna, and the Greek Nilos of Roseano. Romuald was born at Ravenna, of the ducal family there, about 950. He was startled out of a worldly life when his father Sergius killed a kinsman in a duel arising out of a dispute over a piece of property, and retired to the monastery of 8. Apollinare in Clasae near Ravenna to do penance forty days on his father's behalf. Isis ascetic zeal was not satisfied here, although the monastery had been reformed not long before by Majolua of Cluny. He began to live a hermit's life near Venice, continued it in Catalonia, and then returned to the neighborhood
St. Romu‑ of Ravenna. Wherever he went, a all. group of disciples formed around him; but as soon as they were sufficiently numerous in any one place, he gave them into the charge of a superior and left them. Moat of these colonies were in central Italy; the three moat important were Val di Castro, Monte $itrio in Umbria, and Camaldoli, where he established a monastery in 1012. His organization shows a combination of the Western cenobite system with the Eastern anchorite life. The brothers lived in single cells, with an oratory in the midst. The whole Psalter was recited every day; the only written memorial left by Romuald was an exposition of the Psalms, which, however, is taken almost word for word from that of Caseiodorus. Meals were taken in common, but they were exceedingly scanty; the brothers went barefoot and wore their hair and beards long; the rule of silence was strictly observed. They busied themselves with agriculture and various handicrafts, those near the sea especially with the making of baskets and nets. We meet for the first time in these hermit colonies with famuli, the later lay brothers, who relieved the monks of the more burdensome household duties The rule of fasting and silence was not so strict for them, but apparently, as at Fonts Avellana, they had to take lifelong monastic vows. This institution was borrowed by Gualberto, a disciple of Romuald's, for his order of Vallombrosa and further developed by him (see Gunl.8ERT0, GIOVnNNI). Romuald's activity was not confined to the founding of these communities. He made a deep impression upon the most varied

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Cambridge Platonists
classes, and exercised a great influence over the emperor Otto III., who, it is asserted not improbably, promised him to exchange the crown for the cowl after he had‑ conquered Rome. Though Romuald disclaimed any intention of taking part n ecclesiastical politics, he raised his voice loudly in Italy against simony and the marriage of the clergy. His zeal called him to the mission‑field; disciples of his penetrated into Russia and Poland, there to meet death for their faith, and the desire of the martyr's crown finally took the aged hermit himself to Hungary. Ill health hindered his work there, and he returned to die in 1027.
His zeal for a reform of monasticism remained active in his followers. They did not, however, emphasize the hermit. ideal to the same extent, and the Italian movement gradually approximated to that of Cluny. Romuald's spirit was best followed in the community of Camaldoli, which received papal confirmation from Alexander II. in 1072. Its rule was first written in 1080 by the fourth prior, Rudolph, who modified in some respects the extreme strictness of Romuald's prescriptions, and also founded (1086) the first convent of nuns under this rule, San Pietro di Luco at Mogello. Camaldoli received many rich gifts, and the congregation spread throughout Italy, without, however, producing any very notable men except the famous jurist Gratian (q.v.). The transition from the hermit to the community life became more marked,
in spite of the efforts of Ambrose the The Carnal‑Camaldolite (q.v.) of Portico, " major"
dolese. or head of the congregation in 1431,
supported by Pope Eugenius IV., to restore the old ideals. In 1476 the community of St. Michael at Murana near Venice renounced the obedience of Camaldoli, and formed a group of distinctly cenobitic Camaldolese houses, confirmed as a congregation by Innocent VIII. In 1513 Leo X. reunited all the Camaldolese monks under the headship of Camaldoli, providing that the major should hold office for but three years, and be chosen alternately from the hermits and the cenobites. But in 1520 he allowed Paolo Giustiniani to draw up new statutes and to form the new communities of hermits which he was to found into an independent congregation of St. Romuald. This new congregation, which took its name from Monte Corona near Perugia, had a very strict rule; it spread through Germany, Austria, and Poland. A fourth congregation, that of Turin, was founded in 1601 by Aleesandro di Leva (d. 1612), to take in the hermits of Piedmont. A breach of this became practically a separate congregation on socount of the political views of Richelieu, who was unwilling that the French hermitages should be subject to Italian superiors. By a brief of Urban VIII. (1635), its head was always to be a Frenchman, and directly subject to the pope. From 1642 Gros‑Bois near Paris was its mother house. All the French communities perished at the Revolution. The congregation of Camaldoli has now six houses, including Camaldoli itself and one famous for its picturesque site high above Naples. The principal house of the Murano congregation is San Gregorio in Rome, from which came the only
Camaldolese monk who has occupied the papal throne, Gregory XVI. (1831‑46). Outside of Italy there is only the community of Bielany in the diocese of Cracow, belonging to the congregation of Monte Corona. The total membership of the order is not more than 200. Convents of nuns exist only in Rome and Florence.
(G. GRtITZMACHER.)
BIBLIOa&APHT: Petrus Damkianus, Vita Romualdi is in Damianus, Opera, ed. C. Cajetanus, ii. 255 aqq., Rome, 1808, and MPL caliv. 953 aqq. Another Vita is in ASB 7th Feb., ii. 124‑140. Consult: G. B. biittarelli and G. D. Coatadoni, Anrealea Camaldulenaea, 9 vole., Venice, 17b51773; w. wattenbach, Deutachlanda Geachirldaquellen, i. 438, Berlin, 1893; C. w. Carrier, Hiat, of Religious Orders, pp. 118‑123, New York, 1898; P. Helyot, Ordrea monastiquea, vol. v.; Heimbuoher, Orden and Konyrepationen, i. 203‑208.
CAMBRAI, cdn"br6'; An ancient archbishopric in the north of France. As early as the beginning of the fifth century, when the Franks invaded Gaul, Cameracum was an important town, as is evident from Gregory of Tours (Hilt. Frtzncorum, ii. 9). On the death of Lothair II. it passed to Charles the Bald. Later its possession was contested by the emperors, the counts of Flanders, and the kings of France. It was taken from the French by the Spaniards in 1595, but has been a part of France since 1677.
The traditional list of its bishops begins with Diogenes, said to have been sent by Pope Siricius (384.‑398); but this is untrustworthy. Firm historical ground is reached first with St. Vedast, who was consecrated bishop of St. Remigius, bishop of Reims, and presided over the churches of Arran and Cambrai until his death in 540. The see was transferred to Cambrai under Vedulf (545c. 580), but the two remained united until Arran received a bishop of its own in 1093. Among later incumbents of the see of Cambrai may be mentioned the holy Odo (1105‑06), the unfortunate Cardinal Robert of Geneva (bishop from 1368, antipope 1378‑94), the renowned Pierre d'Ailly (1397‑c. 1425); and, after its elevation in 1559 to the rank of au archbishopric, Fdnelon (16951715), and Cardinal Dubois (?720‑23). The Revolution deprived Cambrai of its metropolitan dignity, subjecting it as a simple bishopric to the see of Paris, but in 1842 it was once more made au archbishopric, with Arran a$ suffragan. Its magnificent ancient cathedral was destroyed in the Revolution, with the exception of the tower, which fell in a great storm in 1809. The present cathedral ‑was formerly the Benedictine church of the Holy Sepulcher.
Brszsoaasrsr; M. A. Is Glay, Rerherehea our 1'kliae mebopolitaine do Cambrai Cambrai 1826; idem, Cameracum chriatianum, Lille, 1849; H. J. P. Piequet, La France pontiAcale, s.v. Cambrai, 22 vole., Paris, 1884‑71; RL, ii. 175(1‑56.
CAMBRIDGE PLATFORM. See CONGREGATIONALISM, IV., § 1.
C~kMBRIDGE PLATOftISTS: The name usually given to a succession of distinguished English divines and philosophers of the seventeenth century, also known to their contemporaries as "Latitude Men," from the breadth and comprehensiveness of

rroldnge Platoniata	THE NEW
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their teaching. The most important of them were Benjamin Whichcote, John Smith, Ralph Cudworth, and Henry More. Other members of the school were Simon Patrick. Nathanael Culverwel, John Worthington, George Rust, and Edward Fowler; while Joseph Glanvill and John Norris, though Oxford men, were so intimately associated with it as to be sometimes included. Starting with many of the same thoughts as their immediate predecessors in the development of liberal or rational thought, Hales and Chillingworth, they aimed leas than these at ecclesiastical comprehension; their purpose was to find a higher organon of Christian thought, and to vindicate the essential principles of Christianity against both dogmatic excesses within the Church and philosophical extravagances without it. Unlike the former, too, they all came from the Puritan side; with the exception of More, their leaders were members of the famous Puritan college of Emmanuel, and thus closely bound together into a definite group or school. The main source of their inspiration was the study of the Platonic philosophy, not only in Plato himself but in his Alexandrian and modern disciples. This Platonic revival was important as evoking the only force adequate to meet the development of naturalism in a direction which threatened the distinctive principles of religion. But if Platonism was the positive determinant factor in the movement, the negative influence which formed the school was opposition to the destructive reasoning of Hobbes, whose materialistic tendency they met not only, like Clarendon and others, by polemical criticism, but by a well‑ordered scheme of thought, whose principles had been already worked into unison with Christian philosophy. Of their permanent achievements, not the least important was their inculcation of the doctrine of toleration, at that time so novel and unpopular. They solved the religious problem, not by giving it up, but by pushing it to its legitimate conclusion and drawing the essential distinction between dogma and religion, which is one of their chief contributions to modern thought. Against the materialism of their time, they labored to prove that religion was a transcendent reality, a substantive power binding the soul to God and revealing God to the soul. Their writings are frequently obscure and involved, and they show a lack of critical and historical judgment in their confusion of Platonism and Neoplatonism, in their speculative fancifulness, and in their misappreciation of evidence. But their services to their age can scarcely be overrated. The exponents and advocates of a comprehensive Church, the purifiers of the popular theology, they were at the same time the great champions of the reality of religion at a time when the excesses of its partizans were driving so many of their contemporaries into unbelief. See the separate articles on the various men named above.
BIBLIOGRAPHY; The beet account is by J. Tullooh, Rational Theokpy and Christian Philosophy is England, vol. ii., Edinburgh, 1872. The early prospectus was a pamphlet by 6. P. (Simon Patrick?), Brie] Account of the New Sect of the New Latitude Mon, London, 1862. Consult further: E. Fowler, Procfioer o/ Certain . . . Divines . . . Abu‑
aively Called Labitudiuariana ib. 1671; G. Dyer, History of the Uniroeraity • . Of Cambridge, ii. 91‑101, ib. 1814; W. E. H. 1.eeky, History of . Rationalism in Europe, 2 vols., ib. 1875 (an ill‑balanced estimate); F. Greenelet, Joseph Glanvill. New York, 1900; E. T. Campagnsc, The Cambridge Platonist@; being Selections from Whichcote. Smith, and Culvenuel, Oxford, 1901.
CAMEL: The most valuable possession of the nomads of the desert.
The Syrian and Egyptian camel is the einglehumped, lank, and long‑legged Camelus dromedtorius. Its foremost utility is that of common carrier ('ship of the mainland" was its poetical designation even prior to Islam). Great bodily strength and endurance fit it for this service. Its very voracity is content with the meanest fodder of the driest pasture greases, half‑dried acacia twigs, dry straw, and the like; and it can toil days at a time upon an exceedingly small stint of forage. At such times the fatty hump, which when in good condition weighs as much as thirty pounds, almost entirely disappears. It is no less easily satisfied in the article of water. In spring it feeds on freshly dewed grasses, and can dispense with watering several weeks conning, In the dry season it can hold out three or four days without water; and then, when it reaches a watering‑place, it swallows the water in enormous quantities. Its broad, fleshy, cushioned foot prevents it from sinking deeply into the desert sand.
The carrier camel bears ordinarily from two to three hundredweight; still more on occasion (cf. II Kings viii. 9). Its gait at a walk is about two and one‑half miles an hour, and it maintains this pace right along with alacrity and freshness for twelve or fourteen hours and even longer. The riding camel differs from the foregoing, just as a noble race‑horse from the heavy draft‑horse. It can cover as much as ninety miles a day, and this for several days together. The camel saddle is a trough‑shaped wooden seat fastened over the hump with a tight gearing both front and back. This is covered with a cushion. The rider sits as on a side‑saddle. For women and children palanquins are likewise in use, with seats and curtains (Gen. xxiv. 61, xxxi. 17). The camel ministers to the Bedouins' every‑day needs. The rather thick and fatty camel's milk is their beverage; and their horses often drink it. The flesh of the camel, except that of the hump, which is esteemed a peculiar delicacy, is said to be hard and tough; but still it is a feast for the Bedouin to kill one of the herd and eat meat. They also occasionally bleed the camel a little in times of scarceness. The Israelites accounted camel's flesh unclean. The Bedouins' coarse cloaks are woven of camel's hair (Matt. iii. 4), and also their thick tent‑rugs. The hide is worked into sandals, thongs, ‑water‑skins, and the like. The dung is dried and then serves for fuel.
The camel naturally is less important in agricultural Palestine. Yet even here it has its usefulness as beast of burden; and when heavy loads and great distances are in question, horses and mules are not to be compared with it. In the Old Testament the breeding of camels on a large scale is found under the patriarchs (Gen. xii. 18, xxiv. 10, xxx. 43) and David (I Chron. xxvii. 30). But

387	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cambridge pltatoatets
Cameron
In every era there is reference to the manifold uses
of camels (e.g., II Kings viii. 9; Isa. xxx. 8; I
Chron. xii. 40; Ezra ii. 67; Neh. vii. 69). To the
poet the camel in its wild raging during the rutting
season is an image of the nations which in their
blind passion are devoted to strange gods (Jer. ii.
23). 	I. BENZIN(iER.
BIBLIOGRAPHY'. H. B. Tristram, Natural History o/ the Bible, p. 58 eqq., London, 1887; idem, Survey of Western Palestine, Fauna and Flora, ib. 1884; H. Blackburn. Bible Beasts and Birds, ib.1888; J. G. Wood, Bible Animals, ib. 1883; idem, Domestic Animal# o/ the Bible, ib. 1887; H. C. Hart, Animals of the Bible, ib. 1888; A. E. Knight, Bible Plants and Animals, ib. 1890; DB, i. 344‑345; EB, i. 833‑838.
CAMERA APOSTOLICA. See CURIA, § 2.
CAMERARIITS, ca"m6‑rd'ri‑us (CAMERMEISTER), JOACHIM: Protestant humanist; b. at Bamberg Apr. 12, 1500; d. at Leipaie Apr. 17, 1574. He was descended from an old Bamberg family and was educated there till his thirteenth year, when his parents sent him to‑the University of Leipaic, where he devoted himself chiefly to the study of Greek under Richard Crocus, Johann Metzler, and Peter Moaellanus. Subsequently he removed to the University of Erfurt, where he joined the circle of the humanists, became master of arts (1520), and was highly esteemed and admired for his knowledge of Greek. In 1521 he went to the University of Wittenberg, where he became intimately acquainted with Melanchthon. In 1525 he accompanied Melanchthon on his journey to the Palatinate, and thence proceeded to Basel to pay homage to Erasmus. In the same year he left Wittenberg and went to Bamberg. From here he accompanied Canon Fuchs on a journey to Prussia (1525) and in 1526 was called, upon recommendation of Melanchthon, to the gymnasium of Nuremberg as teacher of Greek and expounder of the Latin historians. A visit to Melanchthon at Speyer in 1529 during the diet held at that city brought him into immediate contact with the ecclesiastical and political affairs of the time; he also took part in the Diet of Augaburg in 1535. Conditions at Nuremberg did not satisfy him, although he had intercourse with men like W. Pirkheimer, W. Linck, Osiander, Lazarus Spengler, and Albrecht Diirer. As early as 1528 he complained of the coldness and indifference toward the humanistic sciences on the part of his contemporaries. His school also did not make progress, and in 1535 he gladly followed a call to Tiibingen, where he found a fruitful field for his activity as teacher. In 1541 he removed to Leipsic. Although Camerariua took part in the ecclesiastical dissensions of the time, his chief importance lies in the field of humanism and pedagogics. In his first pedagogical treatise Prtecepta honestatis atque decords puerilis (1528) he emphasized as a true disciple of Melanchthon humanistic education as a necessary preparation for all later vocations, but humanistic education, as he holds, has its foundation in the reverence of God. In accordance with his view that the Christian religion should be taught alongside of the rudiments of the languages, he edited the chief articles of Christianity in Greek hexameters, translated the Auga‑
burg Confession into Greek and composed a cate
chism in the same language. His biographical
works are of great value as sources, and show
that he was a keen observer, especially his Narra
tto de Eobano Hesso, etc. (Nuremberg, 1553), Nar
ratio de Georgia Principe Anhtaltino (L2ipaie, 1555),
and his famous writing De Philippi Melanchthonis
ortu, totius vine curricula et marts, implicota rerum
raemorabilium temporis illius hominumque men
tions . . . narratio (Leipaic,1566; beat ed. with copi
ous notes by S. T. Strobel, Halls, 1777; the text
reprinted by A. F. Neander, Berlin, 1841). Another
prominent work, measured by the standards of his
time, is his Historica narratio de Fratrum Cfrtho
doxorum eccleaiis in Bohemia, Moravia et Polonia,
which was first edited in 1805 by his grandson
Joachim Ludwig Camerariua and is still valuable.
Camerariua also edited (though badly) the letters
of Melanchthon (Leipsic, 1569), and rendered great
services to historical research by his collection of
letters from the time of the Reformation, which
was continued by his son. 	(T. KOLDE. )
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. C. Besael, Joachim Camerariua. Nuremberg, 1793; H. J. Kimmel, Joachim Camerariua in Niirnberg, Zittau, 1882; F. Seekt, Ueber einipe theoZogischen 3chriften des J. Ca»urarius, Berlin, 1888: RL, ii. 17681781; ADB, iii. 720 eqq.
	CAMERLINGO (CAMERLENGO). See CURIA, 11.
	CAMERON, GEORGE GORDON: Free Church
of Scotland; b. at Pluscarden (a village near Elgin,
?1 m. n.w. of Aberdeen), Elginshire, Sept. 13,
1838. He was educated at University and King's
College, Aberdeen (M.A., 1860), Free Church Col
lege, Aberdeen (1860‑62), and New College, Edin
burgh (1863‑65). He was a tutor on the Conti
nent in 1862‑‑63 and in 18656 was assistant
minister in Leghorn, Italy. He was then assistant
minister in Dundee, Scotland, for a year and at
Kuthrieston, Aberdeen, in 18679, and after an
other year as temporary professor of Hebrew in
Free Church College in 1869‑70 was assistant min
ister for brief periods at St. Andrews, Edinburgh,
London, and North Leith in 1870‑71. In the latter
year he was ordained associate minister of St.
John's Free Church, Glasgow, and retained this
position until 1882, when he was appointed to the
chair of Old Testament language and literature in
the United Free Church College, Aberdeen, where
he still remains. He is a member of various com
mittees for the general work of his sect, and has
written, in addition to contributions to periodicals,
Memorials o f John Roxburgh (Glasgow, 1881).
CAMERON (CAMERO), JOHN: Scottish theologian; b. at Glasgow c. 1579; d. at Montauban, France, 1625. He studied at Glasgow and began to give lessons in Greek there at the age of twenty. In 1600 he went to Bordeaux and was soon appointed professor of the humanities at Bergerac. From 1601 to 1603 he was professor of divinity at Sedan. Then he returned to Bordeaux and received a scholarship enabling him to complete his theological studies. He became tutor in the family of Calignon and went with his pupils to Paris, Geneva, and Heidelberg. At the university of the last‑named place on Apr. 4, 1608, he supported in a a public discussion theses de triplici Dei cum ho‑

Cameron	THE NEW SCHAFF‑13ER,ZOG	368
mine fadere. Later in the same year he became
a minister at Bordeaux and had great success as
a preacher. When the Protestants were driven
from the town after eight years he took refuge at
Tonneins. He was appointed professor at the
Academy of Saumur in 1618. In 1620 he partic
ipated in a discussion at Orl€ans with Tilenus, for
merly professor at Sedan, and controverted his
Arminian propositions. In 1622 James I. of Eng
land called him to London and appointed him
principal and professor of theology at Glasgow.
But the jealousy of many of his colleagues forced
him to leave his native town and in 1623 he re
turned to Saumur. The following year the king
authorized him to teach at Montauban. He ar
rived there at a time when there was violent con
tention on the question of obedience to the king
and took aides with the party of passive obedience.
On May .15, 1625, he was injured in s public tu
mult and died in consequence a few months later.
His works are: Discours apologaique pour ceux de
la religion r4formmee (Bergerac, 1614); TraitE august
eont eramings lee proug&g de eeux de l1glise ro
maine contre la religion reformke (La Rochelle,
1616; Eng. transl., Oxford, 1624); Theses de gratis
et libero arbitrio (Saumur, 1618); Amica collatio de
gratim et humane voluntatis cottcursu in vocations
(Leyden, 1621); Defensioseretentice de gratis et libero
arbitrio (Saumur, 1624); and Prmledioraes (3 vole.,
1626‑28). 	G. Boom‑Meuxy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources for a life are: the memoir by Ca¢ pet prefixed to Cameron's Opera, Geneva, 1842; Robert Bsillie, Letters and Journals, passim, 2 vole., Edinburgh, 1775. Consult oleo: D.Irving, Scottish Writers, i 333‑348, London, 1850; R. Chambers, Biographical DteLioaary of Eminent Seokhmsn, i. 273‑275. burgh, 1888; DNB, viii. 295‑298.
CAMERON, RICHARD, CAMERORIANS: Scotch covenanting leader (b. at Falkland, Fifeshire; killed at Ayrsmoss or Airdamoss, Ayrshire, July 22, 1680), and his followers. Brought up in the Church of Scotland, early impressed by the services of those ministers who, ejected by the Act of Uniformity (q.v.) of 1662, continued to preach in the fields, Cameron adopted and advocated their view that it was wrong to accept the Declaration of Indulgence (q.v.) of 1662, although it mitigated their lot. Licensed by these field preachers, although without university training, he soon became a leader. In 1679 he went to Holland, whither many of his persecuted countrymen had gone after the defeat in the battle of Bothwell Bridge, June 22,1679; in 1680 he returned and with Donald Cargill (q.v.) and Thomas Douglas headed the party, which after him was celled " Cameronians," or impersonally " Society People." Their platform was the Declaration of Sanquhar (published June 22, 1680), drawn up by. Cameron and others. In it the royal authority was disowned because of its tyranny. This action brought Cameron sad his followers immediately into trouble. A band with him at its head was attacked by the royal troops and literally cut to pieces.
The party lived in sad were united in " societies," which had become somewhat numerous before the Revolution. They welcomed King William; but they did not approve of the Revolution
settlement, and did not jars the Established Church They objected to the Church which had made many unworthy compromises; were displeased at the want of recognition of the covenants; did not consider that the independence of the Church was secured; and generally believed that God was not sufficiently honored in the new settlement. They objected, too, to the recognition of Eraatianism in England. In 1706 the Rev. John Macmillan of Balmaghie joined the societies, and was their first minister. In 1743, another minister having joined them, they constituted "the Reformed Presbytery." In 1774 a similar presbytery was formed in the United States. A presbytery was constituted likewise in Ireland. About 1863 most of the Scotch synod came to be of opinion that there was nothing in their principles requiring them to abstain from countenancing the political institutions of the country, e.g., from voting for a member of Parliament; but, a small minority having a different opinion, a disruption took place. In 1876 a union took place between the larger body and the Free Church of Scotland. Although " Cameronians " has always been a common name given to those who refused to accept the settlement of Church and State under William and Mary, they repudiated it themselves, preferring to be called " Reformed Presbyterians." See COVENNANTEIiB; PREaBYTER1dNa.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: BioprapAia preabykriana, vol. i., Edin
	burgh, 1827 (life of Cameron); R. Wodrow, Hiet. o/ the
Sufferings of the Church of Scotland, 2 vole., ib. 1721‑22;
T. MeCrie Sketches of Seotmela Church Hick, ib. 1875;
J. Cunningham, Church Hint. of Scotland, 2 vole., ib.
1883; DNB, viii. 301‑302.
CAMILLUS DR LELLIS. See Aaolvlzexm
CAMISARDS, cam'i‑zarda: The name generally applied to those French Protestants who, in the reign of Louis XIV., rose in arms in Languedoc and waged a bloody was (1702‑05) for the purpose of restoring their Church. Their name was derived from the jacket (camiaio) which they wore over their clothes during their night attacks. Neither the dragonades nor the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) succeeded in destroying Protestantism in France; but, though private worship was never forbidden, new laws were continually enacted by Louis XIV. in his attempt to enforce conformity in religion through‑
	Origin.	out France, which made it more and
		more difficult, and at last almost im
possible, for a French citizen to adhere to the Re
formed confession. In 1686 and the following
years the gatherings in the desert were forbidden,
and fines, imprisonment, demolition of homes, the
galleys, and the wheel were employed as punish.
ments. Nevertheless, with the pressure grew the
power of resistance. Religious meetings were held
by night in secluded places, originally presided
over by refugee clergy, and later by men of little
learning, but fervent is prayers and exhortations.
As was natural, the miseries of the time produced a corresponding hope of the future; and books like Pierre Jurieu's L'AccomPlisaement den praphkties (Rotterdam, 1686) and Suite de l'aocomplisserttent (1687), in which he predicted the

S89	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cameron
		Camisards
speedy downfall of the papacy, contributed to
give shape and direction to this unconscious move
ment. A girl appeared as prophetess in Dauphind
in 1688. Other prophets arose in Vivarais. The
number increased rapidly, especially in the Cd
vennea after 1700, where almost a fourth of the
population was Protestant. Despite the creation of
new	bishoprics for their conversion and notwith
standing the military aid given by the State to
the	ecclesiastical authorities, ecstatic phenomena
increased throughout the district, sparing neither
				old nor young. In the trance, when
	Fanatical seized by convulsions, and pouring
	Disorders. forth words of repentance and ad
				monition, often in pure French in
stead of the local dialect, those " possessed by the
spirit " saw troops from far‑off garrisons come
marching toward the place, they singled out those
among their comrades who should fall in the en
counter, they recognized the traitors among them;
and	these predictions were always accepted with
reverence and confidence, and often proved true;
although, on the other hand, the power of proph
ecy later steadily declined. Without this apoca
lyptic factor, diseased yet sincere, the enthusiasm
and	obstinacy of the Camisards is unintelligible.
Terming themselves " children of God," and their
camp the " camp of the Eternal," they relied with
absolute trust on divine guidance and aid, while
their fanaticism in destroying churches, like their
cruelty in killing priests, finds its explanation in
the	fact that they believed themselves called of
God to extirpate " Babylon and Satan," as they
designated the Roman Catholic priests and their
Church.
	Open revolt broke out in 1702, when a priest
named Franpois de Langlade du Chayla undertook
to punish the refractory. In his house at Pont
de Montvert, in the present department of LozSre,
he built a cell in which he shut up his recalcitrant
parishioners, and tortured them. On the night of
July 23, hearing a rumor that the abb6 intended
to put certain prisoners to death, the Camisarda
assembled at the instigation of the prophets Sd
guier, Couderc, and Mazel, burned the house, lib
erated the prisoners, and slew the priest. BS,ville,
the intendant of Languedoc, felt a particular sat
isfaction in pursuing the guilty. Sdguier was
caught and burned at the stake Aug. .12; but the
rest	escaped among the mountains, where they
were soon reenforced by new throngs formed by
Castanet, Catinat, Roland, and others. In Jean
Cavalier (b. at Ribante, department of Gard, Nov.
				28, 1681) they found an able leader,
		The	and the war began which was to de
	Camisard populate and devastate the prov
		Wars.	inces of Languedoc, Vivarais, Gevau
				dan, and Rouergue. The Camisards
never numbered more than five thousand, and
they had no military organization. But they
fought with brutal fury, even when they marched
into	battle with psalms on their ‑lips, while the
royal troops punished them with torture and im
prisonment. In their camps they lived as in a
church, preaching, praying, and fasting; and they
won brilliant victories, particularly at Saints‑Chatte,
			IL‑24
Mar. 15, 1704. BS,ville was unable to make head against them, and in Feb., 1703, Marshal Montreval was sent with a large body of troops. He defeated the Camisards repeatedly (La Jongui0e, Mar. 6; La Tour de Bdlot, Apr. 29), but the cruelties practised by the troops won new adherents to the Protestant cause, even though he razed all the houses and villages in the upper Cwennes, thus rendering 20,000 homeless. The confusion was increased by a bull of Clement XI. (May 1, 1703), proclaiming a crusade against the heretics and creating bands which equaled their opponents in savagery. In Apr., 1704, Montreval was replaced by Marshal Villare. Before Villara began active operation, he surrounded the whole district with a line of strong military poets, thus cutting off all communication between the rebels and the outside world; and then he offered pardon to all who, within a certain time, laid down arms and surrendered. Cavalier, who saw that further resistance was useless, left the country, afterward fought against his countrymen in Holland, Italy, and Spain, and settled finally in England. There he was appointed governor of Jersey, and later governor of the Isle of Wight. He died in Chelsea, London, May 18, 1740. His former comrades branded him as a traitor and continued the hopeless struggle. Roland fell Aug. 14, 1704. Castanet, Catinat, Joanni, and others fled to Geneva. Without leaders, the Camisard army gradually melted away. In 1705 Catinat, Ravanel, and some of their colleagues returned and conspired to raise a new revolt, only to die at the stake or on the wheel. A last attempt, made by Mazel, Coats, and Claris in 1709 in Vivarais was quenched in blood, and the French Reformed Church was definitely blotted out. [In England the Camisards were known as the French Prophets (q.v.).]
(THEODOR SCHOTTt.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: For sources from the Roman Catholic standpoint consult: C. J. de la Baume, R€lation hiatorique de la revodk des Camiearda, ed. Goiffon, Nlmes, 1874; J. B. Louvreleuil, Le FanaEiame renouvelg, Avignon, 17041707; LeUres choisies de FlEChier sues une relation des tanatiques du Vivarea, Paris, 1715 (partisan); Mbrwirea de fintendant Bdville, Amsterdam, 1734 (serviceable); bfemoirea de Viilara, The Hague, 1734 (brief but impartial). Written from the Protestant aide are: M. Miseon, Le ThMtra aacr6 des C&ennea, London, 170? (by an eyewitness, but partisan and unreliable); J. Cavalier, Memoirs of the Wars of the Cevennea, ib. 1712 (inaccurate). In the Bulletin do la aociete de fhiatoire du proteatautiame frangaia are Le Camp des eafanta de Diauz, 1867, pp. 273 eqq., and the memoirs of Monbonnouz, 1873, pp. 72 eqq. Read also M6moirea de Roaael d'Afgaliera, ed. G. Froetkrus, in Bibliothkus Univereelle, Marsh‑May, 1888, and A. Jager, Spiritus miraculoaua in prmrincia Sauennenai regnana, Tiibingen, 1712. Consult further: A. Court, Hiatoire de troubles des Cevennes, Villefranehe, 1780, ed. Ahus, 1819 (rich and reliable); I. C. K. Hofmann, (iesehichte du Aufruhra in den Sevennere unter Ludwig XIV., NScdlingen, 1837 (also valuable); N. Peyrst, Hiatoirs des Pasteur# du dEsert, Paris, 1842 (picturesque but unreliable); G. Froetkrus, Lea Ineurgba groteatants sow Louis XIV., ib. 1868 (of importance); E. Bonnempre, Hiatoire des Camiaarda, Paris, 1869; 8. Smiles, Huguenots in France After the Edict of Nantes, London, 1877; C. Tylor, Huguenots in the Seventeenth Century, pp. 255 eqq., London, 1892; H. M. Baird, The Camiaard Uprising, in Papers of the American Church Hiat. Society, ii. 13‑34, New York, 1800: idem, Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, vol, ii., ib. 1895.

Cam,DSaeus
Campbell	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	370
CAMPANELLA, TOMASO: Italian monk and philosopher; b. at Stilo (50 m. n.e. of Reggio), Calabria, Sept. 5, 1588; d. in Paris May 21, 1639. He entered the Dominican order at the age of fifteen; studied philosophy and theology at Cosenza and Naples, and added to his other accomplishments a knowledge of medicine, astrology, alchemy, and magic. He boldly rejected the Aristotelian system and chose to study nature rather than authority, whereby he made many and powerful opponents. After wandering through Italy for a number of yearn he returned to Cosenza in 1598, and the next year was arrested by the government, charged, probably truthfully, with being implicated in a conspiracy to free Naples from the Spanish dominion. His political and social views were undeniably dangerous. He was kept in prison till 1828, when Pope Urban VIII. succeeded in having him transferred to the Inquisition, and in 1829 net him free. For a few years he lived at Rome, but, not feeling secure there, in 1834 he went to Paris, where he was received with favor by Cardinal Richelieu. His last years were spent in preparing a complete edition of his works, of which, however, only one or two volumes appear to have been published. The philosophy which Camper nella would substitute for that of Aristotle was incomplete and fantastic, influenced by Thomas Aquinas, Bernardino Teleaio (b. at Cosenza 1508), Raymond Lolly, and the Cabala, but in part independent and in certain points anticipatory of the work of more modern thinkers. He held that God has made a twofold revelation of himself, in nature and in the Bible; on the one rests philosophy, on the other theology. These have nothing to do the one with the other. He was thus able to take a very conservative position in theology, and stoutly defended Roman Catholicism and the papacy (as in his Hortarchite Mesaite and Distbrsi dells liberta a delta felice auggettiorte alto atato eccleaiastico, Jesi, 1633). Certainty, he taught, is found only in immediate intuitions; the first truth is that I exist; then that I can, that I know, and that I want or will; these three activities indicate the fundamental qualities of all being (potentia, sapient%a, atrtor). He believed that matter is eternal and that the world was created through emanations from the deity. His views concerning society and the State were communistic; they are set forth in his Civitea sobs, idea redPublicte philosophicce, printed as an appendix to part iii. (politics) of his Realis Philoaophita epiloglaticte partea iv, hoc eat, de rerum nature, Jtomintcm moribua, politica, et mcortomica (Frankfort, 1823) ; there is an English translation (incomplete) by T. W. Halliday in Ideal Commontoealtha, vol. xxiii. of " Morley's Univalent Library" (London, 1885).
BIHLIOaHAPHY: Campanella is said to have written eighty‑
two works, moat of them during his long imprisonment.
He gives some account of them in his De libria propriia et recta rations atadendi: eynfaoma, ed. 0. NsudE, Paris,
1842. Among the more important of those which have been published, beeidee•the ones already mentioned, ere:
Philosophic asnaibus demonabafa, s defense of Telemo,
Naples, 1590• Prodmmua yhilosophitv instaurandts. Frankfort, 1817; De seven rerum et mapia, 1820; Apologia Pro Galileo, 1822; Aetrolopimrum libri vii, 1830;
Atheismue triumPhatue, Rome, 1831; Medicinalium libri
vii, Lyons, 1835; De pent%liamo non retinando sad De prmdea0inatione contra Thomiaticos, Paris, 1638• PhiloeoPhil rationadis part" v, roidelicet prammabica, dialec$ca, rhetorica, poeCica, hiatoriopraphia, 1838; Universalie philosophic seu metaphpaicarum rarum juxta propria dopmata partea iii, lsbri xviii; 1838; De monarchic hiapanica, Amsterdam, 1840, Eng, travel., A Discourse Touching the Spanish Monarchy, London, 1854. A selection from his works by A. d'Ancona appeared in 2 volumes at Turin, 1854. His sonnets have been translated into English by J. A. Symonds with the sonnets of Michelangelo, London 187$. For his life and criticism of his writings and teachings consult: Cypriani Vita at yhilobphia T. Campasella. Amsterdam, 1705, 2d ed., 1722; M. Baldacchini, Vita a hloaojla di T. Campanella. Naples, 1840; Berti, La vita a le opera di T. Campanella, Rome, 1878; L. Amabile, Fra Tommaeo Campanella, 1a eua conpiura, i auoi yroceaai, a la eua pazxia, 3 vole., Naples, 1882; idem, L'andata di Fra T. Campanella a Rome dopo is lungs prigionia di Napoli. ib. 1888; idem, Pro T. Campanella re' casteUi di Napoli, in Rome ad in Paripi, 2 vole., ib. 1887; idem, Del oaraltera di Fra T. Campanella, ib. 1890; E. Nye, T. Campanella et au fhboriea polidiquea, Brussels, 1889; 0. $. Feliei, Le dotdina filoaoJico‑relipioae di T. Campanella, Lsnoiano, 1896; P. Lafsrgue, In Die Vor7dufer den naueren $ociaiismua, PD. 489‑508, Stuttgart, 1895; von Kosloweki, Die &rkenntnie7ehre Campaneilaa, Leipeio, 1897.
CAMPAftUS, cam‑pa'nva, JOHANNES: Reformer; b. at Mteaeyck (17 m. n.e. of Mieatricht) in Belgium; d. at Jillich (Juliera, 15 m. n.e, of Aachen) c. 1575. He studied at Cologne, whence he was expelled in 1520 for opposing the scholastic doctors; went to Jiilich and was noted for his vehement Lutheranism; went to Wittenberg in 1527; was present at the Conference of Marburg in 1529, and surprised both aides by his presentation of the view that the bread is indeed bread and at the same time the body of Christ because he makes it so. He was not, however, allowed to take part in the debate. This snub and others incurred by his tendency to unorthodox views turned him against the Reformers and them against him. He was called insane because he would not yield to their arguments. So he was repeatedly imprisoned and died a prisoner. In 1530 he prepared a book in Latin and German " Against All the World Since the Apostles " and circulated it in manuscript‑no complete or printed copy is known to east, but extracts have been preserved in a manuscript by Bugenhagen (cf. ZHT, 1848, pp. 495 eqq. ). In 1532 one of his followers, Franc von Streitten, published a popular restatement of his views which he dedicated to King Frederick of Denmark. He taught that the Holy Spirit was not the Third Person but the common essence of the two, while the Son was not coeternal with the Father but, created out of his essence, before all creatures. He was likewise an Anabaptist and in general a radical.
(A. HEOLERt) K. HOLL.
B:atsoasurav: F. 6. Book, Hiatoria antitrinitariorum, ii.
244 eqQs. LeiPsic, 1784; G. J. Dlabsea, Bioprophie den J. Campanua miteinam Verreiehnisse seiner . . . $chrifh en, Prague. 1804; K. Rembert, Die " Wiedertdu/er " im
JalirJv, Berlin, 1899; J. KSathn, Margin Lather, vol. ii. passim, Berlin, 1903.
CAMPBELL, ALEXAIIDER: Founder of the Disciples of Christ (q.v.); b. near Ballymena (a mile from Shane's Castle on the northern shore of Lough Neagh), County Antrim, Ireland, Sept. 12,
1788; d. at Bethany, W. Va., Mar. 4, 1886. He

was the son of Thomas Campbell, a Seceder minister, and Jane Carneigle. Educated at Glasgow University, he went to America in 1809, whither his father had preceded him two years earlier, and settled in western Pennsylvania. While at Glasgow he had come in contact with James Alexander and Robert Haldane (q.v.) and was greatly impressed by their teaching. On joining his father, he found Providence had guided him into the same liberal and independent views. Thomas Campbell's fraternity with other Christians, his indifference to ecclesiastical rules, and his pleadings in behalf of Christian liberty and brotherhood had brought upon him the censure of his brethren;
consequently he withdrew from them His Father, and continued to plead for Christian
Thomas liberty and union, dwelling upon the
Campbell. evil of divisions in religious society,
urging the Sacred word as an infallible standard and all‑sufficient and alone‑sufficient basis of union, and setting forth one rule to govern himself and his associates: " where the Scriptures speak, we speak; and where the Scriptures are silent, we are silent." On Sept. 7, 1809, he formed The Christian Association of Washington and issued his famous Declaration and Address (see DisCIPr.ma OP' CHRIST). In May, 1811, The First Church of the Christian Association of Washington Co., Pa., was organized at Brush Run with twenty‑nine members; here Alexander Campbell was ordained to the ministry Jan. 1, 1812.
Mr. Campbell's marriage in 1812 to Margaret Brown, a Presbyterian, turned his attention to the subject of baptism. After diligent study of the Scriptures and critical examination of the words " baptize " and " baptism," he became satisfied they could mean only " immerse " and " immer‑
sion," and that believers only could Adopts be the proper subjects of this ordiBaptist nance. With his father and five
Views. others he was immersed by Mathias
Luse, June 14, 1812. " I have set out," he said, " to follow the Apostles of Chris and their master, and I will be baptised only into the primitive Christian faith" From this time Thomas Campbell conceded to his son the guidance of the' movement he had originated. The Brush Run church joined the Redstone Baptist Association after full statement of their views, using the primitive Confession of faith instead of a religious experience, and breaking bread weekly without restricted communion. A second church on the same basis was organized in Wellsburg, w. Va.
In 1820 Mr. Campbell held his first public diacuesion. He was not disputatious, and at first declined a challenge, but it was forced upon him. The debate was with the Rev. John Walker, a Pres‑
byterian, and the chief point debated Public was the identity of the covenants upon
Debates. which the Jewish and Chriptian insti‑
tutions rested. His later discussions with Rev. N. L. Rice on baptism, the Holy Spirit, and human creeds as bonds of union, a debate which lasted sixteen days and over which Henry Clay presided (1843), with Robert Owen on the
RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
claims of Christianity (at Cincinnati, 1829), and with Archbishop Purcell on the claims of Roman Catholicism (also at Cincinnati, 1837) are masterpieces of discussion which created a profound impression in their time and did much to extend the principles advocated by Mr. Campbell.
In 1823 Mr. Campbell began the publication of The Christian Baptist. In the first seven years from his little country printing‑office be issued 46,000 volumes of his works. His writings were read far and wide. His views began to influence large numbers of people. He was assailed as a disorganiaer, but it was not his aim merely to overthrow the existing order of religious society. He was well aware of the vast benefit resulting to mankind from Christianity even in its
His Views moat corrupt forma. He desired sim‑
and Aims. ply to dethrone the false that he might reestablish the true, to replace the traditions of men by the teachings of Christ and the Apostles; to substitute the New Testament for creeds and human formularies. His work was positive, not negative. In 1825 he published in The Christian Baptist a series of articles entitled A Restoration of the Ancient Order of Things, in which he argued for the abandonment of everything not in use among the early Christians, such as creeds and confessions, unscriptural words and phrases, theological speculations, etc., and for the adoption of everything sanctioned by primitive practise, as the weekly breaking of the loaf, the fellowship, the simple order of worship, and the independence of each church under the care of elders and deacons. His plea was not for a reformation, but for a restoration of the original Church.
In 1826 Mr. Campbell published The Sacred Writings of the Apostles and Evangelists of Jesus Christ, Commonly Styled the Nam Testament, with notes. In this work he Anglicized the Greek words commonly rendered " baptism," " baptize," etc., being the first to do so in an English version: The principles taught by the Campbells were now widespread, especially among the Baptists; but in 1827 Baptist Associations began to declare non‑fellowship with the brethren of " the Reformation " and from this time dates the rise of the people known as the Disciples of Christ.
In 1829 Mr. Campbell began to publish the Millennial Harbinger, a magazine which he continued to issue monthly until his death. In October of the same year he sat in the Virginia State Constitutional Convention. Ex‑President Madison, one of his fellow delegates, said of him
His Most afterward: " I regard him as the
Active	ablest and moat original expounder
	Yearn.	of Scripture I ever heard." In 1840 he
		founded Bethany College with the
Bible as a text‑book. In 1847 he traveled and
preached in Great Britain. This was his busiest
period; he traveled thousands of miles, lectured
sad preached constantly, edited, presided over the
College, and held public discussions. In June, 1850,
he spoke before both houses of Congress at the
Capitol at Washington. He was gifted with a
fine presence, with great ease and skill of utterance,

Campbell
Campion	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	STS
with fine argumentative powers, and with a great
fund of information. He was a man of profound
piety and broad philanthropy. " Surely," Said
George D. Prentice, " the life of a man thus ex
cellent and gifted is a part of the common treasure
of society. In this essential character he belongs
to no peaty, but to the world." His publications
include sixty volumes. 	F. D. POWER.
BrHrroaawPay: Robert Richardson, Memoirs of Alexander Campbell, Cincinnati, 2888 B. B. Tyler, in American Church Hietorp Series, xu. 34‑b9, New York, 1894.
CAMPBELL, ARCHIBALD EAR : Anglican bishop o€ Glasgow and Galloway, Scotland; b. at Skipnesa, Argyll, June 1, 1856; graduated B.A. aiCambridge, 188(1; became vicar of the Walter Farquhar Hook Memorial Church in Leeds, 1891; was consecrated bishop 1904.
CAMPBELL, GEORGE: Church of Scotland divine; b. at Aberdeen Dec. 25, 1719; d. there Apr. 6,1796. Hewaseducated at Mariachal College, Aberdeen, and began the study of law in Edinburgh, but changed to theology, which he pursued there and in Aberdeen; was ordained minister of Banchory Ternan (on the Dee, 20 m. from Aberdeen), 1748; became one of the ministers of Aberdeen, 1757; principal of Mariachal College, 1759, professor of divinity, 1771; resigned an account of ill health, 1795. He was one of the founders in 1758 of a famous philosophical society of Aberdeen, which included among its members Thomas Reid, John Gregory, James Beattie, and other distinguished men. His publications were sermons sad A Dissertation on Miracles, an answer to Hume's Essay (Edinburgh, 1762; 3d ed., with corrections and additions and correspondence between Hume and Campbell, 2 wo!s., 1797); The Philosophy of Rhetoric, long considered a standard work (2 vole., London, 1776; many subsequent editions); The Four Gospels, translated from the Greek, with preliminary dissertations and notes, critical and explanatory (2 vole., 1789). Posthumous publications were Lectures on Ecclesiastical History, with a brief Life by G. S.~ Keith (2 vole., London, 1800), and Lectures on Systematic Theology and on Pulpit Eloquence (1807). A collected edition of his Theological Works appeared in six volumes at London, 1840.
CAMPBELL, JOHN McLEOD: Scotch clergyman; b. at Kilninver (on the w. coast of Scotland, 60 m. n.w, of Glasgow), Argyllshire, May 4, 1800; d. at Roseneath, near Helenaburgh (20 m. n.w. of Glasgow), Dumbartonshire, Feb. 27, 1872. He studied at Glasgow 1811‑20, sad continued his theological course at Edinburgh; became minister of Row (near Helensburgh), Dumbartonshire, 1825. Here he preached " assurance of faith " and an " unlimited atonement." and in consequence was tried for heresy and deposed by the General Assembly in 1831 (cf. the volume of his Sermons and Lectures, Greenock, 1832, and The Whole Proceedings Before the Presbytery of Dumbarton and the Synod of Glasgow and Ayr in the Case of the Rev. John McLeod Campbell, 1831). He retired to Kilninver, preached in the Highlands for a year or two, and in 1833 became pastor of an independent congregation in Glasgow and remained
there till compelled to retire by ill health in 1859. His services were given gratuitously and were very successful. He was recognized as one of the intellectual leaders of Scotland and was highly esteemed for his personal qualities. His theory of the atonement, by which he was best known outside of Glasgow, he expressed in this sentence in the book on the Atonement mentioned below: " It was the spiritual essence and nature of the sufferings of Christ, and not that these sufferings were penal, which constituted their value as entering into the atonement made by the Son of God, when he put away sin by a sacrifice of himself." He published Christ the Bread of Life,(Glasgow, 1851), a book on the Eucharist suggested by the Roman Catholic controversy of the time; The Nature of the Atonement and its relation to remission of sin's and eternal life (Cambridge, 1856; 4th ed., 1873); Thoughts an Revelation (1862), called forth by Essays arid Reviews (q.v.).
Brsrroaawrar: A volume of Rersiniaeenus and ReRexiona, begun id 1871 and left unfinished at his death, appeared in London‑ in 1873, edited by his son, Donald Campbell, who also edited his Memorial, 2 vole:, London, 1877; J. Vaughan, in Contemporary Review, June, 1878 (an socount of Dr. Campbell's views); DNB, viii. 38&‑389.
CAMPBELL, REGINALD JOHN: English Congregationalist; b. at London Jan. 29, 1867. He was educated at University College, Nottingham, and Christ Church, Oxford (B.A., 1895), and entered the Congregational ‑ministry is 189b. After being pastor of Union Church, Brighton, from 1895 to 1903, he succeeded Joseph Parker as minister of the City Temple, London, a position which he still retains. In theology he is a liberal evangelical. He has written: The Restored Innocence (London, 1898); The Making of an Apostle (1898); A Faith for Today (1900); City Temple Sermons (1903); Sermon to Young Men (1904; American edition under the title The Choice of the Highest, Chicago, 1904); Sermons Addressed to Individuals (1905); Song of Ages (1906); The New Theology (1907); New Theology Sermons (1907); Religion and Social Reform (1907).
BIBLIOaRwPHT: A. A. Wilkerson, Reginald John Campbell, the Man and his Message, London, 1907.
CAMPBELLITES. See CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER; DISCIPLES OF CHRIST.
CA7lIPEGGIO, cam‑ped'j8 (CAMPEGI, CAMPEGGI, CAMPEGIUS), LORENZO: Italian cardinal and statesman; b. at Milan Nov. 7, 1474; d. at Rome July 25, 1539. His father was a noted professor of law at Pavia, Padua, and Bologna, and the son, adopting his father's career, became lecturer on imperial and papal law and the Decretals at Bologna after 1499. He participated in the political life of the university town and won the attention of the Curia by his ardent advocacy of the papal cause against the imperial family of Bentivogli. The loss of his wife hastened his entrance into the priestly state, for which he had long cherished a strong inclination. Julius II. made him representative for Bologna at the tribunal of the Rots in Rome in the early part of 1511. 1n August he went as nuncio to the court of the emperor Maximilian to win that ruler away from

373	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Campbell
		Campion
his support of the Pisan council and for the pope's
scheme of a Lateran council. Returning success
ful in 1512 he was made bishop of Feltre and sent
as nuncio to the court of Maximilian Sforza at
Milan, but was recalled to be entrusted with a sec
ond mission to the imperial court with the object,
this time, of furthering the papal plan for the re
establishment of general peace in Europe. At
this poet he remained till 1517, when on account
of his " preeminent services to the Apostolic
chair " and for a fee of 24,000 ducats he was created
cardinal in company with thirty others. Once
more Campeggio was sent on a mission of universal
peace, this time to England, where he shared the
dignity of papal legate with Cardinal Wolaey and
participated in the formation of the General League
of Peace concluded in October, 1518. In the same
year he returned to Rome, bearing with him many
royal gifts and the promise of the succession to the
bishopric of Salisbury. He became bishop of Bo
logna in 1523, but resigned the office two years later
on acquiring possession of the promised English
see and retained it till 1535. He enjoyed at the
same time the profits from a Spanish bishopric
and from other churches, though it is difficult to
determine precisely which. Alone among the car
dinals he seems to have won the confidence of
Adrian VI. and to him (not to Egidio of Viterbo)
must be attributed the authorship of the reform
memorial addressed to the pope. After the ill
success of the papal cause at the first diet of Nu
remberg, Campeggio was sent to Germany to work
for the enforcement of the Edict of Worms. At
the second Nuremberg diet he met the demands
of the German princes with insulting pride, but by
all his efforts could not prevent the assembly from
expressing the demand for a meeting of the repre
sentatives of the German nation to consider means
for the settlement of the religious question. It was
Campeggio who was primarily responsible for the
league concluded at Regensburg in the summer of
1524 by the enemies of the Reformation, the first
of the partizan confederations that were to result
in the dismemberment of the nation. At Regens
burg, too, a scheme of reform for the clergy was for
mulated by Campeggio with the aid of Nausea and
Cochleus, a scheme, however, which never attained
practical effect. An unsuccessful mission to Eng
land in 1528‑29 in the matter of the divorce of
Henry VIII. was followed by an appointment to
the imperial court, where he is known to have ad
vised Charles V. in case a policy of conciliation
toward the Protestants proved ineffective " to
eradicate the poisonous growth with fire and
sword." At the same time he did not disdain to
attempt the milder means of bribery, notably in
the case of Melanchthon. In 1532 Campeggio re
turned to Rome. His last phase of activity was
in connection with the plane of Paul III. for a gen
eral council. A memorial on the Centtcm gravamina
Germanorum, written in 1536, shows that by that
time Campeggio had arrived at a different view of
the claims and rights of the German nation.
		(T. BRIE(;ER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. $igonius De vita Laurentii CamPepii,
	Bologna, 1581, republished in 8iponii Opera omnia, iii.
b31‑578, Milan, 1733; B. Ebees, Rtmiaehe Dokumente zur Geachichte der Eheacheidunp HeinrirJes VIII., 162T~4, pp. xvi.W.. Paderborn, 1893.
CAMPELLO, COUNT ENRICO DE: Roman Catholic; b. at Rome in the year 1831; d. in the year 1903. Brought up in the Roman Catholic Church, he became priest 1855, and canon of St. Peter's, Rome, 1868. Feeling himself unable, however, to accept the dogma of papal infallibility, he resigned his office in 1881 and became a member of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Later he joined the Protestant Episcopal Church, and founded the Reformed Italian Catholic Church, of which he was consecrated bishop by Bishop E. Herzog in Switzerland. He worked for many years, first in Rome without quoteas and later in Umbria, but in 1902 returned to the Roman Catholic faith. He wrote: Cenni autobiografeel the rendono rogione dell' ossify di lui dally chiesa pale (Rome, 1881).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Robertson, Count CamPetlo and Catholic Reform in Italy, London, 1891.
CAMPION, EDMUND: Jesuit; b. in London Jan. 25, 1540; hanged there at Tyburn Dec. 1, 1581. He won much distinction for ability and scholarship at school in London, and had a brilliant career at St. John's College, Oxford (B.A., 1561; M.A., 1565); in 1567 he was ordained deacon in the Church of England, but, having always been a Roman Catholic at heart, in 1569 or 1570 he went to Ireland, hoping to find employment in a new university to be located in Dublin. The scheme fell through and he returned to England, went thence to Douai, where he openly renounced Protestantism, finished his theological studies, and took the degree of B.D. In 1573 he joined the Jesuits in Rome, and was sent to Prague, where he was ordained deacon and priest in 1578. In June. 1580, he entered England as a missionary of his order, and preached and worked there with success until July, 1581, when he was arrested and committed to the Tower. He was treated with much severity, was several times examined under torture, and in November was condemned, after an unfair trial, upon a charge of having conspired to dethrone the queen. He is described by Protestants as well as Roman Catholics as a man of uncommon ability, an eloquent orator, of much diplomatic skill, and amiable in disposition and life. His chief work was the Decent rationea, in which he challenges the Protestants to meet him in debate and professes himself ready to prove the falsity of Protestantism add the truth of the Roman Catholic religion by argument upon any one of ten topics, finished about Easters 1581, and printed ostensibly at Douai, but really in or near London, the same year; it was spread broadcast at commencement at Oxford in June (best edition by Silvester Petra‑Sancta, Antwerp, 1631; Eng, transl., 1606, 1632, 1687, 1827). While in Ireland he wrote a history of the country which was used by Holinshed in compiling his Chronicles (1577), and was printed by Sir James Ware in his History of Ireland (Dublin, 1633; reprinted in Ancient Irish Histories, 1809).
131BLIOGRAPECY: R. simpeon, Edmund Campion, a i3top‑

tsamp.Xeetingo	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	374
Qenaan		.
raphy, London, 1867 (" perhaps the most able monograph of Catholic history "); J. A. Fronde, History of England, vol. xi., chap. xxviii., London, 1870; E. L. Taunton, The History of the Jesuits in England, 168t11773, ib. 1901; J. Gillow, Bibliographical Dictionary of the English Catholics, i. 370‑392, London, n.d. (s full list of his works is appended); DNB, viii. 398‑402.
CAMP‑MEETINGS: Religious gatherings held in a grove, usually lasting for several days, during which many find shelter in tents or temporary houses. The main features are the open‑air preaching, the night prayer‑meetings, and the freedom of the life. They are not now so common as formerly. The first meeting of the kind is said to have taken place in Kentucky, on the banks of the Red River, in 1799, under a Presbyterian and a Methodist minister. These denominations at first used them in common; but gradually the Presbyterians withdrew, and they became almost exclusively Methodist and Baptist gatherings. In recent times the Methodists have purchased tracts of land in desirable locations on the seaboard or inland, and turned them into parks, with comfortable houses, streets, poet‑offices, meeting‑places, Biblical models, etc., and there in the summer many persona live, and there the religious gatherings of different kinds are held daily. Thus the primitive camp‑meeting is continued in an improved form. The credit of introducing campmeetings into England is due to the Rev. Lorenzo Dow (q.v.), an eccentric though able minister of Methodist views, who in 1807 proposed it in Staffordshire. Two Methodists, William Clowes and Hugh Bourne, were so impressed with the advantages of this style of service that they persisted in holding them after they were disapproved by the Wesleyan Conference in 1807; for doing which they were finally expelled. In 1810 they founded the Primitive Methodists, which body uses the campmeeting, The Irish Wesleyans commenced using them in 1860.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: $. C. Swallow, Camp‑Meetings: their Origin, Hiat., and Utility, also their Perversion, New York, 1878.
CAMUS, ca"mii', de Pont Carr6, JEAN PIERRE: French prelate; b. in Paris Nov. 3, 1584; d. there Apr. 25, 1652. He became successively bishop of Belley 1609, abbot of Aulnay in Normandy 1629, but retired to the Hospital des Incurables in Paris 1651. He was an extremely prolific writer. The catalogue of his writings (Paris, 1653) contains 186 titles. Among them are many moral romances, which were admired in his time, and some translated into English, but are now forgotten. He is still remembered for his satirical pamphlets against the mendicant orders, e.g., DdeapProllriation Clatttrtrelle and Pautrdk Evangaique, which were elaborately refuted in Anti‑Camxta (Douai, 1634), and especially for the fruit of his great intimacy with Francis of Sales, L'Eaprtt du bierhheureux Frangoia de Sales (6 vole., Paris, 1641, new ed., 3 vo1s.,1840, abridged by Collot, 1737; Eng. transl. of abridgement, The Spirit of S. Francis de Sales, London, 1880). His dogmatic work in the Latin translation Apprtrpirh qwttto Proteatantium ad Ecclesiam Cathdico‑Ro»wream is in vol. v. of Migne's Coura de iheologie.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Boulae, Camw, Lyons, 1879.
	CANA. See GALILEE, 11, 14.
CANAAN, CANAANITE&
The Name (¢ 1).	The Hittites (¢ 7).
Language and Religion (¢ 2).	The Hivites (¢ 8).
Commerce (¢ 3).	The Horites (¢ 9).
Political Relations (¢ 4).	The Perissitee (¢ 10).
The Earlier Inhabitants (¢ 5).	The Geshurites (¢ 11).
Peoples Mentioned in the	The Conquest by the He‑
Bible (¢ 8). 	brews (¢ 12).
Canaan, Canaanitea, are names given in the Old Testament and elsewhere to the land acquired by the Hebrews and to the pre‑Hebraic people who occupied it. Apart from a few cases of personification, Canaan is the general name applied to the country (Judges v. 19; in JE, Gen. xlii.; in P, Gen. xi. 31). It is formed from Karta` with the addition of the st denoting place; the simple form does not occur in the Old Testament, but there is abundant evidence in the Amarna tablets and elsewhere that it was used. It is also clear that it was not originally a proper name. The significance of the word is not clear, though many attempts to discover it have been made. It seems in some places to have the signification of "Lowland" (Num.
xiii. 29; Josh. v. 1; Zeph. ii. 5). In
	z. The	some of the Egyptian inscriptions the
	Name.	word is used to denote the part of
		Asia under Egyptian control, inclu
ding Phenicia; but the general custom of Egyptians
was to designate southern Syria by ,Hare and north
ern Syria by Rtttertnu. In the Amarna tablets it
means what is now understood by Syria. Old
Testament usage varies. In Gen. x. 19 (JE) it in
cludes Phenicia, the land of Israel, and Philistia,
with boundaries undefined on the north, a usage
followed generally by D, though Deut. xi. 24 ex
tends the eastern boundary to the Euphrates. The
general statement is justified that in the Old Tes
tament the name is used to designate what is now
meant by Syria, without very definite boundaries,
generally excluding lands east of the Jordan. And
Canaanites designated the people who inhabited
the land of Canaan, except that E uses "Amo
ritea" (q.v.) to express this meaning.
The question is suggested whether the Canaanites had anything in common apart from their dwelling in the land so designated. Isa. xix. 18 mentions " the language of Canaan," a phrase which implies that a common language was there used. Of course there were dialectical differences, say, between the north and the south, but these were not such that the inhabitant of one part could not understand the inhabitant of another. Historic and inscriptional evidence bears this out. Besides unity of language there was a common conception of religion. The deities were originally nature‑powers such as the sun, the heavens, the
moon, thunder and lightning. With a. Language advance of civilization they blended,
	and	while worship was still offered at nu
Religion. merous local shrines. At these the
proper names of the deities were not generally used, the gods were spoken of as the Ba'ol " Lord " or the Ba'alah " Mistress " of the place, e.g., Baal‑Hermon, " Lord of Hermon." The places of worship were the tops of the hills (see Hlaa PLACE6). Near the altar stood a sacred stone or tree or pillar. If there were an image of

376	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
the deity, there was also a temple or a house and a priest. The customs of worship were in the closest connection with the work of daily life, the offerings were of the products of field, garden, vineyard, or pasture. In the cities more developed forms took their place. The myth was everywhere employed, at first in local form, later in philosophical and poetical development in which origins, destinies, beginnings of human customs, and the beginnings of cities and holy localities had their place. In some places prostitution for religious purposes was practised, also self‑mutilation and infant‑sacrifice. There were also numerous practises which were survivals from primitive worship, from animism, totemism, and fetishism. The culture of the people had in general a common stamp. Babylonian influence had advanced by the third millennium B.c. at least as far south as central Syria. Egypt's influence was first felt about 1500 B.c. While northern Syria immediately bordered on the Euphrates, a desert stretched between southern Syria and Egypt. The fact that the Amarna tablets, which are classed as Egyptian documents, are in the cuneiform shows that Babylonian ideas were dominant, though some admixture of Egyptian ideas moat be allowed.
The middle position of Syria, between the east and the west, between the desert and the sea, introduces another occupation besides those mentioned in which the inhabitants engaged, commerce. Before the sea was traversed by ships,
the roads from the Euphrates to 3. Com‑ Egypt passed through northandeouth merce. Syria. Sea‑travel later opened up
routes which included the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. The products of Cancan proper were small in proportion to those resulting from commercial operations. These became, therefore, the favorite employment of the Canaanitea, and their name became synonymous with merchant (Ezek avi. 29, R. V. margin).
There were no great states built up in Canaan (the Hebrews are not here under discussion) except that of the Hittites (q.v.), who possessed a great kingdom in northern Syria. Apart from this only small states are mentioned. The Amarna tablets make known a number of these as at war with each other and as accused of unfaithfulness to the Pharaohs Amenophia III. and IV. Egyptian overlordahip was maintained more or less completely 1500‑1200 B.c. The sons of the local
kings were sent to Egypt for their ;. Political education, and their enthronement
Relations. when they succeeded to power was
the deed of the Pharaoh. The topography of the country, cut up by mountain ranges with intervening valleys and wadis, is not favorable to the formation and maintaining of great states; even those of Damascus and of Israel were not long‑lived.
According to the representation in Gen. x. 18b, the Canaanites had spread from the central part toward the south. This can not be proved, but the course of subsequent historical 'movements makes it probable. The custom of E in using " Amorites " to connote the inhabitants of the
land and the known course of the progress of this people is one of these indications. Only faint recollections of the primitive dwellers
g. The are preserved in the Old Testament,
	Earlier	in such passages as Deut. ii. 10‑11;
Inhabitants. II Sam. xxi. 16, 18, 20, 22, where
		they appear as " giants," a mythical
term (cf. Amos ii. 9). From them the Plain of
Rephaim west of Jerusalem received its name. In
the passages from Samuel quoted above Raphald,
" the Giant," is named as their ancestor. Deut.
ii. 11 reckons the Anakim as belonging to them,
and Num. xiii. 33 is an expression of their physical
stature; their chief town is named as Kirjath‑arba,
the latter part of which name is explained as the
name of the ancestor and the greatest of the Ana
kim (Josh. xiv. 15, xv. 13).
The Old Testament employs the term Canaanites not only in the sense explained in the foregoing as the common name of the inhabitants of Canaan, but also in an ethnographical sense of one of the stocks included. But from the preceding discussion the doubt is raised whether this usage is original or has ethnological worth. For decision of this question it is important to note that the Canaanites are mentioned among other peoples of ,Canaan when the author wishes to
6. Peoples note a great number of peoples whom
Mentioned the Hebrews had subdued. In this
	in the	case a settled form was employed
	Bible.	with an alternative form. The com
		mon form was " Canaanite, Hittite,
Amorite, Perizzite, Hivite, and Jebuaite " (in eleven
passages), in which the intention is clear to place
the more important peoples first in the arrange
ment. The alternative form is " Amorite, Periz
zite, Canaanite, Hittite; Girgashite, Hivite, and
Jebusite " (Josh. xov. 11). This last is varied
by the insertion of Kenites, Kenizzitea, and Kad
monitee (Gen. xv. 19‑21), or by the omission of one
or more from the list (for Kenites see Cent, Ka
NxaEs; for Kenizzites see Ceps, Cer.ESrrEs, and see
also AMOnITEB and JEBU6, JEsusrrES).
The Hittites have become more familiar through thedecipherment of the hieroglyphs and cuneiform inscriptions than through the Old Testament. Thothmes III. (c. 1500 s.c.) first came into contact with them in the district later known as Commagene on the northern boundary of Syria. A hundred years later they were in possession of a kingdom which stretched from the Euphrates to the middle Orontes, including Hamath within its bounds. Rameses II. (c. 1300‑1230 s.c.) waged a long war with them, and in the twenty‑first year of his reign made a treaty in which a demarcation of the boundaries of their respective realms was agreed upon. About 1200 B.c. this kingdom fell apart into a number of small states. In the ninth and eighth centuries the Assyrians mention a small Hittite kingdom encountered in their campaigns, that of Carchemiah on the Euphrates. They also use the phrase "land of the Hittites " to denote the region between the Euphrates and the Taurus range and south as far as Palestine. But this can not be held to prove that the Hittite power extended so far. They left numerous inscriptions,

Canaan	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	378
in the attempt to decipher which P. Jensen is particularly engaged, and he thinks he can discover in the Hittites the forerunners of the Arme‑
nians. The Egyptians call the Hit‑
y. The fifes Rata, the Assyrians call them
Hittites. ,Ht1Ui. Old Testament passages locate
them in North Syria in close connection with the Arameans (I Kings x. 29) and II Kings vii. 6 associates them with the Syrian kingdom of Muari (according to Winckler, misread " Egypt," eee AaSYRIA, VI., 2, 3, 1 7). And the Table of Nations in Gen. x. 15 with its context leaves no doubt that the intention was to locate them in North Syria. The Hittites in the service of David (I Sam. xxvi. 6; II Sam. xi. 3) were probably soldiers of fortune who had come south. Some few Old Testament passages coincide with the late Assyrian usage and speak of the land far south as Hittite. See HriTITEB.
The Hivites are associated with the Amorites in the LXX. text of Iea. xvii. 9 (cf. R. V. margin), but, apart from the stereotyped formulas mentioned above, seldom appear in Scripture. II Sam. xxiv. 7 locates them among the Canaanites dwelling
south of Tyre. According to Judges
8. The iii. 3, cf. Josh. xi. 3, their country
Hivitea was in Lebanon between " Baal‑her
mon and the entering in of Hamath." Josh. xi. 3 is. not in accord with II Sam. xxiv. 7, and it does not lighten the difficulty to substitute Hittites for Hivites.
The Horites according to Gen. xxxvi. 30 inhabited Mt. Seir, that is the district east and west of the valley (the wadi Arabah) south of the Dead
Sea. They were destroyed by the
9. The Edomites (Dent. ii. 12, 22). Gen.
Horites. sxxvi. 20,30 counts seven branches
of the Horites. Gen. xiv. 6 assigns to them the mountain east of the wadi Arabah. Nowadays the custom prevails to connect them with the people named Varu by the Egyptians, who mean by it South Palestine.
The Perizzites are seldom mentioned except in the stereotyped formulas; in three J passages, Gen.
xiii. 7, xxxiv. 30; Judges i. 4, they are
:o. The associated with the Canaanites, and Perizzites. in Josh. xvii. 15 with the Rephaim,
" Giants." The last passage would make of them pre‑Cauaanites, for which the J passages give no occasion, but locate them about Bethel, Shechem, and Bezek, within the boundaries of the Joseph territory.
The Geshurites are in Dent. iii. 14; Josh. xu. 5, xiii. 11, 13 placed in the Aramaic district of Geshur,
in the northern part of the Jaulan r r. The Gre‑east of the Jordan; but Josh. xiii.
ahurites. 2 and I Sam. xxvii. 8 locate them
in southern Philistia. Since Wellhausen, the last passage has been made to read " Gezerites " instead. But it muss be concluded that the name Geshurites was applied to nomads in southern Palestine. Besides the foregoing there appear the Girgashites (Gen. x. 16, etc.), to be connected, perhaps, with names known to be Phenician; the Avvim (Dent. ii. 23; Josh. xiii. 3), whose residence was south of Gaza; and the
Kadmonites (Gen. xv. 19), of whom nothing is known.
	The conquest of Canaan by the Hebrews was
rendered easy by several circumstances. The over
lordship of the Egyptians became about 1250
n.c. a mere name. Moreover, about 1400 s.t:., ao
cording to the Amarna Tablets (q.v.), a people called
the Habiri had crossed the Jordan westward,
partly because the chiefs there were employing
them as soldiers and partly to better their lot.
These, related to the Israelites, were indeed
		their predecessors along the same
iz. The route, who by establishing themselves Conquest gave the invitation to others to settle by the there. But the light‑armed Israsl‑
	Hebrews.	ilea, who established themselves in
		the more open country, had a more
difficult task against the Canaanites armed with
iron weapons and chariots of the same material.
The assault of the Hebrews was not made with
their united force and at one time, as the narrative
in Joshua asserts, but in two divisions, and not at
the same time. The first attack was made by
Simeon, Levi, and Judah, the second by the Joseph
tribes under the leadership of Joshua (Judges i. 1
3, 22). A series of victories, reported in Josh.
ii.‑x., made it possible for the Joseph tribes to settle
between Bethel and the Plain of Jezreel. Accord
ing to the first part of Joshua, the Hebrews put the
ban on the Canaanites, i.e., exterminated them.
But this does not agree with other statements.
While indeed those foes were perhaps exterminated
who were taken in actual contest, the universal ap
plication of the ban does not accord with many
other passages of Scripture. The Canaanites were
pressed back; progress in possession was made
partly by subjecting the earlier inhabitants, partly
by peaceful means. In the former case the Canaan
ites became slaves; in the latter, union of stocks
was brought about. The victory at Taanach under
Deborah and Barak assured to the Hebrews the
control of the Plain of Jezreel. The northern dis
tricts of Naphtali and Asher retained their non
Israelitic population (see GALILEE). The southern
stock of Judah in time allied itself with many peo
ples of alien race (see CALEB, CALEBITES, and cf.
Gen. xxxviii.). The remainder of the non‑Hebraic
population was put to service by Solomon.
It is this reduction of the Canaanites to servitude which is at the basis of the narrative in Gen. ix. 20‑27, which deals with Noah and his three sons. Wellhausen has made it plain that in ix. 22 the words " Ham the father of " are an intrusion by the editor to bring the section into harmony with its context. Canaan is the younger brother who is there subjected to his brethren. Shem no doubt, in the passage, means Israel, sad Japhet the Phenicians, and Shem and Japhet are both ruling peoples. Canaan's position in the Table of Nations (q.v.) is quite other than that in Gen. ix. 20‑27.
(H. GUTHE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: K. Budde, Die biLlische Urgesehichte, Giea
	een, 1883: A. H. SaYae. Races of the Oil Testament. Lon
	don, 1891 (brief, needs bringing up to date); idem, The
	' Hipher Criticism' and the Monuments, ib. 1894; idem,
	Patriarchal Palestine, ib. 1895 (the beet two books ere
	damaged by their polemic aim); G. F. Moors, in JAOS,

377	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Canaan
Canada
xv. (1893), pp. lxvii.‑lxx. (on the etymology); J. Bensinger, Ele6raiache Archiiologie, § 12, Freiburg, 1894; E. Schrader, Daa Land Amurru, in Sitzungaberichte der Berliner Akademie, Dec. 20, 1894; idem, KAT, Index s.w. " Amoriter," " Amurru," " Kanaan " J. F. McCurdy, History, Prophesy and the Monuments, vols. i.‑ii., New York, 1895‑98; F. Buhl, Geographic des alien Palestina, 4 48, Tiibingen, 1896; F. Hommel, The Ancient Hebrew Tradition, London, 1897; G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, pp. 4‑5, ib. 1897 (on the etymology); L. B. Paton, Early History of Syria and Palestine. New York, 1901 (nn antidote for the works of Beyce and Hommel); W. Erbt, Die He6r8er. Kaman in ZeitaLter der hebr8iachen Wanderunp and hebrr<iachen Staatenpriiudungen, Leipaic, 1908; II. Vincent, Cancan d'apr~a l'exploratioa recente, Paris, 1907; DB, i. 347‑348; EB, i. 838‑843. The literature on the Amorna Tablets usually discusses the subject.
CANADA: A country of North America occupying the entire continent north of the United States except Alaska; area, 3,745,574 square miles; population (1901), 5,371,315 (estimated in 1909 at 6,100,000).
The Dominion of Canada, the official designation of the country, was formed in 1867 by a confederation of the eastern provinces of Upper and Lower Canada (now Ontario and Quebec), New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, the coalition being recognized by an Act of Parliament of the mother country. A governor‑general, appointed by the king of England, and a privy council administer the government. The legislative power is a parliament consisting of a senate, whose members are appointed for life by the crown on nomination of the ministry, and a house of commons Political elected every five years at the longest. Divisions The Dominion now comprises, in adand Gov‑ dition to the provinces already named, erament. Manitoba (admitted 1870), British Columbia (1871), Prince Edward Island (1873), Alberta (1905), Saskatchewan (1905), and the Northwest Territories comprising the districts of Assiniboia, Athabasca, Keewatin, Yukon, Mackenzie, Ungava, and Franklin. Each province has its own " lieutenant‑governor," executive council, and legislative assembly. Nearly three‑quarters of the entire population is in the two provinces of Ontario and Quebec, and almost ninety per cent in the five eastern provinces. The increase during the last decade was a little more than eleven per cent. There is no State Church, but the Roman Catholics of Quebec are guaranteed the privileges which they enjoyed previous to the English occupation.
The Frenchman Jacques Cartier took possession of the Labrador region in the name of his king in 1534, and in 1535‑36 he ascended the St. Lawrence as far as Montreal. The first permanent settlement was at Quebec in 1608 under the lead of Champlain. The gain in French
History colonists was slow, and the stream and flowed westward‑ toward the MiseiaStatistics. sippi. English conquest and the peace of 1763 brought Canada under English control. The English and Protestant inhabitants were considerably increased by immigration of English loyalists from the United Staten after 1783, and the Roman Catholics received a large increment during the nineteenth century by
immigration from Ireland; the French population also was augmented after 1871 by a noteworthy number of Alsatians.
The following is the table of religious statistics from the census of 1901:
	Adventists 
	Agnostics, Atheists,
	etc .	3,813
	Anglicans 	880,620
	Baptists 	292,189
	Baptists, Free 	24.288
	Brethren	8,014
Buddhists . . . . . ... . 10,407
Catholic Apostolic
(Irvingitea) ...... Chriatadelphiana. . . Christians.. . . . . . . . Christian Scientists. Church of Christ... Church of God..... Confucians......... Congregationalists.. Deists............. Disciples.......... Dukb bore ........ Evangelicals . ... . . . Friends (Quakers). Greek Church...... Holiness Movement
(Horneritea) ..... Jews.............
	8,058 Latter‑day Saints
	(Mormons) . . 	6,891
	Lutherans 	92,524
	Mennonites 	31,797
	Methodists 	918,886
	Mohammedans 	47
	New Church (awe‑
	denborgians) .	881
	Non‑sectarian 	215
	400	No Religion . . . . . . .	4,810
	1,030	Pagans	15.107
	8,900	Plymouth Brethren	2,774
	2,619	Presbyterians	842,442
	2,264	Protestants 	11,812
351 Reformed Epiaco‑
	b,115	palians 	874
	28,293	Roman Catholics 	2,229,600
	78	Salvation Army 	10,308
	14,900	Spiritualists 	818
	8,775	Theosophists 	107
	10,193	Tunkera .	1,528
	4,100	Unitarians 	1,934
	15,630	United Brethren	4,701
	Universaliata .		. . .	2,589
	2,775	Unspecified 	43,222
	18,401	Various 8ecta .	2,795
	Zionitsa .	.....	. . . .
42
The Roman Catholics constitute 41.5 per cent of the entire population. They are most numerous in Quebec (1,429,260; 86.7 per cent of the population of the province); in Ontario their number is 390,304 (1.8 per cent). The total number of Protestants is about 3,000,000 (56.2 per cent). Nearly all of the Buddhists and Confucians are in British Columbia, whither they have come as a result of the active trade with eastern Asia. The adherents of the Greek Church are mostly immigrants from Russia to Manitoba, Alberta, and Asainiboia; the Dukhobora (q.v.), who may be regarded as a schismatic branch of this Church, are in Assiniboia and Saskatchewan. Of the Jews almost half (7,498) are in Quebec and 5,321 in Ontario. Nearly all the Mormons are in Ontario (3,377) and Alberta (3,212). Of the Mennonites, 15,246 are in Manitoba, 12,208 in Ontario, and 3,683 in Saskatchewan. The " pagans " are the Eskimos and unconverted Indians; according to some authorities their number is much larger than that given by the census. All the large denominations are actively engaged in missionary work in the wide domain of Canada, operating through permanent stations and itinerant missionaries. The Roman Catholic Church has from the first been particularly successful in this work, and the majority of the Indians converted to Christianity belong to this Church. The " various sects " are 110 in number and include seventy‑nine which reported less than ten members each.
The Roman Catholic Church in Canada dates from the discovery. Huguenots were allowed to settle, only on conditions that soon proved fatal to their religion. In 1615 three Recollect priests settled in Quebec, forming the earliest regular establishment. In 1625 the Jesuits arrived, and began their missionary and educational labors. In 1657

Canada
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	878
Frangois Xavier de Laval‑Montmorency (q.v.) was named vicar apostolic of New France, becoming first bishop of Quebec in 1674. Under
The Ro‑ him the church system was fully or‑an Cath‑ ganized. For some time after the
olic 	conquest, the see of Quebec remained
	Church.	vacant, as the English Government
		would recognize its occupant only as
the head of the Roman Church in Canada, and not
as the bishop of that city. The difficulty was, how
ever, overcome. In 1819 Joseph Octave Plesais
(bishop of Quebec from 1808) became the first Ca
nadian archbishop.
As organized at present the Roman Catholic Church of Canada has an apostolic delegate (first appointed by Leo XIII.), who resides at Ottawa. There are eight provinces, twenty dioceses, and four vicariatea anontolic, as follows:

Province of Halifax (Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and New Brunswick; the Bermuda Islands also form a part of the archdiocese of Halifax); archdiocese, Halifax (founded se the vicariate apostolic of Nova Scotia, 1817; diocese, 1842; archdiocese, 1862); dioceses, AnSgonieh (founded se the diocese of Arichat, 1844, transferred to Antigonieh, 1888), Charlottetown (Prince Edward Island sad 'the Magdalen Islands, 1829), Chatham (1880), and 8t. John (1842).
Province of Kingston (Eastern and Northern Ontario); archdiocese, Kingston (diocese, 1828; archdiocese, 1889): dioceses, Alexandria (1890), Peterborough (1882), and Sault Ste. Marie (1904).
Province of Montreal (Southern and Weetexn Quebec); archdiocese, Montreal (diocese, 1838: archdiocese, 1886); dioceses, Joliette (1904), St. Hyacinths (ISb2), Sherbrooke (1874), and Vslleyfield (1892).
Province of Ottawa (parts of Ontario and Quebec in the neighborhood of the city of Ottawa and the region about James Bay); archdiocese, Ottawa (diocese, 1847; arahdioceae, 1888); diocese, Pembroke (vicariate apostolic, 1882; diocese, 1898).
Province of Quebec (Eastern Quebec); archdiocese, Quebec (vicariate apostolic, 1867: diocese, 1874; archdiocese, 1844); dioceses, Chicoutimi (1878), Nicolet (1885), Rimouski (1887), and Three Rivers (1882); vicariate apostolic of the Gulf of St. Lawrence (prefecture apostolic, 1882; vicariate, 1905).
Province of St. Boniface (the extreme western part of Ontario, Manitoba. Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Northwest Territories); archdiocese, $t. Bonifsoe (diocese, 1847; archdiocese. 1871); diocese, St. Albert (1871):. vicariatee apostolic. Athabasca (1882), sad Saskatchewan (1890).
Province of Toronto (Southwestern Ontario); archdiocese, Toronto (diocese 1841; archdiocese, 1870); dioceses, Hamilton (1868), and London (18b8).
Province of Victoria (British Columbia, the Klondike sad Great Slave regions); archdiocese, Victoria (1847); diocese, New Westminster (vicariate apostolic of British Columbia, 1863; diocese, 1890); vicariate apostolic of Mackenzie (1901).
The Official Catholic Directory for 1908 gives the following figures: number of priests of religious orders, 1,118; secular priests 2,813; churches, 2,495; seminaries, 17, with 1,183 students; universities and colleges, 45; charitable institutions, 202. One hundred and ten Catholic papers are named, and the list of religious orders includes twenty‑seven for men and thirty‑five for women, the larger number of which are actively engaged in missionary and charitable work. Laval University was founded at Quebec in 1852 and has faculties of theology, law, medicine, and arts

The Anglican Church in Canada dates from its conquest by England. The first congregation was organized in Montreal in 1766, service being held in the chapel of the Recollects at such hours as the building was not required for mass. In 1774, while the Roman Catholic Church was secured in all its previous rights, it was restricted to collect‑
ing its church‑dues from members of its own communion, and the purpose was intimated of establishing a Protestant Church. In 1791,
The	when Canada first received a conati‑
	Anglicaa	tution, one‑seventh of all the land in
	Church.	the colony disposed of by sale or grant
		to colonists was " reserved" for the sup
port of a Protestant clergy. In 1787 Charles Inglis
was appointed by the English Crown bishop of
Nova Scotia‑the first of the colonial bishops; in
1793 Jacob Mountain was appointed bishop of Que
bec. The present organization includes two prov
inces and twenty‑three bishoprics, as follows:
Province of Canada (the Maritime Provinces, Quebec, and Ontario); archdiocese, Montreal (founded 1850; archdiocese, 1901; since 1904 the archbishop has borne the title primate of all Canada); dioceses, Algoma (with the bishop's seat at Sault Ste. Marie, 1873), Fredericton (1FAb), Huron (London, 18b7), Niagara (Hamilton, 187b), Nova Scotia (Halifax, 1787), Ontario (Kingston, 1881), Ottawa (1898), Quebec (1793), Toronto (1839).
Province of Rupert's Land (the territory west of Ontario and south and seat of Hudson Bay); archdiocese, Rupert's Land (1849; archdiocese, 1893; the cathedral is at WinniDeB): diooaeee, Athabasca (1884), Calgary (1888). Keowstin (1901), Mackenzie River (1874), Mooeonee (1872), Qu'Appelle (1884), Saskatchewan (1874), Selkirk (1891).
Dioceses not forming part of any province: Caledonia (1879), Columbia '18b9) Kootenai (1901), New Westminster (1879).
There are theological schools at Lennoxville, Que., Montreal, Toronto, and Winnipeg.
For the history and information about other religious bodies of Canada, nee the articles on the different denominations.
Canada has a good system of public instruction, each province managing its own affairs without centralized system for the entire dominion. Elementary schools, high schools or collegiate institutes, and normal schools lead up to the university, and a good education is within the
Edu‑	reach of all. The expenses are met
	canon.	by government grants, local assess
		ments, and school fees. Roman Cath
olic schools are entitled to a share in the public
educational funds by the agreement of 1763, and
the religious question has led to complications in
home localities. In Quebec there are two distinct
boards of school commissioners, Protestant and
Roman Catholic, each having its portion of the
public funds and managing its schools as it sees fit.
In Manitoba there are no separate schools, but re
ligious instruction may be given in the school
buildings by Protestant or Catholic teachers.
Brsrroaasrax: Statistics and other information may be gathered from the Canadian Almanac, Toronto, the .Statiattool Year Book of Canada, Ottawa, and Le Canada eccUaiaatique, Montreal, all annuals, the last Roman Catholic. On the English Church consult: E. R $timeon, History of Separation of'Chureh and State in Canada, Toronto, 1888• J. Langtry, History of the Church in Easters Canada. London, 1892. There is also s CycZopadia of Methodism is Canada, Toronto, 1881. For early Catholic relations consult the monumental work, ed. R. G. Thwaites, Jesuit‑ Relations and Allied Documents, 74 vole., Cleveland, 1898‑1901.
CANARY ISLANDS. See AIrIUCA, III.
CAftDIDUS, an‑df'dfis (WEISS), PARTALEOft: Reformed theologian; b. at Ybbs (60 m. w. of Vienna), Austria, Oct. 7, 150; d. at ZweibrVeken

379	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Canada
		Candlish
(55 m. n.w. of Carleruhe), in the Palatinate, Feb. 3,
1608. He was sent in his tenth year to Andrews
Cupicius, Evangelical preacher at Weissenkirchen,
for instruction. When his teacher was persecuted
	by the Jesuits on account of his faith and thrown
into prison, Caudidus attended him as farntdus and
fled with him to Hungary. Returning to his na
tive land, he continued his studies with the aid of
Vitus Nuber, abbot of Sauesenetein (near Ybbs),
and when he also was persecuted, Candidus ac
companied him to Duke Wolfgang of Zweibriicken.
He received a scholarship from the duke which
enabled him to acquire a thorough humanistic and
theological education at the University of Witten
berg, where he spent about seven years from 1558;
he became amanuensis of Hubert Languet and was
on intimate terms with Melanchthon. In 1565 he
left Wittenberg, and, after having taught a short
time in the Latin school of Zweibriicken, became
	pastor at Hinzweiler, then deacon at Weisenheim
	and Zweibrticken, and in 1571 town preacher and
general superintendent in Zweibrucken.
	The Church of Zweibracken had been founded by
	Johannes Schweblin in accordance with the Lu
	theran doctrine by the acceptance of the Augsburg
	Confession and the Wittenberg Concord (q.v.) of
	1536. Duke Wolfgang, after the death of Melanch
	thon, took vigorous measures against the Philippists
	and Calvinists by. employing strict Lutherans like
	Marbach, Andrea, and Hesshus. His eon, John L,
	continued the same policy, and the most influential
	positions were filled with trustworthy Lutherans
	such as Jacob Heilbrunner and Jacob Schopper.
	But a change of conditions was brought about
	under the influence of the Count Palatine John
	Casimir, who sent his cousin John a statement of
	the conflicting opinions of Reformed princes and
	theologians. Thereupon the latter demanded in
	1578 a general convention for the discussion of
	these questions. Candidus, who had always
	leaned toward Calvinism, became now one of the
	most influential advocates of the Reformed cause,
	and the duke himself openly confessed the Calvin
	istic doctrine, although he had signed the Formula
	of Concord. The remonetrances of the Lutheran
	electoral princes were of no avail, nor was a Lu
	theran embassy which was sent in 1580, consisting of
	men like Marbach and Oeiander. Caudidus so
	cepted the Reformed Christology and the Calvin
	istic doctrine of the Lord's Supper, and in 1585
	edited a catechism which contributed considerably
	to the eradication of the Lutheran doctrine. More
	over, he entered into negotiations with the Re
	formed theologians of Heidelberg and completed
	the work of Calvinism in 1588 by his Chriatliche and
	notwendige ErklBrurtg lea Catechisms arts Gotten
	Wort, etc., which in its wording and sense follows
	closely the Heidelberg catechism. The Reformed
	Church service was introduced in the same way.
	The dissensions were renewed in 1593 at the re
	ligious colloquy of Neuburg, where the Zweibracken
	theologians protested against any innovations and
	attempted to show their agreement with the Au
	gustana. Since the beginning of the seventeenth
	century the Church of Zweibracken has been
	counted among the Reformed Churches. Candidus
was also active in the literary field and has left
twenty works, written mostly in Latin. He was
especially prolific in Latin poetical productions
and handled the elegiac measure with p ~a..b,~i~li,ty.
(J. SCIi11EIDER.)
BIHLI068AP87: F. Butters, Pantaloon Candidw, sin Lebene‑
trild, Zweibracken, 1865; L. ABueeer, l)eschicAte der
rheinjachen P/alz. Heidelberg, 1868; ADB, e.v., vol. iii.
CANDLEMAS: The popular English name for the feast of the Purification of the Virgin Mary or the Presentation of Christ in the Temple, Feb. 2, derived from the ancient custom of blessing candles on that day for use in church and elsewhere. See MARY.
CANDLEMAS DAY. Bee MARY, FESTIVALS or.
CANDLER, WARREN AKIN: Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South; b. near Villa Rica, Ga., Aug. 23, 1857. He was educated at Emory College, Oxford, Ga. (B.A., 1875), and entered the North Georgia Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, in 1875, holding various pastorates until 1886. From the latter year until 1888 he was editor of the Christian Advocate, Nashville, Tenn., the official organ of his denomination, and from 1888 to 1898 was president of Emory College. Since 1898 he has been a bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. In theology he is a Wesleyan Arminian. He has written: History of Sunday Schools (New York, 1880); Georgia's Educational Work (Atlanta, Ga., 1893); Chriatua Auctor (Nashville, Tenn., 1900); High Living and High Limes (1901); and Great Revivals areas the Great Republic (1904).
CANDLES. See LIGHTS, USE OF, ix DiviNn SaItvICa.
CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH: One of the founders and a leader of the Free Church of Scotland; b. in Edinburgh Mar. 23, 1806; d. there Oct. 19, 1873. He studied at Glasgow (M.A., 1823), and at the divinity hall 1823‑26; was licensed in 1828 and served as assistant of St. Andrews, Glasgow, and of Bonhill, Dumbartonshire; in 1834 he became minister of St. George's, Edinburgh, where his talent as a preacher soon made him famous. In 1839 he publicly identified himself with the party in the Church of Scotland which afterward became the Free Church, and in all the public proceedings prior to the disruption is 1843, especially in the debates in the General Assembly, took a leading part; after the disruption he was foremost in organizing and developing the Free Church. His eloquence in debate, his business tact, and his high character enabled him to retain the high position he had gained in spite of a somewhat sharp and abrupt manner, and a tendency to what some considered diplomatic management. On the death of . Dr. Chalmers in 1847 he was appointed to succeed him as professor of divinity in New College, Edinburgh, but declined the appointment, preferring to continue minister of St. George's; in 1862, however, he became principal of New College, the duties involving little labor. He was the chief organizer and extender of the. school system of the Free Church, which was afterward incorpo.

Canieins	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	380
Canoe Law
rated with the national system of education; and
one of the founders of the Evangelical Alliance in
1845. He was a voluminous author, although
his books did not attain a very large circulation;
among leis writings were: Contributions Towards the
Exposition of the Book of Genesis (3 vole., Edin
burgh, 1843‑62; rev. ed., 2 vole., 1868); Scripture
Characters and Miscellanies (London, 1850); Ex
amination of Mr. Maurice's Theological Essays
(1854); Life in a Risen Saviour, discourses on I
Cor. xv. (Edinburgh, 1858); The Two Great Com
mandments, sermons on Romans xn. (London,
18G0); The Atonement, its Reality, Completeness, and
Extent (1861); The Fatherhood of God, the first
course of Cunningham lectures at New College,
Edinburgh, 1864 (5th ed. enlarged, 2 vole., Edin
burgh, 1890); The First Epistle of John Expounded
in a Series of Lectures (18GG); Discourses Bearing
upon the Sonship and Brotherhood of Believers (1872);
Sermons, with memoir (1873 ); and The Gospel o f
Forgiveness, a aeries of discourses (1878).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Wilson, Memorials of R. S. Candlish,
	Edinburgh, 1880 (with a concluding chapter on his char
	acter as a theologian by Robert Rainy, his successor as
	principal of New College); Jean L. Watson, Life of R. 3.
	Candlish, London, 1882.
	CAftISIIJS, cii‑ni'si‑us or ca‑nf'shus, PETRUS
(Peter B:anis, Canis, Canijs): A Jesuit to whom
the order owes its spread in Germany; b. at
Nymwegen, in the Netherlands, May 8, 1521; d.
at Freiburg, Switzerland, Dec. 21, 1597. He
studied at Cologne from 1535 to 1544 and ob
tained the degrees of bachelor of theology, li
centiate of arts, and master of arts (i.e., doctor
of philosophy). In 1543 be went to the Jesuit
Pierre Favre (q.v.) at Mainz, made the " spiri
tual exercises" (see JESUITa) under his guid
ance, and entered the order as a novice. With
nine like‑minded companions he founded se
cretly at Cologne the first Jesuit colony, but
the city council dissolved the body, though at
the intercession of the university the members
were permitted to remain in the city, as individuals.
In 1545 Ca,nisiua began his lectures, preached,
and prepared an edition of the works of Cyril of
Alexandria, with a Latin translation, the first
volume of which was published at Cologne in 1546.
In the mean time, the fervent orator, who had
agitated especially against the archbishop Hermann
of Wied, who inclined toward Protestantism, had
obtained such authority among the strictly
Catholic party that at the beginning of the Schmal
kald War it delegated him as mediator to the im
perial camp at Ulm. Here he came into close
relations with Cardinal Otto Truchaesa, bishop
of Augsburg, who was destined to open the way
for him into Bavaria and insure the activity of
his order. Ignatius Loyola perceived the talent
of Caniniua, and, to perfect him in the spirit and
nature of the order and make him a chosen vessel,
called the young man to Rome and employed
him for two yearn in Italy at Messing. Upon his
return, Canisius commenced his work in Bavaria
in 1549, in 1552 at Vienna and in the Austrian terri
tories, in 1555 at Prague with the two objects in
view, to permeate the German Catholics with the
Jesuitic spirit of piety, and to repel Protestantism.
At Vienna he composed the Summa doctrine
Christianae, the " catechism," which an imperial
edict soon introduced into alt Austria; in four
hundred editions published during 130 years, it
proved an excellent means of mental training
(Eng. tranal., Paris, 1588). His other literary
productions include two volumes (De Johanne
Baptists, Dillingen, 1571, and De Maria Virgins,
Ingolstadt, 1577), written against the " pestilentis
simum opus," the Magdeburg Centuries (q.v.). But
his literary activity against Protestantism was
unimportant compared with what he accomplished
as teacher in Vienna, Dillingen, and Ingolstadt, as
adviser of Catholic princes, and as preacher and
pastor of very large circles. Besides the colleges
already mentioned, the order owes to him the estab
lishment of the important colleges of Augsburg,
Munich, and Innsbruck, and its spread to Poland.
When at the height of his successes he attended
the Council of Trent in 1562. And yet in the long
run he did not retain the confidence of the leaders
of his order. The general stopped him when he
was on the point of preparing a third volume for
the refutation of the " Centuries " (De Potestate
Petri et successorum). His .last achievement was
the founding of a new college at Freiburg in Swit
zerland. 	K. BFNxwTa.
131BLIOGRAPHY: F. Riess, Der aelige Petrus Caniaiua, Freiburg, 1865; M. Philippson, La Condre‑Revolution religienae.
Brussels, 1880; Delplace, L'E#tablieaemen.t de la compttgnie
de Jesus sans k8 Pays Bas, ib. 1887; P. Draws, Petraa Caniaius, der crate deutsche . Jesuit, Halle, 1892; Epiatula! et acts P. Caniaii, ed. O. Braunsberger, 4 vole., Freiburg,
1896‑1905.
	CAlIO, cs'no (Canus), MELCHIOR: A scholastic
Dominican of the University of Alcala; b. at Ta
ranc6n (38 m. w. of Cuenca), Spain [Jan. 1, 1509;
d. at Toledo Sept. 30, 1560].	He took part in
the deliberations of the Council of Trent, espe
cially in those concerning the doctrine of the
Eucharist, opposing the efforts made at the in
stance of the emperor Ferdinand that the cup
should be given to the laity. Having returned
from Trent, Philip II. made him bishop of the
Canaries, without residence there, as he became
provincial of his order in Castile. His principal
works are: Preelectiones de Pttmitentia and Do
saeramentis (both Salamanca, 1550), and his
Loci theologici (1563), consisting of twelve books
about the sources whence doctrinal proofs may
be derived; the " nuthoritas " has..ita place before
the " ratio," and the principal source is of course
tradition. Although an opponent of the Jesuits,
Cano was a thoroughgoing papal theologian, and he
was a scholastic, although he opposed "false" scho
lasticism. For his opposition to the Jesuits he had
to suffer denunciations which caused his citation
to Rome in 1556 as " perditionia filius, Melchior
Canus, diabolicis motus suasionibus, non ernbuit
praedicare, antichiistum venisse." By the exer
tions of the Spanish government the citation was
not headed. But the Loci theologici were placed
on the Lisbon index in 1624, and were much altered
by the expurgator. 	K. BENRATH.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. H. Reuseh, Der Index der verbotenen Bucher, i. 303 et passim, Bonn, 1883; F. Caballero, Con‑

881	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Caaidns
Canon Law
quenasa $71nab". II. Mekhior Cano, pp. 279. 382. Madrid, 1871.
CANON: A word used in a variety of senses in ecclesiastical terminology, all more or less related to the primary meaning of the Greek word kanSn, " a straight rod or bar, rule, standard." (1) The decisive list of the books considered as forming part of the Holy Scriptures (see CANON OF &RIPTURE). (2) In ancient usage, any official church list, as of those who were to be commemorated in the liturgy, whence the term canonization, or of the clergy attached to a certain church, whence (3) A member of a body of clergy living together under a more or less definite rule in connection with a cathedral or collegiate church or in a quasimonastic organization as canons regular (see CHAPTER; Aucusxixierra; PRESHONSTRATENSIANS). (4) The decree or decision of a council for the regulation of doctrine or discipline (see CANON LAW). (5) The fixed, most important portion of the mass, from the ‑Sanctus to the Pater roster. (ti) In the hymnology of the Eastern Church, an important class of long and elaborate hymns usually sung in the morning office, founded mainly on the Old Testament canticles then used, and composed of either eight or nine odes.
CAftONESS: A member of a company of women under the rule of an abbess and bound by vows of celibacy and obedience, but not by one of poverty. Some canonesses were " secular," and the houses they lived in were homes for ladies of the nobility; but others were "religious" and lived in nunneries of the Benedictine or Augustinian order. Few of these establishments survived the Reformation, and their inmates generally became Protestants. Some of the houses became Protestant homes fur noble ladies, as those at Gandersheim, IIerford, and Quedlinburg in Germany.
CANON LAW.
I. Definition and General Discussion. II. Collections of Canons and Decretala.
1. Early History.	5.
2. First Codification.
3. Earliest Western Colleo
		lions.
	The QueaneUiana (§ I).
	The Priaca (§ 2).
	Collections of Dionysius
		(¢ 3).
4. Next period, by Coun
		tries.
Africa (4 I).
Spain (§ 2).
British Isles (§ 3).
Frankish Empire (§ 4).
Further Systematisation.
Forerunners of Gratian (¢ I).
Gratian (§ 2).
6. Collections of Decretals.
Before Gregory IX. (¢ 1)
Collection of Gregory (¢ 2).
Supplements to It (§ 3).
7. Corpus Juris Canonici.
Canon law is the sum total of the legal enactment.s of thqChurch.
I. Definition and General Discussion: In modern times the differences between various Christian Churches have brought about a variance of law, since it springs in the first instance from the development of the ecclesiastical consciousness; and it is thus possible to speak of Roman Catholic and Protestant canon law. While the expression is most commonly used in connection with the former, it 'is not quite coextensive or identical with the law of the Roman Catholic Church, but designates rather the content of the Corpus juris canonici (see below, IL, 7), in contrast with the newer
regulations based on the decisions of the Council of Trent, the concordats and bulls of circumscription of the nineteenth century, and the Vatican Council. These have in many particulars modified or superseded the older law, until a new codification of the whole mass of enactments has become necessary, and is now contemplated under the direction of Pope Pius X.
The canon law, in the sense thus assigned to the term, contains a large number of regulations pertaining to matters which, according to modern constitutions, have been withdrawn from ecclesiastical jurisdiction and placed under the ordinary secular tribunals. These provisions have thus ceased to be operative. They include the relations between Church sad State, the legal status of heretics, ecclesiastical jurisdiction, etc. The Roman Catholic Church, it is true, still maintains in theory the permanent validity of these enactments, and claims the same preeminent power and independence of the State as it possessed in the Middle Ages. Since the Reformation and the upbuilding of modern nationalities, however, the principle of the unity of jurisdiction and the authority of the law has proved irreconcilable with these claims. The freedom and independence conceded to the Church in the ordering of its own internal affairs by no means involves the absolute supremacy and validity of the canon law when it comes into conflict with the civil law, or releases the ecclesiastical authorities from their responsibility and their obedience to the State; for the freedom of the Church, like all other freedom in the modern world, is a freedom within the bounds of the law. But while the Roman Catholic Church appeals to divine mission and inalienable rights in support of its protest against these limitations, and has occasionally provoked serious conflicts by insistence upon its position in this matter, Protestantism from the very start tools a much more restricted view of the extent of ecclesiastical operations and of the authority of its own law, sometimes, where it is established, working directly with the State, but always submitting without question to civil ordinances. The difference is seen again in the fact that while Roman Catholicism recognizes only one Church, and thus only one valid church law, Protestantism, though holding its own interpretation of the Christian faith for the true one, does not claim exclusive jurisdiction over all creatures, and concedes to the various bodies which it conceives as forming an invisible unity the right to their own independent action in matters of legislation.
Canon law, the outcome of the Church's development, rests upon positive enactment, and the attempt to construct a natural ecclesiastical law on rational principles must necessarily fail, setting as it does arbitrary and subjective views in place of the positive data of church history. A philosophical treatment of church law is, on the other hand, of great importance. It grasps in their entirety the fundamental principles on which as a basis the actual development has taken place, correlates them with the objective conceptions and principles of the Church itself, and in this way

Canon Law
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
discovers not only the errors and deviations but
the inevitable tendencies and direction of the de
velopment. In modern times, since the delimita
tion of the boundary between Church and State,
doubt has been cast upon the independence of the
church law, as if there could be no law without
the action of the State, and what passed for law
outside this action was only an ethical standard,
not a juridical. The law of the State, however,
in its essence, is a product not so much of the State
as of the national consciousness of what is just,
and really precedes rather than follows the opera
tion of the State; its standards do not have to
wait for sanction until the State declares its readi
ness to enforce them by pains and penalties. The
Church as a distinct moral order is qualified to
regulate and develop its own internal functions
and institutions of its own motion. It is true that
until recently Protestant churches have to a large
extent been organized, especially in England and
Germany, by secular legislation; but this state
of things is really an anomalous one, not corre
sponding to the essential idea and meaning of the
Church. The result of the modern settlement
has been in most oases to leave the Church free
to develop independently its own system, without
the need of any special permission or privilege from
the State in order to give such regulations the force
of law within the Church. Its members realize
that they are bound to the fulfilment of such or
dinances because they have come into being in
a regular and legal manner, and so long as they
are not repealed m the same manner. This obli
gation is not a mere matter of conscience, but recta
on a basis of positive law, because the standards
of action imposed by it are the expression of the
will of the Church in its corporate capacity. Nor
does the Church lack means to enforce obedience
by the withdrawal of blessings which it alone is
empowered to impart and equally empowered to
withhold. According to the Protestant conception,
it is true the binding force of ecclesiastical regu
lations is to a great extent dependent upon the will
of the individual to be and remain a member of the
church fellowship. 	E. SEHLINl3.
II. Collections of Canons and Decretals.‑1. Early History: In the first three centuries the term canon was applied to the standard of right living accepted in the Church, resting partly on written and partly on oral tradition. When the synods, especially the general ones, became the main agents in the development of church life, their decisions on points of practise were also known as canons‑though this name was not usually applied to the decrees of local synods until the sixth century, after their inclusion in the great and widely circulated collections had given them a status and an authority in a measure analogous to those of the ecumenical councils. With the development of the primatial power of the pope, the name came at the beginning of the ninth century to be applied also to his decrees, and finally its use was extended in medieval terminology to any ecclesiastical enactment. The collections of canons were made up at first of the decrees of councils and of popes; later collections include, in addition to these, excerpts from
382
t the Fathers, from letters and regulations of bishops,
from Scripture, and even from Roman law, Frankish capitularies, and ordinances of German emperors. The Council of Trent employed the word exclusively for dogmatic propositions couched in juridical form and followed by an anathema.
2. First Codification: During the primitive age of the Church, when its constitution and discipline rested quite simply upon the precepts of Christ and .the Apostles and the new problems which were later to make the Christian life more complicated had not yet come up, there was no need for a codification of the laws. It is hardly necessary to say that the so‑called Apostolic Constitutions and Canons (q.v.) are the product of a later age. The systematic formulation of law began with the closer organization of the Church and the holding of synods. The earliest mention of a Codex cnnonum is found in the acts of the Council of Chalcedon (451), at which certain canons were read to the assembly from a collection. These, though numbered consecutively in the collection, can be identified as the sixth of Niceea (325) and the fourth, fifth, sixteenth, and seventeenth of Antioch (332). This collection, accordingly, seems to have contained the canons of several councils, beginning with the twenty of Nicaea and possibly closing with those of Antioch, including between these twenty‑five of Ancyra (314), fourteen of Neocaesarea (314), and twenty of Gangra (c. 365). There were undoubtedly other collections known in this period; one, which is still recognizable in the oldest Western Latin version, which omitted the canons of Antioch; others which included those of Laodicea (between 347 and 381), Constantinople (381), and Chakedon (451); and still others which had also those of Sardica (347) and Ephesus (431). There is, however, no basis for the supposition that either the collection read from at the Council at Chalcedon or any other of these collections had an official character.
8. Earliest western collections: Of these Greek canons, only those of Nicaea were at first accepted in the West, and those of Sardica in the Latin original. As early as the fifth century, however, there were collections here also of Greek canons in a Latin version, through which the Eastern decrees gradually acquired authority. Of these three deserve special mention. (1) The Isidorian
version, incorrectly so called because z. The it is found in the great collection long Quemel‑ ascribed to Isidore of Seville, is the
	liana.	oldest. It seems to have included
		originally only the canons comprised
in the oldest Greek collection, to w~ich those of
Antioch, Laodicea, and Conatantinop a were added
later. It was probably made in Italy; its date
can not be determined, but its version of the Nicene
canons was known in Gaul as early se 439. It was
first published in 1675 by Paschasius (,Zuesnell,
from a manuscript at Oxford of a collection appar
ently made in Gaul at the end of the fifth century.
(2) The Yeraio presca, made in Italy in the latter
half of the fifth century, which contains the canons
of Ancyra, Neoceesarea, Nicsea, Antioch, Gangra,
Constantinople, and Chalcedon; frequent use was

383	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Canon Law
made of it for the completion of the Ieidoriaa
version and for other collections, especially Italian.
		It was first published by Justeau in
	a. The the Bibliotheca juris canonici from
	prtxo, an imperfect manuscript, then more
		fully and accurately by the Ballerina
brothers. (3) That made by Dionysius Exiguus,
probably in Rome at the end of the fifth century,
and revised early in the sixth. It contains fifty
		"apostolic canons"; those of Nicma,
	g. Collec‑ Ancyra, Neociesarea, Gangra, Antioch,
	tions of Laodicea, and Constantinople from a
Dionysius. Greek collection; from anothertwenty
		seven of Chalcedon in a new version;
twenty‑one of Sardica in the Latin original; and the
acts of the Synod of Carthage (419). Somewhat
later, probably under Pope Symmachus (498‑514),
Dionysius made another collection of all the decrees
of popes known to him, including those of Siricius,
Innocent L, Zoaimus, Boniface L, Celestine L,
Leo L, Gelasiua L, and Anastasius II. Of a third
collection made by order of Pope Hormiedas
(514‑523), and containing the original text of
Greek canons with a Latin version, only the
prologue is extant. The first two, however,
combined into one, soon acquired preeminent
consideration; Caseiodorus (d. 536) says that they
were universally preferred in the Roman church
of his time; they were used in Africa, the Frankish
church, Spain, England, and Ireland. They were
supplemented in course of time by the decretals
of Hilary, Simplicius, Felix, Symmachus, Hormis
das, and Gregory II. A codex thus enlarged was
presented by Adrian II. to Charlemagne in 774;
this was taken, after the Capitulare eccle8iasticum
of 789, as the basis of the Frankish capitularies,
and probably sanctioned at the Synod of Aachen
in 802 as the official code of the Frankish church.
	4. Next Period, by Conatrles: The canonical
collections of the succeeding period may moat.
conveniently be grouped under their respective
countries. In Africa discipline rested primarily
on the decrees of home councils, special weight
		being given to the Synod of Carthage
	z. Africa. in 419, with whose acts those of the
		synods held under Aurelius from 393
were incorporated. These are the canons included,
though imperfectly, in the collection of Dionysius;
they were later translated into Greek and received
into Oriental collections. Of other African col
lections only two require special mention‑that
made before 546 by Fulgentius Ferrandus, a Car
thaginian deacon, under the name of Breviatio
canonum, containing some of the Greek canons in
the Isidoriaa *rsion and African canons down to
523, and the Concordia cancxutn, compiled C. 690 (7)
by Creeconius, possibly a bishop.
Spain had its collections of canons and decretals in the sixth century, as is shown by the acts of the Council of Brags in 563 and the Third
	s. Spain.	of Toledo in 579. The enforcement
		of order and discipline required a
oompleter codification, and a large collection seems
to have been made at the Fourth Council of Toledo
(833). By later additions it acquired the form in
which it is now printed (Madrid, 1808). Its first
or conciliar part contains the Greek canons found in the Iaidorian version, those of Sardica, those of the Third Council of Constantinople (681), and two letters of Cyril under the name of the Council of Ephesus; nine African councils; sixteen Gallic councils, from 314 to 549; and thirty‑six Spanish, from 305 (?) to 694. In this last division, to the canons of the Second Council of Brags is appended a collection made by Martin, archbishop of Brags, a native of Pannonia (d. about 580), by free translation and selection of Greek, African, Gallic, and Spanish canons. The second part contains decretals of the popes from Damasus to Gregory L, including all that Dionyaiua had placed in his. The compiler of this great collection, usually cited as HisPana, is unknown. There is no evidence to show that Isidore of Seville had any direct hand in it; his name was first connected with it by the compiler of the False Decretals, who incorporated the older and genuine collection with them.
In the British Isles the Celtic church developed a disciplinary system of its own in synods of whose proceedings scarcely anything has been preserved. For certain fifth‑ and sixth‑century canons of a penitential nature, see PENITENTIAL BOOKS. The Anglo‑Saxon church in like manner relied for s long time on ita.own legislative resources,
though the collection of Dionysius 3. British was known herein the seventh century. Isles. Except the penitential ordinances of
Theodore, Bede, and Egbert, no Anglo‑Saxon canons are extant. There is, however, an Irish collection of the seventh century or beginning of the eighth, compiled from Scripture, the Fathers, numerous Greek, African, Gallic, Spanish, and Irish synods, and papal decretals. The large number of Irish canons gives a specially interesting insight into the conditions of church life there.
The Frankish empire, before the period mentioned above, possessed a number of collections of Greek, Gallic, and Spanish canons and papal decretals, which, however, need‑ no detailed consideration. Besides the enlarged Dionysian collection, the Hzspana was also known at the end of the eighth century, and was used to complete the Codex sent by Adrian. The large extent of this material and its lack of chronological arrangement soon brought about attempts at selection and systematic arrangement, which were frequent in the eighth and ninth
centuries, and of which some deserve. 4. Freakish special mention. (1) A collection in
Empire. 381 chapters, sometimes found inde‑
pendently, sometimes as a fourth book to the canonical work erroneously ascribed to Archbishop Egbert of York. It dates from the end of the eighth century, and is important because of the use made of it by Regmo (see below, 5) and of the help which it gives toward explaining a number of erroneous titles which passed over into this and the Decreta of Burchard and Gratian. (2) The Collectio Acheriana, so called from its first publisher D'Ach€ry, extant in numerous manuscripts and belonging to the end of the eighth or beginning of the ninth century. Its canons, divided into three books, are taken without exception from Adrian's edition of Dionyaius and from the

Canon Law
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Hispana. (3) The Penitential of Iialitgar of C
brai, compiled between 817 and 831 at the request
of Archbishop Ebbo of Reims. Of its five boo
the first two are taken from the writings of Gregory
I. and Prosper of Aquitaine, while the larger part
of the last three, as well as the prologue, tom
from the two collections just named, especially the
second. All three of these collections are constructed with special regard to the penitential system of the time; and the same is true of the col‑
lections made by Rabanus Maurus, particularly
the Liber, pwrite?atium ad ptgarium of 841 and the
Epistola ad HereTialdum of 853, the main purpose
of which is to restore the ancient discipline b
appeals to the writings of the Fathers and the old canons and decretals. A somewhat similar character is seen in the Capituda episcopomm, or small collections made by individual bishops, sometimes with the assent of diocesan synods, for the regulation of their own subjects, usually from larger works, but occasionally including their own edicts and the provisions of local law.
6. Farther Systematisation: The great influence of the secular power on ecclesiastical action is the Carolingian period tender to add to the earlier church law a large amount of material, frequently covering matters'of church discipline, is the capitulariea of the Frankish kings. Efforts at systematisation were soon called forth in this field also by practical needs. The first was that of Abbot Ansegis, which, however, as it contains nothing but capitularies, dote not need further consideration here. It is different from the work which Benedict Levita of Mainz compiled in three books. Its purpose, according to him, was the completion of the work of Ansegis, but the imperial laws form only a small part of its contents, which are fns more largely taken from the Bible, the Fathers, the ancient canons, with Roman statute and German common law. The special interest of this collection is the relation in which it stands, or has been thought to stand, to the PseudoIsidoriau Decretals (q.v.).
	Between the ninth and twelfth centuries a large
number of compilations came into being, with the
purpose of bringing the wealth of material scat
tered throughout the older works into practical
relation with the more modern ecclesiastical prin
ciples. Unlike the smaller collections described
above, which usually served rather local interests,
these are as a rule of considerable size and suf
ficiently general to be used outside the limits of
the diocese in which they originate. Some of
them attained a wide currency and no little prac
tical importance; but only a few of them need
be mentioned for the purpose of this article. (1) The
as yet unpublished Collectio Ansedmo dedicates,
taking its name from an Archbishop Anselin, prob
		ably Anselin II. of Milan (883‑897).
r. Fore‑ It is certainly Italian in origin; its runners material is taken partly from Adrian's of Gratian, edition of Dionysius enlarged by the addition of Carthaginian, Gallic, and Spanish councils from the Hispana, and partly from the False Decretals, the Registrum of Gregory L, two Roman synods under Zacharias (743) and
books
384
w Eugeniua II. (826), the laws of Justinian, and the
t Noaedkc of Julian‑though probably this last part
was interpolated afterward. It is important not
r9' only as being the first to make a thorough use of
art the code of Justinian, but as being the source of
e a large part of the Deeretum of Burchard and
e through it of that of Gratian. (2) The Libra duo
de causis aynodalibu8 et discipliniseccleaiasticis> com
piled by Regino, abbot of Pram about 9(6, at the
request of Rathbod, archbishop of Treves, to be
Y teed by him and his representatives in the adenin‑
e istration of the diocese. This work interesting as
se another source of Burchard's as well as for its im‑
mediate relation to the synodal courts and the
practise of its time, was later enlarged, revised,
and borrowed from in a whole series of similar
collections. (3) The DeereEum (Liter decretorunz,
Collectarlum) of Bishop Burchard of Worms, com
piled between 1012 and 1023. The important
material contained in its twenty hooks embraces
the whole range of church discipline and order.
A peculiarity of Burchard is that he frequently
ascribes canons of councils and excerpts from Ro
man law, the capitularies, or penitential ordinances
to one of the older popes or councils, evidently
with the view of assuring their reception as author
itative‑thus misleading later compilers, especially
Gratisn. (4) The Collectia duodecim partium, still
imprinted; apparently made by a German very
soon after the completion of Burchard's. Theiner,
who was the first to call attention (in his DisqT,i
sitiones criticce, home, 1836) to the importance of
this collection, was under the erroneous impression
that it was a source of Burohard's; but the relation
is exactly the reverse. It contains, however, a
number of interesting Frankish and German canons,
some of them probably copied directly from the
original documents. (5) The collection of Bishop
Anselin of Lucca (d. 1086), which was incorporated
almost bodily in the Deaetvtm Gratiani, and which
contains a number of papal decretals not previously
known, and probably taken from the Roman ar
chives. (6) The collection of Cardinal Deusdedit,
dedicated to Pope Victor III. (1086‑87), in four
books, of which the last deals with the freedom
of the Church from secular interference, and thus
introduces an element new to these collections.
The ample use made of the Lateran archives gives
a special interest to his collection, much of which
is also in Gratian. (7) and (8) are two collections
attributed to Bishop No of Chartres (d. 1117}
the Decretum in seventeen books and the Pannor
mia in eight. The relation of these two works has
been the subject of much controversy; and if Ivo's
authorship of the Pannormia, atone time often
denied, is now considered certain, the Decretum,
on the other hand, has been recently thought not
to be his. Both, however, were abundantly drawn
upon by Gratian, as was also, though not to the same
extent, another unpublished collection (9), known
under the name of Collectio trium paTtium. Its
first part contains papal decretals down to Urban
II. (d. 1099) in chronological order, though not
complete; the second, canons of counils, similarly

arranged; the third, a separate collection of canons
taken from the Decretum of Ivo. (10) A work

ggg	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Canon Law
frequently used by the Correctores R,omani (see below, 7) is that compiled by a certain Cardinal Gregory in 1144, principally from the two collections Anselmi and Anaelmo dedieata. It is usually cited as Polycarpus, from the designation given to it by the compiler himself in his preface, addressed to Bishop Didacus of Compostella.
These collections, from such diverse counties and periods, had many defects when it came to a question of practical use. There was no sort of general arrangement, but ecclesiastical and secular, universal and local law were inextricably mixed up; discrepancies and contradictions were numerous; many regulations had become obsolete, and been replaced in actual practise by others. There was great need for the compilation of a new
s. Gratian. work which should give a comprehensive survey of the law that was in force. This was undertaken by Gratian, a brother of the Camaldolite monastery of St. Felix at Bologna. Between 1139 and 1142 he compiled a work entitled Concordantia discordantium canonum, though since the end of the twelfth century it has usually been known simply as the Decretum Gratiani. It is composed principally of the material found in (3) and (5) to (10) of the works named in the last section, and is divided into three parts. The first twenty " distinctions " in the first part contain propositions as to the sources of law, which Gratian designates as a treatise on decretals, followed by other treatises on qualifications for ordination, on ordination, and on ecclesiastical promotion. The second part, though other subjects occasionally come in, is mainly devoted to ecclesiastical jurisdiction, offenses, and legal proceedings, dealing in the last nine causce with the law of matrimony, with a separate treatise on penance put into the thirty‑third. The last part, entitled " Of consecration," deals with religious functions, and especially the sacraments, in five di~ tinctions. The feature moat characteristic of the work as a whole is that Gratian did not content himself with collecting canons to illustrate and enforce the principles to which they related and arranging them after a certain rather unsatisfactory system, but in the first two parts himself Orcidated these principles in (generally short) explanations to which he appended the canons as pieces justificatives. In these dicta of his the attempt is frequently visible to reconcile or eliminate the discrepancies appearing in the canons as they stand.
The extent to which the Decretum, in spite of all its defects, met a practical want of its day is seen by the approval and currency which it attained. The older collections were superseded by it; the work which Cardinal Laborans put together in 1182, containing much the same material with a really better arrangement, failed to attract attention. The wide popularity of Gratian's work is to be explained partly by the fact that it appeared at a time when Bologna was the headquarters for the study of law. The laborious activity of the gloesators of the Roman law afforded a model for the application of the same learned method to Gratian'e material. He himself lectured upon it, and thus became the founder of a new school of IL‑25
canonista who, in addition to their lectures, like the civil jurists, expounded separate passages of the Decretum by glosses or commentaries (see GLOaBF.9 AND GL068ATOR8 OF C.uvoN Lew). In this way it became known far and wide; and its authority was further strengthened by the fact that the popes made use of it and cited it. It was never, indeed. expressly confirmed by any pope, or received in the Church as an official codex; but the influence of the university insured its respectful acceptance and its application in practise. It was not long before others, particularly a pupil of Gratian's named Paucapaleo, added canons here and there to make it more complete‑at first in the form of marginal glosses, but later as a. part of the text, with the designation Pales., which must have referred originally to the above‑named scholar (though other interpretations have been attempted) and then have been adopted as a specific term for these additions. That they must early have crept into the text is shown by the fact that the majority of them are accepted in the work of Cardinal Laborans, a few years later.
8. Collections of Decretals: Great as was the popularity and the practical importance which the
I	Decretum acquired at the outset, it appeared, none the less, in a period characterized by great legislative activity on the part of the popes, who were now approaching the height of their power. The decretala issued from the twelfth century on contained an extraordinary wealth of new material for ecc1eeiastioal law, which in many particulars altered and further developed the previous discipline of the Church; and thus it was not long before the work of Gratian, which, when it was compiled, represented practically the whole extant canon law, came inevitably to be regarded as antiquated or incomplete, and the need of new collections was felt. These, because they were composed almost wholly of papal decrees and the canons of councils held under the pope's eye, were usually known as collectiones decrela.lium.
Of such collections made before Gregory IX., five deserve special mention. (1) The Breariarium extravagantium, completed about 1191 by Bernard, dean of Pavia. The title comes from the fact that the laws included in it, principally new ones, were such as were not found in the Deeretum, but, so to speak, wandered about homeless (extra Decretum vagantes). Bernard took his material partly from
j some older collections, of which he names explicitly the Corpus canonu. n (probably the Colleclio Anaelmo dedicata) and iiurehard, and partly, especially for the newer decret~a~la, from collections made after Gratian, IIl the division gad arrangement
of his work, he evidently took the code of Justinian for a model. The first book deals with eccle‑
eiaatical offices and prerequisites for judgment; the second, with judicial tribunals and their procedure;
the third, with the clergy and relig‑
r. Before ions orders; the fourth, with marGregory I%. riage, and the fifth with crime and its
Punishment. The work was accepted by the Bolognese teachers, and, as the first of its kind, became known as Compilatio prima. (2) By order of Innocent III. the papal notary Petrua Col‑

Canon Law
THE NEW
livacinus of Benevento made a collection of the decretals of that pope, issued in the first eleven years of his pontificate, to 1210, based upon two earlier ones which had not bin received at Bologna because they contained unauthentic documents. Innocent, sending the new work to the universities, guaranteed its fidelity to the Repeats, thus making it the first codification of canon law expressly authorized by any pope. This ComPilatio tertia, as it is called, marks a turning‑point in the history of canon law. The action of Honorius III., and still more of Gregory IX., shows how the development of ecclesiastical law had by their time become an exclusive privilege of the pope. (3) Though written after the last‑named, that which contains the decretals of the popes from Alexander III, to Innocent III. is known as Compilastio seconds from its place in the chronological order. These particular decretals had already been compiled by two Englishmen at Bologna, Gilbert and Alan, but the university had not approved their work, and it was now done over by Johannes Galenais (John the Welshman), his collection being accepted. (4) The Lateran Council of 1215 gave occasion for another compilation, known as Quarts, which included the decrees of the council and the papal pronouncements of the years following 1210. Its compiler is unknown. (5) In 1226 Honoriua III. sent to Bologna a collection of his own decretals and the constitutions of Frederick II. It was accepted as Compilatio quints, but was soon superseded, with the other four, by the official collection of Gregory IX.
In 1230 Gregory entrusted his chaplain Raymond of PeBaforte with the preparation of a new collection which should reduce all that had gone before to a consistent and intelligible whole. Raymond omitted a number of sections from the older compilations in order to avoid repetitions or discrepancies, revised some older decretals to s. Collection bring them into harmony with the of Gregory. moat recent legislation, condensed some long documents, and divided others into parts which could be classified by their subjects. This compilation was sent to Bologna by the pope in 1234 as the only authorized collection.
The legislative activity of the succeeding popes soon made supplements necessary, which were sent by them to the universities as separate compilations, but were intended to be added to the Gregorian collection. Thus Innocent IV. in 1245 sent to Bologna and Paris a list of the initial words of his bulls, desiring that they, as well as the decrees of the Council of Lyons, should be inserted in their proper places in the decretals of Gregory IX.; thus too the decretals of Alexander IV., Urban IV., and Clement IV. were put together in special collections. Gregory X. communicated to the universities the acts of the Second Council of Lyons (1274), and the same was done with a collection of five decretals of Nicholas III.
The same reasons which had influenced Gregory IX. induced Boniface VIII, to combine all the postGregorian decretals with his own numerous bulls into a single whole. In his bull of publication addressed to the universities of Bologna and Paris, lie emphasized the.unoartaintywhich had prevailed
SCHAFF‑HERZOG
in regard to the authenticity of some decretals, to eliminate which he had had a thorough revision and verification made. He promulgated
3. Supple‑ the new compilation in 1298 under the meats to It. name of Liter aextus, as being a completion of the five books of the Gregorian collection. The decretals subsequently issued by Boniface himself (including the famous bull Unam sanctam) and by his successor, Benedict XI., sixteen in number, were frequently appended to the Liher seztus, though without official authority. Clement V. had the decisions of the Council of Vienne (1311) and his own decretals collected (according to the traditional system) into five books, which he promulgated in 1313, apparently under the title of Liter aePtimua, and sent to the University of Orldana. Then, however, he stopped its further circulation and had it revised, so that it was sent to Paris and Bologna only by his successor John XXII. in 1317. This collection ultimately became known as the Clementine Constitutions. The difference between it and the other poet‑Gregorian compilations was that while they had borne to a certain extent the .character of exclusive codes, it did not exclude the other Extravagantea which had appeared since the Liter aezEus, and that it contained, besides the canons of Vienne, nothing but Clement's own decretals.
The reason for this abandonment by Clement V. and John XXII. of the system of their predecessors was the difficult situation in France,,and the desire to avoid provoking a rejection of their compilation by including in it matter which was certain to excite violent opposition there. This accounts for the fact that no further official collections of
decretals were published. The increasing difficulties of the papacy with the secular power and with national churches made the reception of such things problematical, at the same time that it claimed the best energies of the popes for other matters. O€ collections subsequently published, though no longer by the popes themselves, with the title of Extravagantea, two have retained some importance to the present day, because of their inclusion in the Corpus juris canonici. When at the end of the fifteenth century the booksellers Gering and Reinboldt in Paris undertook an edition of all the parts of the Corpus, they entrusted the editing of the Decretum, the Liter sextus, the Clementine, and the Extravagantea to Jean Chappuis, who made a new arrangement of the last‑named, preserved in all subsequent editions. He divided them into two collections; the first, Extrsvagantes Johanrcis Paper
XXII., contained twenty decretals of that pope, put together by himself in a chronologically consistent whole and glossed by Zenzelinus de Casaianis in 1325; the second, seventy‑four (originally seventy) decretals of popes from Urban IV. (1261‑64)

to Sixtus IV. (1471,84), known as Extravagsatea communes, not because they belong to a number
of popes, but because they are the commonly cited ones though no single previous edition had contained more than thirty‑three of these. In 1590 Petrua Mattbeeus published at Lyons a Liter sapli,mus containing decretals from Sixtus IV. to Sixtus V. (15&5‑90); but this, though printed as an ap‑

887	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Canon Law
pendix to many old editions of the Corpus juris canonici, never met with much recognition or use. Gregory XIII. appointed a commission to prepare an official Liber selrtimus, but the work, which finally included the dogmatic decrees of Florence and Trent, was not completely printed until 1598, in the pontificate of Clement VIII., under whose name it appeared; and then Clement, for some reason now unknown, refused to approve it. No further systematic collection of later decretala has been undertaken, though frequent chronological arrangements of them have been published under the title of Bullaria (see BaIEIrs, BULLa, AND BuLI,AxIA).
	7. Corpns Juris Canonici‑ It remains to give an
account of the Corpus juris canoniri, by which name
it has been customary since the sixteenth century
to designate the collection formed by combining
the Decretum Gratiani, the decretals of Gregory IX.,
the Liber aextua, the Clementina, and the two col
lections of Extravagantes made by Chappuis. The
name was applied to Gratian's work in the twelfth
century, and by Innocent IV. to the Gregorian col
lection; Pierre d'Ailly, in his treatise De necessi
tate re f ormationzs, written at the opening of the
Council of Constants, speaks of the reservations
prescribed " in corpore juris canonici," where there
is no doubt that he means the sum of the collec
tions named above, with the exception of the as
yet non‑existent Eztravagantes. During the coun
cil the term Corpus juris or jus scriptum was con
stantly employed in contradistinction to the poat
Clementine Ext‑ravagantes, and similarly at the
Council of Basel. The legal authority of the Ex
travagantes was, in fact, frequently contested, and
the thesis of the independent validity of every
papal pronouncement, which had had practical
effect since Innocent III., no longer recognized.
So far, then, this distinction was justified, and
while no new accepted collection was added to the
Clementina the previously accepted Corpus might
be considered as closed. The name does not occur
in the oldest printed editions, which is to be ex
plained by the fact that the component parts were
usually printed separately. In the sixteenth cen
tury it became usual for these parts, together with
Chappuis's two collections of Eztravagantea, to be
published by the same house in three volumes, the
first containing Gratian's work, the second the
decretals of Gregory IX., and the third the re
mainder with the glosses. In the latter half of
this century, however, it was more common to omit
the glosses and bind the whole in one volume, so
that the inclusive title now becomes usual. The
edition of Democharea (Paris, 1550, 1561) showed
a certain amount of critical spirit, but with little
result. During the sessions of the Council of Trent
the need of revision was clearly apparent, and
Plus IV. in 1563 established a commission of car
dinals and other scholars for this purpose. Under
his successors, Plus V. and Gregory XIII., it was
oonfir‑ed and enlarged to thirty‑five members.
The work of these Correctores Romani, as they are
called, was completed in 1580, and the resulting
revised edition published at Rome in 1582. Though
they had rendered valuable service, much remained
to be done, as was made evident by the editions of Antonius Auguatinus and Berardus‑to say nothing of the modern ones. The earlier editions usually contained a number of appendices, including the Institutiones juris canonici of Paul Lancelot, professor at Perugia under Paul IV. (1555‑59), the Liber septimus of Petrus Matthaeus, etc.
For the internal relations of the Roman Catholic Church the Corpus juris canonici is still the authority in common law, though with some limitations. The appendices are not considered authoritative, especially those just named, unless the single decretals contained in the last of them have been universally received; and the same principle applies to the Eztravagantes. The position taken at the councils of Constance and Basel was not affected by the edition of Gregory XIII., whose purpose was not to give them an official character by including them, but merely to establish a correct and authentic text of the documents which had previously been included in widely circulated collections. Acting on the same principle in regard to this edition of Gregory XIII., moat modern canoeists deny the positive authority of the Decretum Crratiani as such, since it was a mere private collection, never officially authorized by the Church or the pope, and regard it only as a valuable collection of documents for the history of canon law. This view was even expressed in a decision of the Rots Romans, too long to quote here, and more than once by Benedict XI V. But though this may be theoretically the case, yet in practise the Decretum has retained a large measure of authority: and Gregory XIII. himself would scarcely have displayed so much seal in having it edited and completed if he had regarded it as no more than a private compilation, without legal authority. Its contents, however, have in the lapse of time been to a great extent modified or rendered obsolete by later decretala, so that its practical importance is small.
Besides the general principle that a new law supersedes an older one, which has destroyed the validity of so much that is in the Corpus juris (not merely in Gratian's part of it), the course of secular legislation since the fourteenth century has, had a marked influence in the same direction. The canon law covers not merely the doctrine, worship, sacraments, and discipline of the Church, but a vast mass of other things in which ecclesiastical interests were supposed to be concerned, such as vows, oaths, betrothals, wills, funerals, benefices, church property, tithes, and the like. The reaction against the all‑embracing claims of the Church has taken many of these things out of the hands of the ecclesiastical tribunals (see .TBRISDICTION, ECCLESIASTICAL), while by its proclamation of the principle of the unity of national law and government it has reduced the Church to the position of any other corporation within the limits of the State; and thus a large number of canonical provisions, such as those covering the procedure against heretics, which conflict with the civil constitution, have necessarily become ineffective. In France, Belgium, and Italy it is still regarded as a part of the general body of law. In the German

Canon Law
Canon of scripture
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
Empire, after gradual restrictions in many of the component states, it ceased on Jan. 1, 1900, to have any legal validity outside of the internal discipline of the Roman Catholic Church.
(J. F, VON Sclaulxi:.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the conception end apologetics of
church law consult: W. T. Krug, Daa K%rchenreclat each Grundatltzen der Vernunfd and im Lichte des Chriatentuma, Leipsic, 1826, cf. F. Schirmer, Kirchenpeachichtliche UnterunDen. Berlin, 1829• C. Gross Zur Begri ffabeatimmunp urtd Wilrdigunp den Kirchenrechta, Graz, 1872.
•	Collections or digests supplementing those mentioned
in the text are: Z. B, van Eepen, Jua ealeaiaaticum univereale, 2 vole., Louvain, 1700: A. Reiffenetiil. Jua canonicum univeraum, 3 vole., Venice, 1704; J. H. BShmer, Jua eccleaiaaticum Proteatantium, 5 vole., Halls, 1714; F. SchmalzgrUber, Jun eccleaiaaticum univeraum, 5 vole., Ingoletadt, 1728. Other discussions are: J. F. Schulte, Dan katholisclte Kirchenrecht, 2 vole., Giessen, 1856‑80; D. Craisson. Manuals totiua juria canon%ci 4 vole.: Paris. 1883 • F. Walter Lehrbuch den Xirchenrechta alter chnatZxchen Konjesaionen, 14th ed., Bonn, 1871; F. Thudiehum, Kirchenrecht 2 vole., Leipsic, 1877‑78; A. 1,. Richter, Lehrbuch den kathoZiac>aen and evanpeliachen Kirchenrechta, 8th ed. by W. Kahl, Leipsic, 1877‑86; W. Kahl, Kirchenrecht url Kirchepolitik Freiburg, 1894; . Geigel, Reecha‑ and reichaliindiachea Kirchen‑ and Stiftunparecht Strasburg, 1900; E. Friedberg, Lehrbuch den kathoZiarhen and eoanpeliachen Kirchenrechta, Leipsic, 1903.
Works in Eng. on the general question are: J. Fulton,
I. The Canon of the Old Testament.
1. History Among the Jews.
Traditional Account of the Rise of the Collection (§ 1).
The Theory of the Synagogue (§2).
Criticism of the Two Theories ( § 3).
Positive Exposition. a. The Pentateuch‑the So‑called " First Canon "; b. The Hiatorico‑prophetie and Distinctively Prophetic Books‑the " Second Canon "; c. The Hagiographathe" Third Canon " (¢ 4).
2. Witnesses for the Second and Third Parts of the Canon.
3. Supposed Jewish Dissent from the Canon.
4. History of the Old Testament Canon Among the Jews.
The Triple Division (§ 1).
Order (¢ 2).
CANON OF SCRIPTURE.
Number of the Canonical Books (§ 3).
5. The Old Testament Canon in the Christian Church. Patrieticand Medieval Writers (§1). The Ancient Oriental Versions (§ 2). The Roman Catholic Church (§ 3). The Greek Church (§ 4). The Protestant Church (§ b).
6. The Names of the Old Testament end of Its Chief Divisions.
II. The Canon of the New Testament.
1. The Terms Used.
2. The New Testament, 170‑220. The Four Gospels (¢ 1). The Pauline Letters (§ 2). The Acts of the Apostles (§ 3). The Apocalypse (§ 4). The Catholic Epistles (§ 5). Writings Temporarily Regarded as Canonical (¢ 6).
	Canon of Scripture is a term that designates the
books of the Bible accepted as authoritative. The
word " canon " (Gk. kanon) means primarily a
straight staff, then a measuring‑rod, hence, figura
tively, that which is artistically, scientifically, or
ethically a guide or a model; so in the earliest
Christian use (Gal. vi. 16; Phil. iii. 16; Clement of
Rome, i. 7, 41) the canon was a leading thought,
s normal principle. The next change of meaning
(indicated by Clement of Alexandria, Strom., VII.
xvi. 94) was to a type of Christian doctrine, the
orthodox as opposed to the heretical. Since 300
the plural form " ° canons " has been used of eccle
siastical regulations (see CANON). Now, since the
Christian doctrines were professedly based upon
the Scriptures, the writings themselves were natu
rally known as the canon; and the test of the
canonicity of any particular writing was its
reception by the Church. The earliest use of
the word in this sense is in the fifty‑ninth
canon of the Council of Laodicea (363), " No
388
Index Canonum,.Gk. Text with Translation and Complete Digest of Canon Law of the Universal Church, New York, 1892; S. B. Smith, Element# of Ecclesiastical Law, with Reference to the Syllabus Constitutions# apoatolicee aedia of Pope Pi" IX., the Council of the Vatican . . . , 3 vole., ib. 1893‑94. For English church law consult: E. Gibson, Codex juria eccleaiaat%ci Anglicani: or, the Statutes, Constitutions, Canons, Rubrics, and Articles . .
Methodically Digested . , wih a Commentary, London, 1713, cf. [M. Foster], An Examination of the Scheme of Church‑Power Laid Down in the Codex juria eecl. Anplicani ib. 1735; C. H. Davis, English Church Canons of 1801,; with historical Introuction and Notes, ib. 1869; M. E. C. Walcott, Constitutions and Canons Ecleaiaaticnd of the Church of England Referred to Their Original Sources
ib. 1874; Sir. VV. Phillimore, Law of the Church of England, 2 vole., ib. 1895; F. W. Maitland, Canon Law
in England ib. 1898; A. T. Wirgman, Constitutional Author.;ty of the Bishops in the Catholic Church Illustrated by History and Canon Law, ib. 1899. Consult also E. Taunton The Law of the Church. A CycZopaxlia of Canon Law for English‑speaking Countries, London, 1906.
For American church law consult: F. Vinton, Manual Commentary on !he General Canon Law of the Protestant
Episcopal Church New York, 1870; M. Hoffmann, Ecclesiastical Law in the State of New York, ib. 1888; idem Ritual Law of the Church, ib. 1872• ; S. Perry, The
General Ecclesiastical Constitution of the American Church, ib. 1891; Revised Constitution and Canons of the Protestant Episcopal Church ib. 1895• H. J. Desmond , The Church and the Law, with Special Reference to E'ecleaiaatical Law in the United States. Chicago, 1898:
Summary (§ 7).
3. The New Testament 140‑1.70.
Marcion'e Bible (§ 1).
The Bible of the Valentinians (§ 2) The Apostolic Writings in Justin Martyr (§ 3).
4. The Oldest Traces and the Origin of Collections of Apostolic Writings.
The Collection of Pauline Letters (§ 1).
The " Gospel " (§ 2).
Other Writings (§ 3).
5. Origen and his School.
6. The Original New Testament of the Syrians.
7. Lucian and Euaebius.
8. Athanasius.
9. The Development in the Orient
till the Time of Justinian.
10. The Assimilation of the West.
psalms of private authorship can be read in the
Church, nor uncanonical books, but only the canonical books of the Old and New Testaments," and contemporaneously in Athanasius (Epistola /esdalis, i. 961, Paris, 1698). A few years later the use was general.
I. The Canon of the Old Testament.‑1. History Among the Jews: The theory, which was almost universally received for fifteen hundred years, that
Ezra was the author of the Old Tes:. Tradi‑ lament canon, dates from the first tional Ac‑ Christian century; for it is found :n count of the IV (II) Ezra xiv. 44 that Ezra was Rise of the inspired to dictate during forty days Collection. to five men ninety‑four books, of
which twenty‑four were to be pubfished. These twenty‑four quite evidently are the twenty‑four books of the Hebrew canon, accort$aF to the counting given below; and the seventy am the Jewish Apocrypha alluded to in the Gospel of Ness xxviii. (ANF, viii. 4b3). What the

389	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Canon Law
Canon of Scripture
Fathers have to say upon this matter is derived in part from I V Ezra, and is equally fabulous.
The theory above mentioned has been supposed to be the one prevalent among the Jews themselves.
But this has no other support than s. The The‑ that the eminent rabbis David Kimchi ory of the (d. 1240) and Elias Levity (1472Synagogue. 1549) remarked on the work of Ezra and the men of the Great Synagogue, in bringing together the twenty‑four books in their divisions. The only Talmudic passage which can be quoted directly in its behalf is in Baba Bathra ; for the other quotations commonly made prove merely the care of Ezra and the men of the Great Synagogue for the law, not for the canon; indeed, mostly for the oral law, and some also for alterations in the text. The passage is in these words: " The order of the prophets is Joshua and Judges, Samuel and Kings, Jeremiah and Ezekiel, Isaiah and the Twelve. Hosea is the first, because it is written, ` The beginning of the word .of Jehovah by Hoses' (i. 2). Did God, then, speak to Hoses first? and have there not been many prophets between him and Moses? R. Johanan explained this as meaning that Hoses was the first of the four prophets who prophesied at that time,Hoaea, Isaiah, Amos, and Micah. Why, then, was lie not put first? Because his prophesy stands next to that of the latest prophets, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi: he is therefore counted with them. So this prophet should have been kept by himself, and inserted before Jeremiah? No: he was so small that he might then easily have been lost. Since Isaiah lived before Jeremiah and Ezekiel, ought he not to have been put before them? [No.] because Kings closes with destruction, Jeremiah is entirely occupied with it, Ezekiel begins with it but ends with consolation, while Isaiah is all consolation; hence we can not connect destruction with destruction, and consolation with consolation. But Job lived in the time of Moses; why should he not come in the first part? No; for it would never do to begin with misfortune. Yet Ruth contains misfortune? True; but it issues in joy. And who wrote them? Moses wrote his book and the Balsam section and Job. Joshua wrote his book and eight verses in the Law (Dent. xxxiv. 5‑12). Samuel wrote his book, Judges and Ruth. David wrote Psalms for ten Elders. Jeremiah wrote his book, Kings, and Lamentations. Hezokiah and his company wrote Isaiah, Proverbs, the Song, and Ecclesiastes. The men of the Great Synagogue wrote Ezekiel, The Twelve, Daniel, and Esther. Ezra wrote his book and the genealogies in Chronicles up to his time. That is a support for the saying of Rab; for Rab Jehuda says, in the name of Rab, ` Ezra did not leave Babylon until he had written his own family register.' Who ended it? Nehemiah the son of Hachaliah." The understanding of this passage depends upon observing that the word " wrote " is used in different senses, of actual authorship, of editorship, and of merely collecting and placing together books which had not before been brought into connection. It will be perceived that the passage says nothing about the closing of the canon, but also that it
would readily furnish ground for the idea .that the canon was closed in the time of Ezra and the Great Synagogue.
	Both theories agree in assigning the collection
of the Old Testament to Ezra and his companions
and successors, and also asserting that the division
into the Law, the Prophets, and the Hagiographa
(see below) was primitive. But against this, two
		objections may be urged: (1) Critical
3. Criticism investigation assigns the first part of
of the Two the Book of Daniel, on account of its
	Theories.	Greek words, to a time when Greek
		was understood, and the second part to
the Maccabean age (see DANIEL, BOOK OF); (2) The
position of some of the historical books, e.g., Ezra
sad Daniel, among the Hagiography, is inexpli
cable if the canon was made at one time. Moses
Maimonides, David Kimchi, and Abarbanel ex
plained the fact by a difference in inspiration. But
Christ calls Daniel a prophet (Matt. xxiv. 15; Mark
xiii. 14).
The Hebrews, like other ancient peoples, preserved their sacred writings in sacred places. So the law was put by the side of the ark of the covenant (Dent. xxxi. 26), with its additions by Joshua (Josh. xxiv. 26); Samuel laid the law of the kingdom " before the Lord " (I Sam. x.
4. Positive 25); Hilkiah, the high priest under
Exposition. Josiah, found the book of the law
a. The Pen‑ "in the house of the Lord" (II Kings
tateuch‑ xxii. 8). We are, therefore, safe in the So‑called believing that since the time of Mo‑
"First	sea documents and intt;lligence con‑
Canon." cerning the Mosaic giving of the law, besides the tables of the covenant, and also whatever of law and history Moses had written, were carefully preserved in the sanctuary (Ex. xxiv. 4, 7, xxxiv. 27; Num. xxxiii. 2). The priests also would retain partly oral and partly written information (subsequently combined in the Prieatcode) in regard to many similar matters. The existence of an authoritative code is proved (a) by the use of the " Book of the Covenant " in Deut., and (b) in the Priest‑code; (c) by Hos. viii. 12; i (d) by II Kings xxii. The Books of Kings, finished i during the exile,. mention by name the " Book of j the Law of Moses," by which only Deuteronomy is j meant (cf. II Kings xiv. 6; Deut. xxiv. 16; I Kings j ii. 3; II Kings xxiii. 25). The mention of the Book I of the Law of Moses (Josh. i. 7‑8; viii. 31, 34, ~ xxiii. 6) can not be taken without limitation, since I it proceeds from the Deuteronomic editor of Joshua. I Hag. ii. 11‑13 shows the existence of the Priests code, dealing, as the passage does, with two statutes of that code. The Wellhausen hypothesis, that the Priest‑code was the private possession of ~ Ezra till 445 B.c., and that Neh. viii.‑x. tells of the introduction of the law, is in incompatible contradiction with that passage. The lowest date for the separation of Joshua [from the Pentateuch] is the time of Nehemiah and the Samaritan schism.
The prophets were the spiritual exhorters and guides of the people, and therefore held in high esteem by the faithful, whose natural desire to have a coilection of their writings there is every reason to believe was early gratified. At all

Canon of Scripture
events, it is quite evident from the prophetic parallels that the prophets were acquainted with one another's writings. The loss of so 6. The Hilt‑ much sacred literature in the deatrucorico‑pro‑. tion of Jerusalem by the Chaldeana phetic and made the collection of the remaining
	Distinct‑	historic as well as prophetic books
	ively pro‑	the more imperative. The success of
	phetic	a collection of historical books was
	Books‑the	furthered by the fact that Joshua
	Second	continued the narrative of the Pen‑
	Cttnon."	tateuch. Since Kings continues the
		history in I and II Sam., and may be
placed in the latter half of the exilic period, the
close connection with the earlier prophets gave the
name to them of " the Former Prophets " and
secured a high estimate for their on the return from
Babylon.
David and Solomon began the arrangement of the temple praise‑service and a collection of Psalms, and later collections and. individual c' The Ha‑ Psalms were added. The time of
	giographa	Nehemiah was very productive. The
	the "Third	division into five books is older than
	Canon."	the Chronicler. The first collection
		of the Proverbs of Solomon (cf. Prov.
s. 1‑xxii. 18) was so highly valued that Hezekiah
ordered a second to be prepared (Prow. xxv. 1).
The name of the wise man sufficed to recommend
Canticles; its age and contents, the Book of Job.
Lamentations appealed directly to every patriotic
Jew during the exile, and was accepted as sacred,
although Jeremiah was not its author. Ruth, by
age, and especially by its genealogy .of David, was
put in the third canon, and formed an introduction
to the Psalter. These early writings were followed
gradually by the others, Ezra‑Neh., I and II Chron.,
Eccles., Esther (an explanation of Purim, the
festival the Persian Jews brought back with them),
and finally Daniel, in the time of the Maccabees.
After this time, and down to the destruction of
Jerusalem by Titus, 70 A.D., the nation was so
affected by Greek customs, and divided by the
growing rival parties, the Pharisees and Sadducees,
that its religious development was too much hin
dered for any work to receive universal recognition,
and hence canonicity. The reception of Dan. into
the canon appears explicable under the circum
stances only if a Daniel narrative, the basis of Dan.
ii.‑vi., already existed (cf. Ezek. xiv. 14, 20; xxviii.
3). Not long after the Maccabees, the second
collection or canon received its name, the Prophets,
descriptive not only of a portion of its contents,
but of their authorship; and thus the three divi
sions of the Old Testament canon‑the Law, Proph
ets, and Hagiographa‑dated from the second
century B.c. (cf. the Prologue to Ecclesiasticus).
Valentin Loescher (De causis linguce Hebrcece, p. 71,
Leipsic, 1706) said rightly: " The canon came not,
as they say, by one act of man, but gradually
from God.'.
8. Witnesses for the Second and Third Parts of the Canoe: Jesus Sirach (Ecclus. slur.‑xlix., especially glia. 10) shows acquaintance only with the Prophets in the wider sense. the " second canon." His grandson testifies to the ‑third divi‑
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
390
sion also. The Second Book of Maccabees, dated by Niece (Kritik der beiden Makkabaerb4cherBerlin, 1900) 125‑124 B.c., in the section i. 10‑ii. 18 contains an account of the recovery of the sacred fire, a quotation from the " records " of Jeremiah (a lost apocryphal writing); and then follows ii. 13: " And the same things also were reported in the records, namely, the memoirs of Nehemiah [another apocryphal writing], and how he, founding a library, gathered together the books concerning the kings and prophets, and those of David, and epistles of kings concerning holy gifts." This reference to the " epistles of kings concerning holy gifts " can not denote the Book of Ezra, but only a collection of documents regarding international matters, such as would be of value to a statesman like Nehemiah, and which had connection with the temple and its offerings. It, therefore, bears witness to Nehemiah's collection of the second canon substantially as we have it to‑day, in addition to the Psalms and the documents so weighty for the rebuilt city. The next verse, " And in like manner also Judas gathered together all those books that had been scattered by reason of the war we had and they are with us," applies only to the third canon. Therefore, the last enlargement of the Hebrew canon took place under Judas Maccabseus; although probably most of the books of the third canon had previously been preserved in the temple archives.
Philo had the same canon as ours (cf. C. Siegfried, Philo, p. 161, Jena, 1875), and quotes from almost all the books; while from the Apocrypha he makes no excerpts or citation, not giving it the honor he accords to Plato, Hippocrates, and several other Greek .writers. * The New Testament contains quotations principally from the Pentateuch, Prophets, and Psalms, as might be conjectured from its scope, but recognizes the threefold division of the canon (Luke xxiv. 44). In this verse " The Psalms " does not stand for the entire Hagiographa; for our Lord meant to emphasize the fact that the Psalms spoke of him. The use of the phrase " the Law and the Prophets " (Matt. v. 17; Acts xxviii. 23) does not imply a division into two parts. The Syrians used the same expression for the whole Old Testament. The absence of quotation in the New Testament of any Old Testament book argues nothing against its canonicity. The use by the New Testament of Apocrypha or Pseudepigrapha has no bearing on the canonical statue of the books used of cited. Joeephus (Apron, i. 8)

* P. C. Lucius, Die Theraptufen and Are Skllunp in der Askew, Strasburg, 1880, has proved that the De vita eontemplatiroa was not written by Philo and consequently the classic passage‑ In every house there is a sacred shrine, which is called the holy place, and the monastery in which they [the Therapeutics] retire by themselves, and perform all the mysteries of a holy life . . studying in that place the laws and the inspired words through the prophets and hymns and the other [writings), by which knowledge and piety are increased and perfected " (Ds vita contempt., iii.), which is the only direct reference to the threefold division of the canon found m Philo'e works (genuine and pretended) ‑must be given up. [The passage is translated by C. p. Yonge. Philo, in Bohn's Library, iv. 8. F. C. Conybeare in his edition of Philo About the Contemplation Life (Oxford, 1895) defends the Philonian authorship.]

391	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Canon of Scripture
bears the strengeaL testimony for the canon,* and, as is evident, expresses the national and not his private opinion. And, further, the books mentioned are not mere literature, but a sacred, divine collection. He enumerates twenty‑two books; thus, 1. The five books of the Law; 2. The thirteen Prophets, counting the twelve minor Prophets as one book, and Lamentations with Jeremiah; 3. The four Hagiographa‑Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastea, and Canticles. But this arrangement is not to be looked upon as either old or correct.
S. Supposed Jewish Dissent from the Canon: This dissent is not real, only apparent; but appeal has been made (a) to the Talmudical controversies about certain books, e.g., Esther; on further examination these " controversies " are perceived to be mere intellectual displays; there is no intention of rejecting any book. (b) The Book of Sirach, it is said, is quoted as Scripture; but there is no proof that it was regarded as Scripture, and the two or three quotations are memoriter, and probably made under a misapprehension of their source. (c) A high regard for the Book of Baruch is asserted, but all Jewish literature furnishes no proof. On the other hand, the late origin of the book is against the assumption; it is dependent upon Dan. ix., and was not composed till after the capture of Jerusalem by Titus. (d) The Septuagint is supposed by some to show that the Alexandrian Jews had a different canon from the Palestinian, because books are added to the canonical twentyfour and additions are made to some of the canonical books; but this does not follow. For the Palestinian idea of a canon (namely, the compositions of inspired prophets, a class of men not then existent) was not known in Alexandria, where, on the contrary, the statement of Wisdom (vii. 27), "[Wisdom] from generation to generation entering into holy souls prepares them friends of God, and prophets," was fully believed, as by Philo (cf. De cherubim, ix.) and Josephus (War, I. iii. 5, II. viii. 12, III. viii. 3, 9), who even declared that they themselves had been at times really inspired, and freely accorded the fact unto others. Therefore, to an Alexandrian Jew, there was no impropriety in enlarging the Greek translation of the Old Testament, not only by additions of sections to the canonical books, but of entirely new books. The great respect entertained for the Septuagint was extended to these additions, but without giving the latter any canonical authority. There was no Alexandrian canon; for neither the number nor the order of the books added was fixed.

* This passage in condensed form is as follows: " we have twenty‑two books containing the records of all the past times, and justly believed to be inspired. Five of them are Moses'. These contain his laws and the traditions of the origin of mankind till his death. From Moms to Artaxerxes the prophets made the record in thirteen books. The remaining four books contain hymns to God, and precepts for the conduct of human life. The history written since that day, though accurate, is not so much esteemed, because there has not been an exact succession of prophets. No one dares add to, take from, or alter them; but all Jews esteem these books to contain divine doctrines, and are willing to die for them."
4. History of the Old Testament Canon Among the Jews: The Triple Division of the Hebrew canon is testified to by the prologue to Sirach and the New Testament (Luke xxiv. 44).
z. The The Septuagint gave up this division in Triple favor of a different one‑the present Division. Christian arrangement of the books in the order, history, poetry, prophecy ‑and inserted the apocryphal books and sections in appropriate places.
The order of the books in the Hebrew canon is as follows: 1. The Torah or "Law"‑the five books of Moses; 2. The Nebhiim or
	z. Order.	" Prophets"‑(a) the " Former Proph
		ets," Joshua, Judges, I and II Samuel,
I and II Kings; (b) the " Latter Prophets," Isaiah,
Jeremiah. Ezekiel, the twelve minor Prophets;
3. The Kethubhim (" Writings ") or HagiograPha
Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Canticles, Ruth, Lamenta
tions, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, and
Nehemiah, I and II Chronicles, in all, twenty‑four
books. The view once entertained that Ruth and
Lam. once were in the second canon and were trans
ferred to the third when it was formed has no basis
in fact. The principle of arrangement of the hie
torico‑prophetical books is chronological. The
Mishnah arranges the prophetical books proper in
order of length: Jer., Eaek., Isa., the Twelve.
But with this went probably the recollection that
as a whole Is&. was later than Jer. and Ezek. The
Masorites put Isa. first. In some MSS. of the
third canon the most important book, Ps., intro
duced by Ruth, is at the head, then Job and the
three books connected with Solomon's name, and
the four latest books at the close. The Masorites
arrange: Chron., Ps., Job, Prov., Ruth, Song of Sol.,
Eccles., Lam., Esther, Dan., Ezra. Manuscripts
differ greatly in the order of these books.
	Jewish tradition, except when influenced by
Alexandria, unanimously gives the number as
twenty‑four. Nevertheless, it is usual to say that
the original reckoning was twenty‑two. If, how
		ever, the witnesses for the latter num‑
3. Number bar be not counted, but weighed, it is of the plain that the authority they rest upon Canonical is Alexandrian; and this is worthless
	Books.	for getting at the primitive reckoning,
		because the Alexandrian Jews not only
altered the order and division of the books, but
added to them others not in the canon. Further
more, the Alexandrians arrived at the number
twenty‑two by joining Ruth to Judges, and Lam
entations to Jeremiah. Having thus made twenty
two, they were impressed with its numerical agree
ment with the number of letters in the Hebrew
alphabet. This idea was thought significant, part
of the divine intention indeed; and so it became
fixed in the Jewish mind. The Church Fathers
took it up in their uncritical fashion; and so it has
come down to our day. Josephus first gives
twenty‑two; but he makes greater use of the Sep
tuagint than of the Hebrew original. It is note
worthy that Epiphaniue and Jerome, who reckon
the books twenty‑two, mention also twenty‑seven;
i.e., the Hebrew twenty‑two letters, with the five
final letters (the letters which have a special form

Canon of Scripture
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
when at the end of ~a word); made by separating the double books, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, and Ezra. But this double counting was only possible for Jews using the Septuagint, since the original does not divide these books. Further, neither in the Talmud nor in the Midrash is there the least trace of any acquaintance with the number twentytwo; but, on the contrary, twenty‑four is always given, not because it corresponds with the twentyfour Greek letters, but simply as the natural result of the gradual rise of the canon. In the present printed Hebrew Bible the number is thirty‑nine, similarly counted, though not arranged, with those of Protestant Bibles.
6. The Old Testament Canon in the Christ'Church: The Fathers did not impugn the authority of the Old Testament; but, because of the universal
use of the Septuagint, they recognized
z. Patristic as Scripture what we regard as Apocand rypha. Origen, who counts only the
Medieval books of the Hebrew canon, yet speaks
Writers of Jeremiah, Lamentations, and the
Epistle as in one [book]. Justin Martyr used the additions to Daniel; Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Cyprian, and others used the Apocrypha with the same formula of citation as when they used the Old Testament. From the fourth century the Greek Fathers make less and less use of the Apocrypha; while in the Latin Church conciliar action justified and emphasized their use. Jerome alone speaks out decidedly for the Hebrew canon. During the Middle Ages the Apocrypha were not recognized by the majority of the Greeks; while just the opposite was true of the Latino, although not a few followed Jerome.
The Book of Esther, because of its contents, was sometimes excluded from the Christian Old Testament canon. Melito of Sardis (170 A.D.) omits it from his list (see Eusebius, Hilt. eccl., IV. xxvi.), although perhaps it has rather dropped out after Eedras (Ears), inasmuch as in other lists it comes next to this name. It is also omitted by Athanasiua (Epistola Featolis, i. 961, ed. Bened.), 'I Gregory Nazianzen (Caret., xxxiii. ), and in the sixth century by Junilius (De partibus legis divine, i. 3‑7). On the other hand, it is included in the canon by Origen, Cyril of Jerusalem, and Epiphanies.
The old Syrian Church did not receive the Apocrypha. They are not in the Peshito, although found in a later Syriac translation. Ephraem
Syrus (d. 373) does not give
s. The them canonical authority. Aphraates
Ancient (fourth century) cites from every
Oriental canonical book, but urea the Apoc‑
Versions. rypha sparingly and not in such a
way that they must be regarded se canonical. A great difference is perceptible in the Peshito translation between Chronicles and the other books. This has started the query whether Chronicles was accepted as canonical by the Syrian Church. The Neatorians certainly rejected it and Esther. The Ethiopic translation follows the Septuagint throughout, and contains not only the canonical but also the apocryphal books, except that for I and II Maccabees it substitutes two books of its own under the same name,
and some pseudographs of which the Greek texts do not now exist; for the Ethiopic Church makes even less difference than the Alexandrian between canonical and uncanonical books. (See PSEUDEPIQIZAPHA, OLD TESTAMENT.)
The Roman Catholic Church is committed to the use of the Apocrypha as Scripture by the decision of the Council of Trent at the fourth
3. The session. In order to get a normal
Roman	text for purposes of quotation, a Bible
Catholic	was published in Rome in 1592 under
	Church,	the order and care of the pope. In
		it is given Jerome's remark, that the
additions to Esther and Daniel which are printed
are not in the Hebrew text; and in smaller type
the candid announcement is prefaced to the Prayer
of Manasees and the Third and Fourth Books of
Ears, that, while it is true they are not in the Scrip
ture canon of the Council of Trent, they are still
included because they are quoted occasionally by
certain of the Fathers, and are found both in printed
and manuscript copies of the Latin Bible. The
decree of the council was not passed without oppo
sition; and later Roman Catholics, such as Du
Pin, Dissertation prelimindire ou proUgonNnea Sur la
Bible, Paris, 1899; and B. Larry, Apparatus bx'blieus,
II. v. 333, Lyons, 1723, have endeavored to estab
lish two classes of canonical books‑the proto
canonical and the deuterocanonical‑attributing
to the first a dogmatic, and to the second only an
ethical authority; but this distinction contravenes
the decision of Trent, and has found little support.
	In early times and in the Middle Ages many
distinguished three kinds of writings, the canon
ical, recognized, and apocryphal. So the "Easter
Epistle " of Athanasius. The synods of Conatan
tinople (1638), Jassy (1642), and Jerusalem (1672)
expressly reject the view of Cyril Lucar, patriarch
		of Constantinople, and others, which
	The distinguishes the canonical form from
	Greek the apocryphal. And the last, which
	Church. is the most important in the history
		of the Eastern Church, defined its
position in regard to the Apocrypha in the answer
to the third question appended to the Confession of
Dositheus, in which it expressly mentions Wisdom,
Judith, Tobit, History of Bel and the Dragon, His‑
tory of Susannah, the Maccabees (four books), and
Ecclesiasticua as canonical. Reuss (Geschichte der
heiligen Schreften, § 338, Brunswick, 1878) says
that the official Moscow edition of the Bible of
1831 has all the Apocrypha, Ezra, in both recen
siona, with Neh. and I‑I V Mace. at the end of the
historical books, the Prophets before the seven
Poetical or Wisdom books. But the " Longer Cate
chism" of Philaret (Moscow, 1839), the most au
thoritative doctrinal standard of the orthodox
Grew‑Russian Church, expressly leaves out the apocryphal books from its list on the ground that " they do not exist in the Hebrew " (cf. Schaff, Creeds, ii. 451). See EAaTERN CHURCH, IIL, 19.
The Lutheran symbols do not give any express declaration against the Apocrypha Nevertheless, they are denied dogmatic value. Luther translated them, not, however, III and IV Ezra, and recommended them for private reading, except‑

393	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Canon of scripture
ing Baruch and II Mace. In the first complete edition of the Bible (Zurich, 1530) the Apocrypha
stood at the end. With this agree g. The the decisions of the other Reformed Protestant churches: the "Gallican Confession,"
Church. 1559, §§ 3, 4; "Belgic Confession,"
1561, §§ 4‑8; "Thirty‑nine Articles," 1562, § 6 (cf. Schaff, Creeds of Ch7`iste»dom, iii.). The Book of Common Prayer contains readings from the Apocrypha and especial recommendation of portions of Wisdom and Sirach. At the Synod of Dort (1618), Gomarus and others raised an animated discussion by demanding the exclusion of the apocryphal Ezra, Tobit, Judith, and Bel and the Dragon from the Bible. This the synod refused to do, although speaking strongly against the Apocrypha. Sixmlarly opposed to them was the Westminster Assembly of Divines, 1647, Confession of Faith, i. 3; the Arminians, Confessio . . . pastorum, gui . . remonatrontes vocantur, i. 3, 6; the Socinians (Ostorodt, Unterrichtung van den vornehmsten HauPtpunckten der christlichen Religion, Rakau, 1604) and the Mennonites (Johann Ris, PrmeiPuarum Chrlstiante fides articulorum brevis confessio, xxix.) agree with the other Protestants. For history of the relation of the Bible societies to the Apocrypha, see BIBLE Socisrms. For the Apocrypha in general, see APOCRPPHA.
6. The Names of the Old Testament and of Its Chief Divisions: (a) Hebrew. Neh. viii. 8 has the expression Mikra, " Reading," which here must signify the Law. Dan. ix. 2 has Sepherim, "the Books"; Kitebe hakkodesh, "the Holy Writings," is Talmudic. The division into three parts is common in the Talmud, with the names Torah, Nebhiim, and Kethubhim, " Law, Prophets, and Writings," with the abbreviation TNK. Often the whole is embraced in the term Torah. The first part is named also " The Five Fifths of the Law." The first part of the prophetical canon is called " the Former Prophets "; the second part " the Latter Prophets." The third part of the canon is known as " the Writings " and " the Sacred Writings." The Song of Sol., Ruth, Lam., Eccles., and Esther are classed together as Megillot, " Rolls." The second and third parts are often named together as the ,kabbalah. (b) Greek. It may be concluded that by the time of the translator of Ecclus. the words " the Books " were in use, since he speaks of " the other [books]," " the rest [of the books]." In the New Testament they are called " the Scripture," " Holy " or "Sacred Writings"; the Pentateuch is called "the Old Covenant " in II Cor. iii. 14. Among the Greek Fathers the following names are used: " The Books of the Old Covenant," " The Sacred (Holy) Writings of the Old Covenant," the " Old Covenant," " the Twenty‑two Books of the Old Covenant," " the Covenant Books," and " Law and Prophets." (c) Latin. Vetus testasmentum translates Hebr. berith, "covenant"; instrumentum, totum instr2cmentum utrivsque testaments, roetua acriptura, vetua lex, and veteris legis libri are used. (H. L. SxaAcK.)
II. The Canon of the New Testament‑1. The Terms Used: Alongside the word canon, expressing the idea of the collection of scriptures, were used the terms " covenant " (derived from the Old
yuYmaW ons.
The apologetic, however, found far less occasion to deal with the Christian Scriptures than did the writings against the heretics. Knowledge of Dfarcion's Bible is due chiefly to Tertullian, who claimed to use as a weapon against
Testament, Ex. xxiv. 27), " Scripture " or " Scriptures " with the qualifyirtg;,words "holy," " sacred," " divine," or " of the Lord," also " Law and Gospel," " Prophets and Apostles." The word endiaxhelcos, " contained in the covenant," was opposed to apokryphos, " apocryphal," the former word often containing the meaning " used in public service."
2. The New Testament, 170‑220: Since there are at command no specific reports concerning the origin of the New Testament, an examination of the facts which may throw light upon the problem must be made in order to discover that origin. A starting‑point is found in the period of the contest between the Gnostic sects, particularly the Marcionites and the Valentinians, and the orthodox. The Montaniatic movement was under way during this period, though it was concerned not so much with the New Testament as with its own objects. The Church had a New Testament alreadycommonly so called, over against the Montanistic contention of a new period of ,prophecy already opened which was to lead the way to a wider development: The Church regarded the age of revelation as closed with the death of the last surviving apostle and the canon of the New Testament as completed, though discussion still went on as to the inclusion of some books therein. In opposition to Marcion and Montanus the. Church had the feeling that it had an inviolable possession in the two Testaments, and the Montaniat himself distinguished them from the body of " new prophecy."
Opposed to the gospel which Marcion prepared for his communities, to the Evangelium veritatis used by the Valentinians alongside the four Gospels of the Church, to the discarding z. The Four of the Johannean Gospel by the Alogi,
	Gospels.	and to the exclusive use of Matthew or
		Mark by other parties of the Church;
is the statement of Irenxua that the spirit which
created the world had given to the Church its gos
pel in fourfold form (flier., III. xi. 8), to violate
which was a sin against God's revelation and spirit.
The unity of these is asserted in the designation
bf them as " the Gospel " (in the singular), and
in the titles " the Gospel according to Matthew,"
etc. Clement of Alexandria in his discussion of
the origin of the Gospels dealt only with the four.
Recollection was soon lost of the fact that a gospel
not among the four had striven to be retained in
use in public service, and that one of the four had
had to win its place among them. But even the
Alegi did not deny that the Fourth Gospel belonged
to the age of John and had ever since been in the
Church. Tatian's preparation for the Syrians of
the " Diatessaron " witnesses by its very title to
the fact that for an ecclesiastical book of the Gos
pels no other sources than the four were conceivable.
The very permission given by Serapion of Antioch
(c. 200) to certain of his parishioners to read a
gospel called that of Peter, which he gave without
reading the book and through confidence in them,
really speaks for the same set of facts, as does the
subsequent annulment of the permission. Origea
sums up the practise of that period in the saying:
exposition. Since they had not voluntarily separated from the Church, but merely distinguished themselves from the communes ecclesiastics, they had no objection to raise to the common edition of the " Prophets and Apostles." They needed no special Bible. They used the Gospels

Qsaon of Scripture	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	394
" The Church values only the four Gospels
(1 Ham. in Luutm).
Generally thirteen epistles of Paul were received. If in the Muratorian Canon the reception of four private letters is justified, it appears to have been
caused less by a recollection of a late z. The introduction of them into public servPauline ice than through a thought‑process
Letters. of the author, equating the seven
letters of Paul to the communities in symbolical fashion with the letters to the seven churches of the Apocalypse. No statement can be made regarding any favorable feeling for the letters to the Laodiceans and the Alegandrians there rejected. Great difference of opinion existed as to. Hebrews. The Alexandrians regarded it as Pauline, and Origen supposed it substantially Pauline through one of Paul's disciples, a position which was widely adopted in the eastern Church. But the western Church disputed its Paulinity, while holding it in high esteem. This was the case in Lyons, Rome, and Carthage. In the Montanistie sad Novatian Churches there was a decided tendency to ascribe it to Barnabas.
Of the Book of Acts all that need be said is that its name, its general recognition as of Lucan author‑
ship, its position between the Gos3. The Acts pels and the Pauline Epistles in the
of the Muratorian Canon, its abundant use Apostles. by Irenaeus, Tertullian, and others,
sad the condemnation by Tertullian of Marcion for rejecting it speak abundantly for its canonicity.
The strongest proofs are found of the reception of the Apocalypse by all parts of the Church. It was cited by Theophilus of Antioch about 180, and by the church of Lyons in 177, as " Holy Scripture." Neither Ireneeus nor the Muratorian Canon
regard any defense of it as necessary. 4. The As against the high value attached Apocalypse. to it by the Montaniats, the Alogi
scornfully criticized it as the work of Cerinthus. Caius of Rome assumed this attitude also, and Hippolytus defended it against him. But the general feeling of the catholic Church was that the book was inspired, written about 95 A.D., ' . and properly closed the New Testament.
The Position of the Catholic Epistles about 200 was a very varied one, though about 300 they were known as one division of the New Testament. II and III John must have been attached to I John,
if their history in the Church and their 5• The preservation are understood. TestiCatholic mony to II John comes from Irensaus
Epistles sad Clement of Alexandria; that III
John was not treated by Clement does not really damage the case. The doubt which stood in the way of the unconditional recognition of II sad III John was soon banished. It is almost certain that the Muratorian Canon designated the two lesser epistles as recognized. Where it was not known that the Apostle John was by his disciples called " the Elder," there was likelihood of the authorship of those two being questioned on the matter of genuineness. Their brevity was against both frequent citation and frequent use in public
and equally against serious question, Jude, as one of the Catholic Epistles, was the subject of comment by Clement of Alexandria. The Muratorian Canon quoted it as received. Tertullian cited it as the convincing writing of an apostle, though Origen remarked that it was not generally received. In the fourth century it was among the antilegmnena'(Eusebius, Hist. eccl., III. xxv. 3). The canonicity which it had in the earlier times was later lost for it in a wide circle of the Church. James, though read in the West in early times and known probably both to Irena:us and to Hippolytus, was until the middle of the fourth century not in the New Testament of the western Church. The Canon Muratori is silent; among the Greeks of the East it was among the generally recognized scriptures. Though Origen placed it among the antilegomena, in Codas Claromontanua it stands before I John. A noteworthy fact is that Methodius mistakenly ascribed it to Paul. In 325 it was by many considered not genuine and Eusebius put it among the antilegomeno (Xiat. eccl., III. xxv. 3). The general recognition of I Peter about the year 200 is vouched for by Ireneeus, the Epistle of Lyons, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, and Hippolytus. The silence of the Muratorian Canon would have been inexplicable, sad to it must refer the remark that a letter of Peter is received as is the Apocalypse. Against II Peter there were many protests. At Rome it was not unknown, but was not on the same footing as I Peter. It is doubtful whether Irenieus knew it. Origen's personal opinion was favorable, but he recorded a divided opinion in the Church concerning the letter. In the East its position was different from that of I Peter in that there it was rot a New Testament book (Eusebius, Hint. eccl., IV. xxv. 8). As late as 380 Didymus pronounced it uncanonical and the Syrians determinedly rejected it. Of the Epistle of Ba,rnabas it may be said that Clement of Alexandria seems to have included it among the Catholic Epistles, and the same is true of Origen. Codex Claromontanus puts it after the seven Catholic Epistles and before Revelation. It is pertinent here to remark that the first and second Epistles of Clement are by the Canones Apoatolorum, Lxxxv., put between the Epistle of Barnabas and the Didache. I Clement is elsewhere given as a Catholic Epistle; at Corinth it was used occasionally in public service, a usage which spread to Alexandria and to Syria. It was cited by Clement of Alexandria and by Origen. But its connection with the New Testament was less firm even than that of Baraabas; in the West it was not considered as of the canon, and Ireneeus seems to have employed it as belonging to the subapostolic age.
	The Shepherd of Herman was used as scripture
by Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and in An
		tioch. At the beginning of the third
6. Writings century there was in Catholic and
Temporarily Montanistic circles a loosening of
	Regarded	the connection between this book and
as Canonical. the canon. Tertullian, contrary to
		his earlier practise, owing to the
laxity of discipline attributed to this book, de
clared that it should be regarded as apocryphal

396	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Canon of Scripture
and even as false. The Muratorian Canon excluded it from the regular and public reading of the Scriptures, though its perusal was permitted and even enjoined. This was the first attempt to form a secondary canon. There are two Latin translations of the book, and an unknown Roman bishop cited it as scripture, while Novatian and Commodian indoraed it, and the Latin liturgies show its influence. Yet by 'an ecclesiastical decision about 200‑210 the Shepherd was set outside the canon. While Clement of Alexandria did not include the Shepherd in his brief commentary, he did treat the Apocalypse of Peter, a little book of about 300 lines. This book closed the canon of Codex Claeomontanus ; but the Armenian List put it among the Apocrypha, and Eusebius (Hist. ecrl., III. xxv. 4, cf. iii. 2) declared against its genuineness. Sozomen says that it was used as late as 430 in Palestine at Easter. The Ihdache was cited and used as scripture by Clement and Origen, and during the next century this was its status in Egypt. Eusebius (Hilt. eccl., III, xxv. 4) put it among the antilegmnena of the second grade. It was known in the neighborhood of Antioch and in the West. The apocryphal Acts of the Apostles were often read in the early Church without question. The Acts of Paul came the nearest to winning canonical authority, and received favorable notice from Clement and Tertullian:
The New Testament of the Greek sad Latin Church of 170‑220 included as in quite definite authority the four Gospels, thirteen letters of Paul, Revelation, I Peter, I John (to which were attached
II and III John), probably also Jude. y. Summary. Up to 210 the Shepherd was also in‑
cluded. On the other hand, there were questionings about James, Hebrews, II Peter, the Apocalypse of Peter, the Didactic, Barnabae, I and II Clement, Acts of Paul, and the Shepherd. The polemic against Marcion, the Gnostics, and the Alegi brought the discussion of the New Testament canon to a focus about the time of Irenaeus and Clement of Alexandria. There was yet lacking that definiteness of organization of all the churches which alone could secure uniformity. The New Testament of about 200 was not the result of a revolution occurring 150‑170, but of a broad development which was many‑sided. The sharply bounded canon of Marcion had pointed the way to a definiteness in canonicity which the Church was soon to follow.
S. The New Testament, 140‑170: Valentines had founded his school which had divided into many sections and spread from the Rhone to the Tigris with a rich literary activity and vet a general consensus of action. Martian founded his church at Rome after he had separated from the catholic Church probably about 147. Alongside the polemic against these movements, Christian writers were engaged in the apologetic of the Church which was to go before the pagan rulers and populations. The apologetic, however, found far less occasion to deal with the Christian Scriptures than did the writings against the heretics.
Knowledge of biarcion's Bible is due chiefly to Tertullian, who claimed to use as a weapon against
the heretic his own New Testament, and so came to traverse the latter from beginning to end. After Tertullian as a. source of knowledge comes Epi‑
pha,nius (Ha‑r., xlii.), and a number of :. Martian's citations from Greeks and Syrians up
	Bible.	to the' fifth century which enable one
		to reconstruct quite securely Martian's
canon. Martian issued not only his New Testa
ment but also his Antithesis as a defense of his
dogmatic position and of his critical edition of the
New Testament, and this became the doctrinal
basis of his Church, which was studied by Tertul
lian, Ephraem Syrus, and others. His Bible con
sisted of a " Gospel " sad an " Apostle," both
anonymous. Since Paul seemed to him the one
preacher of an unadulterated gospel, his " Apostle "
embraced ten epistles of Paul and in the following
order: Gal., I and II Cor., Rom., I and II These.,
Laodioeans (i.e., Eph.), Col., Phil., Philem. It is
of curse evident that this collection must have
been received by him from the Church. He sought
to show that the letter to the Ephesians was the
letter to the Laodiceans mentioned in Col. iv. 16.
Galatians he especially prised because of the anti
Judaic polemic it contains. I and II Tim. and
Titus he discarded as private letters, Philemon was
admitted on the ground that it is a letter to a church
in a household, and this alone was left intact and
unedited. For the criticism of the writings he
received he depended neither upon historic tra
dition nor on testimonies to historicity; his basis
was his own subjective conception of what true
Christianity was and what the Pauline Gospel
was; from this standpoint proceeded all his text
criticiam. That he recognized the Gospel of Luke,
the basis of his own, as the work of one of the Paul
ine school is shown by his elimination of the words
" the beloved physician " in Col. iv. 14. His gos
pel, so far as its text can be made out, proves that
he had before him the third Gospel, and this, in con
sequence of its long association with the first and
second Gospels, had received amplifications of its
text from them. But no trace of influence due to
extracanonical Gospels upon Marcion has ever been
shown. It follows. from this that the canon of the
Gospels of the Church at Rome from about 140
on was our four Gospels. Martian's canon of the
epistles coincides with that of the Muratorian
Canon. It is natural that he should place no value
upon the letters of Peter, John, or James, the last
named especially in view of Gal. ii. 9, 12. Acts and
Rev. he appears to have expressly rejected. In
comparison with the ecclesiastical New Testament
not only of his times but of the next two centuries
with its varying boundaries and its variant text,
the Marcion canon is a sharply drawn work of art
in miniature, though it was the work of au arbitrary
lawgiver.
What Marcion accomplished with knife and eraser the Valentinians sought to do by means of exposition. Since they had not voluntarily separated from the Church, but merely distinguished themselves from the conxmunes ecclesiastici, they had no objection to raise to the common edition of the " Prophets and Apostles." They needed no special Bible. They used the Gospels

anon of Soriptnre
THE NEW
freely, particularly the Fourth. Apart from the prologue to this last, the structure of the series of eons of Valentines are unintelligible.
a. The Heraclion commented on all four of the
Bible of Gospels. In the different branches of the Valen‑ this sect Eph., Col., and I Cor. were
	tinians.	especially valued, but Rom., II Con,
		Phil., and Gal. were also used. In
their criticism of the Gospels they laid stress.
upon a secret tradition. They used also an Evan
gelium veritatis, a fifth Gospel, which probably
contained the sum of apocryphal tradition, derived,
according to S,erapion, not from the Docetea but
from their precursors. The Gospel of Peter may
have arisen about 150 from the eastern branch at
Antioch as did the Evangelium veritatis among the
western school of Valentinians. To a branch of
the Valentinian school of Asia Minor belonged
Leucius, the author of the Acts of Peter and John.
They probably used also the Gospel of the Infancy.
Leucius wrote also a " Journeyinga of John," sug
gested by the " Letters to the Seven Churches " of
Revelation. In short, the foundation of the canon
of the most important schools of Gnostics, 140‑170,
is that of the Church of 200, only that these " men
of the spirit " used alongside of the canonical wri
tings a mesa of other traditions and poetical and
subjective creations which were not employed
among the orthodox.
In his short description of the Sunday service as observed by Christians in city and country, Justin names as taking the first place the reading of the " Memorabilia of the Apostles,"
3. The " which are called Gospels " (I Apol‑
Apostolic	ogy, lxvi.‑lxvii., ANF, i. 185‑186),
Writings	and the " collection of the Prophets."
in Justin " Gospel " in the singular is also used
	Martyr.	by the Jew Trypho and by Justin as a
		collective. Out of deference for his
readers who were not acquainted with the term
"gospel," Justin commonly used the term Apo
mnemoneumatd, " Memorabilia." While generally
such memorabilia took their name from the author,
Justin named these from the subject, " The Memo
rabilia of our Savior." As under the term " proph
ets " the whole Old Testament is included, the
term memorabilia in Justin may include the New
Testament writings. The answer to the question
what gospels are meant has long been, those com
monly used about 150 in the places Justin visited
or lived in, in Ephesus and Rome, in the public
service and known as the product of the Apostles or
their disciples. Trypho (Dial, x.) speaks of
the " so‑called gospel " as a totality, a unit. They
can be no other than what Marcion criticized and
Valentinians so fully employed. In one place
Justin expressly discriminated between the Apostles
and their disciples in a passage which goes back to
Luke iii. 44 (Dialogue, viii.). He named the
second Gospel " The Recollections of Peter," s
designation which implies the old tradition of the
connection of this Gospel with that apostle. What
has partly or entirely produced the idea that Jus
tin's " memorabilia " are not the Gospels of the
Church is first the looseness and inexactness of
quotation, and second the material additions of
SCHAFF‑HERZOG
facts or reports grounds for which are not found in the Gospels. But in Justin's citations exactness is no more to be expected than in Clement's; and much that appears apocryphal to us may have been read in the Gospels of his time. Justin regarded Revelation as the work of the apostle John and as a true testimonyof Christian prophecy. Investigation of his writings shows contact of Justin with Rom., I Con, Gal., Eph., Col., II Thess., Heb., I Pet., Acts and the Didache: more questionably with Phil., Titus, I Tim., and James.
4. The Oldest Traces and the Origin of Collections of Apostolic Writings: From the preceding array of facts it appears that by 140 in the entire circle of the catholi., Church the collection comprising the four Gospels and thirteen Epistles o€ Paul were read alongside of the Old Testament writings, and that in one part or another of the Church other writings such as Acts, Rev., Heb., I Pet., James, and the Epistles of John were held in like honor.
The collection of Pauline letters seems to go back to the first century, judging from I Clement, the Ignatian Epistles, and Polycarp. The bishops of Smyrna and Antioch had a knowledge of Paul which involved acquaintance with
z. The his letters, and the way in which they
Collection employ them shows that the letters
of Pauline were before them. Polycarp advised
	Letters.	the Philippians to read Paul's letters
		for edification; Ignatius knew Eph.
under the title used later by Marcion as part of an
ecclesiastical collection. Polycarp included Phil.
and Thess. in a group directed to the Macedonians '
just as Tertullian knew them a century later.
Clement seems to make the collection begin with
I Con, an order which the Muratorian Canon sup
ports, closing with. Rom. This aggregation, which
contained also the order Phil.‑Theas, and the title
" to the Ephesians," has every claim to originality
and to have circulated before 97. That there was
an interchange of letters among the churches before
this collection was made is clear from Col. iv. 16,
but the circulation and use implied in II Pet. iii. 15
involve a collection in one manuscript, perhaps
not official but private. The passage last cited
implies a Pauline letter to Jewish Christians, and
I Cor. v. 9 and Phil. iii. 1 imply other letters of
Paul which have not survived. These facts suggest
a deliberate selection from the available letters of
Paul, made probably in some important center of
Christianity, which came into general use and was
seen to be available for public service. But the
settlement of the order of arrangement implies
that the collection was made very early, soon after
the death of Paul. Where this was done can not
be stated, though the placing of I and II Cor. at
the head suggests Corinth. Rome is also to be
thought of as explaining the closing of this col
lection with the Epistle to the Romans.
The word euaggelion, which, 150‑200, designated the collection of four Gospels, is frequently found in the earlier literature so used that by it must be meant a written exposition of the words and deeds of Jesus in possession of the churches and generally known to tae communities (Diaache, viii. 2;

397	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 	Canon of Scripture
11 Clem., viii. 5; Ignatius, Smyrna, v. 1; Philadelphia, viii. 2). That " Gospel " was the authori‑
tative document. The general knowl2. The edge of its contents involves its
"Gospel." regular use in public service. It was
cited with the formula " the Lord says," with or without the addition " in the Gospel," and with the formula (used with Old Testament citations) " it is written." But what was this " Gospel "7 A clear understanding of what it was existed between the writers of the period 90‑140 and their readers. Papias declared that during the lifetime of John in the vicinity of Ephesus a Gospel of Mark was used, and Cerinthus, a contemporary of John, preferred it to the others (Irenaeus, Flcer., III. xi. 7, cf. I. xxvi. 1). Papias asserted that the Hebrew Matthew was long used in the province of Asia with the aid of oral interpretation until a Greek version superseded it. Even the Fourth Gospel recalls the very words of Mark and Luke (T. Zahn, Einleitung, Leipsic, 1900, pp. 505506, 520). The spurious passage Mark xvi. 9‑20 is derived from Luke, John, and Papias. The earliest Gospels of the Infancy and the Gospels of Peter and Marcion go back to the canonical Gospels. In the literature of 95‑140 among a mass of ordinances for ecclesiastical direction only four gospel citations are not traceable to the four Gospels (11 Clem., v. 2, 4, viii. 5, xii. 2‑6; Ignatius, Smyrna, iii. 2). Such tmcanonical sayings as these four were circulated orally as well as in writing; Papias about 125 collected many of them. Of the origin of the making of the Gospel canon there is no trustworthy report, nor can it be said where it took form.
Other writings which are found afterward assigned to the New Testament were not unified in
any one collection as were the Gos3. Other pals and the Pauline Epistles. They
Writings. appeared first either as indisputable
or as debated parts of the New Testament in the stage it then had reached. A very wide use in extended circles of the Church during public service is provable for I Pet., I John, Rev., and the Shepherd, none of which was originally addressed to a single community.
8. Origea and His School: During the third century the New Testament underwent no essential change. The achievement of Origen was the comparison of the content of the traditional possession of various communities. His varied life and travels gave him the opportunity to learn through observation existing variations; his philological training and his decided vocation for learned work in the service of the Church qualified him to propounce a discreet judgment. Before 217 he was welcomed at Rome as one of the rising stars of the Church; his travels took him to Athena, Antioch, and Caesarea in Cappadocia, while his later years were spent in Palestine. Students flocked to him both in Alexandria and in Palestine. But Bible student though he was, he was no thoroughgoing critic.
scripture, and the antilegomena, or those more or less opposed. To the former, according to Origen, belonged the four Gospels, thirteen Pauline Epistles, I Pet., I John, Acts, and Rev., the last the closing book of the New Testament. To the latter belonged Heb., II Pet., II and III John, Jas., Jude, Barnabas, the Shepherd, the Didactic, and the Gospel of the Hebrews. Hebrews was frequently cited by him as though Pauline and canonical, especially in his earlier writings; and he defended its Paulinity rather as coming through a member of Paul's school than from Paul himself. II Pet. was also frequently cited by him as scripture, in which his scholar Firmilian followed him. Jas. was also frequently cited both as scripture and as " the apostle James." Jude appears to have been valued by him, though not often appearing in his writings. Barnabas is called a Catholic Epistle and in the Onomasticon is put with the other Catholic Epistles. He regarded the Shepherd as an inspired work and useful. He appears also to have cited the Didache as scripture. The Gospel of the Hebrews is not mentioned in his list of the apocryphal gospels; on the other hand, it is often cited with the formula he used when citing from such writings. He sharply discriminated the Jewish‑Christian communities, whose one gospel this was, from the heretical Ebionites on the ground that the former held fast the ecclesiastical rule of faith.
The allegorical interpretation by means of which Origen undertook to reconcile the moat divergent materials and the most varied writings and to unite them thus in one Bible found opposition. The composition of Nepos, bishop of Arsinoe, " Against the Allegorists" advanced and spread a chiliasm which to Bishop Dionysius of Alexandria about 260 appeared unendurable. To Origen it appeared that Rev. was written by an inspired man of the apostolic age named John, but the difference in style and conception from the Fourth Gospel did not allow its ascription to the apostle. It was especially a book for the application of the allegorical method.
8. The Original New Testament of the Syrians:
On the beginnings of the church in Edessa there is a legendary report in Syriac, The Doctrine of Addai, ed. Phillips, London, 1876, which contains some significant words about the books introduced there for use in the service. Addai, the founder of the church of Edessa, is made to say expressly that beside the Old Testament no other scriptures shall be read than the Gospel, the Epistles of Paul, and the Acts. And by the Gospel is doubtless meant the Diatessaron of Tatian. On the other hand, Ephraem knew well the four Gospels, and a Syrian canon contained not the Diatessaron but the four Gospels in our order. The Syrian collection of the . Pauline letters embraced, about 330‑370, according to the commentaries of Aphraates and Ephraem, Heb. and the apocryphal III Con, but
	..	y,. ~„	. 	‑		,	,.„	„ 	,	______ __
the canon; tradition spoke for him the last word,
though indeed that tradition was to be investigated.
Hence he voiced the distinction between the homo‑
l0puruna, the writings universally recognized as
in the otherwise complete commentary of Ephraem. A summary from Sinai gives Philem. at the end and does not contain III Cor.; on the other hand, it has a II Phil, which may be another name for

Canon of 6oriptare	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HER,ZOG 	898
III Cor. It is now known that this apocryphal writing is but a section out of the Adx of Paul which belongs to the period about 170 at the earliest. It could, therefore, not have belonged to the origins( Syrian Canon. Tatian became a Christian at Rome, and, according to the legend, the canon of thw Epistles was received from Rome. Eusebius (Hilt. eccl., IV. xxix. ti) heard an obscure report that there was a recession of the Pauline Epistles by Tatian. The oldest Syrian text both of Epistles and of Gospels has a relationship to the Western text. The Sinai summary throws new light on the subject. The order of the Epistles there is Gal., I and II Con, Rom., Heb., and so on, and just this is the order in which Ephraem commented upon them and it is the order of Marcion, and no one was more likely to follow in the footsteps of Marcion than Tatiaa. It is very remarkable too that in the Syriac summary II Tim. is mentioned, but I Tim. is omitted. The Syrian Church could not maintain its original individuality. While before the time of Aphraates and is the third century it received Heb. and I Tim., it could not exclude all the Catholic Epistles. The Syriac translation of Eueebius'e Church History, which Ephraem had diligently read, acquainted the Syrians with the older history of the New Testament. Intercourse sprang up in the fourth century between Greek and Syrian Christians, and Greeks and Greek Bibles appeared in Edeasa; it is, therefore, no wonder that Ephraem was familiar with all the Catholic Epistles. In the Peshito a selection was made of Jas., I Pet., I John, while II Pet., II and III John, Jude, and Rev. were excluded.
7. Lucian sad Ensebine: While the New Te&tament of the early Church in Antioch had its individuality, the canon of Chrysoetom was exactly that of the Peahito and carried the exclusion of II and III John back to the decision of the Fathers. This can not be due to the efforts of Eusebius, since he would set aside the Apocalypse, but would recognize the seven Catholic Epistles; to reach the roots of the matter, one must go back to the beginning of the exegetical school, to Lucian. Report says that Lucian was born in Samosata and that he labored in Edesea before he became a priest and the founder of the school in Antioch. It is doubtless true that he extended his text‑critical work to the New Testament, and that his recession of that as well as of the Septuagint was diffused as far as Constantinople. So that the Antiochean school's teat of about 380‑450 probably goes back to Lucian and was a compromise between the Edessan and the Antiochean traditions. Rev. was excluded while Jas., I Pet., sad I John of the Catholic Epistles were taken in. This doubtless influenced the . Penhito.
In Palestine the Bible‑studies of Origen were continued by Pamphilun and Eusebius. But Eusebius was affected both by the Origenistic tradition and by the Antiochean school, with representatives of which he was connected in the debate over the Trinity. In his Church History according to his promise he has diligently given the pronouncements of earlier writers about the aatikgomena of the New Testament, and also in‑
teresting information about both acknowledged and doubtful writings. With Origen, he found two classes, homologoumerut and antilegomena ; but the second he divided into two subclasses, the one containing the books he would have acknowledged and the other the notha or " spurious." His table then is: (1) Homologoumena, the Gospels, Acts, fourteen Pauline Epistles, I Pet., I John, and Rev.; (2) Antilegorraeyea, (a) the better sort, Jas., Jude, II and III John, sad (b) the notha, Acts of Paul, Shepherd, Apocalypse of Peter, Barnabas, and the Didache. But Eusebius's treatment is not always either clear or consistent. He uses a term endiathekos, " within‑the‑New‑Testament," as a synonym of homologoumenoa and appears thereby to exclude from the New Testament the first class of the antilegomeua. On the other hand, in naming the second subdivision of the antUegomena " spurious " he seems to argue the genuineness of the first subdivision. But for him the seven Catholic Epistles. are a closed collection. It was about Rev. that Euaebius found it hard to come to a decision. Many times he cites it and adduces the strongest testimony for its ecclesiastical importance (Flirt. eccl., IV. aviii. 8, xxiv. 1, xxvi. 2, V. viii. 5, xviii. 14, VI. xxv. 9). But when in III. w. 18 he reports the vacillation of opinion about the book, he calls attention to the influence of the Lucian school. He cites it as " the so‑called Apocalypse of John " (III. xviii. 2, cf. xxxix. 8), briefly refers to the vituperation of Caius (III. xxviii.), and notes the more cautious criticism of Dionyniun (VII. xxiv. 5). His conjecture that another John wrote it he follows out with diligence, and in the interest of this hypothesis seeks to prove the existence of a presbyter John tie distinct from the apostle. He would disrobe the book of its apostolic dress and remove it from the New Testament, though he never expressly utters this decision. On account of its quite universal recognition in the Church he leaves open the choice between placing it among the homologoumena or among the reotha. Apart from this book, however, his New Testament is the same as ours. The malting of fifty copies of the New Testament on parchment for Constantine gave him an opportunity to diffuse his opinions, and the result showed that he inclined to the Lucian form of text rather than to the Origenistic, though including therein the lesser Catholic Epistles.
8. Athanaains: According to the Easter Letter of 367, recently recovered through a Coptic translation, in which is given a view of the continuous undiscriminating usage of all kinds of Apocrypha as scripture is the ecclesiastical province where Athanasius was, there was afforded him the opportunity of netting forth a definitely limited canon arranged in order of books and in groups. He was the first to name the twenty‑seven books of the New Testament as exclusively canonical. He ignored the opposition to which several of them had so long been subjected, notably II Pet., which Didycnus continued to oppose. But not to break completely with the Alexandrian tradition, he placed in sharp distinction. from the " canonised " books and equally from the apocryphal ones a class of anagignoakomena. The Fathers had designated these

899	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Canon of Scripture
as to be placed before the catechumens for their instruction. They included Wisd. of Sol., Ecclus., Esther, Judith, Tobit, the Didache, and the Shepherd. The Didache had great influence upon the liturgy in Egypt, and to the Shepherd Athanasius himself attached high value. The surprising element, however, is the complete silence concerning other writings which at least in Alexandria had equally with the Didache and the Shepherd been reckoned with New Testament writings. Serapion, the friend of Athanasius, had cited Barnabas as " the most honored apostle Barnabas " along with the Romans of Paul, and in Codex Sinaiticus it stood between Rev. and the Shepherd. The New Testament of twenty‑seven books seemed to be as firmly nettled as that of Eusebius's twenty‑six had been. And this view came to have the victory in the Church, ruling out finally the shorter canon of Eusebius and the use of a class of books merely for the instruction of catechumens.
9. The Development in the Orient till the Time of Justinian: The peculiar criticism of Theodore of Mopsueatia did not essentially change the situation established by Lucian and Eusebius. The concordant testimony of Theodore's opponent Leontius and of his admirer Jesudad is that Theodore rejected the seven Catholic Epistles. And since as an Antiochean he rejected the Apocalypse, his New Testament was the Syrian one of about 340. In the arrangement of the Pauline Epistles (Rom., I and II Con, Heb., Eph.) he followed the Syrian usage in respect to Heb., and the Greek in respect to Rom. and Gal. He defended the cacaonicity of Philemon, but rejected III Cor. It is no wonder that, admired as he was by the Syrian Nestoriana, these latter adopted his canon. And the Nestorian Jesudad (ninth century) still regarded the three greater Catholic Epistles as a sort of antilegmnena. How tenacious the opposition to the Apocalypse was, as also that to the four lesser Catholic Epistles, has been shown above. Nevertheless, by the sixth century the Apocalypse had won all along the line from Jerusalem to Constantinople. If Philoxenun of Mabug, c. 508, had Rev. and the lesser Catholic Epistles translated for the first time into Syriac, this implies that in the contiguous Greek ecclesiastical province, in the patriarchate of Antioch, the Apocalypse was no more ignored as it was c. 400, that on the contrary it I was again received. About the year 500 Andrew wrote in CEesarea his great commentary on the Apocalypse, in which with a certain assiduity by appeal to the older teachers from Papias to Cyril he defended the inspiration of the book, and in a note on Rev. xxii. 18‑19 assailed the critics. About 530 Leontius designated, in lectures delivered in the monastery at Jerusalem, the " Apocalypse of the Holy John " as the latest canonical book of the Church.
10. The Assimilation of the West: By the vacillation and the attempts at fixation which the canon underwent in the East the Latin Church was not immediately affected. Until the fourth century the New Testament there excluded Heb., had an incomplete canon of the Catholic Epistles, but included the Apocalypse, which was seriously
assailed only by Caius. The events of the fourth century made isolation impossible. The settlement of Pierios, " the new Origen," in Rome was a significant preparation. There followed the councils, the exile of Athanasius in Trier (338‑337), in Rome (340‑343), and in other parts of the West (till 340); of Hilary of Poitiers in Asia Minor (356‑360), of Lucifer of Cagliari, Euaebius of Verce(li, and others; the long sojourn of Jerome and Rufinua in Palestine, Egypt, and Syria, and during thin whole period the close connection of Latin Church literature, especially of exegesis, with Greek models. The ecumenical consciousness of the Church overleaped all barriers and affected even the canon. The influence of Athanasius in this respect is not to be underestimated, especially in connection with the production of a recession of the Bible at Rome 340‑343.
Hebrews, prized by the Novatians as a production of Barnabas, began after the time of Hilary and Lucifer to be quoted more and more in the West as Pauline and, therefore, canonical. The growth of sentiment in favor of James took place unnoted, as did that of the lesser Catholic Epistles. The African Canon (350‑365), published by Mommaen, has a more or lean official air; it makes no mention of Heb., Jas., or Jude, but includes I and II Pet., I, II, and III John; but it was corrected by a reviser so as to omit II Pet. and II and III John. In a synod of c. 382 the controlling spirit was Jerome; so that II and III John were received as the presbyter's while the rest of the Catholic Epistles were ascribed to Apostles. Hebrews was reckoned as a fourteenth Pauline letter. The influence of Augustine was dominant in the synods of Hippo (383) and Carthage (397), the pronouncement of which was for thirteen Pauline Epistles, to which Hebrews was added as a port of stranger.
The history of the canon was closed in the West by the beginning of the fifth century, a hundred years earlier than in the East. (T, ZAHN.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the general topic of the canon for the reader of English possibly the beet survey of the results of modern scholarship is W. $anday, Inspiration . .
Early History and Origin of the Doctrine of Biblical Inspiration, London 1898 (fairly Sddanced on the O. T., conservative on the N. T.); L. Gausses, Le Canon den enintea 6criturea au double point de vue de la science et de la foi, 2 vols., Geneva, 1880, Eng. tranal., London, 1883; E. Reuse, Hiatoire du canon den aaintea t!ccriturea dana fegliae chrtt%ennt, Strasburg, 1884. Eng, tranal., Edinburgh, 1891; T. H. Home, Introduction to the Critical Study . . . of the Holy Scriptures, 3 vole., London, 1872 (though written s century ago, it contains much that is still valuable); $. Davidson, The Canon of the Bible, ib. 1880 (radical, but the work of a scholar); F. Overbeck, Zur Geachichte den Kanona, Chemnita, 1880 (contains nn essay on the origin of the canon); J. J. Given, The Truth o/ Scripture in Connection with . . . the Canon, Edinburgh, 1881; G. T. Ladd, The Doctrine of Sacred Scripture, 2 vole., New York, 1883 (abstract and wordy, but scholarly); C. A. Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, chaps. v.‑vi., ib. 1899; W. H. Bennett and W. F. Adeney, Biblical lnb»duction London, 1899 (brief, but accurate); F. E. C. Gigot, General Inoduction to the Study of the Holy Scriptures, vol. i., New York, 1901 (an example of the newer Roman Catholic scholarship).
On the canon of the O. T. there are four works of first rank, vie.. H. E. Ryle, Canon o/ the O. T., London, 1892; F. Buhl, Kanon and Text den A. T., Leipeio, 1891, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1892 (a short treatise, but lucid and uncumbered with technicalities); G. Wildeboer, HK

Canonical Hours Cantor
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
onataan van den Kanon lea Ovden Verbonda, Groningen, 1891, Eng. tranal., Origin of the Canon of the O. T., London, 1895 (much like Buhl); E. Kautzech, Abriaa der Geachichte lea aZtteatamenUiclren Srhrifttuma, Freiburg, 1897, Eng, tranal., London, 1898 (lucid, altogether a model brief discussion). Other works which may be consulted are: J. FOret, Der Kanon lea A. T., Leipsie, 1888; A. Loisy, Hiatolre du Canon de 1'A. T., Paris, 1890 (Roman Catholic and scientific); G. H. Dalman, Traditio RabZ.inonam roeterrima de Zibronsm V. T. ordiree at origins, Leipsic, 1891• Smith, OTJC; X. Koenig, Eaaai our la tarmalion du Canon de VA. T., Paris, 1894; W. J. Beecher, The Alleged Triple Canon of the O. T. in JBL, xv. (1896) 118‑128; W. H. Green, General Introduction to the O. T., 2 vols., New York, 1898‑99 (states the extreme conservative position); Magnier, etude ear la eanonicitk de VA. T., Paris, 1899• F. E. C. Gigot, General Introduction to the Study f the Holy Scriptures, Vol. i.. New York 1900; J. P. Peters, The Odd Testament and the New Scholarship, New York, 1901.
On the N. T, canon the beat work is by B. F. Weatoott.
A General Survey of the H%at. of the Canon of the N. T., London 1889; K. A. Gredner, Geachichte lea neuteatamentlichen Kanona, Berlin 1880 (though an old work
much of the material is still usable); R. F. Grau, Entwicklungageachichte lea neuteatamentlichen Schriftthuma, 2 vole., Gilteraloh 1871• A. H. Cbarteris, Canonicity: a Collection of early Testimonies to the Canonical Books of the N. T., London, 1880; idem, The N. T. Scriptures, their Claims, Hint., and Authority, ib. 1$82 (a popular form of the preceding); T. Zahn, Foraehungen our Geaehiehte lea neuteatamentlichen Kanona, 5 Parts, Erlangen, 1881‑93; idem, Gesshichte des neuttetamentZiehen Kanona, Erlangen and Leipaic, 1888‑92; A. Loisy, Hiefoim du Canon du N. T., Paris, 1891; H. J. Holtzmann, Hiatoriach‑kritiac7ae Einkitung in daa N. T., Freiburg, 1892; G. Salmon Historical Introduction to the Study of the Books of the N. T., London, 1894; A. Harnack, Dan N. T. um daa Jahr 800, Freiburg, 1889; idem, Altohriatliche Litteratur, 2 vols., Leipaic 1897‑1904 (exhaustive); B. W. Bacon, Introduction to ~N. T., New York, 1900 (eondenaed); D. S. Muzzey, Rise of the N. T., ib, 1900; A. Jiilicher, Einleitunp in daa N. T., TObingen, 1901, Eng, tranal., London, 1904; C. R. Gregory, Canon and Tent of the N. T., Edinburgh, 1907; J. Leipoldt, Geachiehte lea neutestamentlachen Kanona, Vol. i., Die Entatehung, Leipeie, 1907.
CANONICAL HOURS: Certain portions of the day set apart according to the rule (canon) of the Church for prayer and devotion. It seems likely that the Apostolic Church observed the Jewish custom of praying three times a day (Ps. Iv. 17: Acts ii. 15, iii. 1, x. 30), at the third, sixth, and ninth hour. In the fourth century, the zeal of the Psalmist (" seven times a day do I praise thee," cxix. 164) was held up for Christian imitation by Ambrose, Augustine, and Hilary, and by the time of Casaian (d. about 435) it had become a general rule of devotion. (See BREVIARY.) In England the term " canonical hours " also refers to the time within which marriage may legally be solemnized in a pariah church without a license, which was from eight to twelve in the morning, until a recent Act of Parliament extended it to three in the afternoon.
CANONIZATION: The process of attributing the title of saint to a man or woman already known as " blessed." The word refers to the inclusion of the person's name in the list (canon) of the saints and recognizing his right to a fitting veneration, which includes the setting apart of a day in the ecclesiastical calendar for the commemoration of the saint's feast, together with an office in the breviary and a mesa for the day in his honor. To promote the veneration of a saint throughout
	the universal Church, no better method existed
	than to seek papal confirmation of his claims.
	This probably happened now and then even in
	early times, or the popes gave such confirmation
	of their own motion. We have definite evidence
	of the formal canonisation of Bishop Ulric of
	Augsburg in 993. But canonization as a right
	reserved exclusively to the pope appears first under
	Alexander III. (1159‑81). The bishops continued
	to feel justified in canonizing for their own dio
	ceses, until this was declared unlawful by Urban
	VIII, in 1625 and 1634. At present a formal and
	very carefully regulated process is gone through
	before canonization. The candidate, having died
	in good repute, is first designated as " of pious
	memory," and when a regular investigation has
	been set on foot, as " venerable." If it is con
	clusively shown that he has lived a holy life
	and worked miracles, his beatification may be
	requested, but normally not until fifty years after
	his death. The process is first conducted by the
	bishop of his home; a commission of the Congrega
	tion of Rites examines whether it is permissible,
	in which case papal authority to proceed is granted.
	In order to make the necessary demonstration that
	the candidate possessed " heroic " virtues and
	worked miracles, three separate investigations are
	held‑one before the Congregation of Rites, one
	before the whole college of cardinals, and one before
I	a consiatory held under the pope's presidency.
	When the pope has approved the request, a brief
	is drawn up which grants the title of bealus, and
	determines the limits of the consequent callus,
	including commemoration and invocation in public
	worship, the erection of altars, public exposition of
	relics, and the like. . The solemn publication of the
	decree of beatification takes place in St. Peter's.
	After repeated miracles and a similar process of
	investigation, canonization may follow later, with
	still more imposing ceremonies, the pope or his
	representative singing high mass in honor of the
	new saint: While the veneration of the " blessed "
	is limited to a certain definite part of the Roman
	Catholic Church, that of the saints is extended to
	the entire Church. 	(N. BortwExsca.)
BIBLrOaaAPHY: Giuato Fontanini, Codex conetitutionum
quaa aummi pont4ficea ediderunE in aoZemni canonizatione,
993‑1789, Rome, 1729; W. Hard, Religious Rites and
Ceremonies, p 244, London, 1811; C. Elliott, Delineation
of Roman Catholicism, book iv., chap. 4, New York, 1842; Boieaonnet, Dictionnaire . . . lea cErhmoniea . . , aacrEee, in Migne, EncyclopEdie thEolopique, xv.‑xvii.; L. Ferraris, i°rompta bilrliotheca canonica s.v. " Veneratio 8anetorum,' new ed., Rome, 1844‑4b.
CAftSTEIN, c8n'stain, KARL HILDEBRAND,
BARON VON: Founder of the Canatein Bible Institute at Halls; b. at Lindenberg (a village near Fiiratenwalde, 21 m. w. of Frankfort) Aug. 4,
1667; d, at Berlin Aug. 19, 1719. After completing his legal studies at the University of Frankforton‑the‑Oder, in 1686 he traveled through Holland, England, France, Italy, and southern Germany, but was called to Berlin by the death of the Elector
in 1688. In the following year he was appointed gentleman of the bed‑chamber, but resigned after a few years, and enlisted as a volunteer with the Brandenburg troops sent to Flanders. There he

401	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Canonical Hours
		Cantor
fell seriously ill, was converted, and after recovering
his health, returned to Berlin, where he lived in
retirement, devoting himself to philanthropy. In
1691 he became acquainted with Spener, and thus
formed a lifelong friendship with August Hermann
Francke (q.v.), whom he aided in all his enter
prises.
	A literary result of Canstein's unceasing study
of the Bible was his Harmonic and Attslegung der
heiligen vier Evangelisten (Halls, 1718), but his
crowning life‑work was his establishment of the
Canstein Bible Institute. Seeking to make the
Scriptures known in the widest circles, he ex
pounded his views in a small pamphlet entitled
Ohntnaasgebender Ym•schlag, vrie Ootteswort den
Armen xur Erbauung um einera geringen Preis in
die Handz zu brirtgen set (Berlin, 1710), in which he
expressed his conviction that the use of stereotype
plates would render it possible to sell copies of the
New Testament for two groschen, and of the entire
Bible for six. His first edition of the New Testa
ment appeared at Halls in 1712, and was followed
by the entire Bible in the next year. Before Can
stein's death the New Testament had appeared in
twenty‑eight editions, and the Bible in eight octavo
and eight duodecimo editions, making a total of
about 100,000 New Testaments and 40,000 Bibles.
When the founder died, Franeke took charge of the
Institute. In 1727 the buildings were enlarged,
and in 1734‑35 the Cansteiniache Buckdruckerei
was established. The Bible was printed in Bohe
mian and Polish in 1722, and in 1868‑69 versions
in Wendish and Lithuanian appeared. The re
vised text of Luther's version was also first printed
by this Institute (Halls, 1892). See BIBLE So
CIETIEB, IL, 1.
	CANTATA. See Music, SACRED, IL, 2, 15.
	CANTERBURY: The ancient metropolitan see
of England. The city is of great antiquity, suc
ceeding the British village of Durwhern, the Ro
man Durovernum, and the Saxon Cantwarabyrig.
Augustine, sent from Rome by Gregory the Great
in 596 to convert the Anglo‑Saxons, made it the
headquarters of his missionary activity; but it
was not until the episcopate of the great organizer
Theodore of Tarsus (668‑690) that the claim of the
see to metropolitan jurisdiction over the whole of
England was acknowledged by the other bishops
and confirmed by Pope Vitalian. This authority
extended over Ireland as well until the elevation
of the see of Armagh (q.v.) to primatial rights.
Owing, however, to the important position of
York in the north of England, the archbishops of
that see for a long time contested the first place
with Canterbury, and it was not until the pontifi
cate of Alexander III. (1159‑81) that the latter
enjoyed an unquestioned primacy. Among the
long line of archbishops some distinguished names
occur: Dunstan (959‑988); tElfheah martyred by
the Danes (1006‑12); Lanfranc (1070‑89) and
Anaelm (1093‑1109), the great defenders of the
rights of the Church and people against the first
Norman kings; Thomas Becket (1162‑70), mur
dered in the cathedral itself for his resistance to the
king's encroachments; Stephen Langton (1207‑28).
		II. 26
William Warham (1503‑32) was, with the exception of the two years' tenure of the see by Cardinal Pole under Mary (1556‑58), the last Roman Catholic archbishop. Thomas Cranmer (1533‑56) begins the Anglican succession, followed by Parker, Grindal; and Whitgift under Queen Elizabeth. William Laud (1633‑45) kept up the earlier traditions of the see by giving his life for his principles; but in the post‑Reformation annals few names of great significance occur‑though Archbishops Tait, Benson, and Temple in the latter half of the nineteenth century were men of broad and statesmanlike abilities. The archbishop of Canterbury ranks as the first peer of the realm after the princes of the blood royal, and has ‑the right to crown the sovereign and to other secular prerogatives. The cathedral in its present shape was begun by Lanfranc on the site of St. Augustine's monastery; it contains work extending from his time to that of Prior Goldstone in the fifteenth century, thus exhibiting specimens of all schools of Gothic, and affording the best guide to the study of the development of architecture in England. From the death of Becket until the Reformation, it was a favorite place of pilgrimage. His body, brought from the crypt, was placed in 1220 in a shrine of such magnificence that Erasmus, who visited it in 1512, recorded that " gold was the meanest thing to be seen." In 1538 Henry VIII. destroyed the shrine, as that of a rebel against royal authority, and confiscated its treasures. Among the other interesting ecclesiastical remains in Canterbury are St. Martin's church, said to be the oldest in England and to date in part from the period of the Roman occupation, and the brat house of the Dominicans in England. See the biographical notices of Augustine, Theodore, and other archbishops of Canterbury; also the articles ANGLOSAXONa, CONVERSION OF THE; CELTIC CHURCH IN BRITAIN AND IRELAND; ENGLAND, CHURCH OF.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The history of the diocese is given by R. C. Jenkins, in Diocesan Histories, Canterbury, London, 1880. On the cathedral consult: A. P. Stanley, H%atancal Memorials of Canterbury Cathedral, ib. 1900; J. M. Cowper, Memorial Inscriptions of the Cathedral Church of Canterbury, Canterbury, 1897. For the monastery consult: L%term Cantuarienaea. Letter Books of the Monastery of Christ Church, 3 vole., ed. by J. B. Sheppard for Rolls Series, London, 1881‑89. Consult also: B. R. Gardiner, Student's H%at. of England, passim, ib. 1895; W. Bright, Early English Church Hist., Index, Oxford, 1897; W. A. Shaw Hieto‑y of the English Church, 1 BI,O‑1 BBO, London, 1900 (con„aina much material); W. W. Capes, English Church in 14th and 16th h.nturiea, ib. 1900; W. R. W. Stephens, The English Churc;s, 1086‑1.772, p. 33, ib. 1901; J. Gairdner The English Church in the 16th Century, pp. 1, 86, 104, et passim, ib. 1903
CAftTHARUS: A well, cistern, fountain, or simply a vessel for water, in the center of the atrium just in front of the entrance of the ancient basilica, used by the faithful for the ablution of hands and face before entering the church building. See HOLY WATER.
CANTICLES. See SONG of SOLOMON.
CANTOR: A name applied in the early Church to those who were specially set apart to conduct the singing. They are mentioned as a special class in the Apostolic Constitutions and in the

Caaa
Caperasnm
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
canons of the Council of Laodicea (365), and were set apart by the clergy with a particular rite. In the later Western Church the name was also applied in cathedrals and collegiate churches to one of the canons who had the oversight of the musical instruction of the younger members and led the musical part of the service; called also precentor. It is sometimes used quite generally for specially designated singers, whether clerical or lay, who intone or begin the psalms, antiphons, and hymns.

CAftZ, cdntz, ISRAEL GOTTLIEB. See WOLFF, CHRISTIAN, AND THE WOLFFIAN SCHOOL.
CAPEGELATRO, ca‑p@"chi‑la'tr6, ALFONSO:
Cardinal priest; b. at Marseilles Feb. 5, 1824. He entered the oratory of St. Philip Neri, and in 1878 was appointed aublibrarian of the Holy See. Two years later he was consecrated archbishop of Capua, and in 1885 was created cardinal priest of Santi Nereo ed Achilleo. In the following year, however, he chose the church of Santa Maria del Popolo in preference to that of Santi Nereo ed Achilleo. He still retains his archiepiscopal see, and also remains the official librarian of the Holy See. In addition to a number of briefer contributions, he has written: Storita di Santa Catering a del paPato del auo temPora (2 vole., Naples, 1856); Newman a la religions cattolicd in Ireghilterra (2 vole., 1859); La vita di Gees>l Cristo (1862); Storia di San Pier Damiano a del auo tempore (Florence, 1862); Scritti Yari raligiosi e sociali (3d ed., Milan, 1873); La dottrina cattolica (3 vole., 2d ed., Sienna, 1879); Vita di San Filippo Neri (2 vole., Naples, 1879; Eng. travel., by T. A. Pope, London, 1882); Prose aacre a morsels (Sienna, 1884); and Nuove Prose (2 vole., Milan, 1899). An edition of his works was published in eighteen volumes at Rome in 1886‑93.
CAPE COLONY: The most important of the British possessions in South Africa, comprising, in general, that portion of the continent south of the Orange River; area, 277,000 square miles; population (1904), 2,409,804, of whom less than one‑fourth (not quite 580,000) are Europeans or whites; the remainder (still predominantly heathen) includes 1,114,100 Kafirs and Bechuanas, 310; ?20 half‑breeds classed as Fingo stock, 91,260 Hottentots, 15,680 Malays, and 298,340 classed as half‑breeds and of miscellaneous origin.
The more important religious bodies of the colony are as follows: (1) The Dutch Reformed Church, with 399,500 members (1904), of whom 296,800 were white. It is the church of the original European (Dutch) settlers, who spread widely through the land by conquest from 1652 onward. Their Church is governed by a general synod, whose sessions are held every three years. The separate congregation is administered by a church council (kerkeraad), and six to twelve congregations constitute a congregational circuit (" ring "), whose chosen representatives become members of the General Synod. A standing committee of the Synod administers the principal affairs of the Church as a whole. The colored congregations are for the most part the result of missionary labor; only
402
a small number of their clergy have a higher education. (2) The Church of England, 281,440 members (122,560 white). The diocese of Cape Town was founded in 1847; the incumbent has borne the title of archbishop since 1897 and is metropolitan of the province of South Africa, which comprises nine dioceses besides the metropolitan see, viz.: Bloemfontein (formerly the Orange Free State, formed 1863), Grahamstown (1853), Lebombo (1891), Mashonaland (1891), Natal (formerly Maritzburg, 1853), Pretoria (1878), St. Helena (1859), St. John's, Kaffraria (1873), and Zululand (a missionary bishopric, 1870). (3) The Wesleyan Methodist Church of South Africa, 277,300 members (35,900 white). This body very early employed colored teachers and has applied less rigorous tests of conversion than others; in 1891 it had about 1,250 lay helpers. Two other Methodist bodies have an inconsiderable aggregate membership. (4) Congregationalists, 112,200 members (5,000 Europeans), for the most part connected with the London Missionary Society. The Congregational Union of South Africa was formed in 1900 from the Union of South Africa (1877) and the Union of Natal and Southeastern Africa (1882). (5) Presbyterians, 88,660 members (26,360 of European origin). The Scotch Church began missionary activity in the east of the colony in 1821. (6) Lutherans, 37,050 members (13,100 Europeans), mostly of German origin. They are united in the German Evangelical Lutheran Synod of South Africa. (7) The Rhenish Mission Church has 20,800 members and (8) the Mormviana 23,100, nearly all colored. (9) The African Methodist Episcopal Church has 12,060 members; (10) the Baptists number 14,100, of whom 9,950 are white, their congregations being organised practically on a European basis; (11) the Church of Christ has 7,600 members (1,075 Europeans), and (12) the South African Reformed Church 6,210, nearly all Europeans. Further, there is a group of mission congregations, of which the largest is Dutch (4,790) and the smallest American (215), and more than forty additional sects or denominations witness tile tendency to religious division which manifests itself in English‑speaking lands. For further information concerning missionary activity, see AFRICA, II.
The Roman Catholic Church has had a vigorous growth in the last ten years, and now counts more than 37,000 members (28,500 of European origin). The organization includes the apostolic vicariates of western and eastern Cape Colony, dating respectively from 1837 and 1847, with residence at Cape Town and Port Elizabeth, and the apostolic prefecture of central Cape Colony (1874), with residence at Cape Town. The Roman Catholic Church is active throughout South Africa and has established vicariates for Natal (1850), the Tranavaal (1904), and orange Free state (1886>, and a prefecture of Basutoland (1894).
The Greek Orthodox Church reckons 1,050 adherents, almost exclusively European. The Iaraelitea have decreased on account of emigration; still 19,500 remain. Mohammedanism is represented by 22,630 members (among them 15,100 Malays),

	403 RELIGIOUS , ENCYCLOPEDIA	,,	CRUZ
and 2,035 Hindus are enumerated. In spite of the missionary zeal of so many Christian sects, more than half the natives continue in heathenism, the official figures of colored heathen being 1,015,230.
	The number of illiterates, after deduction of
children under school age, is 1,368,000. The
religious bodies are engaged in active rivalry to
meet the needs of education and thereby to in
crease their numbers, and the government has
latterly applied itself to the building and equip
ment of schools on a scale of greatly increased
expenditure. Attendance at school was made
compulsory in 1905. 	WILHELM GOETZ.
BIBLIOGRAPHY; For general facts and status, J. Bryce, Impressions of South Africa, London, 1899. For statistics, South African Year Book, annual, London. For phases of mission and other church work consult: A. T. Wirgman, History of the English Church in South Africa, London, 1895; A. G. $. Gibson, Sketches of Church Work in the Diocese of Capetourn, Cape Town, 19o0; Mission Chroniele of the Scottish Church, with the Karjrarian Diocesan Quarterly, Edinburgh; South African Catholic Magazine, Cape Town; Reports o) the Wesleyan Missions is the Cape o/ Good Hope District, annual, Cape Town; Almanak voor de perefoormeerds Kark, annual, Cape Town; Handelinpen [der Yergadering van de synods der gerefoornteerde Kerk, Cape Town (published subsequent to the meeting of each synod); J. Mackenzie, Day‑Darun in South Africa, London, 1884: idem. London Missionary Society do South Africa, ib. 1888; A. Brigs, Missionary Life irk the South of the Dark Continent, ib. 1888; W. $. Walton, Caps General Mission, ib. 1889; A. G. $. Gibson, Eight Years in Kaffraria, ib. 1891; T. Cook, My Mission Tow in South Atria, ib. 1895; Merensky, in Missionsuitachrift, 18971898; Basler Miasionemapaain, 1900.
CAPER, ELMER HEWITT: Universalist; b. at Stoughton, Mass., Apr. 5, 1838; d. at Medford, Mass., Mar. 22, 1905. He was graduated at Tufts College, 1860; admitted to the bar, 1863; was pastor of the Independent (Universalist) Christian Society of Gloucester, Mass., 1865‑69; of the First Universalist Church of Providence, R. L, 1870‑75; and after 1875 president of Tufts College, Medford, Mass. He belonged to the school of Universaliats who make the final triumph of good over evil a corollary of the nature of God‑a result to be wrought out through those moral processes which are seen in operation around us. He was member of the legislature from Stoughton, 1859‑60. His publications consisted of sermons, addresses, reports, etc.
	CAPERNAUM, ca per'na‑vm: The name of a
Galilean city, situated near the Sea of Galilee. The
form of the word follows the textus receptus, though
the beat manuscripts give Capharnaum. It is a
compound name meaning " village of Nahum "
or " of consolation." Jesus made it the center of
his Galilean activities and it was called " his own
city " (Matt. iv. 13, ix. 1); his disciples Simon Peter
and Andrew had a house there; he taught in the
synagogue there, in Peter's house, and on the sea
shore, and performed a number of wonderful cures.
There he obtained his disciples Peter, Andrew,
and Levi‑Matthew, and near‑by James and John
(Mark i. 16‑17, 19, ii. 14). The city lay on the
west shore of the sea, had a customs‑office and
royal collector and a garrison in command of a
captain who was a friend of the Jews and had built
them a synagogue. Josephus in describing the
plain of Gennesaret (War, III. x. 8) speaks of a copious spring watering the plain which was called by the inhabitants Caperaaum. There are still near the north of the plain two springs. One of these, the Ain‑el‑Tine, issues from the rock under the roots of a fig‑tree not far from Khan Minyeh. But this can not be the one meant by Josephus, since it lies tooalow to water the plain. The other lies northwest of the first and outside the boundaries of the plain. This is the moat copious spring in Galilee, stronger by far than the Banias source of the Jordan, known now as Ain‑el‑Tabigah, the waters of which are collected in a hexagonal reservoir of old masonry, showing that the spring was used for irrigation purposes. This is doubtless the spring mentioned by Josephua, and Capernaum must have been in the neighborhood, and, like the spring, not within the limits of the plain. Josephua states (Life, Ixxii.), that in a skirmish against the troops of Agrippa II. which took place on the banks of the Jordan, he was thrown from his horse and wounded, and had himself carried to the village Cepharntrme and in the following night to Tariche>e. In spite of different textual readings of the name of the place, it is probable that Joeephus here meant Capernaum.
Euaebius (Onomasticon, 273) discusses " in the borders of Zebulun and Naphtali" of Matt. iv. 13 in connection with Isa. ix. 1. The meaning of the phrase is " in the district of," not " on the boundary of." With Tel‑Hum goes well Jerome's statement of two Roman miles as the distance between Chorazin and Capernaum (the " twelve miles " of Eusebius seems a copyist's error). Put alongside the foregoing that Capernaum and Bethsaida were adjacent (Epiphanius, H<er., 1. 15), and early reports are quite exhausted.
Tel‑Hum is the one old site in the vicinity of the spring, forty minutes distant in a northwestern direction. E. Robinson in 1838 visited and described the ruins, some quite pretentious buildings, of black basalt and limestone, among which travelers have thought they identified the remains of a synagogue. The name of the fountain, even though forty minutes away, makes for the identification of Tel‑Hum with Capernaum. And the. form TelHum may be an Arabic variation for Tenhum, abbreviated from the Talmudic Kaf Tanhumim (" Village of Consolation ").
The Franciscan Quaresmio in 1616‑26 identified Khan Minyeh near Ain‑el‑Tine as the site of Capernaum, and he has been followed by many scholars. On this site appear the traces of the larger streets which a garrison city seems to require. A conclusion has been urged that John vi. 1‑21 and Mark vi. 45‑53 imply that Capernaum was on the plain of Gennesaret, but this falls after close examination of the passages. Arguments drawn from the element "Minyeh" in the modern name have also no cogency.
The ruins of Tel‑Hum belong now to the Franciscans, who have enclosed them with a wall, intending to excavate there in the future.
(H. GUTHE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Authorities and literature favoring TeIHum are: J. Wilson. Lands o/ the Bible Visited‑ and D‑

awperolanf
asDital Punishment
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HER,ZQG
scribed, ii. 139‑149. London, 1847: A. E. Wilson and W.
Warren, Rof J‑U‑lem. DD. 375‑387, ib. 1871;
W. M. Thomson, Land and the Book 3 vole., New York,
1880, i. 352‑35B of London ed., 1873; V. Gu6rin, De
scription . . de la Palestine. Part 3. Galsibe, i. 227‑228,
Paris, 1880; F. Buhl, Geopraphie des alters Pa7datina, pp.
224‑225, Freiburg, 1598. Favoring Khan Minyeh are:
A. P. Stanley, Sinai and Palatine London, 1888; E.
Robinson, Biblical Researches, Boston 1865; T. Keim,
Jesus of Nasara, 2 vols., London, 1*9; C. R. Condor,
Ten! Work in Palestine, ib. 1880; A. Henderson, Pales
tine Edinburgh 1885; G. A. Smith, Historical Geography
of the Holy Land pp, 45g‑457. London, 1897; DR, i. 350351; EB, i. 898‑698.
CAPEROLARI, cd‑p6"ro‑l8'nf. See FRANCI6, SAINT, OF Assisi, AND THE FRANCIaCAN ORDER, III., § 7.
CAPEROLO, ca‑p6'ro‑lo, PIETRO. See FRANCI6, SAINT, OF Assisi, AND THE FR9NCISCAN ORDER.
CAPE VERDE ISLANDS. See AFRICA, III.
CAPERS, ELLISON: Protestant Episcopal bishop of South Carolina; b. in Charleston, S. C., Oct. 14, 1837; d, at Columbia, S. C., Apr. 22, 1908. He was graduated from the South Carolina Military Academy 1857, was assistant professor there 1858‑$0. On the outbreak of the Civil War he entered the Confederate Army, in which he attained the rank of brigadier‑general. From the close of the war until 1868 he was secretary of the South Carolina Legislature, but in the mean time studied theology, and was ordained to the priesthood in 1867. He was then rector of Christ Church, Greenville, S. C., 1867‑‑87, except for a year (1875‑76) as rector of St. Paul's, Selma, Ala., and of Trinity, Columbia, S. C., ‑1887‑93. In 1886 he had been tendered and had declined the bishopric of Easton, but in 1893 he was consecrated bishop of South Carolina.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: VP $. Parry, The Episcopate in America,
p. 355, New York, 1895.
CAPHTOR, caf'ter: A locality provisionally identified with Crete, though the question can not be regarded as settled. According to Amos ix. 7 it was the original home of the Philistines; Jer. xlv'i. 4 (Masoretic text) makes of it an island or coast‑land; Deut. ii. 23 and Gen. x. 14 use the term " Caphtorim " of the inhabitants. The early tradition is indicated by the fact that the Septuagint, Vulgate, Peshito, and Targums use " Cappadocia " and " Cappadocians " in Amos ix. 7 and Deut. ii. ?.o; this was based, however, on a misunderstanding. Attempts to find the meaning have been made by investigating the word " Cherethites " (I Sam. xxx. 14‑16;, Zeph. ii. 5; Ezek. xxv. 16), used of a people in the Philistine region and of Philistine stock. The transliterations of the Hebrew in the Septuagint show that the latter did not understand the meaning. In the prophetical bookathe form Krems is used by the Septuagint, implying immigration from Crete; but how far this rested upon data known to the interpreters is indeterminable.
On Egyptian monuments of the time of Thothmes III. appears mention of a land the name of which takes a form corresponding to "Caphtor" minus the final consonant (Kefti). Ebers explained this by " Phenicians," only to have the explanation shown untenable by W. Max Miiller. According to G. Steindorff, the Egyptian word connotes "islands of the Xgean"; and the same authority notes among
404
the representations of tribute to Thothmes III.
from the Kefti vessels of the Mycenaean type of about
1450‑1250 B.c. The Kefti must have been within
the sphere of influence of Mycenaean culture. But
Muller connects them with Cilicia. Evens in his
investigations in Crete has discovered numerous
evidences of the existence there of Mycenaean
culture, thus bringing Crete within the sphere of
influence of that civilization. Alongside of them
are articles of Egyptian workmanship, showing
exchange of commodities between Egypt and
Crete. Steindorff puts the two facts together, and
equates Crete and the Egyptian Kefti. But this
may prove superfluous provided success is attained
in geographically defiiting the word kptar recently
found at Ombos, a word which closely corresponds
with the Hebrew Caphtor. The equation liefti ‑
kptar is not fully proved. 	(H. GUTHE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. M. MOller, Asian and Europe, pp. 337 eqq., Leipsic, 1893; idem, in Mittheilungen der vorderasiaEiacXsn CeaeRechajt, i. 1 aqq, 1900 (places Caphtor on the Lycisa or Carian coast); G. Ebers, AegypEen and die Backer Mosis, p. 130, Leipeio, 1888; G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, p. 171, London, 1897;
DB, i. 351‑352; EB, i. 898‑700; JE, iii. b53‑554.
CAPISTRANO, GIOVANNI DI: Franciscan; b. at
Capistrano (22 m. s.e. of Aquila), in the Abruzzi, 1386; d. at IlIok (Ujlak, 26 m. w. of Peterwardein), Slavonia, Oct. 23, 1456. He first studied jurisprudence, but joined the Franciscans in 1416 and in the school of Bernardin of Sienna became a theologian and preacher. After 1426 he acted as inquisitor against the Fratricelli and Jews, and by cruel measures attained a moderate success. His main achievement was the defense and extension of the order of the Observantinea, of whom he was made vicar‑general in Italy in 1446. In 1451 he was sent to Germany against the Hueaitea. Followed by large crowds, he went to Vienna, and is reported to have performed 320 miracles on the way, while the number of his hearers is said to have increased from 150 to 300,000. He intended now to go to Bohemia to destroy the heresy there; a disputation to which he was invited by the ZJtraquiat bishop Rokyczana he managed to avoid, and finally he did venture to enter the country. lEneas Silviua states that he did, indeed, convert a few Huesites, but, considering the multitude of the heretics, they are hardly worth mentioning. At any rate Bohemia, in spite of his sermons, remained as it was befoie. By way of Bavaria, Saxony, and Lusatia, he went to Silesia and Poland, and on account of his sermons and miracles was everywhere revered like a saint. After the fall of Constantinople (1453) he tried to induce the princes of Germany at the Diets of Frankfort and Wiener‑Neustadt to make war against the Turks, but failed, and was very little successful generally in preaching the cross. He went to Hungary in 1455 and when Mohammed II. advanced against Belgrade (1456) Capistrano, the papal legate Carjaval, and John Hunyadi were almost the only men who bestirred themselves to repel the foe. In spite of his age, Capistrano with a number of crusaders went to Belgrade and by a daring sally gave Hunyadi opportunity to beat the Turks. For this the friends of his order have cele‑

408	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Ca
		Capital Panishmeat
brated him as savior of Europe.	He died soon after,
exhausted by hardships.	Although revered in his
	lifetime as a saint, he was not canonized until
1690.	Prominent contemporaries, among them the
	subsequent pope Pius IL, expressed some doubts
	as to his miracles and had no favorable opinion of
	him because of his bragging self‑glorification and
choleric irritability.	E. LEMPP.
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: The early Vita and some of John's letters
	are in ASB, Oct., x. 2BS‑b52, with which cf. L. Wadding,
	Annalea b!%noram, vole. iv.‑vi„ Leyden, 1848, or ix.‑xiii.,
	Rome. 1734 (an excellent source). The most comprehen
	sive biography is by A. Hermann, Capiatranua triumphana,
	Cologne, 1700; the first scientific life is by G. Voigt, in
	Sybel'aHistoriacheZeiJschrift. x. (1883) 19‑96; cf. idem,
	Enea Silvio d%' Piccolomin%, vol. ii., Berlin, 1860; the latest
	life is by E. Jacob. Johannes von Capistrano, Breslau, 1903.
	A considerable list of literature is given in Potthast, Weg
weiaer, pp. 1396‑97.
CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.
I.	The Historical Development of Capital Punishment.
	In Primitive Society (¢ 1).
	In Roman Law (¢ 2).
	Attitude of the Church (¢ 3).
II. Place of Religious Ideas in the Question. III. Capital Punishment in Modern Times.
	I. The Historical Development of Capital Ptin
ishment: It must be borne in mind that the
killing of a person guilty of grievous crime does not,
in primitive society, belong to the class of deliberate
		ordinances enacted by the commu
	r. In nity. It is rather a form of the im
	Primitive pulse of revenge, which the primitive
	Society. institutions of all the older civilized
		nations first tolerate, and then regu
late and uphold or limit (see Broon‑REVENGE). In
primitive conditions revenge has a twofold opera
tion. It is directed in some cases against offenses
which affect the individual or the family (such as
theft, adultery, and the murder of a freeman); in
these cases the injured family proceeds against the
offender or his family, and the community takes
part only in the interests of public peace, by estab
lishing a penalty on payment of which the offender
is to be safe from revenge. Quite a different form
of procedure is that against crimes which offend
the consciousness of the whole community (sacri
lege, unnatural vices, treason in war, etc.). Here
the vengeance of the community is provoked, and it
acts first by formal delivery of the offender to the
will of the members or outlawry, then later by ac
tual execution, in connection with which sacred
ceremonies analogous to those of sacrifice are often
found. As organized government grows stronger,
it takes an official interest in crimes which were
originally in the private sphere, withdraws them
from individual vengeance, and subjects them to
capital punishment. Religion has its influence
here; the interference of government in such cases
is usually, brought about by the conception that the
crime, apart from the injury to the immediate vic
tims, defiles the community and must be punished
in order to retain peace with the deity. This can
be clearly shown in the Greek law of the post
Homeric age, less clearly but still probably in an
cient Roman law; and the same course was followed
in Hebrew history. In the primitive law (cf. Ex.
xxi. 12 aqq.) the murderer is exposed to the pursuit
of the avenger of blood, and the elders of the com‑
munity cooperate only to the extent of driving the fugitive from an asylum and delivering him to the avenger. In the case of the other crimes mentioned in Ex. xxi. the punishment of death is either private vengeance, or at most a sort of tribal vengeance or lynch law. As late as the period of Dent. xix. the blood‑vengeance is mentioned; but by the side of it appears the idea that the whole community is affected with blood‑guiltiness by a deliberate murder, and must be purified by the death of the offender. The same law began, when priestly influence increasingly dominated all departments of life, to be applied to other offenders (blasphemers, traitors, adulterers, etc.). The formal abandonment to the avenger was replaced by stoning, in which all the men of the community took part.
In so far as the religious influence remained a permanent factor in the penal code, the Jewish State stands alone among the Mediterranean com‑
		munities. In the others, especially
	s. In	the Greek and Roman, punishment
	Roman	became exclusively a matter of secu
	Law.	lar enactment. In the Roman the
		principle is continuously applied from
the fifth century that the death penalty (whether
by decapitation, burning, or throwing down a
precipice) is due to all grave crimes (including
murder, arson, perjury, treason, etc.); but in prac
tise this was mitigated by the frequent substitution
of the " interdiction of fire and water," i.e., banish
ment from the community, especially after the
introduction of the provocatioad populum, an appeal
to the whole body of the people against the decision
of consuls and other magistrates empowered to
pronounce sentence of outlawry. In the last two
centuries of the republic capital punishment was
seldom applied, to members of the upper classes at
least. But it was never abolished, and when the
reorganization of the Roman system took place
under imperial legislation it was again more fre
quently employed, even against Roman citizens.
Thus at the beginning of the Christian era it was an
accepted institution throughout the Roman Empire,
though with variations in usage due to local law.
The teaching of Christ made no substantial alteration in these conditions. Of his own recorded sayings, the only one directly bee;ing on the subject is Matt. xxvi. 52, which (like Gen. ix. 5) refers rather to the eternal working out of the divine justice in the abstract. But Paul speaks expressly in Rom. xiii. 1 sqq. of the legal death‑penaltyalthough here it is merely designated as reconcilable with the divine law, not required or imposed as a duty upon the State. Accordingly Christian teaching made no change in the Roman law, and, when the Christians became dominant, after having been for two centuries frequent victims to its provisions, they still allowed it to take free course. In fact, it was applied with increasing frequency even to Roman citizens of the higher classes, and from the time of Constantine to a large number of minor offenses.
Although the Church was more firmly and fully organized when it came into contact with the institutions of the new Germanic kingdoms, and assumed the right of extensive interference with their penal

Capital Punishment Capito
THE NEW
legislation on principles resembling those of the Jewish theocracy, its influence in the question of capital punishment was not deci3. Attitude give. Germanic law at first, like
of the all primitive systems, made private Church. vengeance and the mitigation of it by surrender of property on the part of the offender the principal factor in the punishment of crime. The Church undertook to regulate this to the extent of minimizing private vendettas, both by providing and bupporting means of reconciliation between the contending parties and by strengthening orderly official justice. But in spite of the " horror of bloodshed " consistently emphasized by the Church, which from the tenth century on created an impressive mechanism against private vendettas in the Truce of God (q.v.), it was obliged to give a general support to the gradual upbuilding of the secular system of corporal, including capital, punishment in the kingdoms of western Europe. When the death‑penalty had been finally established as a regular part of settled secular law, the Church in theory took the position of a simple spectator of its exercise. It forbade the clergy to take any part in its administration, laid down the principle Ecclesia non shit sanguinem (" The Church does not thirst for blood "), and admonished ecclesiastical authorities to provide asylums and in other ways to work for mercy to the offender in the hope of his improvement. This position was somewhat modified when the war against heresy began. Even in the eleventh century the State threatened heretics with death in isolated cases in France and Germany; and by the middle of the twelfth century the growth of heresy led to a formal alliance between Church and State, by which Frederick Barbaroeaa in 1184, and then other sovereigns of southern Europe, pledged the pope the support of the secular arm for the suppression of heresy. The penalties were at first outlawry, infamy, and confiscation of goods; but in 1224 Frederick II. approved of death by fire as the penalty in Lombardy; and this penalty, soon applied throughout Italy, was not only sanctioned but directly called for by Gregory IX. It was not long before the new principle was extended to Germany, France, England, and Spain, and the death‑penalty, while theoretically administered by secular officials, was actually the consequence of an ecclesiastical condemnation.
The teaching of the Reformers brought about no essential alteration in the general attitude toward capital punishment; it might seem that the Reformation strengthened the institution, but really this attitude is rather the result of contemporary conditions. The death‑penalty had been more frequently employed in all European states since the fifteenth century as a result of violent proletarian risings and the increase of the dangerous unemployed sad vagabond population, and the period from 1530 to 1630 is that in which the number of executions reached its high‑water mask. When a reaction came about, it was directed primarily against an excessive use of this penalty, and then toward the establishment of penitentia‑
ries (London 1580, Amsterdam 1598, Hamburg
SCHAFF‑HERZOG
408
1622, etc.), which brought about a decrease in the number of executions. 'the movement for the abolition of capital punishment did not proceed from a religious source. While Locks, Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Thomasius had all recognized it as a necessary part of the social system, and Rousseau in the Contrat social had left it theoretically free play, it was Cesare Beccaria in 1784 who, as a deduction from Rousseau's general ideas, proclaimed its irreconcilability with abstract justice. In modern times no agreement has been reached on the basis of religious convictions.
II. Place of Religious Ideas in the Question: The historical outline given above shows clearly that the sanction and province of capital punishment in secular law can not be brought directly under religious control. The old philosophical lootrine of the " Christian State " is now no longer recognized. On modern principles, the State's justification for existence lies in its necessity to the unhampered development of human activity; and on this rests its power of punishing, and in particular its right to apply the death‑penalty. The essential characteristics of a just and proper punishment will thus have to be determined by a course of empirical historical research.
In the older development of the penal code of all nations, corporal punishment is found concurrently with penalties affecting the property of the offender; but the corporal is finally preferred because it is capable of application alike to all, while money fines have a varying effect according to the wealth of the offender. By degrees the permission of compounding for corporal penalties is abolished, with the gradual building up from the twelfth century of modern principles of government. The deathpenalty is increasingly preferred as emphasizing the thought of the equality of all men before the law. It is misused for a time as the easiest way of ridding society of dangerous persona, and then, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the question is widely discussed how far it ought properly to be applied, sad the principle of justice is urged in favor of its restriction to very grave crimes. These arguments, however, produced no great effect until the reaction from the excessive use of it led to the creation of a third form of penalty in a regular system of imprisonment, thoroughly established about 1700. The considerations which moved John Howard and others in the' eighteenth century to agitate for prison reform on the ground of humanity led also to the more frequent discussion of the desirability of abolishing capital punishment, and finally to an almost universal recognition of the sole ground on which its maintenance can be defended. It is now admitted that on grounds of humanity the State has no right to annihilate the individual existence, and that so far as these grounds go, the heaviest penalty that may be inflicted is that of penal servitude for life. From the standpoint, however, of abstract justice, it is still possible to defend the death‑penalty, not in the interest of terrifying offenders, nor yet on the basis of a lex talionia, but on that of a proportion between crime and penalty, which may fairly demand that the severity of the punishment shall correspond in

407	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Capital Punishment
		Capito
some measure to the importance of the social func
tion injured by the crime. With this is connected
the requirement that the penalty shat? be impres
sive‑as much so as the crime‑in order that the
authority of the law shall be upheld, and equal,
falling with the same severity on all classes of the
community. The validity of this argument will
be denied by those who reject the principle of equiv
alent compensation and, taking their stand ex
clusively on the principle of humanity, seek as the
result of punishment the amelioration of the offender
and she deterrence of him from any further crimes.
But the fact that many of those who take this
theoretical view acquiesce in the retention of capi
tal punishment in practise shows that the tradi
tional verdict of many centuries as to the relation
of crime and punishment is still to be reckoned
with in any discussion of this question. ,~.
		RICHARD SCHMIDT.)
	III. Capital Punishment in Modern Times: In
modern times the maintenance or abolition of the
death‑penalty has been considered mainly from the
standpoint of social utility and social justice. In
the history of penology the influence of Christian
and humane sentiments has been distinctly felt;
but many drastic punishments have been laid
aside, not because they were cruel and severe, but
because they were ineffective. As mutilation has
been practically abandoned in civilized countries,
so reliance upon capital punishment as a means of
repressing crime has been greatly weakened. A
conclusive proof of this is seen in the restriction of
the number of offenses to which it is applied.
Scarcely more than a century ago 200 offenses
were included in the list of capital crime in
England. Until 1894 twenty‑five offenses were
made capital under the military code of the United
States, twenty‑two under the naval code, and
seventeen under the penal code. Under Federal
laws the number of capital offenses has now been
reduced to three. Many advocates of capital pun
ishment to‑day are willing to limit its application
wholly to cases of murder.
	Publicity was formerly regarded as absolutely
necessary for the deterrent effect of executions.
Even after death the body of the criminal was ex
posed for weeks on the gibbet as a warning to male
factors. The practise of gibbeting has now been
abandoned, and the practise of public execution
is	gradually following it. Within recent years
seven or eight States of the Union, including New
York, Massachusetts, New Mexico, North Dakota,
have decided that attendance on executions should
be limited to a number of legal or specified witnesses.
The governors of Georgia and Kentucky have rec
ommended similar legislation. In several States
the electric chair has been substituted for the gal
lows with a view of mercifully rendering death in
stantaneous. Other States of the Union have
abolished the death‑penalty altogether. Michigan
abolished it in 1847, Rhode Island in 1852, Wiscon
sin in 1853. Maine abolished it in 1876, restored it in
1883, and again abolished it in 1887. In 1903 New
Hampshire abolished the death‑penalty for murder
in the first degree unless the jury should have fixed
the same to the verdict; otherwise the sentence is for
life imprisonment. In Kansas there have been no official executions since 1872, as no governor has exercised his poser to order the execution of a prisoner. In 1907 the legislature amended the law by substituting life imprisonment for the deathpenalty. The governor of Nebraska in 1903 urged the legislature to abolish capital punishment. Colorado abolished the death‑penalty in 1897, but restored it 1901, as a result of a lynching outbreak in 1900.
In its session 1906‑07 the subject of the abolition of capital punishment occupied a prominent place in the discussions of the French parliament without final result. Russia, one of the first countries to respond to the appeal of Beccaria, abolished it in 1753, except for political offenses. It was abolished in Portugal in 1867, in Holland in 1870, in Italy in 1890; and it has been abolished in the majority of the Swiss cantons, in Costa Rica, Brazil, Ecuador, Guatemala, Venezuela, and three states of Mexico. Some countries which have not formally abolished it by legislative act have suppressed it in practise. This is true of Belgium, and of some states of Mexico. It remains yet to be proven that an increase in capital crimes has followed the abolition of the death‑penalty in any country. On the contrary, the higher development of civilization in these countries, the growth of the, humane sentiment, and increased reliance upon educational and preventive measures, instead of upon drastic deterrent laws, have led to a gradual reduction of crimes of violence. SAMUEL J. BARROWS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. B. Cheever, Punishment by Death: its Au
	thority and Expediency, New York, 1849 (one of the moat
	vigorous defenses of the practise); H. Seeger, Abhandlun
	pen aua dam 3trafreelete, Tiibingen, 1858; C. J. Mitter
	maier, Die Todeastrafe each den Erpebnisaen der wiaaen
	echaftlichen Forachungen, Heidelberg, 1882 (the standard
	work against capital punishment, Eng. condensation by
	J. M. Moir, Capital Punishment, London, 1886); R. E.
	John, Usher die Todeeetrafe, Berlin, , 1887; H. Hetsel,
	Todeaatrole in %hrer kulturpesehichtlichen Entw6ekelunp, ib.
	1870; F. von HolteendorH, Dos Verbrec)un lea Mordea
	and die Todeeatrafe, ib. 1875; L. von Bar, Handbuek des
	deutachen Strafrechte, vol. i., ib. 1882; H. Romilly. TM
	Punishment of Death, London, 1888; A. J. Palm, The
	Death Penalty, New York. 1891; J. Machlaster, The Divine
	Purpose of Capital Punishment, London, 1892; $. R. D.
	K. Olivecroner, Ds la pedal de la mort, Paris, 1893; R.
	Schmidt, Aufpaban der 3trnfnchtap/lepe, pp. 178 eqq., 224
	eqq., Leipsic, 1895; R. Katsenstein, Todeeadafe in einem
	neuen Reicluetrajpesetabuch. Berlin, 1902; D. P. D. Fabius,
	De doodatraf, Amsterdam, 1908. For the ancient enact
	mente consult JuriaprudenW a anteiuatiniano;, ad. E.
	Huschke, 5th ed., Leipeic, 1888 (cf. Indea under. "Capita
	puniuntur "), and "The Institutes of Justinian," Book
	IV., title xviii., in Moyle's transl., 4th ad., pp. 205‑207,
	Oxford, X908; A. H. J. Greenidge, Infamia; its Place in
	Roman Public and Private Lam, 1894.
CAPITO, WOLFGANG FABRICIUS: Reformer at Strasburg; b. at Hagenau) 16 m. n. of Strasburg) 1478; d. at Strasburg Nov., 1541. He was the eon of a blacksmith named Koepfel, whence the Latin name Capito. Having passed the schools at Pforzheim and Ingolstadt, he studied at Freiburg first medicine, then law, and finally theology. In 1512 he became parish priest at Bruchsal and there made the acquaintance of (Ecolampadius and Pellicaa. Called to Basel in 1515 as preacher and Ilrofessor, he became intimate with the humanists, including Erasmus, and, abandoning scholasticism.

caDitp
Oappsl
THE NEW
betook himself to the study of the Bible. He published the Psalter in the original (1516), became personally acquainted with Zwingli and from 1518 corresponded with Luther. Contrary to all expectation, he was appointed in 1519 chaplain to Albert, elector and archbishop of Mainz. For s time he tried to mediate with humanistic liberality between the elector and Luther, but in 1522 he was brought over completely to the cause of the
Reformation, and resigned his position at Mainz. In May, 1523, he went to Strasburg and as provost of St. Thomas (a position obtained by the favor of Leo Y.) preached in accordance with his conviction. In 1524 he married and became pastor of the JungSt. Petergemeinde. From this time on, he belonged, with Butzer and the burgomaster Jacob Storm, to the leaders of the Strasburg Reformation. In his Ifinderbericht (1527 and 1529) he prepared a catechism, which, by its peculiar arrangement and characteristic treatment of the matter, forma a noteworthy pendant to Luther's contemporaneous smaller catechism. With Butzer, Capito prepared the Corefessio TetralOOlitana (1530). His most important reformatory work is the Berner Synodaes, the result of the synod held at Bern in 1532, a kind of church‑discipline and pastoral instruction, distinguished by apostolic power and unction, great simplicity, and practical wisdom. He took an active part in Butzer'B efforts to bring together the Evangelicals of Germany, France, and Switzerland. He also had part in bringing about the Wittenberg Concordia of 1536. Toward the Anabaptists and other sectaries who disturbed the church at Strasburg he was more friendly and confiding than Butzer, and for a time sided with them, thus destroying the good understanding between himself and Butzer. But in 1534 he became convinced of the necessity of stricter measures against the Anabaptists. Characteristic of Capito were not only his mildness and large‑heartedness, but also a certain timidity and uncertainty in his theological and ecclesiastical position. However, this was not due to diplomatic opportunism, but to a sincere repugnance to unfruitful theological controversy and a religious individuality which had more regard to the inner possession of the fruits of salvation than to a dogmatic definition of the doctrine of salvation.
	He died of the plague after having attended the
Diet at Regensburg. 	PAUL GR)NBERO.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. W. Baum, Capito and Buker, Elberfeld, 1880; ADB iii. 772‑77b; A. Baum, Mapiatrat ured Re% oration in 8traasburp Us 1629, Strasburg, 1887; C. Gerbert, Geachichte der 3baaaburger sektenbswcpuny .
16t4‑16a.(, ib. 1889; A. Ernst and J. Adam, Hatechetischs liua3ichte du Elaaasee, pp. 22‑38, ib. 1897; $. M. Jackson, Huldrsich Zudngli, passim, New York, 1903; J. Ficker, Thesaurus Baumianue, pp. b2‑57, Strasburg, 1905; A. Hulebof, Gese3iedenia roan de Doopspeainden to straatsburp van 1616 tot 1667, Amsterdam, 1906.
CAPITLTLARIES: A term which designates a certain class of royal edicts in the Carolingian period, and which is frequently employed not only for the Carolingian capittilaria but also for the edicts, preecelotiorles, decreta, or decretiones of the Merovingian kings and the mayors of the palace under Arnulf. They are distinguished from the other class of diplomats or ma>sdata, not so much by the division into chapters, from which they get
SCHAFF‑HERZOG
408
their name, or by the general nature of their provisions as by their form and by the absence of any attestation‑in the way of signatures or seal. This absence is explained by the fact that they were either put into execution by the kings in person or had to pass through the hands of officials. They attained their highest importance under Charlemagne, and were scarcely less used under Louis the Pious; after his death they ceased in the East Frankish kingdom, to be kept up for a while in the West Frankish and in Italy by his sons and grandsons, disappearing here also toward the end of the ninth century. They contain partly instructions for officials, especially the miasi dominici, and partly supplements or modifications of the old tribal law; but to a still greater extent they are substantive regulations for all departments of both secular said ecclesiastical life. The former include the moat diverse matters, of administration, commerce, the army, markets, coinage, tolls, protection against robbers, etc. These substantive regulations go deeply into not merely the external organization of the Church and its relation to the temporal power, but also the monastic system, education, church discipline, and even liturgical matters.
The origin of the capitulariea and the basis of their authority have been much discussed. The prevalent view, derived in the first instance from Boretius, distinguishes between caPitu7aria legibvs addenda and per se acribenda, which means practically a class of laws originating (like those specifically known as leges) in the assent of the whole people, and another class originating from the king alone, at moat with the advice of the nobles assembled in a diet. But there seems to be no sufficient ground for this distinction between popular and royal law; in so far as there is any contrast between leges and capitzclaria, it may be fully explained by the special reverence which was felt for the ancient tribal law. In the cases in which the capitulariea do not contain merely instructions to officials, they were less legislative enactments than promulgations of a law already existing. This law, so far as we can trace its origin, came into being with the assent of the temporal and spiritual lords, assembled in diets or synods. But the diet must not be conceived of as a representative assembly of the whole people; its decisions were held to be binding upon the individual by virtue of his allegiance to the sovereign, and the period of the capitularies is precisely that in which the oath of allegiance was moat punctiliously required from all adults within the empire. The multiplication of capitularies led before long to the need of codification; for the collection made by Ansegis of Fontanella, see ANSEOIB, and for the forged capitularies appended to his collection by Benedictus LeVlta, Bee PSEUDO‑IBIDORIAN DECRETAL$.
(SIEOFRIED RIETBCHEL.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Critical editions of the CapituEaria repum
Francoram, ed. G. H. Parts, are in MGH, Lepum, i., ii.,
1835, 1837; and, ed. A. Boretius and `l. Krause, ib. Lay.,
acetic II. i., ii.,1883‑97 (cf. A. Boretiue, in GGA, 1882, pp.
65 849 , 1884, pp. 713 eqq.). Consult: A. Boretius, Die
Rapitularien im Langobardenreich, Halle, 1884; idem,
Beilr9pe Sur ICapiCulariankritik, Leipeie, 1874; R. Bohm,
Die frdnkiarhe Reichs‑ and Gerwhtaroerfaaeung, pp. 102
eqq., Weimar, 1871; Foetal de Coulanges, De la coafao‑

409
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
lion den loin au temps den Carolingiene, in Revue historCque,
iii. (1878) 3 eqq.; M. Th6venin, Lex et capetula, in Melanges de L'ecole des haute# etudes, pp. 137 sqq.. 1878; FI. Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, i. 539 sqq., Leipeic, 1908; E. Glasaon, Histoire du droit et den institutions PoliEiquea et adminietrativea de la France, i. 281 eqq., Paris, 1890; G. $eeliger, Die Kagitularien der Karolinger, Munich, 1893; R. $chroder, Lehrbuch der deutachen Rechtageechichte. DP. 253 s99.. Leipsie. 1902.
CAPPADOCIA, cap"pa‑do'ahi‑a. See AsiA MINOR IN THE APOSTOLIC TIME, XI.

CAPPEL (CAPPELLUS) : A French family which produced many noteworthy statesmen and scholars between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries, as well as three theologians, Louis Cappel the Elder, Jacques Cappel the Third, and Louis Cappel the Younger.
1. Louis Cappel the Elder: Reformed theologian; b. at' Paris Jan. 15, 1534; d. at Sedan Jan. 6, 1586. Despite the early death of his father, he received an excellent education, and in his twenty‑second year went to Bordeaux to study law, but before long accepted a professorship of Greek. Becoming acquainted with certain of the Reformers, he was converted to their doctrines, and went to study theology at Geneva, where Calvin controlled the Church. Returning to Paris about 1560, he won the confidence of his coreligionists by his zeal for the interests of the Reformed, and was finally ordained pastor. He officiated successively at Meaux, Antwerp, and Clermont, but the constant outbreak of disturbances rendered any continuous activity impossible, and he was repeatedly obliged to retire to Sedan, where he was safe, since it lay in the duchy of Bouillon. In 1575 he was appointed professor of theology at the University of Leyden, but was recalled in the following year to France and made preacher and professor of theology at Sedan, holding these positions until his death.
2. Jacques Cappel the Third: Nephew of the preceding; b. at Rennes Mar., 1570; d. at Sedan Sept. 7, 1624. After completing his theological education at Sedan, he went in 1593 to his ancestral estate le Tiiloi, where he preached for several years. In 1599 he accepted a call to Sedan se professor of Hebrew, and eleven yearn later was appointed professor of theology. His learning, piety, and charity won him high esteem. Among his numerous works special mention may be made of his Obaeruationes in selects Pentateurati logy (ed. J. Cappel, in his Corn,7neyetsrii et none criticte in Vetxts Teatamentum, Amsterdam, 1689) and his Hiatoria sacra et exotics sb Atdamo usque ad Augusti ortum (S6dan,1612).
3. Louis Cappel the Younger: Youngest brother of the preceding; b. at St. flier (a village near SBdan) Oct. 15, 1585; d. at Saumur June 18, 1658. His father, Jacques Cappel the Younger, who had been a parliamentary counselor at Rennes, had been forced to resign on account of his conversion to the Reformed Church and had been driven by the adherents of the League from his estates of Is Tilloi. During his flight to his brother Louis Cappel the Elder at S€dan, his son was born and named for his uncle. After his father's death in 1586, the boy was taken by his
Capito
Cappel
mother to le Tilloi, where he was educated by Roman Catholics until his brother Jacques Cappel took him from their charge. He then studied theology in Sedan, and in 1609 received from the church in Bordeaux the means to study four years in England, Belgium, and Germany. On his return he was appointed professor of Hebrew at Saumur, but in 1621 the war forced him to take refuge with his brother at Sedan, where he remained three years. In 1626 he became professor of theology, and through him, together with Molse Amyraut and Josu6 de la Place, Saumur attained high fame. Of his five sons two died in early youth, the eldest, Jean, became a convert to the Roman Catholic Church, and the youngest, Jacques the Fourth, when eighteen years of age succeeded his father as professor of Hebrew at Saumur. Louis Cappel was a man of piety, sincerity, courage, energy, and learning. His life‑work was devoted to the study of the history of the text of the Old Testament and the refutation of false views concerning it. His first book, Arcanum punctationis revelatxcm, was completed in 1623, and sought to prove that the Hebrew punctuation did not originate with Moses and the other Biblical authors, but had been introduced by Jewish scholars after the completion of the Babylonian Talmud. The novelty of the book is not its assertion, but its logical proof. The work was sent by its author to various scholars for their opinions, but while Buxtorf at Basel counseled caution, Erpenius at Leyden had it printed anonymously on his own responsibility in 1624. The book found a friendly reception in many quarters, but twenty years later Buxtorf's son attacked the author bitterly in his Trsctatus de punctor2tm origins (Basel, 1G48). Cappel replied with his Yindicice arcsni punctstionis, although it first appeared thirty years after his death in the Commentarii et none criticte in Yetus Teat47raentztm edited by his son, Jacques Cappel the Fourth (Amsterdam, 1689). His second famous work was the Critics sacra (Paris, 1650), based on the theory of the integrity of the text and completed in 1634, although it remained unprinted for many years on account of the opposition of the Protestants in Geneva, Leyden, and Sedan. The work is divided into six books with the following subjects: parallel passages in the Old Testament; citations from the Old Testament in the New; the various readings of the keri and kethibh, the manuscripts of the Oriental and Occidental Jews, printed Bibles, and the Masoretic and Samaritan teats of the Pentateuch; deviations in the Septuagint from the Masoretic text; variants in other ancient translations, the Talmud, and early Jewish writings; the choice of readings and the restoration of the original text. Cappel was obliged to meet repeated attacks. Even when his work first appeared, it contained a defense against the younger Buxtorf, who had learned the contents of the book before it was printed, and had combated it in the Tractatus already mentioned. Certain passages which had been omitted in the original edition against his will were added by Cappel in his Epistola apologetics (Saumur, 1651), another work is his own defense. A new edition of the Critics

Cappel
Caraooioli
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
sacra was prepared by G. J. L. Vogel and J. G. Scharfenberg (3 vols., Halls, 1775‑88). His third important writing was the DiaCrz'ba de veria et antiquis Hebrceorum literis (Amsterdam, 1645), in which he proved the priority of the Samaritan script over the square characters and thus refuted the treatise of the younger Buxtorf, De litterarum Hebraicarum genuine antiquitate (1843). In these writings Cappel discussed problems which were of the utmost importance to the Protestants in their controversy with the Roman Catholics. Of his opponents the younger Buxtorf was the most important, and had practically all the theologians of Germany and Switzerland on his side, while many prominent scholars of France, England, and Holland defended the views of Cappel. The first sentences of the Helvetic Consensus Formula of 1675 are directed against Cappel, the greater number of the rest being aimed at Amyraut. In later times a fairer and calmer judgment prevailed concerning the investigations of Cappel, and his results are now generally accepted. A list of his printed and unprinted works is given by his son Jacques in the Commentarii noted above. Special mention may also be made of his TemPli Hierosolymitani delineatio triplex and Chronologia. sacra (both contained in Walton's Polyglot), as well as of his Historic aPostolica illustrate (Geneva, 1834). (His Pivot de la foi et religion (Saumur, 1643) was translated into English by P. Marinel (London, 1660).]
CARL BERTHEAU.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nicbron, Mdm.oirea, vol. axii.; Biographie univaraelk, vii. 75‑80, Paris, 1813; I. A. Dorner, Geachichta der proteatantiaehen Tkeologie, pp. 450 sqq., Munich, 1887, Eng, tranal., Edinb irgu, 1880: L. Diestel, GeacAichte des Alien Teata»unte in der chriatlichen Ksrelu, Pp. 338 sqq., 348 sqq., Jena, 1888; G. 8c6nedermann, Die Controuarse do* L. Cappellua mil den Buxtor/en, Leipaie, 1878; C. A. Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, pp. 222 sqq., New York, 1899.

CAPREOLUS, JOHANNES: The most distinguished Thomiat theologian of the fifteenth century; d. 1444. Little is known of his life. According to Qudtif, he joined the Dominican ofder at Rodez. The subscriptions of the four books of his Defensiones (first printed in Venice, 1483), where he is described as of Toulouse, tell that he finished the first book in 1409 at Paris, where he was then lecturing, the others at Rodez in 1428, 1428, and 1433. So, at least, QuEaif asserts; but an extant copy of the editio princeps assigns the composition of the first three books to 1409, and the fourth to 1432, no place given; and the second edition (Venice, 1514‑15) gives 1409 for the first two, 1428 and 1432 for the others, all in Paris. The diversity renders all the dates uncertain; nor can we be sure of the date (Apr. 6, 1444) assigned to his death by an inscription on his tomb at Rodez, of evidently later composition. The Dominicans of Toulouse assert that he was for some time at the head of their stadium generals. (A. Heuc$.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Qudtif and J. );chard, Seriptoree ordinia
	prmdicatorum, i. 795 sqq., Paris, 1719: K. Warner, Der
	hei,Zipa Thomas roan Aquino, iii, 151 sqq., Regensburg, 1859.
CAPTIVITY OF THE JEWS. See IsReEL, HlasoRY OF, L, 19.
410
CAPUCHINS: A branch of the order of Franciscans, founded in the third decade of the sixteenth century by Matteo di Bassi, an Observantine Franciscan. Repeated attempts had been made since the fourteenth century to restore the primitive strength and simplicity of the Franciscan rule, and one of these movements was concerned especially 'with the habit of the order. In connection with this attempted reform, Matteo was told by a brother mock that the cowl worn by St. Francis differed essentially from that adopted
Early by his order. Matteo thereupon left History. his monastery of Montefaleone and hastened to Rome, where in 1526 he obtained permission from Clement VII. to wear a pyramidal hood and a beard, to live as a hermit, and to preach wheresoever he wished, on condition that he should report annually to the provincial chapter of the Obeervantines. Matteo's example was followed by his fellow Observantines Lodovico and Raffaelle di Foaeombrone, both of whom received similar privileges from the pope; and the three, soon joined by a fourth, found a home with the Camaldolites and the duke of Camerino. Through the duke's influence, they were received among the Conventuals in 1527, whereupon Lodovita and Raffaelle returned to Rome and obtained from the pope the bull of May 18, 1528, by which they were permitted to preach repentance, have the care of souls, especially of abandoned sinners, and form a congregation with the privileges already granted them. They were freed, moreover, from the Observantinea and placid under the control of the Conventuals, since their vicar‑general moat be confirmed by the general of the Conventuals, while they were to receive visitations from the Conventuals and were obliged in their processions to march under the cross either of the Conventuals or the parish clergy. The members of the new order speedily became conspicuous by their long beards and pointed hoods or capuches, whence they were termed Capuchins in ecclesiastical documents as early as 1536 (Capucini ordinia fratrum minorum or Fratres minorea Capucini). Their first monastery was given them by the duchess of Camerino, but by 1529 they possessed four houses and in the same year their first chapter was convened. At the same time the rules of the order were drawn up, and thenceforth remained essentially unchanged.
The Capuchins were required to preserve the primitive service, to refuse all compensation 'for singing mesa, to devote two hours daily to silent prayer, to observe silence throughout the day with the exception of two hours, to practise flagellation, to beg only what was necessary for each day, to provide only for three or at moat seven days, and never to touch money. The use of meat and wine in strict moderation was allowed, but
	Rule.	the friars were forbidden to beg for
		meat, eggs, or cheese, although they
might accept them when they were offered. The
habit was to be poor and coarse, and the brothers,
who might ride neither on horseback nor in wagons,
were required to go barefoot, sandals being allowed
only in special cases. The monasteries, which
were to contain at most ten or twelve friars each,

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Ca		ppel
Caraooioli
were to be fitted in the moat meager manner possible. In addition to the general, the Capuchins had provincials, custodians, and guardians, but no procurators or syndics. Elections were held annually, except in the case of the general, who was elected by the chapter triennially.
The first vicar‑general was Matteo di Baesi himself, but two months after his election in 1529 he resigned, and in 1537 returned to the Observantinea. He was succeeded by Lodovico di Fossombrone, who failed of reelection in 1535 and was expelled for exciting dissatisfaction within the order. The next heads of the Capuchins were
Giovanni de Fano and Bernardino Since the Ochino (q.v.). The defection of the
Reforms‑ latter to Protestantism in 1543 caused
tion.	Paul III. to contemplate the dissolu‑
tion of the order, and for a number of years the Capuchins were forbidden to preach. The result of Ochino'a act was the transformation of the Capuchins into a rigidly ultramontane order which renounced all independent judgment in matters of faith and doctrine.
After the middle of the sixteenth century the spread of the order was rapid. Originally restricted to Italy, it was established in France at' the request of Charles IX. in 1573, and in 1593 entered Germany, after having already been implanted in Switzerland. In 1606 it was in Spain, and thirteen years later was freed from the Conventuals and received its own general, as well as the right to march in processions under its own cross. The Capuchins, who then had 1,500 monasteries and fifty provinces, followed the Spaniards and Portuguese across the sea, and toiled valiantly for the Church in America, Africa, and Asia beside their great rivals, the Jesuits. In the suppression of the monastic orders in France and Germany at the end of the eighteenth century, the Capuchins suffered severely, and had also to endure much south of the Pyrenees. In the nineteenth century, however, they again prospered, and at its close numbered fifty provinces with 534 monasteries and 294 hospices. The twenty‑five Italian provinces are officially suppressed, but retain a limited existence. Of the other twenty‑five, Germany contains two, Austria and Hungary seven Switzerland two, Belgium and Holland one each, France five, Great Britain three, Russia and Poland two, and the United States two, that of Detroit with sixty‑eight fathers and that of Pittsburg with sixty‑five.
Capuchin none were founded at Naples in the first half of the sixteenth century, although, strictly speaking, they are a branch of the Clarea. They now have a number of houses in France, Italy, Spain, and America, and are subject, when the nunnery contains the full number of thirty‑three, to the jurisdiction of the general of the Capuchins, and in other cases to the bishop of the diocese in which they live.
Capuchin scholars have been authors of works of edification, practical exegesis, moral theology, and sermons. Among their moat famous preachers have been Ochino, John Forties, St. Laurence of Brindisi, Jacques Bolduc, Conrad of Salzburg, and
Martin of Cochem. Father Joseph, the confidant and adviser of Richelieu, and Father Matthew, the noted temperance lecturer, were Capuchins.
(O. Ztic>ilzaat.)
B113LIOGRAPHY: Sources for the history 6l8: Z. BOVBr1U9,
	Annaks . . . ordinia minorum aiPe Franciaci qui Capu•
	cini nuncupaniur, vole. i.‑ii., Leyden, 1832 39, vol. iii., by
	Mareellin de Pisa, 1878; Michael a 15lgio, BuZlarium or
	dinia fratrum mirwrum . . . Capudnorum, 7 vole., Rome,
	1740‑52; Ordirationea et decisions* capituZorum pent.
	ralium Capucinorum, ib. 1861; AnaZecta Capucinottsm, an
	annual, ib. 1884 aqq. Consult further: Heimbucher,
	Orden and Konpregationen, i. 279, 315‑328, 359, 381‑382;
	L. Wadding, AnnaZea Minarum, 2d ed. by J. M..Foneeca,
	xvi. 207, 24 vole., Rome, 1731‑1880; Helyot, Ordrea
	monaatiquea, vii. 184‑180; P. Leohner, Leben der Hei,Zipen
		. der Kapuziner, 3 vole., Munich, 1883; A. M. Ilg,
	Geist den . . . Franz von Assisi darputelZt in Lebenebild
	era aua der Oekhiehte des Kapuziner‑0rdens, Augsburg.
	1878; K. Benrath, B. Ochino, passim, Leipsic, 1892;
	Carrier. Relipioua Orders, pp. 244‑248.
CAPUTIATI, ca‑pU'tf‑a"tf (" hooded," "capuched"; also known as Ptlciferi and Blanca Chaperons): A society founded in 1183 at Puy‑enVelay (Le Puy, 68 m.. s.w. of Lyons) in the Auvergne by a poor artisan called Durand to oppose the fearful devastations caused by the mercenary and predatory bands of the " Brabangona " or " Cotereaux." Durand claimed that the Madonna had authorized him to do this; the members of the society were to wear a white dress with a capuche and a leaden image of the wonder‑working Madonna of Puy. Organized after the manner of an ecclesiastical brotherhood, the Caputiati followed the royal troops and took bloody vengeance on the destroyers of peace. The society did not last long. Later reports, but little reliable, make its members rebels against State and Church, who, as is alleged, were routed about 1186 and condemned to do penance. Even in late times, from too implicit reliance on these reports, the Caputiati have been considered a sect opposed to the Church.
HERMAN HAUPT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Kluekhohn, lieechichta den l3otteeJriedene,
	pp. 128 eqq., Leipaio, 1857; E. 96michon, La Paix et la
	dvre de Dieu, pp. 194, 390, Paris, 1857; L. Huberti, Studien
	zur Rechtapeachichfa des liottas‑and Land frisdana, i. 482 eqq.,
	Anebaoh, 1892; Legrand d'Ausey, in Notice# et extraita
	den manuatrite de la BiblioWque Nationals, tom, 7., ‑no
	vii., pp. 29G"293. Paris, 1798‑99.
CARACCIOLI, ca‑rd'chf‑8"lf, GALEAZZO (Mtarchese di Vico): Italian Protestant; b. at Naples 1517; d. at Geneva July 5, 1586. He was the moat distinguished of the Italians who sought a refuge at Geneva when the reaction came over Italy; his mother was a sister of Pope Paul IV., he was in the royal service, and his wife was a Cs;raffa. At Naples he became acquainted with Juan de ValdSa and Peter Vermigli, who at that time preached there, and was deeply impressed by these reformatory men. The evangelical ideas which he imbibed at Naples and which caused him many struggles in his family and in society, were deepened by a journey to Germany in 1544. He found it impossible to make open profession at Naples; the efforts to introduce the Inquisition after the Spanish pattern were frustrated by the resistance of the people in 1547 bordering on a revolution; but, nevertheless, the vice‑regent urged the suppression of every anti‑Roman opinion. Carac‑

a.raas
am.tgat
cioli decided to forsake fatherland, position, and
possessions rather than to continue as a hypocrite.
Pretending to go to the imperial court at Augs
burg, he left Italy, his wife refusing to follow him.
He reached Geneva June 8, 1551, and joined the
Italian community which was founded there in
1542. All efforts of his people to bring him back,
renewed by Paul IV., after his accession in 1555,
were in vain. Toward the end of 1555 he became
a citizen of Geneva. He kept up correspondence
with his wife and his son and in 1558 met them
once more in a little isle of the Adriatic Sea and in
the paternal castle at Vico; as they refused to
follow him, in spite of his entreaties, he left them
forever. The consistories of Geneva and other
places declared his marriage dissolved, and is
1560 he married again. 	K. BENRATH.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: His life was written by N. Balbani, Hietoria delta Vita di G. Caraecioli, Geneva, 1587, republished, Florence, 1875.
CARAFFA, cil‑riif'f8, GIOVANNI PIETRO. See PAUL IV., Pope.
CARCHEMISH, cdr'che‑mien (modern Jerabis): A city situated on the right bank of the Euphrates in the upper part of its course. In the cuneiform inscriptions the name denotes either a Hittite state or the capital of that state, which long maintained itself against the Assyrians. Its earlier identification with Circesium, at the confluence of the Chebar with the Euphrates, is obsolete. The earliest mention dates from Ammi‑zaduga (about 2200 B.C.), which speaks of the weight (measure) of Carchemish, a mention which agrees with a later Assyrian note of the " Mina of Carchemish," and with the city's location on one of the moat important routes of commerce. It appears first in Assyrian annals in the accounts of Tiglath‑Pileser I. about 1110 B.C. The Hittite power was at that early date already breaking under the pressure of the northern immigrations then going on, and was completed later by the Aramean migrations. King Sangara paid tribute to Asshurnasirpal (about 880 B.C.), was worsted in a conflict with Shalmaneser IL, and was compelled again to pay heavy tribute and to send his daughter to the Assyrian's harem. Its last king, Pisiris, was taken prisoner by Sargon IL, 717 B.C., and under Sennacherib the region was made an Assyrian province. Near it was fought the battle between Nebuchadrezzar and Nacho which decided the fate of western Asia. (A. JEREMIA9. )
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Maepilro, De Carclumia oppidi situ, Leipeie, 1872; idem $truggie of the Nations, pp. 144‑145, London 1898; J. Menant, ICar‑Ramia, ea position, an appendix to the Fr. travel. of A. H. Ssyee'a Hittites, Paris, 1891 W. M. Miiller, Aeisn uru3 Europa reach alttlpyptsache» Deakmlilern, p. 283, Leipeic, 1893; DB, i. 353; EB, i. 702‑703.
CARDALE, JOHN BATE: Apostle of the Catholic Apostolic Church; b. in London Nov. 2, 1802; d. at Albury (26 m. s.w. of London), Surrey, July 18, 1877. After his schooling at Rugby he was admitted to the bar in 1822, became head of a London firm of solicitors, and retired with a competency in 1834. He had already become interested in the religious movement, originating in Scotland, known as the "Catholic Apostolic Church"
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
412
I	(q.v.), whose distinguishing feature is its belief in the revival of the ministries and gifts seen in the apostolic age of the Church, especially of the ministries of apostles and prophets. Mr. Cardale was the first called of the twelve " apostles " of the Church, Henry Drummond (q.v.) being the second. This was in 1832, although it was not until July 14, 1835, when the number was completed, that the twelve were formally set apart to their work as an Apostolic College. Mr. Cardale was the author of a number of anonymous religious publications, the most noteworthy of which was Reagdina upon the Liturgy, London, vol. i., 1849‑51, vol. ii., 1852‑78. G. C. Bosse, in the Dictionary of National Biography, says of him: " His strength of will, calmness and clearness of judgment, and kindness of heart and manner, added to the prestige of his long rule, made him a tower of strength. He was indefatigable in labour, of which he acmmplished a vast amount; besides Latin and Greek, he was a good French and German scholar, and late in life learned Danish."
	SAMUEL J. ANDREWS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: DNB, ix. 38‑38.

CARDINAL. See CURIA, § I.

CAREY, WILLIAM: Baptist missionary and Orientalist; b. at Paulerspury, Northamptonshire, Eng., Aug. 17, 1761; d. at Serampur, India, June 9, 1834. By baptism a member of the Established Church, he was early in life convinced of the Scriptural authority for the Baptist views, and joined this sect, in which he soon became a preacher. His congregations were very poor, and he supported himself and family by shoemaking. But his thirst for knowledge was strong; and he managed, notwithstanding the pressure of poverty, to acquire Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and a goodly amount of other useful learning, especially in natural history and botany. His attention was turned to the heathen, and he saw plainly his duty to go to them. On Oct. 2, 1792, largely through his exertions, the first Baptist missionary society was founded; and on June 13, 1793, he and his family sailed for India, accompanied by John Thomas, who had formerly lived in Bengal. On reaching Bengal early in 1794, Carey and his companion lost all their property in the Hugli; but, having received the charge of an indigo‑factory at Malda, he cut off his pecuniary connection with the missionary society, and began in earnest what, instead of regular missionary labor, was to be the work of his life‑the study of and translation both from and into the languages of India. In 1799 the factory was closed; and he went with Thomas to Kidderpur, where he had purchased a small indigo‑plantation. Here, joined by Marahman and Ward, he started, under bright hopes a mission, but‑soon encountered the opposition of the Indian government, which forbade the mission's enlargement, and compelled its removal, at a great pecuniary loss, to Serampur, a Danish settlement (I800), where it took a fresh lease of life. For some time Carey and Thomas had been diligently at work upon a version of the New Testament in Bengali. In 1801 it was published by the press

413	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Ca stffa
			arlstadt
Caret' instituted. About the same time the Marquis
of Wellesley appointed him professor of Oriental
languages in the Fort William College, which the
marquis had founded at Calcutta for the instruction
of the younger members of the British Indian civil
service. Caret' held this position for thirty years,
and taught Bengali, Mahrati, and Sanskrit. He
wrote articles upon the natural history and
botany of India for the Asiatic Society, to which
he was elected, 1805, and thus made practical
application of acquisitions of former years; but
this was only a part, and by far the less val
uable part, of his work That which has given
him his undying fame was his translation of the
Bible, in whole or in part, either alone or with
others, into some twenty‑six Indian languages.
The Serampur press, under his direction, ren
dered the Bible accessible to more than three hun
dred million human beings. Besides, he prepared
grammars and dictionaries of several tongues; e.g.,
Mahratta Grammar, 1805; Sarlscrit Grammar, 1806;
Mahratta Dictionary, 1810; Bengalee Dictionary,
1818; and a dictionary of all Sanskrit‑derived
languages, which unhappily was destroyed by a
fire in the printing establishment in 1812. Later
students have discovered errors and omissions in
these works; but all honor is due to Caret' for
"breaking the way," and every inhabitant of
India is his debtor.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: John Taylor, Biographical and Literary
	Notices of William Caret'. Bibliographical Notices of
	Works . . • , Northampton, 1888; J. C. Marshman. Life
	and Timm of Caret', Marahman and Ward, 2 vole., Lon
	don, 1859; J. Culrosa, William Caret', New York, 1882;
	George Smith, Life of William Caret', London, 1887; H. O.
	Dwight, H. A. Tupper, and E. M. Bliss, Encyclopardia of
	Missions, pp. 133‑134, New York, 1904; DNB, ix. 77.
	CARGILL, DONALD (or DANIEL)‑ One of the
leaders of the Scotch Covenanters; b. in the parish
of Rattray, Perthshire, 1619; beheaded at Edin
burgh July 27, 1681. He was educated at Aber
deen and St. Andrews; and about 1650 he became
pastor of the Barony Church, Glasgow. In 1661,
when Episcopacy was established in Scotland, he
refused to accept his charge from the archbishop,
and was banished (1662) beyond the Tay; but he
did not go; instead he became one of the " field
preachers," who, deprived of their churches,
preached in the open air. In 1679 he joined Cam
eron, Douglas, Hamilton, and others in the rebellion
against prelacy, which arose out of the " Rutherglen
Declaration " of May 29 of that year, and with his
fellow Covenanters endured the defeat of Bothwell
Bridge, June 22. He fled to Holland, but soon
returned. The next year he and Cameron, with
their adherents, drew up the " Sanqvhar Declara
tion," June 22. The government set a price upon
the leaders' heads. They were attacked at Ayrs
moss, July 22, and Cameron was slain; but Cargill
succeeded to the leadership, and, as if to testify
in the most signal manner his abhorrence of the
tyrannical persecutors, he publicly excommunicated
the king and several of the nobles at a field‑preach
ing held at Torwood in Stirlingshire in September.
When the Duke of York, one of the " excommu
nicated," came to Scotland, the persecution of the
followers of Cargill increased. He himself was
hunted from place to place; but on July 11, 1681, he was captured between Clydesdale and Lothian, and taken to Edinburgh for trial. He readily confessed that he had done what the council ha.l called treason. The council were equally divided whether to imprison him for life or to execute him; but the vote of the Duke of Argyle decided in favor of the latter‑a vote which cost Argyle, later on, the support of the Covenanters, to say nothing of deep remorse. Accordingly Cargill was put to death. See COVENANTERB.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Biographic Preabyteriana, vol. ii., Edinburgh, 1827 (life of Cargill); R. Wodrow, Hiat. of the Sufferings of the Church of Scotland, 2 vole., ib. 1721‑22; 1'. MeCrie, Sketches of Scottish Church Hint., ib. 18;5; J. Cunningham, Church Hist. of Scotland, 2 vole., ib. 1883; DNB, ix. 79‑80.
CARLILE, WILSON: Church of England; founder of the Church Army (q.v.); b. at Brixton (a suburb s.w. of London) Jan. 14, 1847. He was educated at Highbury College, London, but did not take a degree. He entered commercial life in 1862, but in 1878 matriculated at the London College of Divinity, and was ordered deacon in 1880 and ordained priest in the following year. He was curate of Kensington from 1880 to 1882, when he founded the Church Army in the Westminster slums, and in 1890 established the Social System of Church Army in Marylebone. He was also rector of Netteawell, Essex, in 1890‑.91, and since the latter year has been rector of St. Mary‑at‑Hill, Eastcheap, London. He was appointed a prebendary of St. Paul's Cathedral, London, in 1906, and has written: The Church and Conversion (London, 1882); Spiritual Difficulties (1885), and The Continental Outcast (in collaboration with V. W. Carlile; 1906).
	CARLSTADT, c8r1'stdt (>iARLSTADT, CAROL
STADT), ANDREAS RUDOLF $ODENSTEIft VON:
Protestant Reformer; b. at Karlstadt (14 m. n.w. of
Wiirzburg), Bavaria, c. 1480; d. at Basel Dec. 24,
1541. The assumption that he pursued his aca
demical studies at foreign universities rests upon
a confusion with his later journey to Rome. In
the winter term of 1499‑1500 he entered the Uni
versity of Erfurt, where he remained until 1503,
and then removed to Cologne. In 1504 he turned
to the newly established University of Wittenberg,
in which he acquired considerable fame as a teacher
of philosophy. He was a zealous adherent of
		scholasticism, advocating the uncon
	Training ditional authority of Thomas Aquinas.
	and Life to By 1510 he had obtained all the higher
	rgr& academical degrees. In 1508 he re
		ceived a canonry at the collegiate
church in Wittenberg and in 1510 became arch
deacon. As such he had to preach and read mass
once a week and to lecture at the university. In
1515 he left Wittenberg, without the permission
of the university and the elector, and went to
Rome, where he studied law and took a degree,
hoping to obtain the first prelacy at Wittenberg,
for which legal training was necessary. He did
not succeed, however, in obtaining the position
after his return. His journey to Rome brought
about a rupture with scholasticism. The evidence
of the worldliness of the papacy which Carlstadt

Carlstadt
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
saw in Rome may have been the chief factor in the change of his religious views. His 151 theses of Sept., 1516, contain the fundamental traits of his later theology. He combats the scholastics and Aristotle (theses xxxvii., exliii.), and even anticipates Luther, on the basis of Augustine, concerning the inability of the human will to attain unto God and in attributing the act of redemption exclusively to the work of divine grace. Thus no direct dependence of Carlstadt upon Luther can be assumed; each influenced the other after 1516, although a bond of personal friendship never united them.
In the spring of 1518 Carlstadt published a comprehensive collection of theses, on the occasion of Eck's attack upon the ninety‑five theses of Luther. Here he affirms for the Bible the most absolute authority as a source of religious knowledge and adheres to its literal interpretation. In June and July a disputation took place between Carlstadt and Eck, and although the former was always equal to the dialectic cleverness of his opponent, he became more and more conscious of the impossibility of reconciling his convictions with the ruling doctrine of the Church.
Deviates He emphasized more and more the
	from	efficacy of divine grace alone in the
Church redemption of humanity, and wrote
	Teachings.	polemical treatises against the church
		doctrine of justification by works and
against indulgences. In 1521 he went to Denmark
by invitation of King Christian II. and helped in
the establishment of ecclesiastical laws, but after
a few weeks in Copenhagen he had to give way
before the united resistance of nobility and clergy.
In June he was again at Wittenberg, where he ex
pressed his views concerning the Lord's Supper in
a treatise Yon den Empfahern Zeici'een and Zusag
des heiligert Sacraments. In this treatise he still
clings to the corporal presence of Christ in the sacra
ment, but looks upon it only as a sign of divine
promise. In another treatise Carlstadt .places
beside the literal explanation of Scripture a spiritual
interpretation which penetrates its deeper sense
and recta upon divine interpretation. Here are
to be found certain points of contact between the
views of Carlstadt and those of the enthusiasts.
The attitude of Carlstadt in the Wittenberg disturbances and his doings there during Luther's stay at the Wartburg have frequently been represented in an erroneous light. When the Augustinians, in Oct., 1521, refused to hold mass and demanded the administration of the Lord's Supper in both kinds, the university appointed a commission of four theologians, among them Carlstadt, to investigate. Against the more decided attitude of Melanchthon, Carlstadt conceded that the abolition of the mass could only be accomplished with the consent of the magistracy. A letter, expressing the same spirit and signed
The Ref‑ by seven professors, was rent to the elecormatioa at tor. As the excitement did not abate, Wittenberg, Carlstadt tried to quiet the more strenu‑
	:53:‑sz.	oua by emphasizing the Gospel as the
		proper guide in all actions. Never
theless, the disturbances continued until ‑on
Christmas day he administered the Lord's $up‑
414
per in both kinds. His action was approved by all Evangelicals. From this moment he was silently acknowledged as the leader of the reformatory movement in Wittenberg. He did not atop with the reformation of the Lord's Supper. At the end of 1521 and at the beginning of 1522 auricular confession, the elevation of the host, and the injunctions concerning fasting were abolished. Jan. 19, 1522, Carlstadt married. On being informed of the events in Wittenberg, the so‑called Zwickau prophets arrived (see ANABAPTISTS, IL, § 1; ZWICKAU PROPHErB), but Carlstadt kept aloof; it was only at the end of 1522 that he began to correspond with Thomas Munzer (q.v.). He proceeded in his reforms in entire conformity with the Council of Wittenberg, in which he saw the supreme authority in the ecclesiastical affairs of the city. He soon opened the battle against pictures in the churches, in which he was assisted by the council. Some small excesses occurred, which, however, were severely condemned by both the council and Carlstadt.
These ecclesiastical changes had aroused the displeasure of Frederick the Wise, who was especially offended by the abolition of the mesa. Carlstadt and Melanchthon were called to account. Melanchthon immediately showed himself submissive; Carlstadt also promised in Feb., 1522, to renounce further innovations after he had carried through the reforms which he deemed essential. But Frederick desired an entire rehabilitation of the Old Church usages. The course of events made it impossible for Luther to remain at the Wartburg. He did not agree with Carlstadt's radical measures, believing that forbearance ought to be shown toward the weak. After his arrival at Wittenberg, on Mar. 6, he succeeded in shaking the dominating position of Carlstadt and counteracting his reforms. The Lord's Supper sub una specie was restored, also the elevation of the hoot. Carlstadt remained as professor in the university, but lost all his influence. As he was thus deprived of the possibility of being active in a practical way, he devoted himself to speculative theology. His views were somewhat mystical, but, unlike the true mystics, Carlstadt was not satisfied with the contemplative rapture in the union of the soul with God, and set up ethical standards for the practical realization of his new convictions. In his desire to do away with all intermediary agencies in the religious communication between God and man, he denied the indelible character of orders and did not even acknowledge the ministry as a special profession. He called himself after 1523 " sin newer Lai," put off his clerical robes, and lived for some time as a peasant in Segrena, near Wittenberg, with relatives of his wife.
In 1524 Carlstadt became preacher in Orlamunde, where he carried on the reform of the church serv‑
ice as he had done two years before is
At Orla‑ Wittenberg. He expounded the book
miinde, of Acts daily to his congregation, and
	:ga;.	on Sundays and holidays the Gospel of
		John. In the course of his develop
ment Carlstadt arrived at the conviction that bap
tism and the Lord's Supper are not sacraments.

418	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Carlstadt
At.the same time be strongly attacked the mesa. Against Luther he wrote Verstand des Worts Pauli Ich begeret sin Verbannter seen. Without mentioning Luther's name, he shows the dangerous consequences to which the exaggeration of the principle concerning forbearance for the weak might lead. Apart from his controversial writings, Carlstadt emphasized the necessity of personal devotion and sanctification.
Carlstadt did not derive his political or social principles from his theological views. When Miinzer's revolutionary measures in Allatadt became threatening, Carlstadt cautioned him, and he induced the people of Orlamiinde to separate themselves formally from those of Alletadt. Nevertheless, the points of difference between Wittenberg and Orlamunde were so considerable that the university took active measures against Carlstadt. Luther met Carlstadt at Jena, in Aug., 1524, and thence proceeded to Orlamunde; he was not successful, however, in settling the difficulties. In September Carlstadt with his family, his adherents Martin Reinhard, preacher in Jena, and Gerhard Weaterburg, his brother‑in‑law, were expelled from the territory of the elector. Carlstadt now encountered a time full of hardships and dangers, but he developed an extraordinary activity
Hard‑ as a writer. The assumption of the ships of his corporal presence of Christ in the Later Life. Lord's Supper is, according to him, in contradiction to the fundamental presuppositions of Christian doctrine. He found adherents to these ideas not only among the people, but many even in the clergy. In Oct., 1524, he sojourned at Strasburg, then lived temporarily in Heidelberg, Zurich, Basel, Schweinfurt, Kitzingen, and Nordlingen. He was active for a considerable time in Rothenburg‑on‑the‑Tauber, where his sermons carried away the great majority of the citizens. It was at this time that the Peasants' War broke out in Rothenburg. Carlstadt was sent as envoy to the peasants, thus making himself unpopular among them. After the defeat of the South German peasants and the capture of Rothenburg by Margrave Casimir, Carlstadt escaped from the town with difficulty. The collapse of his hopes broke down his power of resistance. He wrote humbly to Luther to open the way for his return to Saxony. Luther took pity upon him, and Carlstadt returned to Wittenberg after he had recanted to some degree his doctrine concerning the Lord's Supper; but he had to pledge himself not to teach or preach. He lived at first in Segrena, after 1528 is Bergwitz, where he had to earn his living like a peasant. Before the close of the year he was reduced almost to poverty, and he removed to the little town of Kemberg and kept a small store. He anon retracted his former recantation and was compelled to flee. In Mar., 1529, he was with Melchior Hofmann, the Anabaptist, in Holstein. Being expelled hence also, he wandered with Hofmann to East Friesland, where he remained until the beginning of 1530 and gathered a great number of adherents. Thence he went to Switzerland, where he was kindly received by Zwingli, who secured for him a position as assistant preacher
in Zurich. In Sept., 1531, he became preacher in Altsta,tten in the valley of the Rhine, but the unfortunate battle near Kappel (Oct. 11) compelled him after a few months to return to Zurich, where he lived in close union with the Reformers of that city. The preachers of Zurich took Carlatadt'a part when Luther renewed his attacks. In 1534 he was called to Basel as preacher and professor in the university. Here he became involved in disputes with Myconius; the people took Carlatadt'a part, but he estranged himself from his friends in Zurich. He fulfilled his last public task in 1538, when the government of Basel sent him with Grynseua to Strasburg to negotiate with the theologians of that city concerning a reconciliation with the Wittenberg theologians on the question of the Lord's Supper. He showed a very conciliatory spirit, which was not approved by the Swiss, theologians.
Carlstadt's earliest writings, De intentionibua (1507), Diatinctiones live formalilates Thomistce (1508), were of a scholastic nature. His journey to Rome occasioned his treatise Von ptipstlicher Heiligkeit (1520), in which he criticized the abuses of popery. In De canonicis scriptures (1520) he laid down the results of his investigations of the Old and the New Testament writings; he shows himself a free and independent critic, but Writings. does not shake the authority of the literal sense. In 1521 appeared Yon den Empfahern Zeichert and Zusag des heiligen Sacraments and Yon Geliibden Unterrichtung ; in the latter treatise be advocated the abolition of monastic vows, especially the vow of celibacy. In Sept., 1521, appeared De legis liters sine carne et apiritu ; here Carlstadt propounded for the first time an entirely new principle of interpretation which became of much importance in the further development of his theology‑the spiritual interpretation of the words of Scripture. Against pictures in churches he wrote in 1522 Yon Abthuung der Bilder. In 1524 he published Priestertum and Opfer Christi. After his expulsion from Saxony in 1524 appeared the most radical of his writings, Ob man gemach farm soll, in which he denies the corporeal presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper, and Anzeig etlicher Hauptartilcel christlicher Lehre, which contains a comprehensive summary of his views. He combats the central position which the conception of sin had assumed in Luther's theology, as he understood it, and emphasizes the necessity that Christian liberty and justice must produce fruits in good works.
(HERMANN BARGE.)
BIHLIOORAPHY: The authoritative biography is H. Barge, Andreas Bodenstein van Karddadt, 2 vole., Leipeio, 1906. Among the older literature the following may be consulted: Mayer, Dieeertat%o de Karolsfadio, Greifswald, 1703; FOselin, Labenapeachichte des A. B. von Karlstadt, Frankfort, 1778; J. F. KShler, Beitrspe zur Erg7tnzung der deutachsn Litteratur, i. 1‑182, ii. 239‑289, 2 vole., Leipsic, 1792‑94; M. Kirchhofer, Oswald Myconiua, pp. 153, 318‑343, Zurich, 1813. More modern treatment will be found in: A. W. Dieckhoff, De Carolatadio Lulheranee docd‑ina contra Eckiurn de%naora, Gottingen, 1850; idem, Die evanpeliseha Abendmohlslehre im Reformationazeitatter, ib. 1854; JBger, A. B. von Karlatadt, Stuttgart, 1858; G. P. Fisher, The Reformation, pp. 93, 113, New York, 1873; W. Walker, The Reformation.

Carlstadt Carmel
;T$E NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
passim, ib. 1800; J. KSStlin, Martin Luther, passim, 2 vole., Berlin, 1903 (important); Cambridge Modern History, Vol. ii., The Reformation, passim, ib. 1904; Mueller, Christian Church, vol. iii. passim, especially pp. 27‑35; Schaff, Christian Church, vol. vi. passim. Consult also: G. Bauch, in ZKG, xi. (1890) 448 eqq. (on Carlstadt's scholasticism); D. Schafer, ib, xiii. (1892) 311 (on the De legia l%tera).
CARLSTADT, JOHANN. See DRacorrrrEs.
CARLYLE, THOMAS: Historian, biographer, and essayist; b. at Ecclefechan (60 m. s. of Edinburgh), Dumfriesshire, Scotland, Dec.
	Life sad	4, 1795; d. in London Feb. 5, 1881.
	Writings.	He was early noted for his extraordi
		nary memory, and for his love of read
ing. He entered the University of Edinburgh in
1810, and distinguished himself as a mathematician,
but declared that he owed nothing to the university
but the miscellaneous reading afforded by its
library. Having abandoned the study of theology,
he taught mathematics in the high school at Annan
for two years. In 1816 he was appointed rector of
the Burgh School at Kirkcaldy. Here he devoted
himself to the study of German, and translated
Legendre's Geometry, adding an introductory essay
on proportion.
Carlyle removed to Edinburgh in 1818, where he supported himself by literary work, pursued a large and varied course of reading, and devoted much time to the study of German. From 1820 to 1823 he contributed a number of articles to the Edinburgh EncycloPe?dia and the Edinburgh Review. In 1824 he introduced Goethe to English readers by the translation of Wilhelm Meister's Lehrjahre, and in 1825 published the Life of Schiller. He married Jane Welsh in 1826, and removed in 1828 to Craigenputtoch, where he wrote his Crit9ica1 and Miscellaneous Essays, and Sartor Resartus, a philosophic romance in the form of a treatise on dress, containing his views on the problems of religion and life; it was published during 18334, in Fraser's Magazine.
In 1834 he removed to London, to the house in Cheyne Row, Chelsea, where he resided until his death. In 1837 appeared The French Revolution, the first of his works to which his name was formally attached. In the same year he began lecturing, and, during 1837‑43, delivered courses on German Literature, The Periods of European Culture, the Revolutions of Modern Europe, and Heroes and Hero‑Worship, besides publishing Chartism, a political treatise, and Past and Present.
One of his most important works, Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches, was issued in 1845, and produced a great revolution of sentiment in favor of Cromwell. In 1840 Carlyle inaugurated the movement which resulted in the London Library, of which he was afterward elected president. During 1848‑50 he wrote a number of political and social treatises; notably The Latter Day Pamphlets, the ultimate and most violent expression of his political creed.
	The Life of John Sterling, especially valuable
as a partial expression of his own religious views,
appeared in 1851. His magnum opus, The History
o f Frederick the Great, was begun in 1858, and
finished in 1865. It is a monument of patient
industry and minute research, and contains a
complete political history of the eighteenth cen
tury. In 1866 Carlyle was chosen rector of the
University of Edinburgh, and delivered an inau
gural on The Choice of Books. Mrs. Carlyle died
during his absence on this occasion (Apr. 21).
A few newspaper articles, with Historical Sketches
o f the Early Kings o f Norway, and The Portraits
of John Knox, marked the neat five yearn, and
completed his literary labors.
Carlyle's life is marked by great unity of purpose and concentration of energy. He lived for literature. With his imaginative genius, his poetic insight, and his opulent diction, he was a poet by constitution; but his lack of the sense of form and proportion, and his impatience of measured expression, made him despise poetry. He is a preacher and a prophet rather than an artist. His keen sense of the grotesque, with the real depth of his nature, made him a humorist at once racy, subtle, and satirical; but this element developed itself disproportionately, and ran into cynicism as he grew older.
Notwithstanding the large admixture of ethics and philosophy in his writings, it is well‑nigh
impossible to define accurately his Ethics position as a philosopher, moralist,
	and	or religionist. Veracity is the basis
Philosophy. of his ethical conceptions, by which he
means the disposition to go behind appearances to facts, and the assertion of reality as against mere symbols and conventionalities. His hatred of shams is intense, and often leads him into needless roughness of speech. His ethical ideal is defective from its identification of physical and moral order, of might and right. It is too subjective, lodging the teat of right in each man's moral consciousness. Hence his fundamental fallacy, expounded in Hero‑Worship, and applied in Frederick‑the reverence for strength, regardless of moral quality. He is a dangerous guide, therefore, as a historian and political philosopher. His conception of history as only the record of the world's great men is radically false. He has no sense of the popular power in the solution of political problems. The moral teaching of his histories is unsound in blinding the reader to vice through the admiration of greatness. The logical outcome of his political philosophy is slavery and despotism. As a historian he is distinguished by exact and laborious attention to detail. He studies folios and paaquinadea alike; and no detail of topography, feature, or costume escapee him. His histories are a series of striking portraits or pictures. He stands committed to no philosophical system. With much talk about the real and practical, his philosophy is intuitional and sentimental, emphasising feeling above reason.
Theologically he can not be accurately placed. The Life of Sterling throws most light upon,hia
religious views. He may fairly be Religious regarded as a theist. He is mainly views. silent on the truth of creeds, always
reverential toward Christ, and, while agreeing that Christianity is the supreme religion, denies that it embraces all truth. He seems to hold

417	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Carlstodt
		Carmel
	that responsibility to God is the essential truth
	foreshadowed in all religions, and that the essence
	of all religion is to keep conscience alive and shining.
	He believes in retribution as the natural outcome
of wrong.	He revered genuine piety, and his own
moral life was singularly pure.	As a critic he has
	great knowledge and keen discernment, but is too
liable to be swayed by his personal prejudices.
	His earlier style, as in the essays on Burns and
	Scott, was natural, simple, dignified, and vigorous.
	His later style is figurative, abrupt, enigmatical,
	sometimes turgid and involved, inverted, declama
	tory, and at times coarse, yet withal often beauti
ful, rich, and powerful, and always picturesque.
	M. R. VINCENT.
	BIHLTOdaAPHY:.DNB, ix. 127 appends to account of Car
	lyle'e life a list of the uncollected writings as well as of
	his books. R. H. Shepherd has published a Bibliography
	of Thomas Carlyle, London, 1881, and in Notes and
	Queries, 6th series, iv. 145, 201, 228 are lists of articles
	referring to Carlyle. The authorities for Carlyle's life
	are his Reziniacences, ed. J. A. Froude, London, 1881;
	J. A. Froude. Thomas Carlyle, a History of the First Forty
	Yearn of his Life, 2 vole., 1882, and History of his Life in
	London, 2 vola., 1884; Correspondence of Thomas. Car
	lyle and Ralrle Waldo Emerson, ed. C. E. Norton. Boston,
	1883; Letters arid Memorials of Java Welsh Carlyle, pre
	pared . . . by Thomas Carlyle and edited by J. A. Froude,
3 vole., London, 1883.
	For accounts of his life and eatifiates of his writings
	and activities consult: G. MacCrie, The Religion of our
	Literature, Essays upon Thomas Calyds, London, 1875;
	M. D. Conway, Thomas Carlyle, ib 1881; E. D. Mead,
	The Philosophy of Carlyle, Boston, 1881; R. H. Shep
	herd, Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Thomas Carlyle,
	London, 1881; H. James, Literary Remains, Some Per
	sonal Recollections of Carlyle, Boston, 1884; D. Masson,
	Carlyle personally and in his Writings, London, 1885;
	A. 3. Arnold, The Story of Thomas Carlyle, ib. 1888;
	E. Fliigel, T. Carlylea relagiiiae and aatUiche Entwuklung
	and Weltanaehauung, Leipeic, 1887, Eng. tranal., Lon
	don, 1891; J. M. Robertson, Modern Humanists, Socio
	logical Studies of Carlyle, ib. 1891; David Wilson, Mr.
	Froude and Carlyle, New York, 1898; May Alden Ward,
	Prophets of the Nineteenth Century, Boston. 1900; J. M.
	Sloan, The Carlyle Country, Philadelphia, 1903; H. Paul,
	Life of Froude, London, 1905; Illustrated Memordal
	Volume o/ the Carlyle's House Purchase Furl Committee,
with Catalogue of Carlyle's Books, Mss.. Pictures, and
Furniture, London, 1897.
CARLYLE, THOMAS: Apostle of the Catholic Apostolic Church (q.v.); b. at King's Grange (90 m. s.w. of Edinburgh), Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland, July 17, 1803; d. at Albury (26 m. s.w. of London) Jan. 28, 1855. After studying at Edinburgh University he was called to the Scottish bar in 1824. The same year by the death of a relative the dormant title of Baron Carlyle passed over to him. In 1831 he figured as legal counsel of the Rev. John McLeod Campbell (q.v.) in the famous Row heresy case. He believed that the revival in Scotland of the speaking in prophecy and tongues was a true work of the Spirit, and in Apr., 1835, was. himself called to the apostolate. Thereupon he gave up his practise at the bar and settled with his wife at Albury, where was the seat of the Apostolic College, and the center of its work. He was much in Germany, and made the acquaintance of many theologians, among‑ them H. W. J. Thiersch (q.v.) and C. J. T. Boehm. In 1845 he published at London The Moral Phenomena of Germany, which introduced him to King Frederick William IV. of Prussia. He wrote many pamphlets, among which IL‑27
may be mentioned Pleadings with my Mother, the Church of Scotland (1854). A volume of his collected writings was published in 1878.
SAMUEL J. ANDaEWt3.

CARMEL: The mountain in the west of Palestine which separates the Plain of Acre front the Plain of Sharon. I Kings xviii. 40‑46 locates it near the Kishon. and between the Mediterranean and Jezreel (q.v.); Joshua xix. 26 and Jer. xlvi. 18 locate it as the southern boundary of Asher and as abutting on the nee. Jabal Karmal is the name it still bears, and it is also called " Mount of the Holy Elijah." In the Hebrew the name has the article, and means " wooded garden," setting forth the contrast between the greenness of Carmel and the bareness of the hills of central Palestine.. This fact is often referred to in Scripture, the wooded Bashan, Lebanon, and Carmel being named together, though the bushy rather than forest growth of the last is sometimes noted.
The mountain is wedge‑shaped, with the edge toward the sea; the western extension turning toward the south rune approximately parallel to the coast, while the northern cliffs curve gently along the plain of the Mahon. Its stone is a gray limestone, and caves are numerous. It is about thirteen miles in length and eight and a half broad at its eastern end. It is marked off by the Wadi‑al‑Milh, emptying into the Kishon, and the Wadi‑al‑Matabin, which flows to the coast plain.
The northern point is occupied by the convent of the Carmelites and a shelter provided for pilgrims. The situation affords an unobstructed view both of the coast to the south and of that to the north as far as Acre. There are at present only two villages on the mountain, both in the southern part and inhabited by Druses. In earlier times the mountain was more densely populated, as is shown by the remains of cisterns and oil‑ and wine‑greases. In 1820 the Druses made seventeen settlements there, but in the Turco‑Egyptian war all were destroyed belt two.
From its striking characteristics of position, form, and abundance of tree‑growth, it. is hardly to be wondered at that Carmel was a sacred place. I Kings xviii. connects this fact with the memory of Elijah. The site of the episode related there is given by tradition as El‑Mahraka, "the Place of Burning," a terrace, 1,600 feet above the sea, where are a [Druae] chapel and some ruins. Beneath this on the bank of the Kishon is a little mound to which the name " Hill of the Priests " is given, pointed out as the place where the priests of Baal were slain. Tradition locates also the place where Elijah dwelt, in a valley, in which there is a spring known as Ain‑al‑Sih, about two miles south of the convent. The Mohammedans regard the place as sacred, and point out the site of Elijah's. garden, where appear numbers of " Elijah's melons," geodes which characterize the Carmel formation. Near it the first monastery was built about 1200, replaced by a new one somewhat later, which was destroyed by Abdallah Pasha in 1821 that it might not be used as a fort by his enemies. It was reconstructed about 1828, and the church is built over

Carmelites
Caroline Books	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	418
an "Elijah‑grotto "; that is, a cave in which Elijah is said to have lived.
The Old Testament does not determine to which of the tribes Carmel belonged, whether to Asher, Zebulun, or Manasseh. At various times it was counted to Galilee and to Phenicia. Tacitus, asserts that "Carmel" was the name of a mountain and a deity, and Vespasian had the oracle there consulted.
	The coast at the foot of the mountain is about
100 yards wide, broadening north and south. At
the foot of the bay of Akko there was an old city
called Sycaminum by Greeks and Romans and
Haifa in the Talmud, coins of which are known.
The place was destroyed and the material used
to build the present Haifa at the mouth of the
Mahon, 1780, the growth of which in recent years
has been quite rapid. 	(H. GuTaa.)
BIHLIOaBAPH7: C. R. Condor sad H. 73. Kitchener, Burnqy of Wasters Palestine. Memoirs, i. 284 eqq., London. 1881; G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of at Holy Land, 337340, 7th ed., London, 1897; E. Robinson, Biblical Reasarchea in Palestine, iii. 189, Boston, 1841; A. Relsad, Palmstdna, 2 vote., Utrecht 1714; J. de 8. ThErbse. Le 3anetuaire du Mont Carmel depuie son origitu juaqu'd non fours, Marseilles, 1878; T. Saunders, Introduction to the Survey of Western Palestine. London, 1881; PEP, Quarterly Statements. particularly for the years 1882‑88; G Ebera sad H. Guthe, Paidetina in Bi7d and Wort, ii. 108 eqq., 1884; C. R. Condor, Toni‑work in Palestine, new ed., London, 1889.
CARMELITES.
Origin and Early History (¢ 1). Habit and Scapular (¢ 2). Reforms Within the Order (¢ 3). Controversies with Other Orders (¢ 4). Present Statue (¢ b).

Carmelites (Ordo fratrum Beats; Virginia Mario de moats CarmeJo) is the name of a Roman Catholic order founded in the twelfth century by a certain Berthold (d. after 1185) on Mount Carmel, whence the order receives its name. Carmelite tradition traces the origin of the order to a community of hermits on Mount Carmel that succeeded the schools of the prophets in ancient Israel, although there are no certain records of monks on this mountain before the ninth decade of the twelfth century. Berthold, who had gone to Palestine from Calabria either as a pilgrim or as a crusader, chose Mount Carmel as the seat of his community because it was the traditional home of Elijah. It was but natural that this community of Eastern hermits in the Holy Land should gain constant accessions from pilgrims, and in 1209 they received a rule from the patriarch Albert of Jerusalem. This
r. Origin consisted of sixteen articles, which sad Early enjoined strict obedience to their History. prior, residence in individual cells, constancy in prayer, the hearing of mesa every morning in the oratory of the community, poverty and toil, daily silence from vespers until terse the next morning, abstinence from all forms of meat except in cases of severe illness, and fasting from Holy Cross Day (Sept. 14) to Easter of the following year. This rule received the approval of Honoriua III. in 1228. With the increasing cleavage between the West and the East, however, the Carmelites found it advisable to leave their original home, and in 1238 they nettled
in Cyprus and Sicily. In 1240 they were in England, and four years later in southern France, while by 1245 they were so numerous that they were able to hold their first general chapter at Ayleaford, England, where Simon Stock, then eighty years of age, was chosen general. During his rule of twenty years the order prospered, especially by the establishment of a monastery at Paris by St. Louis in 1259.
The original rule of the order was now changed to conform to that of the mendicant orders on the initiative of Simon Stock and at the command of Innocent IV. Their former habit of a mantle with black and white or brown and white stripes was discarded, and they wore the same habit as the Dominicans, except 'that the cloak wan white. They also borrowed much from the Dominican and Franciscan rules. Their distinctive garment was a scapular of two stripe of gray
s. Habit cloth, worn on the breast and back,
sad and fastened at the shoulders. This, Scapular. according to the traditions of the order, was given to Simon Stock by the Virgin herself, who descended from heaven and promised that all who wear it in this world, or at least in the hour of death, should be saved, she herself going each Saturday to purgatory to rescue those to whom this might apply. Thus arose a sodality of the scapular, which affiliated a large number of laymen with the Carmelites. The order speedily became infected with arrogance, however, contesting the invention of the rosary with the Dominicans, terming themselves the brothers of the Virgin, and asserting, on the basis of their traditional association with Elijah, that all the prophets of the Old Testament, as well as the Virgin and the Apostles, had been Carmelites. Their second general, Nicholas of Narbonne (1285‑70), protested in vain, only to be deposed from his office.
	In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the
Carmelites, like other monastic orders, declined,
and reform became imperative. Shortly before
1433 three monasteries in Valais, Tuscany, and
Mantua were reformed by the preaching of Thomas
Conecte of Rennes and formed the congregation
of Mantua, which, was declared independent of
the order by Eugenius IV. In 1431 or 1432 the
same pope sanctioned certain modifications of the
Carmelite rule, and in 1459 Pius II. left the regu
lation of fasts to the discretion of the general.
Soreth, who was then general, and had already
established the order of Carmelite nuns in 145,
		accordingly sought to restore the
3. Reforms primitive asceticism, but died of
	Within	poison at Nantes in 1471. In 1478
the Order. a bull of Sixtus IV. founded the Car
		melites of the Third Order, who re
ceived a special rule in 1635, which was amended
in 1678. The sixteenth century saw a number of
short‑lived reforms, but it was not until the second
half of the same century that a thorough refor
mation of the Carmelites wan carried out by St.
Theresa, who, together with St. John of the Cross,
established the Discaiced Carmelites. In conscious
opposition .to Protestantism the order was now

419	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Csrmeltte~
		Caroline BookB
	inspired with an asceticism and a devotion hitherto
	unknown to it. In 1593 the Discalced Carmelites
	had their own general, and by 1600 they were so
numerous that it became necessary to divide them
	into the two congregations of Spain and of Italy,
or St. Elise, the latter including all provinces except
Spain.	Henceforth there were four Carmelite
	generals: the general of the Observantinea, of the
	independent congregation of Mantua, and of the
two congregations of the Diacalced Carmelites.
	By the middle of the seventeenth century the
	Carmelites had reached their zenith. At this
	period, however, they became involved in contro
	versies with other orders, particularly with the
	Jesuits. The special objects of attack were the
	traditional origin of the Carmelites and the source
	of their scapular. The Sorbonne, represented by
	Jean Launoy, joined the Jesuits in their polemics
	against the Carmelites. Papebroch,
	4. Contro‑ the Bollandist editor of the Acta
	versies with Sanctorum, was answered by the Car
Other	melite Sebastian of St. Paul, who
Orders.	made such serious charges against the
	orthodoxy of his opponent's writings
	that the very existence of the Bollandista was
	threatened. The peril was averted, however, and
	in 1696 a decree of Rocaberti, archbishop of Va
	lencia and inquisitor‑general of the holy office, for
	bade all further controversies between the Carmel
	ites and Jeauita. Two years later, on Nov. 20,1698,
	Innocent XII. issued a brief which definitely ended
	the controversy on pain of excommunication, and
	placed all writings in violation of the brief upon
the Index.
	The French Revolution and the sequestration of
	monasteries in southern Europe were heavy blows
	to the Carmelites. At the present time there are
	five provinces of Calted Carmelites (Rome, Malta,
	Iceland, England, and Galicia) and
	g. Present eight of Discaloed (Rome, Genoa,
Status.	Lombardy, Venice, Tuscany, Pied
	mont, Aquitaine, and Avignon), in
	addition to a number of isolated cloisters and
	priories of both Calved and Diacalced Carmelites
in various countries.	(O. ZbcxLERt.)
	UIHLIOaRAPHY: For sources consult: ASB for Mar. 8
	and 29, and Apr. 8; D. Papebroch, Responsio ad e2
	poeitionem errorum per Sebaatianum a S Paulo esulgatam,
	3 vole., Antwerp, 1898‑99; Chroniquea de l'ordre den Carv
mElitea de la Rlforrna de Ste. Thlrpse . .	en France,
	6 vole., Troyes, 1848‑85, send series, 4 vole., Poitiers,
	1888‑89. Consult further: Heimbucher, Orden and Kon
	grspationen, ii. 1‑32; Helyot, Ordrea monastiquea, i. 282
	399; H. E. Manning, Life of St. Teresa, London, 1885;
	H. J. Coleridge, Life and Letters of St. Teresa, 3 vole., ib.
	1881‑88; F. H. Reueoh, Index der roerboterun Bficher, ii.
	287‑278, b20‑521, 891, Bonn, 1885; H. H. Koch, Die
	Karmelitenkl6ater der niederdeutacheia Provint, Freiburg,
	1889; C. W. Carrier, Carmel in America, Baltimore, 1890;
	idem. Religious Orders, pp. 284‑304; L. A. Is Moyne de
	la Borderie, Hiefoirs des Carmes en Bretagne, Rennes'
	1898; J. P. Ruche, Carmel in Ireland: Narrative of the
	Irish Province of Carmelites, London, 1897; B. Zimmer•
	mane. Carmel in England. Hint. of the Enp. Mission of
	the Carmelites, IB16‑IB,¢8, London, 1899; Life of St. John
	of she Cross, tranal. and ed. by David Lewis. London,
1897.
	CARNESECCH7, cdr'n&aric"chf, PIETRO. See
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Theological Standpoint (¢ 12).
Later Influence of the Caroline Books (¢ 13).
"Caroline gooks " is the name given to a criticism. of the proceedings of the Second Council of Nica'a. (787), which appeared under the name of Charlemagne toward the end of the eighth century. The acts of the council had been sent to Charlemagne in a very imperfect Latin version. Already displeased with the attitude of the Byzantine court and the equivocal policy of Pope Adrian L, he took occasion to have the whole question of the iconoclastic controversy and of the validity of the council's action discussed by his theologians, and sent on the report of its proceedings to King Offa in England, with a request for the opinion of his bishops. Alcuin, then in England, drew up their reply, and brought it to Charlemagne. It has been lost, and thus it is not now known in what relation it stands to the work which the emperor caused to be written about the same time (790 or noon after), and promulgated as having the assent of the bishops of his realm,
z. Origin under the title Opus inluatrieaimi et of the excellentiasimi aett speetabilis ariri Caroli,
	Caroline	ntttu Dei regia Francorum . . . contra
	gooks.	Synodum, gate ix partibus Grt>?cita pro
		adorandis imaginibus atolide et arro
Banter gestca eat. The work, whose contents and
spirit are sufficiently indicated by this title, con
sists of four books containing 120 chapters. It
is preserved in two manuscripts, the Codex Parish
nua and the Codex Yatiaanus, the latter somewhat
defective and apparently dating from the beginning
of the tenth century. Two more were known in
the sixteenth century, but have since been lost.
One was said then to be extant in Rome, and a
chapter from it was quoted by Steuchi, the papal
librarian, in a polemical work against Laurentius
Valla. The other, then extant in France, was the
		basis of the editio prirtceps of 1549,
s. Mann‑ printed probably in Paris and edited
scripts and by Jean du Tillet, later bishop of St.
	Editions.	Brieux and of Meaux. This edition,
		which the subsequent ones followed,
was used by the Protestants (Flacius, Calvin,
Chemnitz, and others) in their attacks on the Ro
man Catholic Church, and, therefore, put on the
Index by the popes from 1564, which accounts for
its rarity. Of the subsequent editions the best
is that published by Heumann in 1731, which
makes use of all the materials at his command
and gives the introductions and notes of previous
editors. The less perfectedition of Goldaat (1608)
is followed in MPL, xcviii.
The authenticity of the work was denied by many of the older Roman Catholic theologians, such as Surius (who thought it a sixteenth‑century forgery), Bellarmine, Suarez, Baronius, and as

Caroline Books	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	420
recently as 1860 by Floss of Bonn, who succeeded in convincing Baur that it was at least doubtful. But these doubts have long since been abandoned by Catholic theologians (the Jesuit Sirmond, Natalia Alexander, Du Pin, Hefele). The oldest external evidence in its favor is the letter of Adrian himself (printed by Mansi, Migne, and Jaff6); the next is that of Hincmar of Reims, who says he has seen the book in the imperial palace, and quotes a chapter (iv. 26) from it. If, however, the origin of the work from Charlemagne's immediate entourage and by his authority is indubitable, the question as to the actual author is still
3. Problem unsolved. This can not, of course,
of Author‑ have been Charlemagne himself,
	ship.	though his name is used, but moat have
		been one (if not more than one) of
the moat prominent theologians of his court. The
majority of scholars are inclined to favor Alcuin;
but there is some reason to think that it may have
been Abbot Angilbert of St. Riquier, who stood
in close relations to Charlemagne and was en
trusted by him with negotiations at Rome regard
ing this controversy.
	The composition of the work was begun, as
appeals from the preface to the first book, not
earlier than the winter of 789‑790 and not later
than the summer of 791. When it was completed
is not now known, but Charlemagne was not likely
to have granted his theologians more time than
was necessary, so that it may have been finished
in 790 or 791. It was intended to affect public
opinion in favor of Charlemagne's rejection of the
Nicene decrees. He endeavored to obtain like
action from Pope Adrian, and sent Angilbert to
Rome for this purpose. Adrian's answer referred.
to above discusses and controverta eighty‑five
chapters somewhat fully. The question arises
whether Angilbert laid before him the whole work
		or only these chapters, and whether
4. The these eighty‑five were the basis for
Work Seat a revised and enlarged edition, or a
to Pope condensation of the larger work. A
	Adrian.	supplementary question also arises
		as to the date of Angilbert's mis
sion, whether it was before or after the Synod of
Frankfort in 794. The answer to the first ques
tion is determined by Adrian's assertion that he
has answered each chapter seriatim, and by a
similar assertion of the Council of Paris (825).
Hincmar was probably in error when he said that
the " ° not small volume " which he saw had been
sent to Rome. The second question involves more
difficulty. The theory, recently supported by
I3ampe, that Adrian's answer led to the expansion
		of the original document into the
g. Relation present Caroline Books is invalidated
	of	by the fact that in their present shape
Original they contain no reference to Adrian's
Work to answer, and make no attempt to rebut
1 anger Re‑ it. It is more likely that the eighty‑
	cension.	five chapters consisted of extracts
		from the larger work. Adrian was
asked to condemn certain propositions, not to
confirm Charlemagne's official pronouncement.
As to the date of this proceeding, it must have
been before the Synod of Frankfort, whose decision was taken in the presence of papal legatee and its validity never questioned, while the rejection of the eighty‑five chapters would have been tantamount to a condemnation of it. Angilbert was in Rome in 792, and the occurrence probably took place then‑possibly not till the next year. In consequence Charlemagne laid the matter before the synod.
We come now to the contents and character of the Libri Carolini. Each book has its own preface. That of Book I. begins with a rhetorical eulogy of the Church as the ark of safety, Charlemagn6's duty to which leads him to take up this question. Pride and ambition have led the Eastern princes and bishops to introduce innovations into the true doctrine "by notorious and senseless synods." The Council of Constantinople (754) erred in one direction, by abolishing the pictures which had from of old served to adorn the churches and commemorate past events, referring what God had spoken of idols to images. The Nicene Council, on the other hand, three years before the date of writing, had erred not less, by exhorting the people to worship such images. Both perverted the teaching of the fathers, who allowed
the possession of images, but forbade
6. Book I. the worship of them. We, however,
resting on the foundation of the Scriptures, the orthodox fathers, and the six ecumenical councils, reject all innovations, especially those of the Nicene Council, whose acts have reached us. We have undertaken to combat these errors with the assistance of the clergy of our kingdom. Neither of these councils deserves the name of ecumenical; and in contrast with both, the via media must be followed, which consists in neither breaking down the images nor worshiping them, but retaining them as ornaments and memorials, adoring God alone and rendering due veneration to the saints. The standpoint being thus set forth in the preface, the polemic of Book I. is directed first against the imperial summons to the Nicene Council, whose phraseology is condemned in four several points. The council itself is accused of erroneous exposition of the Scriptures and erroneous employment of patristic citations. The author thinks it necessary (i. 6) to express his acknowledgment of the authority of the Roman Church, both in faith and in worship, founded not on human ordinances but on divine prescription. The section i. 7‑ii. 12 examines the passages of Scripture alleged by the council, and ii. 15‑20 the patristic passages, some of which are not authentic and others inconclusive. In ii. 26 the conclusion is drawn that, as the whole of Scripture proclaims in thunder‑tones, "God alone is to be worshiped and adored," the "cultua of images "is altogether to be reprobated, as contrary to the Christian religion; whether or not pictures are retained in the churches is a matter of indifference,
though, indeed, visible memorials of 7. Book II. Christ and the saints are unnecessary.
The friends of images (obviously including the pope) are warned not to disturb the peace of the Church and the prosperity of Charles's kingdom by their councils. The apostles never

421	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Caroline Books
taught the veneration of images by word or example; it is an error to compare them with the ark of the covenant, and an absurdity to place them in the same category with the eucharistic host; nor must they be likened to the cross of Christ, the sacred vessels, or the Scriptures, all of which are venerated in their own way and measure for different reasons.
Book III. begins with a confession of faith, for the purpose of evincing the orthodoxy of the Frankish Church. This is supposed to be taken from Jerome, but is really almost verbally the profession of Pelagius (the Libellus fidei ad Innocentium of 417), which throughout the Middle Ages was received as orthodox, under the name of Synzbolum Hieronymi or Serino Augustini. The author then attacks the patriarch Tarasius on the ground of the irregularity of his consecration and the error of his teaching on the procession of the Holy Ghost. The latter reproach and that of further doctrinal aberrations are brought against the other members of the council, and one chapter attacks the im‑
propriety of the empress Irene's 8. Book III. assumption of the teaching office.
A special onslaught is made on a proposition assumed to have been uttered by one of the bishops which clearly mats upon a gross mistranslation. A distinction is drawn between images and relics; and even if it is true that some of the former have worked miracles, no adoration is therefor due them. Still less can dreams and visions, or absurd apocryphal inventions, be adduced in favor of the "adoration of images." Not this, but the keeping of the divine precepts, is the beginning of the fear of the Lord.
Book IV. continues the attack upon expressions of individual members of the council, and upon its authority as a whole. It can in no wise be compared with the First Nicene Council; that asserted the equality of the Son with the Father, while this
places pictures on a level with the g. Book IV. Trinity. Apart from all the unseemly,
obscure, perverted, absurd, illogical, and untheological expressions to be found in the acts of the latter, it does not deserve the name of ecumenical given to it by the Greeks, because it neither utters the pure Catholic faith nor is recognized by all the churches.
The Caroline Books, then, in their fundamental conceptions, attempt to preserve the golden mean indicated by Gregory the Great in his letter to Serenus of Massilia: " We approve unreservedly because you have forbidden to worship them [images]; but we do not approve of their being broken; if any one wants to make images, at least forbid him; but shun in every way the worshiping of them." But their polemic (apart from its
vehement, almost passionate tone) ro. Char‑ does material injustice !o the Nicene acterization Fathers by ignoring their distinction of the Caro‑ between Zatreia [worship] which is due line Books. to God alone, and proskxcn&is tim'etiki;
[honoring obeisance] which may be given to creatures, and in ascribing to them the blasphemous proposition that the wane "servitude of adoration" is due to the images as to the Holy
Trinity. This is explained by the imperfection of the version of the acts sent to Charles, which always renders the Greek proskunesis by adoratio. and by a particular misunderstanding or wrong reading already referred to.
The work as a whole, however, may be taken as giving a good general view of Frankish and AngloSaxon theology in its day, of considerable importance for the dogmatic, exegetical, dialectic, and critical attainments of the age. Of special interest is the attitude assumed toward the great fundamental questions of medieval theology‑the relations of Scripture and tradition, authority and
reason, the Roman and the universal ii. Impor‑ Church. In spite of all its recog‑
tance of nition of the teaching authority of the the Work. Church, and particularly of the Roman
Church, the work postulates the right of critical examination in a way seldom found in the Middle Ages‑‑though it will not do to interpret this tendency in terms of modern views. The theological standpoint of the book as a whole is that of Gregory the Great, a somewhat weakened Augustinianism which allows the author to accept the profession of Pelagiua as" theConfession of the Catholic Faith." He follows Gregory, as in the question of images, so also in the doctrines of original sin, of the replacing of the fallen angels by an equal
number of redeemed men, of purgais. Theo‑ tory and prayers for the dead. Other logical patristic authorities cited are espeStandpoiat. dally Augustine and Jerome, and
sometimes Ambrose and Sedulius. The author attempts to show his universal culture by all sorts of grammatical, rhetorical, philosophical, historical, and literary remarks; by quotations from Plato and Aristotle, Vero and Cicero, Macrobius and Apuleius, Cato and Josephus; and by the use of scientific terminology and logical formulas. The work, however, has not the character of a theological treatise written by a private person; it is a state document, an official protest on the part of the Frankish Church against Byzantine and Roman superstition and against the unjustified anathemas pronounced by both the Greek and the Roman Church on all who differed from them as well as on their own purer past.
The effect of this protest can not here be followed out in detail. Adrian was clearly much disturbed by it, and sent his defense to Charlemagne with many conciliatory expressions, declaring that he had not as yet given an answer to the Byzantine emperor, because the latter still persisted in his usurpation of what belonged to the
Roman See, but that he must, following the ancient
tradition of his predecessors, condemn those who
refused to venerate the sacred images. Charles's
answer was the Synod of Frankfort, the presence
		at which of the papal legates beto
	i3. Later kened Adrian's submission. The pope
	Influence died on Christmas day, 795, and the
of the Caro‑ question slumbered until it came up
line Books. once more, under Louie the Pious and
		Eugeniua IL, at the Synod of Paris in
825. This synod adhered to the position of the
Libri Cardini and the Synod of Frankfort,

Caxpenter	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	428
Carpsov
venturing openly to condemn Adrian for encour
aging superstition, though unconsciously, in the
cultus of images. It was mainly through the
influence of the Caroline Books that the Frankish
Church excluded this cultus all through the ninth
century. Even in the tenth we find the Nicene
Council spoken of as " The pseudo‑synod falsely
called the Seventh," and the principle adopted that
pictures are tolerated in the churches "only for the
instruction of the ignorant," without any attempt
on the part of Rome to enforce its anathema.
	Charles and his theologians must thus have the
credit of holding back for a time the influx of
superstition into the Went, while at the same time
they asserted the rights of Christian art and its
value for ecclesiastical decoration. When in the
sixteenth century Tridentine Catholicism reaf
firmed the proposition assailed in the Caroline
Books, that veneration was paid not to the pictures
but to their subjects (" honoa refertur ad proto
typa "), and on the other hand Swiss Protestant
ism, in its abhorrence of idolatry, renewed the
tumults of iconoclasm, the Lutheran controver
sialists, especially Flacius and Chemnitz, with
cheerful confidence " went back to the moderation
of Charlemagne." 	(A. HAUCK.)
	B113LIOGRAPEEY: A luminous discussion is found in Hefele,
	Concilianpuchichte, iii. 895‑717. Consult: H. J. Floes,
	Commentatio de suspects libronem Carotinorum fide, Bonn,
	1880: R. Bsamsan, Die Politik der PBpate, i. 29 eqq.,
	297‑299, Elbarfold. 1888: H. Reuter, Geachichte der
	Aafktdrunp, i 11 eqq., Berlin, 1877; F. H. Reuach,
	Index der roarbotenen Bftcher, i. 255, Bonn, 1883; O.
	Leiet, Du iiElerariache Bevxpu»p des Bilderatreita, Vol.
	i., Magdeburg, 1871; Neander, Christian Church, iii.
	235‑243 (still of great value, though supplementary
	reading is necessary); Schaff, Christian Church, iv. 487
	488; Hauck, KD ii. IOb, 110, 318 aqq.; DCB, i. 406‑408;
KL, vii. 190‑198; and the literature on Charlemagne.
	CARPENTER, JOSEPH) ESTLIN: English Uni
	tarian; b. at Ripley (22 m. s.w. of London), Surrey,
	Oct. 5, 1844. He was educated at University
	College, London (1860‑&3), and Manchester New
	College (1860‑86; B.A., University of London,
	1883), ‑and was successively minister of Oakfield
	Road Church, Clifton, Gloucestershire (1866‑69),
and Mill Hill Chapel, Leeds (1869‑75).	From
	1875 to 1906, he was a lecturer on Hebrew, Old
	Testament literature, and comparative religion in
	Manchester New College, first in London, then
	at Oxford, where he was appointed principal in
	1906. He has edited the third, fourth, and fifth
	volumes of Ewald's History of Israel (London,
	1871‑74), a portion of the Sumangala Yilasini
	(1886), and the Digha Nikdya (2 vols., 1890
	1903; both in collaboration with Rhya Davids);
	and The Hexateuch According to the Revised Ver
	sion (2 vole., 1900; in collaboration with G. Har
	ford‑Battereby); and has translated C. P. Tiele's
	Geschiedenis van den Godsdierlst tot san de heer
schappij der Wereldgodsdiensten	(Amsterdam,
	1876) under the title Outlines of the History of
Religion (London, 1878).	His independent works
	include: Life and Work of Mary Carpenter (Lon
	don, 1879); Life in Palestine when Jesus Lived
(1889);	The First Three Gospels, Their Origin
	and Relations (1890); Composition of the Hexa
	teuch (1902); The Bible in the Nineteenth Cen‑
tury (1903); Studies in Theology (1903; in collaboration with P. H. Wieksteed); The Place of Christianity Among the Religions of the World (1904); and James Martineau, Theologian and Teacher (1905).

CARPENTER, LANT: English Unitarian; b. at Kidderminster (15 m. s.w. of Birmingham), Worcestershire, Sept: 2, 1780; lost overboard from a steamer between Naples and Leghorn Apr. 5, 1840: He studied at Glasgow College 1798‑1801; became a popular and successful school‑teacher and preacher; was minister at Exeter 1805‑17, and at Bristol 1817‑39. He did much to broaden his denomination and to consolidate its scattered congregations; was a leader in philanthropic work; and was one of the most efficient of English schoolmasters. His publications were numerous, the most noteworthy being: An Introduction to the Geography of the New Testament (London, 1805); Unitarianism the Doctrine of the Gospel (1809; 3d ed., with alterations, Bristol, 1823); Systematic Education, in collaboration with William Shepherd and Jeremiah Joyce (2 yols., 1815); An Examination o f the Charges Made Against Unitarians by the Right Rev. Dr. Magee (Bristol, 1820); Principles of Education (London, 1820); A Harmony of the Gospels (Bristol, 1835). After his death appeared a volume of Sermons on Practical Subjects (Bristol, 1840), edited by his son, Russell Last Carpenter.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. L. Carpenter, Memoirs of the Life of Rev. Lant Carpenter, with Selections from his Correspondence, Bristol, 1842; DNB, ix. 157‑159.
CARPENTER, MARY: Philanthropist; b. at Exeter, England, Apr. 3, 1807; d. at Bristol June 14, 1877. She was the eldest child of Lant Carpenter (q.v.), and received an excellent education in her father's school; she taught for several years; became interested in reformatory movements in India through the visit to Bristol of the Rajah Rammohun Roy in 1833, and also in work for destitute children in England through the instrumentality of Joseph Tuckerman, of Boston. She opened " ragged schools " and developed and set in operation a plan for reformatory schools which was legalized by Parliament in 1854; she was also one of the chief promoters of the Industrial Schools Act passed in 1857. She visited India four times between 1866 and 1876, and. came to America in 1873. Prison reform also received her attention, and she was earnest in advocacy of the higher education of women. She wrote much in behalf of her projects, and her reports and memorials to Parliament had no little influence in shaping legislation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. E. Carpenter, Life and Work of Mart/ Carpenter, London, 1879; DNB, ix. 159‑181.
CARPENTER, WILLIAM BOYD: Church of England bishop of Ripon; b. at Liverpool Mar. 26, 1841. He was educated at St. Catherine's
College, Cambridge (B.A., 1864), and was ordered deacon in 1864 and ordained priest in the following year. He was successively curate of All Saints',
Maidstone, Kent (18646), of St. Paul's, Clapham (1866‑67), and of Holy Trinity, Lee (1867‑70). He was then vicar of St. James's, Holloway (1870‑79),

423	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Carpenter
		Caalmv
and of Christ Church, Lancaster Gate (1879‑84).
He was chaplain to the bishop of London from
1879 to 1884 and canon of Windsor from 1882 to
1884, while he was also honorary chaplain to Queen
Victoria in 187983, and chaplain in ordinary in
1883‑84. In 1884 he was consecrated the bishop
of Ripon. He was select preacher at Cam
bridge in 1875 and 1877, and at Oxford in 1883‑84,
and was also Hulaean Lecturer at Cambridge
in 1878, Bampton Lecturer at Oxford in 1887,
Pastoral Lecturer on theology at Cambridge in
1895, and Noble Lecturer at Harvard University
in 1904. He has been a clerk of the closet since
1903, and is also a knight of the Prussian Order
of the Royal Grown. In addition to numerous
volumes of sermons, he has written: Thoughts on
Prayer (London, 1871); Narcissus, a Tale of Early
Christian Times (1879); The Witness of the Heart
to Christ (1879; the Hulsean Lectures for 1878);
District Visitor's Companion (1881); My Bile
(1884); NatureandMon (1888); Permanent Elements
of Religion (Bampton Lectures for 1887, 1889);
The Burning Bush (1893); Twilight Dreams (1893);
Lectures on Preaching (1895); Thoughts on Re
union (1895); Religious Spirit in the Poets (1900);
Popular History of the Church of England (1900);
and Witness to the Influence of Christ (Noble Lec
tures for 1904; 1905). He likewise contributed
the notes on Revelation in C. J. Ellicott's New
Testament Commentary (London, 1879).
	CARPOCRATES, cdr‑pec'ra‑tfz, AND THE CAR
POCRATIANS: An Alexandrian Gnostic of the first
half of the second century and the sect which he
founded. His teachings rested upon a Platonic
basis, and were interspersed with Christian ideas.
According to Irenaeus (Her., i. 25), supplemented
here and there by Epiphanius (Hcer., axvii.), he
taught that in the beginning was the divine primi
tive source, " the father of all," " the one begin
ning " (Gk. arche). Angels, far removed from this
source, have created the world. The world‑builders
have imprisoned in bodies the fallen souls, who
originally worked with God, and now have to go
through every form of life and every act to regain
their freedom. To accomplish this a long series of
tranamigrations through the bodies is needed. The
words of Jesus in Luke xii. 58 (Matt. v. 25) ex
pressed this thought very clearly in Carpocratea's
view; the " adversary " is the devil, who drags
the souls to the highest of the world‑builders; the
latter delivers them to another angel, his messenger,
to be incarcerated in bodies until they have paid
the last farthing, i.e., have won freedom, and can
rise to the highest God. During their transmi
grations the souls have retained the power of
remembering (Gk. anamnesaia), though in different
degree. The soul of Jesus, son of Joseph, possessed
the power of remembering God in greatest purity.
Therefore God bestowed upon him power to escape
the world‑builders and to despise the Jewish cus
toms in which he was brought up. Whosoever
thinks and acts like him obtains the same power;
whosoever is still more perfect can reach higher.
This is the faith and the love through which we are
saved; everything else, essentially indifferent, is
good or bad, godless or shameless only according to human conceptions; for by nature nothing is bad. This is the teaching which Jesus himself gave to his disciples, " privately in a mystery," ordering them to disseminate it among the faithful (" the worthy and believing "). The Carpocrar tisns rendered divine honor to Jesus as to the other secular sages (Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle). They claimed for themselves the power of ruling the world‑builders: magic arts, exorcism, philters and love‑potions, dreams and cures were at their command, and like other secret societies they had a special mark of recognition, which they burned with a hot iron on the back of the lobe of the right ear.
Later writers follow Irenaeue. Clement alone adds new matter in some quotations from a Carpocratian manuscript. He says that Carpocrates had a eon, Epiphanes, whose mother was Alexandria of Cephalonia; that this son became an author, died when seventeen years old, and was honored as a god at Same in Cephalonia. This story has been declared mythical (cf. Volkmar; in the Monatsschrift des uriaaenschaftlichen Vereins in Zurich, 1858, pp. 279277; Lipsius, Zur Quellenkritik des Epiphanius, pp. 181‑162, Leipeic, 1885), and it is maintained that traits of the moon‑god worshiped at Same (Gk. theca epiphnrtds) were transferred to Epiphanes, the Gnostic. Though this suggestion is striking, there is hardly reason for making a myth of the entire statement of Clement, so much the more as he has filled out his account by a long extract from a work of Epiphanea " On Righteousness." In this work the young idealist advocated community of goods and women without the intention of preaching general immorality. Even Irenaeus had written: " I can hardly believe that all the ungodly, unlawful, and forbidden things of which we read in their books are really done among them." One needs only to reflect how inconsistently highly endowed advocates of similar views think and act nowadays, though of course it moat be admitted that such conceptions in earlier times might have caused in immature minds the same troubles as they do to‑day. At all events, Carpocratianism can not be called Christianity. It is a specifically ethnic phenomenon, easily explicable from the religious syncretism of the second century. G. KROGER.
Brsraooasra:: The sources are accessible in Eng. in ANF, i. 350, ii. 382‑404, iii. 218, 851, v. 113; NPNF, i. 114, 179. 199. Consult also: C. W. F. Wsleh, fliatorie der K®tzeroien, i. 302‑335, Leipeio, 1782; A. Neander, Gene. tiache Entwitlcelunp der roornehmeten pnoatiachen System, pp. 355‑380, Berlin, 1818; idem, Christian Church, i. 292, 399, 449‑451, 484; W. M511er, (#eachichta der Koemolopie, pp. 335‑343, Halle, 1880; A. Hilgenfeld, Keeehichte des Urelvriatenturts. fDP. 397‑108. I,eiPei0. 1884; Harnsak, Littarohur, i. 181‑182.
CARPZOV: A family of German lawyers and theologians, of which the following are the moat important members:
1. Benedikt Carpzov: Lawyer; b. at Wittenberg May 27, 1595; d. at Leipaic Aug. 30, 1666. He was educated at VVittenberg, Leipsic, and Jena, and after a tour through Italy, France, and England became a member of the court of sheriffs at Leipsic,

Carpmv	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	424
Carrou
where he remained with little interruption for
	forty years. He was later appointed assessor of
	the supreme court in Leipsic and counselor of the
	Dresden court of appeals. In 1645 he was made
	professor in the faculty of law at Leipsic, and was for
	eight years a member of the privy council of Dres
	den, but returned to Leipaic in 1661. Although
	he had not a creative mind, his diligence, judg
	ment, and system enabled him to become the
	founder of German jurisprudence, and in his
	Practices nova imperialia Saxonica rerum crimina
	lium (Wittenberg, 1638) he formulated the first
	system of German criminal law, while his Juris
	prudentia ecclesiaatica aeu consistorialis (Leipsic,
	1649) formed the earliest complete system of
	Protestant ecclesiastical law. He distinguished
	carefully between ecclesiastical and canon law,
	and was the first to use the ordinances of the
	Evangelical Church, the rescripts of the sovereigns,
	and the decisions of the consiatories, thus sum
	marizing the legal development of Protestantism
	since the Reformation.
		2. Johann Benedikt Carpzov the Elder: Theolo
	gian, brother of the ping; b. at R.ochlitz (16
	m. n.n.w. of Chemaitz) June 22, 1607; d. at Leipsic
	Oct. 22, 1657. He studied at the University of
	Wittenberg from 1623 to 1627, and then entered
	the University of Leipsic. In 1632 he was ap
	pointed pastor at Meuselwita and five years later
	became deacon at the Church of St. Thomas at
	Leipsic. In ten years he rose to the archdeaconry
	and received the additional appointments of as
	sessor of the consistory and canon, having become
	professor of theology at the university in 1641,
	although his pastoral duties allowed him little
	time for teaching. He maintained a certain reserve
	in the syncretistic controversies of the period, and
	though in harmony with his colleague Hiilsemann,
	he carried on a friendly correspondence with Calix
	tua and later with his pupil Titius. His most
	important work, which has won him the title of
	the father of symbolise, was his IsagBge in libroa
	ecclesiarumLutheranarumsymbolicos (Leipsie,1665),
	which was completed after his death by Olearius,
	general superintendent of Magdeburg. Still more
	famous, however, is his Hodegeticum brevibus
	aphorismis olim pro collegio concionatorio conceptum
	et nuns revisum (1656), which gives 100 methods
	of arranging sermons.
		3. Johann Benedikt Carpzov the Younger: The.
	ologian, son of the preceding; b. at Leipsic Apr. 24,
	1639; d. there Mar. 23, 1699. He was educated
	in his native city and at Jena, and was also influ
	enced by Buxtorf in Basel and by Johann Schmid
	in Strasburg. In 1659 be became privat‑docent
	at Leipsic, and in 1665 was appointed professor of
	ethics. Three years later he was made licentiate
	of theology and professor of Oriental languages
	In 1684 he became professor of theology, having
	already been made dean in 1671, archdeacon in
	1674, and pastor of St. Thomas's in 1679. His
	pastoral duties forbade extensive literary activity,
	and he therefore restricted himself to editing the
	works of others, such as the Jas regium of Wilhelm
	Schickhsrd (Leipaie, 1674), the In Prophet=
	Minores com»xntariy$ of Johann Tarnov (1688), the
Home Talmudicce et Hebraicce of John Lightfoot (1674), sad an enlarged edition of his father'sHodegeticum (1689). Through this last‑named work an interest was aroused in homiletics which completely overshadowed philosophy and exegesis. There was gradually evolved, therefore, an antagonism between Carpzov and Spener, which increased in bitterness until in 1691 three programs assailed Pietism, and five years later Carpzov attacked Thomasius in his De jure decidesdi controroersias theological (1696), vainly attempting to support a failing cause.
4. Samuel Benedikt Carpzov: Theologian, son of Johann Benedikt the Elder; b. at Leipsic Jan. 17, 1647; d. at Dresden Aug. 31, 1707. After studying philosophy and philology at the university of his native city from 1663 to 1668, he went to Wittenberg, where he became a close friend of Calov and Aegidius Strauch. In 1674 he was called to Dresden as court‑preacher, and five years later he was transferred to the Kreuzkirche, being also appointed superintendent and thus given the right to attend the sessions of the high consietory. He conducted the negotiations for the call of Spener, and proved
himself a true friend of the Pietist until his brother at Leipeic became the leader of the opposition and persuaded him to change his attitude. After the retirement of Spener and the death of Green, Carpzov was chosen to succeed them, and he accepted with much hesitation, although he held the position for the remainder of his life.
5. Johann Gottlob Carpzov: Theologian, son of the preceding; b. at Dresden Sept. 26, 1679; d. at Liibeck Apr. 7, 1767. He was educated at Leipsic and Altdorf, and though the most learned theologian of his family, was indoctrinated with reactionary principles by his father and uncle. In 1708 he went from Dresden to Leipsic as deacon. He ranked among the foremost of Old Testament scholars, although in the preface to his Introductio in litros Yeteris Testaments (Leipeie, 1721) he declared that only the entire absence of such a work had rendered it possible for him to publish his own. This book, like his Critics sacra (1728), is characterized by clear arrangement, deep knowledge, and thorough criticism. Equally valuable was his
Apparatus historico‑criticua antiquitatum Yeteris Teatamenti (1748). His chief attacks were reserved for R. Simon, Clerical, and Spinoza, as representatives of the new criticism, and his point of view
was that of Buxtorf and Hottinger, so that he postulated the verbal inspiration of the text of the Bible, and admitted no error whatsoever. He was, moreover, a consistent opponent of Pietism and the Moravians, and gladly accepted a call as superintendent to the orthodox city of Liibeck in 1730, after having been obliged to decline a similar invitation to go to Danzig. There he continued his polemics against the Moravians, publishing in 1742 one of the sharpest of all attacks on them in his Religionsuntersuehung der b6hmiachen urul mBhrischen Briider von Anbeginn ihrer Gemeinden bis auf gegerewkrtige Zeiten.
8. Johann Benedikt Carpzov: Classical scholar and theologian, grandson of Johann Benedikt the Younger; b. at Leipsic May 20, 1720; d. at Kbnigalutter (9 m. w.n.w. of Ilelinstadt) Apr. 18, 1803.

425	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	c=u
He was educated at the university of his native city, where he was appointed associate professor in 1747, but was called in the following year as professor of Greek to Helmatlidt, and in 1757 became abbot of Konigalutter. Adhering to the orthodoxy of his family, he was commissioned by the duke to save the reputation of the university, endangered by the rationalism of Albrecht Teller, and he accordingly published his Liter doctrinalis theologia; purir oris (Brunswick, 1768). His philological learning was shown in his editions of the classics and in his Sacrte ezercitateiones in epistolam ad Hebrteos ex Philane Alexandrino (Hehnat8,dt, 1750); Stricturte theolo*a; in epistolam S. Pauli ad Ilomanos (1756); and Epistolarum catholicarum sepEeTtarius (Halls, 1790). His lectures, which he delivered in Latin, were devoted to classics, the New Testament, patriatica, and Dolscius's Greek translation of the Augsburg Confession.
(GEORG MUELLER.)
BIHLIOa$AP$Y; On the family consult: ADB, iv. 10‑28; & 8tintaing, Oeachichk der deatsrhtu RerAtamaaasenaclusft, i: 723, ii. 58, Munich, 1880. On Benedikt Carpsov consult: K. Ricker, Die rechtlicht Sttllunp der evangeLischen Kirche Deutachlande, pp. 218‑220, Leipeic, 1893. On Johann the Elder consult: A. Ii. Kreyeig. Album der evanpeliach‑Zuiheriacben Oeiatlichen i» . . . Sachsen, PP.. 265‑287, Dresden, 1883; T. $piael. Yetua academia Jeau Christi, pp. 227‑233, Augsburg, 1871. On Johann the Younger consult: B. Pipping, Saar decadum septenarius memoriam fheoloporum . . . pp. 783‑784, LeiPaic, 1705: K. Ricker, ut sup., pp. 220‑222; A. H. Kreysig, ut sup., pp. 265, 277. On Samuel Benedikt consult: J. A. Gleich, Annaiium ecctta%aaticoram, ii. b22‑550, Dresden, 1730; G. L. Zeisaler, Cftechickte der altchsiachen OberhofYredi9re', pp. 111‑119, Leipeic. 1858. On Johann Gottlob consult: A. II. Kreyeig, ut sup., pp. 108, 288; L. Diestel, Otachichte des Allen Testaments in der chr%atlichen Ksrehe, p. 352, Jena, 1889. On Johann Benedikt consult: F. Koldewey, Geachichte der klasaiachen Ph%lolopit, pp..185‑‑168, Brunswick, 1897 (gives further literature).

CARRANZA, c8r‑ran'ths, BARTOLOINE: Archbishop of Toledo; b. at Miranda (175 m. n.e. of Madrid), Navarre, 1503; d. at Rome May 2, 1576. He entered the order of the Dominicans and from 1528 lectured on philosophy and achols$tic theology at Alcala, afterward at Valladolid. Charles V. offered him the bishopric of Cuzco in Peru, but he declined. At the request of the emperor he took part in the deliberations of the Council of Trent after 1546, and insisted that the bishops should reside in their own dioceses. Strange to say, Carranza came into conflict with the Roman theologians because he asserted that the bishops had their rights jeers divine, not by papal appointment. When the council was suspended he might have gone to Flanders as confessor of the infants Philip, but he declined this influential position to work in Spain as provincial of his order. He accompanied Philip to England (1554) when the latter was married to Mary Tudor, and abated in the persecution of the Protestants there.. For this he was rewarded by Philip in 1557 and made archbishop of Toledo, which proved the culmination of his career. When Charles V. was dying (1558), Carransa gave him the sacrament. His opponents circulated the report that the emperor had not died in the faith of the Church and that this was owing to Carranza. The Inquisition had state‑
ments made by prisoners, which offered sufficient
material to justify intervention, and his enemies,
especially the inquisitor‑general Valdez and Mel
chior Cano, called attention to his catechism (Co
mentarios del reverendissimo Fray BartolomE Car
ranza sobre el Cateehismo Christiano, Antwerp, 1558),
which contained anything but Protestant doc
trines, but deviated in some expressions from the
Roman tradition. Carranza was imprisoned, his
papers were confiscated, and some further material
for charges was found. The examinations of
Protestants in Valladolid which he held in 1558 and
1559 were especially scrutinized, and it was found
that on the doctrine of justification and purga
tory he had made oral statements which were not
Catholic. In spite of his appeal to the pope, the
Spanish Inquisition kept him in prison eight years
and when he was transferred in 1567 to Rome at
the behest of Pius V. be was kept there under
examination nine years longer. The Roman
process ended with a solemn abjuration of four
teen statements especially taken from his wri
tings and with canonical punishment. He was
suspended for five years and died in Rome
without returning to Spain. The court of in
quisition had overcome in his person the highest
episcopal dignitary, but Gregory XIII. allowed
a laudatory epitaph to be set up in Santa Maria
supra Minerva. 	K. BENRATH.
Bi$L:ooasrar: Carranaa's moat noted work, Summa conciliorum et pontificum (a church history to Julius 111.), was published at Venice, 1548 and often. His life, by H. Laugwits, BartnolAmao Carranta, Brsbiaehof van Toledo, was published at Kempten. 1870. Consult also: J. Qubtif and J. chard, Scriptures ordinse Prauiicatorum, vol. ii., Paris, 1721; F. $. Reuaeh, Der Index der verbotensn Biichsr, i. 254, 398, 588 et passim, Bonn. 1883; Mueller, Christian Church, iii. 317; A. C. Lea, Inquisition in Spain, ii. 4fi‑87, iv. lb, 486,502, New York, 1906.
CARRASCO, c&‑res'co, ANTONIO: Spanish Protestant; b. in Malaga. Jan. 19, 1843; lost with the steamer " Ville du Havre " Nov. 22, 1873, while returning home from the Sixth General Conference of the Evangelical Alliance held in New York Oct., 1873. He was converted at sixteen and joined a band of Bible‑readers in Malaga connected with Manuel Matamoros (q.v.); was imprisoned for two years (1860‑62), and then condemned to the galleys for a term of nine. years, but at the solicitation of the Evangelical Alliance, supported by representations of the Prussian government, the sentence was changed to banishment (1863). He studied theology in Geneva; on the downfall of Queen Isabella in 1868 he returned to Spain and undertook the work of evangelization; at the time of his death he was pastor of the Free Church in Madrid, with a membership of 700, and president of the Protestant Synod of Spain.
131BLIOGRAPHY: A brief sketch of his life may be found in
the History, etc., of the Sixth General Conference of the Evangelical Alliance, p. 784, New York, 1874.

CARROLL, HENRY KING: Methodist Episcopalian; b. at Denniaville, N. J., Nov. 15, 1848. He was self‑taught, and early entered journalism, being successively editor of the Havre Republican, Havre, Md. (1868‑69), and assistant editor of The Methodist, New York (1869‑70), and of the

Carthage
Carron	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	428
Hearth and Home, New York (1870‑71). From 1876 to 1898 he was religious and political editor of The Independent, New York, but resigned in the latter year to accept the appointment of special commissioner of President McKinley to Porto Rico. In 1881 he was a delegate to the Ecumenical Methodist Conference in London, and in 1884 was organizing secretary of the Methodist Centennial Conference, of which he edited the proceedings (New York, 1885),. while in 1890 he was special commissioner of the United States census for religious denominations. In 1900 he was elected corresponding secretary of the Methodist Missionary Society, and was reelected four years later. He is s member of the Methodist Historical Society, a manager of the Methodist Sunday School Union and of the American Sabbath Observance Society, and a trustee of the United Society of Christian Endeavor. In theology he is in thorough accord with the doctrinal position of the Methodist Episcopal Church. In addition to a number of minor contributions, he has written: Religious Forces of the United States (New York, 1893, 2d and enlarged ed., 1895).
CARROLL, JOHN: First Roman Catholic bishop in ~ the United States; b. at Upper Marlborough, Prince George's County, Md., Jan. 8, 1735; d. in Baltimore Dec. 3, 1815. He studied with the Jesuits at Bohemia, on the east shore of Maryland, and at the College of St. Omer, France; joined the Jesuits in 1753; was ordained priest is 1759; taught at St. Omer, Liege, and Bruges; traveled through Europe as tutor to the son of a Roman Catholic nobleman; returned to America in 1774 and became missionary and priest of his native region with headquarters at his mother's residence at Rock Creek, not far from Washington. Like his kinsman Charles Carroll of Carrollton, he warmly supported the cause of the colonies in the Revolutionary war. When the Roman Catholic Church in the United States was organized as a distinct body, free from the authority of the vicar apostolic of London, he was made prefect a~poatolic in 1784; in 1789 he was chosen bishop of Baltimore and consecrated in England in 1790; in 1808 he became archbishop. He founded Georgetown College in 1791. ,
BIBLIOGRAPHY‑ John G. Shea gives Carroll's Lice and Times in History of the Catholic Church in the U. .5., vol. ii., New York, 1888.
CARROLL, JOHN JOSEPH: American Roman Catholic; b. at Enniscrone, County Sligo, Ireland, June 24, 1856. He was educated at St. Michael's College, Toronto (B.A., 1876), and St. Joseph's Provincial Theological Seminary, Troy, N. Y., from which he was graduated in 1879. In the following year he was ordained priest, and was appointed assistant rector of the Cathedral of the Holy Name, Chicago, and since 1887 has been rector of St. Thomas Church in the same city. In 1898 he was elected chairman of Gaelic history in the Gaelic League of America, and in 1902 was chosen national librarian of the same organisation. He has written: Notes and Observations ontheAryan Race and Tongue (Chicago, 1900); Tale of the Wanderings of the Red Lance (1902); and Pre‑
Christian Occupation of Ireland by the Gaelic Aryans
(2 vole., 1903‑06).
CARSON; ALEXANDER: Irish Baptist; b. at Annahone, near Stewartstown (30 m. w. of Belfast), County Tyrone, Ireland, 1776; d. at Belfast Aug. 24, 1844. He studied at Glasgow and was ordained a Presbyterian minister at Tobermore, near Coleraine, County Londonderry, 1798. After a few years he left the Presbyterians and published as justification of his action Reasons for Separating from the General Synod of Ulster (Edinburgh, 1804); a portion of his congregation followed him, and for ten years he preached in barns or the open air. A stone church was built for him in 1814. In the early part of his independent career, while studying the New Testament in order to confute the Baptists, he became a Baptist himself, and thenceforth advocated their views with the exception of close communion. His Baptism in Its Mode and Subjects Considered (Edinburgh, 1$31; enlarged ed., 1844) is a Baptist classic. His other writings were numerous and treat topics of Bible interpretation, philosophy, doctrinal and practical theology, sad the like. He was a bitter controversialist. His collected works were published in six volumes at Dublin, 1847‑‑64.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. C. Moors, Life a/ Alexander Carson,
New York, 1851; John Douglas, A Biographical Sketch of .' . . A. Carson, London, 1884; DNB, ix. 188.
CARSTARES, WILLIAM: Scotch clergyman and political leader; b. at Cathcart (5 m. w.n.w. of Glasgow) Feb. 11, 1649; d. in Edinburgh Dec. 28, 1715. He studied at Edinburgh (graduated 1667)
i	and at Utrecht, whither he went because of the
I	political troubles at home, in which his father was
	implicated. Toward the close of 1674 he was
	arrested in London, being suspected of having a
	hand in the distribution of a seditious pamphlet
	and of being the bearer of despatches to the dis
	affected in Scotland from their sympathizers in
	Holland; he was kept in confinement till Aug., 1679.
	When released he entered actively into the plots
	which were then rife, and appears at different times
	in Ireland, England, Scotland, and Holland. After
	the discovery of the Rye House plot (a scheme to
	assassinate Charles IL) in July, 1683, he was caught
	in Kent, and was sent to Edinburgh and examined
	under torture before the Scottish Council, but dis
	played " great discretion " in the disclosures which
	he made. In 1686 or 1687 he settled at Leyden,
	and thenceforth was seldom separated from William
	of Orange, whom he had known from his student
	days in Utrecht and who trusted him implicitly
	and often took his advice, especially on Scotch
	affairs. After William became king of England,
	he made Carstarea chaplain for Scotland, and the
	latter rendered valuable services both to his country
	and his king, especially in reconciling the Scotch
	Presbyterians to the new regime. His personal
	influence at court ceased with the death of William,
	and thenceforth he resided in Edinburgh, where he
	was made principal of the university in 1703; he
	also became minister of the Gray Friars' Church,
	and distinguished himself in both capacities. He
	retained his position as royal chaplain under Anne,
	and at the accession of George I. was chosen by the

427
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Carron
Carthage
General Assembly to make the usual congratulatory speech. He was four times moderator of the General Assembly.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Btato‑Papers and Letters Addressed to Will‑
iam Caratarea, with life by J. Df'Cormick, Edinburgh, 1774; R. H. Story, TT'illiam Caratans, a character and career of the revolutionary epoch, 1845‑1716, London, 1874; DNB, ix. 187‑190.

CARTER, JAMES: American Presbyterian; b. in New York Oct. 1, 1853. He graduated at Columbia College in 1882, and at Union Theological Seminary in 1885. He was pastor at Williamsport, Pa., from 1889 till 1905, when he became professor of church history and sociology in Lincoln University, Pa. He has written the biography of his father, Walter Carter (New York, 1901), and two volumes of poems.

CARTER, THOMAS HENRY: United Brethren; b. in Carroll Co., Tenn., Jan. 1, 1851; entered the ministry, 1869; elected bishop, 1905.
CARTESIANISM. See DESCARTES, RENfa.
CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF.
I. Synods before and under Cypriea. II. Synods during the Donatist Controversy. III. Synods in Connection with the Pelagian Controversy. IV. Concluding Synods.
Carthage, the ancient rival of Rome, preserved a remnant of its former greatness in the commanding position assumed by its bishops, at least from the beginning of the third century, in the NorthAfrican Church. By right of their see, they were ex officio primates of their province, while this position in Numidia, and later in the other provinces of North Africa, went by seniority. But many bishops of these provinces paid great heed to the counsels of the bishop of the capital, at least in Cyprian's time, sad even earlier than that had formed the habit of meeting there for conference. The decisions taken in regard to the controversies agitating the African Church, especially the Donatist and Pelagian, were of permanent and far‑reaching importance for the development of theology.
I. Synods before and reader Cyprlan: (1) That under Bishop Agrippinus (c. 220), to whose decision Cyprian appealed in the controversy about baptism by heretics. (2) That held c. 240 at Laanbese in Numidia (or Carthage), which condemned the heretic Privatua. (3) The first under Cyprian after his return to Carthage, just after Easter, 251. After a long debate, it decided that the lapsed, especially those who had offered sacrifice, should be restored only on an extended penance, except in danger of death, while the 8ibellatici, (see LAPSED) might, provisionally at least, be at once received. It seems to have been customary at this time to hold an annual Easter synod; and at least one (4) is known in 252, to which probably the letter of Gyprian and sixty‑six bishops to Fidus (Epiat., Ixiv.) refers; here Privatus attempted to have his case reopened, but was refused and joined the opposition that set up Fortunatus as‑a rival bishop. (5) In 253, with reference to the new persecution
under Gallus, the procedure in the case of the lapsed was modified, so that, if truly penitent, they might beat once restored (Epiat., lvii.). Subsequent synods dealt with baptism by heretics, concerning which the African bishops held strict views: (6) One attended by thirty‑one bishops in 255 (Epist., lxx.). (7) A more general one, of seventy‑one bishops, from Numidia se well, in the spring of 256 (Epist., lxxiii.). (8) One of eighty‑seven bishops, this time including the Mauritanians, in September of the same year. The views expressed in the laatnamed were controverted by Augustine, De iiaptiamo contra DtmatiBtas, vi., vii.
II. Synods during the Donatist Controversy: (1) In 312, composed of seventy bishops, opponents of Ce'cilian, who was excommunicated. (2) One of 270 Donatist bishops, about 330, which showed a conciliatory spirit, and sanctioned the admission of treditores to communion. The succeeding synods for some time are all on the Catholic side, sad show a more or less severe attitude toward the Donatiats according to the position taken at the time by the echismatics. (3) The so‑called " First Council of Carthage," between 345 and 348, attended by fifty bishops, at the close of a heavy persecution. This, like 8, 10, 11, 15, and 20, dealt only cursorily with the Donatist question, while 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, and 18, as far as we know, did not touch upon it at all. Under Bishop Genethlius of Car thage, who was much esteemed by the Doaatists, took place (4) a synod in the " Pra;torium," and a year later, or in 390, (5) the so‑called 11 Second Council of Carthage," attended by sixty bishops. Under his successor, Aurelius, twenty synods are said to have been held, in the most important of which Augustine participated. In a general African council held at Hippo in 393 it was decided that the various provinces should take turns in holding such general gatherings; but this system was difficult of execution, since Mauritania and Tripolis were too distant, and the latter had only five episcopal sees. Among such general councils may be reckoned, besides that of Hippo which began the series, that of Hadrumetum, 394, those numbered here 3, 5, 8, 11, 12, 15, and 20, and that of Mileve, 402. In 407 it was decided to abandon the attempt and call them when and where it seemed expedient, while the provincial synods were to go on as before. (6) and (7) Two synods held respectively on June 26, 394, and June 26, 397, of which little is known.
What is known as the Brt:viarium cdnortum Hipponenatum corresponds substantially with (8) the Cttrt)tagireiense 111. of the Spanish collection, Aug. 28, 397. The canons of 393 and 397, confirmed at Mileve in 402, give a comprehensive view of the church life of the time. The most famous is that containing the list of Scriptural books, and dealing with the reading of the martyrologies. The position of the presbyters in relation to the bishops‑ is restricted, aggressions by bishops on neighboring dioceses reprobated, and the whole ebnduct of the clergy within the bounds of the Church regulated. In regard to the Donatist matter, a change is made, allowing clerics coming from the schism to exercise their function, under

Carthage	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	428
Carthusia,na
certain conditions, where formerly they had been relegated to lay communion. Legations from the court often appeared, as at (9) a synod of Apr. 27, 399, when the right of asylum in churches was considered. From 401 on more attention is paid to the Donatist controversy, at first in a conciliatory spirit; in that year two synods were held (10) on June 16 and (11) on Sept. 13, both of which occupied themselves also with the removal of the remains of paganism. (12) The general synod of Aug. 25, 403, laid down a formula to be accepted by the Donatiats which only increased the bitterness, and the following synod (13) of June 16, 404, appealed to the emperor to repress the schiamatics by legal measures. This was done, and the next synod (14), Aug. 23, 405, returned thanks to him. At the general synod (15) of June 13, 407, measures were adopted to facilitate the reception into the Church of entire schismatic communities; and, after the issue of an imperial decree which mitigated the former severity, both on (1B) June 16 and (17) Oct. 13, 408, delegations were sent to impress the ecclesiastical view on the emperor. The only extant provision of (18) the provincial synod of June 15, 409, has no direct connection with the burning question; but after the issue of a decree of toleration, the next (19), on June 14, 410, sent another delegation to the emperor, and this time with success. (20) The synod of May 1, 413, is occupied again with the reception of Donatist communities and the duty of the conversion of heretics; while some of its provisions look forward to the next division.
III. Synods in Connection with the Pelagian Controversy. For these see PELA(i•IUB, PELAGIANISM.
IV. Concluding Synods: At the head of these comes the frequently cited synod of 419, attended by 217 bishops, which held two sessions, 'May 25 and 30 (designated in the Hispana as Casrthaginiertae VI. and Yll.). It codified and to some extent shortened the preceding legislation. Part of its work dealt with the claims of the Roman See, based improperly on the decrees of the First Council of Nicaea. It drew up also a reply to a letter of Pope Bonifaee, who had laid four points before it‑the question of appeals, the journeys of the African bishops to the imperial court, the right of excommunicated clerics to apply for restoration to neighboring bishops, and the conduct of the bishop of Sicca, in deposing a priest who had appealed to Rome. The council temporized on the first and third points, agreed to the restoration of the priest, though not in the same diocese. A still firmer tone was taken toward Rome by the synod which (after 422) wrote to pope Celeatine in connection with the priest above mentioned, which showed that the ancient .independence and conciliar spirit of the African Church were still unbroken.
But with the invasion of the Vandals from the west, threatening Carthage in 439, the existence of the Church of North Africa drew to a close. In the face of such dangers as the persecutions of the Arias kings brought upon the Christians of those parts, minor differences disappeared. The conference on religion held in 484 did not give them much relief; but more was accomplished by the
synod of Feb. 5, 525, in the reign of Hilderic, attended by sixty bishops from different provinces. After the annexation of North Africa by the Byzantine government, Bishop Reparatus held a synod of 217 bishops in 535; it dealt with Rome about the reception of converted Ariana into the service of the Church, regulated the relation of monasteries to the bishops, and sent a deputation to Justinian to ask the restoration of property and privileges. Thenceforth the history of the North‑African Church is merged in the general development of the state religion, and has no more separate importance before its final extinction by the Arabs. (EDGAR HENNECgE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For the canons of the synods consult: W.
Beveridge, 3ynodilcoa, give paadecta caaonum. Oxford,
1872 (includes the canons of the African synods); G. D.
Fuchs, Aibliothek der Ifirchenaermammlunyen, iii. 1‑478,
Leipeic, 1783. On the general question consult: F.
Ilfsaeean, OexhicJlte der Quetlen and der literatur den
kanoniachs» Rechb, i. 149 eqq, Gras, 1870; J. Lloyd,
The North African Church, London, 1870; O. ltitechl,
Cyprian von Rarthogo, pp. 153 eqq., Gbttingen, 1885;
Hefele, Concilisnpeachichfe, vole. i., ii. passim, Eng. tranel.,
vole. i., ii. passim; the brothers Ballerina in Appendix to
the Opera of Leo L, vol. i., chapp. iii., xxi.‑xxix., Venice,
1757. Detailed treatment may be found in Neander,
Christian Church, vole. i., ii. Passim, consult index under
" Councils and Synods." Short discussions are also in
Schaff, Christian Church, iii. 793, 798; Mueller, Chris
tian Church. i. 283, 287, 332, 447, 4b2‑453, 457; DCA,
i. 38‑39; and literature under Doxsrmu.
CARTHUSIAftS. The Life of St. Bruno (§ 1). Carthuaiane in Italy (¢ 3). Foundation of Chartreuse Growth of the Order (¢ 4).
(¢ 2).		Organisation (§ b).
	Scholarship (¢ 8).
The Carthusians are a Roman Catholic order I founded by St. Bruno of Cologne at Grande Chartreuse (14 m. n. of Grenoble) in Dauphin in the latter part of the eleventh century. The period was particularly favorable to the formation of new monastic orders. The monastery of Cluny (q.v.) inspired a tendency to the religious life throughout the surrounding regions, but this cloister, which had adopted the cenobitic monasticism of St. Benedict, gave no impetus to eremitic life. In the course of time, however, the longing for meditation in solitude peopled the wastes of Burgundy and Lorraine, apparently gaining inspiration from Italy by way of Dauphin. To this period belonged Hugo, bishop of Grenoble (1080‑1132), who had barely ascended the episcopal chair when he renounced it to bury himself in the monastery of Chaise‑Dieu, whence he was recalled to his high office by the mandate of Gregory VII. In a like spirit two canons of St. Rufus in Dauphin retired to the north of France, returning after some years with Bruno.
He was born of noble parentage at Cologne before the middle of the eleventh century, and educated at the cathedral school of Reims. Successively canon of St. Gunibert at Cologne and scholastic of the cathedral of Reims, Bruno had held this latter office with distinction for some twen y years and had diligently inculcated the stern principles of Hildebrand and the monks of Cluny. Appointed chancellor of the archbishopric of Reims in lO7:i, Bruno relaxed his energies as a

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C=s.
teacher to assail the simony of his own archbishop, Manasseh of tourney (1067‑80). After a long struggle, in which Bruno was seconded by the beat
element in his chapter, as well as by z. The Life the neighboring clergy, Manasseh was of St. deposed. His antagonist, however, Bruno. had become disheartened with the
condition of the Church. In equal despair regarding the theology to which he devoted himself, he resolved to abandon the world and live the life of a hermit. Where he met the two canons who were later to take him to the Chartreuse is uncertain, but at all events he retired with a few friends of like sympathies to Moleame in the diocese of Langres to live the life of an anchorite in the center of French asceticism. He there joined the adherents of Robert, then abbot of Molesme and later founder of the Cistercians, and with his permission established a small community of hermits in the neighboring S@che‑Fontaine. Feeling that this refuge was insufficiently sundered from the world, Bruno left all his followers but six in S@che‑Fontaine, pushed southward, and in 1084 reached Grenoble, where the little company was welcomed by Hugo, who had but recently resumed his episcopal office.
Partly through the influence of the abbot of Chaise‑Dieu, Bruno and his companions received from Hugo the lofty and almost inaccessible valley of Cartuaia as their place of refuge, and on June 24, 1084, they began the construction of the hermitage, originally consisting of three wretched huts, each to be occupied by two anchorites, and a chapel. At first the new community had no special rule, although they seem to have been influenced by the Italian Camaldolitea in many respects. They were clad in white, and were bound to perpetual silence, to the observance of the monastic hours, to the most rigorous renunciation and mortifica‑
tion, and to the copying of books of s. Founds‑ devotion. After directing his little tion of colony of hermits for six years, Bruno
Chartreuse. was summoned to Rome by Urban
IL, who had once been his pupil at Reims. Bruno obeyed with reluctance, but went accompanied by some of his monks, while others remained in their hermitage, although for some time they proved restive under the administration of Landuin, whom Bruno had placed at their head. In Rome the hermits found themselves longing for their mountain valley, and Bruno obtained permission for them to return, bearing letters of commendation from the pope to Hugo of Grenoble and Hugo, archbishop of Lyons. Bruno, however, remained in Rome, although he was neither energetic enough nor polemical enough to exercise an influence on Urban's rule of the Church. He declined the proffered archbishopric of Reggio in Calabria, and shortly before the first crusade, ap‑
parently in 1091, he retired to the 3. Csrthu‑ wild region of La Torre near Squilsisus in lace in Calabria, where he gathered Italy. about him a number of hermits and
formed a community like that at the Chartreuse. In 1097 Count Roger of Calabria gave him La Torre and Santo Stefano in Bosco, and
two years later presented him with San Jacobo de Mentauro, so that he was able to establish two large cloisters for his order. He was buried in Santo Stefano in 1101, but the monastery, which then contained thirty monks, soon passed into the hands of the Cistercians, nor was it until 1137 that the Carthusian cloisters even reached the number of four, all situated in Prance.
After the middle of the twelfth century the order steadily increased, and in 1170 the Carthusians were deemed worthy of the special protection of the pope and were officially recognized by Alexander III. In 1258 the monasteries of the order numbered fifty‑six, but in 1378 the Carthuaians were obliged to contend with a division corresponding
to the papal schism and lasting until 4. Growth the Council of Pisa. The entire body of the of Carthusians recognized Martin V. Order. as pope, and the two generals of the
order resigned in favor of John of Greiffenberg, the prior of the Carthusian monastery of Paris, who thus became sole general. In 1420 Martin V, granted the order exemption from tithes for all its estates, and in 1508 Julius II. issued a bull enacting that the prior of the mother house should always be the general of the order, and that the annual chapters should be held there. Five years later the Calabrian monastery of Santo Stefano, where the founder of the order was buried, was restored to the Carthuaians, and in 1514 Bruno was canonized. At the beginning of the eighteenth century the Carthusian monasteries numbered 170, of which seventy‑five were in France. The Revolution struck the order a heavy blow, but it survived and in 1819 the mother house near Grenoble was again occupied. In 1905, in consequence of the legislation enacted in France concerning religious orders, the Grande Chartreuse of Grenoble as well as the other Carthusian monasteries was again vacated, and most of the monks retired to Spain.
The Carthusian spirit may be learned from its rule. Until 1130 the order had no special regulations, but in that year Guigo de Castro, the fifth prior of Chartreuse, prepared the Consuetudines Cnrtusica. In 1258 the resolutions of the chapters from 1141 were collected by Bernard de la Tour and designated Statuta antiqua, while additional collections were made in 1387, 1509, and 1581. The chief aim of them all was the moat absolute detachment, not only from the world and all its
attractions and interests, but even g. Organi‑ from the brother monks of the order zation. and the monastery. The lay brothers,
who are divided into the three classes Qf conroerai, dbrtatt?,., and reddiEi, are sharply distinguished from the professed. Each monastery is strictly separated from the surrounding population and from all other orders, while every form of ecclesiastical and secular influence, whether active or passive, is carefully avoided. The faithful adherence of the Carthusians to their rule spared them the necessity of reform felt by many orders in the transition from the Middle Ages to modern times.
The Carthusians now control twenty‑six monasteries, and still retain their absolute retirement

Caaht	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	430
from the world. The order likewise includes Carthusian nuns, who are said to have existed as early as the twelfth century, although in the eighteenth pnly five nunneries were known, all dating from the thirteenth or fourteenth century. Over these convents Carthusian monks presided, who as vicars ranked above the prioresses and lived in separate houses with other professed and lay brothers. The nuns, who were first permitted to become professed by the Council of Trent in the sixteenth century, may eat together and converse more frequently than is allowed to the monks.
Although in scholarship the Carthusiana can not rival the Benedictines, Dominicans, or Jesuits, they are not without their men of fame. From the pre‑Reformation period mention may be made, in addition to the Guigo already noted, of such
authors of the fourteenth and fifteenth 6. Scholar‑ centuries as Ludolf of Saxony, Hen‑
	ahip.	drik of Coesfeld, Gerhard of Schiedam,
		and Henry of Kalkar, as well as of
Jacob of Jilterbogk and Dionysius of Rickel.
Noteworthy names of later date are the hagiog
raphers Lorenz Surius and H. Murer, and such
historians of the order as Petreeus, Le Vasseur, and
Le Couteulx. In recent times, moreover, the order
entered upon a revival of literary activity.
(O. ZBcza.Eat.) ,

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Heimbueher, Orden and Kongrepationen, i. 261‑283; Le Vaeeeur, Ephemerides ordinia Carthuaiensis, 2 vole., Montreuil, 1892 (a biography arranged by the oelendsr, goes only to July 31; the author died 1893); Helyot, Osdrsa nwrwatiquea, vii 388‑405; Magna Vita S. Huponie, ed. J. F. Dimoek for Rolls Series, no. 37, London, 1884; F. A. Lefebure, S. Bruno et 1'ordre dea Charlreux. 2 vole., Paris, 1883; idem, La Chartreuse de N2treDante‑dea‑Pru & Neuvidle, Neuville. 1890;'C. Iteichenlechner, Dar Karthauserorden in Deutschland, Wiirzburg, 1886; C. Is Couteula, Annals* ordinis Cartuaienaie, 10841¢88, 2 vole., Montrewl, 1887‑88; C. Boutrais, The Monastery of the Grande Chartreuse, London, 1893; Vie de S. Bruno, Montreuil, 1898; H. L5bbe1, Dar Stiffer des Karth8ueerordena . . . . Bruno aua Klllta, Monster, 1899; Carrier, Religious Orders, pp. 153‑181. On the Eng. Carthusians consult: W. H. Brown, Charterhouae, Past and Present; a Brief History, London, 1878; W. D. Pariah, List of Carthusian&, 1800‑1878, ib. 1880; T. Motley, Reminiscences of Towns, Villages, arid Schools, i. 378438, ib. 1885; D. L. Hendrike, London Charterhouae, Its Monks and Martyrs, ib. 1889.

	CARTWRIGHT, PETER: American Methodist;
b. in Amherst County, Va., Sept. 1, 1785; d. near
Pleasant Plains, Sangamon County, Ill., Sept. 25,
1872. His parents removed to Kentucky while
he was a child, and there he was °' converted " in
1801; he was licensed as an exhorter in 1802, and
spent eight years in the old Western conference,
four in the Kentucky, eight in the Tennessee, and
forty‑eight in the Illinois. He is said to have
received more than 10,000 members into the
Church, baptized more than 12,000 persona, and
preached more than 15,000 sermons. He was
known as the " ° backwoods preacher," and it
is	reported that when moral suasion proved in
effective with the rough characters with whom he
had to deal he was able and willing to quiet them
by physical force. He was once a member of the
Illinois legislature and was defeated for Congress
by Abraham Lincoln in 1846.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: He wrote several tracts, an I Autobiography, ad. W. P. Strickland, New York, 1866, and Fifty Years a Presiding Elder, ed. W. 8. Hooper, Cincinnati, 1872.
CARTWRIGHT, THOMAS.
Leader of the Puritan Party (§ 1). Controversial Writings (§ 2). Minister in Antwerp (§ 3). Again in England (f 4). Attitude Toward the Browaista (§ b).
Thomas Cartwright, English Puritan and Presbyterian, was born in Hertfordshire 1535; d. at Warwick Dec. 27, 1603. He was matriculated as a sitar of Claire Hall, Nov., 1547, and as a scholar at St. John's College, Cambridge, Nov. 5, 1550. Being a Protestant and refusing to return to the Roman Church, he was debarred from the university during Mary's reign (1553‑59). In 1560 he became a minor fellow of Trinity College, and on Apr. 6 of the same year a fellow of St. John's College; in Apr., 1562, a major fellow of Trinity College. In 1567 he took his bachelor's degree, and in 1569 was chosen Lady Margaret professor of divinity, and began to lecture
on the Acts of the Apostles. His r. Leader lectures were exceedingly popular, of the Puri‑ and made a profound impression in
	tan Party.	favor of his distinctively Puritan
		views, but created a storm of oppo
sition from the Prelatical party, headed by Dr.
Whitgift. This conflict, under these two great
champions, continued to grow more and more
severe, and was continued by their successors in
two great parties in the Church of England‑the
Presbyterian and the Prelatical. The Puritan
platform is well stated in the six propositions
which Cartwright delivered under his own hand
to the vice‑chancellor, the grounds of his persecu
tion by the Prelatists:
1. That the names and functions of archbishops and archdeacons ought to be abolished. 2. That the offices of the lawful ministers of the Church, viz., bishops and deacons, ought to be reduced to their apoatolical institution: bishops to preach the word of God, and pray, and deacons to be employed in taking care of the poor. 3. That the government of the Church ought hot to be entrusted to bishop's chancellors, or the officials of archdeacons; but every church ought to be governed by its own ministers and presbyters. 4. That ministers ought not to be at large, but every one should have the charge of a particular congregation. b. That no man ought to solicit, or to stand as a candidate for the ministry. 8. That ministers ought not to be created by the sole authority of the bishop, but to be openly and fairly chosen 'by the people.
	Having been deprived of his professorship Dec. 11,
1570, and of his fellowship at Trinity College in Sept,,
1571, Cartwright went to the Continent, and in
Geneva conferred with Beza and other chiefs of
the Reformed Churches. He was prevailed upon
		by his friends to return in Nov., 1572.
	s. Contro‑ An Admonition to Parliament for the
	versial Reformation of Church Discipline had
	Writings, been issued by his friends John Field
		and Thomas Wilcox, for which they
had been cast into prison. Cartwright espoused
their cause, and issued The Second Admonition,
with are Humble Petition to Both Houses of Parlia
ment for Relief Against Subscription, 1572. Whitgift
replied in An Artatoere to a Carfare Libell, Ir:titulrd
An Admonition to the Parliament, 1572. Cartwright

431	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cartht`
rejoined in A Replye to an Anazvere Made of M. Doctor Whitegifte Againste the Admonition to the Parliament, 1573. This was a renewal of the old discussion on a larger scale, going to the roots of difference; Cartwright and the Puritans contending that the church government and the discipline, se well as the doctrine, must be reformed according to the Scriptures. The discussion took a wide range‑as to the standard of church government, the choice of ministers, the offices of the Christian Church, clerical habits, bishops, archbishops, the authority of princes in matters ecclesiastical, confirmation, etc. Whitgift replied in A Defense of the Ecclesiasticall Regiment in Englande Defaced by T. C. in his Replie againste D. Whitgifte, 1574, and also TheDefenae of the Answers to the Admonition, against the Replye of T. C., 1574, pp. 812, folio.
An order for Cartwright's apprehension was issued Dec. 11, 1574; but he fled to the Continent, and became minister of the English congregation of merchants at Antwerp and Middelburg. In
1578 he went to the isles of Jersey and
g. Minister Guernsey, aided the Puritans there in Antwerp, in settling the discipline of their
		churches, later returning to Ant
werp, where he preached for several years. While
	abroad, he wrote the Second RePlie of Thomas
	Cartwright AgaynstMaisterDoctorTi'hitgiftes Second
	Answer Touching the Churche Discipline, 1575, and
	also The Rest of the Second Replie, 1577. He, in
	1574, prepared also a preface to the Latin work of
	William Travers, and translated it under the title
	A Full and Plains Declaration o f Ecctesiasticall
	Discipline owt o jf the Word o jj God aced off the
	Declininge o f j' the Churche off England from the
	Same, 1574, which still more embittered his foes.
	In 1583, at the solicitation of the Earl of Leicester,
	and Lord Treasurer Burleigh, and a large number
	of Puritan friends, he undertook to write a confu
	tation of the Rhemiah version of the Scriptures,
	which took him many years; but he was prevented
	by the ecclesiastical authorities of England from
	publishing his work. The year before his death,
	however, his Answers to the Preface of the Rhemiah
	Testament,. 1602, was issued; but the work itself,
	not until 1818, under the title A Confutation of
	the Rhemists Translation, Glosses, and Annotations
	on the New Testament, so farce as they contains
	Manifest Impieties, Heresies, Idolatries, etc., fol.,
	pp. lviii., 761, xviii., Leyden. In 1584 he was in
	vited to the divinity chair in St. Andrews, Scotland,
	but declined.
In 1585 Cartwright returned to England without the royal permission, and was apprehended by Bishop Aylmer of London and cast into prison, where he remained from April until June, when he was released through the influence of his power‑
ful friends, sad the Earl of Leicester
4. Again in appointed him master of a hospital England, which he had founded at Warwick.
His preaching was opposed by his enemies, but without success, until 1590. During this time he went over a great part of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. The latter was published in 1804 under the title Metaphraais et homilice in librum Solanwnia, qui inacribitur Ecclesiastes, 4to;
the former in 1817, Commentarii auccincti et delu
cidi in Proverbia Solomonis, 4to. He is said to
have been the first preacher in England who
practised extempore prayer before sermon, although
he usually employed forms of prayer. During this
period the ecclesiastical conflicts waxed hotter and
hotter. The Puritans had been making rapid prog
ress. The first presbytery was organized at Wanda
worth within the Church of England in 1572.
Classes were rapidly organized in all parts of Eng
land, but secretly. In 1583 a rough draft of a
book of discipline was drawn up by Thomas Cart
wright and Walter Travers, and at an assembly
held either at London or Cambridge it was re
solved to put it in practise. It was revised at a
national synod in London (1584), and referred to
Mr. Travers " to be corrected and ordered by
him." It was then passed around the various
classes. It was adopted and subscribed by an
assembly of all the classes of Warwickshire in
1588, and then by a provincial synod in Cam
bridge; and by 1590 the Directory had spread all
over England, and was subscribed to by as many
as 500 ministers. The episcopal party were greatly
alarmed, and determined to arrest Cartwright
with the other leaders and to destroy as large
a number of copies of the Holy Discipline as pos
sible. A few copies were, however, preserved,
two copies in manuscript, one in the British
Museum, another in Lambeth Palace, in Latin,
entitled Disciwlina ecclesiaa saga. These were
discussed and the Lambeth manuscript published
by F. Paget in his Introduction to the Fifth Book of
Hooker's Treatise, London, 1899, pp. 238 sqq. An
edition in English with slight modifications was
issued in 1644 by authority of the Long Parlia
ment, entitled A Directory of Church Government
anciently contended for, and as farce as the Times
mould suffer, practised by the fast Non‑Con f orm
ista in the Daies of Queen Elizabeth. Found in
the study of the most accomplished Divine, Mr.
Thomas Cartwright, after his decease; and re
served to be published for such a time as this.
	The discussion between the Presbyterians and
the Prelatista was complicatzd by the Browniet
party and the Marprelate tracts (q.v.), which
bitterly satirized the bishops. Cartwright took
		strong ground against the Brownists
g. Attitude and their doctrine of separation, and
Toward the opposed the Marprelate method of
	Brownists.	controversy; but it was the policy
		of the Prelatists to make the Puritans
bear all the odium of the weaker and more obnox
ious party. Manuscripts of Cartwright against the
Brownists are preserved and lately published (see
BROWNS ROBERT). In May, 1590, he was sum
moned before the High Commission, and com
mitted to the Fleet. He and his associates
Were confronted with thirty‑one articles of
charges, afterward increased to thirty‑four, be
sides articles of inquiry. He was willing to
reply to the charges, but refused to give testimony
against his brethren. He was then summoned
before the Star Chamber with Edmund Snipe
and others; but the case never reached an issue.
Powerful friends worked in his behalf, and

Cazus
casellus	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	432
he was finally released from prison in 1592, on the promise of quiet and peaceable behavior, in broken health. From 1595 to 1598 he lived on the island of Guernsey, and afterward at Warwick. To a bitter attack, he wrote A Brief ApoLogie of Thomas Cartwright against all such slaunderoua Accusations as it pleaseth Mr. Sutcliffe in his Severall pamphlets most injuriously to load him with, etc., 4to, pp. 28, 1596. In the main, the Presbyterian churches of Great Britain and America still stand by his principles.
Other works besides those mentioned in their historical connections were published after Cartwright's death by his disciples: A Catechism, 1611; A Treatise of the Christian Religion, 1611 (anonymous), 2d ed., 4to, 1616, edited by William Bradshaw; A Commentary on the Epistle to the Colossians, 1612; Harmonic Evangeliea, Amsterdam, 4to, 1627; Commentaria Practice in totem Historian Evange~lic~am, 1630, 3 vole., 4to. See also PURITANS, pr ViLiTANTIaM, § 7.
C. A. Babas.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. H. and T. Cooper, Albans Cantabrigien‑
aes, ii. 380‑388 London, 1881; B. Brook, Liven of the
Puritans, ii. 138 sqq., 3 vote., ib. 1813; idem, Memoir of the Life and Writings of Thomas Cartunipht ib 1846; F. L. Colvile, Worthies of Wartnickahira, pp. 92‑100, 878, ib. 1870; J. B. Multinger, History of the University of Cambridge, ib. 1888; DNB, ix. 228‑230.
CARDS, PAUL: Philosopher and student of comparative religion; b. at Ilaenburg (27 m. s.e. of Brunswick), Germany, July 18, 1852. He was educated at the universities of Tiibingen, Greifawald, and Strasburg (Ph.D., Tilbingen, 1876), and after teaching in two realgymnasia in Dresden and in the Royal Saxon Cadet Corps, he came to America in 1883, and since 1887 has been editor of The Open Court, Chicago, also editing The Monist, Chicago, since 1890. He has been secretary of the Religious Parliament Extension since its inception, and has shown an active interest‑in the knowledge and appreciation of ethnic religion by the West. He is also a member of the Leopoldina,, Germany, the Press Club, Chicago, the American Oriental Society, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. In theology he holds that religion is to be purified by scientific criticism and ultimately to be based upon the facts of experience. He has written, in addition to a large number of minor articles and contributions: Helgi. and Sigrun, sin episches Gedicht der nordischen Sage (Dresden, 1880); Metaphysik in Wissenschaft, Ethi.k and Religion (1881); Algenor, sine epischlyrische Dichtung (1882); Gediehte (1882); Lieder since Buddhisten (1382); Ursaehe, Grund and 7.weck (1883); Aus dem Exil (1884); Monism and Meliorism (New York, 1885); Fundamental Problems (Chicago, 1889); The Ethical Problem (1890); The Soul of Man (1891); Homilies of Science (1892); Primer of Philosophy (1893); The Religion of Science (1893); Truth in Fiction (1893); The Gospel of Buddha, According to Old Records (1894); De rerun nature, philosophisches Gedicht (1895); Religion of Enlightenment (1398); Buddhism and its Christian Critics (1897); Chinese Philosophy (1898); Kant and Spencer: A Study of the Fallacies of Agnosticism (1899); Sacred Tunes for the
Consecration of Life (1899); The Dawn of a New Era, and Other Essays On Religion (1899); Whence and Whither : An Inquiry into the Nature of the Soul, Its Origin and Its Destiny (1900); The History of the Devil and the Idea of Evil (I900); The Surd of Metaphysics (1903); Friedrich Schiller (1905); Magic Squares (1906); and The Rise of Man (1906). His works of fiction include: Karma : A Story o f Early Buddhism (Chicago, 1895); Nirvana: A Story of Buddhist Psychology (1897); The Chief's Daughter: A Legend of Niagara (1901); The Crown of Thorns : A Story of the Time of Christ (1901); and Amitabha (1906). He has also translated from Latin the Eros and Psyche of Apuleius (Chicago, 1900), and from German the Xenions of Goethe and Schiller (1896) and Kent's Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics (1902), while he has edited and transla~ed the Chinese texts of L&otae's Tao‑Teh‑King (Chicago, 1898), as well as the Kan Ying P'ien (1906) and the Yin Chih Wen (1906).

CARY, ALICE: Poet and hymn‑writer; b. on a farm 8 m. n. of Cincinnati Apr. 26, 1820; d. in New York Feb. 12, 1871. Her name is inseparably connected with that of her sister, Phoebe, b. Sept. 4, 1824; d. at Newport, R. L, July 31, 1871. Both began to write verses early and published jointly a volume of Poems in 1850. In 1850‑51 they removed to New York, where they supported themselves by literary work and gathered a wide circle of friends. Alice was the more productive writer and published stories and novels as well as poems. Ballads, Lyrics, and Hymns (Boston, 1865) is her moat important volume of verse. Phoebe published independently Poems and Parodies (1854) and Poems of Faith, Hope, and Love (1868); with Dr. Charles F. Deems she compiled Hymns for all Christians (1869). The poems of both sisters are collected in the " Household Edition " (Boston, 1882) and Early and Late Poems (1887). The most familiar of their hymns is Phoebe's " One sweetly solemn thought comes to me o'er and o'er."
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mary Clemmer Ames, Memorial of Alice and Phabe Cart', New York, 1872; S. W. Duffield, English Hymns, pp. 447‑449, ib. 1888; Julian, Hymnology,
p. 214.

CARY, GEORGE LOVELL: Unitarian; b. at Medway, Mass., May 10, 1830. He was educated at Harvard College (B.A., 1852), and was acting professor of Greek in Antioch College, Yellow Springs, O., in 1856‑57, being appointed full professor of Greek and Latin in the following year and serving in this capacity until 1862. In the latter year he was made professor of New Testament language and literature in Meadville Theological School, where he remained until 1902, when he became professor emeritus. He was also acting president of the institution in 1890‑91 and president in 1891‑1902. His theological position is, in general, that of modern Unitarianism. He has written: An Introduction to the Greek of the New Testament (Andover, Mass., 1878) and The Synoptic Gospels, Together with a Chapter on the TextCriticism of the New Testament (New York, 1900).

CARP, HENRY FRANCIS: Translator of Dante; b. at Gibraltar Dec. 6, 1772; d. in London Aug. 14, 1844. He studied at Christ Church, Oxford (M.A., 1796), took orders, and became vicar of Abbot's Bromley, Staffordshire. In 1800 he removed to Kingsbury, Warwickshire, and after 1807 lived in London. He was assistant keeper of printed books in the British Museum, 1826‑37. His translation of Dante was begun in May, 1800, and finished twelve years later; the Inferno was published in 1805 and the completed work in 1814. It attracted little attention at first, but was commended by Coleridge in his lectures in 1818, and Southey afterward pronounced it " one of the moat masterly productions in modern times." Four editions were issued during Cary's life, and it still remains the standard translation in English blank verse.
BInLIOORAPHY; Henry Cart', Memoir of Rep. H. F. Cart',
2 vole., London, 1847; DNB, ix‑ 242‑244.
CARYL, JOSEPH: English Independent clergyman; b. in London 1602; d. there Mar. 10, 1673. He studied at Exeter College, Oxford, and became preacher at Lincoln's Inn; was appointed minister of St. Magnus' Church near London Bridge, 1645; ejected by the Act of Uniformity, 1662, but gathered a new congregation and continued to preach in the same neighborhood. He was a member of the Westminster Assembly and one of the triers for the approbation of ministers in 1653. He is remembered for his Exposition with Practical Observations on the Book of Job (12 vole., 4to, London, 1664‑66; 2d ed., 2 vole., folio, 1676‑77; abridged ed. by Berrie, Edinburgh, 1836).
CASALI DEL DRAGO, ed‑sa'1? del drti'gb, GIOVANRI, j6‑van'ni, BAPTISTA, b3p‑tis'td: Cardinal; b. at Rome Jan. 30, 1838. He was educated at the Roman Seminary, and was ordained to the priesthood in 1860. Six years later he was appointed chamberlain by Pope Pius IX., and was then canon successively of the Lateran (1867‑71) and of St. Peter's (1871‑78). In 1878 he became domestic prelate, and in 1895 Leo XIII. created him titular Latin patriarch of Constantinople. He received the cardinal's hat in 1899, being created cardinal priest with the title of Santa Maria dells Victoria.
CASANAS Y PAGES, ed‑sa'ny6s i pd‑H5z', SALVATORE, atil"vd‑to'r6: Cardinal, b. at Barcelona,
Spain, Sept. 5, 1834. He was educated in his native city, and in 1879 was consecrated titular bishop of Keramus and seven months later be.
came bishop of Urgel. In 1901 he was translated to his present see of Barcelona, and in 1895 was created cardinal priest of Santi Quirico a Giulitta.
CASAS, BARTOLOME DE LAS. See LAS CA9AB.
	CASAUBOfi, ca‑s8'ben or, cd"ao"b8n', ISAAC:
Scholar; b. in Geneva Feb. 18, 1559; d. in London
July 12, 1814. His father was a poor Huguenot
preacher, who could give his son little education,
nevertheless he came to be considered the most
learned man in Europe after Joseph Scaliger. He
was professor of Greek at Geneva, 1582‑96, at
Montpellier, 1696‑99; in 1600 he went to Paris,
		IL‑28
RELIGIOUS
ENCYCLOPEDIA
Carte
CSsaellas
where he might have been professor in the university if he had embraced Roman Catholicism; this, however, he refused to do, although he offended the rigid Calvinists by denying their extreme positions. He was given a pension by Henry I`1. (1800), and in 1604 became sublibrarian of the royal library. In 1610 he went to England, where he was well received by King James and the Anglican bishops and was made prebendary of Canterbury and Westminster. His works belong for the moat part to the field of classical scholarship, but he edited a Greek New Testament (Geneva, 1587), and published some minor pamphlets of theological interest; his criticism of the Annalea of Baronies, begun at the request of King James, was left unfinished. His letters (in Latin), with life, were published by D'Ahneloveen (Rotterdam, 1709); his diary, Ephemerides, ed. Russell, was printed at Oxford, 1850.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mark Patwson, Isaac Caaaulron, London,
1875, 2d ed., by Nettleahip, 1892.
CASELIUS, ca‑s6'li‑us, JOHANNES, yo‑hdn'es: German scholar; b. at Gtittingen 1533; d. at Helmstadt Apr. 9, 1613. He belonged to the Dutch family of Chessel, which during the Reformation period had emigrated on account of its faith. His father, Matthias Bracht von Cheseel, found a refuge at Gtittingen and became a teacher there. Johannes studied at Wittenberg under Melanchthon and at Leipaic under Joachim Camerarius. Under their guidance he became one of the moat distinguished humanists of Germany; he was made a doctor of law at Pisa in 1566, and was ennobled in 1567 by the emperor Maximilian II. From 1563 to 1589 he labored at Rostock and then accepted a call to Helmstiidt. He enjoyed there the favor of his prince, Duke Henry Julius of Brunswick, and the fame of his learning made him a kind of European celebrity. But the orthodox theologians in the university, who opposed Melanchthonianism, soon attacked Caselius. The leader of the orthodox was Professor Daniel Hoffmann (q.v.), whe considered all use of reason and philosophy in theology as dangerous, because the revealed truth is injured thereby. In this and similar tendencies Caaelius saw the approach of a new bar'..ariwn, and he was not far wrong. He had the encouragement of a few bright pupils, including the young Georg Calixtus (q.v.), and comforting messages cattle to him from friends abroad. But unfortunately his material circumstances became more and more wretched, and for this reason his life ended in discord and darkness. In the barbarism which came over Germany with the Thirty Years' War his numerous writings, distinguished by spirited contents and elegant form,
were soon almost forgotten. As far as they are printed, they can only be found in larger libraries. They refer to Greek authors, ancient grammar, hermeneutics, and rhetoric, as well as to pedagogics and political science. Caselius was the first to separate political science from the Roman jurisprudence and raise it to a distinct discipline.

PAUL TOCHACSE$T.
Btartooawrar; For the letters consult: J. s Dranefeld,
Opus epistdicare 1. Casein, Frankfort, 1887; Comms‑

camparl
n,	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	434
cium literarum clarorum virorttm a muaeo R. A. Noltenii, Bremen, 1737. See Cwrramos. Consult: E. L. T. Henke, Calistue' Brie/uxchael, Have, 1833; idem, G. Calixtua and seine Zait, vol. i., Halls, 1858; ADB, iv. 40 eqq. F. Boldewey has projected a monograph on Caeeliua, for which be has access to the beat sources.
CASPARI, cas'pd‑A, CARL PAUL: Norwegian Lutheran; b. at Dessau Feb. 8, 1814; d. at Christiania Apr. 11, 1892. He was of Jewish parentage and was brought up in the faith of his fathers. From 1834 to 1838 he studied at Leipsic, where he acquired a knowledge of Arabic and Persian under Fleischer. Partly from the influence of fellow students, among whom was Franz Delitzech, he adopted Christianity and was baptized in 1838. His Jewish training naturally fitted him for work in Old Testament exegesis, and he spent two years at Berlin under Hengstenberg. In 1842 he became doctor of philosophy at Leipsic, and in 1847 he accepted a call to Christiania, where he remained from choice the rest of his life, declining calls to Rostock is 1850, to Dorpat in 1856, and to Erlangen in 1857 and again in 1867. His linguistic ability enabled him speedily to master the Norwegian language, so that he could begin lectures in less than a year. He was made full professor in 1857. In his university work Caspari interpreted various books of the Old and New Testaments and treated Old Testament introduction. His lectures were inspiring, thorough, earnest, and bore evidence of a living Christian faith. In his exegesis and apologetics he followed Hengetenberg, and he remained to the end an opponent of modern critical scholarship. But his work and interest were not confined to the Old Testament field. In 1825 a Danish preacher, Nicolai Frederik Severin Grundtvig (q.v.), propounded peculiar views, viz., that the baptismal formula, the renunciation, the Lord's Prayer, and the words of the Lord's Supper correctly from the Lord, have never been changed, and therefore stand above the Scriptures. The vie,~ found adherents in Denmark and Norway, and feat' was felt that the formal principle of the Lutheran Church was in danger. Caspari undertook s careful investigation of the questions connected with the baptismal formula, and its history and thus was led on to extensive ecclesiasticopatristio studies. He published a long series of articles and books as the result, moat of them in the Norwegian language. Under the auspices of the Norwegian Bible Society he assisted in making a new translation of the Old Testament, which was completed for the seventy‑fifth anniversary of the Society, May 26, 1891; at the time of his death he was working on the New Testament (see B1HLH VERSIONS, B, XV., 12). He was a member of the central committee of the Bible Society, president of the Norwegian mission among the Jews, and belonged to numerous learned and honorary societies.
His moat important publications were: A commentary on Obadiah (in Delitsech and Csepsri's Exepetiachea Handbuck au den Prophden den Alten Bundu Leipsie, 1842); Grnmmatiba Arabica (2 parts. Lei c. 1844‑48: 5th Germ. ed., by August Muller. Halle, 1887; Eng. ed., by W. Wright, London, 1859‑82, 1874‑78; by W. Robertson Smith and M. J. de Goeje, Cambridge, 1898‑98); Beitrdpe sur Einkitunp in daa Buck Jreaia and sur Gexhichta der jeaaianiacken Zeit (vol.
ii, of Delitaseh and Csapari's Bibliach‑tkeolopiache and apolopetiach‑kritiache Sludicn, Berlin, 1848); Ueber den ayriachsphraimitiachen Krieg unter Jotham and Ahaa (Christiania, 1849); Ueber Mirha den Moraatkiten and seine prophetiache Schrsft (2 parts, 1851‑52); Unpedruckte, unlxarhkte and wenip beachtete Quellen our Geachichte des Taufayfnbok and der Glaubenarepel (3 vole., 1886‑76); Zur Einfflhrunp sn daa Buck Daniel (Leipaic, 1869); Alfe and neus Quatlen cur Geackichk den Taufaymbok and der G7aubenaregel (Christiania, 1879); an edition of Martin of Bracara's De corrections ruaticarum (1883); KirdverJviatorieche Arucdota nebat neuen Auspaben pattroatiacher and kirchlidt‑mittelalterlicher Schrsften (1883); Eine Augustin fltlschd%rJt beipeZepte Homilia do aacrikpiis (1888); Brie, Abkandlunpsn and Predipten aua don steel ktaten Jahrhunderten den kirchl%chen Alterthuma and dem Anfanp den MiUeklters (1891); Dos Buck Hiob in Hseronymua'a 'Ueberaefzunp (Christiania, 1893). Der C1auLe an der TrinitGt Gotten in der K%reke den eraten chriatlirhen Jakrkunderte nachpeuriesen (Leipeie, 1894). In Norwegian he published a translation of the $oox of Concord (Christiania, 1861); an sassy upon the Wandering Jew (1862); a commentary on the first six chapters of Ieaiah (1867); a historical sassy on the confession of faith at baptism (1871); on Abraham's trial and Jacob's wrestling with God (1871); on Abraham's cell and meeting with Melchizedek (1872); s volume of Bible essays (1884); etc. With his friend G. C. Johnson (q.v.) he established in 1857 the Theolopisk Tidakrift for den sroanpeliekdutherske Kirke i Norge, of which a volume appeared annually till shortly before Csapari'e death. Moat of the articles were written by the editors, sad in this and other periodicals a large number of Ctepari's writings were originally published.
J. BELBHEIM.
CASPARI, WALTER: German theologian; b. at Sommerhaueen (a village of Lower Franconia) June 19, 1847. He was educated at the universities of Munich, Erlangen, and Leipaic from 1884 to 1868, after which he was pastor in Memmingen and Ansbach until 1885. In the last‑named year he was appointed associate professor of practical theology, pedagogics, and dogmatics, and university preacher at Erlangen, and became full professor two years later. In addition to contributions to the Hauck‑Herzog ICE and briefer studies, he has written: Ausgewr'thlte Lesestiicke der susliindischen Literatur (Munich, 1877); Die epistolischen Perikopert mach der Attarnahl von Dr. Thornasixta exegetiach‑homiletiaeh erkltlrt (Erlangen, 1883); Die evangelische Kort firmatiore (Leipeie, 1890); and Die geachichtliche Grundlage des gegefato6frtigert evdngeliachen Gemeiruielebena (1894).

CAS‑SANDER, GEORGIUS: Roman Catholic theologian; b. at Pitthem (lb m. a.e. of Bruges) Aug. 24, 1513; d. in Cologne Feb. 3, 1566. He lectured at Bruges and Ghent on antiquities, theology, and canon law, but retired to Cologne in 1549 and devoted himself to study. The Duke nf Cleves employed him in an effort to win back the Anabaptists in Duisburg, and still more important was the charge of the Emperor Ferdinand L, who endeavored to unite the Catholics and Protestants in his territories. Cassander had already published anonymously an irenic writing, De of/'tcio pii ac publicte trarlquillitatia mere amantie viri in hoc religionis disaidio (Basel, 1561), which elicited a sharp rejoinder from Calvin. Strict Roman Catholics also disliked the work, and it was placed on the Lisbon Index in 1581. At the emperor's request Cassander prepared a Ctmsuttatio de articulis inter Catholicos et Protestantea controveraia, which he presented to Maximilian II. in 1564, Ferdinand having died in the mean time (published at Lyons,

436	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	CC=. an,
1808; ed. H. Grotius, Amsterdam, 1642). To
bring about a union Caesander starts with the
" consensus " of the most ancient church, expressed
in the Apostles' Creed. Though the Holy Scrip
ture is to be authoritative, he wishes to maintain
the importance of tradition, especially of the great
Church Fathers (down to Gregory L); only a dif
ference which concerns the position to Christ
himself, not " opiniones " or " ritus," may become
a cause of division, but the bond of " caritas "
is by no means to be violated. In the doctrine of
original sin, the Lord's Supper, and justification,
he tries to mediate. He is even inclined to, give
the cup to the laity, and he will also admit of the
marriage of the clergy as a makeshift. In the other
controversial questions (worship of saints, monas
ticism, indulgericea, papal power) he tries to soften
the difficulties and do away with exaggerations.
A recantation before his death has been imputed to
him. It is hard to save him for the Roman
Catholics, however, and still less can he be
claimed by the Protestant side. Seckendorf is
correct when he says in the Commpntariua (Frank
fort and Leipsic, 1680, p. 347): " Georgius Cassan
der, a good theologian, to be sure not a Lutheran,
but a lover of truth." 	K. BENRe,TH.
BaLioassrar: The Opera appeared Paris, 1818. Consult F. H. 13.euach, Index der oarbotanen Backer, i. 381 eqq., Bonn, 1883.

	CASSEL, CONFERENCE OF: A religious col
loquy at Cassel, July 1‑9, 1661, between certain
Reformed theologians from the University of
Marburg and Lutheran theologians front the Uni
versity of Rinteln, arranged by Landgrave William
VI. of Hesse. The aim was to bring about agree
ment or at least mutual toleration. They suc
ceeded in finding some not unessential points, in the
doctrines of the Lord's Supper, predestination,
the person of Christ, and baptism, on which both
parties agreed. It was resolved, moreover, not
to revile one another in the future because of the
differences dill remaining, to free sermons from the
burden of confessional polemics, and in any case
no longer to attack an opponent personally. But
this peaceful agreement did not meet with a kind
reception in the rest of Germany. Frederick
William, the Great Elector of Brandenburg, was,
to be sure, an exception, and the Reformed party
in France and Holland were inclined to come half
way; but the Lutherans rejected the arrangement
absolutely. The union became the subject of
lively literary combats, and the final result was a
further intensification of confessional differences.
		CARL MIRBT.
BreLroossrar: E. L. T. Henke, Daa Unionskollnquium au Cased IBBI, Marburg, 1881; H. Heppe, Hirchsnpesclaiehte beider Hessen, vol. ii., ib. 1878; H. Landwehr, Die Rirclunpolilik Friedrich Wilhelms, Berlin, 1894.

CASSEL, PAULUS STEPHARUS (SELIG): German Protestant theologian; b. at Gross‑Glogau (55 m. n.w. of Breslau), Silesia, Feb. 27, 1821; d. at Friedenau, a suburb of Berlin, Dec. 23, 1892. He was of Jewish parentage, studied history at Berlin, and from 1850 to 1856 edited a newspaper at Erfurt. On May 28, 1855, he was baptized at
Biiesleben near Erfurt, and the next year became
librarian of the Royal Library at Erfurt. In 1859 he
settled at Berlin, where he acted as tutor and devo
ted himself to literary work. In 1866‑67 he was a
member of the Prussian Parliament, then he entered
the service of the London Jewish Missionary Society
and became its minister at the Christuskirche in
Berlin. In 1891 he resigned his position and died
shortly afterward. Cassel was a most prolific writer,
and his article on the history of the Jews from the
destruction of Jerusalem by Titus to the year 1847,
written while still a Jew for Ersch and Gruber's
Allgemeine Encyklopadie, sect. IL, vol. xxvii., pp.
1‑238, Leipsic, 1850, is still valuable. By public
lectures delivered in different cities of Germany,
he tried to influence the educated Jews in favor
of Christianity, and baptized many. He also
combated anti‑Semitism. Other works by him in
clude the commentaries on Judges and Ruth in
Lange's Commentary; also Weihnachten, Urspriinge,
Brdtuclle and Aberglauben (Berlin, 1862); Altkirch
licher FeaZlcatender nacla Urs;un7ngen urul Briiuchen
(1869); Vom Wege noch Damaskua (Goths, 1872);
Die Gerechtigkeit aus dem Glaubera (1874); Das
Buck Esther (Berlin, I878); and Die Symbolik des
Blutes (1882). 	(H. L. STRACK.)

CASSETTA, tale‑set'ta, FRANCESCO DI PAOLA: Italian cardinal; b. at Rome Aug. 12, 1841. He was educated at the Roman Seminary and was ordained to the priesthood in 1885. In 1884 he was consecrated titular bishop of Amiata and appointed canon of Santa Maria Maggiore, and three years later became titular archbishop of Nicomedia and grand almoner to Pope Leo XIII. As titular patriarch of Antioch he was nominated vicegerent of Rome, in which capacity he acted as the deputy of the cardinal vicar. He was created cardinal priest of Santi Vito, Modesto a Grescenzia in 1899, and is titular bishop of Sabina, perpetual abbot of Farfa, apostolic visitor of the Hospice of the Catechumens, commissioner for the apostolic visitation of the Italian dioceses, and a member of the Congregations of Bishops and Regulars, the Council, the Index, the Consistory, the Propaganda, the Propaganda for the Oriental Rite, and Indulgences.

	CASSIAft: A martyr whose death is described
by Prudentius in the ninth hymn of his Periatepha
non. The poet says that he saw the martyr's
grave at Forum Cornelii (Imola), with a picture of
him, and that the custodian related that Caesian
had been stabbed by his own pupils with their styli
and otherwise cruelly handled. Gregory of Tours
gives substantially the same account. The Mar
tyrologlum Hieronymianum names Aug. 11 as the
day of his death. The fact of his martyrdom at
Forum Cornelii need not be doubted, but the man
ner related by Prudentius is improbable, and it is
impossible to fix the date. 	(A. HAUCK.)

CASSIAftUS, cas"sf‑d'ntts, JOHANNES: Monk of the fifth century and the real founder of SemiPelagianism (q.v.); b. probably in Provence c. 360; d. at Marseilles c. 436. He received a thorough education, and then visited the East with an

Case><anns	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HEftZOG	438
Oasteuion
older friend named Germanus. At Bethlehem he
entered a cloister, but the desire to know the
famous Egyptian hermits led him and Germanus
to Egypt, where they remained seven years, after
which they revisited Bethlehem, but soon re
turned to Egypt. Thence Cassianus went to Con
atantinople, where he became the pupil of John
Chrysoatom, who ordained him deacon. The
exile of Chrysoatom in 403, however, obliged Cas
sianua and Germanus to take refuge with Innocent
I. When Cassianus was ordained priest and
returned home is unknown, and the fate of Ger
manua is equally uncertain. At Marseilles Cas
sianua founded two cloisters, one for monks and
the other for none, and seems to have died shortly
after completing his polemic against Nestorius.
	His earliest work, written before 426, was en
titled De irtstitutis cmnobiorum et de octo princi
palitcm vitiorum remediia libri datodecim, and was
imposed at the request of Castor, bishop of Apta
Julia, who wished to introduce the Oriental and
especially the Egyptian rules into the monastery
which he had founded. His second work was his
Collatzones viginti‑quattuor, completed before 429.
Both were widely spread t:u'ougliout the Occident;
Benedict of Nuraia commanded that they be read
to the monks in the refectory; Cassiodorua es
teemed them highly, although he warned his monks
against the heretical views of the author con
cerning the freedom of the will; and Gregory of
Tours mentions them as used, together with other
Oriental rules, in the monastery of St. Yririx.
A brief compend was made by the friend of Cas
eianus, Eucherius, bishop of Lyons, which served
as a source for the Concordia regu7arum of Benedict
of Aniane.
	The thirteenth collation of Cassianus is impor
tant in the controversy on Augustine's doctrine of
grace. Against his enemies, who were centered
in Marseilles, the latter addressed, shortly before
his death, his De prtedestinatione sareetlmum and
De dono perseverantice, his chief opponent being
Casaianus, who in this collation had enunciated
the doctrine called Semi‑Pelagianiam in the Middle
Ages, although it might more properly be termed
Semi‑Augustinianism, since Cassianus separated
himself .sharply from Pelagiua and branded him
as a heretic, while he felt himself in complete har
mony with Augustine. His Greek training, how
ever, rendered it impossible for him to accept
Augustine's doctrine of unconditional predestina
tion, particular grace, and the absolute denial of
the freedom of the will. Casaianus, on the other.
hand, recognized the necessity of divine grace
throughout the process of salvation, while postu
lating the existence of free will as a necessary
condition for the operation of grace, and asserting
that God never destroys the freedom of the will,
even in such an extraordinary case as the conver
sion of Paul. He regarded it as a religious axiom,
therefore, that salvation through Christ is not
restricted to a small number of the elect, but is
intended for all. This non‑Augustinian concept
of the process of salvation conditions Caseianue'a
view of original sin. He believed that the fall
of Adam had brought destruction on the whole
human race, although it still retained the power to seek goodness in virtue of its original state of immortality, wisdom, and complete freedom of the will. After the victory of a modified Auguetinianism at the Synod of Orange in 529, the doctrines of Cassianus were generally regarded as heterodox, although this did not injure his fame as a monastic author, and in southern Gaul he was officially honored as a saint. See SEMI‑PErealAhtlsiu.
In the latter part of his life Cassianus became involved in the Nestorian controversy, and at the request of the archdeacon Leo (later Pope Leo L) wrote his De incarnations Domini contra Nestori2cm lilrri septem, the date being subsequent to the letters written by Neatoriua to Pope Celeatine in 430. The work lacks the importance which it would otherwise possess as the only extensive contribution of an Occidental to the Nestorian controversy, through its restriction to personal attacks on the opponent of its author and a complete omission of positive and independent Chriatological statements. Cassianus sought. to prove that the divinity of Christ had existed from eternity and had never been renounced, so that Mary moat be called not merely the mother of Christ, as Nestoriua taught, but the mother of God. The work is especially valuable as showing the close sympathy of the interests and methods of Nestorianiam and Pelagianism, while Caeaianus, following the Gallic monk Leporius, who had renounced Pelagianism in 426, held that Christ possessed in a single person the two coexistent substances of God and man. (G. GRUTZMACHER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Opera, ed. A. Gaz>tus, were published
at Douai, 1818, reprinted in MPL, Aix., l.; beet ed. by M. Petachenig, in CSEL, 2 vole., 1888‑88. An Eng. tranal., with a well‑written Life, is contained in NPNF, 2d aeries, xi. 183 eqq. Consult: G. F. Wiggera, Prapmatiache Daratellung deb Aupuataniamua urui Pelagianiamue, ii. 7‑153, Berlin, 1833; A. Harnaek, Dogmengeachichte, iii. 154. Tilbingen, 1897, Eng. tranal., v. 248 eqq., 253 eqq., Boston, 1899; A. Hoch, Die Lehre deb J. Caasiana von Natur and Grade, Freiburg, 1895.
CASSIANUS, JULIUS. See Doc E~M; ENCRATITEB.
CASSIODORUS, cas"si‑o‑do'ras (CASSIODORIITS), MAGNUS AURELIUS: Roman historian, statesman, and monk; b. at Scylacium (the modern Squillace, on the gulf of the same name, 40 m. s.s.e. of Cosenza), Calabria, c. 480; d. in the monastery of Vivarium, near Scylacium, c. 570. Owing to the esteem in which his father was held by Theodoric, a public career was early open to him; and he pursued it until he had reached the highest dignities under the Ostrogothic monarchs. He stood in close personal relations with Theodoric, with whose efforts to bring about a fusion between the Germanic and Roman elements among his subjects he thoroughly sympathized. About b40 he retired from public life to the peace and quiet of the monastery founded by him on his own estates at Vivarium. Here he devoted himself to literary work, of which he had already made a beginning amidst his political activity, and pursued it zealously until his ninety‑third year. He insisted on the duty of intellectual labor for his monks, helped their studies by every means

437	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Oasaianns
		Qastellion
in his power, of which his own example was not
the least, and so contributed largely to the estab
lishment of the tradition which made the monas
teries, especially of the Benedictine order, the
homes of learning throughout the dark ages.
	His literary work, like his life, falls into two
periods. To the first belong a consular chronicle
written in 519; twelve books of Gothic history,
composed in the spirit of the policy of fusion already
referred to, known to us only in the recast version
of Jordanea, De origins actibusque Getarwm (the
work of Casaiodorus seems to have borne the same
title); panegyrics on the kings and queens of the
Goths, of which only dubious fragments remain;
a	collection (made about 538) of hescripts com
posed by him during his long and varied official
life, and formulas of appointment to a great va
riety of offices, in twelve books, under the title
Varice ; a small philosophical work, De anima,
written immediately after the completion of the
Varies, at the request of friends, whose questions
about the soul he answers, following Claudianus
Mamertus and Augustine. The last‑named work
forms a sort of transition to those of the second
period. The most important of these, composed
probably in 544, is the Institutiones divinarum et
scecularium litlerarum (or better ledionum). The
first book is devoted to spiritual learning, the
second to secular; and both together form the first
part of a complete course of instruction designed
by Cassiodorua for the Western clergy, and espe
cially for his own monks. The first book is only
an introduction to the study of theology, explaining
the most important preliminary knowledge re
quired and the literary helps at the student's com
mand for his further education; the second gives
brief compendiums of various branches of secular
learning. To this the last work of Cassiodorus,
De orthographies, forms a supplement. Another
voluminous theological work, begun before the
Institutiones but finished long after, was a full
explanation of the Psalms in their threefold aspect,
spiritual, historical, and symbolic. He wrote
other exegetical works, of which his Compleziones
in elOistolas et acts apostolorum et aloocalypsin is
still extant. Of much greater value to posterity is
his Hiatoria ecclesiastics triPartita in twelve books,
composed of extracts from the Greek historians
Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret, whose works
he had translated by Epiphanius.	It is in no sense
an original work, and is put together in a patchwork
fashion; but it filled up a great gap in the general
Western knowledge of church history, and, incom
plete as it is, was the principal handbook used in
the Middle Ages for its period.
		(A. HA77Cg.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Varies and Orationum reliquia,
	with introduction, are in MGH, AucG ant., si. 1‑385,
	459‑484; the Varia3 are also in MPL, Ixis. The
	Letters of Caaaiodorus, a Condensed Tranal, of the Varies,
	ed. T. Hodgkin, appeared London, 1888. Consult: A.
	Olleris, Coasiodore, conservateur des Livrea de 1'an6iquitk
	latine, Paris, 1841; R. Kbpke, Deutsche Porschungen.
	Die AntSnge des Kbniptuma, pp. 78‑B4, Berlin, 1859;
	A. Thorbecke, Caaaiodorua Senator, Heidelberg, 1887;
	A. Franc, M. Aurelius Caaaiodoriua Senator, Breslau, 1872;
	H. von Syhel, Entatahung des deutachen Ktinigtuma, pp.
184‑208, Frankfort, 1881; A. Ebert, Gearhirhte der Li‑
teratus des MitteiaZtara, i. 198, 498‑514. Leipeie, 1889. For further literature consult Potthaet, Wepweiser, p. 198.
	CASSOCK.	See VEBTMENTB AND INSIGNIA,
ECCLF$IABTICAL.
	CASTELL, EDMUND: English Orientalist; b. at
East Hatley (12 m. s.w. of Cambridge), Cambridge
shire, 1606; d. at Higham Gobion (10 m. s.s.e. of
Bedford), Bedfordshire, 1685. He studied at
Emmanuel and St. John's colleges, Cambridge
(B.A., 1625; M.A., 1628; B.D., 1635; D.D., 1661).
He assisted Walton on his Polyglot (1657), con
tributing the editions of the Samaritan, Syriac,
Arabic, and Ethiopic versions, and other (unac
knowledged) portions, and also spent freely of his
own fortune for the work. In 1669 he brought out
in two volumes, folio, at London, his Lexicon
Heptaglotton, Hebraicum, Chaldaicum, Syriacum,
Samaritanum, tEthiopicum, Arabicum, conjunctim ;
et Persictcm aeparatim, specially prepared to sup
plement the Polyglot. This work was the result of
eighteen years of the most unremitting labor,
coat the author £12,000, and left him ruined in
fortune and health. His work was enthusiastically
received on the Continent, but neglected in Eng
land. Late in life he received some favor from
the king, was appointed chaplain in ordinary m
1666, prebendary of Canterbury and professor
of Arabic at Cambridge 1667, and was successively
vicar of Hatfield Peverell, Essex; rector of Wode
ham Walter, Essex; and rector of Higham Gobion.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. b Wood, Athsnee Oxonienaea, ed. P. Bliss. iii. 883, 4 vole., London, 1813‑20; twenty‑three of his letters appear in J. Lightfoot, Whole Works, ed. J. R. Pitman, 13 vole., London, 1822‑25. Consult DNB, ix. 271‑272.
CASTELLIO(N), SEBASTIANLTS (SEBASTIEN CHATEILLON): French Reformer; b. at SaintMartin du Fresne (30 m. w. of Geneva) 1515; d. at Basel Dec. 29, 1563. He pursued his studies under difficult circumstances until he became tutor to three young noblemen. In 1540 he went to Strasburg, lived in Calvin's house, and accompanied him to Geneva, where on Calvin's recommendation he became rector of the high school. But disagreement soon arose between him and the great Reformer, Castellio holding views of his own concerning election and Christ's descent into hell, and regarding the Song of Solomon as an erotic poem which should be excluded from the canon. He left Geneva in 1544 and settled in Basel, where he lived in great poverty till 1552, when he was appointed professor of Greek literature. His first publication was Dialogi sacri (Geneva, 1543; Eng. transl., The History of the Bible, collected into 119 dialogues, London, 1715; again under the title, Youth's Scripture R,emembrancer,1743), much used as a school‑book. In 1551 he published in Basel his chief work, an elegant annotated Latin translation of the Bible, which he dedicated to Edward VI. of England (12th ed., Leipsic, 1778). The notes gave offense, as they betrayed skepticism as to the attainability of religious truth, and the dedication, a noble plea for religious toleration, was unacceptable to the age. In 1555 he published at Basel a complete French translation of the Bible,

Cantor
Oaawall	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	438
with a dedication to Henry II. of France. He was violently attacked by Calvin and Beza because of his criticism of their conduct in burning Servetus, but defended himself vigorously in his De hareticis (Basel, 1554); and in Contra libellum Caltwai, in quo ostendere conatur hcereticos jure gladii coerceredos ease. Calvin's influence suppressed the latter, and it was not published till 1612.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Buineon, B6b. Caetaltion, as vie et son oeuvre, 2 vole.. Paris. 1892 (i.. P. xvii. gives literature concerninghim; ii. 341 eqq. gives list of his writings); C. Jarrin, Deuz oubtifs; Sib. Caatelhon, Leonard Rack. Paris, 1895.

CASTLE, NICHOLAS: United Brethren; b. at Bristol, Ind., Oct. 4, 1837; entered the ministry, 1857; elected bishop, 1877; emeritus, 1905.

CASTOR, SAINT: According to legend, a companion of St. Maximin of Treves, who had an influential career as a missionary and ascetic on the lower Moselle. His relics are said to have been miraculously discovered under Bishop Weomad (d. 791). They were first placed at Carden on the Moselle; but in 836 a part of them was translated to Coblenz (of which city Castor has since been known as the patron) by Archbishop Hetti of Trevea, and preserved in the minater founded there
by him. 	(A. HAUCK.)
CASUISTRY: The name of a special form of discipline, or branch of ethics, constituting a somewhat elaborated scheme of doctrine concerning proper moral action in single and concrete instances. The evaluation of this kind of activity evolves itself generally as consequence of a lawful and rightful apprehension of the moral walk, whereby we accentuate external conduct according to definite prescriptive rules. Coordinately with a fundamental moral cede for this action, certain ethical norms with legal adjuncts were in practical operation so far back se the Jewish " scribes and Pharisees." Jesus came forward in sharpest contrast with this casuistical doctrine of morals. Teaching As he suffered his disciples to become of Jesus derivately participant of his integral and Paul. community with God, he kindled in them a love to God, which was to verify itself in love to men. To this love he brought back the conception of the Law fulfilled; and accordingly he teaches in the place of casuistry a direction of life spontaneously individual. Even where he appears himself to set up casuistical requirements (Matt. v. 21 eqq., vi. 1 aqq., xxii. 17 aqq.; Luke xiv. 3 sqq.) it is always expressly in order to lay emphasis upon the spiritual interpretation of the Law, over against legalizing constructiveness. These thoughts were but dialectically expanded through Paul's epistles, inasmuch as he teaches that faith in God's grace in Christ has its operation in the love which fulfils the requirements of God's will in agreement with the spirit of the Law. Yet he knew that even though faith and love be present, still the certainty is not immediately vouchsafed as to what is right in this or that particular instance (Rom. xii. 2; Phil. i. 9, 10). He, therefore,
dwells on a persistently proving examination of God's will, and gives corresponding instructions to his own congregations; which instructions now and then through their touching upon particular conditions have a certain casuistic stamp about them (cf. I Cor. vii. 8, 10); but, in distinction from every form of casuistic legalism by means of morally postulated direction, they seek to develop the proper moral consciousness of the congregations themselves.
But even early in the postapoatolic age, the tendency set in, coordinately with a one‑aided intellectualizing conception of the faith, to regulate by outward legalism the moral life as thus robbed of its religious mainspring; and the same tendency involved the casuistical treatment of ethics. Still further was this dispbaition fostered in Western theology through the influence of Stoicism, and in. part through the legalizing development of ecclesiastical doctrine. It shows itself even in Augustine, despite his obliteration of ethics, and continued to be characteristic of the entire Western Catholic ethical system. What ministered still more widely to the development of casuistry was the very early and momentously elaborated ecclesiastical institution of Devol‑ penance, with the infliction of eccle‑
opment of siastical penalties for individual sine.
	Casuistry.	The appertaining customary rules of
		the ancient forma of procedure and
the relevantly codified decrees of separate synods
were brought together, supplemented, and arranged
by the compilers. There thus arose the definite
manuals on penance for the use of confessors;
among which the beat known were those attributed
to Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury (d. 690)
sad the Venerable Bede (d. 735). A still greater
amplification of casuistry was promoted by the
entire method of the scholastic ethics, with its
subtle disputations; by the influence of the canon
ical repetition; and by the universally obligatory
institution of auricular confession (1215). Under
such influences there arose a distinctive system
atic discipline, which in contradistinction to the
philosophic and legal came to be designated as
theological casuistry. The scholars who cultivated
the same constituted, under the name of casuists
or achemiats, both in the Middle Ages and at
Roman Catholic universities much later still, a
special class of teachers, notably so as against the
canoniata. The writings which embodied this dis
cipline were the so‑called " summw of cases of
conscience " (summce ca8uum conscientim). Of
these the moat ancient was compiled in the thir
teenth century by Raymond of Peflaforte (printed
at Lyons, 1719). There then followed a good many
such writings while scholasticism was approaching
the term of its decay through the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries. The most renowned of these
aummce, which are usually designated in brief by
the author's name or birthplace, are the following:
the Asteeana (printed 1468, and often); Pisanelld
(written 1338; printed, Paris, 1470); Pacifica
(written c. 1470; printed, Venice, 1576); Rosella ;
Angelica ; and lastly the one usually known as
summa attmmarum ; properly the compilation

439	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
merely of Sylvester Prielias, which dates from the beginning of the Reformation period.
As the Reformers revived the Pauline idea of a free motive power in faith, casuistry proper was fundamentally set aside, and they even occasionally declared themselves expressly opposed to it (Calvin, " Institutes," IV. a. 1 eqq.; Luther, Reaod. i. concl. Ecc., ii.). Existing conditions nevertheless gave rise to a certain evangelical counterpart to the Roman Catholic casuistry. The Reformatory movement introduced a multitude of new problems in morality. So in difficult contingencies people frequently appealed for enlightenment to the Reformers and other persons of esteem, or in turn to the theological faculties In this way the collected letters of Luther and Calvin,
Casuistry se well as Melanchthon's counsels
in Protes‑ (Berathachlagurtyen, etc., issued by tantism Petzel, 1601), have furnished copious illustrations at large in the matter of evangelical resolutions of conscience. The systematic collections of faculty decisions (Thesaurus consiliorum, etc., by Dedekena; Gerhard's In richtigerer Ordnung, 1878) even early denote the transition to a distinctive evangelical casuistry. The more legalising spirit of the post‑Reformation era became thus practically effective. Even here, however, the various particular moral transactions were not viewed, in their development, as in the Roman Catholic casuistry, but as fruits of faith, of knowledge in part, and of the life according to the spirit of Christ. The Reformed theology took precedence in the elaboration of casuistry. The first treatise of this kind is that of the Cambridge professor William Perkins (d. 1802; see P>snsixa, WtLrlwx), A Case of Conscience (originally in English; Latin by Meyer, 1803), of a strict Puritan tone. A similar book of kindred thought was written by his pupil the Scotchman William Amen (De con8cien~, Amsterdam, 1830). Somewhat prior to this, the German theologian Alatedt had published a work on casuistry (Theologia casuurtt, Hanover, 1821). But although he represented casuistry as a singularly important science, there were in the Reformed Church only a few English theologians that still espoused casuistry. The first Lutheran work on casuistry grew out of lectures delivered by Professor Baldwin at Wittenberg in opposition to the Roman Catholic casuistry, and with the design of systematically getting forth the import of the faculty's opinions. His manuscript was published after his death by the Wittenberg Theological Faculty (Tractat7ta de casibua conacierttio;, Frankfort, 18b9). Of the remaining Lutheran writings of this nature; there should still be noted the works of Dannhauer (1879), Bechmann (1692), and Johannes Oleariua (1899). Pietism, although Spener's views on moral questions (Theologiaehe Bede>sacer:, 1700; Law theologiache Betlertken, 1711) have a casuistical tone, still contributed not a little to the shelving of casuistry, in that it deepened the understanding with reference to the interdependency of the Christian's total transactions with his religious‑moral basic intuitions. After Buddeus in his moral theology had shown casuistry to be superfluous, only isolated
works on the subject appeared in the Lutheran Church.
In the Roman Catholic Church, on‑the contrary, the ethics of the Jesuits came to be out and out casuistical. And even apart from them, in that quarter, casuistry was cultivated (of. P. Lambertini, Caaua cortacientice, Augsburg, 1783; S. Sobieoh, Cotnpettdium fheologia3 »aoralis, Breslau, 1822).
F. SI>Q1H'D"EAT.
Batsoassra:: F. D. Maurice, The Conscience. Lecturer on Casuistry, London, 1872; B. F. 8taudlin, t3eschichte der ebittlRtAan Moral, GSttingen, 1808; W. M. L. de Wette, ChrisiiicJla Hittenlehre, vol. ii., gait 2, Berlin, 1821; f3. Pike and 8. Hayward, Religious Cases of Conscience, new ad., Philadelphia, 1869; C. Beard, Port Royal, DP. 282‑291, London, 1881; J. Cook, The Conscience, Boston, 1879; W. Goes, (3eeeAielWe der ehriatLiehen Ethik, i., ii., parts 1‑2, Berlin, 1881‑87; W. T. Davison, The Christian Conscience, a Contribution W Ethics, London 1888; C. E. Luthsrdt, Oaarhichde der eJtrietlirAen Efhik, 2 vole., Leipaio, 1888‑93. Many of the treatises on ethics deal with the subject of casuistry.
CASU3 RESERVATI ("Reserved Cases "): In the Roman Catholic Church, tases in which absolution can be given only by a priest specially authorised. The practise of such reservation is defended on the ground that Christ granted the power of absolution only to the apostles and their successors (John xz. 21‑23), and that the pope and bishops have thus the right to reserve to themselves as much of this power as in their judgment the good of the Church requires. This view is formally sanctioned by the Council of Trent (Sees. XIV., cap. vii., do posrtitestia, 11). The cases in question are " certain graver cases of offense," " certain more atrocious and graver offenses "‑grave external sins, definitely completed and specifically determined by the legislator, i.e., by the pope or bishop. The details were gradually fixed in practise. Ordinarily speaking, the popes reserved to themselves only sins for which excommunication was the penalty, from which only the apostolic see could release the culprit, though there are some to which this did not apply. The principal instances are these named in the bull in cwta Domisti (q.v.). Where, in these gases, the sin is not matter of public knowledge, the bishops are allowed to absolve (in person or by deputy) i» foro conaciertawa3 ; and other cases reserved to the pope are placed in their jurisdiction by their quinquennial faculties (see FwovLTlas). The constitution Apoatolicte aedis of Picas IX. (1889) gives precise details on the different classes of reserved cases at the present day. The cases reserved to the bishops vary according to the locality; in general, they include a number of the graver sine, certain forms of unchaetity, homicide, breach of the seal of confession by priests, etc. Bishops commonly depute their powers over a number of these cases to subordinates, either permanently or for special seasons. In all kinds of reserved cases, however, a penitent may be absolved by any priest in case of urgent necessity, such as approaching death. (E. FRI76aBER(i.)
BtswooawrHT: M. Hsuemsnn, (learhichte der papsUiehen ReseroaE/dlfe, New York, 1888; H. C. Lea, History o/ Auricular Confession and Indulgences in So Latin Church. i. 812 eqq., Philadelphia, 1898.
CASWALL, EDWARD: Hymn writer; b. at Yateley (3b m. w.s.w. of London), Hampshire, July

Catacombs
Cateohede	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	440
15, 1814; d. at the Oratory, Edgbaston, near Birmingham, Jan. 2, 1878. He studied at Braeenose College, Oxford (B.A.,183(i; M.A., 1838); was curate of Stratford‑eubCastle, near Salisbury, 1840‑47; in 1850 he joined the Oratory of St. Philip Neri under Newman, to whose influence his conversion to Roman Catholicism was due. He wrote original poems, but is beat known for his translations from the Roman breviary and other Latin sources, which are marked by faithfulness to the original and purity of rhythm. They were published in Lyra Catholics, containing all !he breviary and missal hymns (London, 1849); The Masque of Mary (1858); and A May Pageant (1885). Hymns sued Prose (1873) is the three books combined with many of the hymns rewritten or revised.

CATAC011®S. See Cslsa, L; IL, 3; 111., 1.

CATAFALQUE; A structure erected to represent a corpse lying in state, decorated with emblems of mourning (also called ttsmba, m doloris). The custom of erecting such structures arose is the Catholic Church when the corpse of the deceased was no longer brought into the church, where, according to the Roman rite, the office of the dead, the requiem‑mass, and the Libera were to be sung, before the interment. The object of the catafalque was to keep the older custom in mind, and to add greater solemnity to the service The bier is covered with black hangings, and surrounded with lights. The officiating priest sprinkles it with holy water, as a symbol of the purifying blood of Christ and the water of eternal life, and then ceases it as s token of honor to the body of the deceased, which has been the temple of the Holy Ghost, and as a symbol of the prayers for the departed soul which are to go up as a sweet savor before the Lord.

CA TAL'DUS: According to legend, a native of Ireland and bishop there of a place called Rachan, otherwise unknown. He is said to have made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and to have been directed in a vision to preach the Gospel to the heathen at Tarentum. With signs and wonders he performed his mission, became bishop of Tarentum or even archbishop, and converted the entire region before his death. The historical fact which underlies the legend is probably that a pious Irishman named Cataldua or Cathaldus ( = Cathal or Cathald, a real Irish mane) preached in Lower Italy. His time can not be earlier than the sixth or seventh century. The veneration of Cataldua begins in the early Middle Ages. His relics were discovered in 1071, and many churches are dedicated to him in Lower Italy, and also in France, where he is honored as St. Carthauld or St. Cataa. He is commemorated on Mar. 8, May 8, and May 10, the last being the day of his death according to the Martyrologium Romantsm.
(O. ZBcxrrat.)
r.•.IIILIOOHAP$T: ~'.SB, May, ii. 688‑‑b77; J. Colgan, Ada eanetorum rosterie et ma7asr $mka vivo Hibernia, pp. 544‑682. Louvain 184b‑ Lanigan. Earl. gist.. iii. 1211::8: J. Healy. 1nauJo $awefora,a, PP. 467‑486, Dublin, 1890.
CATECHESIS, CATECHETICS.
Origin and Signification of the Terms (§ 1).
Divergent Views of the Object of Csteaheeie (§ 2).
True Aim of Cateoheeie (§ 3).
Methods of Osteahesie (§ 4).
Practical Application of Catenhesie (§ b).
Relation of Cateoheeie to Confirmation 0 6).
	The education which the Christian, Church im
parts to its immature members through its chosen
servants, and the theory of this education, is called
catecheais. The Greek word kal,echein means
literacy " to sound downward." Hippocrates, con
necting it with the accusative of the person, sig
nified by it the oral instruction which the physician
imparts to .the layman concerning the nature and
treatment of disease. Lucian applied the word
in a similar sense to the relation of the dramatic
poet to his audience. Thus it gradually came to
denote the making of an oral communication to
another (Acts axi. 21, 24), or the instruction of
		another. It is used in the sense of
:. Origin religious instruction in Luke i. 4; and Signifl‑ Acts xviii. 25; Rom. ii. 18; I Cor.
ration of xW _..19; Gal. vi. 8, In ecclesiastical
	the Terms,	usage it signified preparation of
		adults for baptism (see CAxacau
lr=ATz). Here instruction was the principal,
but not the only factor; heart, .will, and conduct
were to be . influenced. The word catecher:is,
therefore, properly covers the‑ whole training given
by the.‑Church. to its children. It is distinguished
from Christian pedagogics in that it furnishes
only. an elementary knowledge, of Christian truth,
while pedagogics leads, to a detailed and scientific
knowledge.
In the ancient Church ecclesiastical education began as soon as a heathen announced his willingneea to be received into the Church. He was then accepted among the catechumens and bore the name of Christian. Nowadays Christian education is concerned no longer primarily with the heathen, but with the children of Christians. They are baptized .in infancy, on condition that their parents.promiee to give there & Christian education. Moreover, the baptised, when they come to years of discretion, moat evince &.desire for .the bleesinga of the Church, and give promise of Christian conduct.
It is more difficult to define the aim of ecclesiastical education. This can not be intelleot'ual only; for catechesis is to lead to Christian feeling, to a Christian formation of will. and conduct. Nor is it merely to ingtrlgate, obgriience to the ‑teachinV_..&nd.. w99m!n~ft,9ate of the Church; for catecheeis is intended to lead to personal conviction. Others have considered qualification for the Lord's Supper as its aim, but‑ this definition begs the question; for who is really qualified
Diver‑ for the Lord's Supper? Others regard
gent Views living faiths the aimof Christian edu‑
of the ration; but children of Christian par‑
Object of eats can not be regarded as unbelievers.
Catechesis. They come from Christian surroundings and pQeaees already a certain unooneoiow_faith in (leod.and the Savior; ecclesiastical education is rather to confirm this implicit faith and develop it into Christian conviction and oonduet.

441
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Thus faith is the presupposition of ecclesiastical
education, but not its aim. As to what thin really
is, Scripture does not give a definite answer; the
distinction, however, between immature and mature
Christians (I Cor. iii. 1; Eph. iv. 13; Heb. v. 12)
	brings nearer to a solution of the problem. There
is a childlike faith in the Lord which is still ignorant
and without a firm hold, and. there is a faith of the
adult who has attained a convinced knowledge of
	Christian. truth and a certain perfection in Christian
conduct. Whoever of his own will and upon the
basis of his faith seeks communion with Christ
in the means of grace and in prayer is mature,
and ecclesiastical education exists for the purpose
of attaining that maturity. It is evident that no
			definite age can be laid down for such
	3. True Aim an attainment, because faith and
		of	Christian conduct are based upon
	Catechesis. moral freedom. Maturity depends
			altogether upon the individual, and
can not be armed of any one because the heart
can not be read. On that account every person
must be considered mature who possesses a suf
ficient ,knowled_ge _ of _ .Christian truth and who
prQigi. to lead a ~kut'etian life. Maturity is, there
fore, more than a qualification for the reception of
the Lord's Supper; a child of ten years may„ have
the faith and knowledge necessary for receiving
the sacrament is a. becoming manner, but he, is,.not
mature. Ecclesiastical .education ..must be con
_tnutlcd after the first communion. This further
growth may be gradually attained by the contin
uation of Christian fellowship in the family and
in the Church; but since this, under the conditions
of modern life, is not always applicable, theologians
usually lay down the necessity of special institu
tions whose educational work shall continue until
the attainment of maturity.
Instruction is the principal although not the only means of education. Religious instruction is first and foremost instruction of the heart, intended to lead to a_ knowledge of God. But this knowledge is based upon inner experiences, and these experiences again have their foundation in observation. God has revealed himself in nature, but more completely in the spiritual life. This, as manifested in Christ, is the perfect revelation of God; and as the record of this life is found in Holy Scripture, the $&Ig„is the principal book,of instruction. Owing to the wealth of material contained therein, it has been considered advisable to condense_ sad select cert~' ...stories specially adapted for the young
	without paying particular attention to
	4. Methods their connection as a whole. From
of	this book of stories the pupil is grad
	Catechesis. ually led to the Bible itself. He is to
	memorize certain passages and read
	different. portions of it in order to penetrate its
	spirit and attain practise in its nee. ' The Gospels,
	some hietorical sections of the Old Testament, and
the P_ are _ko‑=T~ for this purpose.
Another source of material for religious inetmction
is found in the Church hymns, which awaken relig
ious sentiment and' enable the pupil to participate
intelligently in public worship. After the pupil has
acquired a number of religious truths from the
selections or from the Bible itself, it is possible to
present these truths in their most concise form and
in their connection. This is necessary in order
to give the pupil a clear survey of the Christian
truths and to strengthen his conviction. Such an
epitome is given in the catechism. The part of
it longest in use is the Apostles' Creed; next fol
lowed the Lord's Prayer, and in 'the Middle Ages
the decalogue was added as a basis of instruction,
to give a proper understanding of sin. These three
articles form the main portions of the Evangelical
catechism; from the law the pupil learns the _great
nesa of his sin, in the creed he..profeeses his faatli
is the means of salvation from it, and in the Lord's
Prayer he,expresses his longing for Christian con
duct as a disciple of Christ. Since the immediate
aim of religious instruction is, participation in the
Lord's Supper, the doctrine of the sacrament forms
the fourth division of, the‑Ca techiem. This is the
order of the Reformation catechisms; and though
objections have been made to it, they may be
shown to be unfounded.
	As the catechist has not only to communicate
knowledge, but to~move the'7iearand . wfll, the
instruction must be oral .aud_nersollal. N9 ‑book
ought , to, be used in religious instruction, except
the Bible at the tune fixed for reading it. Biblical
stories, hy~mn_l>oolis, and cate_e)us_am9nly aids
W, .12e‑	. at . home. As children like to hear
stories, the teacher should begin his instruction
with telling them. Verses of h„ypAnp ,‑ texts and
suewers from the catechism are to be u_sgd mainly
in illustration ofthe Biblical story. As the child's
attention is attracted only a short time by the talk
of the teacher, his interest has to be retained by
asking him,.qneitione. There is a distinction made
between analytical and ‑eynt~ti~l„ instruction.
In anal~icul instrqption the material is_ ready at
hand, as in the Biblical story, in Scripture‑reading,
and‑hymns, and the religious truth is developed
from it. In ayathqtical instruction only the theme
k4"e	as in the catechism and Bible texts, and
the material has to be ,gathered.,elsewhere.
	Owing to the amount of material, religious in
struction must be spread over‑‑several. years. In
the German system it covers eight, during the first
four of which the Bible ,teary forma the basis of in
struction. In the fifth year. hyudns are treated in
connection with the church year, and Bible‑readine
and instructi~n, in.thc_catechisn_arn,begun. The
pupils receive practise in the nee of the Bible, and
some portions of the historical books are read
in connection with the Biblical stories. The deca
logue, the creed, and the Lord's Prayer are briefly
explained and thus stamped upon the memory.
The last two years‑place Bible‑reading and the
catechism _n_ .the found. The instruction
should be imparted by both pastor and teacher.
It is advisable that the	r should instruct the
pupils at..least...beo .gear; he should confine him
self mainly to the catechism in connection with
Bible‑reading, and 1_we_.the Biblical stories and
hl~s_tg_ the. tesoher. On any arrangement it is
essential that pastor and teacher should work in
harmony, each with an eye to the special instruction
imparts by the other.

Cateohssix
Catechisms	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG 	442
	Ae religious education addresses itself to the
	heart as well se tQ, the mind, the cultivation of the
	former is not lees the duty of the catechist. Com‑,
	n1ci1 devotionAl a rare held, consisting of the
	singing of hymna,.,reading of.Scripture, and an ex
	tempore prayer by the teacher. Moreover, cheery
	ante of Sunday and regular attend
	s. Practical ante on the Church services should
	Application be required of the children. AB the
of	sermons at those services can not be
	Catecheeis. sufficiently grasped by younger chil
	dren, sere iS1Ae_r_vicxs are to_be_arrangd
Aq_ _ _&e for them. With the religious practise moral practise must go hand in hand. Order, diligence, modesty, obedience, truth, and other virtues moat be inculcated.
While the pupil must be, taught obedience and i gspect, the teacher_ehould not be immoderate and unjust in his demands_or ir
‑wible. If he shows the least partiality or injustice, he weakens his authority. Reproof should come before .putliahment, and should be made to suffice as long as possible, so‑that the teacher shall not come too soon _to the end of his resources. Older scholars should be won by private exhortation where neceanary, and led to self‑examination and self‑judgment, so that they may find the path of goodness for themselves.
Christianity as a spiritual religion demands a definite religious conviction and moral sentiment. The Christian Church, therefore, receives as memvera only those who make their confession of faith and promise Christian conduct. In the early Church s profession of faith and a vow were made before baptism, and the first communion followed after it. When infant baptism became general, the need was felt of bringing in this profession and vow later as a preliminary to the first communion. in this way originated the rite of confirmation (q.v.) in the Protestant churches. Confirmation AS not a declaration of maturity. The faith of a child may be of ouch a kind a$ to
	6. Relation admit him or her to the Lord's Sup
of 	per, but not yet to a life that may
Catecheais dispense with all further religious
to Confir‑ sad. The prefeeeion sad‑.thsr.._.v,9w
	oration.	moat be spontaneous, they must pro
		ceed from the candidate's own moral
decision; therefore, the child should not be forced to
confirmation at a fixed, age. The qustQig_Qf_con‑
	CATECHISMS.
	Rationalistic Catechisms of the
	Eighteenth Century (§ b).
Modern German Lutheran Cate‑
	m(iuenoe of Confession (§ 2).		chiems (§ 8).
	Pre‑Reformation Catechisms (§3).	Modern German Reformed Cate
A1 The Poet‑Reformation Period.		chisme (§ 7).
	Early Lutheran Catechisms (§ 1).	Switzerland (§ 8).
	Gradual Supremacy of Luther's	Austria‑Hungary (§ 9).
		Smaller Catechism (§ 2).	Slavic Countries (§ 10).
	Early CateebiemsBaeedonLuther's	Scandinavian Countries (§ 11).
		Work (§ 3).	Holland (§ 12).
	Orthodox and Pietistic Catechisms	England (§ 13).
		(§ 4).	France (§ 14).
Catechisms are written or printed summaries
1. The Middle Ages.
Need of Catechetical Instruction (§ 1).
firming children as a matter of course at the age of
fourteen has led to insincerity and hypocrisy, and
it is the duty of the Church to check it as much
as possible, which can to a certain extent be
accomplished by eruplaaaizing the‑gwwly . voluntary
character of the act._ and by having an intervening
time between the examination in religious knowl
edge and the profession of faith.
	If the confirmed are still immature in the religious
sense, _ their education must be continued. The
influence of the Christian home and of church
fellowship are hardly sufficient for this. Our an
cestors in both the Lutheran and the Reformed
churches demanded that the children should con
tinue to participate, even after their first commu
nion, in, the re __. lar catechetical instruction of the
Church until .t_h_eir _,eighteenth ,year_or‑ until their
m~. These customs have disappeared in
the last century because confirmed children have
been considered mature, but this is a grave mistake,
in view of the diminution of wholesome family
influence and the observance of Sunday, and the
reform of these conditions is au urgent necessity
of our modern Church. 	(E. SACH66E.)
The preceding article is written from the standpoint of a subject of Germany, where Church and State are united and religious instruction is consequently a part of the curriculum of the schools. A treatment of catechetice from a more general point of view is given by implication in Catechisms (q.v.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The bibliographies under CATECHIBMa and CATP.CHITMENATE should he consulted; C. I. N1tE8Ch, Praktiachc Theolopis, ii. 133‑23b Bona, 1880; C Palmer, Evanpsliaehe KatarJutik, Stuttgart, 1875; R. Ktibel, Katoe)utile, Barmen, 1877; J. G. Wenham, The Catechumen, London, 1881; E. Daniel, How to Teach the Church Catodviem, ib. 1882; T. Harnaok, Kateehetik, Erlangen, 1882; $. J. Hulme, Principles of the Catechism of the Church of England, Sow‑on‑the.Wold, 1882; N, Ham, Wie soR der Religionelehrer offentlich katechiaierent Regensburg, 1885; E. Bather, Hints on the Art of Catechising, London, 1888; K. Buehrueker, (7rundlinian des kirrAlieAen Katechismus, Berlin, 1889; J. E. Denison, Catechising on the Catechism, London, 1889; F. A. P. Dupanloup, The Ministry of Catechising, ib. 1891; P. Schaff, Theological Propadeutic, part ii., pp. b00‑b04, New York 1893; K. Schultze, Eroangelisehe VoiJceschulkunde, Goths, 1893; G. R. Crooks and J. F. Hurst, Theological Encydopadia, pp. b14‑b28, New York, 1894; E. Sachese, Die Lehn con der kirchlichen Erziehunp, Berlin, 1897; E. C. Aohelis PrakEiachs Theolopix, ii. 1‑178, Leipeic, 1898; J. Ltitkemann, Anieitunp sur Kateehismuslehrs, Hermanoeburg, 1898; R. Stands, Dar Katechiemusuntsrricht, Pr3parationen, 3 voL., Dresden, 1900‑01.
Italy (§ 15).
American Lutheran Catechisms (§ IfS).
The Moraviane and Bohemian Brethren (§ 17).
Methodist Catechisms (§ 18).
Baptist and Irvingite Catechisms (§ 19).
Unitarian Catechisms (§ ZO).
Roman Catholic and Old Catholic Catechisms (§ 21).
The Greek Church (§ 22).
young. These formal aids to systematic instruction
of the principal doctrines of the Christian faith, in‑ ~ are of comparatively modern growth. For the systended for the instruction of the unlearned and the tam of the primitive Church, Bee CATE(;HtTM1CNATE.

448	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cateohesis
Cat~eohisms
	I. The Middle Ages: The beginnings of modern
catechetical instruction, as to the development
of which see OATECHE6I6, CATECHETICa, are found
principally in the Germanic Churches. Here, as
in primitive days and for the same reason, it orig
inally addressed itself chiefly to adults. Some
times whole tribes had been converted to Christi
anity in which the individuals did not possess the
moat elementary knowledge of the Christian faith,
and it was necessary to impart by further teaching
what had been neglected at the time of baptism.
The Anglo‑Saxon Church, and afterward Charle
magne, under the influence of his Anglo‑Saxon
adviser Alcuin, decreed that every baptized person
should know by heart the Creed and the Lord's
Prayer. But the rising generation was not left
altogether out of view. There was from the begin
ning an indefinite feeling among the Teutonic
Churches that the Church, by its acceptance of
infant baptism, was bound to care for the instruc
		tion of the children thus brought into
	1. Need of its fold. It was naturally impossible,
	Catechet‑ in mew of the widely scattered parishes
	ioal In‑ and the necessity of instruction being
In‑
struction. almost exclusively oral, to undertake the actual teaching; but the need was to some extent indirectly met by the requirement that no sponsor should present a child for baptism without being able to recite the Creed and the Lord's Prayer, and that sponsors should teach the same articles to their godchildren.
Another influence that helped to enforce a certain amount of Christian knowledge was the system of regular confession, especially after an annual confession was made obligatory by the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215. With the act of confession was usually connected a recitation of the articles which the sponsors were supposed to have impressed upon their godchildren. The system further led to an enlargement of the scope of regular instruction.
As the Creed and the Lord's Prayer 2. Influence hardly formed a suitable basis for the
of Con‑ confession of sins, there originated fession. lists of the sins which required ecclesiastical penance; and these, with corresponding lists of virtues, were often ordered to be learned by heart; in this connection the decalogus was redeemed from oblivion. It became a regular practise to preach sermons on the Ten Commandments in Lent, the moat usual time for confession; and than catechetical preaching developed. The reformers of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, such as Gerson and Geiler von Kaisersberg, were strong advocates of these sermons on the founder tions of Christian doctrine. The Ave Maria was included among the articles to be learned, and came to take equal rank with the Creed and the Lord's Prayer. The tendency was to enlarge the material, though some attempts were made, on the other hand, to condense it; thus Johann Wolf of Frankfort showed that all the articles used in confession could be traced to the decalogue. He also laid special emphasis upon the religious instruction of youth in a period when the councils of the Church paid no particular attention to it as a distinct branch of church work. The beginning of a refor‑
mation in this respect was the work of humanists like Jakob Wimpheling and Erasmus. Colet in England drew up a manual of religious instruction under the title of Catechyzon for the boys of St.
Paul's School, which Erasmus put 8. Pre‑B.ef‑ into Latin hexameters, thereby per‑
ormation haps giving the impulse to Petrus Catechisms. Tritonius to produce a similar work.
Outside, however, of such efforts, which were rather scholastic than ecclesiastical, catechisms in the modern sense, or compilations of the principal articles of faith for children, were practically unknown to the medieval Church.
	There were, indeed, such compilations for the
clergy, which with the invention of printing began
to circulate widely among the laity. The Tafel lea
chriatliehen Lebena (e. 1480) is in more ways than
one a direct predecessor of Luther's smaller cate
chism, but a comparison shows the characteristic
difference between the medieval and the Evan
gelical Church. In the Catholic table are found
numerous pieces without any explanatory word,
sacred formulas that were frequently repeated
without comprehension; in Luther's catechism
appear the five main articles, with the emphasis
laid upon the explanation. Great importance was
attached to the religious instruction of youth by
the Bohemian Brethren and the Waldenses. The
Ireterrogaciona manors of the Waldenses date from
the end of the fifteenth, or at least from the begin
ning of the sixteenth, century. The Kinder fragen
of the Bohemian Brethren axe still older, since they
served as a model for the Interrogacio»a.
II. The Post‑Reformation Period: From the beginning of the Reformation care was taken to provide for the religious instruction of youth. Almost simultaneously the two places where the movement had its origin established institutions which were followed as models; in 1521 Johann Agricola was appointed catechist at Wittenberg, and in 1522 systematic instruction of youth in the Christian faith was established in Zurich in place of the Roman confirmation.
Luther's popular expositions of the Ten Commandments, the Creed, and the Lord's Prayer, especially his Kurze Form and his Betbi4chlein, are not catechisms in the proper sense of the word,
but rather prepared the way for them.
1. Early Several adaptations of the Kinder‑
intheraa fragen of the Bohemian Brethren, Catec• German translations of Melanchthon's
Enchiridion and Scholia, and numerous other compilations of the Christian truth adapted for children show the demand for an Evangelical teat‑book. Toward the end of 1524 Justus Jones and Agricola were ordered to write such a book; they did not execute their commission, but toward the end of 1525 there was published the Biichlein jar die Laien and Kinder (possibly by Bugenhagen), which provisionally at least supplied the want. About the same time Luther urged, in his Deutsche Masse, the introduction of religious instruction for children. His appeal called forth numerous expositions of the articles of faith, and in many places systematic teaching was begun. In 1529 Luther published his Smaller Cateshism

Catechisms	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	44
(sometimes known se Enchiridion), and with it the material of the catechism was firmly established for the future (see LoTxEr;'s Two CATEcalsals). In some places, especially under the influence of the Nuremberg Kinderpredigten (1533), the power of the keys was added as a sixth article, and is still used as such in some of the churches of Germany.
At first Luther's catechism was merely one among several others, though it was almost universally adopted in both parts of Saxony , in Brandenburg, and in Pomerania. Apart from manuals produced under the influence of the Swiss theology, like those of Leo Jud and Bullinger, there are others which follow Luther's doctrine, among them Kaspar Lowers Unterrieht des Glaubens (1529), Johann Brenz's Fragestiicke (1535), which is still used in Wurttemberg, Butzer's catechisms for Strasburg (1534 and 1537), and others. It was only by degrees that Luther's work assumed the supremacy over other catechisms of the same tendency, until it finally attained the importance of a standard of
doctrine. It was treated as such for 2, GraAual the first time in 1561 in. the articles Supremacy of Luneburg, where it had its place of Luther's beside the Augsburg Confession, the
Smn‑111 er Apology, and the Schmalkald Articles Ceteehiem. (sue CpRPUa DOCrRINtE). It attained
a still stronger position in contradistinction to the Heidelberg Catechism (q.v.). The latter, which from the first was considered in the light of a confession of faith, was compiled in 1563 by Olevianus and Ursinus from the catechisms of Leo Jud and Bullinger, from the Emden catechism of 1554, from Calvin's catechism of 1542 (see below), and from two catechisms used among Low‑German emigrant churches of the sixteenth century, and was soon introduced in all countries where the Reformed faith prevailed. In 1580 the Smaller Catechism was included in the Book of Concord, and took rank everywhere as the corresponding standard of Lutheran doctrine. While the Heidelberg Catechism, .as the more comprehensive work, retained everywhere its old form, Luther's Enchiridion formed frequently only the basis for fuller expositions, in connection, e.g., with Brenz'a Fragestaicke of 1535 and a booklet printed in 1649 at Erfurt under Luther's name, though really compiled by Johann Lang, entitled Frageatucke.fur die, so zum Sacrament gehen w8llen.
No little influence on the development of a traditional form for catechisms was exercised by the Latin ones prepared for the Latin schools.
The material of these, based parity
8. Early upon the Loci of Melanchthon, grew Catechisms to such an extent that they al‑
Based an most formed regular dogmatic, works.
Luther's gong the catechisms which origi‑
Work.	nated from such sources on the basis
of Luther's Encheiridion the Kleiner Catsehiamua D_ M. Lathery, by Nicolaus Hereo (1554) shows a fairly definite form‑already assumed by the development. A wider circulation was attained by the Fragestueke of Bartholomasus Roeinus (1580). The first regular catechism with expositions was the 13oldene Kleinod of Johann Tetelbaeh
(1568); and the first of such to receive official sanction was the Nuremberg Kinderlehrbuchlein. (1628).
During this whole period catechetical instruction consisted of nothing more than the memorizing by the children of the catechisms. Further explanations were left to the catechetical sermons which gradually became more common, modeled after Luther's Larger Catechism and the Nuremberg Kinderpredigten of 1533. Frequently it was decided that the children should be questioned on these sermons. On the other hand, efforts were early made to guard children against a mechanical memorizing by making the text intelligible to them. A school edition of the Heidelberg Catechism (1610) gives four rules in this respect; (1) dif4. Orthodox ficult passages are to be explained; and Pietis‑ (2) a long paragraph is to be con‑
do Cats‑ densed by the pupil; (3) the text of
	ehieme.	the catechism is to be analyzed by the
		teacher, putting questions which the
children have to answer from the text; (4) the
catechism is to be confirmed and proved by Bible
texts and stories. The method laid down in these
rules dominated catechetical instruction until a
late time in the eighteenth century. Orthodox
and pietistic catechists agreed in the use of the
analytical method; but the latter emphasized more
strongly the cultivation of the heart, and in formu
lating the questions and answers of the catechism
laid stress upon the practical side of life, as may be
seen from Philipp Jakob Spener's Tabulm cate
cheticce (Frankfort, 1683). The two principal
pietistic catechisms are Spener's Erkldrung der
christlichen Lehre (1677) and the Dresden Kreuz
Katechismus (1688). But even Pietism could not
hinder the gradual degeneration of catechetical
instruction into mere formalism.
	Afresh impulse was received from the new methods
introduced by the rationalist school. Starting
from rationalistic premises, Johann Bernhard
Bssedow (q.v.) demanded in his Abhandlung zmn
Unterricht der Jugend in der Religion (Liibeek, 1764)
that children should not be forced to memorize
anything but what they already understood, and
that they should be left to acquire new knowl
		edge only by their own thinking, with
b. Ration‑ the help of instructive questions. alfetio est. Baeedow laid down these views in his schisms of catechism for two grades entitled
the Eisht‑ Grundriss der Religion, welche lurch
‑nth Cen‑ Nacken ,ate Bibelforschen erkannt
	tuW	trird (1764). This, which gradually
		became known as the Socratic method,
was developed further by Karl Friedrich Bahrdt
in his Philanthropinischer Eriiehungsplan (Frankfort,
1776) and confirmed from the philosophy of Kant
by Johann Friedrich Christian Graeffe in his Yoll
standiges Lehrbuch der allgemoinen .Kotechetik
(Gottingen, 1799). Its most prominent repre
sentatives were Johann Peter Miller, Johann Chris
tian Dalz, and especially Gustav Friedrich Dinter.
With these new ideas new manuals appeared which
either dropped altogether the old catechisms based
on the articles of faith or relegated them to an
appendix. Johann Gottfried Herder attempted

446	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	WOO
to explain the smaller catechism of Luther according to the new principles (Weimar, 1800). The weak point of the Socratic method is its inseparable connection with rationalist theology. Peatalozzi criticized this method because it tried to elicit from children what is not in them. Schleiermacher pointed out that the Socratic method ignored the revelation of the Christian religion and its history. Marheinecke, Nitzach, Krausaold, Harms, and Hilffell followed him is opposition to it. The modern method of catechizing has retained from the Socratic method its feature of development; it does not, however, consider human reason and natural religion as the basis of this development, but rather the documents of revelation and the history of the Church.
The catechisms used in the different territories of Germany are too numerous to mention. In the territories of the Evangelical Union as well as among the orthodox Lutherans the 'Smaller Catechism of Luther forms the basis of instruction.
e. ldodera But in accordance with their peculiar
tea"	doctrines the Unionists have made
	Lutheran	concessions to the Reformed teach
		ings, stest their manuals represent
more or less a compromise between Luther's Smaller
Catechism and the Heidelberg Catechism. The
chief country of the Union is Prussia, and here
the conaistories in agreement with their respect
ive provincial synods have selected a number
of compendiums to be used in instruction. Man
uals . of the acme sort are found in the other
LTnionistic territories. Anhalt, Baden, Hesse,
Waldeck, Hanau, the Rhenish Palatinate, Nassau,
and Birkenfeld.
In the distinctively Lutheran territories Luther's Smaller Catechism is used everywhere, in Hesse in connection with the so‑called Hessische Frageatiicke, in WiIrttemberg with Brenz's catechism. The text is at present formulated after the revision proposed by the Evangelical conference held at Eisenach in 1882. In the selection of aids to be used besides the text a certain freedom exists is Saxe‑Coburg, in the Lutheran Church of AlsaftLorraine, in Hamburg, in the Lutheran Church of the province of Hanover, and in Frankfort‑onthe‑Main. In certain places besides the text of the Smaller Catechism are mostly Spruchbiacher, that is, collections of Bible texts and hymns. The use of such books for the explanation of Luther's catechism has been made obligatory in the kingdom of Saxony, in Altenburg, Meiningen, the Principalities of Reuse, in Sleswick‑Holstein and Eutin, in Oldenburg and Schaumburg‑Lippe. Besides the Spnuchbiicher, various exposition, of Luther's catechisms have been introduced, the use of which has been made obligatory in MecklenburgSchwean, Lubeck, Mecklenburg‑Strelitz, Brunswick, Schwarzburg‑Sonderahausen, Schwarzburg Rudolstadt, the former county of Schaumburg, Weimar, Bavaria, and in the Free Lutheran Church of Prussia.
As regards the Reformed territories, the Heidelberg Catechism is used in the Reformed Church of Lippe‑Detmold, in the Reformed congregations of East Friesland, in the former county of Bentheim,
is the synodal district of Bovendea (near GSttingen), and in the confederation of Reformed Churches is Lower Saxony. .In the Reformed
7, gder, territories of the conaiatorial district German Re‑ of Cassel (Lower Hesse) and in the formed Cat‑ synodal district of Hamburg the
	schisms.	HessjwAer Landeakateehiamus, a Re
		formed revision of Luther's Smaller
Catechism with the Hessische Fragestficke inserted,
is used. In Bremen and in the Reformed Church
of Alsace‑Lorraine no special manual for religious
instruction is prescribed.
	In Switzerland there appeared at St. Gallen in
1527 a compilation of the Kisder/ragen of the
Bohemian Brethren. About the same time (Eco
lampadiua published his Rinderbericht for Basel.
In 1534 Leo Jud published his catechism for
Zurich. An epitome of it followed in the next
year, which in 1598 was declared obligatory to the
exclusion of the catechisms of Heinrich Bullinger
(1559) and Burekhardt Leemana (1583), and was
introduced also in Grieona and Schaffhausen. In
		1536 Kaspar Grossmann (Megander)
e. Switzer. revised Jud's catechism for Bern; as
	land.	in the course of time it was made to
		serve the views of Zwingli, it had to
be revised anew, and in this form became known
as the Bern Catechism. These old catechisms were
either superseded or influenced by the Heidelberg
Catechism. The Zurich Catechism of 1609, the
work of Marcus Baumlein, originated in a combi
nation of the Heidelberg Catechism with those used
in Zurich. It was introduced in different cantons
and used until 1839. Under the influence of ration
alism moat of the cantons adopted new catechisms
between 1830 and 1850. Basel took the lead in
1832, then followed Zurich with a new catechism
(1839). In French Switzerland Calvin's Cate
chismus Genevensis (1542) was used at the beginning.
In the canton of Vaud it was replaced in 1552 by
a translation of the Bern Catechism, which gave
way to that of Heidelberg in the eighteenth cen
tury. In 1734 there appeared in Geneva the small
catechism of Jean Frdd6ric Oaterwald, which, after
revision, was also adopted in Vaud. About 1620
Stephen Gabriel, pastor at Ilanz, compiled a cate
chism for the Romance districts which remained
in use even after a translation of Oaterwald'a cate
chism had appeared. But entire freedom exists
as to the choice of religious manuals in Switzerland.
In many cases the individual preachers write their
own books of instruction.
Since the edict of toleration of Joseph IL, the Lutheran Church in Austria has used Luther's Smaller Catechism and the Reformed Church the Heidelberg Catechism. According to the constitution of the Evangelical Church is Austria, all further guides in religious instruction have to be sanctioned by the Evangelical Supreme Church Council in Vienna, and approved by 9. Austria‑ the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs
	Hungary.	and public instruction. Some of the
		approved manuals are, in German,
Buchrucker'a and Erneati's editions of Luther's
Smaller Catechism, in Bohemian that of Mobriar.
Among those approved for the Reformed Church

Catechisms	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	446
may be mentioned the enlarged German edition of the Heidelberg Catechism by Franz (Vienna, 1858), and the Bohemian by Von Tardy (Prague, 1867), and by Vesely (1885). In Hungary and Transylvania the same conditions exist as in Austria.
In the Baltic provinces of Russia. an Esthonian translation of the Smaller Catechism seems to have appeared as early as in 1553. In 1586 a Lettish translation by J. Rivius was printed at KtSnigsberg. It was revised in 1889 by E. Gliick and used a long time among the Lettish congregations of Livonia. Another by H. Adolphi appeared in
10. Slavic 1685 and found a large circulation in
Countries. Courland. In accordance with a resolution of the Synod of Livonia and Courland in 1898, a new Lettish standard text has been established (Riga, 1898), which has supplanted all earlier translations. An Esthonian exposition of the Smaller Catechism was introduced in Eathonia in 1673 as the official catechism, and used almost exclusively until 1866. The catechism of Martin KtSrber (1864), modeled after the official catechism of Neustrelitz, has found a considerable circulation. The Germans in the Baltic provinces also produced numerous interpretations of their own; Jodocus Holst, Einfnltige Auslegung des KLeinen Katechiamus Lathers (Riga, 1596); Immanuel von Essen, Chriatliche Kalechiamusvbung (1781); Werbatus, Dr. Martin Lathers Kleiner Katechiamua (1895); and many others. For the Lutheran congregations of Poland there has been recently approved Maly Katechixm Doktora Marcina. Lutra (Lublin, 1900). It is an exposition of the Smaller Catechism by Alexander Schbnaich, preacher at Lublin. An official text of the Smaller Catechism has been published for the Russian‑speaking Lutherans (St. Petersburg, 1865).
The first catechetical writings in Sweden were a working‑over of Luther's Betbuchlein, a translation of the revision of the Kinderfragen of the Bohemian Brethren published at Magdeburg in 1524, and a translation of the Handbiichlein far junge Christen by Johann Toltz. The Smaller Catechism was translated by Laurentiua Petri into Swedish perhaps as early as 1548; the oldest extant copy dates from 1572. 1n 1595 the Smaller Catechism was officially introduced, 11. 8oandi‑ but came into general use only after
	aavian	the Church Order of 1686. An official
Countries‑ translation of Luther's Larger Cate
		chism dates from 1746. The expo
sition of the Smaller by Olaf Swebelius, which had
been in use for some time, was revised in 1811 by
Archbishop J. Axel Lindblom and introduced as an
official catechism. In 1843 a new revision ap
peared, but in 1878 the Doktor Mdrten Lathers
Lilla Katekea naed kort utveckling, atadfast of kon
ungan dent I L Oktober 1878 took its place and is
AM used. In 1532 the Smaller Catechism was trans
lated into Danish by Jorgen Jensen Sadolin. In 1537
there appeared almost simultaneously two further
translations, Den line danske Catechiamus by Franz
Wormodaon and Lathers line Katekusmua by Petrus
Palladius. The latter was republished in 1538 as
Enchiridion sine Manuals ut vocont and officially
recognized. H. P. Petersen edited the Latin text
of the Smaller Catechism aide by aide with a Danish translation for the use of schools (1608). In 1627 he used the Danish text for a manual destined for popular instruction. The text deviates frequently from the original, and these variants have crept into other compilations modeled after it. It retained its authority in Denmark until 1813, in Norway until 1843. The standard work for Norway is at present Dr. M. Lathers Lille Katekismus (9th ed., Christiania, 1897), and for Denmark C. F. Balalev's Lathers Katekismua meden kort Forklmring (Copenhagen, 1899).
In the Dutch Reformed Church absolute freedom exists in the choice of guides to be used in
18. Hol‑ religious instruction. Besides the Ge‑
	laad.	neva and Heidelberg catechisms, Abra
		ham Hellenbroek's Yorbeeld der god
delyke Waarheden has been used.
The Established Church of England uses to‑day the catechism from the Book of Common Prayer, with but slight changes from the original form of 1552. . An exposition of it by John Palmer (London, 1894) shows the text of the original catechism in prominent type and provides each individual paragraph with an introduction. The Congregationalists have also adopted the catechism of the Established Church, but besides this they use a manual by Samuel Palmer, A Catechism for Protestant
18. Rug' Dissenters (London, 1772, 29th ed.,
d.	1890), which contains a brief history
of non‑conformity and treats of the reasons for it. In the Sunday‑schools the Congregationalists use a catechism by J. Hilton Stowell revised by A. M. Fairbaira (1892). The Presbyterian Church of England and the Church of Scotland have accepted the Westminster Catechism as the basis of.their instruction. It is divided into the doctrines we are to believe and the duties we are to perform (The Moral Law; Faith and Repentance; Sacraments; Prayer). The form of religious instruction chiefly cultivated in England is the Sunday‑school, for which the Sunday‑school Union furnishes manuals. Dr. Watt's first and second catechisms have also found a large circulation; the former contains a short survey of the doctrines of Christian salvation and especially a catechism on Scriptural names, the latter an interpretation of the decalogue and information on the sacraments and prayers. Before the catechism of the Book of Common Prayer appeared, Luther's Smaller Catechism was used for several years in England; at the instance of Cranmer the Nuremberg Kinderpredigten which interpret it was in 1548 translated into English under the title A Short 1 ntroduction into the Christian Religion.
In the French Reformed Church Calvin's catechism of 1542 was at one time almost universally used, later with Oaterwald's smaller catechism, but has now been superseded by Bonnefon's
Nouveau camchisme 6lEmentaire (14th 14. France. ed., Alms, 1900) and Decoppet'a CatE‑
chiame populaaire (Paris). Less popular are Babut's Coura de religion chr6tienne (6th ed., 1897) and Nyegaard's Cat6chisme d l'usage des tgliaea evartgdiques (13th ed., 1900). The Free Church uses the same catechisms. In the 11 Pgliae

447	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	catea
de la Confession d'Augsbourg" Luther's Smaller Catechism has always been in use. The Pent caMehiame de Luther (Chateauroug) has added to Luther's teat Bible texts and stories and renders the Ten Commandments exactly as they are found in Ex. xx. 1‑17, combining the ninth and tenth commandments and treating the prohibition of the worship of images as a separate commandment.
As a result of the Evangelical movement in Italy, there originated about 1535 the " Christian
Instruction for Children " by Juan de
16.Itsly. Vald6s, apparently first written in
Spanish, but published first in Italian and then translated into various languages (cf. the polyglot edition of E. Btihmer under the title Instruction cristiana Para lm Maw por Juan do Yald6s, Bonn, 1883). To‑day the " Free Church " uses Il catechismo oasis sumo delta doEtrirua criatiana secondo la lOarola di Dio, by G. P. Meille (Florence, 8th ed., 1895). Of a similar nature are the catechisms used by the Waldenses, Caxechismo delta Chiesa euangelicca Valdese o Mccnuale d'istn<zimie eristiana ad use dei catecumeni di delta Chiesa (1888) and Catechism eroangelico oasis sumo delta dottrina eriatiana (1895).
The Lutherans in the United States use Luther's Smaller Catechism, which exists in many German, English, and German‑English editions. In the Synodical Conference the Dresden Kreuzkatechismua of 1888 has a large circulation, in the Missouri Synod Dr. M. Lathers Kleiner Katechismus in Frage and AnEwort grundlich auageiegd by J. K. Die. trick (St. Louis, Mo.) and a condensed edition of the same are much need; the former also in English. In the Ohio Synod originated Der Kletne Catechism= Dr. M. Lathers mil erklarenden and
beweisenden Bibelatellen., also in Eng_ 18. Amerl‑ fish (Allentown, Pa.). It contains ean Luther. besides the Smaller Catechism the
as Cats‑ " Order of Salvation," that is, a snr‑
vey of the whole intents of Christian
doctrine, as analysis of the catechism formed like Spener's catechetical tables, and the Witrttemberg Konferenz‑Examen, which is an epitome of the Kinderlehre introduced in 1682 in Wiirttemberg. Prof. M. Loy, Prof. F. W. Stellhorn, and Rev. C. H. Rohe wrote an exposition of the Smaller Catechism on the basis of Dietrich's, under the title Dr. M. Lathers Kleiner Katechismua, in Frage and Antwort ausgelegt (Columbus, O., 1882). On the basis of Caspari's catechetical exposition, W. J. Mann and G. F. Kmtel, of the Synod of Pennsylvania, Published Lathers Kleiner Katechismua in Fragen and Antworten zum Gebrauch in Kirehe, Schule and Haul (Allentown, 1883). The General Council uses also a catechism which contains the Wiirttemberg KonfererurExamen as an appendix. It appeared under the title Dr. M. Lathers Kleiner Katechismus mil Erkldrung fur die evangelischlutherlache Kirche do den Yereinigte» Staoten, also in English (New York). A recent addition explains Luther's text by Bible texts and stories‑_ Luthers Kleiner Katechiamus mil Bgelapruehen (Philadelphia). The German‑Evangelical synod, which is akin to the Evangelical Union in Germany, has published its own official catechism, Kleiner
evangeliacher Katechismus, also an edition with German and English on parallel pages (St. Louis). It is a free revision of the Smaller Catechism, differing from it especially in the doctrine of the sacraments. The German Reformed Church uses a catechism prepared in 1882 by Philip Schaff and entitled Chriatlicher Kotechismus : sin Leitfaden zum ReligionsunEetricht in Schule and Heaus (Philadelphia). These rather comprehensive books are intended for the school and especially for young people to be confirmed. In the numerous Sundayschools the children are frequently instructed only in Biblical stories. A catechism intended for that purpose is The Little Lamb's Catechism by J. R. Lauritsen (Knoxville, Tenn.). The same author wrote another manual which has become very popular‑Dr. M. Luther's Kleiner Kateehismus, also in English (Knoxville, Tenn.). The GermanEvangelical Synod possesses an excellent manual for the instruction of Sunday‑schools in Kurze Katechiamuslehre (St. Louis, 1899), which extends its material over three grades and is considered a preparation for the catechism proper.
In the German Moravian congregations the department for churches and schools under the direction of the Unitas Fratrum has reserved to itself the right of selecting manuals to be used is
instruction. Luther's Smaller Cate‑
17. The chism is chiefly used, in some places
xorsvians also HmuPtinholt der chrlstlichen Heila‑
wnd Bohe‑ lehre zum Gebrauch 1xi dem i'Intemicht mian der Jugenai in den erm»gelischen Bruder‑
BTethren• gemeinden (8th ed., Gnadau, 1891),
compiled by Samuel Lieberkilhn in 1789. Among the Bohemian Brethren the Katechiamus der chriatlichen Lehxe zum Gebrauch bei dem Unterricht der Jugend in dent euangeliachen Brudergemeinden (Daubs) has become the standard. It is based upon a catechism written by L. T. Reichel for the American congregations of Brethren. Among the earlier catechisms which are out of use now may be mentioned Zinzendorf's works‑‑his strange production Lautere Milch der Lehre von Jesu Christo (1723) and his Gewiaaer Grand christlicher Lehre nach Ante'itung des einfachen Catechismi asst. Hewn Dr. Lathers (1725).
Among the German‑speaking Methodists of the United States the only books used are the manuals written at the order of the General Conference in 1888 by Wilhelm Nast in Cincinnati, especially with the aid of Schaff's catechism, Der grassers [kleinere] Katechismua fur
I8. meth. die deutacherGemeinden der Bisch6f‑
°&Xt Ct4a' lichen Methodistenkirche (Cincinnati).
The English Methodists use A Brief
ohisms. C,i4m for Me Use of Methodists Compiled by Order of the Conference (London) and The Catechism of the Wesleyan Methodists (ib.). The latter work consists really of three catechisms, arranged in gradation for pupils of different ages.
	The manuals used among the Baptists in Ger
many are Rode's ChrisELichtr Religionsunterwicht fur
die reifere Jugend (Hamburg, 1882) and Kaiser's
Left faden far den Religionaunterricht, which first
appeared in English under the title of Prize Cate
chism. Besides these, Weert's Katechiamus, ei»

cateohifflne
a°rsahua.ea°te
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	448
leitfaden fur den Religio>:sunterricht (Cassel, 1899) is used. [Several catechisms were prepared by English Particular Baptists in the seventeenth cen‑
tury: A Soul Searching Catechism, by 19. Baptist Christopher Blackwood (1653); Catesnd truing. chum for Children, by Henry Jersey
its Cate‑ (1873); The Child's Instructor : a7 New
ohisma. and Easy Primer, by Benjamin Krach
	(1884). The General Assembly of the
Particular Baptists at its session in London in
June, 1893, requested William Collins to draw up
a catechism " containing the substance of the
Christian religion, for the instruction of children and
servants." It has been reproduced in authentic
form in Confessions of Faith, and other Documents,
edited for the Hartserd Knollys Society,		E. B.
1: nderh%ll (London, 1854). Among the B by		of
the United States in the South and Southwest
Question Books (four series) by A. C. Dayton, and a
Catechism by J. A. Broadus, have been widely used.
		A H. N.]
The catechism of the Irvingitee contains three chapters; the first two represent practically the Prayer‑book catechism; the third part treats of the doctrines peculiar to the Irvingites, the doctrine of the Church and its offices.
	[For the catechisms used in STANDARDS.] Presbyterian
communions see WFd3TMIN9TEft Oi‑ANDAItDa.]
The English Unitarians use especially two small manuals‑Ten Lessons in Religion by Charles Beard (London, 2d ed., 1897) and A Catechism of
Religion by H. W. Hawkea. While 20. Units‑ the former contains only an exposition rian Cate‑ of the Lord's Prayer and instruction
chi‑a. on the Bible, the latter treats in
fifty‑two questions of the moat important terms in Christian faith and interprets them in the Unitarian sense. The latter is in some respects dependent on An Evangelical Free Church Catechism for Use in Home and School (London), which is used by Unitarians, Methodists, Baptists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians, and some smaller denominations.
The Roman Catholic Church learned from the Evangelicals its solicitude for the religious instruction of youth. Numerous manuals appeared se imitations of Evangelical catechisms. The catechism of John Dietenberger, a very popular book, was in some passages copied verbatim from Luther's. But all the catechisms previously published were far surpassed in popularity by the Summa doctrince ehristiancs, per qua'stiones tradita et ad capitum rttdiorum accommodate (1558) by the Jesuit Peter
Canisius. It forms an epitome of his 21. Roman Summa doctrince christiartle of 1555
Catholic and was translated into all European
sad Old languages. It was used even in India
Catholic and remained for about two centuries Catechisms. the principal catechism of the Roman
Catholic Church. In 1559 Caniaius enlarged it under the title Partrus Catechiamus catholicorum, which became the model for numerous expositions of the, Summa. In 1566 appeared the Catechism‑ ex decreto Conrilii Tridentirei ad
Parochoa Pii Y. Pontificis bfaxi;ai iussu editus,
intended as a homiletical and catechetical hand‑
book for the clergy; but the influence of the Jesuits was so great that it could not compete with the catechisms of Canisius; and even those of Bellarmin, which appeared in 1598, did not attain equal popularity with them. The Roman Catholic books of instruction, like the Evangelical catechisms, did not escape the influence of rationalism, at first in method and then even to some extent in contents. A return to the stricter teaching of the Church made itself felt in the first decades of the nineteenth century. Since 1847 J. Deharbe's catechisms have been generally recognized as standard works. They include Katholischer Kateclaismus fur Stadt‑ tt»d Laadschulen (Regensburg, 1847); and KleinerkatholischerKatechismus zlttra6chsE fur solche Landachttlen, welche nur taffhrerul des Sommer‑ oderWiretersemesters besucht warden (1847). In the United States the Catholic Church provides manuals of catechetical instruction, such as those edited by W. Faerber in German and English (St. Louis, 1897 and often), and Catechisms of Catholic Teaching (New York, n.d.).
The Old Catholic Church has two official cafeehisme, the Katholische %otechismvs, herauagegebert im Auftrage der allkatholischen Synods (Bonn) and Leitfaden fur derv katholischen Religionsunterricht art hliheren Schttlen, herauagegeben im ktvftrage der altkatholischert Synods (Bonn, 1877).
	In 1721	the synod of the Russian Orthodox
Church decreed that three small manuals for the
instruction of youth and the common people should
be made, one on the principal doctrines of faith
		and on the decalogue, a second on the
22. The special duties of each class, and a third Greek containing sermons on the principal
	Ohnroh.	doctrines, virtues, and vices. On the
		strength of this order there appeared a
book entitled " First Instruction of Youth, Contain
ing a Primer and a Short Exposition of the Decalogue,
the Lord's Prayer and the Creed, by order of his
Majesty Peter L, emperor of all the Ruesias," which
is probably the first real catechism in the Greek
Church. The catechism used at the present time,
the " Complete Christian Catechism of the Ortho
dox Catholic Eastern Church," first published in
1839, originated under the influence of a manual
composed by Jeromonach Platon in 1765 for the
heir to the throne, the Grand Duke Paul Petrovitch,
which is influenced in the arrangement of material
by the Confessio orthodora of Peter Mogilas (1843).
Like the latter, it groups its material under the
three Christian virtues of faith, hope, and love.
After an introduction on revelation, Holy Scripture,
and catechetical teaching, it begins with an expo
sition of the Nicene Creed, followed by the Lord's
Prayer and the Beatitudes, the union between
faith and love, and an exposition of the Ten Com
mandments. The book closes with the application
of the doctrine of faith and of piety.
(FERDINAND Como.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The works under CATECHEBHS, CATECHETICB;
CATECHDaLENATE; LDTHER'6 TWO CATECHISMS; and I•IEI‑
DELHERa CATECHISM should be consulted. Collections Of
early catechisms are made in MonuruRla Gmnanias pada‑
gopica, ed. C. Kehrbach, vole. 4, 20‑33, 39, Berlin, 1887‑
1907, and in Katechetiache Handbibliothek, ed. F. Walk,
Kempten, 1891‑1905 (containing not only catechisms but

449	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Catechisms
		Catechumenats
works on catechetics). On the catechisms of the Middle
Ages consult: G. Langemack, H%atoria catechetica, vol. i.,
Stralsund, 1729; J. Geffeken, Der BiTderkatechiamue des
fitnfzehnkn Jahrhunderte and die katethdieehen Hauph
atikcks in dieaer Zeit bis auf Luther, vol. i., Leipeic, 18b6;
H. BrOek, Der religa6ae Untaw%cht . . . in Deutschland,
Mains, 1878; P. G5b1, Geachiehte der Kateduse im Abend
lande room Varfall des Katerhumenats bia sum Ends des
MitteTaltera, Kempten, 1880; F. Probst, Geach%chte der
katholsachen KateJwat, Breslau, 1887; F. Falk, Der Unter
richt dog Veike to den kateehetiachen Hauptatiteken stn
Ends des Mitteioitera, in Hietorisch‑politiaclae Blatter, cviii
(1891), b63 eqq.. 682 eqq•, eix (1892) 81 aqq., 721 eqq.;
P. Bahlmsnn, Deutachlanda katholiadu Xatechiamen Us
sum Ends des aec>uaehntan Jahrhunderd, Milneter, 1894;
Hauck, KD, vole, i.‑iii.
For collections of catechisms in post‑Reformation times in Germany consult, besides the collections of Kehrbach and Walk, ut sup.: J. Hartmann, Aelteate katechetiache Denkmale der eearepeliachen Kirche, Stuttgart, 1844; F. W. Bodemann, Katechetiache Denkmale der euangal%achlutheriachen Kirche, Harburg, 1861; G. Kawerau, Zuxi tllteate liatechiamen der Zutheriachen Reformation, Halls, 1890. For a bibliography of newer literature consult: F. Schneider, Xritiacher Wepu:eiaer durch die Littaratur des Konfirmanaeenunterrichta and der liffentliehen Chriatenkhre, Stuttgart, 1899. The history of catechisms is treated in: G. Lsngemack, ut sup., vole. ii.‑iii., Stralasund, 1730‑40; K. J. L&achke, Die raligi6ae Bildung der Jupend and der aittliche Zuatand der SchuZen im 16. Jahrhun. dent, Breslau, 1846; F. R. Ehrenfeuehter, Zur Geachichte des Katechiamua. GSttingen, 1857: K. Neumann, Der eaangeliache Relipionaunterricht im Zeitalter der Reformation, Berlin, 1899.
On other than German lands consult: 9. Hess, Geachichte des Zitrcher‑Katechismua, Zurich, 1811; Tercentenary Monument. In Commemoration of the Three Hundredth Anniversary of the Heidelberg Catechism, Philadelphia, 1863; C. A. Toren, Der evangeliache ReligionaUnterrithE in Deutarhland, Groaebritannien and Dltnemark, Goths, 18&5; H. Boner, Catechisms of )he Scottish Reformation, London. 1888; A. T. Mitchell, Catechisms of the Second Reformation . . . with Historical Introduction, London, ISBfi; A. C. Bang, Dokumenter op atudier roedrbrende den lutherake katekdemua' historic in Nordene kirker, 2 vole., Christiania, 1893‑99; I. Moechakes, Catechism of the Orthodox Eastern Church, London, 1894; J. Poynet, The Real Reformation Catechism of 166, ib. 1894; W. Eames, Early Nato England Catechisms. A bibliographical Account of some Catechisms published before 1800. Worcester, 1898.
The literature on Roman Catholic catechisms is very voluminous; the following may be consulted: The CatceTaiam of John Hamilton, Oxford, 1844; C. Moufang, Die Mai‑ Katechiamen von der ErAndung der Buchdruckerkunst trig zum Ends des achtzehatert Jahrhunderta, Mainz, 1877; Commentaire our Is catkchiama des provinces eccleaiaatiquea de Quebec, Montreal, Ottawa, Montreal, 1897; F. X. Thalhofer. Enhoiskelung des katholiachen Katechiamua in Deutschland von Caniaiua bia Deharbe, Freiburg, 1899; F. Spirago, The Catechism Explained, New York,1899; T. E. Coa, Biblical Treasury of the Catechism, ib. 1900; T. L. ]Kinkead, Explanation of the Baltimore Catechism, ib. 1902; J. Perry. Explanation of the Catechism, $t. Louis, 1902.
CATECHUMENATE.
Earliest Data (§ 1).	Second Period of Develop
According to the Church		went (§ 4).
	Fathers (§ 2).	Decline of the Cstechume
Firet Period of Development		nate (§ b).
	(§ 3).	Ritual Survivals (§ 8).
Catechumenate is a term applied to the method of receiving and instructing, in preparation for baptism, those who applied for membership in the early Christian Church. As soon as the apostolie~ mission had reached the stage of founding a Christian society, it was natural that those who wished to enter it should be required to go through a
course of instruction as to the meaning of the hopes which it held out and the demands which it made
II.‑29
of its members. Our information as to the method pursued in the earliest period is very scanty. Apparently the gatherings of the disciples were at first freely opened to any one (I Cor. xiv. 24) who desired to know more of their faith and practise; and baptism was probably often administered with but a short delay. As time went on, more
care was exercised; the need of it :. Earliest was demonstrated by cases of relapse Data. into heathenism and of the seeking of membership from interested or treacherous motives. We find traces of this greater caution as early as the first Apology of Justin (c. 150). A demand is made for some security as to the belief and conduct of the candidate, who is not apparently admitted to the assembly of the faithful until he has been adjudged worthy of baptism. How this security was obtained is not clear; the preparation seems to have been private, and the one who conducted it probably answered for the candidate, as at once sponsor and catechist. Tertullian portrays a somewhat different system; though catechumens are still excluded from the assembly, the application of this name to them implies that they were already reckoned as in a sense belonging to the Church and under its care. This is still more clearly the case in Origen's account.
The much discussed passage Contra Cela. According sum, iii. 51 shows plainly that there was
to the a definite system of examination and Church of instruction.' It gives also the fact Fathers. that at this period, besides the class
which (as in Justin and Tertullian) is excluded from the assembly, there is another which has advanced far enough to claim the privilege of admission, and is only waiting for the last decisive step of baptism. It is a mistake to attempt to deduce from his words three classes divided by a hard and fast line, or to apply to these classes the names audientes (Gk. akroamenoi), genuflectente (gonttklinontes),andcompetentes (PhBtizomenoi). The last occurs in the Apostolic Constitutions, an<l in Cyril of Jerusalem passim, for the candidates approaching baptism, who are definitely distinguished from the catechumens. The name akroamenoi occurs for the first time in the passage of Origen referred to, but without a distinct meaning; its use later in the proclamation of the deacon in the liturgy, summoning those not entitled to be present to depart, relates to a class of penitents not allowed to hear a part of the service to which catechumens were admitted. In like manner the application of gonttklinontes to a class of cal;echumens rests on a misunderstanding of the corrupt Greek text of the fifth canon of the Synod of Neocaesarea (314), which really means that catechumens falling into sin are to be put among the penitents, and expelled altogether if they do not amend.
To sum up, then, what has been said, Origen shows a development of the catechumenate from what Justin gives, while Tertullian exhibits an intermediate stage. We must, however, remember that these witnesses are from different parts of the Church. The development was probably largely influenced by local conditions. In Ter

Cateohnmenste	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	460
Csteaee
tullian's time, Septimius Severna had forbidden con
versions to Christianity, and formal arrangements
for the preparation of converts would have been
direct rebellion. In Origen's day, on the other
hand, the Church had enjoyed a long period of
			peace, and was not afraid to allow
		3. First trusted catechumens to be present at
	Period of its services; but the large number of
	Develop‑ converts made it more probable that
		meat.	some unworthy ones would be among
			them, and so to the original exam
ination before baptism, a second and earlier
one was added. Origen's account of the cate
chumenate gives all the essential features of
the institution, as we meet with it when fully
established, after persecution had ceased. Chris
tianity had become the state religion, and it was
possible to work out in detail institutions which
had been carefully planned in the dark days pre
ceding.
	Thin second or established period covers roughly
the fourth and early fifth centuries. The can
didate, accompanied by a sponsor, announces his
desire, normally to a deacon, who informs the
bishop or presbyter. The grounds of his desire are
investigated; people of certain sinful or dubious
occupations are ipso facto excluded unless they will
abandon them. If the candidate is acceptable,
he receives a preliminary instruction, and is then
set apart by the sign of the cross, laying on of hands,
and (in the bleat) with blessed salt, as a catechumen.
For a time he receives no special instruction, shar
ing that which the whole congregation gets in the
			miasa catechumenorum, though depart;
	4. Second ing before the later and more solemn
	Period of part of the liturgy. After two (or
	Develop‑ three) years, he may ask for baptism;
		meat.	he enters the class of competentea, and
			his name is inscribed on the church
list. The immediate preparation includes special
instructions, usually given by the bishop; certain
ceremonies, especially of exorcism, which show
the influence of the pagan mysteries; and finally
the traditio symboli, or instruction is the precise
words of the baptismal creed, whose general sense
has long been known to him. After learning and
repeating thin, he is taught the words of the
Lord's Prayer, which has also been withheld from
him until now by the Arcani diaciPlina (q.v.). The
recitation of the creed as a solemn act and
the final renunciation of paganism accompany the
act of baptism, which usually takes . place in the
night before Easter. During the following week
the neophyte receives further instructions, and on
the neat Sunday, still wearing his white baptismal
robe, he takes his place among the congregation
as a baptised Christian, and joins in the recitation
of the Lord's Prayer, the prayer of the children of
God. As to the matter contained in the inatruo
floss to the catechumen in this period, fullest in
formation comes from Augustine in the West and
Cyril of Jerusalem is the East.
	The decline of the institution was brought about
by the constantly increasing numbers of those
who sought admission to the Church. A thorough
examination of them all became impossible; the
preliminary	instruction was gradually dropped,
and the catechumenate was ‑reduced to the imme
	diate preparation for baptism. The
	g. Decline	growing practise of baptising infants
of the Cate‑ and young children completed the
chumenate. process, since there was no place for
		instruction in their case. Something
still remained, however, of the ancient procedure.
On the Monday after the third Sunday in Lent,
notice was given to present the children who were
to be baptized at Easter. On the following Wednes
day their sponsors brought them to the church,
where their names were registered. The cere
monies of signing with the cross, laying on of hands,
exorcism, giving of salt, and a final prayer made
them catechumens. Seven masses were said on
succeeding days, five containing similar ceremonies,
while the last two were especially solemn. The
sixth contained the " opening of the ears," a re
minder of the ancient traditio aymboli ; the book
of the Gospels was borne in procession to the altar
		and a short extract from each Gospel
6. Ritual read, after which the creed was given
	Survivals.	to the candidates, and an acolyte
		brought forward two children, a boy
and a girl, and recited the creed for them (the
ancient redditio aymboli); with the subsequent
communication of the Lord's Prayer were usually
connected short expositions of each clause. The
last " scrutiny " took place the day before Exeter,
and followed much the same order, but more sol
emnly and formally; and baptism took place at
the traditional time.
When the time came that nothing remained of the original institutions of the catechumenate except the outward ceremonies, these were more and more condensed, until they formed but a single rite leading up to the baptism which immediately followed them. In the Ordo baptiami of the Roman Ritual the order of the ancient preparations for baptism may still be traced without difficulty, and not a few relics of it remain in the evangelical baptismal ceremonies (see BAPTISM).
(Faxaarerm Coaas.)
A very interesting survival of the ancient catechumenate is found in the Armenian work found among the modern Paulicians, translated and edited by F. C. Conybeare (The Key of Truth : A Manual
of the Paulician Church of Armenia, Oxford, 1898)
and believed by the editor to have been written not later than the ninth century and to represent an almost primitive form of Oriental Christianity. It is adoptionist in its Chriatology and drastic in its opposition to infant‑baptism. It provides for a solemn consecration of the infant of Christian parents by the minister when it is seven days old, the careful training by parents and church until maturity is reached, the thorough testing of the candidates for baptism in life and in knowledge of Christian doctrine and morals, and the administration of baptism with considerable ceremony to those who have fulfilled all the conditions and have attained to the age at which Christ was baptised. A brief catechism, embracing the points of doctrine in which catechumens must be grounded, is given
at the end.	A. H. N.

451
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
BIaLIOOaAPB.Y: The sources are to be found in the works of Justin Martyr; Origen's Contra Celsum, the " Catechetical Lectures"of Cyril of Jerusalem. Augustine's De caterhiaandia rudibue, and the Didache, ell of which are accessible in Eng. trenel. The history of the institution is traced in: G. von Zezsahwits, System der chrietlichen Katechetik. 2 vole., Leipeic, 1883‑72; J. Mayer, Geachrochte des Kateehumereata . . . in den eraten eec>4e Jahrhunderten, Kemptea, 1866 (Roman Catholic); A. Weiss, Die allkirchliche Paedapopik der eraten aec)as Jahrhunderte, Freiburg, 1869; F. X. Funk, in T2ibinper Theologiache Quartalachrift, 1883, pp. 41‑77, 1888, pp. 353 eqq., 1899, pp. 434 eqq.; E. Hatch, Organization of the Early Churches, London, 1888; J. Heron, Church of Sub‑Apostolic Age; its Life, Worship, and Organization, London, 1888: E. 8achase, Eroanpelische %atechetik: die Lehrs von der kircla7ichen En%shung, Berlin, 1897; F. Wiegand, Die Stellunp des aPostolischen Symbols im kirchlichen lebsn des Mittslaltsrs, i. Symbol and RaterAumenat, Leipsic, 1899; Neander, Christian Church, vole. i. and ii. contain much valuable matter, consult the Index; Schaff, Christian Church, ii. 265‑257; Bingham, Origin", books x., xi., xiv.; DCA, i. 317‑319; the literature on the Didache (q.v.) usually discusses the eatechetice of the early Church.
CATEftAE.
Origin (§ 1). 	Form (¢ 8).
Meaning of the Term (¢ 2).	Cats. Previous to the Four
6ouroee (¢ 3). 	teenth Century (; 7).
Value (§ 4). 	Medieval Catense (§ 8).
Method (15). 	Post‑Reformation Catene (19).
The term catena, " a chain" (plural, catense), designates a commentary on Holy Scripture made up bypiecing together short extracts from the Fathers and older writers. This plan of construction was suggested by the accumulation of exegetical materials made both by Origen and his school and by the theologians of Antioch in the third and fourth centuries.
	The principal motive which impelled later scholars
to collect and examine the early utterances was a
dogmatic one. After the conversion of Conetan
tine, the Church was anxious to put together in
		a clear and systematic form the results
	:. Origin. of previous theological work, and to
		emphasize the connection of the past
with the present. For this purpose in regard to
doctrine the decrees of the ecumenical councils
answered admirably; but it was not so easy to
attain the same result in the exposition of Scrip
ture. The problem was to represent the results
arrived at by the recognized commentators in
propositions that had a unity of scheme and an
admitted authority. The principles of its solution
are laid down in the nineteenth canon of the Quini
sext (Second Trullan) Council: that Holy Scripture
is the standard of truth, that the limits of doctrine
already fixed and the traditions of the Fathers are
not to be transgressed, and that if any question
concerning the Scripture comes up, it is to be ex
pounded in no other way than as tile great teachers
of the past have given it in their works. The
exposition of the Scripture was thus firmly at
tached to the recognized orthodox doctrine. The
second canon of the same council had named some
of the " ° lights and doctors " who were to be fol
lowed, and the first canon had given warning against
all heretics, not merely against Arius, Macedonius,
Apollinaris, and Neatorius, but also against
Theodore of Mopauestia, Origen, Ihdymus, Eva,
grius, and Theodoret. It was, however, found
impossible to carry out these principles strictly.
Cateahnmonate Catense
The writings of the authors suspected of heresy offered material too valuable to be neglected; and it was found impossible to arrive at a unity of results in an anthology of this kind without doing violence to the individuality of the authors and damaging their authority, so that nothing could be done but to put together what was selected.
	In this manner arose the collections of extracts
which are so characteristic of Byzantine theology,
covering all the books of the Bible (especially
Genesis, Job, the Psalms, Canticles, Isaiah, Mat
thew, and John) by extracts from patristic com
mentators, and setting an example of method which
was widely followed in Western and medieval com
mentaries. '!'here collections are usually known
as Catence (Seirai). The origin of the name is
obscure, but its meaning is plain. It refers to
		collections of material put together
s. Meaning in a purely external but visible conof the nection, and strung upon the thread Term. of the text. There may have been originally a mystical significance attached to it. As the hermetic chain of the later Neoplatonista symbolized the harmonious conjunction of the bearers of wisdom to the world, hand joined in hand from the earliest to later times, so the line of the Fathers was to hand down the approved expositions of the one true Church.
The first compilers have no fixed phrases to describe their process; but their lengthy titles give an idea of the plan they set before them. They collected their material according to the maxim of Seneca, Qz<od verum eat, meum eat (" What is true is mine "). The manner in which literary property was handled in the ancient world permitted not only straightforward appropriation of other people's work, but the utmost freedom in adaptation to the borrower's special purpose. The retention of the original authors' names here is an evidence of the weight attached to their testimony as authoritative expositors; where the compiler adds comments of his own, he is usually careful to distinguish his additions. Great variety is found in the manner of reproduction and in the extent of the material included. In the Catena of Posainus on.Matthew we have one constructed on the exact lines laid down by the Quinisext Councils mosaic of verbal citations from 3. Sources. commentaries or other writings of orthodox Fathers. Where the compiler, like Nicetas of Serra‑, added reflections of his own, he generally put them at the head of the group of quotations following a fresh section of the text. Where he adapted and condensed, he either kept to the serial order, or worked over all the material he had accumulated without making divisions for the separate authors. This is the manner adopted by Procopius, (Ecumenitls, and Theophylact, who emphasize at the same time the fact that they are not originators but transmitters. There is no sharp dividing line between this kind of Catena and the Byzantine commentary; for the latter also patristic tradition is the standard, though the sources are not indicated in the margin
as is usually the case in the Catenie, and the exposition proceeds without a break.

Cattharseine	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	452
The value of the Catenee is measured by their judgment in selecting and their skill in combining the material they borrow. The difficulty of choice is increased by the dogmatic limitations, which are sometimes in inevitable conflict with the scholarly interest. Origen, for instance, the first great Christian critic and commentator, was of inestimable value to exegesis; and for the Old Testament Catenae both Philo, who had been
studied by all learned theologians ;. Value. from Origen down, and Josephus were
invaluable authorities. A compromise was reached in the principle (still followed by Roman Catholic commentators) of Cyril of Alexandria: " We need not avoid or question everything that heretics have said; for they confess many things which we also confess." Another difficulty was found in the occasionally conflicting expositions; their diversity was explained by Drungarius, with reference to the obscurity of the text, as providential. He contents himself with placing side by side the varying renderings and explanations of Isaiah, leaving the reader to form his own judgment.
The simplest method of making a Catena was to follow one principal authority, to whose exposition shorter scholia are added from other sources. Thus Chrysoatom is the main source in the Catena of Poseinua on Matthew, as well as in the Gospel commentaries of Euthymius and Theophylact,
though all of these differ in the adg. Method. ditiona they make to what they take
from him. Other Catena; are indiscriminate anthologies, no one authority being preferred. Of this type are those of Procopius and Nicetas, and most of those on the Epistles.
The external form of the Catenae differed according to their extent. Where they were not too extensive, the text was placed in the middle of the page, surrounded by the exposition, usually in smaller characters, sometimes even in tachygraphy. The names of the authorities are sometimes in the margin, sometimes in the body of the exposition, as a rule abbreviated. Occasionally diacritical marks show the connection between text and commentary. If the Catena is too extensive to allow this arrangement, the sections of the text are followed by the commentary, in separate paragraphs, with the authors' names on the margin, or else written without a break. The manuscripts, of which few date further back than the tenth century, differ much in execution. Some are of admirable work‑
manship, with illustrations; others 6. Form. are plain copies for students, with the
marks of long use upon them, and some seem to have been hastily and carelessly made to supply the demand of the bookselling trade. Besides the commentaries, the Catenee contain a good deal of introductory or illustrative matter. Thus the Gospels are frequently prefaced by the canons of Eueebius and his epistle to Carpianus, as well as by arguments and biographies of the evangelists; the Pauline epistles have a life of Paul, a list of his journeys, and an account of his martyrdom.
Whether the beginnings of the manufacture of Catena3 can be traced back to the patristic period
it is impossible to say with certainty, though it seems not improbable. After Eusebius the work of theologians to a great extent took the direction of codifying and criticizing what had been handed down. But Procopius (d. 528) is the first who can be demonstrated to have made Catenae. The value of his work, which rests not only upon the Fathers from the third to the fifth century but upon Josephus and Philo and upon some of the teachers before Origen, gave it an epoch‑making position. From the manner in which he speaks of his task in the prefaces to Genesis and Isaiah, we may conjecture that he was not an
7. Catenie imitator of others but an originator in Previous this line. Other extant Catena? were to the compiled by Andreas the presbyter
Fourteenth (seventh to tenth century); Johannes Century. Drungarius (tenth century); Michael Paellas, and Nicetas, bishop of Serm, later metropolitan of Heraclea in Thrace (eleventh century); Nicolaus Muzalon and Neophytus Eucleistus (twelfth century); and Macariua Chrysocephalus (fourteenth century). To these may be added not only the commentaries arranged more or less in catena style, though without names of authorities: G;cumenius, of whose date and personality we know nothing certain, though he was probably a contemporary of Arethas of Cappadocia; and the Gospel commentaries of Theophylact and Euthymius, composed under the Comneni. There is, however, a much larger number of anonymous Catenae; and this fact is surprising, since Byzantine theologians were not given to hiding their light under a bushel. It may possibly be explained by the theory that these Catenae were produced not by any one man but by a group of collaborators. Their dates are very hard to determine; the surest way to reach conclusions on this point is by examining their relations to those whose dates we know, which requires a good deal more investigation than has yet been given to them. In fact, what has been‑done in the way of scientific study of the Catenx in general has only covered certain specific points; and those which have been printed cover only a small part of the extant material, and that not always selected with judgment.
The catena form impressed itself as a model upon medieval exegesis in the West, which also imitated the spirit in which the Eastern compilers went about their work. Here too the aim was to preserve the tradition of the Church in a uniform arrangement of Scriptural exposition, " so that the line of prophetic and apostolic interpretation may follow the norm of the ecclesiastical and catholic sense" (Vincent of Lerins). The principal sources were Ambrose, Hilary, Augustine, and Jerome; less often the Greek Fathers, such as Origen, Chrysoatom, and Cyril of Alexandria, are cited. The prototypes of the medieval catena commentaries may be seen in the expositions of Cassiodorus and Isidore of Seville. 8. Medieval On the Carolingian period the numer‑
	Catenge.	ous commentaries of Bede exercised
		a decisive influence. He knew Greek,
and shows some feeling for textual criticism; but
he was not an exegetical individuality. He col‑

453	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Catenaa
Catharlae
leas his fragments of exposition mainly from Jerome, Ambrose, Augustine, and Gregory, and lays his chief stress on the edifying explanation of the moral and mystical sense. In this tendency he was followed by Alcuin, Rabanus Maurus, Walar fried Strabo, Dietrich of Hersfeld, Haimo, and Remigius of Auxerre, all less careful in the reproduction of their sources than Bede, with whom it was a matter of principle to designate clearly the intellectual property of his authorities. Among later commentaries of the catena sort especial influence was exerted by that of Peter Lombard on the Pauline epistles, which made no pretense of indicating sources, and the Caterea Aurea of Thomas 'Iquinas On the Gospels, which makes use of some Greek Fathers as well as of Augustine, Jerome, Rabanus, and Remigius. Mention should also be made of the " glosses "‑the Glossa ordinaria of Walafried Strabo, the Glossa interlinealisof Anselm of Laon (1110), and the Poatilke Perpetuce of Nicholas of Lyra (1340; see GLOBES, BIBLICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL).
These works lead up to the exegetical collections which were made after the Reformation and under its influence. The expository standpoint was different, but the method of compilation remained the same. They either gave the ob‑
p. Post‑ servations of certain selected exposi‑
Reforma‑ tore side by side without change, or tion they made groups of extracts from as
Catena:. large a number as possible. Instances of the first method are the Biblia magna of De Is Haye (Paris; 1643), the Biblia maxima (ib. 1660), the English Annotations upon all the Books o f the Old and New Testament (London, 1645), and the Critici sacri edited by J. Pearson and others (ib. 1660). The second class is represented by Matthew Pole's Synopsis criticorum aliorumque scriptures sacroe interpretum et commentatorum (London, 1669), which contains the most varied extracts from more than eighty theologians of all ages and beliefs, even including the Jewish. The Roman Catholic expositors, such as Cornelius a Lapide, Eatius, and Calmet, followed the lines laid down by the older Catenm, to which, however, with their uncritical subservience to a tradition presupposed as authoritative, they are far inferior. (G. HEINRICL)
CATHARI. See NEw Me.NICHEerrs, II.
CATHARINE, SAINT, OF ALEXANDRIA. See CATHARINE, SAINT, THE MARTYR.
CATHARINE, SAINT, OF BOLOGNA: Roman Catholic saint; b. at Bologna or, according to other accounts, at Verona Sept. 8, 1413; d. at Bologna Mar. 9, 1463. About 1430 she entered the order of the Poor Clares at Ferrara after having been a lady of honor at the court of Princess Margaret of Este for about two years. She later became abbess of a convent of her order which was founded at Bologna. Her name was included in the Roman msrtyrology in 1592, and she was canonized by Benedict XIII. in 1724. Later tradition wove many legends about her name, and her body was preserved undecayed in her convent until recent years. To St. Catherine is ascribed a prophetic
work entitled Revelatimes, slue de sePtem armis
spiritualibus, composed about 1438 and first edited
probably at Bologna in 1475 and repeatedly since.
In art she is represented in the habit of the Poor
Clares, carrying the Christ‑child, since the Virgin
is said to have appeared to her and to have placed
in her arms the infant Jesus in his swaddling
CIOtheB. 	(O. ZtiCKLERj'.)
BIBLIOaaAPHY: The Vita which is the earliest source was published at Bologna, 1502, from which a number of biographies were drawn in the next century. Consult: J: GSrrea, Die chriattiche Myat%k, ii. 53 eqq., 158‑159. 4 vole.. Regensburg, 1838‑42.
CATHARINE, SAINT, OF GENOA: Roman Catholic saint; b. at Genoa 1447; d. there Sept. 14, 1510. She was the daughter of Roberto Fieschi, who had been viceroy of Naples under Rend of Anjou. Despite her desire for a life of religion, she was obliged to marry a nobleman of her native city named Giuliano Adorno, whence she is often called Catharina Flisca Adurna. After a life of extravagance her husband died in 1474, but not before he had been converted by his wife's piety and had become a Franciscan of the third order. For the remainder of her life his widow, as a member of the order of the Annunciation of St. Marcellina, was distinguished both for her care of the sick in the Genoese hospital Pammatone (especially during the plagues of 1497 and 1501)and by her extreme asceticism. For twenty‑three years during the seasons of Lent and Advent she is said to have fasted absolutely, taking at most a glass of water with salt and vinegar " to cool the raging flame within." She was formally canonized by Clement XII. in 1737, and the following pope, Benedict XIV., placed her name in the Roman martyrology, appointing her feast for Mar. 22. St. Catherine was one of the numerous mystic and prophetic authors of the latter part of the Middle Ages and wrote Demorcstratio purgatorii or Tractatus de purgatorio (ed. C. Marabotto and E. Vernasza in their biography of St. Catherine, Genoa, 1551; Eng. trawl., London, 1858), Dialogue animam inter et corpus, amorsm progrium, spiritum, humanitatem ac Deem, and a treatise on the Christian life (both contained in the edition already mentioned). Her visions were assailed by Adrian Baillet in his Vies des saints (Paris, 1701) from the Gallican point of view, but other Roman Catholic authorities, such as St. Francis of Sales and the modern Jesuit Christian Peach, have esteemed them highly.
(O. ZOCKLERt.)
BIBLIOanAP87: The anonymous Vita. with commentary is in ASB, Sept., v. 123‑178, and was translated into French by the Abby Mot, Paris, 1&40. Consult: P. Lochner, Leben and Schriften der heiLigen Katharina von Genoa, Regensburg, 1859; T. de Bueaifre, Vie at aeuvru de 3. Catherine de GtMaa, Paris, 1873; P. Fliahe, S. Catherine de GEnea, Paris, 1880; F. von Hiigel, in The Hampstead Annual, 1898, pp. 70 eqq.
CATHARINE, SAINT, THE MARTYR (SAINT CATHARINE OF ALEXANDRIA): One of the most honored saints both of the Eastern and the Western Church. Many modern hagiographers identify her with a wealthy and noble Christian lady of Alexandria who, according to Eueebius (Hiat. eccl., VIII. xiv. 15), resisted the licentious advances of the emperor Maximinus, and was con‑

Catherine	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	454
sequently deprived of her estates and banished. This identification, however, does not agree with the statement of Rufinua (Hixt. eccl., viii. 17) that this lady was named Dorothea, nor does it harmonize with the legend of St. Catherine as given both by Simeon Metaphrastea and the Roman martyrology. According to these sources, St. Catherine was a maiden of royal birth (the daughter of King Konstos, in the Greek Officium), and of extraordinary wisdom and beauty. At the age of eighteen, she engaged in a controversy, at the command either of Maximinua or Maxentius (although the latter never ruled Alexandria), with fifty pagan philosophers, whom she converted so signally that they remained faithful to Christianity even to martyrdom. In prison, a few days before her own execution, she converted the empress, the general Porphyries, and his 200 soldiers, all of whom suffered death by the sword for their faith. Resisting both the pleadings and the threats of the tyrant, Catherine remained unharmed by torture, even on a machine of sharp‑pointed wheels, until she was finally beheaded by the command of Maximinus.
The day of St. Catherine is celebrated either on Nov. 25 or on Mar. 5. Her body is said to have been borne by angels to Mount Sinai, where Justinian I. built a cloister in her honor and where her bones were said to have been discovered by Egyptian Christians in the eighth century, thus giving rise to the feast of the discovery of the body of St. Catherine on May 13 or 26. About 1027 Simeon, a monk from Sinai, is said to have carried a portion of the relics of St. Catherine to Rouen, and her monastery on Mount Sinai now retains only her head and one hand. [These are enclosed in a marble sarcophagus.] Inspired by the tradition of her victory over the philosophers of Alexandria, the philosophical faculty of the University of Paris later chose her as their patron saint. According to Occidental tradition, she is one of the fourteen " helpers in need," the only other feminine members of this band being SS. Barbara and Margaret. See HELPERS IN NEED.
In Christian art, both of the East and the Nest, St. Catherine is an important figure. Her usual attributes are a sword and a wheel (either entire or broken), through which curved knives are throat. To these are frequently added a palm of victory, a book in token of her learning, and occasionally a crown, or, more often, a bridal ring which the Christ‑child himself is said to have placed on her finger in emblem of betrothal. The oldest Oriental picture of this saint is a mosaic over the apse of the basilica of the Transfiguration in the monastery on Sinai, which represents simply a female head without attributes. In a picture by Simon of Sienna (d. 1344) she bears in her hand a palm and a book. Among the numerous representations of St. Catherine in Western art, special mention may be made of the works of Altichiero da Zevio (c. 1380) in the frescos of the chapel of St. George at Padua, the frescos of Maaaccio (c. 1420) in the upper church of St. Clement at Rome, eleven marble bas‑reliefs (probably dating from the fourteenth century) in the church of Santa Chiara in Naples,
nine pictures of 1385 in the cloister of St. Paul at Leipsic, and the miniatures in the Vie de Saints Catherine d'Alexandrie by Jean Mielot, secretary of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy (c. 1462). After the middle of the fifteenth century the most noteworthy artiste of Italy, Flanders, and Germany, such as Fieeole, Raffael,. Carlo Doles, Jan van Eyck, Hans Mewling, and Lukas Cranach, vied with one another in the production of pictures of St. Catherine, and the medieval Christian drama repeatedly represented the legend of the saint in mysteries, the earliest being that of the Norman Geoffrey, abbot of St. Albans, which was played at Dunstable about 1120. (O. ZiicxLERt.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Legend of St. Katherine, ad. from a MS. in the Cotton Library by J. Morton for the Abbotsford Club, London, 1841; Life and Martyrdom of St. Katherine o/ Alexandria, R.oxburghe Club publications, no. 99, ib. 1884; Life of St. Katherine, ed. E. Einenkel for Early Teat Society, ib. 1884; The Life Metrical, by J. Capgrave, ed. F. C. Hingeeton, is in RoLla Series, no. I , pp. 337354, ib. 1858. Consult: C. Hardwick, Historical Inquiry Touching St. Catharine o/ Alexandria, Cambridge, 1849; H. Knust, Oeachichta der Lepanden der hsidipsn Catherine, Halls, 1890. On the art side, consult: Mrs. Jameson, Sacred and Legendary Art, ii. 74‑97. Boston, 1893; J. wipfli and J. J, von Ah, Daa Labsn der heiiiyen Ratharina von Alexandrian, Einaiedeln, 1898.

CATHARINE DE' RICCI, rft'chf, SAINT: Roman Catholic saint; b. at Florence [Apr. 23] 1522; d. at Prato (11 m. n.w. of Florence) Feb. 2 [1590]. She was educated in a convent at Monticelli and at the wish of her father lived in the world for a short time, after which she took the veil and entered the Dominican nunnery of St. Vincent at Prato. At the age of twenty‑five she became prioress, and spiritual counsel was sought from her by bishops, cardinals, and princes. She was also a close friend of St. Philip Neri, with whom she maintained an active correspondence. The intensity of her meditation on the Passion was such that she actually felt the sufferings of Christ and frequently shed blood as if from acourginga and wounds. St. Catherine was canonized by Benedict XIV. in 1746 and her feast was appointed for Feb. 13. In art she has the attributes of the crown of thorns and a marriage ring. The elegant style of her letters ranks her as one of the best Italian classics of the second half of the sixteenth century [ed. A. Gherardi, Florence, 1890]. (0. ZScgLERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. M. Capes. Lijaoj3t. Cathar‑inada'Ricai, London, 1905, which gives a tranal, of a number of her letters.

CATHARINE, SAINT, OF SIENNA: Roman Catholic saint; b. at Sienna [Mar. 25] 1347; d. at Rome Apr. 29, 1380. She was the twenty‑third child of a dyer named Jacomo Benincasa. Her early home in the vicinity of a Dominican monastery made a deep impression on the sensitive child, and she believed that St. Dominic himself appeared to her in a dream and urged her to enter his order. Disregarding her mother's wish that she should marry, Catherine, then about twelve years of age, cut off her long blond hair to escape unwelcome attentions. Three years later smallpox destroyed her beauty and she was able to fulfil her heart's desire, to which her mother had consented some

465	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Catharine
time previously, by entering the order of penitents of St. Dominic. She no longer drank wine, while her only food was uncooked
Early Life. herbs, taken s's a salad, or with oil, fruit, and bread. She scourged herself thrice daily according to the most rigid Dominican custom, once for herself, once for the living, and once for the dead. Under her habit she wore a shirt of haircloth for which she substituted later an iron chain about her waist. She passed the night in prayer until the belle on the monastery called to matins and then lay down between boards which symbolized her coffin. This asceticism she practised in a tiny room in her father's house which she scarcely left for three years except to attend mass in the neighboring Dominican church. After 1366, however, she appeared more frequently in public and became conspicuous for her deeds of mercy to the poor and sick, especially during the plague of 1374. Through her devotion and her piety she gathered around her a spiritual household of about twenty persons of both sexes, chiefly members of the Dominican order.
The chief cause of St. Catherine's fame was her reputation for visions and for prophecy. Even during the time of her novitiate she believed that Christ often appeared to her and, toward the end of this period of preparation, that he himself betrothed her formally as he had the first St. Catherine (see CATHARINE, SAINT, THE MARTYR.), by placing 8 ring upon her finger. This marriage symbol, she declared, was always visible to her, although no other eyes might see it. Her union with Christ was further sanctified by an interchange of hearts and finally by the divine stigmata,
	Visions.	beginning with the print of a nail on
		her hand and ending with the painful
impress of the four other wounds. This stigmati
zation also, as in the case of her German con
temporary, Margareta Ebner (q.v.) of Medingen,
always remained invisible, whereas in St. Francis
and the majority of the etigmatists, the wounds
might be seen of all. She likewise believed that
she associated much with the Virgin and with
Christ, not only being convinced that she drank
the blood from the wounded side of the Lord, and
the milk from Mary's breast, but also that she
received divine instruction, admonition, and com
forts, which she was frequently able to commu
nicate to others in her ecstasies. Many of her
letters and writings, especially her " Dialogues,"
were dictated by her in trances. She once fasted
during the forty days from Easter to Ascension,
being supported solely by the Eucharist and thtie
becoming a model for later saints, particularly
for the two Catharines of the fifteenth century.
Despite her death to the world, St. Catherine was compelled, during the closing years of her life, to take part repeatedly in the political and ecclesiastical affairs of her country. After 1374 she frequently left Sienna for the promotion of peace between the hostile nobles of Tuscany. In 1375 she was in Pisa, where she wrote Queen Joan of Naples to undertake a crusade to free the Holy Land. A year later she went to Avignon to reconcile the republic of Florence with Gregory XI.,
but was unsuccessful on account of the treachery of the Florentines. Later, however, after she had in great measure been instrumental
	Political	in securing the return of‑the pope to
	Activity.	Rome, she effected her purpose by a
		journey to Florence in 1378. The
schism between Urban VI. in Italy and Clement
VII. in Avignon also engaged her attention. She
was a firm partizan of the former, who summoned
her to Rome and after listening to her exhortations
of peace sent her to the court of Joan together with
St. Catherine of Sweden to win the queen from
Clement to himself. The mission failed, since
Bridget's daughter would not be subordinate to
her sister saint, but Catherine of Sienna lived to
see the longed‑for, though brief, adherence of
Naples to her pope. She was recalled to Rome
by this turmoil and struggle'and there died. She
was buried in the Dominican Church of Minerva in
Rome, although her skull is said to be in the Domin
ican Church of her native city. She was canonized
by Pius IL, in 1461, while Urban VIII. appointed
her feast for Apr. 30. She is represented in art as
carrying a crucifix with stigmata on her hands,
as well as with the bridal ring. Occasionally she
carries in her hand a lily or a book.
The chief writings of St. Catherine of Sienna are 373 letters (best separate edition by N. Tommaseo, Le Letters di Santa Cgterina, dg Siena, 4 vole., Florence, 1880), many of them addressed to popes, cardinals, princes, and nobles, and important for the history of the period. She likewise wrote twenty‑six prayers, various short prophetic oracles, and a dialogue between herself and God the Father, dictated in a trance in 1378, under the title Libro dells Divine Dottnna (Eng. tra,nsl., by A. Thorold, Diglogue of the Seraphic Virgin Catherine o f Sienna, London, 1896), later divided by G. Giali into four treatises on religious wisdom, prayer, providence, and obedience; an older division is into six treatises under the
	Writings. title Dialogi. de protridentia Dei. His
		torically, the most interesting of these
treatises is the one on prayer, in which St. Catherine
emphasizes the value of the prayer of the heart.
which needs no words, in contradistinction to
mere fdrmaliam. In her criticisms she spared
neither priests, cardinals, nor pope, sternly re
proving them for their derelictions and admonish
ing them of their high duty. Yet though she pro
claimed the necessity of reformation, she desired
it to be within the Church and was unswerving in
her orthodoxy and in her allegiance to the Roman
Catholic faith. Her complete works were first
edited by Aldus at Venice in 1500, but the best of
the older editions is that of G. Gigli, L'Opere dells.
Sera fcca Santa Catering da Siena (5 vole., Sienna,
1707‑28). 		(0. ZtTcsLERt.)

BmnioaxAra:: The early Vita sad otter documents are
collected in ASB, April, iii. 8b3‑978. For later lives
and oriBoiem consult: A. Capeaelatro, Scoria di Caterirw
da Siena a del Papato del saw tempo, 4th ed., Sienna, 1878;
Augusta T. Drape, Hick of St. Cadgerine of Siena and her
Companions, 2 vble., London, 1887; A. II. Chirat, S.
Catherine de 3ieane et 1'4pliae au 14, eipcie, Paris, 1888;
Josephine E. Butler, Catherine of Siena, London, 1896;
Comteeee de FlsvignY, S. ‑ Catherine de Siennc, Paris,

Cathanne
Catholic ApostoUc Church
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
1805; VSda D. Scudder, St. Catherine of Siam as own is her Letters, New York, 1905; St. Catherine of Sierra
and Her Times, London, 1908; E. G. Gardner' St. Catherine of Sierra, London and New York, 1907. Also L. Gaset, Le Grand Schisms d'Occidsnt, 2 vote., Florence, 1889.
	CATHARINE, SAM, OF SWEDEN: Roman
Catholic saint; b. in Sweden 1331 or 1332; d. at
Vadstena (130 m. s.w. of Stockholm) Mar. 24,
1381. She was the second daughter of St. Bridget,
the founder of the Brigittinea (see BRIDGET, SAINT,
OF SWEDEN). At the age of thirteen or fourteen
she married a young nobleman of German extrac
tion named Eggart of Kurnen‑the marriage was,
however, by mutual consent only nominal, and both
parties preserved a lifelong virginity. During the
lifetime of her husband, Catherine accompanied her
mother on the last‑named's first journey to Rome,
where through a vision of St. Bridget she learned
of her husband's death in Sweden. She then made
a pilgrimage with her mother to the Holy Land,
but was in Rome with her brother Birger when
St. Bridget died there in 1373. She was one of
those who escorted her mother's bones to Sweden,
and she then took up her abode at Vadstena, the
mother house of the Brigittines, where she ruled
as the successor of St. Bridget. About the time
of the return of the popes from Avignon, St. Cath
erine again resided for some years in Italy and
twice secured papal confirmation of the rule of her
order, first from Gregory XI. in 1377 and again
from Urban VI. two years later. The day ap
pointed for her feast in the Roman martyrology
is Mar. 22. In art her attribute is a hind. She
wrote a'° Consolation of the Soul," which has been
lost. According to the preface, it was a compila
tion from many books and treated of the ten com
mandments, the seven benedictions, the seven joys
of Mary, the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit, and
the seven deadly sins. 	(O. ZocxLERj'.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The early Vito with commentary is in ASB, March, ii. b03‑b31, and in E. bf. Fant, Script. rer. Sueciearam, iii., section 2, pp. 244‑27b; cf. A. Butler, Lieu o/ the Fathers, Martyrs, and Other Saints, Nov. 25th, London, 1880; KL, vii. 344‑345.
CATHARIRUS, AMBROSIiJS: ‑ The monastic name of Lancelotto Politi, Dominican, bishop of Minori and archbishop of Conza; b. in Sienna 1487; d. in Naples Nov. 8, 1553. In 1517 he entered in Florence the monastery of Savonarola, against whom he wrote a polemic treatise in 1548. Eager in opposing every form of heresy, he appeared against Luther in 1520 with an Apologia pro veritate catholicte ac apostolicee fcdei. Luther replied in 1521 (Ad librum A. Catharini responsio), and Catharinus answered. Then he went to France, and wrote in Paris against a member of his own order, Cardinal Cajetan, Artnotaliones in commentaria Cajetani. After returning to his country he wrote against his fellow townsman Bernardino Ochino, who in the mean while had fled from Italy to live according to his own belief (see OCHINO, BERNARDINO). A little later Catharinua issued two treatises against Italian Protestant works; viz., Tratrato utiliasimo del hens fitio di Gesu Cristo croci ftsso and Sommario dells Sacra Scrittura. The polemic theologian was present at the Council of
468
Trent. He arrived in 1545 with the legate Del
Monte and made a speech at the third session.
As a reward for his services Paul III. made him
bishop of Minori in 1546. Julius III. made him
archbishop of Conza in 1552, and was on the point
of naming him cardinal when Catharinus died. The
earliest of the works of Catharinus are collected
in his Opuscula (Leyden, 1542), but there is no
complete edition. 	K. BENRATH.
BIBLiOaRAPH7: The life sad writings of Catharinua are discussed in: J. QuBtif and J. 19chsrd, Script. ordinia pradieatorum, ii. 144 aqq., 332, 885; K. Werner, Oeaehschte der apologstsarAen uad polemiachen Literatur, vol. iv. passim, Schaffhausen, 1886; F. H. Beuech, Der Index der verboteasn Bficher, vol. i. passim, Bonn, 1883.
CATHCART, WILLIAM: American Baptist; b. at Londonderry, Ireland, Nov. 8, 1826. He was educated at Glasgow University and Norton (now Rawdon) Baptist Theological College, Yorkshire, England, from which he was graduated in 1850. He was minister of a Baptist church at Barnsley, near Sheffield, from 1850 to 1853, when he went to the United Staten, and accepted a call to Mystic River, Conn., where he remained four years. He was then pastor of the Second Baptist Church, Philadelphia, from 1857 to 1884, and was also president of the American Baptist Historical Society from 1876 to 1884. He has written: The Papal System, from Its Origin to the Present Time (Philadelphia, 1872); The Baptists and the American Revolution (1876); and The Baptism of the Ages and of the Nations (1878), sad edited The Baptist Encycloptedia (Philadelphia, 1881). Since 1884 he has, held no regular charge, his health not permitting him to accept a pastorate, although he has been able to devote part of his time to literary labors.

CATHEDRA: The ancient Latin title for the special seat occupied by the bishop in Christian churches. Even in the catacombs such seats were used, either cut out of the solid rock or portable. In the basilicas the cathedra stood at the back of the semicircular apse, behind the altar, which was on the chord of the arc; but when it became customary to place the altar back against the wall, the bishop's seat was brought down into the choir and placed on the north or gospel side. The early Church preserved with great reverence the seats of its first bishops; thus it is learned from Eusebius (Hist. eccl., VII. xix. 32) that the church of Jerusalem preserved that of James, and the church of Alexandria that of Mark. A very ancient chair traditionally believed to be that of Peter is preserved in St. Peter's at Rome, and was used for many centuries for the enthronement of new popes, until Alexander VII. (1655‑67), for its better preservation, had Bernini enclose it in a colossal bronze throne. At the celebration of the eighteenth centenary of the apostle's martyrdom in 1867, Plus IX. had it again exposed to view; an exact description and picture of it may be found in Kraus, Rome sotterranea, Freiburg, 1873. The bishop's seat was often used as a symbol of the teaching office of the Church, exercised through him; this is frequently referred to in the mosaics and carving of extant chairs dating from the fifth

457
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
to the ninth century. Thus in the definition of the doctrine of papal infallibility, the pope is said to speak ex cathedra when he proclaims a doctrine " in the exercise of his office as pastor and teacher of all Christians."
CATHEDRAL: In the churches with episcopal organization, the principal church of a diocese, the especial seat of the bishop. It is the normal place for the principal episcopal functions, such as ordination, and is directly under the charge of the bishop, who is assisted in its administration and in the performance of divine service by a body of canons (see CHAPTER), whose head is a dean or provost. In England, from the Reformation until 1840, a distinction was drawn between cathedrals of the old and of the new foundation. The former were those where the chapter had been always composed of secular canons, and whose constitution remained, therefore, unchanged; in the latter, after the suppression of the monasteries by henry VIII., a new organization was required to replace the earlier monastic chapter. The older cathedrals, from their rank and importance in the history of the Church, offer some of the moat splendid and imposing examples of Christian architecture. See ARCHITECTURE, ECCLEBIAaT3CAL.
BmLroaanrar: M. E. C. Walcott, Calhedradia: a Conatitutsonal History of Cathedrals of the Western Church, London, 1885 (authoritative); idem, Documentary History of English Cathedrals, London, 1886; J. S. Howson, ed., Essays on Cathedrals,. by various writers, London, 1872; C. A. 8wainaon, His(, of a Cathedral of the Old Foundation, London, 1880; P. Schneider, Die bi,achaftichen DontkaPitel, Mainz, 1885; Bell's Cathedral Series, 35 vole., London, 189fr1903 (deals with history and archeology); J. J. Bourased , Lea plus belles oathbdralea de France, Paris, 1898; L. Cloquet, Les Grandee Ca"ralu du monde cad"wue, Paris, 1897; The Cathedrals of England and Wales, New York, The Churchman Company, 1907.
CATHOLIC (Gk. kmtholikos, "general, universal," from kath' holou, " on the whole"): The phrase he kathalike ekklgsia, " the catholic church," was first used by Christian writers to distinguish the entire body of believers from individual bodies. It then came naturally to designate the oqhodoa in distinction from heretics and schiamatics. Later it was applied to faith, tradition, and doctrine; it was understood as expressing the universality of the Church (" in Greek that is called ` catholic ' which is spread through all the world," Augustine, Epist., Iii. 1); it distinguished a cathedral from pariah churches, or the latter from oratories or monastic chapels. After the separation between the Greek and Latin churches, the epithet " catholic " was assumed by the latter, as " orthodox " was by the former. At the Reformation it was claimed by the Church of Rome in opposition to the Protestant or Reformed churches; in England the theory was maintained that the national Church was the true catholic Church of the land, and the expression " Roman Catholic )y came into use for the sake of distinction. " Anglo‑Catholie " was coined by analogy with this at the time of the Tractarian movement. On the continent the single word " catholic " is the common designation for that branch of the Church in affiliation with Rome. By Protestants the term has generally been interpreted to mean the entire communion of the saved
Catherine
Catholic Apostolic Church
in all time and places. The word " catholic " in the phrase " the holy catholic Church " of the Apostles' Creed is explained by Pearson (Exposition o/ the Creed, art. ix.) as indicating that the Church is to be disseminated through all nations, extended to all places, and propagated to all ages; that it contains in it all truths necessary to be known, exacts absolute obedience from all men to the commands of Christ, and furnishes us with all graces necessary to make our persons acceptable and our actions well‑pleasing in the sight of God. The word was not in the earliest form of the Creed.

CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH: The outcome of a religious movement which began in Scotland in 1830, but took its full and distinctive form in 1835. Its adherents do not use the term " The Catholic Apostolic Church " as implying that they alone constitute the Church, but as affirming that they are members of it. ‑ It embraces all the baptized.
In 1828 about fifty gentlemen, some clergymen and some laymen, but mostly of the Church of England, met at the country seat of Henry Drummond (q.v.) at Albury, West Surrey, for the study of the prophetic Scriptures. The subjects considered were those connected with the return of the Lord and the present office of the Spirit in the Church. In Feb., 1830, some members of a Presbyterian family living near Glasgow began to speak in what were believed to be supernatural utterances. They affirmed that their organs of speech were used by the Spirit of God to express the divine mind and will. It is said by one who had intimate personal knowledge of those speaking that
Snpernat‑ the subject of spiritual gifts had not
oral Utter‑ at all occupied their attention; much antes. less had they any thought or expectation of their revival. These utterances, both from the religious character of those ,speaking and from their own intrinsic nature, awakened great attention in all the region round; and having come to the knowledge of certain gentlemen in London, some of whom had attended the conferences at Albury, s deputation was sent up to Scotland in July to inquire into them, and ascertain whether the utterances were of the Spirit, or not. They returned fully convinced that the utterances were divine. In May, 1831, like utterances were heard in London, the first in a congregation of the Church of England. This being reported to the bishop, he forbade them in the future as interfering with the service. Their occurrence in several dissenting congregations brought forth similar prohibitions, and this led to the utterances being made chiefly in the church of Edward Irving (q.v.), he being a believer in their divine origin. But they were not confined to London. At Bristol and other places the same spiritual phenomena appeared. Of these utterances one of the earliest was, "Behold the Bridegroom meth. Go ye out to meet him"; and another often repeated, " The body of Christ."
The meaning of this was for a long time not understood, but it was gradually ‑made

Catholic Apostolic Church	THE NEW
Catholic Emancipation
SCHAFF‑HERZOG
458
plain that the Lord could not return till due spiritual preparation had been made in the Church, and that this could be effected only through the
Spirit working in all the ministries Apostles and ordinances appointed by God in
Appointed. it. It wan also made known that it was his purpose to restore the ministry of apostles; and twelve men were designated as such by the Spirit speaking through prophets. The first was so designated in 1832; but it was not until 1835 that the number was completed, and in a solemn service they were separated to their work as an apostolic college. The names of the apostles were J. B. Cardale, H. Drummond, H. King‑Church, S. Perceval, N. Armstrong, F. V. Woodhouse, H. Dalton, J. O. Tudor, T. Carlyle, F. Sitwell, RZ. Dow, and D. Mackenzie. The following account has been given of their antecedents by one who knew them personally:
Classed by their religious position, eight of them were members of the Church of England; three of the Church of Scotland; and one of the Independents. Classed by their occupation sad social positions, three were clergymen, three were members of the bar, three belonged to the gentry, two of them being members of Parliament; and of the remaining three, one was an artist, one a merchant, and one held the poet of Keeper of the Tower. some of them were of the highest standing socially and politically, some of them of great ability se scholars and theologians; and all of them men of unblemished character, soundness in the faith, and abundant seal in all Christian labors.
To prepare them for their work two things were necessary‑knowledge of the purpose of God is the Church, sad of its present actual condition. Their separation was followed by a retirement to Albury that the Scriptures might be read with each light through prophecy as God might please to give. Later they visited the several countries of Christendom, which were divided among them, to. seek for all that was good and true in doctrine and ritual. Another step was a work of testimony to the Church in general of the Lord's acts in the restoration of his ministries. In 1836 they delivered an address to the king of England and the privy councilors, and another later to the archbishops and bishops of the United Church of England and Ireland; and in 1837 a testimony addressed to the rulers in Church and State in Christian lands. So far as practicable, these testimonies were delivered by the apostles in person to the patriarchs, archbishops, bishops, emperors, kings, and sovereign princes to whom they were addressed.
In these documents, as well as in the whole course of their apostolic labor, the apostles witnessed to such things as these:‑That the Church is the company of the baptized, the body of Christ, and constituted by God in infinite wisdom that the Head in Heaven might manifest himself through it in word and act; that its constitution was permanent, having a fourfold ministry‑apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors; that these ministries were adapted to the mental and spiritual constitutions of man; that all were needful that the Head might carry on his work and perfect his saints; that the Head only could appoint his ministers; that apostles chosen by him were his representatives, the bond of unity, having universal jurisdiction; that prophets speaking through the
Holy Ghost were media of light from God to the apostles; that evangelists were to preach to those without the Church, bringing them to
	Doctrines.	baptism, and then to transfer them
		to the pastor; that the pastoral min
istry embraces bishops, priests, and deacons; that
the retention by the Church of the pastoral
ministry only points to its having departed in
measure from the ways of the Lord, and that this
departure ultimately leads to the apostasy and
the man of sin spoken of by St. Paul. The adher
ents of this movement point to the apostolic con
gregations as the true credentials of apostles‑‑their
faith in the Scriptures, their order, their obedience,
their worship, their calm and patient waiting for
the Lord, their catholic spirit.
The gathering of these congregations was of necessity, not of choice, as otherwise the divine order in ministries and worship could not be manifested. Their relation to the members of the Church in general is thus defined: " We are not separatists nor schiamatics. We are not gathered together sad distinguished from others in any hostile or aggressive attitude. The
	Congrega‑	Head is not erecting new altars, but
	tiona sad	rebuilding that which was decayed."
	Worship.	The liturgy used was not a mere com
		pilation from existing liturgies, but
wan based upon the Mosaic ritual, its spiritual
autitype sad fulfilment. In the worship the three
great creeds of the Church, the Apostles', Nicene,
and Athauasia,n, are used. In all congregations
sufficiently large, daily worship is appointed at nix
A.m. and five P.m., the opening and closing hours
of the day. The Eucharist is the chief forenoon
service on every Lord's day, and at other times as
appointed. The ministers of each fully organized
local church are a chief pastor, or angel, or bishop,
and under him priests and deacons. All members
pay tithes of income as of obligation, and, as able,
voluntary offerings.
As no official statistics of the number of congregations have ever been published, it is impossible to say how many there may now be, but congregations ass formed in most of the larger cities of Christendom. The death of the apostles made necessary some changes in the administration and worship, but the faith is apparently strong that the Lord will in acme supernatural way speedily confirm the work already done, and will complete it. (SAMUEL J. ANnxEwat.)
This body repudiates the title " Irvingitea," by which it is generally known (see IRVING, EDWARD). In the early days of the movement there was no little uncertainty as to the final arrangement of the offices and jealousy between the different ranks. In 1839 Cardale was recalled from his second mission abroad to compose the differences which had arisen on account of the claim of the elders, which was supported by the prophets, to a voice in the government of the church. The apostolate succeeded in suppressing this revolt, and to avoid any recurrence of it the full general council was not again convoked, and only revived in 1877 in the form of a conference of the seven angels of London under the presidency of the apostle. In

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
the same crisis (1840) the principle was laid down that the purity of the prophets' doctrine must be attested by the apostles, and thus the superiority of the apostolic office vindicated. The same year marks the beginning of another important change. The apostles who had been traveling on the Continent had come there into contact with Roman Catholicism, and the result was a definite assimilation to its ways of the " Catholic Apostolic Church," as it was now officially called. All traces of Scotch Presbyterian or English non‑conformist traditions were gradually eradicated. Altars were now erected separated from the body of the church by a rail at which the communicants knelt. The people were taught to regard the Eucharist as a sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving in which the elements, changed by the Holy Ghost into the body and blood of Christ, were offered to God in commemoration of his death. The same tendency appeared in the liturgy introduced in 1842 and drawn up mainly by Cardale, which went back to early forma, Eastern as well as Western. The eucharistic vestments were adopted practically as in the Roman Catholic Church; extreme unction was introduced in 1847; from 1850 the consecrated elements were reserved in a tabernacle and every morning and evening (on the analogy of the showbread) exposed, not as objects of adoration but to assure the people of the Lord's presence and abiding intercession. 1n 1852 the use of candles on the altar and incense was added, and in 1868 holy water. The most original ceremony is the " sealing," which was introduced in 1847 on Cardale's motion;. with reference to Rev. vii. 3 sqq. it was taught that those who were to be saved moat be sealed in order to escape the great tribulation. This was to be done by the apostles with laying on of hands and unction; candidates must be at least twenty years old.
The result of the discord which followed these innovations, of the defection of the apostle Mackenzie, and of the failure of prophecy to fix the exact date of the Lord's coming, all contributed to keep down the numbers of the body, which in 1851 counted 4,018 members with thirty‑two churches, a decline from the days of the first enthusiasm. But the movement had already spread to other countries. In 1835‑36 it had gained a foothold in Geneva; in 1841 a propaganda had been undertaken in southern Germany by Caird (husband of Mary Campbell, one of the original claimants of the gift of tongues), and still more zealously in northern Germany by the apostle Thomas Carlyle (q.v.), who established public worship in Berlin in 1848. Outside of Holland, however, little progress was made in other countries. Doubts were awakened by the death of one apostle after another, and in 1860, at a meeting of the apostolic college at Albury the prophet Gayer called for the elevation of the evangelists BtShm and Caird to the apostolic office. These two then, and in 1870 some others, were recognized as coadjutor apostles. Gayer was not satisfied, and in 1861, being in Ktinigsberg with Woodhouse, proclaimed the call of a local evangelist Rogasatzki to the spostolate. The latter soon made his submission, but a schism ensued. In 1863 Gayer himself was called, and ten months
Catholic AHOatolio Church Catholic Emanciyatioa
later one Schwartz, especially for Holland; on the assumption that there must always be twelve apostles, there were six in Hamburg and three in Amsterdam by 1875. Woodhouse, the last English apostle, died in 1901. In the English body prophecy was allowed less and less importance, and Cardale's treatise Prophesying and the Ministry of the Prophet i» the Christian Church (1868) practically gave it its death‑blow.
	The accessible figures give the present number
of churches in England as about eighty, and in the
United Staten as ten, with 1,491 communicants.
Probably more numerous are the followers of the
German and Dutch branch, which has increased
in strength, though its separation from the English
body has favored a tendency to fanatical extrava
gance and to the abandonment of the likeness to
Roman Catholicism in externals. Apostles, proph
ets, and other functionaries appear in ordinary
dress, and the altar is usually replaced by a com
mon table. The element of adoration in public
worship is less and leas emphasized, while more stress
is laid upon conversion by preaching and prophecy
and the assembling of the faithful for the speedy
coming of the Lord. The insistence on the number
of twelve apostles which was the justification for
the schism is now considered merely as the letter,
the essential being the permanence of the office, so
that in 1900 there were fourteen apostles minis
tering in this branch. Its principal seats are
Brunswick, Hamburg, Berlin, and Kbnigaberg. 1n
recent years it has extended also to North and South
America, and claims that with the help of a native
missionary no less than 15,000 converts have been
" sealed " in the island of Java. Its official organ
is the W6chterstimmen aua Ephraim, published
monthly by the apostle Fr. Krebs at Iserlohn,
Westphalia, Prussia, containing reports of the
journeys of the apostles and statistics of conver
sions. 	(T. KOLnE.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources are found in the writings of Edward Irving, and in the following works on his life: w. Jones, Biopraphical3kekh of Rev. Edward Irving, with Extracts fromAia . . . Principal Writings, London 1835; w. Wilke, Edward Irving, an Eeeleaiwtioal and Literary Biography, ib. 1864; Mrs. O. w. Oliphant, Life of Edward Irving, Illustrated by his Journalaand Correspondence, 2 vole., ib. 1882, new ed., 1886 (on this consult D. Ker, Observations on Mrs. Oliphant's Life of Fdward Irving, Edinburgh, 1883); T. Carlyle, in his Reminiscences, ed. C. E. Norton, 2 vols., London, 1878; T. Kolde, Edward Irvine, Leipeic, 1901. For the history and doctrine of the Church consult: J. N. Kbhler, Hat Irvingisms, The Hague, 1878; E, Miller, History and Doctrines of Irvinpism, 2 vole.. London, 1878; H. M. Prior, My Experience of the Cathode Apostolic Church, ib. 1880; fi. J. Andrews, God's Revelations of Himself to Men, New York, 1888; E. A. 13ASetaueeher, Der Au/bau der XircAe Christi au/ den wapranplichrn Orurdlapen. Basel, 1888; A. 8. Dyer, Sketch" a/ English Nonconformity, London, 1893.
CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION: The name given to the Act by which Parliament, on Apr. 13, 1829, finally removed the civil disabilities under which the, Roman Catholics of England and Ireland had labored ever since the reign of Elizabeth, when those who refused to take the oath of supremacy and conform to the Established Church were excluded from the House of Commons and from all political power. They suffered from a mesa of

CatoEmancipation	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	480
accumulated disabilities, which, if the law had been strictly enforced, would have deprived them of their rights, not only as citizens, but as parents, proprietors, and men. With the growth of toleration, a bill abolishing some of these disabilities was passed in 1778, to be followed by the uprising of the London mob known as the " Gordon Riots." Pitt had intended that the union between England and Ireland should be followed by a measure admitting Catholics to Parliament, with a provision for their clergy and a commutation of tithes. This hope, informally held out, probably helped to win their support for the union; but George III. was inflexibly opposed to this measure of justice, and Pitt resigned in consequence of its failure. In 1821, with Canning for its eloquent champion, a measure of emancipation was carried through the House of Commons, only to be defeated by Lord Eldon in the upper house. But a mighty agitation followed in Ireland, led by Daniel O'Connell and fomented by a great Catholic Association. This body was dissolved when Canning became minister in 1825, but revived when he was replaced by the antiCatholic ministry of Wellington and Peel, and soon showed such formidable strength that the great Duke, with his political insight, saw that the hour for concession had come. The bill which Peel introduced threw open to Catholics Parliament and all the great offices of state, except those of regent, lord lieutenant of Ireland, and chancellor, the crown remaining limited, by an Act of Settlement to the Protestant Concession, and gave the electoral franchise to English Catholics. As the removal of an unjust anachronism, this measure was inevitable; but it failed to restore tranquillity to Ireland, since the concession had been robbed of its grace by delay and enforcement, and since the chief cause of Irish disaffection was, after all, not the religious disabilities but the tenure of land, as the sequel clearly showed.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources: A. Wellesley (Duke of Wellington), Supplementary Despatches, edited by his son, 7 July, 1812, London; 1887‑80, Speeches, 17 May, 1819, 2 vole., ib.1854; F. S. Larpent, Private Journal, i. 95, ii. 20, London, 1853; Memoir of Sir Robert Peel, pt. i., The Roman Catholic Question, London, 1834; J. F. Stephen, History o/ Criminal Lam of England ii. 478 eqq., London, 1883 (exceedingly valuable); W. J. Amherst. History of Catholic Emancipation in the British Isles, 2 vole., London, 1888 (fairly complete).

CATHOLIC EPISTLES: A name given to seven of the epistles of the New Testament; viz., James, I and II Peter, I, II, and III John, and Jude. Different explanations have been given of the significance of the name. (1) It has reference to the writers, who were the apostles in general, whereas the other New Testament epistles were believed to be written by Paul. (2) It refers to the contents, which do not treat of any particular topic, but are general. (3) It refers to the recipients, the letters not being addressed to a particular church, but to the Church universal. (4) It refers to opinion concerning these writings and indicates that they were generally accepted as authentic, in distinction from the many writings current and ascribed to apostolic authorship but not everywhere so received. The name was given to the
First Epistle of John in the East about the second century, and by the fourth century it included the seven epistles named. In the West they were called " canonical " epistles. Certain non‑canonical writings (as the Epistle of Barnabas and the letter from the apostles at Jerusalem in Acts xv. 23‑29) are also called " catholic " by early writers. See CANON of SCRIPTURE, IL, 2, § 5.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Catholic Epistles are of tonnes dealt with in the principal works on the N. T. Canon, N. T. Introduction, and in the Commentaries. Consult: P. J. Gloag, Introduction to the Catholic Epistles, Edinburgh, 1887; W. Sandey, in Biblical Inspiration, London, 1898; W. H. Bennett, in the Century Bible, ib. 1901; and C. A. Bigg, Commentary on St. Paten and St. Jude, Edinburgh, 1902.
CATHOLIC OR UNITED COPTS. See Ux1eTES. CATHOLICUS: In the time of Constantine, a civil officer established after the organization of dioceses, each diocese having its ca,tholicus, or receiver‑general. As an ecclesiastical officer occurring in several Eastern churches, the catholicus occupied a position between the metropolitan and the patriarch. The title is also applied to the head of an independent or schismatic communion, such as the Armenian Church.
CATTLE. See PeaTORar. LIFE, HEBREW.
CAVAGIQIS, c8"va"nyis, FELICE, Roman Catholic cardinal; b. at Bordogna (near Bergamo, 39 m. n.e. of Milan) Jan. 13, 1841; d. at Rome Dec. 29, 1906. He was educated at the Roman Seminary, and was ordained to the priesthood in 1863. Three years later he became a teacher at Celano, and later became a member of the faculty of the Roman Seminary, of which he was rector from 1887 to 1893. Later still he was appointed secretary of the Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, and in 1901 was created cardinal deacon of Santa Maria ad Martyrea. In addition to the Congregation for Extraordinary Affairs, he was a member of the Congregations of the Consistory, the Bishops and Regulars, the Council, the Index, and the Sacred Visitation.
CAVALIER, JEAN. See CnMISeRna.
CAVE, ALFRED: English Congregationalist; b. at London Aug. 29, 1847; d. there Dec. 19, 1900. He was educated at New College, London (B.A., London University, 1872), and was Congregational minister successively at Berkhampstead, Hems (1872‑76), and Watford, Herts (1876‑80). He was appointed professor of Hebrew and church history in Hackney College, London, in 1880, and two years later was chosen principal and professor of apologetic, doctrinal, and pastoral theology in the same institution, retaining both these positions until his death. He was also Congregational Union Lecturer in 1888, vice‑president of the London Board of Congregational ministers in 1888 and 1898, and Merchants' Lecturer in 1893‑94. He collaborated with J. S. Banks in translating the System den christlichen Glaube>islehre of I. A. Dorner (2 vole., Berlin, 1879‑81) under the title Sy3tem o/ Christian Doctrine (4 vole., Edinburgh, 1880‑82), and also wrote the independent works: Scriptural Doctrine of Sacrifice and Atonement (Edinburgh, 187 7); An Introduction to Theology

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Its Principles, Its Branches, Its Results, and Its Literature (1886); The Inspiration of the Old Testament Inductively Considered (congregational Union Lectures; London, 1888); The Battle of the Standards, the 07d Testament and the Higher Criticism (1890); The Spiritual World, the Last Word of Philosophy and the First Word of Christ (1894); and The Story of the Founding of Hackney College (1899). An enlarged edition of his Introduction to Theology appeared in 1896.
		CAVE, WILLIAM: Church of England patristic
scholar; b. at Pickwell (13 m. e. by n. of Leicester)
	Dec. 30, 1637; d. at Windsor Aug. 4, 1713. He
	studied at Cambridge, in St. John's College, and
was made M.A. in 1660, D.D. in 1672, in 1681 D.D.
	by Oxford. He was vicar of Islington, now part
	of London, 1662‑91; rector of All Hallows the
	Great, Thames Street, London, 1679‑89; became
	chaplain of Charles II. and canon of Windsor in
	1681; and in 1690 vicar of Ialeworth, London. His
	reputation rests on his eminent attainments in
	patristica. His principal works are: (1) Primitive
	Christianity (London, 1672; reprinted, Oxford,
	1840, in connection with his Dissertation Concerning
	the Government o f the Ancient Church by Bishops,
	Metropolitans, and Patriarchs, 1683); (2) Tabuhe
	ecclesiasticce, tables of ecclesiastical writers (1674;
	improved ed. under the title Chartophylax eccle
	aiasticus, 1685); (3) Apostolici., or the Lives of the
	Primitive Fathers for the Three First Ages of the
	Christian Church (I677); (4) Ecclesiastics : or,
	the Histories of the Lives, Acts, Deaths and Writings
	of the Most Eminent Fathers of the Church That
	Flourishx in the Fourth Century (1683; 3 and 4
	were combined and edited by Henry Cary under
	the title Lives o f the Most Eminent Fathers o f the
	Church That Flourished in the First Four Centuries,
	3 vole., Oxford, 1840); (5) Scriptarum eccteaiastir
	corum hiatoria literaria (1688; in Latin, to the
	fourteenth century, continued by others to 1617
	and reprinted, Oxford, 2 vole., 174"3).
B7HLIOGRAP87: J. Darling, CyCZOpOi3i4 BBbZt‑0Qr6Ph7Ca, pp. 806‑807, London, 1854; 8. A. Allibone Critical Dictionary of English Literatre, i. 3b8‑3b7, Philadelphia, 1891; DNB, ix.341‑343.
CAVICCB701tI, ca‑vf'chs"nf, BENJAMIN: Roman Catholic cardinal; b. at Veiano (a village near Viterbo, 42 m. n.n.w. of Rome) Sept. 27, 1836. He was ordained priest in 1859, and, after teaching for several years, went to Rome, where he studied canon law. In 1872 he became a member of the Congregation of the Council, and twelve years later was consecrated titular archbishop of Amida and appointed apostolic delegate to Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador, where he remained until 1889. In the latter pear he was appointed secretary of the council, with the title of archbishop of Naziaazum, and in 1903 was created cardinal priest of Santa Maria in Ara Caeli. He is a member of the Congregations of Bishops and Regulars, the Council, the Propaganda for the Oriental Rite, the Index, and Indulgences.
CAYET, ca"y6' (CABIER, CAIET, Cajetanus), PIERRE VICTOR PALMA: Roman Catholic convert; b. at Montrichard (18 m. s.s.w. of Blois),
Catholic Emancipation Ceadda
Touraine, 1525; d. in Paris may 10 (or July 22), 1610. He studied at Paris and Geneva, was Protestant pastor at Poitiers and in its neighborhood, and in 1584 became chaplain to Catherine of Bourbon, sister of Henry IV.; in 1595 he embraced R,omanism, was made professor of Hebrew in the Sorbonne in 1596, and became priest in 1600. He was accused of scandalous writings and immorality, but claimed that all charges were prompted by ill will because of his change of faith. His moat noteworthy writings were Chronologie aepttnaire ate l'histoire de la paix entre le roi de France et d'Espagne (Paris, 1605) and Chronologie novdnaire soul le rbgne de Henri IV (1608).
	CAZALLA, ca‑thal'yd, AUGUSTINO: Spanish
Protestant; b. at Valladolid 1510; executed by
the Inquisition there May 21, 1559. He was a
scholar of Bartholom5 Carranza (q.v.) and stud
ied at Valladolid and Alcala. The influence of
his father, the chief officer of the royal finances,
opened to him a brilliant career in the Church, sad
his own ability won him the reputation of being one
of the foremost preachers in Spain. In 1545 he be
came chaplain and almoner to Charles V. sad accom
panied the emperor to Germany on the outbreak
of the Schmalkald was. There he undertook to
confute the Lutherans, but ended by accepting
their doctrines. Returning to Spain in 1552, he
was cautious at first in expressing his opinions,
but ultimately his mother's house in Valladolid
became the meeting‑place of the Protestants of the
city and Cazalla himself the head of the congregar
tion. In 1558, with his brothers and sisters and
about seventy‑five others, he was put into prison.
On Mar. 4, 1559, when threatened with torture,
he acknowledged that he had accepted Luther's
teachings, but denied that he had taught them to
others except to those already of like mind; fur
ther concessions he steadfastly refused to make.
The auto da f~ at which he perished was the first
of these sad spectacles. Sixteen persons, including
a brother sad a sister of Cazalla, brought to judg
ment at the same time, were condemned to im
prisonment for life; two, Cazalla's brother Fran
cisco and Antonio Herezuelo, a lawyer of Toro,
were burned alive; and twelve others, including
Cazalla, were strangled before being burned. At
the place of execution he was persuaded to address
his fellow prisoners. 	(O. Zbesi.Eat.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. McCrie, History of the Progress and Suppreeaion of the Reformation in Spain, pp. 228‑231, 286289, Edinburgh 1829 C. A. Wilkens, GewAichte do apaniarhen Proteataret%amua. PP. 79 eqq, 224 eqq., 234 aqq., Giiteraloh, 1888; H. C. Lea, History of the Inquisition in Spain, ii. 318, b12,iii. 201, 430, 431, 438, New York, 1908.
CEADDA (CHAD), ST.: Third bishop of Mereia; d. at Lichfield Mar. 2, 672. He was one of Aidan's pupils at Lindisfarne sad also spent some years at the monastery of Rathmelaige (Melfont, near Drogheda?) in Ireland. His oldest brother, Cedd (q.v.), chose him to succeed himself as abbot at Laatingham, Northumbria, in 664. After the Synod of Whitby (q.v‑) Wilfrid was elected to the Northumbrian bishopric and went to Gaul to be consecrated. As he did not return immediately King Oswy saw fit to appoint Ceadda, and he was

Cecil
Oelestine	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	482
consecrated (8657) by Wine of Winchester and two British bishops. Wilfrid acquiesced on going back to England, but when Theodore became archbishop of Canterbury (669) objection was raised to Ceadda's consecration; he expressed his willingness to lay down an office of which he had never deemed himself worthy, retired to his monastery in Northumbria, and Wilfrid was instated in his place. Theodore, however, impressed by Ceadda's humility and worth, reconsecrated him as bishop of the Merciana to succeed Jaruman, and he fixed his residence at Lichfield (Sept., 669). His simplicity, piety, and devotion to duty won the hearts of all, and in later times he was one of the most popular of English saints.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Belle, Hist. eccl., iii. 23, 24, 28; iv. 2, 3; v. 19. 24; Faso Eboraccnasa ell. W. H. Dixon and J. Rsine, i. 47‑b5, London, 1883; W. Bright, Early English Church History. DP. 243‑248, 269‑288, Oxford, 1897; DNB, ix. 391‑393.
CECIL, RICHARD: English "evangelical "; b. in London Nov. 8, 1748; d. at Hampstead (London) Aug. 15, 1810. His early life was profligate, but he was converted about 1772, and in 1?73 entered Queen's College, Oxford (B.A., 1777); he was ordained priest 1777 and, after holding various livings, was appointed minister of St. John's Chapel, Bedford Row, London, in 1780. He was the leading " evangelical " clergyman of his time, and exerted a wide influence. He had an original mind, dignified carriage, and impressive delivery. His works were collected and published with memoir by the Rev. J. Pratt (4 vole., London, 1811; new ell., with bin letters and memoir by Mrs. Cecil, 1854). Perhaps the most noteworthy of his works is The Remains of Richard Cecil, with numerous selections from his works, new ell., with introduction by his daughter and preface by R. Bickersteth (London, 1876), containing reminiscences of his conversations.

CECILIA, SAINT: Roman maiden of noble family, who is said by different versions of the uncertain and contradictory tradition to have suffered martyrdom under Marcus Aurelius and Commodes, under Alexander Severus, and under Diocletian. Her Acts relate that on the eve of her marriage she converted her husband, Valerianus, to Christianity. Angels appeared to both Cecilia and Valerianus charging them that her virginity should not be impaired. Tibertiua, the brother of Valerianus, was then converted. The two brothers, refuting to sacrifice to the gods at the bidding of the prefect, Almachiua were executed by the sword, and Cecilia was exposed to death in an overheated bath in her own house; when this means failed she too was beheaded. The remains of the three martyrs were placed in the catacombs of St. Calixtus, when Pope Paschal L, in 821, is said to have removed the relics of Cecilia to a church called after her name (Sts. Cecilia in Trastevere); her coffin of cypress wood was found there in 1599 (Baronies, Annales, ad an. 821). De Rossi discovered what is probably the original crypt of Cecilia, adjoining the papal crypt in the cemetery of Calixtus, and has attemPted
to prove that she belonged to the old patrician family of the Ctecilii; also that the date of her
martyrdom was 177 under Marcus Aurelius. To
ward the end of the Middle Ages Cecilia begins to
be represented in art with musical attributes.
The conception of her as patroness of the organ
dates probably from Raffael's painting of 1513,
now in Bologna, and may be based upon a mis
understanding of certain words of her Acts which
refer to the (secular) musical instruments at her
wedding, but were thought to indicate a particular
instrument played by herself. The .r&le which she
fills among both Roman Catholics and Protestants
as patroness of church music in general may be
due to the founding of a musical academy at Rome
by Gregory XIII. in 1584 under her protection
and named after her. 	(O. ZScxr.Eat.)
BxsLrocsswre:: ASB, April, ii. 203‑211; A. Boeio, Aeta S. CmciZia Rome, 1800 ell. J. Laderchi, with title, Acta S. Caeiii2 et tranatibsr;na basilica iZZuatrata. 2 vole.. Rome, 1722; J. B. de Rossi, Rome eotterranea christiana, ii., pp. ncxii.‑xliii., 113‑181, Rome, 1887, Eng.transl., i. 315‑333, London 1879; Dom Gudranger, Sts. Cecile, Paris, 1874 (richly illustrated, but of little scientific value); C. Martin, Die heiZips CgCftia Mains, 1878; Berths E. Lovewell, The Life of St. Cecilia, in Yak Studies in English, vol. iii., New York, 1898.

CEDD (CEDDA), ST.: Bishop of Essex; d, at Lastingham (25 m. n.n.e. of York), Northumbria, Oct. 26, 664. With his youngest brother Ceadda or Chad (q.v.), he was brought up at Lindisfarne, and was sent in 653 by his abbot, Finan (q.v.), and Oswy, king of Northumbria, as missionary, first to Peada, king of Mercia, and then to Sigbert, king of Essex. He was very successful and was consecrated bishop of the East Saxons by Finan and two Scotch bishops in 854. He founded two monasteries in Essex and the one at Lastingham and governed them strictly, according to the Columban rules. He was present at the Synod of Whitby (q.v.) in 664 and acted as interpreter; he inclined to the British aide, but when the Roman prevailed he acquiesced. He died of the plague while on a visit to Northumbria. He has been called the second bishop of London, but Belle, who is the source of all information concerning him (Hist. eccl., iii. 21‑23, 25, 26, 28; iv. 3), never speaks of him as such.
CEILLIER, sdl"lye', REMY: French bibliogra‑
pher; b. at Bar.le‑duc May 14,1688; d, at Flavigny, near Nancy, Nov. 17, 1761. He entered the Congregation of St. Vannes (reformed Benedictines) in 1705, and became titular prior of Flavigny. His great work was an Histoire genErale den auteurs sacres et ecclE8&*iJtw, qui contient leer vie, le
Z,d~, ~ ~ ale ju9t, la chronologie,
	ement den dip fErentea editions
	de leers ouvrages; ee gu'ils renfement de plus in‑

t6ressant our Is dogme, our 14 cillline de Z'eglise (23 vole., Paris, 1729‑63; Table
1782,• n~ ~ t&m by R'°ndet and Drouet, 2 vole.,
	16 vole., 1858‑69). This work is
brought down to the middle of the thirteenth cen
tury, and is more complete and exact than the

sunk undertaking of Du Pin (q.v.), but is inferior in respect to style and critical judgment; it is of moat value for the first six centuries, for which Ceillier was able to use Tillemont and the Benedictine editions.

463	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cecil
ceie.tfne
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Beugnet, L'~stude biopraphique et crit%qwa eur Don Rdmi Ceil7ier, Bar‑le‑Due, 1891.
CELE, JOHANNES: Teacher at Zwolle; b. at Zwolle, about the middle of the fourteenth century; d. there May 9, 1417. He received his early education in his native place, continued his studies in some unknown school, and, returning to Zwolle, in 1374 was entrusted with the school‑management there. Having been awakened by the preaching of Gerard Groote, he thought of joining the order of Minorites, but was prevented from doing so by Groote, who advised him to complete his studies at Prague. Whether he went to Prague is not known. Depressed in mind, Cele spent some time in the monastery at Munnikhuizen and ih company with Ruysbroeck. Through the influence of Groote, in spite of opposition, Cele was made rector of the school at Zwolle. He received much help from the Brethren of the Common Life and assisted them especially in the difficult task of securing houses at Zwolle for their adherents and those committed to their charge, but he did not join the brotherhood, remaining rector of the overgrowing school, which numbered 1,000 pupils. He taught Latin, grammar, and rhetoric, and expounded the Scriptures, admitting laymen to his lectures against the will of the city ministers. He founded a large library by buying and copying manuscripts. For more than forty years he stood at the head of the institution, highly esteemed for his learning and piety and his lasting influence on his pupils. The lazy and presumptuous were kept under rigid discipline. All wore the simple dress of the brethren. He had no method of his own, but labored in the spirit of his friend Groote, recognizing in a pious personality the source of all morality, and thus he gave to the growing humanism the right direction and true basis in the Christian faith and genuine piety. Many prominent men were his pupils, such as Heinrich von Herxen, Wessel Gansfort, Alexander Hegius, Rudolf Langen, Rudolf Agricola, Ludwig Dringenberg, Moritz von Spiegelberg, and Johannes Busch.
L. ScHUrzE.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the works mentioned in the article ,ComMOx LIFE, BHwrHSax OF THE, valuable sources for Cole are the personal reminiscences of Thomas a< Kempis in the Chronicon monaeterii S. Apnctia, ed. H. Roeweyde, p. 171, Antwerp, 1815 and of his scholar, Johannes Busch, in the Chronscon Windeshemenae, ed. K. Grebe, pp. 204222, Halle, 1887. Consult also ADB, iv. 79.

CELESTINE: The name of five popes.
Celestine L: Pope 422‑432. He was a Roman by birth, and only s deacon when, in Sept., 422, he was raised to the episcopate. The main endeavor of his pontificate was to extend the jurisdiction of his see. To this end he made use of a conflict which had been going on for years in the African Church in order to assert the right of the Roman pontiff to receive appeals thence. He restored to communion Apiaries, an African priest who had been deposed by his bishop and had appealed to Rome under Zoeimus and Boniface I. The Africans, however, in a synod at Carthage in 424 or 425, denied his right to interfere. Celestine's part in the dogmatic controversies of his time was also
influenced by political considerations (see SEMl
PElwowmra>a; NEBTOHIUS). He died at the end of
July, 432. 	(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liber pontd~Icalia, ed. Ducheene, i. 230,.
	Paris, 1888; Jaff6, Repeats, i. 55; Hefele, Concilienge
	schichte, ii. 159 eqq., Eng. tranal., ii. 478 eqq.; Bower,
	Popes, i. 188‑188; Milman, Latin Christianity, i. 200‑238.
	Celestine II. (Guido de Castellis): Pope 1143
1144. He was a Tuscan of noble birth, reputed to
be learned and pious. He occupied the papal
throne only from Sept. 26 to Mar. 8, not long
enough to fulfil the hopes which his elevation had.
raised. 	(A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jaff4, Regeata, ii. 1; Bower, Popes, ii. 475.. Celestine III. (Jacinto Bobo): Pope 1191‑98. After being a cardinal forty‑seven years, at eightyfive he was elected, Mar. 30 (7), 1191, the first pope of the house of Orsini. The times were troublous (see CLEMENT III.), and the aged pope, a man of mild temper and inclined to half measures, was no match for his formidable opponent Henry VI., who appeared before Rome and demanded his coronation, which Celestine was obliged tQ perform on the day after Easter. Henry surrendered Tusculum to him, but later forced him, in compliance with the agreement of May 31, 1188, to give it up to the Romans for destruction. From 1194 he saw the Norman kingdom, with which his predecessors had invested Tancred, in the possession of the hated Hohenstaufen. Henry refused to take the oath of fealty or to pay tribute; he appointed bishops and judged them, and gave the lands of Countess Matilda to his brother Philip in fee. Celestine did not venture to excommunicate him, but did break off relations with him, though he offered reconciliation when Henry took the cross (May 31, 1195). It soon became evident that Henry was a crusader only for political advantage, and the territory and rights of the Church were invaded in various quarters. Humiliations beset the aged pope. He was obliged to release Philip Augustus of France from his unperformed vow to free the Holy Sepulcher; and could not force the recognition of his legate in England, William of Longchamp (the bishop of Ely, Richard Caeur de Lion's chancellor), by Prince John and the barons; nor did Philip Augustus heed his admonitions against the arbitrary dissolution of his marriage with Ingeborg of Denmark and the contracting of s new one. His fear of the emperor prevented him from protesting against Richard's imprisonment; only after the English king had paid his ransom did he excommunicate Leopold of Austria. Celeatine survived Henry VI. by only a few months, dying Jan. 8, 1198. (A. HAUCK.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: UK Repeats, 11. 577; J. M. Watterleh, Pontiheum Romareorum vita, ii. 708, Leipaie, 1882; F. Gregorovius, Oeschichte der Stadt Rom, iv. 591, Stuttgart, 1890, Eng. tranel., iv. 828‑830, 899, London, 1898; Bower, Popes, ii. 531‑b34; Hauck, KD, iv. 883‑X81.
Celestine IV. (Galfrido di Castiglione): Pope 1241. A Milanese by birth, he was elected pope in a conclave held by permission of Frederick II. on Oct. 25. He was old and feeble, and died, before he could be consecrated, on Nov. 10.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bower, Popes, ii. 559‑SBO. (A. HAUCK.)

Celestine
Celibacy	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	464
	Celestine V. (Pietro di Murrhone): Pope 1294.
He was born about 1215 in the Abruzzi; d. at
Fumone, near Anagni, May 19, 1296. At twenty
he entered the Benedictine order, and lived for
years in retirement first on the Murrhone, then on
the Majella, where numerous followers gathered
around him (see CELirsxix>rrs~ After the death of
Nicholas IV. (Apr. 4, 1292), dissensions among
the cardinals hindered an election, until in March,
1294, Charles II. of Naples, who needed a pope
to support his designs on Sicily, took up the matter.
Since there was no hope of agreeing on a cardinal,
Latinos, the head of the Angevin party in the sacred
	college, drew his attention to the hermit of the
	Abruzzi, whose sanctity was universally revered;
	and Pietro was elected on July 5. His unfitness
	for high affairs of state was equally well known;
	the various leaders hoped to rule through him.
	But the remarkable choice can only be fully ex
	plained by a study of the mystical reform move
	ment represented by Joachim of Fiore (q.v.), which
	had spread so widely among a section of the Fran
	ciscan order. Their prominent men favored the
	election of Pietro enthusiastically, flocked to his
	coronation, and renewed their old relations with
	him by a formal embassy. The new pope sanc
	tioned their observance of the rule of the order in
	its strictest form, and took them under his special
	protection, allowing them to be known by the name
	which he had assumed as pope. Meantime Charles
	was preparing to use his candidate for his own
	purposes; he surrounded him with Sicilian coun
	selors, and brought him to Aquila, where he had
	him crowned in the presence of only three cardinals.
	The king's influence, however, finally induced the
	others to appear one by one, the last being Bene
	detto Gaetani, Celestine's successor as Boniface
	VIII., and the coronation ceremony was repeated.
	Celestine'a whole interest was given to the pro
	motion of monasticism; in other things he was
	merely a tool in the heads of Charles, who got biers to
	create twelve Angevin cardinals, confirm his treaty
	with Aragon, and supply large sums of money for
	the Sicilian war. The strict regulation of Gregory X.
	for the conclave was reenacted, that Charles might
	have the next election also securely in his hands,
	and in October the curia was removed to Naples.
	Both the cardinals and the pope were discontented
	with the state of affairs, and the latter began to
	think of abdication, that he might be able to give
	himself once more wholly to his ascetic practises.
	The thing was without precedent, and offered great
	constitutional difficulties, which, when Celestine's
	resolve was seen to be fixed, were a$ far as possible
	removed by the legal wisdom of Gastani, and the
	abdication took place on Dec. 13. While Dente
	speaks scornfully of the pope " • who made the great
refusal," others lauded the act highly‑Petralch
among them, who regarded it as an example of humility entitling the poor hermit to rank above the apostles and many other saints. Gaetani was later accused of having brought about the abdication by guile in offer to secure.his own advancement. The charge is not justified , but he undoubtedly had his eye on the tiara in view. After he had attained it, he wished to keep his prede‑
cessor with him in Rome, lest he should be used as a tool by the opposition; but the ascetic fled, and was finally taken and imprisoned in the mountain castle of Fumone, where he died the next year. He was canonized by Clement V.
(HANa SCHULZ.)
BISr.IOSaersr: The older documents are collected in ASB,
May, iv. 419‑498 cf. Muratori, Sa^Sptores, III. i. 813‑641.
Consult: A. Potthast, Repeats pontifieum Romanorum,
ii. 1915‑22. Berlin, 1876; Don Joeaphet, Der heilige
Papst Coeleatin V., Fulda, 1894; F. Gregorovius, Ge
achichte der Stadt Rom, v. 490 eqq, Stuttgart, 1892 Eng.
transl., v, 523‑b34, London, 1898; Bower, Popes, iii. 40‑43.
CELESTIIYES: A name borne by two monastic societies which owe their origin to Pope Celestine V. (q.v.)‑ (1) The Benedictine Celestines, known also as Moronites and Murrhonitea, were originally composed of men who were members of the Benedictine order, but lived as hermits on Monte Majella in the Abruzzi from about 1258, under the guidance of the future pope Celestine, who gave them a severer rule and obtained papal confirmation for the congregation from Urban IV., probably in 1264, though the alleged bull of this year, as well as another of Gregory X. from 1274, is of doubtful genuineness. The early history of the congregation is, in fact, frequently open to critical objection; as, for example, the statement that it already had sixteen houses in 1274, when its founder is said to have gone to the general council at Lyons and attracted great attention as a wonder‑worker. After about 1290, the mother house seems to have been at Monte Murrhone near Sulmona. On the founder's elevation to the papacy in 1294, he attempted by rich grants of indulgences and other privileges to give it a commanding position in the Benedictine monastic family; indeed, he aspired to reform the mother house of the whole order at Monte Cassino on the principles of his congregation. But the brevity of his pontificate prevented the execution of his plans. The congregation, however, continued to grow, until in Italy it had at the beginning of the eighteenth century ninety‑six houses. Its rule, which in some points, especially as to fasting, surpasses the original Benedictine rule in strictness, was revised by Urban VIII. in 1629. The French province never got beyond twenty‑one houses. In Bohemia and Lusatia the congregation had some famous seats, as at Prague, K6nigatein, and Oybin near Zittau, the last of which was founded by Charles IV. in 1366 and suppressed in the sixteenth century.(2) The Franciscan Celestines (Poveri eremiti di Celestino), called also Fraticelli, were a congregation within the Franciscan order, founded in 1294, on an impulse given by Celestine V., by two of the "spiritual "sections of the order, Pietro da Macerato (Liberato) and Pietro da Fosaombrone (Angelo Claremo, d. 1357). It existed dowel to about 1340 in nearly all its original strength as a congregation of the Minorites. See FRANCls, SAINTS Olr A$$I$I, AND THE FRANCISCAN ORDER.

(O. ZSCKLERt.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For (1) Helyot, Ordree morsastyqaee v, 51

!qq., vi. 180‑191; Heimbueher Orders u„d Kone~,egationen,
i. 134‑138 (gives the later literature); Carrier, Religious

bra. p. 147; KL, iii. u82‑584.For (2) Feline Too,,,

486	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Celertine
Celibacy
1 /raticelli o Pover'i eremiti dC Celeetiao, in the Bol7tttino
dally aocieth atorica Abruzaeae, vii. (1895) 117‑159.
CELESTIi1S. See PEleGlus, PELAGIANISM.
CELIBACY.
Celibacy in the Early Church (¢ 1). Marriage of the Clergy Still Permitted (¢ 2). In the Early Roman Catholic Church (¢ 3). The Medieval Period (¢ 4). The Council of Trent on Celibacy (¢ 5). Protestant Rejection of Celibacy (¢ 8).
	Celibacy, in the Roman Catholic Church, means
the permanently unmarried state to which men
and women bind themselves either by a vow or by
the reception of the major orders which implies
personal purity in thought and deed. The Jewish
priests and high priests were married, being re
stricted only in the choice of a wife (Lev. xxi. 7,
8, 14, 15). In preparation for the exercise of their
office, they were to abstain from commerce with
their wives, vihich was also re aired of the whole
people before the reception o~ the Law on Sinai
(Ex. xix. 15). The New Testament contains no
prohibition of marriage; some of the apostles were
married (Matt. viii. 14; I Cor. ix. 5), and Paul
recommended marriage to the heads of churches
(I Tim. iii. 1), though he considered that under
some circumstances it was better not to marry
(I Cor. vii. 38). Very early in the history of the
Church the idea grew up that the unmarried state
was preferable (liermsa, I. ii. 3; Ignatius to Poly
carp, v.), and grew into a positive contempt of
marriage (Origen, Hom. vi. in Num. ; Jerome, Ad
Jovinianum, i. 4). As early as the second century
		examples of voluntary vows of vir‑
i. Celibacy ginity are found, and the requirement in the Early of continence before the performance Church. of sacred functions. By the fourth century canons began to be passed in that sense (Synod ,of Neocaesttrea, 314 A.D., canon i.; Synod of Ancyra, 314. A.D., canon x.). Unmarried men were preferred for ecclesiastical offices, though marriage was still not forbidden; in act, the clergy were expressly prohibited from deserting a lawfully married wife on religious grounds (Apostolic Canons, v.): The Synod of Gangra (355?) anathematized in its fouith canon, against the Eustathians, those who refused to accept the ministrations of a married priest. The stricter view prevailed so far, however, that the Council of Niceea could speak of it as an ancient custom that priests and s. Marriage deacons should not marry after ordinaof the tion, unless, in the case of deacons,
Clergy Still they had expressed an intention of Permitted. marrying at the time of their ordination‑though both were allowed to retain wives already married, and a marriage contracted in contravention of this regulation was valid. The standpoint of the Roman .Church was different from this. Thus Pope Siricius declared in 385 that priestly marriage had been allowed in the Old Testament because the priests could only be taken from the tribe of Levi; but that with the abandonment of that limitation this permission had lost its force, and that " obscaenfe cupiditates " (i.e., marriage) hindered the proper performance IL‑‑30
of spiritual functions. Succeeding popes adhered
to this view (cf. decretals of Innocent L, 404, 405,
and Leo L, 456, 458), and the rest of the Western
Church came to it (Synods of Carthage, 390, 401).
Candidates for the higher orders were accordingly
required to take a vow of celibacy, and from
		the fifth century those for the sub
	3. In the diaconate also. A breach of this vow
Early Roman entailed degradation from office, but
	Catholic not the nullity of the marriage.
	Church. Those in minor orders were still
		permitted to marry, but not a widow
or for the second time (Fifth Synod of Carthage,
401; Gregory L, 601). Secular legislation con
firmed these regulations in so far as it forbade
married men, or men who had children, to be
made bishops, and even went further by declar
ing the marriages of those in major orders
void and their children illegitimate. The Eastern
Church adhered to the older legislation, with the
modifications introduced by the imperial decrees
just referred to; prohibited marriages were now
declared void, but married men could still be ad
mitted to orders without giving up their wives,
except in the case of bishops (Council of Constan
tinople, 692). This system the modern Roman
Catholic Church still allows for the Uniat Greeks,
as explained by. Benedict XIV. in the constitutions
Etai Pastoralis (May 26, 1742) and Eo quamvia
tempore (May 4, 1745). But within its own bound
aries the Latin Church has held more and more
strictly to the requirement of celibacy, though not
without continual opposition on the part of the
clergy. The large number of canons on this
subject enacted from the eighth century on shows
that their enforcement was not easy. After the
middle of the eleventh century the new ascetic
tendency whose champion was Gregory VII. had
a strong influence in this matter. Even before
Hildebrand's accession to the papacy, the legis
		lation of Leo IX. (1054), Stephen IX.
	4. The (1058), Nicholas II. (1059), and Alex
	Medieval ander II. (1063) had laid down the
	Period. principles which as pope he was to
		carry out. In the synod of 1074
he renewed the definite enactment of 1059 and
1063, according to which both the married priest
who said mass and the layman who received com
munion at his hands were excommunicate. Urban
II. decreed in 1089 that the marriage of one in
major orders should be punished by the loan of
both office and benefice. The Councils of Reims
(1119) and of the Lateran (1123) ordered that the
partite to such a marriage should be separated
and sent to places of penance. The Lateran Council
of 1139 confirmed this provision, with the declara
tion " that such connection was not marriage."
These strict principles were not extended to the
minor orders. It is true that Alexander III. and
Innocent III. prescribed the loss of clerical rank and
privileges for even the holders of these in case they
married; but Boniface VIII. (1298) and Clement
V. (1311) reasserted the older law. After the
Reformation had done its work, Charles V. endeav
ored by the Interim of 1548 to bring about the
abolition of these rules, and with several other

a~.~y
princes requested the discussion of the question at the Council of Trent. The council, however,
maintained the system as a whole, g. The and the following rules are now in
Council of force: (1) through the reception of maTrent on jor orders or the taking of monastic Celibacy. or other solemn vows, celibacy becomes so binding a duty that any subsequent marriage is null and void. (2) Any one in minor orders who marries loses his office and the right to go on to major orders, but the marriage is valid. (3) Persons already married may receive the minor orders if they have the intention of proceeding to the major, and show this by taking a vow of perpetual abstinence; but the promotion to the higher orders can only take place when the wife expresses her willingness to go into a convent and take the veil. The Council of Trent further lays down that the functions of the minor orders may be performed by married men in default of unmarriedthough not by those who are living with a second wife. In the nineteenth century attempts were I not lacking, even within the Roman Catholic Church, to bring about the abolition of celibacy. They were rather hindered than helped by temporal governments, and always firmly rejected by Rome. Celibacy has been abolished among the Old Catholics; and modern legislation in Germany, France, Belgium, Italy, and Switzerland authorizes the marriage both of priests and of those who have taken a solemn vow of chastity. Austria, Spain, and Portugal still forbid it. The evangelical
churches at the very outset released 6. Protes‑ their clergy from the obligation of tent Rejec‑ celibacy, professing to find no validity tion of in the arguments adduced in its favor Celibacy. on the Roman side. The question
	is carefully discussed and decided
against the Roman practise in the Augsburg Con
fession (xxiii.) and the Apology (vi.). Similar
ground is taken in Art. xxxvii. of the first Helvetic
Confession and Art. xxix. of the second, as well as
in Art. xxxii. of the Thirty‑nine Articles. Like
wise disapproval is expressed of binding vows of
celibacy in the Augsburg Confession (xxvii.) and
Apology (xi.). 	(E. FRIEDBERG.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The book beet worth consulting from the
	Protestant standpoint re $. C. Lea, Sacerdotal Celibacy in
	the Christian Church 3d ed., 2 vole., London and New
	York, 1907; for the Catholic presentation consult Migne,
	E' nevclopedie ThEologique, vol. axv., •• Cdlibat," Paris,
	1858: iyictionnaire de Theolopie aatholique, '• Cdlibat eeeld
	aiaetique, ib. 1905. Other treatises are; J. 8chmitt,
	Der PrieaterciiliLat, Monster, 1870: P. M. R. des Prlliera,
	Le Cilibat eedeaiaalique, Chambdry. 1888 Clerical Celibacy,
	Oxford, 1891: F. Chavard, La C€libat, le probe tt la
	>'emme, Paris, 1894 L. Bocquet, Le Cdlibat eocuaioatique
	juequ'au cocyle de Trent., Paris, 1895; A. Vassal, Le
	CBlibot uoleaiastique au p,,a„y~,, at.	de 1Essay	ib. 1896;
	Easy on the Law of Celibacy,0 wreeater ..d.: E. Carry.
	Le Ceslibat eccZEaiaatique devant 1'histaire et decant la
	conscience, Paris. 1905 E. A. Sperry, An Outline of the
	Hint. a/ Clerical Celibacy in Western Ewope to the
	Council o/ Trent, New York, 1908 (contains a bibliog
	raphy). On the change of status in the Eng. Church
	consult J. Collier, Ecclesiastical History, ii. 282 sqq.. Lon
	don. 1714, and G. Burnet, History of the Reformation
	ii. 84 aqq., ib. 1715. The subject of celibacy is treated
	at greater or leas length in the church histories, e.g., Nesn
	der, Christian Church, consult the Index.
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
CELL: Usually the room or but in which a monk, nun, hermit, or friar lives, but also a dependency of a large monastery, ruled by a prior, dean, or abbot, who was the virtual choice of the abbot of the mother house. Such " cells" were frequently country houses which with the grounds were bestowed upon the abbey as a source of revenue, as the monks living therein had to pay a certain part of their revenue to the mother house. Sometimes the "cell" was an important building, as Tynemouth Priory neat Newcastle, England, which was a " cell " of the Benedictine abbey of St. Albans (20 m. n. of London); or Bermondsey, which was a " cell " of the Cluniac abbey of La Charity (140 m, s. of Paris). Originally a " cell " was an oratory erected over the grave of a martyr or saint.
CELLARILTS. See 13ORRHAUS, MARTIN.
CELLITES (CELLITA). See ALEXIANB; BEGHARDB, $EGUIIVE3.
CELSUS: A pagan philosopher and controversialist against Christianity. In the period of peace which the Church enjoyed under the emperor Philip in the year 248, Origen brought to notice, by an exhaustive reply (the Contra Celsum), a treatise written about seventy years earlier against Christianity by a highly educated Platonist. The occasion of this reply may have been the celebration in that year of the thousandth anniversary of the founding of Rome, which gave the Christians reason to fear religious excitement on the part of the pagan population. Origen gives the arguments
of Celsus sometimes word for word, Origen's sometimes in substance id the latter Contra case there is little abbreviation and
Celsum. not many omissions, so that there is
very fair material for an attempt to reconstruct the original text of Celsus. This attempt was first made, not very systematically or successfully, by Jachmann in 1836; in 1873 Keim undertook a restoration of Celsus in a German version which, in spite of its defects, has many merits, and this was partially improved on in the French version of Aub6 in 1878. The recent reconstruction by Neumann in the Greek shows that not more than one‑tenth of the original has been lost, and that three‑fourths of what we have is wordfor‑word quotation.
The " True Discourse " of Celaus was composed in the last years of Marcus Aurelius. It notices the rescript of that emperor, issued in 177 (or 176 at the earliest), against popular tumults caused by the introduction of a new religion (viii, 69), In viii. 71 the author speaks of two emperors reigning at the time, which fixes the date in the joint rule of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus, from 177 to 180. He was thus at least a contemporary of the Celaus to whom Lucian dedicated his " Alexander," and some have supposed the two to be iden‑
tical. Lucian's friend, however, was The "Tree an Epicurean, while our Celsus, in
Discourse" spite of Origen, stands out clearly
of Celsus, as a Platonist; and the books rcara
PJY‑ (Lucian, Alex., W.; Origen, i. 68, Kark psyeias) do not seem to fit in with the conception and tone of the " True Discourse."

467	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Celibacy
Celsus
The latter, though usually divided into eight books, seems to have been but one originally; and, according to Origen (viii. 76), Celsus intended to write another, " in which he engaged to supply practical rules of living to those who felt disposed to embrace his opinions." In iv. 36 Origen mentions two more books written by a Celaus whose identity with ours he leaves uncertain; but as he seems to know nothing of these, it is at least possible that he has misunderstood a notice referring to the two already mentioned: Keim, followed by P5lagaud, places the home of Celsus in the West, probably in Rome, where he thinks the " True Discourse " was written‑partly on the ground that the Jew depicted by Celsus is a Roman and not an Eastern Jew. The old view, adopted also by AubA; that the book was composed in the East, probably in Alexandria, rested upon its accurate knowledge of Egypt; and this view might be supported by the contention that as a matter of fact Celsua's Jew is really not the Roman type, but belongs to those Eastern Jewish circles in which the doctrine of the Logos was familiar; thus in Origen,, ii. 31, the Jew of Celaus says, " If your Logos is the Son of God, we also give our assent to the same."
After the introduction, there follow objections against Christianity from the Jewish standpoint, which should be compared with Justin's dialogue with Trypho. With book iii. begins the direct attack, which is directed not against Christianity alone, but also against Judaism, although a slight preference is shown for the latter. Celsus shows a good knowledge of Genesis and Exodus; AubE; thinks he can prove an acquaintance with the Prophets and with the Psalms, and a reference to Jonah and Daniel is indeed found in vii. 53. His knowl‑
edge of Christianity is sufficient to be
Criticism of some value to the historian of to‑day,
		of	and Harnack.has used it in his Dog
	Celsus.	mengeschichte. The manner in which
			Celsus employs the New Testament
corresponds to the stage of development of the
canon which the Acts of the Martyrs of Scili show
in 180. He knew and used our Gospels, showing
a preference for the synoptic type; his acquaint
ance with the Acts is disputed, while familiarity,
with Pauline ideas, though not with the epistles
themselves, is generally admitted. Gnosticism
he knew well; his relation to Marcion needs further
investigation. His whole criticism is not irre
ligious; it is that of a pious pagan of Platonic
tendencies, though his Platonism is that of his age,
as we meet with it, for example, in Plutarch. It
is the religion of well‑to‑do, self‑confident people,
and shows no conception of those crying needs of
the time which helped Christianity to spread so
rapidly, of the reasons why it was welcomed by the
poor and oppressed. Again, he fails to appreciate
the significance of the church idea, though he under
stands the relation of the local communities to the
Church at large (v. 59, 61), and knows that all
Christians do not belong to the latter (iii. 12).
But it presents itself to him rather in its oppo
sition to the Gnostic sects than as a great bond of
unity, whose importance he undervalues while
seeing in the conflict of sects a sign of weakness.
Still, Christianity seems to him important enough to make him desirous of winning back its adherents; and_ he closes, not, as he began (i. 1), with the accusation of secret and illegal association, but with the hope that an understanding may be leached.
The book had no influence on the attitude of the Roman government, and scarcely a trace of acquaintance with it can be found in classical litera‑
ture. Such traces have been seen,
	Later	on the other hand, in Minucius Felix
History and in the Apologeticu rt of Tertullian;
	of His	but Origen was the first to call gen
	Work.	eral attention to it. The Neopla
		tonic controversialists naturally went
back to it; certain fundamental thoughts reappear
in Porphyry, whom Julian follows, and the A(%,'>t
¢OLaXyPts (" Truth‑loving Discourses ") of Hiero
cles point to it in their very title. Meantime,
however, the canon of the New Testament had
been completed, and it was possible for assaults on
Christianity to take the form of assaults on its
sacred writings. Later Christian antiquity saw
the typical literary attack from the pagan side not
in Celsus but in Porphyry; Theodosius II. ordered
the books of Porphyry, not those of Celsus or of
Julian, to be burned in 448. (K. I. NEUMANN:)
According to the account of Origen, the principal charges brought by Celsus against Christianity were as follows. The Christians were members of illegal secret' associations which were necessary to them because they would suffer death if their practises were known. The origins, of Christianity were derived from secondary sources, some of these even barbarous, and Moses himself simply borrowed the ordinances which he promulgated. The alleged divinity of Jesus can not be proved from his miracles, since they were the mere tricks of a juggler, while the indications of his life and character are equally against the doctrine. Jewish converts to Christianity were ipso facto renegades, since the new religion was no improvement upon the old. Both the Jewish and the Christian religions were really rebellious against the state. The alleged theophanies were really the, appearances of demons, and the Christian eschatology is, irrational and incredible. .

BIHLIOGRAPA'Y: The best edition of Origen's Contra Celamw is by P. Koetschau Leipsic 1899, and the translation il! most accessible in ANF, iv. 395 eqq. T. Keim, Cedaua' WaM rea Wort, Zurich, 1893, puts together in German the quotations by Origen and so reconstructs the origins! text. Consult: K. R. Jachmann, De Celao philoaopho, KSnigeberg; 1836; B. AubE, La Polemique patenne d la fin du deuxi2•me siPcle, Paris, 1878; E. Pelagaud, Un conaervateur au second aihcle. etude our Celae, Lyons, 1873; C. EiKg, Christian Platonista of Alexandria, pp. 254‑268. Oxford, 1886; idem, Neoplatoniam, pp. 98‑118, London, 1895; K. J. Neumann, Der rsmiache Staat and die allpemeins Kirehe, i. 58‑59, 256‑273, Leipeic, 1890; J. A. Robinson, On the Teat of Origen Contra Celaum, in Journal a/ Philology, xviii. (1890). 288‑296• P. Koetachau, Die Gliederung des Alethea Logos des Celaue, in JPT xviii. (1892) 604‑832; J. Patrick, Apology of Oripen, Edinburgh, 1892; F. M. Miiller, Die wahre Geechschte des Celsua, in Deutsche Rundachau,
lxxxiv. (1895) 79‑‑97; Harnack, History of Dogma, vole. i. ii.. Passim, Boston, 1895‑97; idem, Litteratur, II. i. 314‑315; A: C. MeGiffert, in his edition of Eueebius, NPNF, i. 278‑279; Mueller, Christian Church, i. 169‑170; Neander, Christian Church, vol. i., passim; Schaff, Christian Church, ii. 89‑93; DCB, i. 435‑436.

Csisto Church	THE NEW SCYIAFF‑HERZOG	468
CELTIC CHURCH IN BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
I. Origin and Early History, to c. b00.
1. In Britain.
Heresies (¢ i).
8 In Ireland.
Native Tradition of Origin (¢ 1).
The Tradition Unreliable (¢ 2).
Prosper 's PeJladiue the Same se Patrick (¢ 3).
'hue Origin of the Irish Church (¢ 4).
$t. Patrick (¢ b).
8. In North Britain (Albs).
Its Development and Full Maturity, III b00‑‑800.
i. In Britain.
The Church is Wales (I
By the Celtic Church in Britain and Ireland is meant the Christian Church which existed in parts of Great Britain and Ireland before the mission of Augustine (597), and which for some time thereafter maintained ire independence by the aide of the new Anglo‑Roman Church. It comprises two branches, one in Roman Britain and a continuation of it in Wales, the other in Ireland and Alba (Scotland).
I. Origin and Early History, to c. goo.‑i. In Britain: There is no trustworthy account of the introduction of Christianity into Britain. That the British Church of the first half of the sixth century had no knowledge or tradition of the time or manner may be inferred from the silence of Gildas. The Lucius story may be dismissed at once as fabulous (see ELxoxaMRUe; Gaox, Bn3HOrmo or). Foreign writers give no more reliable information than the native sources. The arguments of Warren (pp. 48‑82) for the introduction of Christianity into Britain from Greek churches in Lyons and venue as a consequence of the persecutions under Marcus Aurelius are not convincing [of. F. Hsverfield, Early British Christianity, in The English Historical Review, xi. (1896) 418, n. 2]. It is more probable that the Gospel came to the island by ordinary intercourse with other countries, and Gaul and the Lower Rhine lands are those of which it is most natural to think. Had there been organised or individual missionary effort, tradition would have preserved names. That Christianity was widely spread in Britain by the beginning of the third century can hardly be inferred from the notices in Tertullian and Origen (Haddan and Stubbs, i. 3‑4), which are too rhetorical to be safe testimonies. It does seem certain, however, that much progress was made during the third century. This rests, not upon the sixth‑century tradition of martyrs in Britain during the Diocletian persecution, which probably did not have any noteworthy extension into Britain (cf. Haddan and Stubbs, i. 5‑6), but upon the fact that three bishops, a presbyter, and a deacon from York, Lincoln [according to others Colchester or Carleonon‑Uskj, and London took part in the Synod of .Arles in 316 (Haddan and Stubbs, i. 7). The towns from which they came as well as the localities assigned for the martyrdoms mentions by Gildas
Albans, Carleon‑on‑Usk) show distinctly that tianity first took firm foothold in the cities end stations of the Somas highways.
The British Church and Augustine (¢ 2).
2. In Ireland sad North Britain. The Irish Churchnot Revived from Wales in the Sixth Century (¢ I). Learning of the Irish Monks (¢ 2). Travels and Missionary Lahore (¢ 3). North Britain Chrietianiaed (¢ 4). Relations with Rome (¢ b). The Patrick Legend (¢ 8). Conforms to Roman Usage (¢ 7).
. Complete Assimilation to the Ro. man Church, 800‑1200.
1. In Wales.
2. In Ireland.
Incursions of the Norsemen (¢ 1).
Irish Monks on the Continent (¢ 2).
Rise of Armagh (§ 3).
The Culdeee (¢ 4).
Final Subjection to Rome (¢ 8).
8. In North Britain.
IV. Some General Considerations.
Reason for the Diverseness iron; Rome (¢ 1).
Consecration by s Single Bishop (¢ 2).
Monastic Character of the Irish Church (¢ 3).
The Celtic and Roman Spirit (¢ 4 Relics (¢ b).
The records are sufficient to show that throughout the fourth century there was a well‑organized Church in Britain which stood in constant touch with the rest of the Church, particularly in Gaul, and considered itself an active member of that body (Haddan and Stubbs, i. 7‑12). British bishops attended the synod summoned at Ariminum (Rimini) by Constantius in 359 [Haddan and Stubbs, i. 9‑10], and their presence shows that their Church was drawn into general doctrinal disputes. Gildas
maintains that it was much injured by Arianism (p. 32, 11. 20‑25). His testimony is controverted by that of Hilary of Poitiers (c. 358) i. 8areder. iind Athanaaius (383; both ‑in Haddan and Stubbs, i. 7, 9). But it must be admitted that Arias views found acceptance in Britain during the second half of the fourth century, sad as the Roman power was waning there from that time on, it is conceivable that such views may have lingered and found expression se late as 600, possibly in the baptismal formula (cf. F. C. Conybeare, The Character of the Heresy of the Early British Church, in the Transactions of the Society of Cymmrodorion, 1897‑98, pp. $4‑117). It is noteworthy that a life of Gildas written in the eleventh century, but based upon materials taken from the sixth century, and a life of Patrick of the second half of the seventh century lay stress on their devotion to the Holy Trinity (Chronico minors, iii. 95, ll. 8‑9; Tripartite Life, ii. 273, ll. 12‑13; 286, ll. 6‑7); and Gregory the Great is said to have suspected Columba of not being quite sound in the doctrine (Bernard and Atkinson, i. 64, ii. 2b). It is certain that Pelagianism appeared in Britain during the fifth century (see AaaIOOLe). Germauus (q.v.), bishop of Auxerre, was sent thither in 429, and " overthrew the her‑
etics and directed the Britons to the Catholic faith" (Prosper of Aquitaine, Chronicle, anno 429). Some years later, on a second mission, he completed the extirpation of Pelagianism in the island
(vita Ger»iani, used by Bede, i. 17, 21). Gildse, writing a century later, does not mention the heresy. For a hundred years after the mission of Germanus nothing is heard of the Church in Britain. The land was abandoned by the Romans, and the: Anglo‑
Saxon conquest caused Christianity to disappear completely from the East. With those Britons who kept their independence it found a refuge is the mountains of the West, whence it gradually

489	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Celtic Church
comes again into view in the sixth century (see below, IL, 1).
2. In Ireland: There is native tradition of the introduction of Christianity into Ireland, the two
oldest records of which can scarcely 1. Native be dated earlier than the last quar‑
Tradition ter of the seventh century. They of
Origin. are (1) the life of Patrick, written
by Muirchu Maccu‑Machtheni at the wish of Bishop Aed of Sletty (d. 698), and (2) the collections of a certain Tirechan, a pupil of Ultan of Ardbrechan (d. 656), based upon information about Patrick which his teacher had communicated to him personally or had left in his papers. Both records, but with additions and amplifications , are in the Book of Armagh (Iriber drdmachanus), the several parts of which were written between 807 and 846. In brief this native tradition is as follows: In 431 Ireland was entirely heathen. In that year Pope Celestine I. sent a certain Palladius to preach to the people, but he turned back and died in Britain. His place was at once (c. 432) taken by a Briton, Patrick, who in his youth had been a prisoner in Ireland. He evangelized the entire land, founded churches everywhere, ordained bishops and presbyters, and died (459) universally revered as the head of the Church, in which he held a sort of metropolitan rank, with his see at Armagh in Ulster.
Everything discredits the authenticity of this tradition. (1) It represents Patrick as a personality comparable to Martin of Tours or Columba, the apostle to the Picts; such men do not fail to find a biographer among their admirers and asso‑
ciates; their fame grows and is spread 2. The in the next generation. But the name
Tradition of Patrick does not appear till the
Unreli‑ second third of the seventh century,
able.	and then it is in the letter of Cummian (q.v.) to the abbot Seghine of Iona, in connection with the introduction of the Dionysian (1) paschal computation, which is ascribed to him. He is not mentioned in the full report of the Synod of Whitby (664), although the arguments were historical and the Irish referred to the traditions of their forefathers and to Columba (Beds, iii. 25). Beds must have been well informed concerning the Church in North Ireland and his interest in the beginnings of Christianity in the British Isles was keen; • yet he says nothing about Patrick in ha Flistoria ecclesiastics. It seems impossible that there can have existed in the North of Ireland ‑in the seventh century a tradition of a founder of the Irish Church called Patrick. And yet it is in the North (at Armagh) that the tradition (the first reports of which come from the South) represents Patrick as having his see and ending his days. (2) The tradition describes the Irish Church as episcopal, dependent on Patrick's see of Armagh. But as a matter of fact the Church of Columba and of Finnian of Clonard, i.e., from the end of the fifth century, is a monaBtic church zvithoad central organization and with no traces of such a past as the tradition presupposes How intensely the Irish cling to the customs of
their fathers was shown at Whitby; it took four hundred years to transform this monastic church of the math and seventh centuries even after the theoretical acceptance of an episcopal constitution. If, then, the organization was so fundamentally changed within one generation, as it must have been if the tradition be correct, an explanation is needed. And none is forthcoming. (3) There is good reason to believe that Ireland was not entirely heathen in 431. The island is easily accessible from Britain; and active intercourse, particularly between the Southwest of Britain and the Southeast of Ireland, existed as early as the third and fourth centuries (cf. Zimmer, Nennius vindicates, pp. 85‑93, Berlin, 1893; Kuno Meyer, Early Relations Between Gael and Brython, in the Transactions of the Society of Cymmrodorion, 1895‑96, pp. 55‑86). As has been seen, there was a well‑organized British Church in the fourth century. It is natural to assume, then, that Christianity was carried to Ireland from Britain before the time assigned to Patrick. And the assumption is corroborated by
I	certain saints' lives, particularly those of Declare, Ailbe, Ibhar, Giaran, and Abban (ASB, July, v. 590‑608; Sept., iv. 261; Apr., iii. 173; Mar., i. 389‑399; Oct., xii. 270‑293; cf. also Uasher, Antiquitates, ed. of 1687, pp. 408 sqq.). In all these lives Patrick figures as " Archbishop of Ireland," but this is due to the time of redaction. These same men are not only Patrick's contemporaries, but older contemporaries, independent of him, and recognized as the apostles of their districts. Their locality is the Southeast, the coast counties of Wicklow, Wexford, and Waterford, and the adjoining inland counties of Kilkenny and Tipperary, where local testimonies to their cult still survive. Further evidence may be found in the fact that the two lives of Patrick, mentioned above, limit his activity to the North. The Patrick legend originated in the South and was forced upon the North from the time of Cummian's letter, the object being to win over the North Irish to conformity with the Roman Church. But this alone does not explain the silence of the lives concerning the South. It must be that, while the Southerners were willing to acknowledge Patrick theoretically as apOstlr of the North with his see at Armagh, hoping thereby to win over the mainstay of the opposing party, the abbot‑bishop of Armagh, the traditions in the South concerning the founders of the monasteries there were too well known to admit of a description of Patrick as the apostle of the South. A third testimony is the fact that Ireland cherished the memory of the hereaiareh Pelagiue and was weV acquainted with his writings (cf. Beds, ii. 19). In the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries, the Irish Church possessed the original unmutilated commentary of Pelagius (when it had disappeared everywhere else in the West) and knew that Pelagius was the author. Pelagiua may himself have been an Irishman (cf. Jerome, in MPL, xxiv. 682a, 758b). He was a sincere and earnest thinker and did not adopt heretical views until he went to Rome (c. 400). His learning was great and would naturally gratify the pride of his countrymen. If he

Celtic Church	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	470
came from a monastery of southeastern Ireland, it is easy to understand how his books were brought thither and how they came to be preserved. But, whatever may have been the nationality of Pelagius, his celebrity in Ireland is incompatible with the Patrick legend. Pelagianism was annihilated in the Roman State and See by Honoriua and Zosimus in 418. In 429 Germanws successfully combated it in Britain. If, then, Ireland was wholly heathen in 431 and Patrick Christianized the land and organized its Church, he moat himself have carried Pelagianism thither‑which is , of course, absurd. But if the South was already Christian in the first quarter of the fifth century, it is quite comprehensible how Pelagianism found its wav to the island. (4) Linguistic facts prove that Christianity came to Ireland from Britain. British and Irish are Celtic tongues, but certain differences of sound had developed by the fourth century. Ecclesiastical and other loan‑words, introduced into Irish from Latin with the Christian religion, show forma hard to explain if they came directly from the Latin, but quite comprehensible if they came, through the medium of British (cf. Guterbock, Lateinische Lehnworter iyn Irischen, pp. 91 eqq. ~Leipsic, 1882). Patrick himself was a Briton, it is true; but he is said to have studied on the Continent, and his associates are represented as of Romance origin (Tripartite Life, ii. 273, 305; Haddan and Stubbs, ii. 292). (5) Among the writings attributed to the supposed apostle of Ireland are two, the so‑called " Confession " and the " Epistle Concerning Cornticus," which are undoubtedly authentic. They are the work of a man " unlearned and rustic, not at all such a one as later times extolled with the highest praises " (Schbll, p. 71; of. p. 68), or one who could have founded in the fifth century the Irish Church‑‑a Church in which from the sixth to the ninth century Christian and classical learning were united as nowhere else in the West. Moreover, the " Confession " is the work of a man looking back upon a long life, complaining bitterly of ingratitude, trying to defend himself from the reproach of having presumed to undertake a calling above his capabilities, and threatening to turn his back on Ireland because he recognizes the failure of his life's work there. And he makes not the slightest mention of ever having consecrated a bishop or established a single church in the island. (6) Finally there is the definite statement of Prosper of Aquitaine (Chron., anno 431) that Pope Celestine " ordained Palladius and sent him as their first bishop to the Irish believers in Christ." Prosper was probably in Rome in 431 and issued the first edition of his " Chronicle," which contains the statement quoted, in 433. Here then is a record, as certain and credible as may be, which confirms the supposition that the Irish, in part at any rate, were Christians in 431. The meaning of Prosper's expression " first bishop " is clear, bearing in mind the organization of the Irish Church. Palladius was the first bishop canonically ordained according to Prosper's view, in distinction from the missionary and monastic bishops of the Irish Church during the fifth century. In his later Liber contra colldtorem written probably about
437), in the course of a fulsome eulogy of Celeatine, Prosper states that " while he [Celeatine] endeavored to keep the Roman island [Britain] Catholic, he made also the barbarous island [Ireland] Christian " (in MPL, Ii. 271b‑c). But a rhetorical statement of this sort does not impair the value of the careful entry in the "Chronicle." Moreover, the supposition that Celestine ordained a simple deacon‑for such Palladius still was in 431as bishop of a land considered wholly heathen is in itself untenable. It was not customary to consecrate "bishops " for lands where there were no Christians. Augustine was sent by Gregory to preach to the Angles; but he was not consecrated till he had made converts among them.
Before attempting to reconstruct the early history of Christianity in Ireland, it moat be noted that the historical Patrick and Prospers 3. Proeaer's palladius are the same. Various
Palladius reasons ma be mentioned ) the Same
as Pat‑	went from Rome to the Irish
‑
	rick.	Christians in 431; Patrick appeared
		in Ireland in 432. In view of the
difficulties of travel of the time, it is hardly con
ceivable that two different persona should have been
despatched to Ireland within the apace of one year.
(2) Palladius went as the ordained bishop of the
Irish Christians; Patrick (in the first sentence of
the " Epistle ") calls himself with emphasis the
appointed bishop for Ireland. (3) Palladius is first
mentioned by Prosper under the year 429 as in
stigating the mission of Germanua against Pela
gianism, from which it may be inferred that
Palladius was a Briton and stood in somewhat
intimate relations with Germanus. This is true of
Patrick according to his own testimony and state
ments of the lives (" Confession," Haddan and
Stubbs, ii. 309, 11. 1‑4; Tripartite Life, ii. 370, 11.
9‑14; lives, ib. ii. 272, Il. 4‑5; 302, ll. 19‑23).
(4) If Palladius was a Briton, his Romanized name,
according to the general custom of the time, should
be a translation of his native name. Hence the
latter should have some such signification as " war
like " or " having to do with war." Patrick's
British name was Sucat (Muirchu, Tripartite Life, ii.
494, 1. 6; Tirechan, ibid. 302, 1. 5; Mace's Hymn,
ibid. 404‑405), composed of su, " good," and cat,
" war," a word still in use in modern Welsh in the
form hygad, signifying " warlike." If, as was but
natural, he resumed his native name on reaching
Ireland and the name Palladius first became known
there from Prospers work, it is easy to understand
how the idea of two persons arose. As for the name
Patrick, it is not improbable that Sucat‑Palla
dius asauned it himself. He was especially proud
of his alleged aristocratic descent (cf. his words in
Haddan and Stubbs, ii. 316, 11. 15‑17; 306, 11. 26
27; Tripartite Life, ii. 377,11. 19‑22; 368, 11. 1‑2),
which, however, was not so distinguished as he
would make out. In Rome at that time the title
Patricius was often conferred upon high officials
of the empire to indicate rank. The somewhat
narrow‑minded Sucat, applying Roman conditions
to the little British country town of Bannaventa,
where his father had been senator or mayor, may
have taken to himself the title Patricius, and so

471	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Celtic Church
figured in Ireland as Sucat Patricius, and in his writings merely as Patricius. If this name entered into the Irish vernacular of the fifth century, according to linguistic laws it should appear in Irish of the seventh century as Cathrige or Cothrige. And it is a fact that a number of sources (Tirechan, Mace's Hymn, and others) state that Patrick was also called Cothrige.
	As a result of the foregoing argument, the origin
and early history of the Celtic Church in Ireland
seems to be as follows: Christianity was brought
		to Ireland from Britain during the
4. True fourth century as a natural outcome
Origin	of the close intercourse between south‑
Irish of the	west Britain and southeast Ireland.
	Church.	The actual foundation of a Church, ex
		tending over large parts of the island,
must be regarded as a result of that first great
wave of monasticism which swept over Gaul and
Britain from the middle of the fourth century and
carried a number of half‑R,omanized Christian
Britons to Ireland. Two facts confirm this view:
(1) The great repute of Martin of Tours in Ire
land, so great that in the ninth century it
was thought desirable to bring the new apostle,
Patrick, into close relations with Martin, and he
was even accounted the latter's nephew. (2) The
difference between the organization of the Irish
Church and that of the British Church from which
it sprang. Just how fast and how far Christianity
spread can not be ascertained, but it seems safe
to say that the northeast coast was Christian about
400. It is noteworthy that Patrick, in the two
passages of the " Confession " where he speaks of
his six years' captivity in North Ireland (Haddan and
Stubbs, ii. 296,11. 5 sqq.; 300,11. 16 sqq.; Tripartite
Life, ii. 357, 11. 7 sqq.; 361, 11. 19 aqq.), does not
intimate by a single word that the Irish with whom
he lived were heathen. This is the more remark
able since he dwells with horror on the paganism
of the pirates into whose hands he fell when he
made his escape (Haddan and Stubbs, ii. 301, 1. 16
303,1. 2; Tripartite Life, ii. 362,1. 19‑363,1. 34). No
doubt the Saxons drove a number of Christian
Britons into Ireland, as well as to the Armorican
coast of Gaul, during the fifth century.
A Briton named Sucat played a prominent part in the Irish Church during the second third of the fifth century. The following outb. St. Pat‑ line of his life is based upon his own
rick, statements in the " Confession," and the notices of Prosper, interpreted as above. He was born about 386 in the borough of Bannaventa in central Britain, probably near the modern Daventry in Northamptonshire. His family possessed some wealth and had been Christian for generations. He led an easy worldly life until the age of sixteen (402), when plundering Irish carried him off as a slave to North Ireland. For six years (402‑408) he was a swineherd. Reflection and changed circumstances made him a new man. He practised austerities saw visions, and heard voices which counseled him to flee. He reached the coast and fell in there with heathen (doubtless Saxons), who took him to Britain and led him about the country for sixty days. Then he escaped
and finally arrived at his home (408 or 409). There he became a deacon. His visions continued, and eventually he came to believe himself called to be the bishop of Ireland. In his native place, where he was looked upon as an enthusiast, narrowminded, and of defective education, obstacles arose to his consecration. His parents and friends were against it. So he left home at the age of thirty‑eight (c. 424), and followed the old road by way of Auxerre (where he stayed some time with Germanus), through the Rhone valley, by way of Arles, along the coast of Provence and the Lerinian islands, through Upper Italy, to Rome. If Ultan may be believed (Tirechan, Tripartite Life, ii. 302, 11. 19‑23), he spent seven years wandering through Gaul and Italy. His barbarian name was Latinized into Palladius. At Rome he gained influence probably the more readily since for twenty years Britain had been separated from the empire and the connection between the British Church and Rome had become difficult. Perhaps also he exaggerated his family's position and influence to the leading ecclesiastical circles. In 429 he was instrumental in sending Germanus of Auxerre to Britain, and in 431 he attained his heart's desire and was consecrated episcopus for Ireland. He reached Ireland in 432, dropped the Roman translation of his name, and assumed in its stead the title Patricaus. There are no trustworthy details of his activity in Ireland. But he was never recognized as its " appointed bishop." In the letter on Coroticua he says complainingly " although now I am despised by some," and in the " Confession," written near the end of his life, he characterizes himself as " despised by moat." His very limited literary education may well have aroused the acorn and derision of his more cultured associates. How far he extended his missionary efforts in Connaught and the Northwest, where there must still have been opportunity for such work, can hardly be ascertained from the " Confession," the only source of any authority. Its words are those of a monkish ascetic to whom converters ad deem is identical with " to enter a monastery," and definite inferences can not be drawn from its statements.
There are some indications of the locality where the historical Patrick lived. Muirchu (Tripartite Life, ii. 275,1. 13) says that the legendary Patrick landed at a port called Hostium Dee, near the present Wicklow. As the tendency of the legend required Patrick to settle in the North as soon as possible, it is probable that an item, of true tradition is preserved here. Muirchu was himself from County Wicklow and used the " Confession " and " Epistle " of Sucat as sources of his life. Aed, at whose request Muirchu wrote, was bishop of Sletty in Queen's County, near Carlow. Cummian, who was the first to mention the legendary Patrick, was also a native of the South. Therefore the South of Ireland possessed the material left by the historical Patrick (the Confessio and the Epistola) as well as notices of his life. Hence it is probable that Patrick settled somewhere in County Wicklow. He died Mar. 17, 459, according to the statement in the Luxeuil Calendar and the most trustworthy entries of the Annals. He was soon forgotten.

Celtic Church	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	472
save in the district of his special activity; and here, in the seventh century, under the influence of a specific tendency, he was resurrected and made the apostle of the Irish, as Augustine was the apostle of the Saxons and Columba of the Picts.
It is not possible to say definitely why Patrick does not mention his consecration by Pope Celestine in the " Confession." But it may be recalled that for three hundred years the Roman Empire was a standing menace to the liberty of the Irish. Without doubt bitter feelings and hatred were still alive in 432, and the Irish were not likely to distinguish carefully between spiritual and temporal Rome. If, therefore, when Patrick arrived in Ireland he tried to impress the Christian Irish with his ordination by Celeatine, he must soon have found out his mistake. With his religious feelings and view, Patrick would look upon Celestine merely as the instrument of God, who had himself appeared to him in visions and dreams and appointed him apostle to the Irish. And it was only natural that to the old man on the brink of the grave Celestine's alight and casual intervention in his life should fade away before the image of God Almighty, whose chosen one he was. (For other views concerning St. Patrick, see the article PATRICK, SAINT.)
S. In North Britain (Albs): From statements by Beds (iii. 4) we know that a Briton named Nynia (St. Ninian, q.v.) founded a monastery on the peninsula of Wigtown, in the extreme Southwest of Scotland, about 400, and thence spread Christianity among the Picts south of the Grampians. The germs of the young faith seem to have been destroyed in the confusion which anise in North Britain early in the fifth century. In two passages of his letter concerning Coroticus Patrick with evident anger calls the Picts " apostates " (Haddan and Stubbs, ii. 314,1. 13; 318,1. 5; Tripartite Life, ii. 375, 1. 26; 379, 1. 7). Coroticus was probably a king of the Strathclyde Britons, ruling near the modern Dumbarton between 420 and 450. His subjects were Christians; and as Patrick does not reproach the Irish (Scotti), living to the northwest, with paganism, it may be that they also, like their countrymen on the opposite coast of Antrim, were Christians.
II. Development and Full Maturity, 50o‑‑800. ‑1. In Britain: The British Church reappears in Wales in the second third of the sixth century, and is the direct continuation of the Church of the fourth century. That the latter consisted mainly
1. The of Roman residents of the towns while
Church is the Britons in the country remained
Wale. heathen, and that the Celtic Church
first arose after the withdrawal of the Romans, is an opinion based upon defective knowledge of conditions in Roman and poetRoman Britain and is disproved by the fact that the Christian missionaries to Ireland in the fourth century and the Christians who settled in Armories in the fifth spoke British, i.e., they were native Britons, not Roman occupants of the country. The external organization of the sixth century, however, is not an uninterrupted development from the fourth. When the Britons fled from the Saxons
to the thinly populated hill‑regions of the West, they found there no cities to nerve se centers of ecclesiastical organization. But monasticism, which had flourished in Britain from the end of the fourth century, soon created new centers. Dioceses were formed, each based on the monastery of a clan and comprising the territory belonging to the clan. In time these were combined into larger organisms, and during the seventh century the ecclesiastical organization of Wales was definitively fixed by the constitution of four bishoprics, corresponding to the four political divisions, viz.: Bangor on Menai Straits in Gwynedd; St. Asaph in the Northeast in Powys; Menevia (St. David's) in the Southwest in Dyfed; and Llandaff in the Southeast in Gwent. They were independent of one another and based on the chief monasteries of the territories named. Abbot and bishop were generally the same. According to the Annales Cambrier, the founders of the four bishoprics died in 584 (Daniel of Bangor), 601 (David of Menevia), and 612 (Dubriciua of Llandaff and Kentigern of St. Asaph).
The result of Gregory's mission to the Saxons (see ANGLO‑SAXONS, CONVERSION OP' THE; AuausTnvE, SAINT, of CANTERBURY) was to intensify and perpetuate the isolation from which the British Church already suffered. Two conferences were held between its representatives and Augustine
(602 or 603), but the Britons rejected
8. The the proposals of the Roman mis‑
Britieh sionary and refused to have him for Church sad archbishop (Beds, ii. 2; cf. Bright, pp. Aug‑tine. g6‑g3). Augustine's unskilful man‑
agement may have contributed to the result‑he is said to have offended the Britons by not rising to meet them‑but he offered to overlook all other differences if the Britons on their part would accept the Roman computation for Easter, would remove divergences from Roman practise in the baptismal rite; and would join him in preaching the Gospel to the Saxons. The third requirement was probably the chief obstacle, and union was not effected because the Britons regarded the missionary as the representative of their hated foes. In his disappointment Augustine is said to have threatened the obstinate Celts with death at the hands of the English if they would not preach to them the way of life. Eight, or perhaps twelve, yearn after Augustine's death Ethelfrid, the heathen king of Northumbria, massacred a large company of British priests and the monks of Bangor at Chester, and the prophecy was thought to be fulfilled.
When the South Irish Church conformed to Rome, about 630, the Welsh Church was cut off on both sides, and this isolation proved fatal to its spiritual culture. Its most eminent representative in the sixth century is Gildas, and after him there is no one of greater literary merit than Nenniua at the end of the eighth century. According to the Anraales Cambrice, Elbodug, bishop of Bangor, adopted the Roman Easter computation in 768:
the Chronicle of Welsh Princes gives the date as
755 and says that South Wales followed in 777
(Haddan and Stubbs, i. 203‑204). But opposition

478	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Celtic Church
did not cease at that time, for the same source says that when Elbodug died in 809 " a great controversy arose because of Easter."
2. In Ireland and North Britain: The earliest native and foreign sources show a flourishing church in Ireland in the sixth century. Its type is that of a mission‑church, resting not on the labors of a. single man, but growing, without central organization, in a land divided among many clans, through the constant activity of a missionary monkhood. It is the natural development of the seed sown in southeastern Ireland by British missionaries from the middle of the fourth century, springing up and increasing undisturbed by outside influences. This view is quite different from the prevalent one, which assumes, on the one hand, a complete collapse of the
Irish Church at the end of the fifth 1. The Irish century, and, on the other hand, a Church revival in the sixth century due to the not 8e‑ ‑
vived fromm ithe Welsh Church, and vived tom particularly of such men as Gildas the Sixth Cadoc, and David. A collapse about
century. 500 is inexplicable, and is assumed
only because necessitated by the Patrick legend and the hypothesis of a revival from Britain in the sixth century. This hypothesis recta upon: (1) statements concerning the activity of Gildas in Ireland, made in his life written at Ruya in Brittany in the eleventh century; (2) the view of the Irish Church of the fifth and sixth centuries found in the eighth century Catalogus sanctorum Hibernite 1; and (3) notes of certain saints' lives [such as that of St. Diaibod, q.v.], certainly not older than the eleventh or twelfth century (cf. Haddan and Stubbs, i. 115, n.a.). On the other hand, a mere enumeration of dates shows that the Irish Church was in no need of revival. Finnish of Clonard, the father of the " twelve apostles of Ireland," died in 548. Co‑

l This document is the source of the familiar division of Irish saints into three " orders." It stt the first order belonged to the time of Patrick. They were all bishops, 350 in number, founders of churches. They had one head, Christ, and one lord, Patrick; they observed one mesa, one celebration, and one tonsure from ear to ear; they kept one Easter, on the fourteenth day of the moon after the vernal equinox; and what was excommunicated by one church ell excommunicated. They did not reject the services and society of women, because, founded on the rock of Christ, they feared not the blast of temptation. This order lasted through four reigns, and its members were all bishops, from the Romans, the Franks, the Britons, and the Irish (Scotti).
In the send order bishops were few and presbyters many, 300 in number. They had one head, our Lord; they celebrated different masses and had different rules, but their Easter and tonsure were as in the first order. They rejected the services of women, separating them from the monasteries. They lasted through four reigns, and received a mass from Bishop David, and Gildsa, and Docua, the Britons.
The members of the third order were holy presbyters and a few bishops, 100 in all. They dwelt in solitary places, and lived on herbs and water and alms, shunning private property. Their rules, mssees, tonsure, and Easter were all different, and they lived through four reigns.
The first order was aarrcctiaeimua; the second, eaactue sanctorum; the third, aanctua. They were like the sun, the moon, the dawn. These three orders were foreseen by Patrick is a vision from on high. Consult Haddaa and Stubbs, ii. 292‑294.
lambs founded the monastery of Derry about 546 and Durrow before 560. Ciaran founded Clon. macnoiae 541 and died 548. Comgall founded Bangor in Ulster 554 or 558. Brendan founded Clonfert in Longford 552. In 563 Columba went to Ions. The authority of an eleventh‑century monk of Ruys is not to be put above such evidence as this. Nor can the statements of ignorant authors of saints' lives, who confuse different centuries, furnish the basis for a historical construction at variance with all fixed dates. There is no evidence of British influence in Ireland apart from the visit of Gildas there in 566 (cf. Mommaen, Chronica minors, iii. 6, 11. 3‑23). [This visit is considered doubtful by some; see GILDA$.] The Church of Gildas, Cadoc, and David, it may be noted, was episcopal; if then these men, and men like them, revived the dying Irish episcopal Church, why did they substitute another entirely monastic with no trace of an episcopal character? Furthermore, the Church in Britain at this time was in no condition to infuse fresh life into the Irish Church. In the trouble and turmoil of the fifth century it had lost all organization, and Gildas himself draws a gloomy picture of the state of things in Britain before 547. Ireland, however, did not suffer from barbarian attacks, and her Church was able to develop undisturbed. Hence the natural supposition is that at this time the Irish Church was the giver and the British Church the recipient. And we know that from the very beginning of the sixth century Irish clerics went to southwest Britain and to Br;ttany, giving and spreading knowledge, not receiving it. The foundation of new monasteries in Ireland by Finnian of Clonard and men regarded as his disciples between 520 and 560 can not be considered a restoration or reformation of the Irish Church. There was already a large number of older monasteries, such as Emly in Munster and Armagh in Ulster, which for centuries played a greater rSle in the entire life of the Irish Church than any of these new foundations. Finnish was a sort of Irish Benedict of Nursia; he established his new house at Clonard by the side of the older institutions‑‑rather mission‑stations than monasteries‑‑with stricter rules, and through the influence on Comgall and Columba it became the model of the Irish monasteries in North Britain and on the Continent?

Irish monasticism of the sixth century was very different from that of a later period. It bee been characterized as the transition from the hermit life to the religious orders of the Middle Ages‑‑& transition that was soon made in the East, but in Ireland proceeded more slowly and lasted till the subjection to Rome. The primitive Irish monasteries were of the same type as those of Egypt and Syria. The nucleus was a church or oratory, always oblong (from ten to forty feet in length, rarely sixty), and without chancel, aisles, or apse. No remains have been found showing any approach to the basilica form or anything of Roman type. Round the church were grouped " beehive " hats or cells, each for a single occupant, and the whole was surrounded by a wall or rampart, with a ditch, and a hedge or palisade on top. There is mention of kitchens and the " great house " (refectory); and there were also guest houses, storehouses and barns, workshops, and the like. The so‑called " Round Towers " are always connected with ecclesiastical foundations, and belong for the most part to the ninth and tenth centuries. They probably served as bell‑towers, for refuge or defense in case of attack, and as beacons and lighthouse&

Celtic Church	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	474
The Irish Church of the sixth, seventh, and eighth ctnturiea, then, was the natural development of the Church of the fourth and
2' Learn‑ fifth centuries, without interference ing of the
Irish	fpm outside. This freedom accounts
	Xonka,	for the high standard of learning main
		tained by the Irish monasteries till
the ninth century. They kept the knowledge and
culture received with Christianity, and cherished
it at a time when everywhere else, in Britain, Gaul,
and Italy, barbarian hordes came near to stamping
it out. The erudition of the Irish monks in the sixth
century‑surely not derived from a Church whose
greatest scholar was Gildas‑surpassed on the
whole that of Italy. Greek was studied at Bangor
when Gregory the Great probably had no knowl
edge of the language. In the seventh century
Aldhehn, writing to a young friend returning home
The whole establishment was called s •• city " (civitas),
and the designation is not inapt for the larger communities,
with two or three thousand members, each having his own
house, and its complex of public or common buildings. The
first step in the foundation was to obtain s site, which was
frequently given by the chieftain when he was converted,
and sometimes was his fortress. It was often necessarily
in the forest, as the extent of cleared land was very limited.
The building material was moat commonly wood or wattles
and clay, but atone sometimes was used; the earliest stone
structures are without mortar. As the first building opera
tion was commonly the driving of stakes, " to drive " came
to be the usual expression to designate the founding of a
monastery. Each monastery had its own rules, followed
also by the affiliated houses, which were governed by a local
head under the abbot. The abbot was not chosen by the
monks, but wee appointed by the chieftain, generally from
his own family or that of the founder, and hence was known
se the coarb or heir of the founder. He was seldom a bishop,
but there were always one or more bishops in each commu
nity, always subject, however, to the abbot. Poverty,
chastity, and obedience were considered essential: The
rule of $t. Columban (q.v.) no doubt represents the life and
practise of the Irish monasteries, particularly that at Bangor,,
of which Columban had been a member. Adamnan also
gives many interesting details of the life at Ions in Columba' s
time and this monastery, doubtless, did not differ materi
ally from the others. Divine service and private devotion,
study, and manual labor occupied the time of the brethren.
Sundays and saints' days were marked by celebration of the
Eucharist, rest from toil, and an allowance of better food.
Easter was the chief festival and during the Paachales Dies
(from Easter to Whitsunday) there was some relaxation
in the severity of discipline. Christmas was the other great
festival. Wednesdays and Fridays were fast‑days except
during the Paac)ealea Dies. Lent was strictly kept, and the
forty days before Christmas were observed by some in a
like manner. Holy Scripture was the chief object of study
and the Psalms were learned by heart. Much effort was
spent in the copying of books and there are two Irish manu
scripts of the Vulgate, known respectively as the Book o1
Kelia and the Book of Durrow and dating from the seventh
century, which are among the finest extant specimens of
illuminated work. It is a question where such work was
done, as it must have been impossible in the poorly lighted
cells; perhaps it was executed in the open air, and we read
of the monks writing on their knees, Besides writing,
the production and preparation of food was the chief labor.
Strangers were hospitably received and fasts were relaxed
in their honor. Consult: Reeves 's Adamnan, pp, 339‑389,
Dublin, 1857; J. T. Fowler's Adamnon pp, xxxvii; 1,
Oxford, 1894; J. Lanigan, Ecclesiastical History, iv. 348 sqq..
Dublin, 1829; F. E. Warren, Liturgy and Ritual, chap, ii.,
Oxford, 1881; G. T. Stokes, Ireland and the Celtic Church,
lectures ix. and xi.; G. Petrie, Ecclesiastical Architecture o;
Ireland, Dublin, 184b; Margaret Stokes, Early Christian
Art in Ireland, London 1887; J. Anderson, Scotland in
Early C1N^iatian Times 2 vole.. Edinburgh, 1881; J. Healy,
Iruuia sancWram, pp, 1159, Dublin, 1890.
from the Irish schools (MPL, Ixxxix. 94c‑1),
reluctantly admits the superiority of Irish scholar
ship. And	in the eighth century Bede speaks
with admiration of Irish learning (iii. 7, 27; [cf.
Plummer's note to iii. 27, p. 192j). Besides their
zeal for learning, a noteworthy love of wandering
characterized the Irish monks. Singly or in groups
they went forth from the great monk‑colonies
	for such the monasteries really were‑
S. Travels to seek a form of the anchorite's life. and via' They were content at first with the Laborarya. isles of their own lakes and rivers; then they betook themselves to the many islands of the Irish coast; then to the Hebrides, the Orkneys, and the Shetland Islands, and before 800 they had reached Iceland. At the same time others went to Britain‑where many Christian inscriptions of the fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries with Irish names and written in Ogham bear witness to their presence north and south of the Severn estuary‑and to Brittany, and then through the land of the Franks to the Alps and across the Alps, so that Bobbio (perhaps Tarentum; see CAxwlnus; CoruMSAN) became the southern, as Iceland was the northern, limit of their wanderings. Their primary purpose was not missionary work; but circumstances made them missionaries and teachers if the people among whom they settled to lead the contemplative life.
The greatest achievement of the Irish Church and its monks in the sixth and seventh centuries, the Chriatianization of North Britain,
4. North must be regarded from the same point
Christian‑ °f view. With twelve companions ized. Columba (q.v.) left Ireland in 563, " wishing to go into exile for Christ " (Adamnan's Life of Cohclnba, p. 9). They settled on the little island of Ions (Eo, Io, Hi), belonging to the Irish (Christian) state north of the Clyde, took up missionary work among the heathen Picts of the neighborhood and rapidly extended it, so that when Columba died (597), the mainland north of Glasgow and Edinburgh, as well as the western islands, was studded with monasteries, whose in‑
mates looked after the spiritual welfare of the neig_1boring population, all of them dependent on the mother monastery at Ions (q.v.). A generation later Oswald, king of Northumbria, who had been converted to Christianity during a seventeen years' exile in Ireland, applied to Columba's successor for missionaries to introduce Christianity in his realm. Aidan (q.v.) was sent (635) and under his lead and that of his successors, Finan (652‑661) and Colman (66164), with the earnest support of Oswald and his brother Oswy, the Gospel made rapid and splendid progress. Monasteries were founded, such as Mailros (Old Melrose) by Aidan, the first nunnery by Heiu at Hartlepool, the double monas‑
tery for both men and . women at Coldingham by Oswald's half‑sister, Ebba, the monastery at Whitby by Hilda, and others. Christianity and the Irish Church reached to the Angles 'wing south of the Humber.
This flourishing state of the Irish Church was disturbed by the Roman mission to the Saxons is 597. Like the British Church, that of Ireland

475	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Celtic Church
differed in some respects from the Roman Church of Gregory's time, the most important divergen‑
5. Rela‑ ces being the.form of the tonsure and tions with the method of computing Easter [cf.
Rome.	Plummer's Belle, ii. 348‑354; Bright,
pp. 86‑93, 224‑225]. In 604Augustine's successor, Laurence, with his fellow bishops, Mellitus and Justus, sent a letter to Ireland exhorting to conformity to Roman usage, but without success (Beds, ii. 4). A party favorable to conformity gradually arose through visits of Irish clerics to Gaul and Rome, and partly perhaps through influence of the Anglo‑Roman Church, but in 627 it was still in the minority, for the exhortation of Pope Honoriua I. to conform in 628 was again unsuccessful (Belle, ii. 19). Honorius then excommunicated Ireland (Cummian's letter, 977, 11. 5‑6) and in 629 the Southeast generally observed the Roman date. Farther west opinions wavered, but in 630 the abbots met in a synod at Mag Lena near Tullamore, and decided to celebrate Easter the next year with the Roman Church. Opposition, however, made another meeting necessary and the Roman party failed to win a decisive victory. They sent an embassy to Rome, which returned in 633. Through the influence of this embassy and the death (636) of Fintan,, abbot of Taghmon in County Wexford (see Fwrex, SAINT), leader of the opposition, the Roman party finally prevailed in the South. The North held out stubbornly for sixty years longer. Cummian's letter to Seghine, abbot of Ions (834), and a letter from Pope John IV. (partly preserved by Belle, ii. 19) in 640 to the prominent abbots of the North were ineffectual. The details of the struggle are not known, but it may be assumed that the Patrick legend was not the least important of the expedients resorted to to work upon the North Irish.
It was natural for the Irish to seek for an apostle who should be to them what Columba was to the
Picts and Augustine to the Saxons. 6. The In the neighborhood of Wicklow a
Patrick	certain patriciua was remembered
Legend. who had called himself the " appointed bishop of Ireland." Is it unreasonable to assume that about 625 it came to be believed in the Southeast that the apostle was found in this man? The scanty higtory of Patrick was filled out by analogy with that of Columba and Augustine. The Irish were supposed to have been all heathen in 432 as the Picts had been in 563 and the Saxons in 597. Patrick converted the land in a brief time, established a Christian Church, and won the favor of King Laeghaire as Columba had that of King Brude and Augustine that of Ethelbert of Kent. This legend was at once utilized, if not invented, by the Roman party, as is evident from the first mention of it in C»mm4an's letter. He attributes to Patrick the introduction of the Dionysian cycle in Ireland, although it was not introduced in Rome till the sixth century (col. 975c):
The legend was also useful in winning over the bishop of Armagh. As the presumed successor of St. Patrick he was acknowledged in the South as metropolitan (cf. Tripartite Life, ii. 346,11. 21‑24). The claims of Armagh, however, met with violent
opposition in the eighth and ninth centuries both in Connaught and Munster. Northumbria con‑
	formed to Rome after the Synod of
7. Con‑ Whitby (q.v.) in 664, whereupon the
forms to
	Roman	Irish returned to their native land (see
	Usage.	COLMAN, SAINT). Adamnan, ninth
		abbot of Ions (679‑704), was persuaded
to yield while visiting the court of Aldfrid in North
umbria in 686 or 687‑688, but was unable to control
the abbots of the dependent monasteries or his
own monks at Ions when he returned home (Beds,
v. 15). Then he went to North Ireland and with
an Angle, Egbert (see EGBERT, SAINT), took the
lead in efforts to win over the Irish party. The
bishop of Armagh yielded in 697. The Columban
monasteries continued obstinate. In ?13 Naiton,
king of the Picts, enlisted the services of Ceolfrid
(q.v.), the distinguished abbot of Wearmouth and
Jarrow; the latter wrote a long letter on the Easter
question, which Naiton sent in copy to all clerics in
his dominion with an order to obey (Belle, v. 21).
Those who continued recalcitrant were expelled from
the country in 717. In 716 Egbert persuaded the
abbot and monks of Ions to celebrate Easter at the
Roman date. Their compliance, however, came
too late to save the position of Ions as the center
of a great monastic church. It was reduced to a
mere parent monastery with a few affiliated houses
on the west coast of North Britain and belonging
to the Irish state. Armagh, on the other head,
by timely yielding and a skilful use of the Patrick
legend had prepared the way for becoming the
head of an episcopal church comprising all Ireland.
III. Complete Assimilation to the Roman Church, Boo‑i2oo.‑1. In Wales: The Church in Wales, having been episcopal from the first, differed from the Roman Church only in subordinate points after it had conformed in respect to Easter and the tonsure. Political conditions hastened its complete assimilation to the Roman‑Saxon Church. From the time of Egbert of Wessex (d. 836) the weaker Welsh chieftains sought the protection of the English kings against their more powerful countrymen. The attacks of the Northmen also, which from 853 on were felt more and more severely in Wales, promoted friendly feelings and relations between the two nations. That the culture of its clergy was higher after the isolation of the Welsh Church was ended is evident from the appointment and position of Asaer (q.v.), a nephew of Bishop Novia of Menevia, as teacher, counselor, and friend of Alfred. At the end of the tenth and beginning of the eleventh century, consecration of bishops of Llandaff by the archbishop of Canterbury seems to have been the rule, and there is some reason to believe that an earlier bishop, Cyfeiliawc (d. 927), was so consecrated. The Anglo‑Norman archbishops Lanfranc (1070‑89) and Anselm (10931109) repeatedly interfered in Welsh matters as if the Welsh bishops stood legally under the primate of England. Disputes concerning the boundaries of the Welsh dioceses of St. David's and Llandaff and the English diocese of Hereford between 1119 and 1133 were referred to Rome. About this time the bishop of St. David's began to set up the claim to metropolitan rank. After 1187, when Arch.

Celtic Church	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	478
bishop Baldwin of Canterbury as papal legate held
a visitation in parts of Wales and preached the
Crusade, the Welsh Church may be regarded as
part of the English Church, although as late as
1284 the bishop of fat. David's formally protested
against the visitation of Archbishop Peckham of
Canterbury. [Welsh tradition and the rapidity
with which the Lollard movement in the fourteenth
century spread among the English‑speaking people
on the borders of Wales favor the theory that the
ancient British form of Christianity persisted in
Wales throughout the Middle Ages side by aide
with the Roman Catholic establishment. The
mountainous character of the country and the
character of the language, which Englishmen rarely
acquired; were favorable to the perpetuation of
evangelical dissent. 	A. H. N.]
2. In Ireland: A systematic sketch of the development of the Irish branch of the Celtic Church in this period is not yet possible owing to the defective character of the special investigations. A factor deserving more attention than it has commonly received is the influence of the incursions and settlements of the Norsemen.
1. Incur‑ The Viking period‑beginning in 795
sions of and laatin
menmore than 150 years‑the Norse‑ brought indescribable wo to all Brit. sin aed particularly to Christian Ireland. Churches and monasteries, as the centers of civilization and the Christian religion, were marked for destruction by the heathen Norwegians and Danes. Certain of the Irish monasteries (such as Ions, Bangor in Ulster, and many others) lay temptingly exposed to seafaring robbers. The rivers gave them easy access to the heart of the land from both the east and the west coast. The wooden structures of the monasteries were an easy prey to the flames, in which both books and monks perished. If any manuscripts escaped burning they were thrown into the water. A heathen Viking state in Armagh between 832 and 845 compelled the abbot‑bishop, Forindan, to flee to Munster. At the same time the Norwegian heathen were settling in the interior, but they were either ultimately expelled or absorbed by the native population and became Christian. In 852, however, a Viking kingdom was set up at Dublin, which remained heathen and plundered Ireland and all the coasts of the Irish Sea for more than a century. Under such conditions it is not surprising that the exodus of Irish monks to the Conti‑
2. Irish vent continued and increased from
Xonks on
the Conti‑ 8W on. In the ninth century they
	neat.	were teachers in the monastic schools
		everywhere in the land of the Franks,
at St. Denis, Pavia, and on the Upper and Lower
Rhine, and they spread the repute of Irish learn
ing so that it is almost a truism to say: Whoever
knew Greek on the Continent in the days of Charles
the Bald was an Irishman or had learned it from
an Irishman (cf. H. Zimmer, Ueber die Bedeutung
den iriachen Elements fur mittelalterliche Kultur, in
Preusaische Jahrbiicher, lix., 1887, pp. 27‑69; L.
Traube, O Rome nobilia in Abhandtungen der lOhilo
eophisch‑philologischeyc Iflasae der kdniglich‑bayeri
schen Akademie, xix.,1892, pp. 33263). They took
their manuscripts with them in such numbers that no fewer than 117 Irish manuscripts, or fragments of such, older than the eleventh century are still extant in Continental libraries, not counting those in the Vatican or the Bibliothbque Nationals (cf. W. Schultze, Die BedeUtung der iroscholtischen M6nche, in‑ Centralblatt fur Bibliothekswesen, 6th year, 1889, pp. 287‑298). But if this was the Continent's gain, it was Ireland's lose. King Brian (1002‑13) had to send across the sea " to buy books " (J. H. Todd, The War of the Gaedhil with the Gaily Rolls Series, no. 48, p.138, London, 1867). The standard of education in the monasteries sank with each generation, and the new and inferior priesthood had less power to resist the forces which were substituting for the native monastic church an episcopal church with metropolitan head. The Irish chieftains and princes also, instead of uniting against the common foe, thought the time moat fitting to fight out their domestic feuds. The monasteries were involved in these quarrels, not to mention fierce and bloody disputes between monasteries themselves when their interests happened to clash. Thus the old organization was weakened and broken up. Furthermore, the Patrick legend became a sort of dogma during the eighth century; and its view of the Chrietianization of Ireland and the position of the ePiacolvua in church government was an additional force shaking the firmly built edifice of the monastic church of the sixth and seventh centuries. It can be shown from the Annaia of Ulster that the abbot‑bishop of Armagh,
making free use of his opportunities,
	S. Rise of	between ?30 and 850 attained to some
	Armagh.	extent to that primacy in the Irish
		Church which was the logical outcome
of the Patrick legend. The year 805 was decisive
for Meath, 824 for Connaught, and 822, as well as
Forindan's stay in Munster from 841 to 846, for
South Ireland; thenceforth the see of Armagh had
its tax‑gatherers for Patrick's pence in all Ireland,
excluding of course the Viking state whose ruler
resided at Dublin. In 943 this ruler, Amlaib mac
Sitrieea (Norse, Olafr f3igtriggvasonr), became a
Christian in England and was baptized by Wulf
helm, archbishop of Canterbury, Edmund, king of
England, standing as his godfather. As Christi
anity spread among his subjects they. naturally
looked toward Canterbury sad drew teir clerics
from England. The incumbents of newly estab
lished Norse bishoprics of Dublin, Waterford, and
Limerick were consecrated at Canterbury. This
was not satisfactory to the bishop of Armagh, who
desired revenues from the rich Norse settlements
fn Dublin. He again had recourse to the Patrick
legend, utilising a detail of it which had already
become current; namely, that Patrick had con
verted the Viking. One of his adherents, wri
ting about 1000, tells how the saint had converted
the heathen. Norse pf Dublin, and consequently
asserts that the successor of " Patrick of Armagh
with the great revenues" had a right to an
ounce of gold " from each nose " in the Dublin
Viking state (cf. H. Zimmer, Keuische Beitr6ge, iii.,
in Zeitschrifl far deutsehes Alterthum, sxxt.., 1891,
pp. 54‑85).

477	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Celtic Church
Another phenomenon in the inner development of the Irish Church in this period which deserves attention is the appearance of the
4. The so‑called Culdees (Irish, dli &; ~ Latin,
	Cnidees.	colidei). It is difficult to define ex
		actly the origin and position of these
men. The Irish name does not furnish a trust
worthy clue. It meant originally one who enters ~,
God's service and devotes himself to him to death,
and could be applied, like vir dei in Latin, to monks
and anchorites in general. Hector Bocce, the
Scottish historian of the sixteenth century, started
the theory that the Culdei, as he calls them, were
the direct continuation of Irish monasticism of the
sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries, or even of
Celtic monasticism in general. But Bishop Reeves
has shown that the term as used from the ninth
to the twelfth century was applied to members
of spiritual associations whose existence can not
with certainty be traced earlier than about 800.
Hence the associations of the Colidei must have
been formed in Ireland about this time and an ex
isting term of general application was given a more
limited signification to designate their members.
Apparently Chrodegang's monastic rule (749),
designed originally for Metz, was brought to Ire
land in the eighth century, and Irish anchorites,
who were not under regular monastic rule, were
first associated in accordance with it. The Culdees
were never of great importance in Ireland. They
are mentioned in nine places, often in connection
with monasteries to which the house of the Culdeea
forma a sort of annex. The care of the sick and
the poor was their chief charge, and they also seem
to have been entrusted with the choral part of the
service. In North Britain, however, whither they
went from Ireland, they attained to greater im
portance. Naiton's expulsion of the refractory
monks of Ions in 717 left gaps in the clergy which
the new associations of the Coli" helped to fill.
They appear in Scotland as a mixture of secular
clergy and anchorites organized after monastic
pattern; at a later time they resemble the regular
canons of the Continent. There was a want of
connection between different convents due to the
lack of a common head and fixed forms. Hence
there were wide divergences, and contemporary
descriptions and opinions differ greatly. They
were ultimately absorbed in the Roman orders,
which were introduced in Ireland and Scotland
during the twelfth century.
	The full subjection of the Celtic Church of Ireland
to that of Rome was accomplished after 1050.
		Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury
6. Final found opportunity to interfere in IreBnbiection land in 1074 and sent a letter to the
	to Some.	king, Torlogh O'Brian, through Gil
		patrick, the Norse bishop of Dublin.
Instigated by both, Gregory VII. sent a letter to
Ireland and appointed Gilbert, the Norse bishop of
Limerick, papal legate for Ireland. As in the
seventh century, so now, the bishop of Armagh
resisted. But in the end Gilbert found a man who
fell in with his views, when in 1106 Celsus succeeded
to the see of Armagh. At the Synod of Rath
breasail in 1120 it was decided to divide Ireland
into twenty‑four dioceses, all except Dublin subordinate to Armagh. In 1152 a synod was held at Kells, under the presidency of the papal legate, Paparo, and Ireland was divided into four provinces, Armagh was selected as the see of the primate, and the bishops of Dublin, Cashel, and Tuam were promoted to archbishops and received pallia brought from Rome. The complete Romanizatioa of the Irish Church in internal affairs was effected in furtherance of the political interests of the AngloNormans at a synod held at Cashel in 1172 by command of Henry II.
3. In North Britain: In 844 Kenneth mac Alpin, ruler of the Irish state in North Britain, mounted the throne of the united North and South Picts, and thereby created a united kingdom of Alba, later known as Scotland. In 850 Kenneth had the bones of Columba removed from Ions (which, because of constant attacks from the Vikings, had fallen into complete decay) and deposited at Dunkeld, in the land of the South Picts, the mainstay of his power. At the same time he established a bishopric at Dunkeld, apparently aiming to form here a center for a national church like Ions in the seventh century, with a different basis, however, the abbot‑bishop of Dunkeld being at the head of the church government as bishop and not as abbot. In 865 Kenneth's son, Constantine, removed the see of the bishopric to Abernethy, leaving Dunkeld with an abbot only. In 908 the see of the primate was transferred to St. Andrews and a parliament of the same year exempted the Church from taxation. Margaret, grandniece of Edward the Confessor and queen of Scotland 1060‑93, took energetically in hand the reformation of the Scottish Church according to Roman rules and usages. She received efficient support from her confessor, Turgot, abbot of Durham (see TuaooT). Her eons, Edgar (1097‑1107), Alexander (1107‑24), and David (1124‑53) continued and completed their mother's reforms. In 1107 Turgot was appointed to the see of St. Andrews and was consecrated at York. His successor, Eadmer, a Canterbury monk, at the desire of King Alexander was chosen and consecrated by Ralph, archbishop of Canterbury (1115). By 1188 the outward and inward transformation of ecclesiastical Scotland into a Roman province was complete. It was then declared inc[ependent of Canterbury and, like the Irish Church, came directly under the sovereignty of Romp through a bull of Clement III. (cf. Haddan and Stubbs, ii. 273‑274). The land was divided into nine dioceses with strictly defined boundaries, and Augustinian, Benedictine, and Cistercian monks were introduced and absorbed the remnant of the national Celtic monasticism.
1V. Some General Considerations: Concerning institutions and doctrine, neither tradition nor history offers any support to the view that the Celtic Church in its prime almost reproduced the Church of the Apostolic Age. The British Church of the fourth century was a part of the Catholic Church of the West, just as Britain was a part of the Roman Empire. And the Irish Church was an offshoot of the British Church. The divergences from Rome which both branches of the Celtic Church

Celtic Church	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	478
showed at the beginning of the seventh century
are easily explicable. It must not be forgotten
		that the position of the bishop of
	1. Season Rome in the time of Leo the Great
	for the (440‑461) was different from that of
	Divergen‑ Pope Gregory the Great (590‑604);
	ces from that the fourth century knew nothing
	Rome.	of that rigid uniformity of institutions
		which at the beginning of the seventh
century was looked upon as an essential requirement
of the unites catholica ; and that innovations
domesticated themselves slowly in the more dis
tant members of the Church. About 400 the
British branch of the Catholic Church was cut off
because political Rome lost its hold on Britain.
A series of events of the early fifth century is in
structive for the immediate consequences. The
popes Innocent, Zosimus, and Boniface (401‑422)
energetically opposed the teaching of Pelagius,
and the emperor, Honoriua, supported them by
issuing a rescript (Apr. 30, 418) threatening ban
ishment to every Pelagian. The suppression of
the heresy in the empire was thus due to the civil
power. But the arm of the emperor did not reach
to Britain and in 429 Pope Celeatine could only
send Germanus of Auxerre thither to eradicate the
heresy by moral suasion. Later all connection
between the Celtic Church and Rome was broken
for 150 years by a double and threefold wall of
barbarians‑Burgundiana, Visigoths, Franks, and
Saxons. The development of the Western Church
during all this time left no impress on the Celtic;
and local conditions could not fail to influence the
latter. This explains how a Columban of Luxeuil
presumes to address the pope in a way which two
hundred years earlier would not have been remark
able in a bishop of North Africa or Alexandria. It
explains why the Welsh Church of the sixth cen
tury knew only of independent bishops without
metropolitan; the British Church in 400 knew
nothing of this institution. The difference in the
date of Easter is due to the fact that in 600 the
Celtic Church still used the older supputatio Ro
mdnd, which had been followed by Rome till 343,
but was then superseded by the younger supputatio
Romans. Other changes‑the paschal table of
Zeitz in 447, the nineteen‑year cycle of Victoriua
in 501, the cycle of Dionyaiua about 550‑were all
unknown to the Celtic Church.
The representatives of Britain at the Synod of Arles subscribed the canon that when possible seven and in any case three, bishops
2. Conse‑ should take part in the consecration
oration by of a bishop. Yet consecration could
a Single be performed by a single bishop in
	Bishop.	lath the British and Irish Churches
		long after their contact with Rome.
This is not as surprising as it has been thought (cf.
Warren, pp. 68‑69). In the nature of things, partic
ularly in the earlier period, consecration often had
to be by one bishop if it took place at all. Gregory
the Great recognized the necessity and gave Au
guatine permission to consecrate alone with the re
mark, " Since you are the only bishop in the English
Church you can not ordain otherwise than without
other bishops " (Beds, i. 27). Boniface V. gave the
same perxniasion to Justus, Augustine's third successor, "when the occasion made it necessary" (Beds, ii. 8). Custom with the English makes law without specific enactment. Hence it is comprehensible how consecration by a single bishop became first established usage and then law. In respect to the markedly monastic character of the Irish Church and the position of the bishop in it unlike
that in the Western Church, it must S. Monastic be noted that in the older monasteries
Character (such as Armagh in the North and
of the
Irish	Emly in Tipperary) the abbots were
Church. also bishops; that is, the heads of the
dioceses were abbots and bishops in one person, but their power of church government rested on their position as abbots. This is explained by the political and social conditions of the Celts and the time and manner of their conversion. The first step was the establishment of a monastic missionary station with a clan. A member of the chief's family inevitably became the head of such a station. In some cases the right of succession to the abbacy remained hereditary in the chief's family for centuries. The necessity for some one to perform episcopal functions would not be felt immediately. When it did arise an original lay abbot may have received consecration, but, living as he did far from the eight and influence of an episcopal church, it was only natural that he should continue to perform the duties of church government in the church of the clan by virtue of his position as abbot and member of the chief's family.
It is not advisable to attempt a complete picture of the doctrines and institutions of the Celtic Church: in its prime. The material at hand is not sufficient, although it is adequate to support the conclusion that the Celtic Church of the sixth and seventh centuries was a reproduction of the Western Church of the fourth century, modified only in special points. An important difference, however, must be noted. The spirit of the Roman and Celtic Churches when they first came in conflict was not the same. The representatives of the former were intolerant and uncharitable, as Augustine toward
the British bishops (Beds, ii. 2), Wil4. The frid toward Colman (ib. iii. 25), Ald‑
CR.oman d helm in his letter to Geraint (MGH,
Spirit.	EPist., iii. 231‑235). The Irish, on the
other hand, such as Columban on the Continent and Aidan and the rest in Northumbria, only asked that they be allowed quietly to follow the customs of their fathers. As soon, however, as an Irishman went over to the Roman party a new spirit entered into him. Ronan, an Irishman who had been in Gaul and Italy, began the quarrel in Northumbria with the gentle Finan (Beds, iii. 25). Cummian in his famous letter expresses the pious wish that God would " strike " Fintan (his chief opponent) " as he would " (col. 977b ), although four or five years earlier he had himself kept Easter at the Celtic date. Again, the spirit of deliberate falsification to serve church interestsdoea not appear in the Irish Church before its contact with Rome. That it appears immediately thereafter is abundantly shown by the history of the Patrick legend. Lastly, the new spirit which

479	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Celtic Church
begins to pervade the Irish Church in the seventh
century is	indicated by the unprecedented ex
tension of the cult of relics. Ireland had no mar
tyrs. There is no reason to believe that relics
	were known or honored in any part of
	8. Relics.	the Irish Church before contact with
		Rome. In 633 the embassy sent to
Rome because of the Easter contest (see above,
p. 475) returned laden with books and relics. And
the next year Cummian writes to Seghine: " And
we have proof that the virtue of God is in the relics
of holy martyrs and the writings which they have
brought. We have seen with our own eyes a girl
totally blind open her eyes before these relics and
a paralytic walk and many demons cast out "
(cal. 978b). Everything here, even to the word
ing (reliquite), is Roman, not Irish. Muirchu
Maccu .Machtheni's life of Patrick witnesses the
progress of the cult of relics in South .Ireland dur
ing the seventh century. Speaking for his own
time (before 697), the author mentions with em
phasis that in three different places in the Roman
Irish territory relics are worshiped and he even
makes Patrick prophesy such worship (Tripartite
Life, ii. 281, 11. 1‑2; 283, 11. 3‑5; 497, 11. 14‑19).
To Adamnan, writing his life of Columba in ‑North
Ireland at the same time and before he had joined
the Roman party, relics are utterly unknown.
But no sooner did Roman influence find entrance
in the North through the yielding of Armagh (697)
and Ions (716) on the Easter question than the
same change of attitude took place which had
occurred seventy years earlier in the South. The
Annals of Ulster give much information on the
history of the Church, but in the sixth and seventh
centuries they contain not a single entry respecting
relics. In 726, however, occurs the first of a long
series of entries recording the transference or en
shrining of relics, and a little later Armagh ex
hibited at the great faire of Ireland the relics of
Patrick, supposed to have been found at Down
patrick in 733, and took them to Connaught and
Munster.
Enough has been said to show that the spirit which animated the Celtic Church about 600 was quite different from that which the emissaries of the Roman Church brought to the British Isles. Both had the same dogmas. But on the one aide was a striving after individual freedom and personal Christianity, on the other side a bigoted zeal for rigid uniformity and systematizing. The Celt emphasized a Christianity manifesting itself in word and deed, the Roman Catholic valued a formal Christianity above all else. As has been said, there is no reason to believe that the Celtic Church greatly resembled the Apostolic Church in institutions or doctrines. But the practical results of its teaching as seen in the life of such men as Aidan and Finan (cf. Bade, iii. 17) unquestionably come nearer the popular conception of the Apostolic Age than does the spirit manifested by the representatives of Rome.
(H. ZIMMER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. W. Haddsn and W. Stubbs, Councils and
Ecclesiastical Documents Relating to Great Britain and Ire
land, a convenient collection of the sources with valuable
notes, vol. i., Oxford, 1869, dealing with the British Church
in Roman times and the period of Anglo‑Saxon conquest, the Church in Wales and Cornwall; vol. ii., part i., 1873, with the Church in Cumbria or Strathclyde, branches of the British Church in Armorica and Gallicia, the Church of Scotland till declared independent of York; vol. ii., part ii., 1873, with the Church in Ireland and the memorials of Patrick; vol. iii., 1871, with the English Church during the Anglo‑Saxon period. Adamnan's Life of St. Columba, ed. W. Reeves, Dublin, 1857, Edinburgh, 1874 (see ADAMNAN). Beds, Hiatoria eccleaiuatiaa genlia Anplorum, ed. A. Holder, Freiburg, 1890, ed. C. Plummer, 2 vole., Oxford, 1896. Cummian's letter to $eghine, abbot of Ions, in MPL, lxxxvii. 969‑978. Gildas and Nennius. Hiatoria Britonum, ed. T. Mommsen, in MGH, Auct. ant., xiii., Chronica minoro aceculorum iv.‑vii., iii., 1898. Prosper of Aquitaine, Chronicon, ed. idem, ib. i. Auct. ant., ix., 1892. The Tripartite Life of Patrick with Other Documents Relating to That Saint, ed. Whitley Stokes, in Rolls Series, no. 89, ?, vols., 1887 (see PATRICK, SAINT). The Lives of the Cambro‑British Saints cf the Fifth and Immediate Succeeding Centuries, ed. W. J. Rees, Llandovery, 1853. dating from the eleventh and twelfth centuries, which is also true in part of the material in the socalled Liber Landavereaia (" Book of Llandaff," ed. W. J. Rees, Llandovery, 1840; ed. J. G. Evens, Oxford, 1393). The Acta aanetorum Hibernia, ex codice Seslmanticensi, cd. C, de Smelt and J. de Backer, Edinburgh, 1888,#nd Lines of Saints from the Book of Liamore, ed. Whitley Stokes„ in Anecdotes. Oxonienaia, 1890, also present only relatively late material. The various annalistic works give important data for ecclesiastical history, viz.: for the British and Welsh Church, the An»alea Cambria, ed. J. W. ab Ithel, in Rolls Series, no. 20, 1860; the oldest part also in Y Cymmrodor, ix., 1888; for the Irish‑Scotch branch, the Annals of Tigernnch, ed. Whitley Stokes, in Revue Celtique, xvi.‑xviii., 1895‑97; the Annals of Ulster, ed. W. M. Hennessy and B. MacCarthy, 4 vols., Dublin, 18871901 ; the Chronicon Scotorum, ed. W. bi. Hennessy, in Rolls Series, no. 46, 1866; Annals of Ireland, Three Fragments, ed. J. O'Donovan, Dublin, 18E0; Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland by the Four Masters, ed. idem, 7 vols., 1848‑51; Annals of Clonmarnoiae, ed. D. Murphy, Dublin, 1896; Chronicles of the Picts and Scots, ed. W. F. Skene, Edinburgh, 1867. The oldest of the Irish collections is that of Tigernach (d. 1083). Since the sources upon which they are based are all lost, and the sources them‑selves appear in part to have been compilations of the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries from older monastic annals, it is clear that statements concerning Irish church history of the fifth century have no decisive value when they coincide with the views concerning the earlier period current after 750. In using the collections of Welsh and of Irish Laws (Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales, London, 1841; Ancient Laws of Ireland, 6 voles., Dublin, 18651902) it must be remembered that the former dates from the tenth century and the latter can not be much older. Other sources are: the Stove Missal, ed. F. E. Warren,. in The Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic Church, pp. 198‑268, Oxford, 1881; the Antiphonary of Bangor, ed, idem, and the Irish Liber Hllmnortcm, ed. J. H. Bernard and R. Atkineon for Henry Bradshaw Society, iv., x. and xiii., xiv., 1893‑93; F. W. H. Wasserschleben, Die Buaaordnunpen der aDsndlfindiachen Kirche, Halls, 1851; idem, Die irische Kesnonensammlung, Leipaie, 1885; the Fhlire of Oeugua, ed. Whitley Stokes, Dublin, 1881; the Martyrology of Tallesph, ed. M. Kelly, Dublin, 1857; the Martyrology of Donegal, ed. J. H. Todd and W. Reeves, Dublin, 1864; the Martyrology of Garman, ed. Whitley Stokes, for Henry Bradshaw Society, ix., 1895.
The father of Celtic church history was Archbishop Useher, whose work, Britannicarum eccleaiarum antiquitatea, Dublin, 1639; 2d ed., enlarged, London, 1687, however, has now only historic interest. The monograph of C. $eh511, De eecleeiaatica; Britonum Scotarumque hiatario: fontzbua, Berlin and London, 1851, and the introduction and notes of Reeves's Adamnan, u.s., were pioneer work in the critical investigation and appreciation of the sources; it is to be regretted that not all their successors have continued in the same spirit. The legends of the Celtic Church are briefly but fully told in Cardinal Newman's Life of St. Augustine, chaps. i.‑v., London, 1845. Works dealing with the Celtic Church in both Britain and Ireland are: J. H. A. Ebrard, Die iroachottiache Misaionakirche lea aechaten, aiebenten and eschten Jahrhunderta, Giiteraloh,

Celtic Church
Cemeteries	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	480
1873; F. E. Warren, Liturgy and Ritual, U.S.; F. Loofa, Antiques Britonum Scotorumqua eccleaica qualm fuerunt mores, Leipsie and London, 1882; W. Cathcart, The Ancient British and Irish Churches, Philadelphia, 1894 (adverse to Roman Catholic claims); H. Zimmer, The Celtic Church in Britainand Ireland, London, 1902. For the British branch noteworthy works are: R. Rees, An Essay on the Welsh Saints, London, 1836; J. H. Overton, The Church in England, i., T)i,e National Churches, 2 vole., London, 1891; H. Williams. Soma Aspects of the Christian Church in Wales during the Fifth and Sixth Centuries (London, 1895, reprinted from the Transactions of the Society of Cymmrodorion, 1893‑94, pp. 5b‑132); E. J. Newell, AHiatory of the Welsh Church to the Dissolution of the Monasteries, London, 1895; J. W. W. Bund, The Celtic Church of Wales, ib. 1897; W. Bright, Chapters of Early English Church History, Oxford, 1897; J. W. W. Bond, The Celtic Church of Wales, London, 1897; W. E. Collins, The Beginnings of English Christianity, urofh Special Reference to the Coming of St. Augustine, London, 1898; W. Hunt, The English Church from Its Foundation to the Norman Conquest, London, 1899. For Ireland: J. Lanigan, An Ecclesiastical History of Ireland to the Thirteenth Century, 4 vole., Dublin, 1829; R. King, A Primer of the History of the Holy Catholic Church in Ireland to the Formation of the Modern Branch of the Church of Rome, 2 vole, apd supplement, Dublin, 1851; idem, A Memoir Introductory to the Early History of the Primacy of Armagh,
CEMETERIES.
Various Commemorations (¢ 1). Ceremonies of Commemoration (¢ 2).
III. Arrangement, Structure, and Grave‑Formation of the Cemeteries.
1. Subterranean Burial‑Places. a The Oriental Group.
Palestine (¢ 1).
Syria (¢ 2).
Mesopotamia (13). Asia Minor (¢ 4).
Egypt (¢ b).
Cyrenaica (¢ 8).
b. The Western Group. North Africa (¢ 1).
Sicily (¢ 2). Malta (¢ 3). Melon (¢ 4). Apulia (¢ b). Naples (¢ 6). Caatellamare (¢ 7). Rome (¢ 8).
2. Cemeteries Above Ground.
Cemeteries is a term used to designate the burialplacea of the early Christians, including the subterranean burying‑grounds commonly known as catacombs.
I. Names Used in Early Times: Among the various titles by which the Christians of the first few centuries designated the burial‑places of their dead, the moat frequent and probably the oldest is the Greek koimeterion or the equivalent Latin ctemeterium. It is not found in the Septuagint or in the New Testament, but the verb koimasthai, " to lie down to rest," " to sleep," occurs in both the literal and the metaphorical sense, usually the latter in the New Testament (metaphorical: Matt. xxvii. 52; Acts vii. 60, xiii. 36; I Cor. vii. 39, xv. 6, 18, 20, 51; I Thees. iv. 13; II Peter iii. 4; literal: Matt. xxviii. 13; Luke xxii. 45; Acts xii. 6). While the word koimPterion is of rare occurrence in classical Greek (it was applied by the Cretans, according to Athenaeus, to a room for the entertainment of guests), it was constantly used by both Christians and Jews for single and family graves and for larger burying‑grounds, whether
I. Names Used in Early Times.
II. Christian Burial end (Burial‑Places in General.
1. Fundamental Ideas.
2. Predecessors of the Cemeteries.
3. Development of Cemeteries and Their Types.
Origin of the General Cemetery (¢.1).
Period of the Catacombs (¢ 2).
Burial in Mausoleums and Churches (¢ 3>.
4. Establishment and Administration of Cemeteries.
Foeeoree (5 1).
Administrative Officials (¢ 2).
b. Acquisition, Use, and Protection of Graves.
Purchase of Graves (¢ 1).
The Same Grave Used for Several Bodies (¢ 2).
Violation of Graves (¢ 3).
8. Commemoration of the Dead in the Cemeteries.
Armagh, 1854; C. J. Greith, Geachichta den altirixhrra Kirehe, Freiburg, 1887; W. D. Killen, The Ecclesiastical History of Ireland, 2 vole., London, 1875; G. T. Stokes, Ireland and the Celtic Church, 6th ed., London, 1907; idem, Some Worthies of the Irish Church, ib. 1900; J. Healy, Inauda aancWrum et doctorum or Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars, Dublin, 1890; A. Belleaheim, Geachichte den kaUwZiacAen Kirchs in Inland, 3 vole., Mains, 1890‑91; T. Olden, The Church of Ireland, in The National Churches, London, 1892; J. Heron, The Celtic Church in Ireland, London, 1898; Eleanor Hall, Early Christian Ireland, Dublin, 1905. For Scotland: W. F. $kene, Celtic Scotland, ii., Church and Culture, 3 vole., Edinburgh, 1887; A. Belleeheim, Geachiehte den katholiachen Kirche in Schottland, 2 vole., Mains, 1883, Eng. tranel., with additions and notes, by D. O. H. Blair, 4 vole., Edinburgh, 18871890; H. M. Luckock, The Church in Scotland, in The National Churches, London, 1893; J. Dowden, The Celtic Church in Scotland, London, 1894; W. Stephen, History of the Scottish Church, 2 vole., Edinburgh, 1894‑98; Dom Columba Evens, The Early Scottish Church, London, 1908 (claims original Roman supremacy). For the Culdeen: W. Reeves, The Culdeea of the British Islands as They Appear in History, Dublin, 1864; $kene, U.S., pp. 228‑277; J. von Pflugk‑Hartung, Die Kuldeer, in ZRG, xiv. (1894) 189‑192. Fuller bibliographies may be found in Warren, U.S., pp. xiu.‑xix.; Bellesheim, Inland, pp. ris.‑ail.; Schottland, pp. vii.‑xv.; and Olden, pp. 430‑432.
e. Plan and Construction.
In the Open Air (¢ 1).
Memorial Buildings (¢ 2).
Ground‑Plan and Form (¢ 3).
Cemeteries Connected with Churches (¢ 4).
b. Types of Graven.
The Ordinary Grave (¢ 1).
The Covering of the Grave (¢ 2).
Sarcophagi (13).
Other Receptacles (¢ 4).
IV. Equipment and Decoration of Tombs.
1. The Grave Itself. a The Interior.
Objects Pertaining to the Corpse (4 1).
Disposition of the Corpse (¢ 2).
Gifts to the Dead (¢ 3). b. The Exterior.
Vessels for Light and Incense (¢ 1). Marks of Identification (¢ 2).
Inscriptions and Paintings (¢ 3).
2. The Chambers and Passages.
above ground or under ground. On the other hand, there is only one doubtful case of its use in a heathen inscription for a burial‑place (CIL, viii. 7543), against thousands in which other terms are used. That the expression was recognized as a distinctly Christian and Jewish term is evident from the way in which it is used as au unfamiliar term in the edicts of the Roman emperors (Euaebius, Hilt. eccl., VII. xi. 13). Latin‑speaking Christians also occasionally employed the term accubitortum, which originally meant (from the Roman habit of reclining at table) a dining‑room. These words show their connection with the Christian hope, which saw in death only a sleep. Besides these specifically Christian expressions, the inscriptions give a number of others, of a more general nature. Besides some of minor importance, there is, for example, hypogceum (or in one place Gk. kalagaion) to designate small underground burial‑places among both Christians and pagans. Modern scholars frequently employ this term to designate underground burial‑places, no matter what their size or arrangements. The word area is also found

481	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Celtic Church
		cemeteries
among the Latin‑speaking races, especially in
North Africa, and it has become customary, fol
lowing De Rossi, to use it for all surface burying
grounda of the primitive Church. The name
" catacomb " is more recent than any of the above
named, but has come into more general use to desig
nate not only the subterranean burial‑places of the
primitive Christians but frequently also those of the
Jews and other races. It is first met with in con
nection with the circus of Maxentius near the
Appian Way outside of Rome, in an inscription
which has the phrase fecit et circum in catecumbas.
As relating to a Christian burial‑place, it is not
demonstrable before the year 354, when it appears
as a specific designation of the cemetery of St.
Sebastian on the Appian Way, to which it was
limited for centuries. Johannes Diaconus is the
earliest evidence for its application to other Chris
tian cemeteries, outside of Rome as well as within.
Familiar as the word now is, however, there is no
certainty as to its original signification. The most
probable theory is that of De Waal, followed by
Schultze, that the circus of Maxentius and the
cemetery of St. Sebastian were called in catacumbaa
(Gk. kata kumbas, " in the ravine ") because of the
sudden dip which the land, including the Appian
Way, takes at that point into a deep hollow.
	II. Christian Burial and Burial‑Places is General
‑1. F'nada,mental ideas: The burial of Christ in
the garden was taken as the model for that of his
disciples. The feat that never in the oldest Chris
tian literature (including the New Testament) and
not often later is a prohibition of cremation found,
and the absence of traces of cremation, cinerary
urns, and the like, demonstrate that burial in the
earth was the unwritten law. Based originally
upon the example of Christ, it was supported later
by reasoning which connected the resurrection of
the body more or less with its burial. Minutiae
Felix, however, prefers burial to cremation merely
as "the older and better custom" (Oclavius, xxxiv.
11). Augustine (De civitate Dei, i. 22; De curs
pro mortals, iii., etc.) takes burial for granted,
and so does Origen in the East (Contra Celsum, v.
23, viii. 49; De principiie, ii. 10). It is impossible
to decide how far Christians of the Apostolic Age
were buried in Jewish and pagan graveyards; but
later a strict line of demarcation was drawn, at
least as early as Tertullian. The Christian graves
were not required to be at a great distance, but
there was to be a distinct interval between thaw
and the heathen, and the burial of individual Chris
tians in heathen graveyards was strictly forbidden,
and vice versa. Primitive Christianity was thus
as exclusive in death as in its worship during life.
	2. Predecessors of the Cemeteries: While Chris
tian antiquity agreed in condemning cremation, it
made no attempt at enforcing uniformity in the
manner of burial. Both of the earlier methods of
sepulture, under and above the ground, were em
ployed. The choice between the two was deter
mined partly by the geological conformation of the
place, though perhaps not as largely as has been
usually assumed. Other prevailing reasons are to
be sought in the customs of pre‑Christian times in
regard to the disposal of corpses. That the early
		IL‑31
Christians should have undertaken, in the absence of any definite prescription, to strike out wholly new lines for themselves in this matter is unlikely, especially since they did not attempt this in the analogous matter of the construction of their houses and churches. Naturally, therefore, they adopted in each place the prevailing local custom‑the Hebrew Christians of Palestine following the Jewish mode, and the Gentile Christians of Sicily that of their pagan neighbors. The fuller our knowledge grows of both ancient Christian and ancient pagan burial‑places, the more clearly is this theory demonstrated, not only in regard to the choice mentioned above, but equally in regard to the shape, decoration, and equipment of the sepulchers. Thus it may be remarked, without anticipating too much what will be said later, that private vaults, holding but a small number of bodies, are characteristic of the earliest period of Christian burial. As far as inscriptions and other indications go, these were restricted to the members of one family, its friends, etc., with, it is true, the addition (as in the families of the imperial period) of Christian freedmen and their Christian offspring. It is not yet certain whether so early as this (on the analogy of the older Roman and later Christian custom) individuals joined together in associations for the purpose of providing a common burial‑place. In a word, it is safe to say that the primitive Christians followed Jewish models in Palestine and pagan elsewhere, almost without exception.
S. Development of Cemeteries cad Their Types: As in other things, so here Christianity proved itself a religion of development; and, once more following the general rule, this development was more rapid in the West than in the East. To take but a single important point, the development from the family vault to the general cemetery, the East never went beyond a few experiments, and burying‑grounds for the whole of a local church remained exceptional, even at a much later period. The West, on the other hand, while it began with the family vault, and examples of this form persist through the whole of Christina antiquity, was not long in adopting the large common cemetery. The development was not everywhere equally rapid; Sicily was least affected by it, and Rome most. By the third century the common cemetery was the rule here.
The Roman catacombs mark the highest point reached in the development of ancient Christian burial, the greatest and most speedy advance upon its pre‑Christian prototypes and upon its own beginnings. The moat striking feature of this is not the immense extent attained by the wonderful underground city, but the motive power which created it ‑the spirit of brotherly love and esprit de corps. As nearly as the obscure beginnings can be traced,
this, rather than practical considers1 . Origin tiona or needs, was responsible for the of the Gen‑ vest extension of the system. Before oral Ceme‑
	tery.	the advent of Christianity, it was not
	tery.	uncommon for philanthropists to pro
vide either individuals or whole classes, principally
among the poor, with burial‑places, and there
was nothing in itself remarkable about Christians

Cemeteries	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	482
being inspired with the same benevolent idea. But the earlier instances were the product of mere kindness of heart, while the motive of the Christian benefactions was distinctly the spirit of brotherhood. The moat famous among those who thus endowed the oldest Roman church was a member of the imperial family, Flavia Domitilla, who possessed an estate on the Via Ardeatina, of which she allowed portions to be used for burial. The largest common cemetery of Rome, the catacomb which bears her name, was constructed on this spot, and some gf liar own relations buried in it. Other Christians followed her example, and the Church as a whole, so renowned for its spirit of charity, can not have been idle in this good work.
These beginnings date from. the second century; the third is the great epoch of subterranean burial in Rome; and the new development ceased there first, as it had begun there. It is true that new catacombs were established in the fourth century, such as that of St. Felix on the Via Aurelia, but their number and extent were comparatively insignificant. Burial on the surface, previously rare, increased in frequency with the cessa‑
2. Period tion of persecution, and by the beginof the ring of the fifth century became the Catacombs. tee. The dated inscriptions give an accurate view of the change: if their proportion may be taken, one‑third of the burials between 338 and 360, half between 304 and 369, two‑thirds between 373 and 400, and after 450 all those who died were buried outside the catacombs. This striking change is not sufficiently explained by the recognition of Christianity; the decisive change does not coincide with the date of the Edict of Milan (313), and both in Sicily and in Palestine burial continued to be as before‑in the former on the surface, in the latter underground. It may perhaps be better taken as merely an expression of the general consciousness of the change in the Church's position during the century, corresponding to the change which has been noticed in the ideal portrait of Christ in the same period (see JFSUB CHRIST, PICTURES AND IMAGES OF).
After the Roman catacombs ceased to be bunalplacea, they were by no means deserted, but remained the destination of pious pilgrimages. The veneration of the martyrs and their relics received a great extension in the fourth century, and the use of the ancient burial‑places in this way was furthered by the restoration of the passages and chambers and the opening of new approaches by Pope Damasus. A number of fifth and sixth‑century popes followed his example. The old chambers were enlarged into chapels, or regular basilicas were established in the catacombs (Sent' Agnate, San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, Santi Nereo ed Achilleo).
While burial either in catacombs or in the open ground was the common practise of primitive Christianity, it sometimes took place in mausoleums or churches. The construction of churches to mark the sepulchers of the martyrs and render them accessible to large numbers of the faithful began soon after the recognition of Christianity. In churches of this kind burial was practised, either by graves dug in the earth or by sarcophagi. The
principal churches used in this way in Rome were those of St. Peter and St. Paul, St. Laurence and St. Agnes without the Walls, and St. Pancreas, in and around which large numbers of Christians were
buried until late in the sixth century. s. Burial in If in the first three centuries the Mauso‑ Christians had respected the civil
ienms and ordinance which required burial out‑
Churches. side the walls of cities, the fourth wit‑
nessed a tendency to break down these restrictions. In Constantinople this took place about 381; in the mean while the relics of martyrs had been translated to the churches within the city, and promoted the desire of others to be buried in their neighborhood, so that an imperial edict was required which strictly prohibited such intramural burial. Chrysostom, however, who had sanctioned this restriction, was himself buried in a church in Constantinople in 438, and near him a number of persona of prominence. The increasing prevalence of the practise gradually broke through the law; in Rome there were intramural burialplacea in the sixth century‑a cemetery on the Esquiline and a number of places in and around the ' churches of the city, though the solemn translation of the relics of martyrs from the cemeteries outside to the city churches did not begin till the eighth and ninth ‑centuries.
4. Establishment and Administration of Cemeteries: The same spirit of love which watched over not only the poor and the sick but also the dead in the primitive Church moat have had before it the problem of the setting apart of definite‑ officers for the care of this part of its work. It seems probable that as early as Cyprian's day special‑persons were officially charged with the care of funerals. Where vaults were hewn out of the rock or built up in masonry, special grave‑diggers were not required; but the laying out of the larger catacombs required the services of technical knowledge. Thus it happens that next to nothing is heard about the organizers of cemeteries before the reign of Constantine, and in and after that reign more in the East than in the West. The Roman Church had no special officials in the middle of the second century, but at Circa in North Africa as early as the beginning of the persecution of Diocletian fossores appear as the lowest of the clerical orders (see FO6aARIANa).
Accordingly they came to be reckoned 1. Foesores. among the clerics between 250 ; and
350. Outside of Africa the Jos sores are sometimes named before the ostiarii. Their function was to dig the graves and act as custodians of the cemeteries. In the catacombs there are a number of pictures which show them at their work; here they are evidently of a higher class than mere laborers. In view of the complicated nature of their teak, they are rather to be compared with architects. They seem to have been supported at first, like other church officials, from the free=will offerings of the faithful; but a number of fourth and fifth‑century inscriptions imply that they received considerable sums from the sale of graves. This sort of traffic probably led to abuses, and so ultimately to the decline of the order as an order. It seems to have been definitely suppressed in Rome

483	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cemeteries
in the first half of the fifth century. Constantinople also had its official grave‑diggers, though here they were not reckoned among the clergy. As a class established by Constantine and added to by Anastasius, they attended to burials without charge, but received immunity from taxation and other privileges, so that their position was a desirable one, and coveted even by well‑to‑do tradesmen. It is learned from Ambrose (MPL, xvn. 745) that in the church of Milan the whole charge of burials was in the hands of the clergy, but he gives no details.
	Earlier and fuller information is extant in regard
to the officials who had the administration of the
cemeteries. With the development from private
vaults to burial‑grounds for the whole local church,
this naturally came within the bishop's sphere of
influence. Ire would of course deputize some of
his clergy to assist him, and in Rome from the third
		century the names of such clerics
2. Admin‑ appear as administrators of the com‑
istrative	mon burying‑ground; the first who
	Officials. can be positively identified was in
		deacon's orders. The Infer ponti f
cabs, in its account of Pope Dionysius (259‑2fi8),
implies that each of the titular or parish churches
of Rome had one cemetery specially assigned to it,
and that the priest of each church had the oversight
of the corresponding cemetery. At the beginning
of the fourth century, the growth of the local
church required an enlargement of the number,
and a redistribution was made (again according to
the Idber pontificalis) by Pope Dfarcellus (308‑309).
Assistants of the parish priest in this matter were
those called from the end of the fifth century Pro;
positi, who had charge of the more important
cemeteries, and the mansionarii, who had charge of
the less important burial‑places. The grcepoaiti
of the catacomb of St. Calixtus, which was not
classed with the others, and of St. Peter's, St.
Paul's, and St. Laurence's, were subject not to
parish priests but directly to the pope.
	6. Acquisition, Use, and Protection of Graves:
In Christian antiquity graves were acquired and
prepared as in pre‑Christian times, either by pur
chase or gift, and in the lifetime of the destined
occupant or at death. People provided their rel
atives, friends, and servants with graves by their
wills or by deed of gift. The only innovation is
that which has been already remarked, that local
churches provided burial‑places for the poor out
of the common funds. Both single graves and
family vaults were frequently purchased, and the
	1. Pur‑ records of the transaction sometimes
	chase of occupy more space than the funeral
	Grave,. inscription proper, giving the names
		of buyer, seller, and witnesses, the
price and location of the grave. In some of the
Roman inscriptions, probably relating only to par
ticular churches, the permission of the pope is
mentioned. In cases where the purchase‑price is
mentioned, though it may have included the cost of
construction, it seems in some instances to be ex
cessive, and the /ossores are likely to have driven a
good bargain, especially for places near the tombs
of the martyrs, for which these was an increasing
demand. Gregory the Great set his face against the selling of graves, but after his death the system seems to have revived. Though the question can not be positively decided, it seems that in ~Christian antiquity the practise of providing a burialplace during life was more common in the East than in the West, and during the period after Constantine than that before.
A passage in Tertullian (De anima, li.) and the decrees of certain councils against the crowding of bodies on top of one another or close together has led many archeologists to believe that in the priori. five Church each Christian had a grave to himself. But this view is untenable, as is shown especially by the excavations of Paolo Orsi in the cemeteries of Sicily, where he frequently found more than one body in a grave, and in one case as many as eighteen.
Even in Rome, where more respect 2. The was pad to the dead, the inscriptions Sam® Gra°e not seldom show that an old' grave
Deed for
Several was used again for fresh interments,
the original tablet being reversed and made to bear the name of the new tenant. The practise seems to have originated and to have been carried on with the least scruple in the East, where as early as the third century measures had to be taken against the violators of graves, not merely those who opened them for the purpose of interring more corpses, but some even who did not shrink from robbing them.
The custom of putting an inscription on a tomb to guard it from profanation is very old, and on the other hand was common in the Middle Ages. The Christian inscriptions of this kind warn those who read them most frequently and expressly against' the use of the grave for burial by unauthorized persons; but the writings of fourth‑century Fathers and the edicts of Christian emperors in the same period show that this was not the only danger feared. Gregory Nazianzen has left more than eighty epigrams directed against grave‑robbers, and John Chrysostom was obliged to
3. Viola‑ scourge this abuse again and again in
tion of ms sermons. A startling fact is that
Graves. the Christian inscriptions affixed to
graves as a protection seem to be addressed mainly to Christians, if one may judge from their appeals to God and the last judgment. In all the principal sections of the ancient Church numerous inscriptions are found which threaten violators of tombs either with secular or with divine penalties, or with both; but they are nowhere so numerous as in Phrygia and the adjoining provinces of Asia Minor. This frequency may be explained partly by the open and comparatively unprotected nature of the cemeteries there, although such inscriptions are found also in the Roman and Sicilian catacombs; but it is probably due more largely to the pre‑Christian tradition in Asia Minor, where pagan inscriptions of the kind were very numerous‑while in Rome, on the other hand, they are equally rare, among pagans and Christians. Secular rulers imposed heavy penal. ties upon violators of graves; they were excluded from profiting by the usual Easter indulgences, and ‑their wives were allowed to get a divorce from them.

Cemet"1m	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	484
Nor was the Church behindhand in warning and punishing offenders. But the evil was so deeply rooted that in spite of all these measures it lasted much longer than Christian antiquity.
8. Commemoration ofthe Dead in the Cemeteries: Besides the solemnities of interment, the primitive Church had a number of arrangements for the subsequent commemoration of the dead. The earliest recorded is the annual commemoration at the grave of Polycarp on the day of his martyrdom (Martyrium Polycarpi, xviii.). In the time of Tertullian it was customary in Africa to celebrate the anniversary of the death of other Christians (De corona, iii.; De monogamia, x.; cf. also Apostolic Constitutions, viii. 42; Cyprian, Epist., xxxix. 3). Other
commemorations took place on the 1. Various third, seventh, ninth, thirtieth, and Commemo‑ fortieth days after death or burial.
rations. As has been seen in regard to the mode
of burial, so here also these variations may be referred to the influence of pre‑Christian local customs, whether Jewish or pagan. Thus Ambrose (De obitu Theodosii, iii.) ascribes the celebration of the thirtieth day to the example of Deut. xxxiv. 8 and of the fortieth to Gen. 1. 3; and Augustine (Qucestiones in Heptateuchum, i. 172) shows the pagan origin of the ninth by objecting to it as reminding people of the Roman novendial and being without Biblical precedent.
The place of these commemorations is not always mentioned in the early authorities. Those described in the 1lTartyrium Polycarpi and the early Gnostic Acta Joannis took place at the sepulcher. What may lie inferred from the latter to have been the practise of the Christians of Asia Minor is shown by Tertullian and Cyprian to have prevailed also in Africa‑the celebration of the Eucharist in connection with these observances. By this sacred feast, which consolingly united the living with those who had gone before, the memorial ceremonies acquired a specifically Christian char‑
acter. Later it came to be surrounded 2. Cere‑ b a number of other ceremonies. Of
monies of
Commemo‑ these the first to come up was a meal,
ration. not the ancient agape but one par‑
taken of in the ordinary way as simple nourishment. These feasts on the anniversaries of the saints led to abuses and excesses which are frequently rebuked by the Fathers, especially in Africa, but also at Milan and in Rome. Offenses not merely against temperance but against morality seem to have taken place on these occasions in the East, according to Chrysostom, and also at the beginning of the fourth century in Spain, where a council legislates against them. In fact, the influence of the pagan dies parentales and femoralia continued to be felt, as was clearly the view of Ambrose and Augustine when they endeavored to regulate such customs, and especially to abolish anything which could seem like the heathen custom of offering food and drink to the dead (Augustine, De moribus ecclesice cotholicce, i. 34; Confessiones, vi. 2; and a canon of the Second Synod of Tours, 567). These authorities, however, do not raise any objection to other survivals of pre‑Christian customs, such as the offering of balsam and other
sweet‑smelling spices, which were frequently poured into the grave in liquid form, through specially prepared openings such as are still to be seen in one of Orsi's discoveries in the catacombs of Syracuse, and at San Paolo fuori le Mura in Rome. Incense was also used. It was a common practise to deck the graves with flowers, and lights were sometimes burned, though this was forbidden by the Synod of Elvira on the singular ground that " the spirits of the saints are not to be disturbed." This custom is evidenced by the large numbers of small lamps found in the catacombs, either placed in niches or fastened to the walls, which can hardly have been intended merely for lighting the dark passages.
III. Arrangement, Structure, and Grave‑Formation of the Cemeteries: In the consideration of these points, the geographical division is evidently the right one; but lack of space will allow it to be carried out only in the description of the subterranean burial‑places, while a generic classification will have to be adopted for those above ground.
1. Subterranean Burial‑Places.‑&. The Oriental Group (Asia Minor, the Crimea, Lower Egypt, and Cyrenaica): Palestine is rich in tombs hollowed out of the rock, more or less reminding the beholder of the sepulcher of Abraham (Gen. xxiii., xxv. 9). There has not been sufficient scientific investigation into their origin and age to enable an accurate distinction to be drawn between Jewish and Christian tombs in the individual instances. Either naturally perpendicular or artificially filled‑out walls of rock were dug into horizontally, or, where such were difficult of attainment, an excavation was made downward in suitable rocky ground, into which a flight of steps or a ladder led down. Places for single or family graves were excavated horizontally, with a low and narrow door to each,
closed with a stone, often cylindrical 1. Pales. in form. In the single graves a sort
tine, of niche, or sometimes two, were chiseled out, at the base of which, on the semblance of a couch, the corpse was laid, wrapped in cloths without a coffin. A variant or development of this was the hollowed‑out grave, corresponding to the arcosolium of the Roman catacombs, allowing the body to be laid in an excavation resembling a coffin. The best‑known single graves in Palestine are those called the tombs of Absalom and of Zechariah at Jerusalem and a number of tombs on the south side of the Valley of Hinnom. The family tombs present :he same forms, and later frequent instances are found of another kind, in which the excavation in the walls is shaped so as to allow the body to be pushed in head or feet foremost; of these a large number have been found in Palestine. This latter class may be taken to be exclusively Jewish in origin, and, where they are found in connection with indisputably Christian graves, it is commonly assumed that the Christians merely appropriated them. There is no doubt that the Jewish Christians also used the hollowed‑out and the vertically sunk graves. An interesting burial‑place with the latter type of grave is that on the Mount of Olives, which in more than one particular differs from the normal arrangement in Palestine, and probably belongs to a comparatively late period of Christian antiquity.

485	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cemeteries
Elsewhere in the country, even down to the fifth and sixth centuries, the original character of both single and family tombs was preserved.
Syria offers a considerable number both of ancient church buildings and of ancient cemeteries, both above and below ground, and a type which is a combination of the two, at once hollowed out in the rock and built over above. The openings to the subterranean burial‑places are either vertical or horizontal. In the former case they are covered by a atone like the lid of a sarcophagus, or sometimes by a roof with columns or a
	2. Syria.	complete chamber; in the latter, a
		door leads directly into them by a
flight of steps, or one passes first through a portico
or anteroom. The inner apace, usually rectangu
lar, has in most cases two or three hollowed‑out
and vaulted graves, each along one wall; six is the
largest number cited by De Vogii6. The cof&n
shaped place for the body is generally covered, not
by a slab, but by a heavy stone shaped like the
arched sarcophagus‑lids. The principal difference
between the known Christian burial‑places of
Syria (mostly fifth century, to ~ judge from the
inscriptions) and their pagan prototypes is the
almost universal choice of the arcosolium form
among those used in pre‑Christian times.
The cemeteries of Mesopotamia seem to correspond in their main features to those of central Syria, including structures wholly or partially above ground and excavations in the rock. An important necropolis is that outside the walls of Constantina in northern Mesopotamia, above ground, containing nearly 2,000 graves. The subterranean burial‑places seem to S. Meaopo‑ eve been mostly connected with
tasnia' ancient atone‑quarries, and some of them are more extensive than the similar ones in Syria, though numerous smaller ones have been found.
	The beat‑known early Christian cemeteries
in Asia Minor are in the extreme southeast
ern provinces of Iaauria and Cilicia, of which
the former had the good fortune to be explored by
L. Duchesne. Near the ancient Seleucia (now
Selefkeh) are numerous rectangular chambers at
irregular distances from each other, excavated in
soft limestone and entered by doors. They con
tain from three to ten graves apiece, somewhat
like arcosodia, but standing out further from the
walls. Rock‑chambers and isolated arcosolia are
also found near the village of Libas, and many
isolated coffins were scattered around three basil
icas at Mout, the ancient Claudiopolis, as well as
graves dug straight down and covered with stone
		slabs. Anazarbe in Cilicia has a
4. Asia large necropolis dating from a late
Xinor. period of Christian antiquity, in which both rock‑chambers and rock‑coffins are found, as also at Elxuasa. A still larger cemetery was probably that of Corykos (now Ghorigos), where chambers are excavated in the rock; sometimes in several lines one above another. These seem to have been all for families or small groups. All about the neighboring hills are large isolated sarcophagi with saddle‑back covers. In Pisidia, at
Termeasos, there are burial‑chambers which the crosses show to have been Christian. Since Armenia has Christian rock‑tombs at Arabissos (now Yarpuz), it is not unlikely that the intervening province of Cappadocia will yet furnish some ex= amples. It is possible that the lack of interest hitherto shown in the Christian cemeteries of Asia Minor is due to the close resemblance between them and the pagan burial‑places; and evidence is not lacking to support the theory that a considerable number which have heretofore been classed as pagan will, upon further investigation, be preyed to be Christian.
Accurate modern scientific investigation of the Christian sepulchral remains of Egypt has borne no proportion to the importance of the northern part of that country .in the early Church, and the question must be here discussed principally from the evidences to be found in Alexandria. ‑ Among the catacombs to which access was. gained in the nineteenth century the best known is that discovered in 1858, lying near the Serapeum in the southwestern part of the ancient city. A flight of steps leads down into a square anteroom, with a semicircular niche adjoining it on the west side, and two burial‑chambers extending out from it. One of these is long and narrow, vaulted above, and
containing thirty‑two tombs of the 8. Egypt. kind into which the body is pushed
head or feet first. The other, smaller and square, has three hollowed‑out graves, one on each side, and another sunk in the floor. That these were used by Christians is demonstrated by paintings and inscriptions, though more recent in date than the construction. N6reutaos, the most thorough student of the Alexandrian catacombs, mentions another, discovered in 1876, which he believes to be Christian. In this the anteroom resembles a Greek or Roman adicula, though the capitals of the columns are decorated with lotusfiowers instead of acanthus‑leaves. The oblong burial‑chamber leading out of this has on three sides rows of graves of the kind described, at right angles with the wall, one above another, to the number of fifty‑four. These cemeteries were probably family burial‑places, serving for more than one generation. The pagans and Jews of Alexandria undoubtedly began with this system, but there is reason to believe that the Christians did not always adhere to it.
Cyrenaica contains a great number of burialplacea hollowed out in the rock, both pagan and Christian, especially in the old capital city; but they have not been explored with sufficient completeness and accuracy to allow the formation of definite conclusions. As far as can be determined, most of the burial‑places of Cyrene are excavated in. the side of perpendicular cliffs near the city. Only a few of them give positive evidence of Christian use, though there is reason to think that these are not all. A great variety of methods appears,
e. Cyre‑ including movable and immovable
	nsioa.	scene sarcophagi, arcosolia, loctsli,
		graves sunk in the floor, and long,
narrow holes in the cliff in which the dead were laid
one above another, separated by horizontal slabs.

Cemeteries
The arcosolia show considerable artistic feeling, and where the vaulted roof occurs it resembles not a little the vaulting of the apse in early churches, like which, again, it is often painted. In these catacombs several chambers are sometimes united to form a larger whole, evidently serving for more than one family, and in one case it is possible to conclude with certainty that it was a common burial‑place for the Christian community. In this particular alone the Christians of Gyrenaica developed beyond their predecessors' whom they followed only in the variety of shapes used for the graves.
b. The Western Group: Even if the assumption frequently made that there were no subterranean cemeteries in North Africa is abandoned, it is true, at least, that they have but little significance compared with the large number in the open air or in and near buildings above ground. There seem really. to be but two subterranean burial‑places to consider. One at Tipasa has ten adjoining chambers dug out of the rock of the foot‑
1. North hills. The chamber, trapezoid in
	Africa.	Form, approximately ten feet by
		nine, has an arcosolium on each of
three sides and three graves dug in the floor, ap
parently covered with flat slabs. Gavault, its
discoverer, compares it with some chambers in the
Roman catacombs, but it is more analogous to
the Oriental and Sicilian. The other cemetery,
discovered in 1885, is at Arch‑Zara. The accessible
portion is elliptical in shape, terminating in a sort
of apse. Four parallel passages, the longest about
eighty‑eight yards, crossed by others at right
angles, are found in it. In the walls of these gal
leries are placed loculi, closed by slabs of brick. It
is quite possible that the place extends further in,
or even that there is a second level below the one
which has been excavated.
The cemeteries of Sicily surpass in number those of any other province of the Roman Empire, and show more varied forms than even Rome itself can offer. Each of the races which successively ruled the island brought its own customs with it, while none was strong enough to enforce them to the exclusion of the old. In dealing with the problem of sepulture, Christianity had a number of methods, both aboriginal and mixed, to choose
	13. Sicily,	from, and needed only to adopt or
		adapt. Nor was it limited to Sicilian
types; the many ties which connected the island,
even in Christian times, with Asia Minor, Syria,
Egypt, North Africa, and Rome rendered it pos
sible for still other architectural types to find an
entrance. The geological formation of the island
favored the excavation of subterranean burial
places. Limestone and tufa abound, the latter
usually of firmer substance than the tufa granu
lare of the neighborhood of Rome.
The first stage in the development is formed by the family vaults, of which the simplest show a square, oblong, or trapezoid form with graves in the walls, usually of the arcosolium or loculus type. Next, the small vault developed into a hall, from which recesses ran off on each side, usually haped like a bell or a flower‑pot, though sometimes square, with an opening at the top for light and air. Struo‑ i
THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG
488
tares based upon older cisterns are confined to the vicinity of Girgenti, and tombs with a baldachin covering, to eastern Sicily and Malta. Some of these stand free from the walls with the covering supported by pillars on all sides, like the ciborium of an altar; others are supported from one side on pillars, and from the other connect with the wall. In the eastern part are some with decorative facades in front either of a single grave or of a group, furnished with doors and windows.
The main differences in structure depend upon the size of the cemetery. The galleries of the larger catacombs were laid out with one or more main alleys and a number of smaller ones running across or parallel to them. The passages are as a rule comparatively wide, much wider than in Rome. Occupying an intermediate position between passages and chambers are the recesses, as wide as or wider than the corridors, but shorter. These are met with frequently in Sicily, and often contain (besides other types of graves) sarcophagi, sometimes arranged in terraces. Where chambers occur in the large catacombs, they are connected with the galleries, and are in shape square, oblong, trapezoid, or circular, the last being especially preferred in the principal catacombs of Syracuse. The rectangular ones have either a flat or a vaulted roof, the circular are often covered with a cupola, with an opening in the top for light and air. Where the size was sufficiently great to admit the possibility of a fall of the roof, this was guarded against by the construction of pillars out of the solid rock or by the erection of columns. The corridors and chambers are sometimes all on one level, sometimes in different stories.
The variety of grave‑forms is even greater than that of the general structure. In most places the commonest type is the arcosolium, sometimes double, one above another. Single graves are found relatively seldom; usually several occur in a row (up to fifteen or even more) under the same vaulted roof. In Sicily loculi are much less common than arcosoLia, and where they are numerous certain corridors contain them almost exclusively for children. The " table‑tomb " and the grave at right angles with the wall are rare. Sarcophagi, on the other head, were common, either cut out of the natural atone, built up with masonwork, or made of better material, such as marble; and so were graves sunk in the floor of chambers, recesses, and galleries, to the extent of forming a characteristic of the Sicilian cemeteries. The most important of all the Sicilian catacombs was that of San Giovanni near Syracuse, which in extent and skilful laying out surpasses even the Roman.
In Malta most of the ancient cemeteries lie near the capital, in the neighborhood of Carthaginian burial‑places. Where the aides of rocky cliffs were accessible, the excavations were horizontal, vertical in the flat country. Some of these have nothing but galleries, others nothing but chambers. As a rule, the galleries are few and short, their height that of a man. Among the grave‑forms is one which so far has not been found outside of Malta, known for convenience as the " oven‑grave." This is an opening in the wall at a greater or less

487	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cemneteriee
distance from the floor, with the bottom and sides straight, and the top in the shape of either an arch or a shell, or sometimes straight. These external parts are carefully constructed and decorated, often with pilasters in the front; at the back is a rectangular opening which gives access to the length of a grave usually for two, less often for one or three bodies. These graves are generally arranged in
a row; in the catacomb of Tal‑Liebru $• Xalta• there are two rows, one above the
other. This peculiar form can hardly be of Christian origin, but is rather, as Mayr has shown, the development of a type used by the Phenician population of the island. In a number of burial‑places it is the only form used, in others it appears concurrently with the more usual types, among which the arcosolium is the most frequent. Both in the oven‑graves and in the others a headrest with a semicircular depression is common. The Maltese cemeteries, moat of which date from the fourth and fifth centuries, are as a rule small, and must have served for families or other small groups. Only a single catacomb is known on the neighboring island of Gozzo.
Near the village of Trypiti in Melon, surrounded by pagan tombs, is a Christian necropolis unquestionably used as early as the fourth century, composed originally of five separate catacombs, four of which were afterward connected; and it is probable that others still lie concealed in the vicinity. The oldest, that in the middle, consists of a broad
main gallery and several side corri4. xeloe. dors. The width of the galleries
varies from 3 ft. 3 in. to 16 ft. 4 in., the height from 4 ft. 7 in. to 7 ft. 6 in. The walls contain arcoeolia with semicircular arches and a few loculi, and there are graves sunk in the floor of all the passages, usually in pairs. The three undoubtedly Christian catacombs have no chambers, but the other two, which are probably Christian, have them. Bayet counted 150 arcosolia and sixty‑six sunk graves in the whole five.
Far as Melon and Apulia are from each other, it would be difficult to find a closer affinity between types of catacombs than exists between them just described and those of Venosa, of which the one most fully studied is apparently of Jewish origin. Here again one finds the same unusual breadth of galleries, in spite of the friable nature of the tufa,
the orcosolium is the predominant 6. Apulia. form, at least in the main galleries,
and the floor is full of sunk graves, while chambers are once more lacking. The principal difference is in the form of the arcosolia, which in Melon are of only one kind, in Venosa of several, answering to the Sicilian variety; and in fact the Jewish catacomb of Venosa offers to a certain extent the intermediate step between Melon on one side and Sicily and southern Italy on the other.
The catacombs of Naples are the most important among those of Campania; and of these the largest and oldest are those of San Gennaro dei Poveri, whose beginnings apparently go back to the first century. Four are enumerated nowadays; but there is reason to suppose that there were originally more. The oldest is trapezoid in ground‑
plan, with a maximum width of thirty‑three feet and length somewhat more. Other smaller rooms open from it to left and right, the latter of which was later remodeled into a church. At the back
of the large hall are the entrances to e. Naples. two parallel galleries nearly 100 yards long, connected by numerous transverse passages. From the outer aide of each of these stretch out other chambers and galleries, which in their turn ramify still further, though to a much leas extent than in the Roman catacombs. The second catacomb is less important, and the other two still leas. They exhibit three types of graves‑‑arcosolica, loeuli, and sunk graves. The first are the moat numerous in the halls and chambers, as well as in the oldest and most important galleries; unlike the Roman, but like those of Melon and Sicily, they are sometimes in two rows, one above the other. From the irregular disposition of the loculi, which look as if they had been crowded in, it is safe to attribute a later date to them. They form, however, an actual majority of the total number of graves.
At Castellamare there is a later but not uninteresting catacomb, named after St. Blasius. Besides a nearly square entrance‑hall, it contains a main gallery nearly twenty‑two yards long, with an average breadth of 9 ft. 10 in., lined with arcosolia.
On the left of it three side galleries 7. Caetella. branch out, and at its further end is
a chamber from which further galleries continue. The weight of evidence is in favor of a Christian origin. The arrangement of the graves in the chambers at Castellamare and Sorrento is peculiar; they are placed in rows one above another so as to resemble a honeycomb, a form which is leaking in the older catacombs, though it is impossible to say whether it originated with the Christians of these places.
The history of the immense and widely known catacombs of Rome begins, as is the case elsewhere, with the family plot. In the first two centuries, and even later, individual Christians picked out places for the interment of themselves and their families, including in some cams their freed‑
men. The arrangement of the first 8. Some. cemeteries is not demonstrably derived
from pagan models, since there were many Jews in Rome and in the primitive Church there, and these also buried their dead in subterranean cemeteries. But there is reason to believe that, while it would be too much to say that Jewish traditions had no influence on the early dgvelopment, the first beginnings of the Christian burial system in Rome were derived rather from pagan prototypes.
With the extension of the family plot into the common cemetery for. the faithful, underground Rome became apparently a labyrinth, though really its plan is more simple and intelligible than that of some of the larger catacombs outside of Rome. Since the ground was either flat or slightly rolling, the excavation was begun by digging down at an angle into the earth, the descent being furnished with steps, usually covered with brick or marble. After it had reached the required depth (averaging

Cemeteries	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	488
about twenty feet), the excavation continued horizontally in a main gallery and others roughly parallel with it, connected by cross passages into a regular network. The dead were interred usually in the walls, less often in the floor of the passages. Here and there, at the side, end, or intersection of passages, doors were cut which led to one or more chambers (cubicula). The shape of these was as a rule nearly rectangular, less often polygonal, semicircular, or circular; the roof nearly or quite flat or cross‑vaulted in the rectangular ones, and of the nature of a cupola in the polygonal or circular. The later catacombs usually have smaller chambers, sometimes not more than about four square yards in extent.
As to the form of the tombs, the loculua here is the most frequent, larger than necessary in the oldest cases, but later closely following the shape of the body. Sometimes they were dug in deep enough to afford room for several bodies. Above the arcosol%a there was usually a nearly or quite semicircular arch. If two bodies were to be buried together in these, a loculus was cut at the back of the hollowed‑out apace, or sometimes the arch was carried further back and two spaces hollowed out aide by aide; or again loceili were cut, especially for children, in the lunette of the arch. A combination of the loculua and the arcosolium is the so‑called loculus a 7nensa or " table‑tomb." The grave dug in the floor is found less often than in southern Italy and Sicily, and moat of those which east probably date from a time when the walls were already full. Sarcophagi were also used, made of marble in most cases; these were placid mostly in the cubicula and galleries, but sometimes on the side of the stairs. When the wall‑apace of a catacomb was filled, the fosaorea gained more room by digging the floor of the passages deeper. When this had gone so far as to threaten the stability of the walls, a second shaft or gallery was begun at a downward angle from the first, and the whole process repeated. Thus in the catacombs of St. Calixtua and St. Domitilla five different levels are found, the lowest more than eighty feet beneath the surface. An approximate conception of the vast extent of the Roman catacombs may be gained from the calculations of Michele Stefano de Rossi and of Marchi. The former estimated the total length of the passages at 550 miles, the latter at 750. The number of bodies buried there is variously given as from three and a half to nix millions.
The catacombs of the towns around Rome and in Etruria resemble the Roman, it is true, more than the Sicilian; but there are striking differences, as in the typical ones of Bolaena, Chiusi, and Soriano, which, when examined in detail, lead to the Conclusion that the influence of the ancient Etruscan burial‑customs had much to do with them. It extended, in fact, very nearly to the gates of Rome, and some of its characteristics are found in the catacombs of Rignano and at the twentieth milestone on the Via Flaminia.
2. Cemeteries Above Ground‑a.. Plan and Construction: The simplest form of cemeteries in the open air is found in Upper Egypt, where, in order,
to save the soil available for agriculture and at the same time to protect the graves from inundation, the Christians laid their dead to rest
1. In the on the border of the desert, in large
	Open Air.	cemeteries used by a considerable dis
		trict. They seldom used wooden
coffins, but tied the corpse, mummified with as
phalt or natron, to a sycamore board, then wrapped
cloths around it and buried it in an ordinary grave.
The discovery in 1873 of a cemetery dating from the fourth and fifth centuries at Portogruaro, the ancient Julia Concordia, gives an accurate idea of other vanished burying‑grounds, especially in northern Italy. Several hundred sarcophagi of Istrian limestone rest either directly on the ground or on large square bases. They are carved out of a single block of atone, usually without anything on their sides except inscriptions, and covered with heavy roof‑shaped covers. The cemeteries of Arles, Vienna, and Trevea were similarly laid out. At Arles five layers of graves ultimately existed, one above another, separated only by a layer of earth‑the lowest heathen, the upper ones Christian. Much the same was the arrangement at Vienna and at Trevea, except that in the latter there are both sarcophagi and graves lined with masonry or brick and covered with slabs of brick, limestone, or sandstone. Here again. the lowest layer contains a number of pagan inscriptions and sarcophagi, the moat probable inference being that the Christians in Gaul and the Rhine country occupied former pagan burial‑places. The arem of northern Africa. attained a certain celebrity even during the epoch of persecution, and were carefully investigated by French scholars during the nineteenth century. One at Lamb&e, about sixty‑five by fifty‑three yards in extent, was surrounded by a alight wall, and apparently contained nothing but ordinary graves. Elsewhere, in addition to these, small vaulted structures were erected over the bodies, as at Caesarea (modern Cherchel) in Mauretania. Two important openair cemeteries existed at Tipasa; in the center of one was a basilica erected over the body of the martyr Salsa.
The word "mausoleum," now usually restricted to large and imposing monuments, was used in ancient times for lees important tombs, and memoria is also frequently employed. These small memorial buildings have mostly disappeared. They moat have been particularly numerous in regions where the small family burial‑place was
2' Xemo‑	the rule, and where the custom of
	erecting them had been prevalent in
rial

B~sr' pre‑Christian times. Syria and Mesopotamia have supplied a considerable proportion of them, and Asia Minor probably had as many; but they existed also in countries where the common burying‑ground was the rule. Some stood among graves in the open air, as above the Catacomb of St. Calixtua in Rome; others near or attached to churches, as at Tipasa and two that adjoined the old St. Peter's in Rome; others, again, were isolated, like the tomb of Galls Placidia and that of Theodoric at Ravenna.
The frequency of nearly or quite rectangular

489	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cemeteries
grave‑chambers in the underground cemeteries
would lead to the expectation of finding the same
structure above ground; and as a matter of fact
it is the rule in Syria and Mesopotamia, while the
early existence of numerous examples of this class
may be inferred from paintings and sculptures
representing the raising of Lazarus, which nearly
always depict an oblong tomb like a house or
temple. Actual examples from the West are one
built like a tower above the Catacomb of St. Calix
tus in Rome, another vaulted one at Tropes, two
adjoining ones by the aide of a basilica at Morsott,
and another at Tipasa in North Africa. Occa
		sionally to the rectangular ground
s. Ground. plan was added a semicircular ter
	Plan and urination at the rear, as in the group
	Form of tombs in the cemetery of Manaa
		tirine near Salons, of the fourth
century or earlier, and other examples at Tipasa
and Ancona. The rotunda shape, however, was
also of frequent occurrence from the earliest times.
Two large mausoleums of this shape, Santa Petro
nilla and Santa Maria dells Febbre, stand near
St. Peter's in Rome, and the church of St. George
at Salonica was probably sepulchral in origin.
The tomb of Theodoric at Ravenna is externally
a decagon, on the ground floor within a Greek
cross, and circular above. After semicircular
additions to an original rectangular plan became
common, suggesting the form of a cross, the idea
received further development at the hands of
Christians. The most prominent representative
of this was the mausoleum of the first Christian
emperors, the church of the Apostles at Conatan
tinople, of whose sumptuous structure, unhappily,
little more is known now than that it had the shape
of a Greek cross. The tomb of Galls Piacidia at
Ravenna also deserves study from this point of
view. Probably earlier than the time of Constan
tine is the original construction of the two mausole
ums above the catacombs of St. Calixtus, which
later received the names of St. Sixtus and St. Sorer.
	When, after the cessation of persecution, the
erection of churches over or near the graves of the
saints was carried out on a large scale, the develop
ment of cemeteries in connection with them fol
lowed as a consequence of the desire of Christians
to be buried near the resting‑place of the martyrs.
In spite of the ancient taw forbidding burial within
the walls of the city, such burials continued after
the relics of the martyrs were brought in to the
principal churches of various places (see Caunca
xeau). Burial within the church itself was not
everywhere approved. In Spain and Gaul, par
ticularly, it was even a subject of adverse conciliar
legislation, although this barrier did not suffice
		to keep back the flowing tide of popu
	aame„ lar piety. Both literary and monu
	teries Con. mental evidence attests the existence
nected with is the moat widely separated portions
	Churches. Of the Primitive Church of buildings
		used both for worship and for inter
ment. . A large number of them arose outside the
walls of Rome. Unfortunately many smaller build
ings of this class sank into decay or oblivion
during and after the Middle Ages, while the larger
ones were so transformed in course of time that to‑day they have scarcely a trace of their original use. It is thus easier to examine the extant ruins in order to form an idea of the construction adopted in the first instance. Of these undoubtedly the moat significant is that discovered and explored by Delattre at.Damous‑el‑Karita near Carthage. Here, in the church proper and atrium as well as in the immediate neighborhood, more than 14,000 inscriptions or fragments of inscriptions were brought to light. The dead were buried in ordinary sunk graves, lined and covered with slabs, though some were constructed of masonry, frequently covered with atone slabs, and a number of sarcophagi were founds these latter sunk flush with the floor. Of the great burial‑churches in Rome, the best example was until recently furnished by that of Santi Nereo ed Achilleo, the floor of which was literally crowded with graves and sarcophagi. The church of St. Paul without the Walls, also at Rome, which from the fourth century was a favorite burial‑place, was surrounded by a space intended e.‑,pecially for interment, covered by a roof supported on columns, and adorned with paintings; and that of St. Balbina, also outside the city, had a teglata under which the dead were buried.
b. Tykes of Graves: In the primitive age, the simple grave dug in the earth was the commonest form for cemeteries above ground. It was ordinarily not so deep as the graves of to‑day, and was frequently lined with slabs of atone, with brick, or with masonry. This custom led to the enlargement of the simple grave into a vault capable of holding several bodies. Of these vaults none have been so thoroughly investigated as were these of the upper cemetery of St. Calixtus and the churches of St. Laurence and St. Paul without the Walls by De Rossi. In the first‑named large holes were dug, and then divided off by partitions into spaces
1. The each large enough for one body.
	Ordinary	The materials used in construction
		were tufa, brick, marble, and thick
		layers of mortar. In these compart
ments the corpses were placed one above another,
a slab covering the one first buried and serving as
a support for ‑the next. The place of the slab was
occasionally taken by an arched covering of brick
or by a layer of masonry. In this particular ceme
tery the excavation was carried deep enough to
contain ten or even more bodies thus superim
posed; the average is between eight and nine.
The same system is found at Ostia, Porto, and
Tropes in Calabria, as well as in North Africa and
at Athens. In other cases, as in the assns ceme
tery of St. Calixtus, the corpses were laid side by
aide and separated by an upright slab. While
the usual shape of all these graves was rectangular,
some occur in North Africa which correspond
roughly to the shape of the body, and are rounded
off at the head an .1 foot. They were frequently
also wider at the head than at the foot, giving a
bell‑shaped type which corresponds to examples
found in the Sicilian catacombs. In both cases
this type is a survival of native pre‑Christian usage.
The closing of the graves, whichever of these

Cemeteries	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	490
forms they took, was done in various ways. In Upper Egypt commonly, but elsewhere as well, the earth removed in excavation was heaped over the grave. In other cases slabs were laid either flat on the ground or on the top of the sides where an artificial lining was placed in the
2. The grave. These slabs were frequently
Covering
of the decorated in the fifth century with
	(have.	mosaic, including an inscription and
		various pictorial representations, some
times the portrait of the deceased or symbolic
designs. Instead of slabs, large heavy atones cut
into a rough shape were used in some places, espe
cially in the East, and in North Africa, where it
was an inheritance from Carthaginian custom.
	The term	sarcophagus was originally used by
the ancients in connection with a kind of stone
found near Assos in Asia Minor, which was sup
posed to have the property of consuming the flesh
of the corpse in a short time (Puny, Hist. nal.,
XXXVI. xvii. 27), but it was often employed for
receptacles made out of other stone. The early
Christians, taking over both name and things,
		used the stone they found at hand.
3. Sar‑ For relief decorations, however, the
	cophagi.	porous and often flawed limestone
		was ill adapted, and marble was gen
erally selected where these were desired. The
moat usual form was that of a parallelepiped,
hollowed out to receive the body. The shape of
the body was sometimes partially reproduced on
the outside, especially in North Africa, or at least
the head was semicircular; while at Rome the
head and foot were alike. Sarcophagi for children
seldom occur, because they were usually buried with
their parents in the larger ones. When more than
one body was to be placed in the same sarcoph
agus, stone partitions were sometimes placed in
the interior. Christian sarcophagi were frequently
adorned with more or less elaborate decorations,
usually in relief, though the taste of the North
African Christians for mosaic led them to employ
it in some cases.
	Wooden. coffins were also used, either enclosed
in the sarcophagi or buried in the earth; but on
account of their perishable material they have
almost disappeared. A coffin of cypress was found
		in the marble sarcophagus of St.
4. Other Cecilia, and Gsell found others of oak
8ecepta‑	and pine in sarcophagi at Tipasa. A
	Cleo.	plain rectangular chest of cedar, but
		richly decorated with plates of gold
and silver, received the remains of St. Paulinus at
Treves, and was afterward enclosed in a large
sandstone sarcophagus. Coffins of lead were also
known; but the most peculiar receptacles were
those in the shape of an amphora or large water
vesael. These easily held the corpses of little
children; when they were used for full‑grown
persons, they were sometimes taken apart and
lengthened by the addition of cylindrical pieces
taken from other amphora, and then cemented
together.
IV. Equipment and Decoration of Tombs: Correspon3ing to the great variety of arrangement and structure noticed above is a still greater wealth
of objects pertaining to the equipment and decoration of the resting‑places of the dead. Many of these objects seem natural and intelligible to‑day, but others appear peculiar, especially the provision of household utensils. The furnishing of tombs with inscriptions and with painted or carved images is but an inheritance of the traditions of earlier civilized peoples, especially the Greeks and Romans; and it seems on the face of it not unlikely that the provision of these various other objects was similarly a following of ancient custom. It is indisputable that these pre‑Christian peoples regarded the grave as a house, and gave it corresponding arrangements and decorations. Roman tombs sometimes accurately resemble dwelling‑houses, with atrium, triclinia, and the like. Numerous pagan inscriptions designate either a burial‑vault or a single grave as a house, the eternal house, etc. These same designations and an analogous form of construction are not uncommon in early Christian usage, as might be shown, did space permit, from monuments, inscriptions, and the writings of the Fathers. This conception of the grave as a house offers the only satisfactory explanation of what would otherwise be so mysterious, the character of the objects in the tombs as gifts to the dead. In themselves unnecessary if not senseless additions, they merely demonstrate the power of long custom, from which even medieval Christianity was not able wholly to emancipate itself.
1. The Grave Itself.‑a. The Interior: Proper clothing for the. corpse was universal, no matter what form of grave was used. Even those who died of the plague in Alexandria had their seemly vesture (Euaebius, Hist. eccl., vii. 22). Linen seems to have been the usual material, and white the color, though costly stuffs, such as silk and purple and gold brocade were sometimes used. Ambrose, Chrysostom, and Jerome protested against the use of gold‑embroidered garments, and. the first and last also against silk. At a later period synods even found it necessary to legislate against luxury in grave‑clothes, e.g., that of Auxerre in 578. In the same century Gregory of Tours relates that a kinswoman of King Childebert was buried " with great ornaments and much gold,"
1. objects which, however, were soon stolen. Pertaining The indications thus given in the to the literature of the period are confirmed Corpse. by numerous discoveries, the largest number of which have been in Upper Egypt. Here the garments are mostly of linen, less often of pure wool or silk. As to mere ornaments, though Gregory of Nyassa says that the body of his sister Macrina was stripped before burial of rings and necklaces, the discoveries show that this was not the common practise. On the contrary, the number of such objects found leads to the conclusion that many bodies were more richly adorned in death than in life. Among them are rings, earrings, bracelets and anklets, necklaces, combs and hairpins, fibulae, etc., made of various materials and frequently bearing Christian emblems, such as the monogram of Christ, the Good Shepherd, the dove,. fish, and cross. With these ornaments it is easy to confuse the amulets sometimes found,

491	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cemeteries
since many of them were made in the shape of rings, bracelets, or pendants for the neck (see AMULET).
Where the grave‑diggers of the catacombs, or the stone‑cutters who made sarcophagi, designed the space for the corpse, as was often the case, so that its head was higher than its feet, there was no need for any support for the head But in other cases such supports were placed in the tomb, the most primitive sort being of one or more stones. In Upper Egypt rich leather cushions stuffed with
tow have been found, so sumptuously
2. Diapo‑ decorated as to deserve the name of
anion of works of art. Vessels of clay served the Corpse. the same purpose in North Africa.
Sometimes supports were provided for the whole body‑in North Africa a layer of beton, here and elsewhere simple arrangements of flat bricks, in Catania perforated brick supports on low feet, like benches. On sanitary grounds the grave was often lined with unslacked lime, which was also sprinkled over the corpse. Traces of this custom have been found in the Roman catacombs and elsewhere, as in North Africa. The dead were also laid in some places on a bed of laurel leaves.
While the Christians of the primitive age usually contemned the use of perfumed oils and waters, they used such things for the dead in considerable quantities. The dead were anointed before they were dressed for burial, and then sprinkled with perfumes or regularly embalmed with spices, though this latter practise seems to have been comparatively rare in Rome. Anything like mummifying was still more uncommon, outside of Egypt. Usually cloths wet with perfumes were laid upon the body, especially the face, and vessels of the most diverse shapes filled with perfumery were set near it. It is practically certain that some of the vessels known as Ampullae (q.v.) contained
these perfumes, and others wine. As
8. Gifts to food and drink were set out for the
the Dead. martyrs and other saints at the com‑
memorative feasts, it is safe to say that this took place also at burials. There is also the often‑discussed possibility that such vessels contained the elements of the Eucharist, or at least the consecrated wine, in connection with the practice condemned at the Third Council of Carthage and often later, of making the dead partakers in the communion.
Another class is formed by the large number of domestic utensils of every sort which have been found in the graves. These comprise vessels of all kinds, mostly of clay but sometimes of glass or more costly materials, knives, forks, spoons, writing‑tablets, styluses, ink‑stands, hammers, nails, spinning‑wheels, chisels, and tools of many different kinds. Other objects of daily use pertain less to mere utility than to ruxury and adornment. A varied collection of articles such as served the women of those days for the toilet have been discovered in and near the tombs of the catacombs, made of metal, mosaic, ivory, glass, enamel, and mother‑of‑pearl. The grave being conceived, in a certain sense, ae the house or chamber of the
departed, there is nothing surprising in the discovery that parents, for example, placed near the bodies of the children they had lost even the trifles which had been dear to them in life‑dolls, small figures of men and animals, small lamps, spoons, etc., savings‑banks, and ivory letters of the kind used in the schools. Even things relating to the amusements of grown‑up people‑boards for games, dice, and the like‑are occasionally found. Pieces of money are of frequent occurrence. Since there is evidence that the old pagan custom of providing the dead with money to pay Charon for the ferriage persisted among Christians in Greece and elsewhere, there is no doubt that at least some of these coins were placed there from that point of view.
b. The Exterior: After the burial was finished, it was a common practise to fix in the still wet mortar with which the loculi and arcosolia of the subterranean cemeteries were closed small vessels, usually of glass, sometimes shells, for the same purpose as the vessels inside the grave. A repeated
renewal of these is evidenced by the 1. Pea‑ tomb of one Peregrina (d. 452) in the
seta for Catacomb of San Giovanni at Syra‑
iiehta end cue, several glasses must have been
~°°na°' broken and replaced, and there was also a clay censer still containing coals and some grains of intense. The lamps similarly affixed to the outside of the graves were intended to be lighted at the funeral and on memorial days. Semicircular niches were made in the adjacent walls to hold them. From the reign of Constantine the lamps burning at the graves of the martyrs were kept up with special reverence; the oil from them was credited with miraculous power, and pilgrims often took a small quantity of it home with them.
Many of the objects mentioned above (a, 13) are found embedded in the mortar outside the graves, sometimes as gifts, but in other cases undoubtedly as means of identification among the
thousands of graves in the large cata8. )s<Isr1<s combs, the majority of which had no
of Idanti‑ inscriptions, possibly owing to the
aoatioa, poverty of the survivors. Some of
these substitutes for the regular incised blocks of marble or other atone are letters, numbers, etc., embedded or scratched in or above the place where the tomb is closed; others are small objects of great variety, rings, buttons, glasses, bits of mosaic, animas' teeth, shells, coins, stones of fruit and leaves of plants, fixed in the mortar before it dried.
In their use of sepulchral inscriptions the early Christians merely continued the tradition of still older civilisations. Outside of the family vaults, on or over the door of which the name of the occupants or owners appeared, the inscriptions were placed on or at least near the graves. The moat
peculiar exception to the general 8. Inscrip. usage,is formed by those which have
bona sad the inscriptions , inside the graves,
p"'tinsa• where they can not have been visible
to passers‑by. Karl Schmidt discovered a number of inscribed gravestones in the necropolis of Antinoe in Egypt which seemed to have been laid originally well down in the graves,

Cemeteries
census	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	492
et the foot, with the writing underneath. The inscriptions were either cut with a chisel or other sharp tool, scratched with a sharp point, painted with a brush, or composed in mosaic. These inscriptions offer most trustworthy and striking evidence of the mode of thought, faith, and hope of the primitive Christians, especially in regard to death, the grave, and the resurrection (see INSCRIPTIONS; PAINTING.
2. The Chambers and Passages: In these the presence has already been noted of tables, benches, and chairs for the observance of the commemorations of the dead. The dimensions of such tables as have been discovered imply that the number of participants was small. While such furniture is practically absent from the Roman Catacombs, where wood must accordingly have been used, several tables of more durable material have been found in North African burial‑places. The galleries and chambers of the catacombs also contained receptacles for the materials used in mixing mortar for closing up the tombs. Those which have been preserved, made usually of clay, with incrustations of mortar and lime still upon them, may have been used either for this purpose or on sanitary grounds, to counteract the effluvia of the place. Lighting arrangements are found here too, although the galleries must have been in comparative darkness, to judge from the way in which Jerome quotes Ps. Iv. 15 and Vergil, lEneid, ii. 755 in connection with the memory of his visit to the Roman Catacombs. As the drcosolia were frequently ornamented with paintings in their vaults and lunettes, and the loculi on their exterior side, so also the chambers and less frequently the galleries of the catacombs were decorated in the same way. No doubt the structures above ground connected with the cemeteries were painted in much more numerous cases than the scanty remains extant at the present day would lead one to suppose.
(NI)fCOLAU$ MOLLER.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Townehend, Catalogue of Books Relating to as Disposal o/ Bodies, New York, 1887. On the general question consult: F. Piper, EinZeitunp in die monumeuWlt Theoiogit, Goths, 1887; J. Wilpert, Principiettfrapen der ehriaUichen ArchttoZopit, Freiburg, 1889; F. X. Kraus, User Begrifj, Umfang and Geechichte der chriatlichen Archddogie, Freiburg, 1879; idem, Real‑EncgkLop&die der ehrisUichen A7terthiimer, 2 vole., ib. 1880‑88; V. Schultze, ArchLiolopische Studien, Vienna, 1880; Die Katakomben, die aZtchrisUichen Grabat&tten, Leipsic, 1882; R. Grouseet, etude our Z'hiatoire du aarcophapu chr€tiena, Athena, 1885; L. Wagner, Manners, Customs and Obaervanoea, London, 1885; A. Hasenclever, Dar altchriaUicha GrBberxAmuek, Brunswick, 1886; H. Marucchi, t1W ends d'arch6olopie chrbtienne, Paris, 1900; Neander, Christian Church, vole. i. iv., consult Index, e.v. " Burial "; Schaff, Christian Church, ii. 28B‑310, 380‑385; Moeller, Christian Church, i. 279‑283.
For burial in Palestine consult: T. Tobler, GoZpatha, pp. 201 sqq., et passim, 9t. Gall, 1851; idem, Zu.ei Biicher Topographic van Jerusalem, ii. 227 eqq., Berlin, 1854; J. N. $epP. Jerusalem and doe heilipc Land, i. 273 eqq., Schaffhausen, 1873; Survey o/ Western Palatine, London, 1881 eqq.; Mittheilunpen anal Nachrichten den akutschen PalUStina‑Vsreina, Leipaie, 1895 eqq.; Palatine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, passim; C. Mommert, Golgotha urd das Iuilipe Grab zu Jerusalem, Leipeie. 1900. For Syrian burial consult: F. E. C. Dietrich, Zwei aidoniacAe Insda^i/tars, pp. ll eqq., Marburg, 1855; C. J. M, de Vogu(, Notice areht‑olopiRue our lea monuments encore exiatanta en Terse Saints, Paris, 1870; idem, Eyrie centrals, Paris, 188b‑77.
For North Africa consult: A. L. Delattre, Inscriptions chretiennea provenant de la basilique de Damoue‑el‑Karita h Carthage. Constantine, 1863; idem, Les Tom6eaux puniquu de Carthage, Lyons, 1890; idem, Antiquitea chretiennea, Paris, 1900; R. M. Smith and E. A. Porcher, History of the Recent Diacoreriu at Cyrene, London, 1864; Ndroutsos‑Bey, Notice our lu fouillea reuntea . . , pp. 26 eqq., 48, Alexandria, 1875; idem, L'Ancitnne Alexarh drie, pp. 38 aqq., 53‑54, 81, Paris, 1888; Pierre Gavault, in Bibliothique d'archeolopia Africaine, part 2, 1897; 8. Gsell, Recherchu arcAEolopiquea en Alperie, Paris, 1893; idem, Lea Monuments antiques de 1'AZperie, ib. 1899; M. de Bock, Matlriaux pour aervir h Z'archeoZopie do 1'hpypte chretienne, $t. Petersburg, 1901.
For Asia Minor consult: J. T. Wood, Discoveries at Ephesus, pp. 12 aqq., London, 1877; F. Cumont, Melanges d'archeologie et d'hiataire, xv. (1895) 245 aqq.; W. M. Ramsay, Cities and Bishoprics of Phrypia, vol. i., parts 1, 2, Oxford, 1895‑97; idem, in Journal of Hellenic Studies, passim.
On the Greek Islands consult: L. Ross, Reisen nut den priechiachen Inaeln, iii. 145‑151, Stuttgart, 1845; L. P. di Ceanola, Cyprus, New York, 1877; C. Bayet, in Bulletin do correapondance Hellinique, ii. 347‑359, Paris, 1878.
On the catacombs at Rome the literature is enormous. The following is a selection: G. B. de Rossi, Rome aotterranea, 3 vole., Rome, 1864‑‑77 (the one great book, largely reproduced in English in J. $. Northoote and W. R. Brownlow, Rome aotterranea, 2 vole., London, 1879, an authorized summary); with De Rossi's monumental work should be mentioned the periodical edited by him, BdleUino di archeoZopia criatiana, Rome, 1883 eqq. (the repository of reports of discovery and decipherment); F. X. Kraus, Rome 3otterranea, Freiburg, 1879 (based on De Rossi and Northcota and Brownlow); 8. d'Agincourt, Hiatoire de fart par lea monuments, 6 vole., Paris, 1809‑23; W. R5stell, in E. Z. Platner et al., Besehreibunp der Stadt Rom, i. 355‑418, Stuttgart, 1830; G. Marti, ArchiteUura delta Rome aottermnea cnatiana, Rome, 1844; C. Maitland, Church in the Catacombs, London, 1847; L. Perret, Lea Catacombu de Rome, 8 vole., Paris, 1851‑55 (plates are valuable, the text is superseded); W. I. Kip, Catacombs cf Rome, New York, 1854; D. de Riehemont,' Les Catacombet do Rome, Paris, 1870; P. Allard., Rome souterraine, Paris, 1874; J. H. Parker, Areheeolopg of Rome, parts ix., x., aii., London, 1877 (a standard work); T. Roller, Les Catacombs* de Rome, Paris, 1881; W. R. Brownlow, Cemetery of St. Priscilla and Recent Discoveries, London, 1892; M. Armellini, Le Catacombs romane, Rome, 1880; idem, GZi antichi cimiteri cristiani di Roma a d'Italia, ib. 1893; R. Laneiani, Ruins and Excavations o/ Ancient Rome, Index " cemeteries," Boston, 1897; A. Weber, Du r6mischen Katakomben, Regensburg, 1900.
For cemeteries in Italy outside Rome consult: G. B. Pasquini, Un antico cimitero, Sienna, 1831; idem, Relaziont di un antico cimitero . . , Montipulciano, 1833; C. F. Bellermann, Die dldeafen ehriaUichen BeprAbuiaattitten, Hamburg, 1839 (at Naples); G. $cherillo, Le Catacombs NapoZitanc, Naples, 1870; F. Livrrani, Le Catacombs . . . di Chiuai, Sienna, ‑1872; T. Roller, Die Katakomben von San Gennaro . . . in Neapel, Jena, 1877: V. Schultze, Die Katakomben von San Gennaro, ib. 1877; F. Colonna, Sooperto di antachith in Napoli, 1878‑1887, Naples, 1898.
For Sicily, Malta, and Sardinia consult: G. P. Badger, Ducription of Malta and Sardinia. pp. 255‑260. Malta, 1838; A. A. Caruana, Recent Discoveries at Notable, Malta, 1881; idem, A Hypogeum . . . , ib. 1884; B. Lupus, Die Stadt S7lmeua im AZterthum, pp. 271, 275, 323‑327, Strasburg, 1887; V. $trazaulla, in Archivio atorko Siciliano, xxi. 104‑188, Palermo, 1898; J. Fiihrer, in AMA, 1 Klaeee, xx. (1897), part 3; idem, Forschungen our Sicilia soUerranea, Munich, 1897 (s work of the first importance).
For England: Caroline B. Southey, Chapters on Churchyards, London, 1870; E. E. Jarrett, Lessons on the Churchyard, ib. 1880; Mrs. B. Holmes, London Burial Grounds, ib. 1898.
Consult also: J. B. D. Cachet, La Normandis souterroins ou Notices our, du cimttitru romaine et des cimrti&es franca, Dieppe, 1855; idem, 3Epudtwu pauloiaea, romaines, franquu at normanalcs, 2 vole., ib. 1857.
The original article by Mfiller, in Hauck‑Herzog, RE, x. 794‑877f, is s learned treatise and should be consulted by advanced students.

493	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Cemeteries
		Census
	CENSER OR THTJRIBLE: The vessel in which
	incense is burned during divine service in the East
	ern, Roman Catholic, and of late years many
	Anglican churches. The usual shape is that of a
	small metal bowl, with a base on which to stand it
	when not in use, and fitting over it a high conical
	cover in which are perforations to let the smoke out.
	The whole is carried by three chains, on which the
	cover slides up and down, when it is raised to
	allow incense to be thrown upon the live coals
	contained in the lower part. In connection with
	the censer another smaller vessel, called the incense
	boat, is used to carry the supply of incense; as its
	name implies, it is shaped like a small boat, but
with a lid and a base on which to stand it.
	CENSORSHIP AND PROHIBITION OF BOOKS:
	By censorship is meant the provision that no pub
	lication shall be issued without preliminary exam
	ination and permission by the authorities, either
	ecclesiastical or secular. The prohibition of books
	as dangerous to religion, to morals, or to the State
	dates back to an early period. Thus all works on
	magic were ordered to be destroyed by the later
	Roman Empire. Constantine issued
Early	an edict that the works of Arius should
	Instances. be burned, and numerous like edicts
	against books of other heretics fol
	lowed. Those who used or possessed such books
	were threatened with death. The Church forbade,
	on its own account, the reading of pagan and he
	retical books (Apostolic Constitutions, i. 6, vi. 16;
	canon xvi. of the Council of Carthage, 398). Dur
	ing the Middle Ages, both Church and State ad
	hered firmly to the same principles; a salient in
	stance is the decree of the Council of Constants
	against the writings of John Hum and its execution.
	After the printing‑press was invented and used
	to advance the cause of the Reformation, measures
	for its regulation were introduced by the Church,
	which first established a formal censorship of books.
	In a letter addressed to the archbishops of Cologne,
	Mainz, Treves, and Magdeburg, Alexander VI. or
	dered (1501) that no book should be printed with
	out special authorization. The Lateran Council
	of 1515 sanctioned the constitution of Leo X., which
	provided that no book should be printed without
	having been examined in Rome by
	Censor‑ the papal vicar and the master of the
	ship by the sacred palace, in other countries by
Church.	the bishop of the diocese or his deputy
	and the inquisitor of heresies. Further
	and more detailed legislation followed, and the
	Council of Trent decreed (session iv.): "It shall
	not be lawful to print, or cause to be printed, any
	books relating to religion without the name of the
	author; neither shall any one hereafter sell any
	such books, or even retain them in his possession,
	unless they have been first examined and approved
	by the ordinary, on pain of anathema and the
	pecuniary fine imposed by the canon of the recent
	Lateran Council." On these regulations are based
	a number of enactments in different dioceses which
	are still in force. The Council decreed also that no
	theological book should be printed without first
	receiving the approbation of the bishop of the dio‑
cese; and this rule is extended in the monastic orders so far as to require the permission of superiors for the publication of a book on any subject.
The Council of Trent left the further provision concerning the whole subject to a special commission, which was to report to the pope. In accordance with its findings, Pius IV. promulgated the rule submitted to him and a list of prohibited books in the constitution Dominici gregis custoditv of Mar. 24, 1564. Extensions and expositions of this ru‑
ling were issued by Clement VIII., SixPresent tus V., Alexander VII., and other popes. Practise. The present practise is based upon the constitution Sollicita ac provides of Benedict XIV. (July 10, 1753). The maintenance and extension of the Index librarum grrohibitorttm was entrusted to a special standing committee of cardinals, the Congregation of the Index (see CURIA), which from time to time publishes new editions (the latest, Turin, 1895). There is also an Index lihrorum expurgatorum, containing books which are tolerated after the excision of certain passages, and another h7rrorum expurgandorum, of those which are still in need of such partial expurgation. The prohibition to read or possess books thus forbidden is binding upon all Roman Catholics, though in special cases dispensations from it may be obtained. The moat recent regulation of the whole matter was made by the bull O fficiorum ac munertem of Leo XIII., Jan. 25, 1897.
The State in many cases for its own purposes approved the principle of censorship until comparatively recent times. In Germany it was abolished only in 1848. In England after the Reformation the licensing power was in the hands of the .archbishop of Canterbury; after Milton's famous onslaught upon it in the Areopagitica (1643), it came to an end by the refusal of the House of Commons in 1695 to renew the Licensing Act. The Reformed Church of Germany maintained similar regulations in some places, where the synodal form of organization prevailed. Among the Lutherans, the matter was se s rule left in the hands of the State.
(E. FRIEDBERG.)
BIHL106EAP87: E. G. Peignot, Dictionnain . . . des prim cipauz Iiroree condamn0s au fen, Paris, 1808; H. Arndt, De libris prohibitie Regensburg, 1855; J. Fessler, Do& kirch7icha Bficha erLat, Vienna, 1859; F. 8achee, Die Anftlnpe der BiirJurunaur in Deutschland, Leipeio, 1870; Suppressed and Censured Books, in Edinburgh Review, vol. a:zaiv., July, 1871; T. Wiedemann, Die kirchliche Bfideraensw in der Erzditlotas Wien,‑ Vienna, 1873; F. H. Reuxh. Der Index der roerboknen Biuher, Bonn, 1883 eqq.; G. H. Putnam, Censorship of the Church and its Influence upon. . . Literature, 2 vob., 1908; JE, iii. 64252.

CENSUS.
I. In the Old Testament. II. In the New Testament.
The Roman Census of Citizens (§ 1).
Provincial Census to Regulate Tribute (¢ 2).
Cases and Methods of Roman Census (¢ 3).
Palestinian Census of 8 A.D. Quiriniua (§ 4).
Luke u. 2 in Error. Jeans not Born Under Quirinius (¢ b).
No General Census Under Augustus (§ 0).
Solution, s Census by Herod (§ 7).
Census is a term used to designate an enumeration of the people, generally for purposes of taxation or for service in the army..

Census	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	494
[I. In the Old Testament: Of censuses of the whole population there are recorded in the Old Testament ten cases: (1‑2) under Moses (Ex. xxxviii. 26, cf. Num. i.; Num. xxvi.); (3) under David (II Sam. xxiv. 1‑9; see DAVID); (4) under Solomon (II Chron. ii. 17=18); (5) under Rehoboam (I Kings xii. 21); (6) under Jehoshaphat (II Chron. xvii. 14‑19); (7) under Amaziah (II Chron. xxv: 5‑6); (8) under Uzziah (II Chron. xxvi. 12‑13); (9‑10) under Zerubbabel (?) and Ezra (Ezra ii. 64, viii. 1‑14). There are other ,enumerations given, but they concern merely the strength of the army, as in II Chron. xiii. 3.
II. In the New Testament: The subject here is of interest principally in its relation to the census mentioned Luke ii. 2 and Acts v. 37, and in connection with the birth of Jesus.]
Originally the Romans made a census of Roman citizens only, the primary object being the adjustment of their quota in the taxes for the costs of war. This census was intended to exhibit not only the pecuniary but the total effective utility of the individual toward the State. So it z. The ,included attestation of personal cir‑
Roman	cumstances, capacity for service, civil
Census of and military, and the moral worthiCitizens. ness of those enumerated. Gradually this census of Roman citizens lost significance. While in earlier times it was repeated every five years in connection with a religious festivity (lustrum), during the civil wars it lapsed. Augustus, it is true, consistently with his general policy of bringing about an ostensible restoration of the republican order (T. Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht, ii. 337, Leipsic, 1893), adopted the census anew. He put on record that he had thrice held a complete census of citizens, viz., in the years 29 s.e., 8 B.c., and 14 A.D. A census of this kind was made for the last time under the Emperor Vespasian.
The census of the Roman provinces, introduced much later, was quite distinct from this census of citizens, the difference corresponding to that between the Roman people as conqueror and the provinces as conquered. Since in this light the provincial census was designed to regulate not the rights but the obligations of those enumerated, it served only to define military service
2. Provin‑ and tribute. The forma of the latter
cial Census in the various provinces showed great to Regulate diversity. There was doubtless every‑
	Tribute.	where some sort of ground tax (tribu
		tum soti), usually in the form of a
definite tribute, partly in money, partly in natural
products, which could also be levied as communal
tithes, except that if in case of a defective harvest
the amount of the requisite tribute was not realized,
the tithes were made good through other taxes.
The real‑estate tax was everywhere supplemented
by a personal tax (tributum capitis), which might
be levied as a uniform capitation tax for all, or
(as in Egypt) as a graduated poll‑tax; or as prop
erty or income tax. In all forms, however, it was
let by contract to tax farmers. These taxes, which
in the main came down from the republican era,
were in the earlier period regulated partly by means
of a census. But only from the time of the government of Augustus were they organized on a more extensive basis. Especially in the provinces incorporated by Cw.sar and the emperors into the Roman Empire were the fiscal relations thus regulated.
According to literary records well known, this was done three times in Gaul under Augustus, then under Nero and Domitian; in Syria, Judea, and Spain under Augustus; among the Clitx under Tiberius; in Britain under Claudius; in Dacia under Trajan. Besides these provinces, the following are named in inscriptions as subjected to a census in imperial times: Aquitania, Bel3. Cases and gium, Lugdunensis, Lower Germany, Methods of Macedonia, Thrace, Paphlagonia,
Roman	Africa, and Mauritania. In the re‑
	Census.	publican era the administration of
		these provincial censuses had been
combined with the office of provincial governor;
but in imperial times it was transferred to the
emperor. Augustus personally executed this office
in Gaul, in other cases the emperor was represented
by men of the highest rank; for entire provinces,
as a rule, persons of senatorial station were ap
pointed; for smaller districts, knights. At the
outset in the imperial provinces, the census was
delegated only occasionally (Mommsen, ut sup., ii.
410, a, 4) to the provincial governor. The essen
tial uniformity of organization of taxes and assess
ments throughout the empire, such as is proved
for the later imperial times by the classic legal
sources, although no traces are apparent of a sudden
reorganization in relation to the provinces under the
earlier period, was early anticipated by the census
regulations of Augustus. As to the detailed con
stitution of this provincial census, which later
became universal, there is still some debate; it is
fairly certain, however, that it regulated a real
estate tax for proprietors and a personal tax for
the landless; that it included the taxpayers' per
sonal assessment; that its organization was not
communal but provincial; and that the formal
declaration took place in the principal centers of
the fiscal districts. Of the interval between cen
suses there is certain knowledge only in relation to
Egypt, through the new discoveries of Egyptian
papyri (U. Wileken, Griechische Ostraka, in Archiv
fur Papyrusforschung, Vol. i., 1899), according to
which in that country two kinds of assessments
(apographai) were executed at stated times: a
popular enumeration every fourteen years, and a
declaration of movable property annually.
In Palestine, at all events, a census quite in the Roman manner was executed in the year 6 A.D., though only in the southern part of the country, which in that year came under immediate Roman jurisdiction. The Syrian legate Quiri4. Palestin‑ nius was at that time entrusted with ian Ceases the extraordinary imperial commission of 6 A.D. of undertaking a census not only in
	Quirinius.	the newly annexed country but also
		throughout Syria (cf. also CIL, iii.,
supplement, no. 6687). The vehement opposition
which the regulation provoked among the Jewish
population and especially with a faction whose

496	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	census
leader was Judas of Galilee (q.v.) shows that in that form it was new to the region. Thin census, as the mention of Judas of Galilee implies, is referred to in the words of Acts v. 37, " in the days of the enrolment."
More difficult of solution is the other New Testament passage, in which mention is made of a census decreed from Rome (Luke ii. 2). It is here distinctly stated that this census, commanded by Caesar Augustus for the whole Roman Empire, was the first which took place in Palestine (as decreed by Augustus) when Quirinius was governor of Syria; and that by it Joseph was obligated to go with Mary to Bethlehem, his place of enrolment, where the birth of Jesus came to pass.
g. Luke ii. z From the starting‑point of Acts v. 37,
is Error. it were moat plausible to bring the
Jesus not birth of Christ, according to Luke ii.,
Born Under down to the time of the census of the
	Quirinius.	year 6 A.D. This is antagonized by
		the chronology of Luke iii. 23, also
by the fact that both Matthew and Luke pre
suppose the birth of Jesus during the reign of
Herod the Great, who died in the year 4 B.C.
of the Dionysian era (see HEROD AND His Femlrr);
that is, the birth of Christ would have occurred in
the last preceding years. But in those years
Quirinius could not have been governor of Syria,
because Sentiua Saturninus was governor in the
years 8‑6 s.c.. (Joaephus, Ant.,.XVI. ix. 1), and
from 6 B.C. until after Herod's death the governor
was Quintilius Varua (Joaephus, Ant., XVII. v. 2,
x. 1). It has been therefore proposed on exegetical
grounds to set aside the synchronism between the
governorship of Quirinius and the birth of Jesus.
But these attempts are impossible artifices. It
has also been affirmed on the strength of the later
governorship of Quirinius in the year 6 A.D., that
he served an earlier preceding term (T. Mommsen,
Res gestm divi Augusti, Berlin, 1865). But the
evidences of this are quite uncertain. And since
in no case can an earlier term of Quirinius as gov
ernor coincide with the reign of Herod the Great,
it would not elucidate Luke ii. 2. If it be assumed
that the census of the year of Christ's birth was
begun by Saturninus, continued by Varus and com
pleted by Quiriniua (Zumpt), against this in Luke
ii. 2, the governorship of Quiriniua is evidently
intended to indicate the time when the event
recorded there took place; and a census by a
Roman officer in Judea before the annexation of
that country is improbable. Accordingly Zahn
assumes that only one Roman census took place
in Palestine, namely, under Quirinius, which is
meant both in Luke ii. and in Acts v.; save that
this occurred not in the year 6 A.D., but in the year
4 B.C., several months after the death of Herod.
But the particularity of the data in Joaephus con‑
tradicts this hypothesis, which at all events does not clear the Gospel of Luke of error. On this account it is to be assumed that the governorship of Quirinius, Luke ii. 2, has been erroneously transposed from the census of the year 6 to the year of Christ's birth.
Still again, the report in Luke ii. of a general Roman imperial census is not historically warrantable
according to the literal text. Disregarding later untrustworthy accounts, there are no literary or epigraphic traces of an imperial census
6. No Gen‑ in the time of Augustus, and such an
eral Census event could not have occurred with‑
Under out leaving some traces. And from Augustus. the monument of Ancyra it is evident that Augustus did not hold a census of Roman citizens in the period from 8 B.C. to 14 A.D. Only in the emperor's financial reform projects with reference to the whole empire, and in the assessments held by him in many parts of the empire, appears a certain nucleus of truth for that statement in Luke ii.
If then in the light of Luke ii. the governorship of Quirinius and the Roman imperial census can not be verified, this report is not to be rejected as unhistorical in all other respects. That Herod at that time received orders from Augustus to undertake a census in his country is not an impossibility. Highly as Herod was esteemed even by the emperor, he nevertheless remained the emperor's subject. This is manifest from the words of Augustus, that he would henceforth
7. Solution, treat him not as his friend but as his
	a Census subject (Joaephus, Ant., XVI. ix. 3);
	by Herod. as likewise from his rating in the num
		ber of the Syrian procurators (Ant.,
XV. x. 3). Consequently, since the Jews of Pales
tine from Pompey's time forth had been obliged
to pay tribute in various forms to the Romans,
Herod was also bound to the payment of tribute
promptly after his appointment as king (Appian,
Bells civilia, v. 75). It is, therefore, arbitrary to
doubt (Schiirer) that he also paid such dues con
tinually (cf. Wieaeler, TSK, 1875, pp. 541 eqq.).
Nevertheless he was not deprived of the right of
imposing and increasing taxes in his own name
(cf. Joaephus, Ant., XV. x. 4; XVII. ii. 1, xi. 2).
It is accordingly to be assumed that he had to
furnish tribute to a prescribed amount at Rome
the collection of which was generally left to him
out of Jewish revenues. Where, however, the
Roman interest required it, the emperor, as a
matter of course, could intervene for raising the
necessary taxes to make up the tribute. This is
apparent from a similar case, wherein Augustus
commanded Archelaus to remit one‑fourth of the
Samaritans' taxes (Josephus, Ant., XVII. xi. 4).
It is then conceivable that he commanded Herod
to regulate the taxes necessary for the Roman
tribute by means of a census by virtue of the forma
already in vogue. For that Augustus did not at
that time order a specifically Roman census in
Palestine, but adhered to the Jewish practises, is
borne out by other analogies in Roman procedure
	(Tacitus, Annales, iv. 72), by the operations of the
Roman census of the year 6 A.D., and by indica
tions afforded by the Gospel of Luke, according
to which the census in question was decreed con
formably to Jewish tribal enrolments. [For reply
to above see QUIRINIUB.] 	F. SIEFFERT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The older literature on II, is given in TSR,
1852, pp 863 eqq P E. Hueehke, Ueber den zur Zeit der Geburt Christi pehalteners Census Breslau, 1840; idem, Uetxr den Census ured die 3teueroer%aaaunq der , , , Raiser. seit, ib. 1847; C. V1'ieaeler, Chrorwlogiache Synopae der

Central America	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	498
Chalcedon
	vier Evangelien, Hamburg, 1843; idem, Beitrage zur
	rtthligen IViirdigung der Evangelien, Goths, 1889; idem,
	in TSK, 1875, pp. 435 sqq.; J, von Gumpach, in TSK,
	1852, pp. 663 sqq.; A. W. Zumpt, Commentationea ePi.
	graphicm, ii. 73‑74, Berlin, 1854; idem, Das Geburtajahr
	Christi, pp. 20 sqq., Leipsic, 1869; Aberle, in TQ, 1865,
	pp. 103 aqq., 1868, pp. 29 sqq.; A. Hilgenfeld, in ZWT,
	1885, pp. 408 sqq., 1870, pp. 151 Bqq.; H. Gerlach, Die
	rGmiachen Statehalter in Syrien and Judas., pp. 22 sqq.
	Berlin, 1865; T. Lewin, Faati Sacri, London, 1865; H.
	Lutteroth, Le Recenaement de Quiriniua en Judee, Paris,
	1865; C. E. Caspari, Chronologisch‑geographiache Ein
	ZeiCung in daa Leben Christi, Hamburg, 1869; J. Mar
	quardt, Riimiache Staatsverwaltung, vol, i., ii. 204 sqq.,
	Leipsic, 1881‑84; P. Schegg, Daa Todeajahr des . .
	Herodes and daa Geburtajahr Christi, pp. 37 sqq., Munich,
	1882; F. Riess, Nochma7a daa Geburtajahr Christi, Frei
	burg, 1883; T. Zahn, in NKZ, 1893, pp. 633 sqq.; W. M.
	Ramsay, in Expositor, 1897, pp. 274 sqq., 425 sqq.; idem,
	Was Christ Born at Bethlehem, London, 1898; Sehiirer,
	Geackichte, i. 508 sqq., Eng. tranal., I. i. 357, ii. 80, 105
	143; Haverfield, in Classical Review, July, 1900, pp. 309
	sqq.; DB, iv. 183; EB, iv.3994‑98; also the commen
	taries on the passages in Luke and Acts, and the works
	on the Life of Christ.
	CENTRAL AMERICA: The extreme southern
portion of the continent of North America, including
seven independent states, as follows, enumerated in
geographical order from north to south:
	Area.	Popula•
	Square miles.	lion.
	Colony of British Honduras 	.	7,582	40,000
Republic of Guatemala	. . . . . 46,774	1,800,000
	Republic of Honduras		::: 	.	42,658	775,000
	Republic of Salvador . . 	..	.	8,130	1,000,000
	Republic of Nicaragua 	....	...	51,560	400,000
	Republic of Costa Mica 	. . . . . . .	23,000	331,000
	Republic of Panama . . . . 	. . . . 31,890	330,000
The population is overwhelmingly Indian, negro, and mixed. In British Honduras in 1891 there were only 400 whites. In Guatemala 60 per cent of the people are Indians and 28 per cent mixed. About one‑twentieth of the population of Salvador and one‑fifth of that of Nicaragua are classed as white. In Costa Rica there are 8,000 Indians, and the remainder is almost entirely creole. The Indians in many localities retain their native language and live in almost primitive conditions; where classed as Roman Catholic converts their relation to the Church is often little more than nominal. But few of the colored population still persist in heathenism.
The republic of Panama was formed by revolution from Colombia in 1903. Religious statistics for this state are not available, but it may be said, in general, that conditions are the same as in the rest of Central America and the mother country (see COLD\1BIA). The five older Central American republics, after the disruption from Spain, foraged from 1821 to 1839 the " United States of Central America." Their present independent status was attained gradually, often after internal dissension and warfare. During the revolutionary and formative period the Church suffered much. Its property was confiscated, monasteries were abolished, monks were banished, and the secular clergy were persecuted. Poverty has also been a heavy burden to the Church. Ecclesiastical affairs were regulated by a series of concordats with Pope Pius IX. between 1852 and 1863 (see CONCORDATS AND DELIMITING BULLS, VI., 5).
The religion is everywhere Roman Catholic, but toleration is now legally assured in all states. The
diocese of Guatemala was founded in 1534 and raised to archiepiscopal rank in 1743. The suffragan bishoprics are Nicaragua (1534), Comayagua (for Honduras, 1561), San Salvador (1842), and San Josh of Costa Rica (1850). A vicar apostolic has resided at Belize in British Honduras since 1893.
An Anglican diocese of Honduras and Central America was founded in 1883. The bishop resides at Belize. Guatemala has approximately 4,500 Protestants representing English and American churches and including a congregation of about 1,000 Germans resident in the capital. Protestants in Honduras number about 1,000 and in Costa Rica 3,200. They are barely represented in Salvador. In Nicaragua are fifteen " stations " of the Moravians.
	All the states have public schools, colleges, and
universities, and progress is being made in both
elementary and the higher education. As might
be expected, however, the majority of the popula
tion is illiterate. Attendance at the elementary
schools is compulsory in Costa Rica, Guatemala,
and Honduras. 	WILHELM GOETZ.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: In general: T. Child, Spanish American Republics, London, 1892; Etnologia Centro‑Americana, Madrid, 1893; C. Sapper, Doe n6rdliche Mittel Amerika, Brunswick, 1897; idem, Mittelamerika, Reiaen and Studien, ib. 1902; C. Haebler, Die Religion des Miltleren Amerika, Munster, 1899. On British Honduras: A. R. Gibbs, British Honduras, London, 1883; British Honduras Almanac, annual, Belize. On Guatemala: O. Stoll, Reiaen and Schilderungen von Guatemala, 1886; T. Brigham, Guatemala, New York, 1887; A. C. Maudsley, A Glimpse at Guatemala, London, 1899; Missionary Review of the World, xiY. (1901) 168 sqq.
CEOLFRID, chohfrid, SAINT: Abbot of Wearmouth and Jarrow; b. of noble parents in Northumbria c. 642; d. at Langres, France, while on his way to Rome, Sept. 24, 716. He became a monk at the ab of eighteen, and was made prior by Benedict Biscop (q.v.) of his new abbey of St. Peter at Wearmouth, which was begun in 674; accompanied Biscop to Rome in 678; became abbot of his second monastery founded at Jarrow in 681 or 682 (where he had Bede among his pupils), and in 688,abbot of both Wearmouth and Jarrow. He was a good manager and increased and enriched his monasteries, at the same time making them centers of learning and industry. He took special pains to learn the Roman methods of reading and singing the services and influenced the Irish in Scotland to adopt the Roman date for Easter.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bede, Historia abbatum; also Hiat. acct., iv. 18, v. 21 (cohere Ceolfrid's letter to Naiton [Neehtan], king of the Picts, on the Easter question, is given), v. 24; also the anonymous Flistoria abbatum, by a monk of Wearmouth, contemporary with Ceolfrid, in Plummer's Bede, i. 388‑404; W. Bright, Early English Church History, pp. 308‑309, Oxford, 1897.
CERDO (CERDOft): A Syrian Gnostic, who, according to Irenaeus (I. xxvii. 1, III. iv. 3) and Eusebius (Chron., ed. Schoene, i. 168), lived in Rome in the time of the bishop Hyginus (c. 136140). Epiphanius (xli. 1) connects him with Saturninus. He is of importance chiefly as having been the teacher of Marcion (q.v.). G. Ii;niiGES.
CERINTHITS: Gnostic teacher of Asia Minor, about 100 A.D. According to Irenfeus (I. xxvi. 1), he taught that the world was not created by the first God, but by a subordinate power. Jesus was

497	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	Central America
		CShaloedon
a son of Joseph and Mary, but was wiser and more
righteous than other men. After his baptism the
spirit of the all‑sublime power of God descended
upon him in the form of a dove. From now on he
preached the unknown Father and performed
miracles. Finally the " Christ " forsook him, but
" Jesus " suffered and rose again,, whereas the
spiritual Christ did not suffer. John directed his
Gospel especially against Cerinthus (III. xi. 1), and
in proof of the aversion which the apostle felt
toward this heretic Irena'us (III. iii. 4) tells a story
from Polycarp that the two met once in the baths
at Ephesus, whereupon the apostle fled, " lest
even the bath‑house fall down because Cerinthus
is inside." In the main the story is credible, but
the later story (cf. Epiphanius, Hcer., xxviii. and
others) of the Judaism of Cerinthus is an invention.
The assertion of the Roman Caius that Cerinthus
is the author of the Apocalypse is certainly erro‑
neous. 	G. KR(1GER.
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. A. L1p81U8, ZW QuelIenlCf'itwlC dab Epi.
	Phanius, pp. llb‑122, Vienna, 18&5; A. Ailgenfeld. Ketzer
	geachichte des Urchrittentuma, pp. 411‑421, Leipaic, 1884;
	A. Harnack, Dogmengaachichte, i. 234‑235, Freiburg, 1894,
	Eng. transl., iii. 14‑19, Boston, 1897; T. Zahn, G'eschichte
	doe neuleatanuutdichen Karwna, 2 vole., Erlangen, 1888‑92;
Kriiger, History, p. 88 and literature given there.
	CESARIRI, ch6"sd‑r3'ni, GIULIANO (JULIAN CE
	SARIIQI) : Cardinal. He belonged to a distinguished
	family of Rome and attracted the attention of the
	curia as a humanist and teacher of law at Padua.
	Pope Martin V, made him cardinal (1426) and
	Eugenius IV. promoted him to cardinal bishop of
Frascati.	His knowledge of law and ability as a
	diplomatist fitted him for delicate missions. The
	Hussite question was entrusted to him and he en
	tered Bohemia with a crusading army, but the army
	was defeated and the cardinal fled ignominiously
(1431).	From 1431 to 1438 be presided at the
	Council of Basel with marked ability.* In 1438 and
	1439 he was active in Ferrara and Florence, and
	shortly after went to Hungary to incite King
Vladislav to war against the Turks.	He succeeded,
	and war broke out in 1443, but Vladielav was
	defeated and slain at Varna, Nov. 10, 1444, and
	Cesarini also perished while trying to escape;
	he was probably assassinated and robbed while
endeavoring to cross the Danube.
	PAUL TBCHACHERT.
	BIBLIOGRAPHY: The older accounts are in A. Chacon, Vitd
. yontificum et .	cardinalium, ii. 881 aqq., 4 vole.,
	Rome, 1877; and E. Baluze, Miscellanea, vol. iii., 4 vole.,
	Lucca, 1781‑84. Consult also: F. van Bezold, Kdnip
	Sigmund uud die Reichakriepe pepen die Huaiten, 3 parts,
	Munich, 1872‑77; Creighton, Papacy, ii. 183‑185. 194
	eqq.; Hefele, Conciliengeachichte, vol. vii. pBBb11V; Ifh,
iii. 28‑28.
CHAD, SAINT. See GEAnne, SAINT.
	CHADERTOP, LAURENCE: Puritan; h. near
	Oldham (8 m. n.e. of Manchester), Lancashire,
	Sept. 14, 1536 or 1538; d. at Cambridge Nov. 13,
1640.	He studied at Christ's College, Cambridge
	(B.A., 156?; B.D., 1578; D.D., 1813), and there
	* At the Council of Basel Ceasripi'e attitude toward the
	Husaites was highly conciliatory; and he urged s thorough
	reformation of ecclesiastical abuses as the only safeguard
against further schisms.‑A, i;. N.
IL‑32
embraced the Protestant religion, for which his
father threatened to disinherit him. Ile became
fellow, dean, tutor, and lecturer of his college, and
as afternoon lecturer of St. Clement's Church,
Cambridge, for nearly fifty years acquired fame
as a preacher and exerted a far‑reaching influence.
When Sir Walter Mildmay founded Emmanuel
College in 1584 he insisted on Chaderton's becoming
master, and the latter filled the office with much
ability and success till 1622, when he resigned.
From 1598 to 1640 he was prebendary of Lincoln.
Though a Puritan he was moderate in views and
conciliatory in manners. He was a member of the
Hampton Court Conference (q.v.), and was one of
the Cambridge committee of Bible translators.
He appears to have published nothing except an
anonymous tract, De justi ficatiane, and a single
sermon.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Dillingham, Vita Chadertoni, ed. J. Dillingham, Cambridge, 1700, Eng. tranel. by E. 8. 8chuck‑
burgh, ib. 1884; DNB, ix. 430‑432.
	CHADWICK, JOHN WHITE: American Uni
tarian; b. at Marblehead, Mass., Oct. 19, 1840;
d. in Brooklyn Dec. 11, 1904. His father was y
seafaring man, and he was apprenticed to a shoe
maker. But in 1857 he entered the State Normal
School at Bridgewater, Mass., and while there
determined to become a minister. From the Nor
mal School he passed to Phillips Exeter Academy
and the Divinity School of Harvard University,
from which latter institution he was graduated in
1864. He was immediately asked to supply for
three months the pulpit of the Second Unitarian
Church of Brooklyn, N. Y., but made so favorable
an impression that his relation became a permanent
one and he was its pastor at the time of his death.
Besides being well known as a preacher and lec
turer and highly esteemed as a man, he won dis
tinction as an author both in prose and poetry.
He described himself as a "radical Unitarian," but
he was heard with respect by those who most
differed from him. Besides many other contributions
to the press, he published: Life of Nathaniel Alexan
der Staples (Boston, 1870); A Book of Poems (1876,
now in its 10th ed.); The Bible of To‑day (New
York, 1878); The Faith of Reason, a Series of Dis
courses on Leading Topics of Religion (Boston, 1879,
2d ed.,1880) ; Some Aspects o f Religion (New York,
1879); Belief and Life (1881); The Man Jesus
(Boston, 1881, 2d ed., 1882); Origin and Destiny
(1883); In Nazareth Town : to Christmas Fantasy,
and Other Poems (1883); A Daring Faith (1885);
The Good Voices, Poems (Troy, N. Y., 1885);
Ch(1fleS Robot Darwin (Boston, 1889) ; Evdution
anal Social Reform (1890); Evolution of Architecture
(New York, 1891); Evolution as Related to Citizen
ship (1892); George William Curtis: an Address
(1893); The Old and the New Unitarian Belief (Bos
ton, 1894); Theodore Parker (1900); William Ellery
Charming (1903); and Later Poems (1905).
CHAITANYA, chaff"t8‑nf'a: Brahman formulator of the doctrine of BhaE.;ti. See INDIA, L, 3, § 3.
CHALCEDON, kal'se‑den: A city of Bithynia, on the Bosporus, near Constantinople, the scene of the Fourth General Council (451), at which

Cha~laes	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	498
Chamberlain
Eutychianiem was condemned and the so‑called
Creed of Chalcedon adopted. See Caxlsi'oloay,
IV; Eu'rrcaUNlsle.
	CHALDEA. See Basxrorrtw, VI, 7.
	CHALDEAN CHRISTIANS. See NxSTOxIANa.
	CHALICE. See VE88EIB, SecxEn, § 1.
	CHALLOlYER, RICHARD: English Roman Cath
olic prelate; b. at Lewes (50 m. s. of London),
Sussex, Sept. 29, 1691; d. in London Jan. 12, 1781.
His father was a Protestant, but died soon after
his eon's birth, and the latter was brought up by
Roman Catholics and embraced their religion at
about the age of thirteen. In 1704 he was sent to
Douai and remained there as student, professor,
and vice‑president for twenty‑six years (B.D.,
1719; D.D., 1727; ordained priest 1716). In 1730
he joined the London mission, and in 1741 was con
secrated coadjutor to Dr. Benjamin Petre, vicar
apostolic of the London district; he became vicar
apostolic on Dr. Petre'a death in 1758. He was a
learned and pique man, and performed his duties
with faithfulness and ability, in the midst of perse
cution from the penal laws and the fanaticism of
the English populace. He wrote upward of forty
different works, controversial, devotional, histor
ical, etc. His Memoirs of Missionary Priests . .
and of other Catholics . . . that have suffered death
in England on religious accounts from the year 1677
to 1681, (2 vole., London, 1741‑42; many later eds.)
is the Roman Catholic " Book of Martyrs "; The
Garden o f the Soul (1740) is still the most popular
prayer‑book with English Roman Catholics; and
The Rheims New Testament and the Dotuty Bible,
with annotations (5 vole., London, 1749‑50; 3d
ed., revised, 1752), prepared by Challoner and
under his direction, is the beat‑known version of
the Dousi Bible. His Life was written by J. Ber
nard (London, 1784), and by Dr. John Milner
(in the 5th ed. of his Grounds of the Old Religion,
1798).
Baraooserar: J. Bernard. Life of . . . R. Challonsr,
	London, 1784; John Milner, Brie/ Account of the Life of
	Richard Challoner, prefixed to the 5th ed. of Challoner'e
	Grounds of the Old Religion, ib. 1798; J. Gillow, Biblio
	graphical Dictionary of English Catholics, i. 447‑457, Lon
	don (188b); DNB, ix. 440‑443.
	CHALMERS, JAMES: London Missionary So
ciety missionary; b. at Ardriahaig, Argyleahire,
Scotland (45 m. w. by n. from Glasgow), Aug. 4,
1841; d. at Rink Point, Goaribari Island, Gulf of
Papua, New Guinea, April 8, 1901. Converted at
the age of fourteen, he was soon after called to the
foreign mission field and after study at Cheahunt
College and at Highgate, an institution conducted
by the London Missionary Society, he was sent by
that Society to Raratonga, one of the group of Cook
Islands in the Southern Pacific, where he arrived
in 1867. The island had been partially Christianized,
but he did a good work is education and evan
gelization. In 1877 he removed to New Guinea,
where he encountered cannibals and did a memo
rable work at the constant rink of life. It was on
one of there many journeys that he was killed. He
takes his place beside William e and Patterson as a
missionary hero in the South Seas.
Brsrxoaasra:: Consult his own Pioneer Life and Work in New Guinea, 1897‑188.#, London 1895; and the biographies by W. Robson, ib. 1901; C. Lennox, ib. 1902; and R. Lovett, ib. 1902 (the last‑named containing Chalmere'e A9tobiopraphy and Letters).
CHALMERS, THOMAS: The leader of the Free Church of Scotland; b. in East Anstruther, Fifeshire, Mar. 17, 1780; d. in Edinburgh May 30, 1847. The family to which he belonged was composed of middle‑class people of the strictest type of Calvinism; and hence in his opening years, he received thorough indoctrination. He entered St. Andrews University when only eleven years old, and confined his attention almost exclusively to mathematics, but did not give up his original intention of becoming a preacher, and accordingly was licensed by the presbytery of St. Andrews Jan., 1799. His character early developed into maturity. Instead of beginning his professional work, he continued the study of mathematics and natural science; and during the winter of 1802‑03 he acted as assistant to the professor of mathematics at St. Andrews. He showed an extraordinary power to awaken enthusiasm in almost any topic he took up; although it was this very fact which at that time coat him his place, the authorities disliking the novelty of his methods. He nettled as minister of Kilmeny, nine miles from St. Andrews, May, 1803, and in the following winter, while preaching regularly, opened voluntary and independent classes in mathematics at the university, which were largely attended, although vigorously discouraged by the authorities. He was a faithful pastor at Kil‑
	meny, and his preaching attracted
	Ministry wide attention, but his heart was not
at 	in his work. He was trammeled by
	B.ilmeny. the prevailing moderatiem, which put
		culture above piety, and state support
above independence. In 1808 evidence of the
trend of his thinking appeared in his Inquiry into
the Extent and Stability o f National Resources.
The supply of man's physical and social needs
was uppermost in his mind. In the midst of such
work he was visited with severe domestic afflic
tions, and a serious illness brought him to death's
door; but he recovered after a year. David Brew
ster asked him to contribute to his Edinburgh
Encyclopedia. He at first chose " Trigonometry,"
but at length took " Christianity " (separately
published, 1813). And as he examined the doc
trines of this religion, and went deeper into its
mysteries, he realized its importance, and by study
ing about Christianity he became a Christian. The
parishioners quickly became aware that he had
really not so much renamed his work among them
as begun it. His whole soul was on fire, and his
culture was now used to make the saving truth of
saving power. He cut loose from the moorings of
moderatiam, and became a decided Evangelical.
His eloquence was expended in new channels, and
with great results.
In July, 1815, he was formally admitted as minister of the Tron Church, Glasgow. In 1816 he delivered on weekdays the famous series of seven Discourses on the Christian Revelation, Viewed in Connection with Modern Astronomy. In Sept., 1819, he removed from the Tron pariah to that of

499	RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA	ohalaea
		Chamberlain
St. John's, in order that he might, in a newly
constituted parish, have an opportunity of testing
the practicability in a large city of the old Scottish
			scheme of providing for the poor. In
		In	the parish there were two thousand
	Glasgow. families. These he distributed into
			twenty‑five divisions; and over each
such district he put an elder and a deacon‑the
former to attend to their spiritual, the latter to
their temporal needs. Two commodious school
houses were built; four competent teachers were
employed, and by school‑fees of two and three
shillings each a quarter, seven hundred children
were educated; while on Sunday the forty or fifty
local schools supplied religious instruction. Dr.
Chalmers not only presided over all this system
of work, but made himself familiar with all the
details, even visiting personally every two years
each family of the pariah, and holding evening
meetings. He also assumed complete charge of
the poor; and by thorough system, and consequent
weeding‑out of unworthy cases, he reduced the
cost of maintaining them from fourteen hundred
to two hundred and eighty pounds per annum.
This efficient system, however, in 1837 was given
up; and the " English " plan of compulsory assess
ments, which requires much less trouble, and
probably does much less good, was substituted.
In Nov., 1823, Dr. Chalmers became professor
of moral philosophy in St. Andrews University,
and in Nov., 1828, professor of theology in Edin
burgh. In 1833 he issued his Bridgewater Treatise,
On the Adaptation o f External Nature to the Moral and
Intellectual Constitution of Man. This work made
a great sensation; and his biographer, Rev. Will
iam Hanna, says that, in consequence, he received
" literary honors such as were never united pre
viously in the person of any Scottish ecclesiastic."
In 1834 he was elected fellow of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh, and soon after one of its vice‑presi
dents, in the same year a corresponding member of
the Institute of France; and in 1835 the Univer
sity of Oxford conferred on him the degree of D.C.L.
	Up to this time he had taken little part in church
government; from then on he was destined to have
more todowith itthananyothermanof the century.
The friction between Church and State in Scotland
was rapidlyproducingtrouble. Theattempttoaettle
ministers who were obnoxious to the congregations
was the commonest complaint .* The historic case
			is that of Marnoch. Here only one
	The Organ‑ person in the parish signed the call;
	ization of and yet the presbytery of Strathbogie
	the Free decided, by a vote of seven to three, to
	Church.	proceed with the ordination, and did,
			although these seven were suspended.
In so doing they were upheld by the civil authority,
which annulled their suspension. But this case
was only an aggravation of a common ill. Matters
became so serious in all parts of Scotland that a
convocation was held in Nov., 1842, to consider the
matter; and a large number of ministers resolved
that, if relief was not afforded, they would with‑
*The point at issue was lay patronage. British law having
conferred upon landowners the tight to nominate to pas
torates in their possessions.‑A. H. N.
draw from the Establishment. No help came; and accordingly, on May 18, 1843, four hundred and seventy clergymen withdrew from the General Assembly, and constituted themselves into the Free Church of Scotland, electing Dr. Chalmera as their first moderator. He had foreseen the separation, and drawn up a scheme for the support of the outgoing ministers. But, after he had safely piloted the new church through the stormy waters, he gave himself up more exclusively to professional work, especially in connection with the New College, Edinburgh, of which he was principal, and to the composition of his Institutes of Theology. He died suddenly.
Dr. Chalmers is to‑day a molding influence. All the churches of Scotland unite to do him reverence. He was a greater worker than writer, and a greater man than either. It was surely enough honor for one life to inspire spiritual life throughout an entire land; and as the tireless and practical reformer, as the Christian philanthropist, and, above all, as the founder of the Free Church of Scotland, he will live.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: The principal Life is by his son‑in‑law
W. Hanna, Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Thomas
Chalmers, 4 vole., Edinburgh, 1849‑52. Consult also:
A. J. B[ymington], Thomas Chalmers, the Man, his Times,
and his Work, Ardrossan, 1878; D. Fraser, Thomas Chal
mera, London, 1881; J. L. WiLteon, The Life o/ Thomas
Chalmers, Edinburgh, 1881; J. Dodds, Thomas Chalmers,
ib. 1892; W. G. Blaikie. Thomas Chalmers, ib. 1898 (in
Famous Scots Series); Mrs. Oliphant, Thomas Chalmers,
Preacher, Philosopher, and Statesman, London, 1898;
DNB, ix. 449‑454.
CHAMBERLAIN, JACOB: Reformed (Dutch) missionary; b. at Sharon, Conn., Apr. 13, 1835; d. at Madanapalli, Madras, India, March 2, 1908. He was educated at Western Reserve College, O. (B.A., 1856), the Reformed Theological Seminary, New Brunswick; N. J., and the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. In 1859 he went as a medical missionary to the Arcot Mission, Madras, and was stationed successively at Pahnaner, Madras (18601863), and at Madanapalli, Madras (1863‑1901). From 1891 he was lector in Biblical languages and prophecy and acting principal of the Theological Seminary in the Arcot Mission, Palmaner. He was chairman of a committee for the translation of the Bible into Telugu, 1873‑94; member of the Telugu Revision Committee of the Madras Tract Society in 1873‑80, and in 1878 was elected vice‑president of the American Tract Society for India. In 1901 he was first moderator of the South India United Church Synod, and since engaged in literary work in Tamil and Telugu. He translated the liturgy of the Reformed Dutch Church into Telugu (Madras, 1873), and also prepared a Telugu version of the Hymns for Public and Social Worship (1884), as well as other devotional works in the same language. His English works include: The Bible Tested (New York, 1878); Native Churches and Foreign Missionary ,Societies (Madras, 1879); The Religions of the Orient (Clifton Springs, N. Y.,1896); In the Tiger Jungle (Chicago, 1896); The Cobra's Den, and Other Stories of Missionary Work Among the Telugua of India (1900); and The Kingdom inladia, with introductory biographical sketch by Henry N. Cobb (1908).

Chamberlain	THE NEW SCHAFF‑HERZOG	800
CHAMBERLAIN, LEANDER TROWBRIDGE:
American Presbyterian; b. at West Brookfield, Mass., Sept. 26, 1837. He was graduated at Yale in 1863, and from 1863 to 1867 was attached to the Pacific Squadron of the United States Navy. During this period he made explorations in the Inca civilization of ancient Peru. He studied theology at Andover 18679, and was pastor of the New England Congregational Church, Chicago, 1869‑76, of the Broadway Congregational Church, Norwich, Conn., 1876‑83, and of the Classon Avenue Presbyterian Church, Brooklyn, 1883‑90. Since 1890 he has had no charge. He was the first United States representative secretary of the McCall Mission of France, a delegate to the Centennial of Sunday‑schools in London in 1880, and a delegate of the General Assembly of the United States to the Pan‑Presbyterian Council in the same city in 1888, a founder of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, a representative of the United States Evangelical Alliance to the General Conference of Evangelical Alliances in Florence, Italy, in 1891. He is also president of the Evangelical Alliance for the United States, of the Philafrican Liberator's League, and of the Thessalonica Agricultural and Industrial Institute, Macedonia; secretary and treasurer of the American and Foreign Christian Union; vice‑chairman of the national committee on arbitration between the United States and other countries; custodian and patron of the collection of gems in the National Museum, Washington; and curator of Eocene molluscs in the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. In theology he is a Calvinistic Presbyterian. He has written: A Short History of the English Bible (Norwich, Conn., 1881); Citizen's Manual (New York, 1898); The State, Its Origin, Nature, and Functions (1898); The Colonial Policy of the United States (1899); Patriotism anal the Moral Law (1900); Evolutionary Philosophy (1901); Government not Founded in Force (1904); The Suffrage and Majority Rule (1904); and The True Doctrine of Prayer (1906).
CHAMBERS, TALBOT WILSON: Reformed (Dutch); b. at Carlisle, Pa., Feb. 25, 1819; d..
END OF VOL. U.
in New York Feb. 3, 1896. He was graduated at Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J., 1834. He studied at New Brunswick and Princeton Theological seminaries, became minister of the Second Reformed (Dutch) Church of Raritan, at Somerville, N. J., 1839, and one of the ministers of the Collegiate Reformed (Dutch) Church of New York in 1849 and continued there till his death. He was a leader in his denomination, was president of its General Synod in 1863, and for the eight years preceding his death was president of its Board of Foreign Missions; he was one of the organizers of the Presbyterian Alliance (q.v.) and chosen its president in 1892 and expected to preside over its sixth general council (1896). He was a member (from 1881) and president (from 1892) of the Executive Committee of the American Tract Society; chairman of the Committee on Versions of the American Bible Society; and member of the Old Testament company of the American Bible Revision Committee, being the only pastor in the Old Testament company. Besides many sermons, addresses, and miscellaneous articles, he published: The Noon Prayer Meeting, Fulton Street, New York (New York, 1858); Memoir of the Hon. Theodore Frelinghuysen (1863); The Psalter : a Witness to the Divine Origin of the Bible, Vedder lectures at New Brunswick, 1876 (1876); and A Companion to the Revised Old Testament (1885). He was editor of The Presbyterian and Reformed Review and of the earlier Princeton Review; translated and edited Schmoller on the Book of Amos and prepared the Book of Zechariah for the Schaff‑Lange commentary (1874); edited the American edition of Meyer's commentary on I and II Corizilhians (1884), and the homilies of Chrysostom on the same books for The PostNicene Fathers, vol. xii. (1889); suggested and with the Rev. Frank Hugh Foster contributed to the Concise Dictionary of Religious Knowledge (1889), edited by the Rev. Samuel Macauley Jackson.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: E‑ B.,Coe, Commemorative Discourse, New York, 1898.