VARIOUS CONSONANT CHANGES

128. Metathesis (transposition). – A vowel and a consonant often exchange places: Πνύξ the Pnyx, gen. Πυκνός, τίκτω bear for τι-τκ-ω (cp. τεκ-εῖν).

a.  Transposition proper does not occur where we have to do with αρ, ρ̥ (20, 35 b) as in θάρσος and θράσος courage; or with syncope (44 b) due to early shifting of accent, as in πέτ-ομαι fly, πτε-ρόν wing; or where a long vowel follows the syncopated root, as in τέμ-νω τέ-τμη-κα I have cut.

In βέβληκα I have thrown (βάλλω throw), βλη is formed from βελε found in βέλε-μνον missile.

129. Dissimilation. – a. λ sometimes becomes ρ when λ appears in the same word:  ἀργαλέος painful for ἀλγαλεος (ἄλγος pain).

b. A consonant (usually ρ) sometimes disappears when it occurs also in the adjoining syllable:  δρύφακτος railing for δρυ-φρακτος (lit. fenced by wood).

c. Syllabic dissimilation or syncope occurs when the same or two similar syllables containing the same consonant succeed each other:  ἀμφορεύς a jar for ἀμφι-φορευς, θάρσυνος bold for θαρσο-συνος.  This is often called haplology.

d. See also under 99, 125 a, b.

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130. Development. – δ is developed between ν and ρ, as in ἀνδρός of a man for ἀνρος from ἀνήρ (cp. cinder with Lat. cineris); β is developed between μ and ρ (or λ), as in μεσημβρίᾱ midday, south from μεσ-ημριᾱ for μεσ-ημεριᾱ from μέσος middle and ἡμέρᾱ day (cp. chamber with Lat. camera).

131. Labials and dentals often correspond: ποινή and τίσις retribution; φόνος murder, θείνω strike. π and κ : αἰπόλος goat-herd, βουκόλος ox-herd. πτ for τ is found in πτόλεμος war, πτόλις city for πόλεμος, πόλις. Cp. Neoptolemus and Ptolemy. So χθ and χ in χθών ground, χαμαί on the ground.

132. The dialects often show consonants different from Attic in the same or kindred words.

FINAL CONSONANTS

133. No consonant except ν, ρ, or ς (including ξ and ψ) can stand at the end of a Greek word. All other consonants are dropped.

a. Exceptions are the proclitics (179) ἐκ out of, derived from ἐξ (cp. 104, 136), and οὐκ not, of which οὐ is another form (137).

b. Examples of dropped final consonants: σῶμα body for σωματ (gen. σώματος); παῖ oh boy for παιδ (gen. παιδ-ός); γάλα milk for γαλακτ (gen. γάλακτ-ος); φέρον bearing for φεροντ (gen. φέροντ-ος); κῆρ heart for κηρδ, cp. καρδ-ίᾱ; ἄλλο for ἀλι ̯οδ (110), cp. Lat. aliud; ἔφερε- (τ) was carrying, ἔφερο-ν (τ) were carrying (464 c, e).

c. An original final m preceded by a vowel becomes ν, cp. ἵππον with Lat. equum.  So ἕν one from ἑμ (349 a), Lat. sem-el, ἅμα once

MOVABLE CONSONANTS

134. Movable Ν may be added at the end of a word when the next word begins with a vowel. Movable ν may be annexed to words ending in -σι; to the third person singular in -ε; and to ἐστί is.

Thus, πᾶσιν ἔλεγεν ἐκεῖνα he said that to everybody (but πᾶσι λέγουσι ταῦτα), λέγουσιν ἐμοί they speak to me (but λέγουσί μοι), ἔστιν ἄλλος there is another (187 b), ̓ Αθήνησιν ἦσαν they were at Athens.

a. Except ἐστί, words that add ν do not elide their final vowel (73).

b. Verbs in -εω never (in Attic) add -ν to the 3 sing. of the contracted form: εὖ ἐποίει αὐτόν he treated him well. But ἤει went and pluperfects (as ᾔδει knew) may add ν.

N. – Movable ν is called ν ἐφελκυστικόν (dragging after).

135. Movable ν is usually written at the end of clauses, and at the end of a verse in poetry. To make a syllable long by position (144) the poets add ν before words beginning with a consonant. Prose inscriptions frequently use ν before a consonant.

136. Movable Σ appears in οὕτως thus, ἐξ out of, before vowels, οὕτω, εκ́ before consonants. Thus, οὕτως ἐποίει he acted thus but οὕτω ποιεῖ he acts thus; ἐξ ἀγορᾶς but ἐκ τῆς ἀγορᾶς out of the market-place.

a. εὐθύς means straightway, εὐθύ straight towards.

137. οὐκ not is used before the smooth breathing, οὐχ (cp. 124) before the rough breathing: οὐκ ὀλίγοι, οὐχ ἡδύς. Before all consonants οὐ is written:  οὐ πολλοί, οὐ ῥᾴδιος.  Standing alone or at the end of its clause οὐ is written οὔ (rarely οὔκ), as πῶς γὰρ οὔ; for how not? Cp. 180 a.

a. A longer form is οὐχί (Ion. οὐκί) used before vowels and consonants.

b. μηκέτι no longer derives its κ from the analogy of οὐκέτι no longer.

SYLLABLES AND THEIR QUANTITY

138. There are as many syllables in a Greek word as there are separate vowels or diphthongs: thus, ἀ-λή-θει-α truth.

139. The last syllable is called the ultima; the next to the last syllable is called the penult (paen-ultima almost last); the one before the penult is called the antepenult (ante-paen-ultima).

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140. In pronouncing Greek words and in writing (at the end of the line) the rules commonly observed are these:

a. A single consonant standing between two vowels in one word belongs with the second vowel: ἄ-γω, σο-φί-ζω.

b. Any group of consonants that can begin a word, and a group formed by a stop with μ or ν, and by μν, belongs with the second vowel: τύ-πτω, ὄ-γδοος, ἄ-στρον, ἔ-χθος; πρᾶ-γμα, ἔ-θνος, λί-μνη.

c. A group of consonants that cannot begin a word is divided between two syllables:  ἄν-θος, ἐλ-πίς, ἔρ-γμα. Doubled consonants are divided:  θάλατ-τα.

d. Compounds divide at the point of union:  εἰσ-φέρω, προσ-φέρω; ἀν-άγω, εἰσάγω, συν-έχω. (But the ancients often wrote ἀ-νάγω, εἰ-σάγω, προ-σελθεῖν, ἐ-ξάγω, δυ-σάρεστος.)

e. ς, when followed by one or more consonants, is either attached to the preceding vowel (ἄ-ρισ-τος), or, with the consonant, begins the following syllable (ἄ-ρι-στος). (The ancients were not consistent, and there is evidence for the pronunciation ἄ-ρισ-στος.)

f. The ancients divided ἐκ τούτου as ἐ-κ τού-του. This practice is now abandoned.

141. A syllable ending in a vowel is said to be open; one ending in a consonant is closed. Thus, in μή-τηρ mother the first syllable is open, the second closed

QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES

142. A syllable is short when it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or a single consonant:  θε-ός god, ἐ-νό-μι-σα I thought.

143. A syllable is long by nature when it contains a long vowel or a diphthong: χώ-ρᾱ country, δοῦ-λος slave.

144. A syllable is long by position when its vowel precedes two consonants or a double consonant: ἵππος horse, ἐξ out of.

a. One or both of the two consonants lengthening a final syllable by position may belong to the next word:  ἄλλο̄ς πολί̄της, ἄλλο̄ κτῆμα.

b. Length by position does not affect the natural quantity of a vowel. Thus, both λέ-ξω I shall say and λή-ξω I shall cease have the first syllable long by position; but the first vowel is short in λἐξω, long in λήξω.

145. A stop with a liquid after a short vowel need not make the preceding syllable long by position. A syllable containing a short vowel before a stop and a liquid is common (either short or long). When short, such syllables are said to have weak position.

Thus, in δάκρυ, πατρός, ὅπλον, τέκνον, τί δρᾷ the first syllable is either long or short as the verse requires. In Homer the syllable before a stop with a liquid is usually long; in Attic it is usually short.

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a. The stop and the liquid making weak position must stand in the same word or in the same part of a compound. Thus, in ἐκ-λύ̄ω I release the first syllable is always long, but in ἔ-κλυε he heard it is common.

b. β, γ, δ before μ, or ν, and usually before λ, make the preceding syllable long by position. Thus, ἁγνός (     _˘  )pure, βιβλίον (ע˘) book.

N. – ‘Common’ quantity has been explained as due to a difference in syllabic division. Thus, in τέ̄κνον, the first syllable is closed (τέκ-νον); while in τε̆́κνον the first syllable is open (τέ-κνον). Cp. 141.

146. The quantity of most syllables is usually apparent. Thus, syllables

a. with η, ω, or a diphthong, are long.

b. with ε, ο, before a vowel or a single consonant, are short.

c. with ε, ο, before two consonants, or a double consonant, are long.

d. with α, ι, υ, before two consonants, or a double consonant, are long.

N. – But syllables with ε, ο, or α, ι, υ before a stop and a liquid may be short (145). Cp. also 147 c.

147. The quantity of syllables containing α, ι, υ before a vowel or a single consonant must be learned by observation, especially in poetry. Note, however, that α, ι, υ are always long

a. when they have the circumflex accent: πᾶς, ὑ̄μῖν.

b. when they arise from contraction (59) or crasis (62): γέρᾱ from γέραα, ἀ̄ργός idle from ἀ-εργος (but ᾰ̓ργός bright), κἀ̄γώ from καί ἐγώ.

c. ι and υ are generally short before ξ (except as initial sounds in augmented forms, 435) and α, ι, υ before ζ. Thus, κῆρῠξ, ἐκήρῠξα, πνῐ́ξω, ἁρπᾰ́ζω, ἐλπῐ́ζω.

d. ας, ις, and υς are long when ν or ντ has dropped out before ς (96, 100).

e. The accent often shows the quantity (163, 164, 170).

148. A vowel standing before another vowel in a Greek word is not necessarily short (as it usually is in classical Latin).