SUMMARIES OF THE BOOKS OF THE
OLD TESTAMENT.
Genesis. The Beginning of the inhabited world in man's epoch. I. The Creation, Fall, and antediluvian history of man, including the First
Covenant. II. The Deluge, Second Covenant with
Noah, re-peopling of the earth; the Dispersion,
and confusion of language. III. The Call and
history of Abraham and his sons, to the third
generation, ending with the death of Joseph (2,369,
or, according to some, 3,619 years). The general
subject of the book is the creation, and decline of
humanity through sin, and its capability to be
reclaimed by communion with God its Maker.
Hope is kept alive and faith engendered by a
chosen few, who under obedience to God become
heirs to promised blessings, which are continually
postponed, with mercy to those who are sinful,
and a deepening of faith in those who are righteous.
Exodus.The Going out or Departure of
the chosen people—descendants of Abraham—from
bondage in Egypt to a promised land, illustrating,
in the history of a tribe, the general dealings of
God with His people, and their pilgrimage through
temporal life in a probationary state. There is
declension, both moral, political, and religious, till
the cry of the degenerate, in its conscious misery,
is raised to heaven, when Divine help appears,
working supernaturally through human means,
till deliverance is effected by "shedding of blood,"
the Passover Lamb being typical of the redeeming
blood of the promised Saviour. In brief, the
book gives a sketch of the early history of Israel
as a nation—(1) enslaved, (2) redeemed, and (3)
set apart, through the blending of its religious
and political life, and consecrated to the service
of God. The Code of Moral and Civil Law, promulgated
in this book, has been the foundation
of all laws in civilised States, the former being
unalterable, because it springs from the natural
law engraved in the human heart.
It embraces a period of 215, or 400, years, and includes events from the birth of Moses to the
erection of the tabernacle. The chief of these
are:—the early life of Moses, and his call to be
the Prophet of Israel; the ten plagues, and deliverance
of Israel from Egyptian slavery; the
institution of the Passover, and dedication of
every firstborn male to God's service; the passage
of the Red Sea; miraculous food and drink;
victory, by means of prayer, over Amalek;
the promulgation of the Moral Law; instructions
for making the tabernacle, ark, and other accessories
of worship, with the consecration of the
family of Aaron to the priesthood, and of their
vestments; the stricter obligation of the sabbath,
and punishment for making a visible representation
of the Deity (e.g. the golden calf).
Leviticus.The book of laws and ceremonies
regulating the service of the sanctuary by the
sacred tribe (Levi), as substitutes for the firstborn
male of each family, its natural priest. It
is closely connected with Exodus at its beginning,
and with Numbers at its close; for, while
the order for consecration of priests is given in
the former, the ceremony itself is recorded in
Leviticus; and the exemption of the Levites
from military service, and their special functions,
are given in Numbers. But it has a distinctive
character in the general exclusion from it of historical
narrative (the exceptions being the Consecration
of Priests, Death of Nadab and Abihu,
Stoning of the Blasphemer). It contains the history
of only one month. Its contents are:—1. Laws
for the Altar (to the people and the priests). 2
Consecration of Priests, and death of those offering
unbidden incense. 3. Laws of clean and unclean
food. 4. Purifications. 5. Leprosy. 6. Day
of Atonement. 7. Slaughter of animals. 8. Unlawful
marriages and lusts. 9. Precepts on duties
of the people and holiness of the priests. 10.
Victims for the Altar. 11. Convocation days. 12.
Weekly offerings of oil and bread. 13. Punishment
of blasphemer. 14. Sabbatical year and Jubilee.
15. Promises and warnings. 16. Vows.
Offerings.
The general name korbân is equivalent to oblation, including everything given to the service of God, e.g. firstfruits, tithes, contributions to the maintenance of the sanctuary, priests, worship, and all kinds of sacrifices.
Offerings for the Altar were animal (1.
Burnt-offerings, 2. Peace-offerings, 3. Sin-offerings)
and vegetable (1. Meat and drink-offerings
for the great altar in the Court, 2. Incense and
meat-offerings for the altar in the Holy Place).
Every burnt-offering and peace-offering was accompanied
by a meat-offering and drink-offering,
in proportion to the victim, thus:—
| |
Flour. |
Oil. |
Wine. |
| With a bullock |
3/10 ephah. |
1/2 hin.
| 1/2 hin. |
| With a ram |
2/10 " |
1/3 " |
1/3 " |
| With a sheep or goat |
1/10 " |
1/4 " |
1/4 " |
These offerings were (1) Public sacrifices, at the cost and on behalf of the "whole congregation"
(e.g. daily morning and evening sacrifices,
and those on festivals); (2) Private sacrifices,
enjoined by law on particular occasions, or
by voluntary devotion of the worshipper—as
thank-offerings. Besides these, there were special
sacrifices on the Day of Atonement, Passover, &c.
A trespass-offering was a sin-offering, accompanied
by a pecuniary fine.
Feasts.
The weekly festival was the sabbath
(commemorating rest from creation, and deliverance
from bondage in Egypt); the monthly festival
was the day of the new moon, on which rest
was not enjoined, but additional services. The
new moon of the seventh month Tisri (October),
or Feast of Trumpets, began the civil year, and
that of Abib (March) the ecclesiastical year. The
great festivals were (1) Passover, on the eve of
the 14th of Abib, which lasted to the 21st; (2)
Pentecost (the fiftieth day after), or feast of
weeks, on completion of the harvest; (3) Tabernacles,
from the 15th to 23rd of Tisri, commemorating
the ingathering of all fruits. The people
lived for a week in booths, to remind them of
their desert wanderings. The last day was "the
great day"
(John vii. 37).
This feast was preceded
by the Day of Atonement. Every seventh year
was sabbatic, when the land had rest. Every
fiftieth was a jubilee, when slaves were freed,
land sold reverted to its original owner, and
mortgages were cancelled.
To these were added Purim, 14th or 15th of Adar (March), in remembrance of the deliverance
by Esther; and the Dedication of the Second
Temple (December 25).
Fasts
were the Day of Atonement (10th of Tisri),
the Siege of Jerusalem (Dec. 23), Capture of the
city (June 25), Burning of the Temple (about July
15), Complete devastation (September 15).
Numbers. This book is so named from the two numberings of the people, at the beginning
and end of the wanderings. It relates the history
from the completion of the Law-giving,
"the first day of the second month of the second
year" of the Exodus, to the first day of the fifth
month of the fortieth year; i.e. a period of thirty-eight
years, three months. Its contents are: (1)
The breaking up of the encampment at Sinai;
arrangement of the army, and the service of
the priestly tribe, with an inventory of their
charge; the parting service and blessing. (2) The
march upon Canaan, and its repulse. (3) Rebellions;
confirmation of Moses and Aaron in authority;
condemnation of the people to death in
the wilderness. (4) Various events in the forty
years' wandering. (5) Events of the last year, e.g.
deaths of Miriam and Aaron; Balaam's mission;
Moabite corruption; laws of inheritance, and of
certain sacrifices, solemnities, and vows; summary
of journeys; boundaries of Canaan, and
Levitical cities.
Deuteronomy,
the repetition of the Law,
consists mainly of three addresses by Moses to
the people who had been born in the wilderness,
and had not heard the original promulgation of
the Law. To these are added some of the final
acts and words of the lawgiver, viz. the appointment
of his successor, his funeral ode, and final
blessing, to which was appended (probably by
Joshua) the account of his death.
The first address is introductory, reminding the people of their deliverance from bondage, of
God's guidance and protection in their wanderings,
and their frequent ingratitude, closing with
a warning from the past, and an exhortation to
obedience in the future, so as to secure the inheritance
now within reach. The second is a
practical exposition of the whole Law, beginning
with the Ten Commandments, more particularly
applying the precepts of the First Table; followed
by the enforcement of particular regulations
in three main groups, viz. (1) laws concerning
religion; (2) concerning administration of justice;
(3) concerning private and social rights.
The third address is the solemn renewal of the
covenant, with an impressive recital of the blessings
upon observance, and the curses on neglect
of the Law. The delivery of these speeches, of
the song, and final benediction, together with the
closing scene of Moses' life, could not have occupied
more than ten days (the first ten of the
eleventh month of the fortieth year). Their aim
is that of a solemn exhortation, their style earnest,
impressive, and heart-stirring, with a review
of the past, and a glowing appeal to the future
career open before his hearers on the other side
of the Jordan. Moses vividly pourtrays to those
who had not seen it the divine delivery of the
Law at Sinai. He recalls much that had been
forgotten, or remained in abeyance from want of
opportunity to exercise it in the wilderness; but
all of which would now be the code of laws under
which, as a settled people, they must be governed.
His hearers are only partially conversant
with the Law; hence some things are assumed,
others are dealt with in minute detail, and even
supplemented by new regulations to complete the
Mosaic system (chaps, xii.—xxvi.). These later
civil institutions are promulgated by God's command,
and so have the same Divine sanction as
those relating to religious worship. In this book
Moses comes forth as a prophet, enunciating some
of the most notable predictions in the Old Testament.
Hence our Lord's quotations from the Law
are taken from Deuteronomy.
II.—THE HISTORICAL BOOKS
(from Joshua to Esther inclusive) contain the history of the
Israelite people during three great periods of
their national life:—(1) As an oligarchy, developing
into a republican confederacy. (2)
As a monarchy, speedily becoming disunited,
and separating into two kingdoms, falling to
pieces by internal dissensions and bad government.
(3) As tributary to foreign invaders.
Joshua
(Jehovah is salvation), the first of the
twelve so-called "Historical Books," embracing
a period of twenty-five years, is supposed to
have been written by Joshua, whose name it
bears. He was the successor of Moses, as the
prophet of the Lord and leader of His people,
to whom was entrusted the task of settling them
in Canaan. It consists of three parts: (1) The
conquest of Canaan during the seven years war,
and destruction of its thirty-one kings. (2) Distribution
of the country by lot, and settlement
of the tabernacle at Shiloh. (3) Final admonitions,
and death of Joshua, which must have
been added by one of his survivors. The characteristic
feature of the book is that "the Lord
drove out the nations before them," and that "He
fought for Israel." The conquest opens with the
miraculous fall of Jericho, after the renewal of
circumcision, and the apparition of the "Captain
of the Lord's host." The next is a march
into the interior, to the primary altar of Abraham
at Shechem, where the covenant is renewed
by oath and sacrifices. Next the miraculous victory
at Beth-horon, and general panic of the
heathen inhabitants. It closes with a general
assembly at Shiloh (where the tabernacle was
permanently fixed), the allotment of territory to
each tribe, and a final renewal of the covenant
at Shechem, followed by Joshua's death. The
typical aspect of the history is pointed out in
the Epistle to the Hebrews, chap. iv.
Date and Authorship. That the events are
recorded by a contemporary is evidenced by such
passages as
iii. 15, 16;
v. 1;
the prophetic character of the writer by
vi. 26;
though some later additions to the original are traceable in
x. 13;
xix. 47;
.
The expression used of certain
memorials as remaining "up to this day,"
which occurs fourteen times, does not in any
case seem to be inconsistent with the period
embraced by the narrative; while it is difficult to
imagine that any but a contemporary could have
written such passages as
vi. 25;
and his two addresses (xxiii. and xxiv.), as well as the various
records of his intercourse with God, would appear
to have been committed to writing by Joshua
himself, who is expressly declared to have written
some documents
(xxiv. 26).
Ewald supposes that
the book has undergone five transformations at
the hands of successive compilers; but this view
has met with little support. Others have tried to
discriminate between an Elohistic and Jehovistic
narrative; but this is difficult to maintain. The
authorship has been variously attributed to Joshua
(according to the tradition of the Jews and early
Christian writers), Phinehas, Eleazar, one of the
elders who survived Joshua, Samuel, and Jeremiah;
again, some have assigned its date to the
time of the Judges, the reign of Josiah, and even
subsequent to the Babylonish Captivity. All
these conjectures present far greater difficulties
than the old tradition, that it is the work of
Joshua, following the example of Moses, by
writing the annals of his own time,—a task
which seems to have been divinely committed
to him on his first appointment as the assistant
of Moses
(Exod. xvii. 14).
Judges. The second historical book, comprising a period of about 300 years (or, according to
the LXX. chronology, quoted by Paul,
Acts xiii. 20,
450 years), chronicles the gradual decline of
Israel, after Joshua's death, into a state of political
anarchy and religious apostasy.
Date and Authorship. Its authorship is uncertain; but Jewish tradition ascribes it to Samuel. The phrase, "up to this day," is thought
by modern critics to signify the time of Solomon, though
i. 21
seems to refer to a date prior to
David's capture of Jebus at the beginning of his
reign, while
xviii. 14
would seem to mark a date posterior to the Assyrian captivity of Israel. There
is little doubt that chaps, i. 6—xvi. form an early
record, most probably written by Samuel, and
which was continued by other annalists; and
that these documents were compiled into one harmonious
whole (terminating with II Kings), probably
by Ezra, or Nehemiah. The text of the
whole is, "There was no king in Israel; every man did that which was right in his own eyes."
The government may be called a republican confederacy.
But the want of unity, and irreligion,
made them a prey to the heathens around, whom
they neglected to extirpate. Seven times Israel
became subject to a foreign yoke, while thirteen
judges assumed, by God's command, or the people's
choice (as Abimelech), a temporary dictatorship.
Of these some were contemporaries, as
Samson and Samuel, and probably Abimelech,
Tola, and Jair. This office subsequently became
life-long (after Jephthah), and hereditary (in
Samuel's time), gradually preparing the way for
a monarchy.
It is notable that, until the days of Eli, the
priesthood is never mentioned, and that in him
the office had passed from the family of Eleazar
to that of Ithamar, on account, as the Jews say, of
the sanction given by the former to Jephthah's unnatural
sacrifice. The Books of Joshua and Judges
bear the same relation to the books of the Law
as the Acts of the Apostles to the Gospels;
but the former mark the decline of the Jewish,
the latter records the progress of the Christian
Church.
