__________________________________________________________________ Title: The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume 15: Tournely-Zwirner Creator(s): Herbermann, Charles George (1840-1916) Print Basis: 1907-1913 Rights: From online edition Copyright 2003 by K. Knight, used by permission CCEL Subjects: All; Reference LC Call no: BX841.C286 LC Subjects: Christian Denominations Roman Catholic Church Dictionaries. Encyclopedias __________________________________________________________________ THE CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA AN INTERNATIONAL WORK OF REFERENCE ON THE CONSTITUTION, DOCTRINE, DISCIPLINE, AND HISTORY OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH EDITED BY CHARLES G. HERBERMANN, Ph.D., LL.D. EDWARD A. PACE, Ph.D., D.D. CONDE B PALLEN, Ph.D., LL.D. THOMAS J. SHAHAN, D.D. JOHN J. WYNNE, S.J. ASSISTED BY NUMEROUS COLLABORATORS IN FIFTEEN VOLUMES VOLUME 15 Tournely to Zwirner New York: ROBERT APPLETON COMPANY Imprimatur JOHN M. FARLEY ARCHBISHOP OF NEW YORK __________________________________________________________________ Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon Charles-Thomas Maillard De Tournon Papal legate to India and China, cardinal, born of a noble Savoyard family at Turin, 21 December, 1668; died in confinement at Macao, 8 June, 1710. After graduating in canon and civil law he went to Rome where he gained the esteem of Clement XI, who on 5 December, 1701, appointed him legate a latere to India and China. The purpose of this legation was: to establish harmony among the missionaries there; to provide for the needs of these extensive missions; to report to the Holy See on the general state of the missions, and the labours of the missionaries; and, finally, to enforce the decision of the Holy Office against the further toleration of the so-called Chinese rites among the native Christians. These rites consisted chiefly in offering sacrifices to Confucius and the ancestors, and in using the Chinese names tien (heaven) and xang ti (supreme emperor) for the God of the Christians. On 27 December, 1701, the pope consecrated Tournon bishop in the Vatican Basilica, with the title of Patriarch of Antioch. The legate left Europe on the royal French vessel Murepas, 9 February, 1703, arriving at Pondicherry in India on 6 November, 1703. It was with greater zeal than prudence that he issued a decree at this place, dated 23 June, 1704, summarily forbidding the missionaries under severe censures to permit the further practice of the Malabar rites. On 11 July, 1704, he set sail for China by way of the Philippine Islands, arriving at Macao in China, 2 April, and at Peking on 4 December, 1705. Emperor Kang hi received him kindly at first, but upon hearing that he came to abolish the Chinese rites among the native Christians, he demanded from all missionaries on pain of immediate expulsion a promise to retain these rites. At Rome the Holy Office had meanwhile decided against the rites on 20 November, 1704, and, being acquainted with this decision, the legate issued a decree at Nanking on 25 January, 1707, obliging the missionaries under pain of excommunication latae sententiae to abolish these rites. Hereupon, the emperor ordered Tournon to be imprisoned at Macao and sent some Jesuit missionaries to Rome to protest against the decree. Tournon died in his prison, shortly after being informed that he had been created cardinal on 1 August, 1707. Upon the announcement of his death at Rome, Clement XI highly praised him for his courage and loyalty to the Holy See and ordered the Holy Office to issue a Decree (25 September, 1710) approving the acts of the legate. Tournon's remains were brought to Rome by his successor, Mezzabarba, and buried in the church of the Propaganda, 27 September, 1723. Memorie stor. dell' Em. Mgr. card. di Tournon esposte con monumenti rari ed autentici non piu dati alla luce (8 vols., Venice 1761-2), anti-jesuitical; (VILLERMAULES), Anec. sur l'etat de la religion dans la Chine (7 vols., Paris, 1733-42), Jansenistic and extremely biased against the Jesuits; PRAY, Hist. controvers. de ritibus sinicis (Pest, 1789), German tr. with numerous additions (Augsburg, 1791). Concerning his alleged murder by the Jesuits see DUHR. Jesuiten-Fabeln (4 ed. Freiburg, 1904), 776, 786. MICHAEL OTT Antoine Touron Antoine Touron Dominican biographer and historian, born at Graulhet, Tarn, France, on 5 September, 1686; died at Paris, 2 September, 1775. Of this author but little has been written, though the number and merit of his works have caused his name to become illustrious, particularly in his order. He was the son of a merchant, and seems to have joined the Dominicans at an early age. After the completion of his studies he taught philosophy and theology to the students of his province (Toulouse); but the later years of his life were devoted to biography, history, and apologetics. From his pen we have twenty-nine volumes, dealing largely with the history of the Dominican order and the biographical sketches of its notable men. His writings are valuable contributions to Dominican literature, and essential to students of Dominican history. Père Mortier, in his "Histoire des maîtres généraux de l'ordre des frères prêcheurs", now in course of publication, has made generous use of his "Histoire des hommes illustres...". Touron's writings include his "Vie de saint Thomas d'Aquin" (considered his best work); "Vie de saint Dominique avec une hist. abrégée des ses premiers disciples"; "Hist. des hommes illustres de l'ordre de saint Dominique"; "De la providence, traité hist., dogmat. et mor."; "La main de Dieu sur les incrédules, ou hist. abrégée des Israélites", a work in which he shows that as often as the Chosen People proved false to their Divine vocation, they were punished by God; "Parallèle de l'incrédule et du vrai fidèle"; "La vie et l'esprit de saint Charles Borromée"; "La verité vengée en faveur de saint Thomas"; and "Hist. génerale de l'Amérique depuis sa découverte", which is really an ecclesiastical history of the New World. Mortier, Hist. des maîtres gén. de l'ordre des frères prêcheurs (5 vols., Paris, 1903-11), passim; Hurter, Nomenclator literarius, III (Innsbruck, 1895),164-5. VICTOR F. O'DANIEL Archdiocese of Tours Archdiocese of Tours (TURONENSIS.) Comprises the Department of Indre-et-Loire, and was re-established by the Concordat of 1801 with the Dioceses of Angers, Nantes, Le Mans, Rennes, Vannes, St-Brieue, and Quimper as suffragans. The elevation to metropolitan rank of the Diocese of Rennes in 1859, with the last three dioceses as suffragans, dismembered the Province of Tours. The Diocese of Laval, created in 1855, is a suffragan of Tours. For the early ecclesiastical history of Tours we have an excellent document, the concluding chapter "De episcopis Turonicis" in Gregory of Tours's "History of the Franks", though Mgr Duchesne has shown that it requires some chronological corrections. The founder of the see was St. Gatianus; according to Gregory of Tours he was one of the seven apostles sent from Rome to Gaul in the middle of tile third century. Two grottos cut in the hill above the Loire, opposite Tours, are held to have been the first sanctuaries where St. Gatianus celebrated the Liturgy. According to Mgr Duchesne the tradition of Tours furnished Gregory with only the name of Gatianus, accompanied perhaps by the length, fifty years, of his episcopate; it was by comparison with the "Passio S. Saturnini" of Toulouse that Gregory arrived at the date 250. Mgr Duchesne considers this date rather doubtful, but admits that the Church of Tours was founded in the time of Constantine. After St. Gatianus, according to Mgr Duchesne's chronology, came: St. Litorius, or Lidoire (337-71); the illustrious St. Martin (4 July, 372-8 Nov., 397); St. Brice (397-444), who was accused to Celestine I of immorality and absolved by the pope, but who remained absent seventeen years from the episcopal city, which was governed by the intruded Bishop Armentius; St. Eustochius (444-61); St. Perpetuus (461-91); St. Volusianus (491-98), deprived of his see by the Visigoths, exiled to Toulouse, and perhaps martyred; Verus (498-509), also deprived of his see at the command of Alaric; St. Baud (546-52), chancellor of Clotaire I; St. Euphronius (55-73), who made at Poitiers the solemn transfer of the relic of the True Cross to the monastery founded by St. Radegunde; the historian Gregory (573-94). After St. Gregory the history of the diocese for two centuries and a half is obscure and confused, but the study of various episcopal catalogues has made it possible for Mgr Duchesne to some-what clear up this period. Landramnus, bishop under Louis the Pious, was by this prince appointed missus dominicus, or royal commissary, in 825. Among subsequent bishops were: Raoul II (1086-1117), who despite the prohibition of Hugues, legate of the Holy See, had dealings with the excommunicated Philip I, and under whose episcopate Paschal II came to Tours (1107); Hildebert de Lavardin (1125-34); Etienne de Bourgueil (1323-35), who founded the College of Tours at Paris; the jurisconsult Pierre Frétaud (1335-57); Jacques Gélu (1415-27), later Bishop of Embrun (see DIOCESE OF GAP); Philippe de Coetquis (1427-41), who, commissioned by Charles VII in 1429 to interrogate Joan of Arc, recognized her perfect sincerity, and who was made a cardinal by antipope Felix V. Hélie de Bourdeilles (1468-84), cardinal in 1483; Robert de Lenoncourt (1484-1501), afterwards Archbishop of Reims; Dominic Carette, Cardinal de Final (1509-14); Alessandro Farnese (1553-54), cardinal in 1534; De Maillé de Brézé (1554-97), who assisted the Cardinal de Lorraine at the Council of Trent and translated the homilies of St. Basil; Victor le Bouthiller (1641-70), who played an important part in the religious renaissance of the seventeenth century; Boisgelin de Cicé (1802-4), who under the old regime had been Archbishop of Aix and in 1802 was created cardinal; De Barral (1804-15); Francois Morlot (1843-57), cardinal in 1853, Archbishop of Paris at the time of his death; Joseph-Hippolyte Guibert (1857-71), cardinal in 1873, later be came Archbishop of Paris; Guillaume-René Meignan (1884-96), cardinal in 1893, known by his exegetical works. Tours was the capital of the Third Lionize province. The ecclesiastical province of Tours must have been established under the episcopate of St. Martin. Fifty years later it was in regular operation, as is proved by, among other documents, the synodal epistles of the Councils of Angers and Vannes in 453 and 461. (Concerning the prolonged efforts of the Breton Churches to emancipate themselves from the metropolis of Tours and the assistance given to this metropolis by royalty see ARCHDIOCESE OF RENNES.) About 480 the Visigoths were masters of Tours and it was in the Island of Amboise in 504 that the interview took place as a result of which the Frank Clovis and the Visigoth Alaric shared Gaul between them. But the Arising of the Visigoths eventually roused the Catholics of Tours and when in 507 Clovis and his army entered the Visigothic kingdom Tours opened its gate to him, and he received in that city the consular insignia sent by Emperor Anastasius. The Saracens threatened Tours when Charles Martel defeated them in 732. From 853 to 903 the Northmen made frequent inroads, terminated by the victory of St. Martin le Beau. Henry II of England became Count of Touraine in the middle of the twelfth century and the English dominion was maintained at Tours until John Lackland renounced it in 1214. In the Middle Ages Tours was composed of two cities, the Roman Caesarodunum and the Merovingian Martinopolis. The name of Tours was strictly reserved to the ancient Caesarodunum, and the territory of Tours depended on the archbishops. Martinopolis, which rose around the monastery of St-Martin, took, in the tenth century, the name of Chateauneuf and for five centuries was an independent community. Under Louis XI the two agglomerations were united in one which retained the name of Tours. The cathedral of Tours, dedicated to St. Gatianus, dates from the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. The windows, which belong to the thirteenth, are among the most beautiful in France. The towers belong to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The chapter of Tours is the oldest in France. It is said that it was established by St. Baud, who gave the canons property quite distinct from that of the arch-diocese. Simon de Brion, pope from 1281 to 1285 under the name of Martin IV, was canon and treasurer of the church of St. Martin of Tours. The prestige of the Church of Tours was very great during the Middle Ages. In a letter to Charles the Bald Adrian II designates it as the second in France. Philip Augustus in a letter to Lucius III says that he considers it one of the most beautiful jewels of his crown and that whosoever attacks this church attacks his own person. Kings John II, Charles VII, Charles VIII, and Henry III would never consent when they gave Touraine in fief that this church should be separated from the crown. It owed this prestige chiefly to the Basilica of St. Martin. This was first built by St. Perpetuus and dedicated in 472. It was there that Clovis was clothed with the purple robe and the chlamys sent him with the title of consul by the Emperor Anastasius. As early as the sixth century St. Martin's was a real religious centre. Queen Clotilde died in 545 in the vicinity of the basilica, and in the same neighbourhood St. Radegunde founded a small monastery, near which St. Gregory of Tours built the Church of the Holy Cross. Ingeltrude, daughter of Clotaire I, founded the monastery of Notre-Dame-de-l'Ecrignole, St. Monegunde that of St-Pierre-le-Puellier. When Charlemagne, before setting out to receive the imperial crown at Rome, assembled at Tours (800) the lords of his empire and divided his estates among his sons, his wife Luitgarde died there, and was buried at St-Martin. He gave the Church vast possessions in France and Normandy. Abbot Ithier, his chancellor, founded with some monks from St-Martin the monastery of Cormery. Alcuin, who succeeded Ithier in 796 and was buried in the basilica in 804, founded there a school of calligraphy to which is due the preservation of many ancient works. At this school, directed after Alcuin by Fredegisus (804-34), Adelard (834-45), and Count Vivian (845-54), were copied and illustrated the celebrated Bible of Charles the Bald and the Gospels of Lothaire preserved at the Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris, the Virgil in the library of Berne, the Arithmetic of Boetius in the library of Bamberg, and the superb Gospels preserved in the library of Tours, written throughout in gold letters on white vellum, and on which the kings of France took the oath as abbots of St-Martin. The beautiful artistic labours of the canons were disturbed by the Norman invasions. The body of St. Martin was transported by the canons to Auxerre in 853 to safeguard it against the invasions of the Northmen. Count Ingelger had to march with 6000 men against Auxerre in 884, before the body was restored. From 845 the abbots of St-Martin were laymen, namely the dukes of France, ancestors of Hugh Capet. When, in 987, Hugh Capet became King of France he joined the dignity of Abbot of St-Martin with the Crown of France in perpetuity. The Abbey of St-Martin had as honorary canons the Dukes of Burgundy, Anjou, Brittany, Vendôme, and Nevers, the Counts of Flanders, Dunois, the Earl of Douglas in Scotland, the Lords of Preuilly and Parthenay. From Clovis, doubtless until Philip Augustus, it enjoyed the right of coinage. Blessed Hervé, treasurer of the basilica, caused it to be rebuilt about 1000. It was in the abbey rebuilt by Hervé that Philip I, King of France, in 1092 arranged to meet Bertrade de Montfort, wife of Foulques le Réchin, and carried her off to the great scandal of the kingdom. Urban II, who came to Tours in 1096, refused to remove the excommunication inflicted on Philip and Bertrade. Paschal II in 1107, Callistus 11 in 1119, Innocent II in 1130, and Alexander III in 1163 came thither to venerate the tomb of St. Martin. Richard Coeur de Lion in 1190 and John of Brienne in 1223 took there the pilgrim's staff prior to setting out on the crusade. Louis XI had great devotion to St. Martin. The day on which he learned in the basilica itself of the death of Charles the Bold he vowed to surround the tomb of the saint with a silver grating, the cost of which would today equal 2,148,000 francs. In 1522 Francis I seized this grating, despite the chapter and the people of Tours. The devastations of the Reformation and the Revolution destroyed the Basilica of St. Martin. There now remain only two large towers, but at the end of the nineteenth century Cardinal Meignan caused a new basilica to be erected on the site of the old one. According to the legend, the Abbey of St. Julian arose around a church the building of which was ordered by Clovis after his victory of Vouille over the Visigoths. It is historically certain that there were monks from Auvergne there in the sixth century, on whom Gregory of Tours imposed the Rule of St. Benedict and to whom he gave the relics of St. Julian of Brioude. The Northmen destroyed this first monastery; it was rebuilt about 937 by St. Odo, Abbot of Cluny, and Archbishop Theotolon. The present Church of St. Julian is a beautiful monument of the thirteenth century. The monastery of Marmoutier dates from St. Martin. Near the grottos where St. Gatianus celebrated Mass he established some cells. The cell of St. Brice is still to be seen. Another grotto, known as the grotto of the Seven Sleepers, was inhabited by seven brothers, cousins of St. Martin, who all died on the same day after a lethargy. In the ninth century the Abbey of Marmoutier was ravaged by the Northmen, and out of 140 religious only 20 escaped massacre and were sheltered by the canons of St-Martin. Marmoutier was subsequently inhabited by a small colony of canons, and in 982 the abbey, which had fallen into some disorders, was restored by St. Mayeul, Abbot of Cluny, at the instance of Eudes I, Count of Blois and of Tours, who died a monk at Marmoutier. Urban II came to Marmoutier in 1096 and dedicated the newly-built basilica. Hubaud, canon of St-Martin and brother of the heresiarch Berenger, gave to Marmoutier superb pieces of religious gold work in order to secure prayers for Berenger, who died at the priory of St-Côme, which was dependent on Marmoutier. The fortune of the abbey was considerable, a popular saying runs: "De quelque cote que le vent vente, Marmoutier a cens et rente." In the eleventh century 101 priories were founded dependent on Marmoutier, ten of them in England. Hugh I, Abbot of Marmoutier from 1210 to 1226, organized the estates of Meslay and Louroux, which were models of agricultural exploitation, and began the reconstruction of the basilica. The latter undertaking was hindered by the violent attacks made by the counts of Blois on the monks of Marmoutier. In 1253 St. Louis took the abbey under his protection. In 1562 it was pillaged by the Protestants and the Revolution destroyed it almost entirely. The crosier gateway (Portail de la Crosse) which remains standing dates from the thirteenth century. The origin of the town of Loches was the monastery founded by St. Ours about the beginning of the sixth century. He installed in the bed of the Indre a hand-mill which became a place of pilgrimage. Geoffroy Grisegonelle, Count of Anjou, founded at Loches a Byzantine collegiate church to which he gave a girdle of the Blessed Virgin. Repaired in the twelfth century by the prior, Thomas Pactius, this church still exists. In the dungeon of Loches, founded about 1000 by Foulques Nerra, were imprisoned Cardinal la Balue and the historian Comines. The monastery founded by St. Mexme, disciple of St. Martin (d. shortly after 463), was the origin of a gathering of people which formed the town of Chinon. Cardinal de Richelieu was born in 1585 at the castle of Richelieu in the diocese. He transformed it into an imposing château, built around it an entire city, which took the name of Richelieu, and joined to his ducal peerage the town of Champigny. The Sainte Chapelle of Champigny was built in 1508 by the princely house of Bourbon-Montpensier to receive a thorn of the crown of Christ and one of the thirty pieces of silver paid to Judas. Urban VIII, who prior to his pontificate had said Mass there, later prevented its demolition; hence the preservation of this fine monument of the Renaissance is due to him. The church of Cande, built between 1175 and 1215 on the site where St. Martin died, is remarkable as a monument not only of religious but also of military architecture. At Tours in 1163 Alexander III excommunicated the antipope Victor and Frederick Barbarossa. It was at the Château of Chinon in 1429 that Joan of Arc first saw Charles VII and gave him confidence in her mission, and in the same year she sent to St-Catherine-de-Fierbois in the diocese to seek in the tomb of an ancient knight the sword of Charles Martel. In the fifteenth century Tours had a brilliant school of painting; unfortunately nothing remains of the paintings executed at Notre-Dame-la-Riche by Jehan Fouquet. The studio of the sculptor Michel Colomb was at Tours; his master production was the tomb of Francis II of Brittany in the cathedral of Nantes. The tomb of the children of Charles VIII in the cathedral of Tours was the collective work of Colomb and his pupils and of some Italian decorators. There are in Touraine a great many châteaux rich in historic memories, such as Plessis-les-Tours, the residence of Louis XI, Amboise, where was hatched the plot against the Guises under King Francis II; Chenonceaux, built by Francis I, the residence of Diana of Poitiers and later of Catherine de' Medici; Langeais, where Charles VIII wedded Anne of Brittany. Of the château of Chanteloup near Amboise, where the Duc de Choiseul went into exile, there remains only the pagoda. A number of saints are honoured in a special manner or are connected with the religious history of the diocese: Sts. Maura and Brigitta, virgins (end of fourth century); St. Flodovaeus (Flovier), martyr (fifth century); St. Ursus (Ours), founder of the Abbey of Sennevieres, patron of the town of Loches, d. about 508; St. Leubatius (Leubais), Abbot of Sennevières (sixth century); St. Senoch, solitary and abbot, d. in 579; St. Leobardus (Libert), hermit of the grottos of Marmoutier, d. in 593; St. Odo, first Abbot of Cluny, d. at Tours in 942; St. Avertinus, deacon, companion in exile of St. Thomas Becket, d. in Touraine about 1189; Bl. Jeanne-Marie de Maillé, d. in 1414 after having spent her widowhood in the practice of a rigorously ascetic life near the Basilica of St. Martin. Among the natives of the diocese were: the great prose writer Rabelais (1495-1553), b. at Chinon; the philosopher Descartes (l596-1650), b. at La Haye-Descartes; the Abbé de Marolles (1600-81), b. at Genillé, celebrated for his translations, and whose collection of prints formed the basis of that of the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris; Saint-Martin, called the unknown philosopher (1743-1803), b. at Amboise; the poet Alfred de Vigny (1797-1863), b. at Loches; Balzac (1790-1850), b. at Tours. The chief places of pilgrimage in the diocese besides the grottos of Marmoutier, are: Notre-Dame-la-Riche, a sanctuary erected on the site of a church dating from the third century, and where the founder St. Gatianus is venerated; Notre-Dame-de-Loches; St. Christopher and St. Giles at St-Christophe, a pilgrimage dating from the ninth century; the pilgrimage to the Holy Face, established by M. Dupont, "the Holy Man of Tours", who founded the Priests of the Holy Face canonically erected on 8 December, 1876, to administer the chapel. Before the application of the law of 1901 there were in the diocese Jesuits, Lazarists, and various orders of teaching brothers. Several orders of women had their origin in the diocese the chief being: The Sisters of the Presentation of the Blessed Virgin, teaching and nursing, founded in 1684 at Sainville, in the Diocese of Chartres by Mother Marie Poussepin, and in 1813 transported to La Breteche near Tours; the Sisters of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary, teaching, founded in 1805 by the Abbe Guepin, rector of Notre-Dame-la-Riche, with mother-house at Tours; the Sisters of the Third Order of Carmel, since 1824 called the Sisters of St-Martin, teaching, with its mother-house at Bourgeuil. The religious congregations were directing in the diocese at the end of the nineteenth century 5 foundling asylums, 36 infant schools, 3 special houses for sick children, 5 orphanages for boys, 7 for girls, 1 house of retreat, 1 house of refuge, 18 hospitals or hospices, 2 dispensaries, 3 houses of religious for the care of the sick in their homes, 1 home for convalescents, 5 private hospitals and retreats. In the year 1911 the Archdiocese of Tours numbered 337,916 inhabitants, 23 deaneries, 37 first class parishes, and 254 succursal parishes. Gallia christiaina, nova, XIV (1856), 1-151, instr. 1-98; DUCHESNE, Les listes episcopales de la province de Tours (Paris, 1890); CHEVALIER, Les origines de l'eglise de Tours d'apres l'histoire (Tours, 1871); PITROU, L'episcopat tourangeau, notes biographiques (Tours, 1882) LAMBRON DE LIGNIN, Armorial des archeveques de Tours (Tours, 1858) DE LASTEYRIE, L'eglise S. Martin de Tours, etude critique sur l'histoire et Ia forme de ce monument du Ve au XIe siecle (Paris 1891) DELISLE, Memoirs sur l'ecole calligraphique de Tours au IX siecle (Paris, 1885); MARTENE, Histoire de l'abbaye de Marmoutver, ed. CHEVALIER (2 vols., Tours, 1874-75); CHANTELOU, Marmoutier cartulaire tourangeau et sceaux des abbes, ed. NOBILLAEU (Tours, 1879); CHEVALIER, Promenades pittoresques en Touraine (Tours, 1869); VITRY, Tours St less châteaux de Touraine (Paris 1905) VAUCELLES, Catalogus de lettres de Nicotas V, conc. la prov. eccl. de Tours (Paris, 1908). GEORGES GOYAU Charles-Francois Toustain Charles-François Toustain French Benedictine, and member of the Congregation of St-Maur, born at Repas in the Diocese of Séez, France, 13 October 1700, died at St-Denis, 1 July, 1754. He belonged to a family of note. On 20 July, 1718, he made the vows of the order at Jumièges. After finishing the philosophical and theological course at the Abbey of Fécamp he was sent to the monastery of Bonne-Nouvelle at Rouen to learn Hebrew and Greek. At the same time he studied Italian, English, German, and Dutch, in order to be able to understand the writers in these languages. He was not ordained priest until 1729 and then only at the express command of his superior. He always said Mass with much trepidation and only after long preparation. In 1730 he entered the Abbey of St-Ouen at Rouen, went later to St-Germain-des-Pres and Blancs-Manteaux, and died while taking his milk-cure at St-Denis. He had worn out his body by fasts and ascetic practices. His theological opinions were not entirely correct, as he inclined to Jansenism. As a scholar he made himself an honoured name. He worked for twenty years with a fellow-member of the order, Tassin, on an edition of the works of St. Theodore of Studium which was never printed, for a publisher could not be found. Another common undertaking of the two is the "Nouveau traité de diplomatique" (6 vols., 1750-65) in which they treated more fully and thouroughly the subjects taken up in Mabillon's great work "De re diplomatica". The publication of Toustain and Tassin is of permanent value. The last four volumes were edited by Tassin alone after Toustain's death. Of general interest among Toustain's personal writings are: "La vérité persecutée par l'erreur" (2 vols., 1733), a collection of the writings of the Fathers on the persecutions of the first eight centuries; and "L'authorité de miracles dans l'église" (no date), in which he expounds the opinion of St. Augustine. Tassin testifies that he was zealous in his duties, modest, and sincerely religious. TASSIN, Eloge de Toustain in Nouveau traité de diplomatique, II, IDEM, Hist. littéraire de la congrégation de St-Maur, II (Brussels, 1770); DE LAMA, Bibliothèque des écrivains de la congrégation de St-Maur (2nd ed., Munich-Paris, 1882), 174 sq. KLEMENS LÖFFLER Antoine-Augustin Touttee Antoine-Augustin Touttée A French Benedictine of the Maurist Congregation, b. at Riom, Department of Puy-de-Dôme, 13 Dec., 1677; d. at the Abbey of St. Germain-des-Prés, 25 Dec., 1718. He studied the humanities with the Oratorians at Riom, made vows at the Abbey of Vendôme, 29 Oct., 1698, and was ordained priest in December, 1702. He taught philosophy at Vendôme from 1702 to 1704 and theology at St-Benoît-sur-Loire from 1704-1708 and at St-Denis from 1708 to 1712. He then withdrew to St-Germain-des-Prés to prepare a new Greek edition and Latin translation of the works of St. Cyril of Jerusalem. This was issued after his death by Prudent Maran under the title: "S. Cyrilli Hiersolymit. opera quae extant omnia et ejus nomine circumferunter; ad mss. codd. castigata" (Paris, 1720; also in P.G., XXXIII). It is preceded by three learned dissertations on the life, writings, and doctrine of St. Cyril, and was at the time the standard edition. TASSIN, Hist. litteraire de la congreg. de Saint-Maur (Brussels and Paris, 1770); German tr. (Frankfort, 1773-4), s.v.; LE CERF, Bibliotheque historique et critique des auteurs de la congreg. de Saint-Maur (The Hague, 1720), s.v. MICHAEL OTT Tower of Babel Tower of Babel The "Tower of Babel" is the name of the building mentioned in Genesis 11:1-9. History of the Tower The descendants of Noe had migrated from the "east" (Armenia) first southward, along the course of the Tigris, then westward across the Tigris into "a plain in the land of Sennar". As their growing number forced them to live in localities more and more distant from their patriarchal homes, "they said: Come, let us make a city and a tower, the top whereof may reach to heaven; and let us make our name famous before we be scattered abroad into all lands." The work was soon fairly under way; "and they had brick instead of stones, and slime (asphalt) instead of mortar." But God confounded their tongue, so that they did not understand one another's speech, and thus scattered them from that place into all lands, and they ceased to build the city. This is the Biblical account of the Tower of Babel. Thus far no Babylonian document has been discovered which refers clearly to the subject. Authorities like George Smith, Chad Boscawen, and Sayce believed they had discovered a reference to the Tower of Babel; but Frd. Delitzch pointed out that the translation of the precise words which determine the meaning of the text is most uncertain (Smith-Delitzsch. "Chaldaische Genesis", 1876, 120-124; Anmerk., p. 310). Oppert finds an allusion to the Tower of Babel in a text of Nabuchodonosor; but this opinion is hardly more than a theory (cf. "The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia", I, pl. 38, col. 2, line 62; pl. 41, col. 1, I. 27, col. 2, 1. 15; Nikel, "Genesis und Keilschriftforschung", 188 sqq.; Bezold, "Ninive und Babylon", 128; Jeremias, "Das alte Testament im Lichte des alten Orients", 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1906, 286; Kaulen, "Assyrien und Babylonien", 89). A more probable reference to the Tower of Babel we find in the "History" of Berosus as it is handed down to us in two variations by Abydenus and Alexander Polyhistor respectively ("Histor. Graec. Fragm.", ed. Didot, II, 512; IV, 282; Euseb., "Chron.", I, 18, in P.G., XIX, 123; "Praep. Evang.", IX, 14, in P.G., XXI, 705). Special interest attaches to this reference, since Berosus is now supposed to have drawn his material from Babylonian sources. Site of the Tower of Babel Both the inspired writer of Genesis and Berosus place the Tower of Babel somewhere in Babylon. But there are three principal opinions as to its precise position in the city. (1) Pietro della Valle ("Viaggi descritti", Rome, 1650) located the tower in the north of the city, on the left bank of the Euphrates, where now lie the ruins called Babil. Schrader inclines to the same opinion in Riehm's "Handworterbuch des biblischen Altertums" (I, 138), while in "The Cuneiform Inscriptions" (I, 108) he leaves to his reader the choice between Babil and the temple of Borsippa. The position of Babil within the limits of the ancient Babylon agrees with the Biblical location of the tower; the name Babil itself may be regarded as a traditional relic of the name Babel interpreted by the inspired writer as referring to the confusion of tongues. (2) Rawlinson (Smith-Sayce, "Chaldean account of the Genesis", 1880, pp. 74, 171) places the tower on the ruins of Tell-Amram, regarded by Oppert as the remnants of the hanging gardens. These ruins are situated on the same side of the Euphrates as those of the Babil, and also within the ancient city limits. The excavations of the German Orientgesellschaft have laid bare on this spot the ancient national sanctuary Esagila, sacred to Marduk-Bel, with the documentary testimony that the top of the building had been made to reach Heaven. This agrees with the description of the Tower of Babel as found in Genesis 11:4: "The top whereof may reach to heaven". To this locality belongs also the tower Etemenanki, or house of the foundation of Heaven and earth, which is composed of six gigantic steps. (3) Sayce (Lectures on the Religion of the Ancient Babylonians, p. 112-3, 405-7), Oppert ("Expédition en Mésopotamie", I, 200-16; "Études assyriennes", pp. 91-132), and others follow the more common opinion which identifies the tower of Babel with the ruins of the Birs-Nimrud, in Borsippa, situated on the right side of the Euphrates, some seven or eight miles from the ruins of the city proper. They are the ruins of the temple Ezida, sacred to Nebo, which according to the above-cited inscription of Nabuchodonosor, was repaired and completed by that king; for it had been left incomplete by a former ruler in far distant days. These data are too vague to form the basis of an apodictic argument. The Babylonian Talmud (Buxtorf, "Lexicon talmudicum", col. 313) connects Borsippa with the confusion of tongues; but a long period elapsed from the time of the composition of Genesis 11 to the time of the Babylonian Talmud. Besides, the Biblical account seems to imply that the tower was within the city limits, while it is hardly probably that the city limits extended to Borsippa in very ancient times. The historical character of the tower is not impaired by our inability to point out its location with certainty. Form of the Tower of Babel The form of the tower must have resembled the constructions which today exist only in a ruined condition in Babylonia; the most ancient pyramids of Egypt present a vestige of the same form. Cubic blocks of masonry, decreasing in size, are piled one on top of the other, thus forming separate stories; an inclined plane or stairway leads from one story to the other. The towers of Ur and Arach contained only two or three stories, but that of Birs-Nimrud numbered seven, not counting the high platform on which the building was erected. Each story was painted in its own peculiar colour according to the planet to which it was dedicated. Generally the corners of these towers faced the four points of the compass, while in Egypt this position was held by the sides of the pyramids. On top of these constructions there was a sanctuary, so that they served both as temples and observatories. Their interior consisted of sun-dried clay, but the outer walls were coated with fire-baker brick. The asphalt peculiar to the Babylonian neighbourhood served as mortar; all these details are in keeping with the report of Genesis. Though some writers maintain that every Babylonian city possessed such a tower, or zikkurat (meaning "pointed" according to Schrader, "raised on high" according to Haupt, "memorial" according to Vigouroux), no complete specimen has been preserved to us. The Tower of Khorsabad is perhaps the best preserved, but Assyrian sculpture supplements our knowledge of even this construction. The only indication of the time at which the Tower of Babel was erected, we find in the name of Phaleg (Genesis 11:10-17), the grandnephew of Heber; this places the date somewhere between 101 and 870 years after the Flood. The limits are so unsatisfactory, because the Greek Version differs in its numbers from the Massoretic text. Besides the works indicted in the course of the articles, see RAWLINSON, The Five Great Monarchies, II (London, 1862-7, 1878), 534-5; SCHRADER-WHITEHOUSE, The Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament, I (London, 1885-8), 106-14; HOBERG, Genesis, 2nd ed. (Freiburg, 1899), 129. For critical view, see SKINNER, Genesis (New York, 1910, 228 sqq. A.J. MAAS Alexandre de Prouville, Marquis de Tracy Alexandre De Prouville, Marquis de Tracy Viceroy of New France, born in France, 1603, of noble parents; died there in 1670. A soldier from his youth, he had proved his valour in many battles and won the rank of lieutenant-general of the king's armies. He was no less prudent and wise as a negotiator and organizer. Entrusted by Louis XIV with a most extensive mission and jurisdiction over all the French possessions in the New World, he first redeemed Cayenne from the Dutch, restored order to the Antilles, and reached Quebec in 1665. He had been preceded by the Carignan regiment which had distinguished itself against the Turks in Hungary (1664) and was entitled to bear the royal colours. With the concurrence of Courcelles, the newly-appointed governor, and Talon, the famous intendant, he inaugurated a glorious period in the history of New France. To secure peace for the colony war was decided against the Agniers, and in spite of his advanced age, Tracy commanded the invading army. The year previous he had ordered the construction of three forts on the Richelieu River, including those of Sorel and Chambly. The enemies had fled from their villages, which were destroyed, and Tracy returned with nearly all his men. The humiliated Agniers sued for peace and asked for missionaries to instruct them in the Faith. Tracy with his two associates then devoted himself to the organization of the courts of justice and to the promotion of agriculture and industry. During his administration were imported the first horses seen in Canada. Tracy's noble and conciliatory conduct endeared him to the colonists and won the respect both of the aborigines and of the authorities of New York. His administration was marked by two chief events full of promise for the prosperity of the colony: the abolition of the monopoly of the West India company, which had replaced that of New France, and the conclusion of a peace with the Iroquois which lasted eighteen years and facilitated several brilliant discoveries in the interior of the continent. LIONEL LINDSAY Tradition and Living Magisterium Tradition and Living Magisterium The word tradition (Greek paradosis in the ecclesiastical sense; which is the only one in which it is used here; refers sometimes to the thing (doctrine, account, or custom) transmitted from one generation to another sometimes to the organ or mode of the transmission (kerigma ekklisiastikon, predicatio ecclesiastica). In the first sense it is an old tradition that Jesus Christ was born on 25 December, in the second sense tradition relates that on the road to Calvary a pious woman wiped the face of Jesus. In theological language, which in many circumstances has become current, there is still greater precision and this in countless directions. At first there was question only of traditions claiming a Divine origin, but subsequently there arose questions of oral as distinct from written tradition, in the sense that a given doctrine or institution is not directly dependent on Holy Scripture as its source but only on the oral teaching of Christ or the Apostles. Finally with regard to the organ of tradition it must be an official organ, a magisterium, or teaching authority. Now in this respect there are several points of controversy between Catholics and every body of Protestants. Is all revealed truth consigned to Holy Scripture? or can it, must it, be admitted that Christ gave to His Apostles to be transmitted to His Church, that the Apostles received either from the very lips of Jesus or from inspiration or Revelation, Divine instructions which they transmitted to the Church and which were not committed to the inspired writings? Must it be admitted that Christ instituted His Church as the official and authentic organ to transmit and explain in virtue of Divine authority the Revelation made to men? The Protestant principle is: The Bible and nothing but the Bible; the Bible, according to them, is the sole theological source; there are no revealed truths save the truths contained in the Bible; according to them the Bible is the sole rule of faith: by it and by it alone should all dogmatic questions be solved; it is the only binding authority. Catholics, on the other hand, hold that there may be, that there is in fact, and that there must of necessity be certain revealed truths apart from those contained in the Bible; they hold furthermore that Jesus Christ has established in fact, and that to adapt the means to the end He should have established, a living organ as much to transmit Scripture and written Revelation as to place revealed truth within reach of everyone always and everywhere. Such are in this respect the two main points of controversy between Catholics and so-called orthodox Protestants (as distinguished from liberal Protestants, who admit neither supernatural Revelation nor the authority of the Bible). The other differences are connected with these or follow from them, as also the differences between different Protestant sects--according as they are more or less faithful to the Protestant principle, they recede from or approach the Catholic position. Between Catholics and the Christian sects of the East there are not the same fundamental differences, since both sides admit the Divine institution and Divine authority of the Church with the more or less living and explicit sense of its infallibility and indefectibility and its other teaching prerogatives, but there are contentions concerning the bearers of the authority, the organic unity of the teaching body, the infallibility of the pope, and the existence and nature of dogmatic development in the transmission of revealed truth. Nevertheless the theology of tradition does not consist altogether in controversy and discussions with adversaries. Many questions arise in this respect for every Catholic who wishes to give an exact account of his belief and the principles he professes: What is the precise relation between oral tradition and the revealed truths in the Bible and that between the living magisterium and the inspired Scriptures? May new truths enter the current of tradition, and what is the part of the magisterium with regard to revelations which God may yet make? How is this official magisterium organized, and how is it to recognize a Divine tradition or revealed truth? What is its proper rôle with regard to tradition? Where and how are revealed truths preserved and transmitted? What befalls the deposit of tradition in its transmission through the ages? These and similar questions are treated elsewhere in the CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA, but here we must separate and group all that has reference to tradition and to the living magisterium inasmuch as it is the organ of preservation and transmission of traditional and revealed truth. The following are the points to be treated: I. The existence of Divine traditions not contained in Holy Scripture, and the Divine institution of the living magisterium to defend and transmit revealed truth and the prerogative of this magisterium; II. The relation of Scripture to the living magisterium, and of the living magisterium to Scripture; III. The proper mode of existence of revealed truth in the mind of the Church and the way to recognize this truth; IV. The organization and exercise of the living magisterium; its precise rôle in the defence and transmission of revealed truth; its limits, and modes of action; V. The identity of revealed truth in the varieties of formulas, systematization, and dogmatic development; the identity of faith in the Church and through the variations of theology. A full treatment of these questions would require a lengthy development; here only a brief outline can be given, the reader being referred to special works for a fuller explanation. I. Divine Traditions not contained in Holy Scripture; institution of the living magisterium; its prerogatives. Luther's attacks on the Church were at first directed only against doctrinal details, but the very authority of the Church was involved in the dispute, and this soon became evident to both sides. However the controversy continued for many years to turn on particular points of traditional teaching rather than on the teaching authority and the chief weapons were Biblical texts. The Council of Trent, even while implying in its decisions and anathemas the authority of the living magisterium (which the Protestants themselves dared not explicitly deny), while appealing to ecclesiastical tradition and the sense of the Church either for the determination of the canon or for the interpretation of some passages of Holy Scripture, even while making a rule of interpretation in Biblical matters, did not pronounce explicitly concerning the teaching authority, contenting itself with saying that revealed truth is found in the sacred books and in the unwritten traditions coming from God through the Apostles; these were the sources from which it would draw. The Council, as is evident, held that there are Divine traditions not contained in Holy Scripture, revelations made to the Apostles either orally by Jesus Christ or by the inspiration of the Holy Ghost and transmitted by the Apostles to the Church. Holy Scripture is therefore not the only theological source of the Revelation made by God to His Church. Side by side with Scripture there is tradition, side by side with the written revelation there is the oral revelation. This granted, it is impossible to be satisfied with the Bible alone for the solution of all dogmatic questions. Such was the first field of controversy between Catholic theologians and the Reformers. The designation of unwritten Divine traditions was not always given all the clearness desirable especially in early times; however Catholic controversialists soon proved to the Protestants that to be logical and consistent they must admit unwritten traditions as revealed. Otherwise by what right did they rest on Sunday and not on Saturday? How could they regard infant baptism as valid, or baptism by infusion? How could they permit the taking of an oath, since Christ had commanded that we swear not at all? The Quakers were more logical in refusing all oaths, the Anabaptists in re-baptizing adults, the Sabbatarians in resting on Saturday. But none were so consistent as not to be open to criticism on some point. Where is it indicated in the Bible that the Bible is the sole source of faith? Going further, the Catholic controversialists showed their opponents that of this very Bible, to which alone they wished to refer, they could not have the authentic canon nor even a sufficient guarantee without an authority other than that of the Bible. Calvin parried the blow by having recourse to a certain taste to which the Divine word would manifest itself as such in the same way that honey is recognized by the palate. And this in fact was the only loophole, for Calvin recognized that no human authority was acceptable in this matter. But this was a very subjective criterion and one calling for caution. The Protestants dared not adhere to it. They came eventually, after rejecting the Divine tradition received from the Apostles by the infallible Church, to rest their faith in the Bible only as a human authority, which moreover was especially insufficient under the circumstances, since it opened up all manner of doubts and prepared the way for Biblical rationalism. There is not, in fact, any sufficient guarantee for the canon of the Scriptures, for the total inspiration or inerrancy of the Bible, save in a Divine testimony which, not being contained in the Holy Books with sufficient clearness and amplitude, nor being sufficiently recognizable to the scrutiny of a scholar who is only a scholar, does not reach us with the necessary warrant it would bear if brought by a Divinely assisted authority, as is, according to Catholics, the authority of the living magisterium of the Church. Such is the way in which Catholics demonstrate to Protestants that there should be and that there are in fact Divine traditions not contained in Holy Writ. In a similar way they show that they cannot dispense with a teaching authority, a Divinely authorized living magistracy for the solution of controversies arising among themselves and of which the Bible itself was often the occasion. Indeed experience proved that each man found in the Bible his own ideas, as was said by one of the earliest reforming sectarians: "Hic liber est in quo quaerit sua dogmata quisque, invenit et pariter dogmata quisque sua." One man found the Real Presence, another a purely symbolic presence, another some sort of efficacious presence. The exercise of free inquiry with regard to Biblical texts led to endless disputes, to doctrinal anarchy, and eventually to the denial of all dogma. These disputes, anarchy, and denial could not be according to the Divine intention. Hence the necessity of a competent authority to solve controversies and interpret the Bible. To say that the Bible was perfectly clear and sufficient to all was obviously a retort born of desperation, a defiance of experience and common sense. Catholics refuted it without difficulty, and their position was amply justified when the Protestants began compromising themselves with the civil power, rejecting the doctrinal authority of the ecclesiastical magisterium only to fall under that of princes. Moreover it was enough to look at the Bible, to read it without prejudice to see that the economy of the Christian preaching was above all one of oral teaching. Christ preached, He did not write. In His preaching He appealed to the Bible, but He was not satisfied with the mere reading of it, He explained and interpreted it, He made use of it in His teaching, but He did not substitute it for His teaching. There is the example of the mysterious traveller who explained to the disciples of Emmaus what had reference to Him in the Scriptures to convince them that Christ had to suffer and thus enter into His glory. And as He preached Himself so He sent His Apostles to preach; He did not commission them to write but to teach, and it was by oral teaching and preaching that they instructed the nations and brought them to the Faith. If some of them wrote and did so under Divine inspiration it is manifest that this was as it were incidentally. They did not write for the sake of writing, but to supplement their oral teaching when they could not go themselves to recall or explain it, to solve practical questions, etc. St. Paul, who of all the Apostles wrote the most, did not dream of writing everything nor of replacing his oral teaching by his writings. Finally, the same texts which show us Christ instituting His Church and the Apostles founding Churches and spreading Christ's doctrine throughout the world show us at the same time the Church instituted as a teaching authority; the Apostles claimed for themselves this authority, sending others as they had been sent by Christ and as Christ had been sent by God, always with power to teach and to impose doctrine as well as to govern the Church and to baptize. Whoever believed them would be saved; whoever refused to believe them would be condemned. It is the living Church and not Scripture that St. Paul indicates as the pillar and the unshakable ground of truth. And the inference of texts and facts is only what is exacted by the nature of things. A book although Divine and inspired is not intended to support itself. If it is obscure (and what unprejudiced person will deny that there are obscurities in the Bible?) it must be interpreted. And even if it is clear it does not carry with it the guarantee of its Divinity, its authenticity, or its value. Someone must bring it within reach and no matter what be done the believer cannot believe in the Bible nor find in it the object of his faith until he has previously made an act of faith in the intermediary authorities between the word of God and his reading. Now, authority for authority, is it not better to have recourse to that of the Church than to that of the first comer? Liberal Protestants, such as M. Auguste Sabatier, have been the first to recognize that, if there must be a religion of authority, the Catholic system with the splendid organization of its living magisterium is far superior to the Protestant system, which rests everything on the authority of a book. The prerogatives of this teaching authority are made sufficiently clear by the texts and they are to a certain extent implied in the very institution. The Church, according to St. Paul's Epistle to Timothy, is the pillar and ground of truth; the Apostles and consequently their successors have the right to impose their doctrine; whosoever refuses to believe them shall be condemned, whosoever rejects anything is shipwrecked in the Faith. This authority is therefore infallible. And this infallibility is guaranteed implicitly but directly by the promise of the Saviour: "Behold I am with you all days even to the consummation of the world." Briefly the Church continues Christ in its mission to teach as in its mission to sanctify; its power is the same as that which He received from His Father and, as He came full of truth no less than of grace, the Church is likewise an institution of truth as it is an institution of grace. This doctrine was intended to be spread throughout the world despite so many obstacles of every kind, and the accomplishment of the task required miracles. So did Christ give to his Apostles the miraculous power which guaranteed their teaching. As He Himself confirmed His words by His works He wished that they also should present with their doctrine unexceptionable motives for credibility. Their miracles were the Divine seals of their mission and their Apostolate. The Divine seal has always been stamped on the teaching authority. It is not necessary that every missionary should work miracles, the Church herself is an ever-living miracle, bearing always on her brow the unexceptionable witness that God is with her. II. The relation of Scripture to the living magisterium, and of the living magisterium to Scripture. This relation is the same as that between the Gospel and the Apostolic preaching. Christ made use of the Bible, He appealed to it as to an irrefragable authority, He explained and interpreted it and furnished the key to it, with it he shed light on His own doctrine and mission. The Apostles did in like manner when they spoke to the Jews. Both sides had access to the Scriptures in a text admitted by all, both recognized in them a Divine authority, as in the very word of God. This was also the way of the faithful in their studies and discussions; but with pagans and unbelievers it was necessary to begin with presenting the Bible and guaranteeing its authority -- the Christian doctrine concerning the Bible had to be explained to the faithful themselves, and the guarantee of this doctrine demonstrated. The Bible had been committed to the care of the living magisterium. It was the Church's part to guard the Bible, to present it to the faithful in authorized editions or accurate translations, it was for her to make known the nature and value of the Divine Book by declaring what she knew regarding its inspiration and inerrancy, it was for her to supply the key by explaining why and how it had been inspired, how it contained Revelation, how the proper object of that Revelation was not purely human instruction but a religious and moral doctrine with a view to our supernatural destiny and the means to attain it, how, the Old Testament being a preparation and annunciation of the Messias and the new dispensation, there might be found beneath the husk of the letter typical meanings, figures, and prophecies. It was for the Church in consequence to determine the authentic canon, to specify the special rules and conditions for interpretation, to pronounce in case of doubt as to the exact sense of a given book or text, and even when necessary to safeguard the historical, prophetical, or apologetic value of a given text or passage, to pronounce in certain questions of authenticity, chronology, exegesis, or translation, either to reject an opinion compromising the authority of the book or the veracity of its doctrine or to maintain a given body of revealed truth contained in a given text. It was above all for the Church to circulate the Divine Book by minting its doctrine, adapting and explaining it, by offering it and drawing from it nourishment wherewith to nourish souls, briefly by supplementing the book, making use of it, and assisting others to make use of it. This is the debt of Scripture to the living magisterium. On the other hand the living magisterium owes much to Scripture. There it finds the word of God, new-blown so to speak, as it was expressed under Divine agency by the inspired author; while oral tradition, although faithfully transmitting revealed truth with the Divine assistance, nevertheless transmits it only in human formulas. Scripture gives us beyond doubt to a certain extent a human expression of the truth which it presents, since this truth is developed in and by a human brain acting in a human manner, but also to a certain extent Divine, since this human development takes place wholly under the action of God. So also with due proportion it may be said of the inspired word what Christ said of His: It is spirit and life. In a sense differing from the Protestant sense which sometimes goes so far as to deify the Bible, but, in a true sense, we admit that God speaks to us in the Bible more directly than in oral teaching. The latter, moreover, ever faithful to the recommendations which St. Paul made to his disciple Timothy, does not fail to have recourse to Biblical sources for its instruction and to draw thence the heavenly doctrine, to take thence with the doctrine a sure, ever-young, and ever-living expression of this doctrine, one more adequate than any other despite the inevitable inadaptability of human formulas to divine realities In the hands of masters Scripture may become a sharp defensive and offensive weapon against error and heresy. When a controversy arises recourse is had first to the Bible. Frequently when decisive texts are found masters wield them skilfully and in such a way as to demonstrate their irresistible force. If none are found of the necessary clearness the assistance of Scripture is not thereby abandoned. Guided by the clear sense of the living and luminous truth, which it bears within itself, by its likeness to faith defended at need against error by the Divine assistance, the living magisterium strives, explains, argues, and occasionally subtilizes in order to bring forward texts which, if they lack an independent and absolute value, have an ad hominem force, or value, through the authority of the authentic interpreter, whose very thought, if it is not, or is not clearly, in Scripture, nevertheless stands forth with a distinctness or new clearness in this manipulation of Scripture, by this contact with it. Manifestly there is no question here of a meaning which is not in Scripture and which the magisterium reads into it by imposing it as the Biblical meaning. This individual writers may do and have sometimes done, for they are not infallible as individuals, but not the authentic magisterium. There is question only of the advantage which the living magisterium draws from Scripture whether to attain a clearer consciousness of its own thought, to formulate it in hieratic terms, or to triumphantly reject an opinion favourable to error or heresy. As regards Biblical interpretation properly so called the Church is infallible in the sense that, whether by authentic decision of pope or council, or by its current teaching that a given passage of Scripture has a certain meaning, this meaning must be regarded as the true sense of the passage in question. It claims this power of infallible interpretation only in matters of faith and morals, that is where religious or moral truth is in danger, directly, if the text or passage belongs to the moral and religious order; indirectly, if in assigning a meaning to a text or book the veracity of the Bible, its moral value, or the dogma of its inspiration or inerrancy is imperilled. Without going further into the manifold services which the Bible renders to the living magisterium mention must nevertheless be made as particularly important of its services in the apologetic order. In fact Scripture by its historic value, which is indisputable and undisputed on many points, furnishes the apologist with irrefragable arguments in support of supernatural religion. It contains for example miracles whose reality is impressed on the historian with the same certainty as the most acknowledged facts. This is true and perhaps more strikingly so of the argument from the prophecies, for the Scriptures, the Old as well as the New Testament, contain manifest prophecies, the fulfilment of which we behold either in Christ and His Apostles or in the later development of the Christian religion. In view of all this it will be readily understood that since the time of St. Paul the Church has urgently recommended to her ministers the study of Holy Scripture, that she has watched with a jealous authority over its integral transmission, its exact translation, and its faithful interpretation If occasionally she has seemed to restrict its use or its diffusion this too was through an easily comprehensible love and a particular esteem for the Bible, that the sacred Book might not like a profane book be made a ground for curiosity, endless discussions, and abuses of every kind. In short, since the Church at last proves to be the best safeguard for human reason against the excesses of an unbridled reason, so by the very avowal of sincere Protestants does she show herself at the present day the best defender of the Bible against an unrestrained Biblicism or an unchecked criticism. III. The proper mode of existence of revealed truth in the mind of the Church and the way to recognize this truth. There is a formula current in Christian teaching (and the formula is borrowed from St. Paul himself) that traditional truth was confided to the Church as a deposit which it would guard and faithfully transmit as it had received it without adding to it or taking anything away. This formula expresses very well one of the aspects of tradition and one of the principal rôles of the living magisterium. But this idea of a deposit should not make us lose sight of the true manner in which traditional truth lives and is transmitted in the Church. This deposit in fact is not an inanimate thing passed from hand to hand; it is not, properly speaking, an assemblage of doctrines and institutions consigned to books or other monuments. Books and monuments of every kind are a means, an organ of transmission, they are not, properly speaking, the tradition itself. To better understand the latter it must be represented as a current of life and truth coming from God through Christ and through the Apostles to the last of the faithful who repeats his creed and learns his catechism. This conception of tradition is not always clear to all at the first glance. It must be reached, however, if we wish to form a clear and exact idea. We can endeavour to explain it to ourselves in the following manner: We are all conscious of an assemblage of ideas or opinions living in our mind and forming part of the very life of our mind, sometimes they find their clear expression, again we find ourselves without the exact formula wherewith to express them to ourselves or to others an idea is in search as it were of its expression, sometimes it even acts in us and leads us to actions without our having as yet the reflective consciousness of it. Something similar may be said of the ideas or opinions which live, as it were, and stir the social sentiment of a people, a family, or any other well-characterized group to form what is called the spirit of the day, the spirit of a family, or the spirit of a people. This common sentiment is in a sense nothing else than the sum of individual sentiments, and yet we feel clearly that it is quite another thing than the individual taken individually. It is a fact of experience that there is a common sentiment, as if there were such a thing as a common spirit, and as if this common spirit were the abode of certain ideas and opinions which are doubtless the ideas and opinions of each man, but which take on a peculiar aspect in each man inasmuch as they are the ideas and opinions of all. The existence of tradition in the Church must be regarded as living in the spirit and the heart, thence translating itself into acts, and expressing itself in words or writings; but here we must not have in mind individual sentiment, but the common sentiment of the Church, the sense or sentiment of the faithful, that is, of all who live by its life and are in communion of thought among themselves and with her. The living idea is the idea of all, it is the idea of individuals, not merely inasmuch as they are individuals, but inasmuch as they form part of the same social body. This sentiment of the Church is peculiar in this, that it is itself under the influence of grace. Hence it follows that it is not subject, like that of other human groups to error and thoughtless or culpable tendencies. The Spirit of God always living in His Church upholds the sense of revealed truth ever living therein. Documents of all kinds (writings, monuments, etc.) are in the hands of masters, as of the faithful, a means of finding or recognizing the revealed truth confided to the Church under the direction of her pastors. There is between written documents and the living magisterium of the Church a relation similar, proportionately speaking, to that already outlined between Scripture and the living magisterium. In them is found the traditional thought expressed according to varieties of environments and circumstances, no longer in an inspired language, as is the case with Scripture, but in a purely human language, consequently subject to the imperfections and shortcomings of human thought. Nevertheless the more the documents are the exact expression of the living thought of the Church the more they thereby possess the value and authority which belong to that thought because they are so much the better expression of tradition. Often formulas of the past have themselves entered the traditional current and become the official formulas of the Church. Hence it will be understood that the living magisterium searches in the past, now for authorities in favour of its present thought in order to defend it against attacks or dangers of mutilation, now for light to walk the right road without straying. The thought of the Church is essentially a traditional thought and the living magisterium by taking cognizance of ancient formulas of this thought thereby recruits its strength and prepares to give to immutable truth a new expression which shall be in harmony with the circumstances of the day and within reach of contemporary minds. Revealed truth has sometimes found definitive formulas from the earliest times; then the living magisterium has only had to preserve and explain them and put them in circulation. Sometimes attempts have been made to express this truth, without success. It even happens that, in attempting to express revealed truth in the terms of some philosophy or to fuse it with some current of human thought, it has been distorted so as to be scarcely recognizable, so closely mingled with error that it becomes difficult to separate them. When the Church studies the ancient monuments of her faith she casts over the past the reflection of her living and present thought and by some sympathy of the truth of to-day with that of yesterday she succeeds in recognizing through the obscurities and inaccuracies of ancient formulas the portions of traditional truth, even when they are mixed with error. The Church is also (as regards religious and moral doctrines) the best interpreter of truly traditional documents; she recognizes as by instinct what belongs to the current of her living thought and distinguishes it from the foreign elements which may have become mixed with it in the course of centuries. The living magisterium, therefore, makes extensive use of documents of the past, but it does so while judging and interpreting, gladly finding in them its present thought, but likewise, when needful, distinguishing its present thought from what is traditional only in appearance. It is revealed truth always living in the mind of the Church, or, if it is preferred, the present thought of the Church in continuity with her traditional thought, which is for it the final criterion, according to which the living magisterium adopts as true or rejects as false the often obscure and confused formulas which occur in the monuments of the past. Thus are explained both her respect for the writings of the Fathers of the Church and her supreme independence towards those writings--she judges them more than she is judged by them. Harnack has said that the Church is accustomed to conceal her evolution and to efface as well as she can the differences between her present and her former thought by condemning as heretical the most faithful witnesses of what was formerly orthodoxy. Not understanding what tradition is, the ever-living thought of the Church, he believes that she abjured her past when she merely distinguished between what was traditional truth in the past and what was only human alloy mixed with that truth, the personal opinion of an author substituting itself for the general thought of the Christian community. With regard to official documents, the expression of the infallible magisterium of the Church embodied in the decision of councils, or the solemn judgments of the popes, the Church never gainsays what she has once decided. She is then linked with her past because in this past her entire self is concerned and not any fallible organ of her thought. Hence she still finds her doctrine and rule of faith in these venerable monuments; the formulas may have grown old, but the truth which they express is always her present thought. IV. The organization and exercise of the living magisterium; its precise rôle in the defence and transmission of revealed truth--its limits and modes of action. Closer study of the living magisterium will enable us to better understand the splendid organism created by God and gradually developed that it might preserve, transmit, and bring within the reach of all revealed truth, ever the same, but adapted to every variety of time, circumstances, and environment. Properly speaking, this magisterium is a teaching authority; it not only presents the truth, but it has the right to impose it, since its power is the very power given by God to Christ and by Christ to His Church. This authority is called the teaching Church. The teaching Church is essentially composed of the episcopal body, which continues here below the work and mission of the Apostolic College. It was indeed in the form of a college or social body that Christ grouped His Apostles and it is likewise as a social body that the episcopate exercises its mission to teach. Doctrinal infallibility has been guaranteed to the episcopal body and to the head of that body as it was guaranteed to the Apostles, with this difference, however, between the Apostles and the bishops that each Apostle was personally infallible (in virtue of his extraordinary mission as founder and the plenitude of the Holy Ghost received on Pentecost by the Twelve and later communicated to St. Paul as to the Twelve), whereas only the body of bishops is infallible and each bishop is not so, save in proportion as he teaches in communion and concert with the entire episcopal body. At the head of this episcopal body is the supreme authority of the Roman pontiff, the successor of St. Peter in his primacy as he is his successor in his see. As supreme authority in the teaching body, which is infallible, he himself is infallible. The episcopal body is infallible also, but only in union with its head, from whom moreover it may not separate, since to do so would be to separate from the foundation on which the Church is built. The authority of the pope may be exercised without the co-operation of the bishops, and this even in infallible decisions which both bishops and faithful are bound to receive with the same submission. The authority of the bishops may be exercised in two ways; now each bishop teaches the flock confided to him, again the bishops assemble in council to draw up together and pass doctrinal or disciplinary decrees. When all the bishops of the Catholic world (this totality is to be understood as morally speaking; it suffices for the whole Church to be represented) are thus assembled in council the council is called oecumenical. The doctrinal decrees of an oecumenical council, once they are approved by the pope, are infallible as are the ex cathedra definitions of the sovereign pontiff. Although the bishops, taken individually, are not infallible their teaching participates in the infallibility of the Church according as they teach in concert and in union with the episcopal body, that is according as they express not their personal ideas, but the very thought of the Church. Beside the sovereign pontiff are the Roman Congregations, many of which are especially concerned with doctrinal questions. Some of them, such as the Congregation of the Index, are not so concerned save from a disciplinary standpoint, by prohibiting the reading of certain books, regarded as dangerous to faith or morals, if not by the very doctrine which they contain, at least by their way of expressing it or by their unseasonableness. Other congregations, that of the Inquisition, for example, have a more directly doctrinal authority. This authority is never infallible; it is nevertheless binding and exacts a religious submission, interior as well as exterior. Nevertheless this interior submission does not necessarily bear on the absolute truth or falsity of the doctrine concerned in the decree, it may only bear on the safety or danger of a certain teaching or opinion, the decree itself usually having in view only the moral qualification of the doctrine. To assist them in their doctrinal task the bishops have all those who teach by their authority or under their surveillance; pastors and curates, professors in ecclesiastical establishments, in a word, all who teach or explain Christian doctrine. Theological teaching in all its forms (in seminaries, universities, etc.) gives valuable assistance as a whole to the teaching authority and to all who teach under that authority. In the study of theology the masters themselves have acquired the knowledge which usually assists them to discern truth or falsehood in doctrinal matters, they have drawn thence what they themselves are to provide. Theologians as such do not form a part of the teaching Church, but as professional expounders of revealed truth they study it scientifically, they collect and systematize it, they illumine it with all the lights of philosophy, history, etc. They are, as it were, the natural consultors of the teaching authority, to furnish it with the necessary information and data; they thereby prepare and sometimes in an even more direct manner by their reports, their written consultations, their projects or schemata, and their preparatory redactions the official documents which the teaching authority completely develops and publishes authoritatively. On the other hand, their scientific works are useful for the instruction of those who should spread and popularize the doctrine, put it in circulation, and adapt it to all by speech or writings of every kind. It is evident what marvellous unity is attained on this point alone in ecclesiastical teaching and how the same truth, descended from above, distributed through a thousand different channels, finally comes pure and undefiled to the most lowly and the most ignorant. This multifarious work, of scientific exposition as well as of popularization and propaganda, is likewise assisted by the countless written forms of religious teaching, among which catechisms have a special character of doctrinal security, approved as they are by the teaching authority and claiming only to set forth with clearness and precision the teaching common in the Church. Thus the child who learns his catechism may, provided he is informed of it, take cognizance that the doctrine presented to him is not the personal opinion of the volunteer catechist or of the priest who communicates it to him. The catechism is the same in all the parishes of a diocese, apart from a few differences of detail which have no bearing on doctrine all the catechisms of a country are alike; the differences between those of one country and another are scarcely perceptible. It is truly the mind of the Church received from God or Christ and transmitted by the Apostles to the Christian society which thus reaches even little children by the voice of the catechist, or the savage by that of the missionary. This diffusion of the same truth throughout the world and this unity of the same faith among the most diverse peoples is a marvel which by itself forces the recognition that God is with His Church. St. Irenaeus in his time was in admiration of it and he expressed his admiration in language of such brilliancy and poetry as is seldom to be met with in the venerable Bishop of Lyons. The outer and visible cause of its diffusion and unity is the splendid organization of the living magisterium. This magisterium was not instituted to receive new truths, but to guard, transmit, propagate, and preserve revealed truth from every admixture of error, and to cause it to prevail. Moreover the magisterium should not be considered as external to the community of the faithful. Those who teach cannot and should not teach save what they have learned themselves, those who have the office of teachers have been chosen from among the faithful and they first of all are obliged to believe what they propose to the faith of others. Moreover they usually propose to the belief of the faithful only the truths of which the latter have already made more or less explicit profession. Sometimes it is even by sounding as it were the common sentiment of the Church, still more by scrutinizing the monuments of the past, that masters and theologians discover that such and such a doctrine, perhaps in dispute, belongs nevertheless to the traditional deposit. More than one among the faithful may be unconscious of personal belief in it, but if he is in union of thought with the Church he believes implicitly that which perhaps he declines to recognize explicitly as an object of his faith. It was thus with regard to the dogma of the Immaculate Conception before it was inserted in the explicit faith of the Church. Hence there is between the teaching Church and the faithful an intimate union of thought and heart. The teaching authority loses nothing of its rights; these are limited only from above by the very conditions of the command which they have received. But the exercise of this authority is by so much more certain and easy as the faithful, generally, so to speak, confirm by their adhesion the decisions of this authority: a dogmatic definition scarcely does more than sanction the faith already existing in the Christian community. The better to understand, adapt, and preserve revealed truth against attacks or errors the masters in the Church and the professors of theology naturally appeal to all the resources offered by human science. Among these sciences philosophy, history, languages, philology in all its forms necessarily have an important place in the arsenal of the teaching magisterium. With regard to theological systematization in particular, philosophy necessarily intervenes to assist theology better to comprehend revealed truth, the better to synthesize traditional data, and the better to explain the dogmatic idea. In the Middle Ages a fruitful alliance was formed between Scholastic philosophy and theology. It may happen that philosophy and the other human sciences are at variance with theology, the science of revealed truth. The conflict is never insoluble, for the true can never be opposed to the true, nor the human truth of philosophy and human knowledge to the supernatural truth of theology. But the fact remains that scientific hypothesis, science which seeks itself, and philosophy which develops itself sometimes seem in opposition to revealed truth. In this case the teaching Church has the right, in order to preserve traditional truth, to condemn the assertions, opinions, and hypotheses which, although not direct denials, nevertheless endanger it or rather expose some souls to the loss of it. Authority has need to be prudent in these condemnations and it is well known that the cases are very rare when it may be asserted with any appearance of justification that it has not been sufficiently so, but its right to interfere is indisputable for anyone who admits the Divine institution of the magisterium. There are then between purely profane facts and opinions and revealed truths mixed facts and opinions which by their nature belong to the human order, but which are in intimate contact and close connexion with supernatural truth. These facts are called dogmatic facts and these opinions theological opinions. In very virtue of its mission the teaching authority has jurisdiction over these facts and opinions; it is even a positive truth, if not a revealed truth, that dogmatic facts and theological opinions may also like dogmatic truths themselves be the object of an infallible decision. The Church is no less infallible in maintaining that the five famous propositions are in Jansenism than in condemning these propositions as heretical. A distinction must be made between dogmatic traditions or revealed truths, pious traditions, liturgical customs, and the accounts of supernatural manifestations or revelations which circulate in the world of Christian piety. When the Church intervenes in order to pronounce in these matters it is never to canonize them, if we may so speak, nor to give them an authority of faith; in such cases it claims only to preserve them against temerarious attacks, to pronounce that they contain nothing contrary to faith or morals, and to recognize in them a human value sufficient for piety to nourish itself therewith freely and without danger. V. The identity of revealed truth in the varieties of formulas, systematization, and dogmatic development, the identity of faith in the Church and through the variations of theology. The saying of Sully Prud'homme is well known, "How is it that this which is so complicated (the 'Summa' of St. Thomas) has proceeded from what was so simple (the Gospel)?" In fact when we read a theological treatise or the profession of faith and anti-Modernist oath imposed by Pius X they seem at first glance very different from the Holy Scripture or the Apostles' Creed. On closer study we become aware that the differences are not irreconcilable; despite appearances the "Summa" and the anti-Modernist oath are naturally linked with the Scripture and the faith of the first Christians. To grasp thoroughly the identity of revealed truth such as was believed in the early centuries with the dogmas which we now profess, it is necessary to study thoroughly the process of dogmatic expression in the complete history of dogma and theology. It is sufficient here to indicate its general outlines and characteristics. That which was shown in Scripture or the Evangelic Revelation as a living reality (the Divine Person of Jesus Christ) has been formulated in abstract terms (one person, two natures) or in concrete formulas (my Father and I are one); men passed constantly from the implicit seen or received to the explicit reasoned and reflected upon; they analyzed the complex data, compared the separate elements, built up a system of the scattered truths; they cleared up by analogies of faith and the light of reason points which were still obscure and fused them into a whole, in whose parts the data of Divine Revelation and those of human knowledge were sometimes difficult to distinguish. Briefly all this led to a work of transposition, analysis, and synthesis, of deduction and induction, of the elaboration of the revealed matter by theology. In the course of this work the formulas have changed, the Divine realities have become tinged with the colours of human thought, revealed truths have been mingled with those of science and philosophy, but the heavenly doctrine has remained the same throughout the varieties of formulas, systematization, and dogmatic expression. It is seen at different angles and to a certain extent with other eyes, but it is the same truth which was presented to the first Christians and which is presented to us to-day. To this identity of revealed truth corresponds the identity of faith. What the first Christians believed we still believe; what we believe to-day they believed more or less explicitly, in a more or less conscious way. Since the deposit of Revelation has remained the same, the same also, in substance, has remained the taking possession of the deposit by the living faith. Each of the faithful has not at all times nor has he always explicit consciousness of all that he believes, but his implicit belief always contains what he one day makes explicit in the profession of faith. Certain truths, which may be called fundamental, have always been explicitly professed in the Church either by word or action; others which may be called secondary may have long remained implicit, enveloped, as regards their precise detail, in a more general truth where faith did not discern them at the first glance. In the first case at a given time uncertainties may have existed, controversies have arisen, heresies cropped up. But the mind of the Church, the Catholic sense, has not hesitated as to what was essential, there has never been in the Christian world that darkening of the truth with which heretics have reproached it; these might have seen and they who had eyes to see did see. On these points disputes have never arisen among the faithful; there have sometimes been very sharp disputes, but they had to do with misunderstandings or bore only on details of expression. As regards truths such as the dogma of the Immaculate Conception, there have been uncertainties and controversies over the very substance of the subjects involved. The revealed truth was indeed in the deposit of truth in the Church, but it was not formulated in explicit terms nor even in clearly equivalent terms; it was enveloped in a more general truth (that e. g. of the all-holiness of Mary), the formula of which might be understood in a more or less absolute sense (exemption from all actual sin, exemption even from original sin). On the other hand, this truth (the exemption of Mary from original sin) may seem in at least apparent conflict with other certain truths (universality of original sin, redemption of all by Christ). It will be readily understood that in some circumstances, when the question is put explicitly for the first time, the faithful have hesitated. It is even natural that the theologians should show more hesitation than the other faithful. More aware of the apparent opposition between the new opinion and the ancient truth, they may legitimately resist, while awaiting fuller light, what may seem to them unreflecting haste or unenlightened piety. Thus did St. Anselm, St. Thomas, and St. Bonaventure in the case of the Immaculate Conception. But the living idea of Mary in the mind of the Church implied absolute exemption from all sin without exception, even from original sin; the faithful whom theological preoccupations did not prevent from beholding this idea in its purity, with that intuition of the heart often more prompt and more enlightened than reasoning and reflected thought, shrank from all restriction and could not suffer, according to the expression of St. Augustine, that there should be question of any sin whatsoever in connexion with Mary. Little by little the feeling of the faithful won the day. Not, as has been said, because the theologians, powerless to struggle against a blind sentiment, had themselves to follow the movement, but because their perceptions, quickened by the faithful and by their own instinct of faith, grew more considerate of the sentiment of the faithful and eventually examined the new opinion more closely in order to make sure that, far from contradicting any dogma, it harmonized wonderfully with other revealed truths and corresponded as a whole to the analogy of faith and rational fitness. Finally scrutinizing with fresh care the deposit of revelation, they there discovered the pious opinion, hitherto concealed, as far as they were concerned in the more general formula, and, not satisfied to hold it as true, they declared it revealed. Thus to implicit faith in a revealed truth succeeded, after long discussions, explicit faith in the same truth thenceforth shining in the sight of all. There have been no new data, but there has been under the impulse of grace and sentiment and the effort of theology a more distinct and clear insight into what the ancient data contained. When the Church defined the Immaculate Conception it defined what was actually in the explicit faith of the faithful what had always been implicitly in that faith. The same is true of all similar cases, save for accidental differences of circumstances. In recognizing a new truth the Church thereby recognizes that it already possessed that truth. There is, therefore in the Church progress of dogma, progress of theology, progress to a certain extent of faith itself, but this progress does not consist in the addition of fresh information nor the change of ideas. What is believed has always been believed, but in time it is more commonly and thoroughly understood and explicitly expressed. Thus, thanks to the living magisterium and ecclesiastical preaching, thanks to the living sense of truth in the Church, to the action of the Holy Ghost simultaneously directing master and faithful, traditional truth lives and develops in the Church, always the same, at once ancient and new--ancient, for the first Christians already beheld it to a certain extent, new, because we see it with our own eyes and in harmony with our present ideas. Such is the notion of tradition in the double meaning of the word; it is Divine truth coming down to us in the mind of the Church and it is the guardianship and transmission of this Divine truth by the organ of the living magisterium, by ecclesiastical preaching, by the profession of it made by all in the Christian life. JEAN BAINVEL Traditionalism Traditionalism A philosophical system which makes tradition the supreme criterion and rule of certitude. Exposition According to traditionalism, human reason is of itself radically unable to know with certainty any truth or, at least, the fundamental truths of the metaphysical, moral, and religious order. Hence our first act of knowledge must be an act of faith, based on the authority of revelation. This revelation is transmitted to us through society, and its truth is guaranteed by tradition or the general consent of mankind. Such is the philosophical system maintained chiefly, in its absolute form, by the Vicomte de Bonald and F. de Lamennais in their respective works and, with some mitigation, by Bautain, Bonetty, Ventura, Ubaghs, and the school of Louvain. According to de Bonald, man is essentially a social being. His development comes through society; and the continuity and progress of society have their principle in tradition. Now language is the instrument of sociability, and speech is as natural to man as is his social nature itself. Language could not have been discovered by man, for "man needs signs or words in order to think as well as in order to speak"; that is "man thinks his verbal expression before he verbally expresses his thought"; but originally language, in its fundamental elements together with the thoughts which it expresses, was given him by God His Creator (cf. Législation primitive, I, ii). These fundamental truths, absolutely necessary to the intellectual, moral, and religious life of man, must be first accepted by faith. They are communicated through society and education, and warranted by tradition or universal reason of mankind. There is no other basis for certitude and there remains nothing, besides tradition, but human opinions, contradiction, and uncertainty (cf. Recherches philosophiques, i, ix). The system presented by Lamennais is almost identical with that of de Bonald. Our instruments of knowledge, namely sense, feeling, and reason, he says, are fallible. The rule of certitude therefore can only be external to man and it can consist only in the control of the individual senses, feelings, and reasoning by the testimony of the senses, feelings, and reason of all other men; their universal agreement is the rule of certitude. Hence, to avoid scepticism, we must begin with an act of faith preceding all reflection, since reflection pre-supposes the knowledge of some truth. This act of faith must have its criterion and rule in the common consent or agreement of all, in the general reason (la raison générale). "Such is", Lamennais concludes, "the law of human nature", outside of which "there is no certitude, no language no society, no life" (cf. Défense de l'Essai sur l'Indifférence, xi). The Mitigated Traditionalists make a distinction between the order of acquisition (ordo acquisitionis) and the order of demonstration (ordo demonstrationis). The knowledge of metaphysical truths, they say, is absolutely necessary to man in order to act reasonably. It must then be acquired by the child through teaching or tradition before he can use his reason. And this tradition can have its source only in a primitive revelation. Hence, in the order of acquisition, faith precedes science. With these truths, however, received by faith, human reason is able, through reflection, to demonstrate the reasonableness of this act of faith, and thus, in the order of demonstration, science precedes faith. When replaced in its historical surroundings, Traditionalism clearly appears as a reaction and a protest against the rationalism of the philosophers of the eighteenth century and the anarchic individualism of the French Revolution. Against these errors it pointed out and emphasized the weakness and insufficiency of human reason, the influence of society, education, and tradition on the development of human life and institutions. The reaction was extreme, and landed in the opposite error. Criticism Since Traditionalism, in its fundamental principles, is a kind of Fideism, it falls under the condemnation pronounced by the Church and under the refutation furnished by reason and philosophy against Fideism. We may, however, advance certain criticisms touching the characteristic elements of Traditionalism. It is evident, first of all, that authority, whatever be the way or agency in which it is presented to us, cannot of itself be the supreme criterion or rule of certitude. For, in order to be a rule of certitude, it must first be known as valid, competent, and legitimate, and reason must have ascertained this before it is entitled to our assent (cf. St. Thomas, I-II:2:1). Without entering upon the psychological problem of the relations between thought and expression, and even admitting with de Bonald that the primitive elements of thought and language were originally given directly by God to man, we are not forced to conclude logically with him that our first act is an act of faith. Our first act should rather be an act of reason, acknowledging, by natural reflection, the credibility of the truths revealed by God. Lamennais's criterion of universal reason or consent is open to the same objections. First, how could universal consent or general reason, which is nothing more than the collection of individual judgments or of individual reasons, give certitude, when each of these individual judgments is only matter of opinion or each of these individual reasons is declared to be fallible? Again, how could we in practice apply such a criterion, that is, how could we ascertain the universality of such a judgment in the whole human race, even if only moral universality were required? Moreover, what would be, in this system, the criterion of truth, concerning matters in which the human mind is not generally interested, or in the scientific problems of which it is generally incompetent? But above all, in order to give a firm and unhesitating assent to the teaching of universal consent, we must first have ascertained the reasonableness and legitimacy of its claims to our assent; that is, reason must ultimately precede faith, otherwise our assent would not be reasonable. Mitigated or Semi-Traditionalism, in spite of its apparent differences, is substantially identical with pure Traditionalism, and falls under the same criticism, since religious and moral truths are declared to be given to man directly by Revelation and accepted by him antecedently to any act of his reason. Moreover, there is no real foundation for the essential distinction between the orders of invention and demonstration, which is supposed to distinguish Semi-Traditionalism from pure Traditionalism. The difference between these two orders is only accidental. It consists in the fact that it is easier to demonstrate a truth already known than to discover it for the first time; but the faculties and process used in both operations are essentially the same, since to demonstrate a truth already known is simply to reproduce, under the guidance of this knowledge, the operation performed and to take again the path followed in its first discovery (cf. St. Thomas, "De Veritate", Q. xi, a. 1). Semi-Traditionalism and absolute Traditionalism, then, rest upon the same fundamental error, namely, that ultimately faith precedes reason. Let us point out, however, the partial truth contained in Traditionalism. Against Individualism and Rationalism, it rightly insisted upon the social character of man, and rightly maintained that authority and education play a large part in the intellectual, moral, and religious development of man. Rightly also it recalled to the human mind the necessity of respect for tradition, for the experience and teaching it contains, to secure a true and solid progress Universal consent may indeed be, in certain conditions; a criterion of truth. In many circumstances, it may furnish suggestion for the discovery of truth or afford confirmation of the truth already discovered, but it can never be the supreme criterion and rule of truth. Unless we admit that our reason is of itself capable of knowing with certainty some fundamental truths, we logically end in scepticism-the ruin of both human knowledge and faith. The true doctrine, as taught by the Catholic Church and confirmed by psychology and history, is that man is physically and practically able to know with certainty some fundamental truths of the natural, moral, and religious order, but that, although he has the physical power, he remains in the conditions of the present life, morally and practically incapable of knowing sufficiently all the truths of the moral and religious order, without the help of Divine Revelation (cf. Vatican Council, Sess. III, cap. ii). GEORGE M. SAUVAGE Traducianism Traducianism Traducianism (tradux, a shoot or sprout, and more specifically a vine branch made to take root so as to propagate the vine), in general the doctrine that, in the process of generation, the human spiritual soul is transmitted to the offspring by the parents. When a distinction is made between the terms Traducianism and Generationism, the former denotes the materialistic doctrine of the transmission of the soul by the organic process of generation, while the latter applies to the doctrine according to which the soul of the offspring originates from the parental soul in some mysterious way analogous to that in which the organism originates from the parent's organism. Traducianism is opposed to Creationism or the doctrine that every soul is created by God. Both, however, against Emanationism and Evolutionism (q.v.) admit that the first human soul originated by creation. They differ only as to the mode of origin of subsequent souls. In the early centuries of the Christian Church, the Fathers who touch upon this question defend the immediate creation of the soul. Tertullian, Apollinaris, and a few other heretics advocate Traducianism, but the testimony of Saint Jerome (Epist. cxxvi, 1) that "the majority of Oriental writers think that, as the body is born of the body, so the soul is born of the soul" seems exaggerated, as no other writer of prominence is found to advocate Generationism as certain. Saint Gregory of Nyssa, Macarius, Rufinus, Nemesius, although their views on this point are not always clear, seem to prefer Generationism. After the rise of Pelagianism, some Fathers hesitate between Generationism and Creationism, thinking that the former offers a better, if not the only, explanation of the transmission of original sin. Among them Saint Augustine is the most important. Creationism is held as certain by the Scholastics, with the exception of Hugh of Saint Victor and Alexander of Hales, who propose it merely as more probable. In recent times Generationism has been rejected by all Catholic theologians. Exceptions are Froschammer who defends Generationism and gives to the generation of the soul from the parents the name of secondary creation; Klee and Ubaghs who leave the question undecided; Hermes who favours Generationism; Gravina who advocates it- and Rosmini who asserts that the sensitive soul is generated by the parents, and becomes spiritual when God illuminates it and manifests to it the idea of being which is the foundation of the whole intellectual life. From the philosophical point of view, the reasons alleged in favour of Generationism have little or no value. The parents are really generators of their offspring even if the soul comes from God, for the generative process is the condition of the union of body and soul which constitutes the human being. A murderer really kills a man, although he does not destroy his soul. Nor is man inferior to animals because they generate complete living organisms, since the difference between man and animals comes from the superiority of the human soul and from its spiritual nature which requires that it should be created by God. On the other hand the reasons against Generationism are cogent. The organic process of generation cannot give rise to a spiritual substance, and to. say that the soul is transmitted in the corporeal semen is to make it intrinsically dependent on matter. The process of spiritual generation is impossible. since the soul is immaterial and indivisible, no spiritual germ can be detached from the Parental soul (cf. St. Thomas, "Contra gent." II, c 86; "Sum. theol." I:90:2, I:98:2, etc.). As to the power of creation, it is the prerogative of God alone (see CREATION, VI). Theologically, corporeal Traducianism is heretical because it goes directly against the spirituality of the soul. As to Generationism, it is certainly opposed to the general attitude of the Church. Froschammer's book, "Ueber den Ursprung der menschlichen Seelen", was condemned in 1857, and Ubaghs's opinion expressed in his "Anthropologiae philosophicae elementa" was reproved in a letter of Cardinal Patrizi written by authority of Pius IX to the Archbishop of Mechlin (2 March, 1866). Moreover, Anastasius II in a letter to the bishops of Gaul (498) condemns Generationism (Thiel, "Epistolae Romanorum Pontificum", 634 sqq.). In the Symbol to be subscribed to by Bishop Peter of Antioch (1053), Leo IX declares the soul to be "not a part of God, but created from nothing" (Denzinger, 348). Among the errors which the Armenians must reject, Benedict XII mentions the doctrine that the soul originates from the soul of the father (Denzinger, 533). Hence, although there are no strict definitions condemning Generationism as heretical, it is certainly opposed to the doctrine of the Church, and could not be held without temerity. C. A. DUBRAY Trajan Trajan Emperor of Rome (A.D. 98-117), b. at Italica Spain, 18 September, 53; d. 7 August, 117. He was descended from an old Roman family, and was adopted in 97 by the Emperor Nerva. Trajan was one of the ablest of the Roman emperors; he was stately and majestic in appearance, had a powerful will, and showed admirable consideration and a chivalrous kindliness. He gained a large amount of territory for the empire and laid the foundations of civilization all over the provinces by the founding of municipal communities. He established order on the borders of the Rhine, built the larger part of the boundary wall (limes) between Roman and Germanic territory from the Danube to the Rhine, and with great determination led two campaigns (101-2 and 105-7) against the Dacian king, Decebalus, whose country he converted into a new province of the empire. Two other provinces were conquered, although neither proved of importance subsequently. The Governor of Syria conquered Arabia Petraea and Trajan himself entered Armenia during the Parthian War (114-7). In his internal administration Trajan was incessantly occupied in encouraging commerce and industries. The harbour of Ancona was enlarged and new harbours and roads were constructed. Numerous stately ruins in and around Rome give proof of this emperor's zeal in erecting buildings for public purposes. The chief of these is the immense Forum Trajanum, which in size and splendour casts the forums of the other emperors into the shade. In the middle of the great open space was the colossal equestrian statute of Trajan; the free area itself was surrounded by rows of columns and niches surmounted by high arches. At the end of the structure was the Bibliotheca Ulpia, in the court of which stood the celebrated Trajan's Column with its reliefs representing scenes in the Dacian wars. Later Hadrian built a temple to the deified Trajan at the end of the Forum towards the Campus Martius. Art and learning flourished during Trajan's reign. Among his literary contemporaries were Tacitus, Juvenal, and the younger Pliny with whom the emperor carried on an animated correspondence. This correspondence belonging to the years 111-3 throws light on the persecution of Christians during this reign. Pliny was legate of the double Province of Bithynia and Pontus. In this territory he found many Christians and requested instructions from Trajan (Ep. 96). In his reply (Ep. 97) Trajan considers the confession of Christianity as a crime worthy of death, but forbades a search for Christians and the acceptance of anonymous denunciations. Whoever shows by sacrificing to the gods that he is not a Christian is to be released. Where the adherence to Christianity is proved the punishment of death is to follow. The action he prescribed rests on the coercive power of the police, the right of repression of the magistracy, which required no settled form of procedure. In pursuance of these orders measures were taken against Christians in other places also. The most distinguished martyrs under Trajan were Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, and Simeon, Bishop of Jerusalem. Legend names many others, but there was no actual persecution on a large scale and the position of the Christians was in general satisfactory. MERIVALE, Hist. of the Romans under the Empire (London, 1850-62), lxiii, lxiv; SCHILLER, Gesch. der romischen Kaiserzeit, I (Gotha, 1883), 543-94; DOMASZEWSKI, Gesch. der romischen Kaiser, II (Leipzig, 1909), 171-86; LA BERGE, Essai sur le regne de Trajan (Paris, 1877); RAMSAY, The Church in the Roman Empire (London, 1893); ARNOLD, Studien zur Gesch. de plinianischen Christenverfolgung (Konigsberg, 1887). KLEMENS LOFFLER Trajanopolis Trajanopolis Titular metropolitan see of Rhodope. The city owes its foundation or restoration to Trajan. Le Quien (Oriens Christ., I, 1193-96) mentions a great many of its bishops: Theodulus, persecuted by the Arians in the fourth century; Syncletius, the friend of St. John Chrysostom; Peter, present at the Council of Ephesus in 431; Basilius at that of Chalcedon in 451; Abundantius in 521; Eleusius in 553; Cudumenes about 1270; Germanus in 1352. In 1564 Gabriel is called Metropolitan of Trajanopolis, that is of Maronia, which proves that Trajanopolis was then destroyed and that the title of metropolitan had passed to the neighbouring city of Maronia. About 640 Trajanopolis had two suffragan sees (Gelzer, "Ungedruckte. . .Texte der Notitiae episcopatuum", 542); at the beginning of the tenth century, seven (Gelzer, op. cit., 558). St. Glyceria, a martyr of the second century, venerated on 13 May, was born there. The town is mentioned by Villchardouin (ed. Wailly, 382, 568); it was captured and pillaged in 1206 by Joannitza, King of the Bulgarians (George Acropolita, "Hist.", XIII). It is still mentioned in Nicephoras (Ancedota of Boissonade, V, 279), in John Cantacuzenus (Hist., I, 38; II, 13; III, 67), in George Pachymeres (ad ann. 1276, V, 6), etc. The site of Trajanopolis was discovered by Viquesnel and Dumont on the right bank near the mouth of the Maritza, not far from Ouroundjik. VIQUESNEL, Voyage dans le Turquie d'Europe: description phys. et geolog. de la Thrace, II, 297; DUMONT, Arch. des missions scientif., III (Paris, 1876), 174; MULLER, Ptolemaei geographia, I, 487; SMITH, Dict. of Greek and Roman Geog., s.v. S. VAILHÉ Trajanopolis Trajanopolis A titular see of Phrygia Pacatiana, suffragan of Laodicea. The only geographer who speaks of Trajanopolis is Ptolemy (v, 2, 14, 15), who wrongly places this city in Greater Mysia. It was founded about 109 by the Grimenothyritae, who obtained permission from Hadrian to give the place the name of his predecessor. It had its own coins. Hierocles (Synecedemus, 668, 150) calls it Tranopolis, and this abridged form is found, with one exception, in the "Notitae episcopatuum", which speak of the see up to the thirteenth century among the suffragans of Laodicea. Le Quien (Oriens Christianus, I, 803) names seven bishops of Trajanopolis: John, present at the Council of Constantinople under the Patriarch Gennadius, 459; John, at the Council of Constantinople under Menas, 536; Asignius, at the Council of Constantinople, 553; Tiberius, at the Council in Trullo, 692; Philip, at Nice, 787; Eustathius, at Constantinople, 879. Another, doubtless more ancient than the preceding, Demetrius, is known from one inscription (C. I. G., 9265). Trajanopolis has been variously identified; the latest identification is Radet ("En Phrygie", Paris, 1895), who locates it at Tcharik Keui, about three miles from Ghiaour Euren towards the south-east, on the road from Oushak to Sousouz Keui, vilayet of Brusa, a village abounding in sculptures, marbles, and fountains, and where the name of the city may be read on the inscriptions. However, Ramsay (Asia Minor, 149; Cities and Bishopries of Phrygia, 595) continues to identify Trajanopolis with Ghiasour Euren. S. PÉTRIDÈS Tralles Tralles A titular see, suffragan of Ephesus in Asia Minor. It was founded, it is said, by the Argians and Thracians, and is situated on one of the slopes of Mount Messogis in the valley of the Meander; it was one of the most populous and richest cities of Lydia. King Attalus had a splendid palace there. The local god was Zeus Larasios, but Apollo Pythius and other divinities were also worshipped. Tralles was destroyed by an earthquake but was rebuilt by Augustus and took the name of Caesarea. Christianity was introduced at a very early date. In his famous letter to the Church at Tralles, St. Ignatius of Antioch says that their bishop, Polybius, visited him at Smyrna, and he puts them on their guard against Docetism (q. v.). We see by this letter that the Church there was already well organized. Among its bishops were: Heracleon, in 431; Maximus, in 451; Uranius, in 553; Myron, in 692; Theophylactus, in 787; Theophanes and Theopistus, in the ninth century; John, in 1230 (Revue des etudes grecques, VII, 80). In 640 ("Ecthesis Pseudo-Epiphanii"; Gelzer, "Ungedruckte. . . .Texte der notitiae episcopatuum", 537). Tralles appears as suffragan of Sardes in Lydia, and we know, despite Le Quien (Oriens christ., I, 697), that it was such in 553. Towards 1270 Andronicus, son of Michael VIII Palaeologus, rebuilt and repeopled the city; it then numbered 36,000 inhabitants, but it was not long before it was retaken and demolished by the Turks (Pachymeres, "De Michaele Palaeologo", VI, 20 and 21, in P.G., CXLIII, 929-34). The emir Aïdin then gave it the name which it still bears, Aïdin Guzel-Hissar; it is a sanjak of the vilayet of Symrna, numbering 40,000 inhabitants, of whom 28,000 are Mussulmans, 10,000 Greek Schismatics, and the remainder Jews or Armenians. There are 120 Catholics. The Mechitarists of Vienna and the Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul have two schools there. Tralles was the birthplace of Anthemius, the architect of St. Sophia of Constantinople. LE QUIEN, Oriens christianus, I (1740), 695-8; TEXIER, Asie Mineure (Paris, 1862), 279-81; RAYET, Milet et le golfe latimique (Paris, 1877), 33-116; LEBAS-WADDINGTON, Asie Mineure, 597-616, 1651; CHAPOT, La province romaine proconsulaire d'Asie (Paris, 1904), passim; CUINET, La Turquie d' Asie, III (Paris, 1892), 591-9; PAPPACONSTANTINOU, Tralles (Athens, 1895), in Greek. S. VAILHÉ Trani and Barletta Trani and Barletta (Tranen, et Barolen.) Diocese in Italy. The city of Trani is situated on the Adriatic in a fertile plain, producing cereals, wine, and oil, which are exported in great quantities. For a long time, however, the port has lost the importance it had in the time of the Norman and Angevins who fortified it. The fishing industry is extensive. The cathedral, in Byzantine style, was built by Canon Nicola di Trani in 1143; its bronze gates by Barisano date from that period. Outside the city, on a peninsula, stand the old Benedictine Abbey of S. Maria de Colonna, containing a mineral spring, the acqua di Cristo". Trani is built on the site of the ancient Turenum. It grew in importance under the Byzantines and was taken several times by the dukes of Benevento. In 840 and 1009 it fell into the hands of the Saracens. In the tenth and eleventh centuries it was a republic recognizing the nominal sovereignty of Byzantium. The Ordinamenta et consuetudo maris", published in 1063 by the consuls of Trani is, after the "Tavole di Amalfi", the oldest maritime commercial code of the Middle Ages. Trani resisted the Norman invaders energetically, but in 1073 it had to open its gates to Pierre d'Hauteville, who assumed the title of Count of Trani. In the twelfth century, in league with Bari, Troia, and Melfi, it attempted to regain its ancient freedom; and in the battle of Bigano (1137) defeated Roger of Sicily, but two years later it had to capitulate. Frederick II constructed a fortress there and made it one of the royal residences. In the Neapolitan wars Trani became a place of the greatest importance, especially during the struggle between the Aragonese and the Angevins. From 1497 to 1509 it was held by Venice. Charles V established a school of jurisprudence there. In 1647 the populace rebelled against the nobles; in 1799 the people opposed the republic, and the city in consequence was sacked by the revolutionaries and the French. The legend of St. Magnus relates that there was at Trani about the middle of the third century a bishop, Redemptus, who was succeeded by St. Magnus. The first bishop whose date is known with certainty is Eusebius who was present at the dedication of the Basilica of Monte Gargano in 493. A few other names have been preserved like Suthinius (761) and Rodostanus (983). Till then Trani had certainly followed the Latin Rite and Bishop Bernardo opposed the decree of the Partiarch Polyeuctus (968) introducing the Greeek Rite; it is uncertain whether Joannes, who embraced the schism of Michael Caerularius and in consequence was deposed by Nicholas II (1059), belonged to the Greek Rite. His sxuccessor was Delius, and thenceforward Trani continued in the Latin Rite. In 1098 St. Nicholas Pellegrino, a Byzantine bishop, died there; under another Byzantine the new cathedral was dedicated to that saint. Grammaro was imprisoned in Germany by Henary VI for supporting King William; Bartolommeo Brancacci (1328) distinguished himself on several embassies and was chancellor of the Kingdom of Naples. Mention may be made likewise of Cardinal Latino Orsini (1438), Cosimo Migliorati (1479), Giovanni Castelar (1493), Giambernardo Scotti, a Theatine (1555), who introduced the Tridentine reform, Cesare Lambertini, the canonist (1503); Diego Alvarez, O. P. (1607), the famous adversary of Molina; Tommaso de Sarria, O. P. (1656), who enlarged the seminary; Giuseppe Antonio Davanzati (1717), who abolished many abuses. With the See of Trani is united the ancient Diocese of Salpe (Salapia of the Greeks), its known bishops comprising Palladius (465) and 23 successors before the definitive union in 1547. Anoather united see is that of Carnia, which had bishops before the time of St. Gregory, who entrusted it to the care of the Bishop of Reggio; in 649 it had a new ordinary, but later the city fell into decay. The Archbishop of Trani has also the title of Bishop of Nazareth, because when Palestine was lost in 1190 the title of that see was transferred to Barletta (the ancient Barduli), a seaport on the Adriatic, a little south of Trani, to which diociese it then belonged. At Nazareth between 1100 and 1190 there were eight Latin bishops; the names of the bishops resident at Barletta before 1265 are unknown. We may mention the following Bishops: Blessed Agostino Favorini (1431), General of the Augustinians, a learned writer, and Maffeo Barberini (1604), later Urban VIII. In 1455 the Diocese of Cannae, a city celebrated as the scene of Hannibal's victory (216 B.C.), was united with that of Nazareth. It was destroyed in 1083 by Robert Guiscard, with the exception of the cathedral and the episcopal residence. At Cannae St. Liberalis suffered martydom. It had bishops in ths sixth century, for St. Gregory entrusted the see to the care of the bishop of Siponto; its bishops are again mentioned after the tenth century. In 1534 Cannae was separated from Nazareth and united to Monteverde, but in 1552 the united dioceses were incorporated with Nazareth. In 1860 the See of Nazareth (Barletta) was united withTrani, the archbishop of which had been appointed in 1818 perpetual administrator of the ancient See of Bisceglie, the scene of the glorious martydom of Saints Pantelemon and Sergius, whose bodies repose in the cathedral. Tha names of fifty bishops of Bisceglie are known. Trani has been an archdiocese since the twelfth century. The united dioceses contain 19 parishes; 98,000 inhabitants; 110 priests; 1 house of religious (men); 15 convents of nuns; 2 schools for girls. CAPPELLETTI, Le chiese d'Italia, XXI, 47; VANIA, Cenno storico della citta di Trani (Barletta, 1870). U. BENIGNI Transcendentalism Transcendentalism The terms transcendent and transcendental are used in various senses, all of which, as a rule, have antithetical reference in some way to experience or the empirical order. (1) For the Scholastics, the categories are the highest classes of "things that are and are spoken of". The transcendentals are notions, such as unity, truth, goodness, being, which are wider than the categories, and, going beyond them, are said to transcend them. In a metaphysical sense transcendent is opposed by the Scholastics and others to immanent; thus, the doctrine of Divine Transcendence is opposed to the doctrine of Divine Immanence in the Pantheistic sense., Here, however, there is no reference to experience. (See IMMANENCE.) (2) In the loosest sense of the word any philosophy or theology which lays stress on the intuitive, the mystical, the ultra-empirical, is aid to be transcendentalism. Thus, it is common to refer to the New England School of Transcendentalism, of which mention is made further on. (3) In a stricter sense transcendentalism refers to a celebrated distinction made by Kant. Though he is not consistent in the use of the terms transcendent and transcendental, Kant understands by transcendent what lies beyond the limits of experience, and by transcendental he understands the non-empirical or a priori elements in our knowledge, which do not come from experience but are nevertheless, legitimately applied to the data or contents of knowledge furnished by experience. The distinction is somewhat subtle, Yet, it may be made clear by an example. Within the limits of experience we learn the uniform sequence of acorn and oak, heat and expansion, cold and contraction, etc., and we give the antecedent as the cause of the consequent. If, now, we go beyond the total of our experience and give God as the cause of all things, we are using the category "cause in a transcendent sense, and that use is not legitimate. If, however, to the data of sequence furnished by experience we apply the a priori form causation, we are introducing a transcendental element which elevates our knowledge to the rank of universal and necessary truth: "Every effect has its cause." Kant, as has been said, does not always adhere to this distinction. We may, then, understand transcendent and transcendental to refer to those elements or factors in our knowledge which do not come from experience, but are known a priori. Empirical philosophy is, therefore, a philosophy based on experience alone and adhering to the realm of experience in obedience to Hume's maxim, " 'Tis impossible to go beyond experience." Transcendental philosophy, on the contrary, goes beyond experience, and considers that philosophical speculation is concerned chiefly, if not solely, with those things which lie beyond experience. (4) Kant himself was convinced that, for the theoretical reason, the transcendental reality, the thing-in-itself, is unknown and unknowable. Therefore, he defined the task of philosophy to consist in the examination of knowledge for the purpose of determining the a priori elements, in the systematic enumeration of those elements, for forms, and the determination of the rules for their legitimate application to the data of experience. Ultra-empirical reality, he taught, is to be known only by the practical reason. Thus, his philosophy is critical transcendentalism. Thus, too he left to his successors the task of bridging over the chasm between the theoretical and the practical reason. This task they accomplished in various ways, eliminating, transforming, or adapting the transcendent reality outside us. the thing-in-itself, and establishing in this way different transcendentalisms in place of the critical transcendentalism of Kant. (5) Fiche introduced Egoistic Transcendentalism. The subject, he taught, or the Ego, has a practical as well as a theoretical side. to develop its practical side along the line of duty, obligation, and right, it is obliged to posit the non-Ego. In this way, the thing-in-itself as opposed to the subject, is eliminated, because it is a creation of the Ego, and, therefore all transcendental reality is contained in self. I am I, the original identity of self with itself, is the expression of the highest metaphysical truth. (6) Schelling, addressing himself to the same task, developed Transcendental Absolutism. He brought to the problems of philosophy a highly spiritual imaginativeness and a scientific insight into nature which were lacking in Kant, the critic of knowledge, and Fiche, the exponent of romantic personalize. He taught that the transcendental reality is neither subject or object, but an Absolute which is so indeterminate that it may be said to be neither nature nor spirit. Yet the Absolute is, in a sense, potentially both the one and the other. For, from it, by gravity, light and organization, is derived spirit, which slumbers in nature, but reaches consciousness of self in the highest natural organization, man. There is here a hint of development which was brought out explicitly by Hegel. (7) Hegel introduced Idealistic Transcendentalism. He taught that reality is not an unknowable thing in itself, nor the subject merely, nor an absolute of indifference, but an absolute Idea, Spirit, or Concept (Begriff), whose essence is development (das Werden), and which becomes in succession object and subject, nature and spirit, being and essence, the soul, law, the state, art, science, religion, and philosophy. In all these various meanings there is preserved a generic resemblance to the original signification of the term transcendentalism. The transcendentalists one and all, dwell in the regions beyond experience, and, if they do not condemn experience as untrustworthy, at least they value experience only in so far as it is elevated, sublimated, and transformed by the application to it of transcendental principles. The fundamental epistemological error of Kant, that whatever is universal and necessary cannot come from experience, runs all through the transcendentalist philosophy, and it is on epistemological grounds that the transcendentalists are to be met. This was the stand taken in Catholic circles, and there, with few exceptions, the doctrines of the transcendentalists met with a hostile reception. The exceptions were Franz Baader (1765-1841), Johann Frohschammer (1821-1893), and Anton Günther (1785-1863), who in their attempt to "reconcile" Catholic dogma with modern philosophical opinion, were influenced by the transcendentalists and overstepped the boundaries of orthodoxy. It may without unfairness be laid to the charge of the German transcendentalists that their disregard for experience and common sense is largely accountable for the discredit into which metaphysics has fallen in recent years. New England transcendentalism, sometimes called the Concord School of Philosophy, looks to William Ellery Channing (1780-1842) as its founder. Its principal representatives are Amos Bronson Alcott (1799-1888), Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), Theodore Parker (1810-1860), Frederick Henry Hedge (1805-890), George Ripley (1802-1880), and Margaret Fuller (1810-1850). It had its inception in the foundation of the Transcendental Club in 1836. The chief influences discernible in its literary output are German philosophy, French sociology, and the reaction against the formalism of Its sociological and economic theories were tested in the famous Brook Farm (1841), with which the names just mentioned and those of several other distinguished Americans were associated. For the history of German transcendentalism see Ueberweg, Hist. of Philosophy, tr. Morris (New York, 1892); Falckenberg, Hist. of Modern Philosophy, tr. Armstrong (New York, 1893); Turner, Hist. of Philosophy (Boston, 1903); St=F6ckl, Gesch. der Phil. (Mainz, 1888). For New England transcendentalism see Frothingham, Transcendentalism in New England (New York, 1876); Codman, Brook Farm (Boston, 1894). WILLIAM TURNER Transept Transept A rectangular space inserted between the apse and nave in the early Christian basilica. It sprang from the need of procuring sufficient space for the increased number of clergy and for the proper celebration of the service. The length of the rectangle either equals the entire breadth of the nave, as in Santa Maria Maggiore and Santa Croce at Rome, or it exceeds this breadth more or less, so that the transept extends beyond the walls of the nave. The transept, though, is not peculiar to the Roman basilica, as was for a long time believed; it is also to be found in the churches of Asia Minor, as at Sagalassos. Beside this first form, in which the apse was directly united with the transept, there were to be found in Asia Minor and Sicily, even in the early era, a number of churches of a second form. These were formerly considered to belong to the medieval period, because they were not fully developed until the Middle Ages. This is the cross-shaped or cruciform church, over the origin of which a violent literary controversy raged for a long time. In the cruciform design the transept is organically developed from the structure. It contains three squares which in height and breadth correspond to that of the main nave. Beyond the central square, called the bay, and connected with it is a fourth square, the choir, and beyond, and connected with the choir, is the apse; in this way the cruciform shape of the church is produced. The transept generally terminates towards the north and south in a straight line. Still there are a number of churches, especially in Germany, that end in a semicircular or triple conch shape. Strzygowski thinks he has found the model of this style of structure in the Roman imperial palace; this form of transept is found in as early a church as that of the Virgin at Bethlehem erected by Constantine. A favourite method in the Romanesque style was to construct small apses opening into the transept to the right and left of the choir. In the churches of the Cistercians and of the mendicant orders these small apses were transformed at a later date into numerous chapels, as at Santa Croce at Florence. the prototype of this design can also be proved to have existed in the East and the districts under its influence. The doubling of the transept, however, seems to have been peculiar to Western architecture; this type of transept appeared both in the Romanesque and in the Gothic periods, although the manner of producing it varied greatly. Many Romanesque churches are constructed at the west end the same as at the east, that is, the west end also contains a transept and choir. The earliest known church with this double transept is the eighth-century church of St-Riquier at Centula in France. The style was also adopted in the church of St. Pantaleon at Cologne (981), and almost at the same time by Mittelzell on the island of Reichenau in Lake Constance, and in many other churches. The west transept disappeared in Gothic architecture, excepting that in England some of the great cathedrals have a second, short transept added to the east choir, as at Salisbury. Gothic architecture also emphasized the choir by giving it in the large cathedrals three aisles; in this way very beautiful vistas are produced. In the effort to gain large, well-lighted spaces the architecture of the Renaissance and the Baroque periods enlarged the transept and covered the bay with a cupola which caused the transept to dominate the entire structure. BEDA KLEINSCHMIDT Transfiguration Transfiguration The Transfiguration of Christ is the culminating point of His public life, as His Baptism is its starting point, and His Ascension its end. Moreover, this glorious event has been related in detail by St. Matthew (17:1-6), St. Mark (9:1-8), and St. Luke (9:28-36), while St. Peter (II Peter 1:16-18) and St. John (1:14), two of the privileged witnesses, make allusion to it. About a week after His sojourn in Cæsarea Philippi, Jesus took with him Peter and James and John and led them to a high mountain apart, where He was transfigured before their ravished eyes. St. Matthew and St. Mark express this phenomenon by the word metemorphothe, which the Vulgate renders transfiguratus est. The Synoptics explain the true meaning of the word by adding "his face did shine as the sun: and his garments became white as snow," according to the Vulgate, or "as light," according to the Greek text. This dazzling brightness which emanated from His whole Body was produced by an interior shining of His Divinity. False Judaism had rejected the Messias, and now true Judaism, represented by Moses and Elias, the Law and the Prophets, recognized and adored Him, while for the second time God the Father proclaimed Him His only-begotten and well-loved Son. By this glorious manifestation the Divine Master, who had just foretold His Passion to the Apostles (Matthew 16:21), and who spoke with Moses and Elias of the trials which awaited Him at Jerusalem, strengthened the faith of his three friends and prepared them for the terrible struggle of which they were to be witnesses in Gethsemani, by giving them a foretaste of the glory and heavenly delights to which we attain by suffering. LOCATION OF THE TRANSFIGURATION Already in Apostolic times the mount of the Transfiguration had become the "holy mount" (II Peter 1:18). It seems to have been known by the faithful of the country, and tradition identified it with Mount Thabor. Origen said (A.D. 231-54) "Thabor is the mountain of Galilee on which Christ was transfigured" (Comm. in Ps. lxxxviii, 13). In the next century St. Cyril of Jerusalem (Catech., II, 16) and St. Jerome (Ep. xlvi, ad Marcel.; Ep. viii, ad Paulin.; Ep. cviii, ad Eust.) likewise declare it categorically. Later St. Proculus, Patriarch of Constantinople (d. 447; Orat. viii, in Transfig.), Agathangelus (Hist. of Armenia, II, xvii), and Arnobius the Younger (d. 460; Comm. in Ps. lxxxviii, 13) say the same thing. The testimonies increase from century to century without a single dissentient note, and in 553 the Fifth Council of Constantinople erected a see at Mount Thabor (Notitif. Antioch. . . . patriarch.). Some modern writers claim that the Transfiguration could not have taken place on Mount Thabor, which, according to Josephus, was then surmounted by a city. This is incorrect; the Jewish historian speaks neither of a city nor a village; he simply fortified, as he repeats three times, "the mount called Itabyrion" ("Bell. Jud.", II, xx, 6; IV, i, 8; Vita, 37). The town of Atabyrion of Polybius, the Thabor or Celeseth Thabor, the "flank of Thabor" of the Bible, is situated at the foot of Mount Thabor. In any case the presence of houses on a wooded height would not have made it impossible to find a place apart. It is again objected that Our Lord was transfigured on Mount Hermon, since He was at that time in its vicinity. But the Synoptics are all explicit concerning the lapse of time, six days, or about eight days including those of departure and arrival, between the discourse in Cæsarea and the Transfiguration, which would infer a somewhat lengthy journey. Moreover the summits of Hermon are covered with snow as late as June, and even the lesser peaks of 4000 or 5000 feet are likewise snow-covered in February and March, the period of the Transfiguration. Finally, the ancients judged of the height of mountains by their appearance, and Thabor especially was considered a "high mountain", if not by David and Jeremias, at least by Origen and St. Jerome and the pilgrims who made the ascent. BARNABAS MEISTERMANN Feast of the Transfiguration of Christ Feast of the Transfiguration of Christ Observed on August 6 to commemorate the manifestation of the Divine glory recorded by St. Matthew (Chapter 17). Origin. The Armenian bishop Gregory Arsharuni (about 690) ascribes the origin of this feast to St. Gregory the Illuminator (d. 337?), who, he says, substituted it for a pagan feast of Aphrodite called Vartavarh (roseflame), retaining the old appellation of the feast, because Christ opened His glory like a rose on Mount Thabor. It is not found however in the two ancient Armenian calendars printed by Conybeare (Armenian Ritual, 527 sq.). It probably originated, in the fourth or fifth century, in place of some pagan nature-feast, somewhere in the highlands of Asia. Propagation. The Armenians at present keep it for three days as one of the five great feasts of the year (seventh Sunday after Pentecost); it is preceded by a fast of six days. Also in the Syriac Church it is a feast of the first class. In the Greek Church it has a vigil and an octave. The Latin Church was slow in adopting this feast; it is not mentioned before 850 (Martyrology of Wandelbert, Gavanti, "Thesaurus Liturg.", II, August); it was adopted in the liturgy about the tenth century in many dioceses, and was celebrated mostly on 6 August; in Gaul and England, 27 July; at Meissen, 17 March; at Halberstadt, 3 September, etc. In 1456 Callixtus III extended the feast to the Universal Church in memory of the victory gained by Hunyady at Belgrade over the Turks, 6 August, 1456. Callixtus himself composed the Office. It is the titular feast of the Lateran Basilica at Rome; as such it was raised to a double second class for the Universal Church, 1 Nov., 1911. Customs. On this day the pope at Mass uses new wine or presses a bunch of ripe grapes into the chalice; raisins are also blessed at Rome. The Greeks and Russians bless grapes and other fruit. F.G. HOLWECK Transvaal Transvaal Vicariate apostolic; lies between 23° 3' and 27° 30' S. lat., and 25° and 32° E. long. The total population is approximately estimated at 960,000, consisting of about 320,000 whites and 640,000 natives. The agricultural and pastoral resources of this portion of south Africa are great, the vast rolling plains being capable of raising almost unlimited quantities of cereals. Stock-raising can also be pursued to great advantage. The discovery of gold in the Transvaal has brought about a large influx of British immigrants, who have developed the mineral resources of the country. Since the time of the "Great Trek" (1835-38) of the emigrant Dutch farmers from Cape Colony, several wars have been waged between the Boers, natives, and British. But streams of Boer immigrants succeeded in repelling the natives, and in gradually securing their own independence. In 1850 the British were engaged in a lengthy and costly war with the Kafirs, during which the Boers took advantage of the situation to demand the recognition of their independence; this was granted to them by the Sand River Convention, 17 Jan., 1852, and Great Britain gave up the Orange River Sovereignty in 1834, which they had proclaimed in 1848 after the battle of Boomplaats. In 1876 the Boers were defeated by the Kafirs, and Great Britain, afraid of a general rising of the natives throughout south Africa, deemed it expedient to annex the country, which was done, 12 April, 1877. A new war, however, broke out between British and Boers, in which the former were defeated, 27 Feb., 1881, and the Boers recovered their independence, which they enjoyed until the outbreak of the war in Oct., 1899, which resulted in their defeat and the final annexation of the country to the British Empire. The Transvaal formed a portion of the Vicariate of Natal until 1886. From time to time the few Catholics residing in this part of South Africa were visited by a priest from Natal, till 1877, when the first mission was founded in Pretoria by the Right Rev., Dr. Jolivet, O. Mi. I. The first church in the Transvaal was not, however, completed until the first Sunday of October, 1887, when it was dedicated by Bishop Jolivet. At that time the number of Catholics at Pretoria was about 100. In the other localities of the Transvaal the Catholic population was insignificant. Johannesburg, which has at the present day a population of about 130,000, including about 80,000 Europeans and 50,000 natives and Asiatics, was then hardly in existence. The Catholic population is about 9500, Europeans, natives, and Syrians included. The Transvaal was detached from Natal in 1886 by Leo XIII. It remained an independent prefecture Apostolic till 29 Jan., 1902. The first prefect Apostolic was the Very Rev. Father Moniginoux, O. M. I., who was succeeded by Very Rev. Father Schock, O. M. I., who died on his way to the chapter of his order held in Paris in 1898. Until Jan., 1902, father Jean de Laey, O. M. I., acted as prefect Apostolic. Then the Right Rev. Dr. Matthew Gaughran, O. M. I., was elected Vicar Apostolic of Kimberley, and administrator of the Transvaal prefecture. On 20 Nov., 1904, the prefecture Apostolic of the Transvaal became a vicariate, and the Right Rev. Dr. William Miller, O. M. I., was consecrated Bishop of Eumenia, and Vicar Apostolic of the Transvaal. He resides at Johannesburg. (See KAFIRS.) On 13 Jan., 1911, the northern portion of the Vicariate of the Transvaal, including the two districts of Zoutpansberg and Waterberg, lying between 24° and 23° S. lat., and between 28° and 32° E. long. was erected into a prefecture Apostolic, under the title of Prefecture Apostolic of the Northern Transvaal, and entrusted to the care of the Benedictines, with the Very Rev. Father Lanslots, O. S. B., as prefect Apostolic. The missionaries number at the present 6 fathers and 3 lay brothers, all of whom are natives of Belgium. Through the erection of the new prefecture Apostolic, the boundaries of the Vicariate of the Transvaal have been altered. They are at present delimited by 25° and 32° E. long., and 27° S. lat. (north of the Orange River Colony) and 28° S. lat. (west of the same Colony). There are at present (1911) in the Vicariate of the Transvaal: 27 priests (13 of whom are Oblates, 12 secular, 2 military chaplains); and 1 Oblate lay brother and 20 Marist Brothers, who conduct a very prosperous school at Johannesburg; also other schools, a sanatorium, a refuge, a hospital, and a home for children and aged, are under the management of various religious congregations, viz., the Sisters of the Holy Family; Sisters of Nazareth House; Dominican Sisters; Sisters of the Good Shepherd; Sisters of Mercy; Ursuline Sisters; and Sisters of Loreto; making a total number of 147 Sisters for the whole vicariate. Missiones catholicae (Rome, 1907), 444-45; The Catholic directory of British South Africa (Cape Town, 1910). A. LANGOUET Transylvania Transylvania (Also TRANSYLVANIENSIS or ERDELY). Diocese in Hungary, suffragan of Kalocsa Bács. The foundation of the see is attributed to King St. Stephen, but it was probably established by King St. Ladislaus, patron of Transylvania; Simon (1103-13) was the first bishop. The episcopal residence is at Gyula-Fehérvar (Alba Julia) in Alsó-Fehér. The original limits of the diocese varied somehat from the present boundaries, as they included the County of Mármaros, while the provostship of Szeben was exempt and some parts of the Szekler country were subject to the Bishop of Milkovia in Rumania. The bishops received rich donations from King Béla IV, Charles Robert, Louis I, and Sigismund. The diocese suffered greatly during the reign of Béla IV from the Tatar invasion, and during the civil disturbances under his successors, but recovered very quickly in the fourteenth century. The see was again imperilled by the advance of the Turks, but its decay did not set in until the sixteenth centruy, and was caused by the progress of Lutheranism, in consequence of which the exempt provostship of Szeben ceased to exist, and by internal disturbancea in Transylvania. It flourished again under Cardinal Martinuzzi, but after his assassination in 1551 it decayed rapidly. The advance of Protestantism led, in 1556, to the secularization of the see, which was, however, re-established by Prince Stephen Báthory. After the coming of the Jesuits the Catholic Faith flourished again, but only while the house of Báthory continued to rule. Bishop Demetrius Náprágyi was forced to leave the see, and in 1601 the cathedral of Gyula-Fehérvár, which had been founded in the thirteenth century, was taken and held by the Protestants until the eighteenth century, the Catholics not regaining possession of it until the reign of Charles III. When the Principality of Transylvania lost its independence, the decrees against the Catholic Church were withdrawn, but the bishopric and chapter were not re-established until 1713. The succession to the see had been kept up regularly till 1713, but the bishops resided abroad. The exempt provostship of Szeben was incorporated in the bishopric, which was completely restored under Maria Theresa in 1771. Of the bishops, who filled the see after 1713, the following may be mentioned: Ignatius Count Batthyany (1780-98), who founded the library at Gyula-Fehérvár, whic is named after him; Alexander Rudnay (1816-19), later Archbishop of Gran; Louis Haynald (1852-64), afterwards Archbishop of Kalocsa. Count Gustavus Majláth has occupied the episcopal see since 1897. The diocese contains: 16 archdeaconries; 10 titular abbeys; 2 titular provostships; 229 parishes; 398 secular priests; 226 regular clergy; 30 monasteries of men and 17 convents of nuns; the Catholics number 354,145. There are 103 patrons. The chapter consista of 10 active members and of 6 titular canons. Catholics are to a certain extent autonomous, i.e., certain church and school matters are managed by mixed boards, parly clerical, partly lay. This autonomy dates back to the time of the Reformation; it ceased in 1767 with the establishment of the Commissio catholica by Maria Theresa, and was re-established as late as 1873. The control is exercised by the general assembly of the Catholic estates and a managing committee. PRAY, Specimen hierarchiae Hungariae, II (POZSONY, 1776-9), 202-8: SZEREDAL, Series antiq. et recent. episcop. Transylvaniae (Gyula-Fehervar, 1790); Schematismus diacesis Tr. pro 1909; A katolikus Magyarorszag (i.e. Catholic Hungary) (Budapest, 1902). A. ALDASY Trapani Trapani (TREPANENSIS). Diocese in Sicily, suffragan of Palermo. The city is the capital of a Sicilian province situated on a tongue of land at the most western part of the island, shaped like a reaping-hook, hence the ancient name Drepanon (reaping-hook). It has a good harbour with exports of wine, acid fruits, fish (especially tunny-fish), salt, and ornaments of coral, alabaster, and mother-of-pearl, which are extensively manufactured. The cathedral, exteriorly resembling a fortress, contains paintings by Careca and Vandyke (Crucifixion), and statue of the Dead Christ in alabaster by Tartaglia. Other churches are: San Michele, with wooden statuary, and the sanctuary of the Annunziata outside the city, with a colossal statue of the Madonna, attributed to Nicolò Pisano. In the Jesuit church, called "Nazionale", are precious pictures by Morrealese, Spagnoletto, and Marabiti. The ancient college, now a lyceum, contains the Fardelliona Gallery, with valuable paintings by Reni, Luca Giordano, Caravaggio, Salvator Rosa, Guercino, etc. Trapani is the birthplace of Carrera and Errante the painters, Ximenes the mathematician, Scarlatti the musician, and the Carmelite St. Alberto degli Abbati. Excavations have proved that the shore about Trapani was inhabited during the Stone Age. Drepanon must have been founded by the Greeks, but fell under the sway of the Carthaginians. Hamilcar fortified the port against the Romans, who in 250 suffered a severe defeat near by, at the hands of Adherbal. In the vicinity is Mons Eryx (now San Giuliano), with a magnificent temple of Venus and many votive offerings. Under the Romans the temple fell into decay, but was restored by Tiberius. Trapani was sacked by the Moors in 1077. In 1282 Pedro III of Aragon landed there to begin the capture of the island. In 1314 it was besieged by Robert, King of Naples. Charles V fortified it. The city boasts of having received the Gospel from St. Paul; it is not known to have had any bishop before the Arab conquest of Sicily; certainly it was subject to the See of Mazzara from the Norman Conquest till 1844. Its first bishop was the Redemptorist Vincenzo M. Marolda. CAPPELLETTI, Le chiese d'Italia, XXI, 556. U. BENIGNI Trapezopolis Trapezopolis A titular see in Phrygia Pacatiana, suffragan to Laodicea. Trapezopolis was a town of Caria acording to Ptolemy (V, 2, 18) and Pliny (V, 109); according to Socrates (Hist. eccl., VII, xxxvi), Hierocles (Synecdeus, 665, 5), and the "Notitiae episcopatuum" it was a town of Phrygia Pacatiana and among the suffragans of Laodicea until the thirteenth century. Nothing is known of its history. Its coins testify to close intercourse with Attouda, now Assar, and its site must be sought near this town, most probably at Kadi Keui, capital of a nahie in the sandjak of Denizli and the vilayet of Smyrna. Le Quien (Oriens christ., I, 809) names six bishops of Trapezopolis: Hierophilius, prior to 400; Asclepiades, present at the Council of Ephesus (431); John, at Chalcedon (451); Eugenius, at Constantinople (692); Zacharias, at Nicaea (787); Leo, at Constantinople (879). SMITH, Dict. of Greek and Rom. Geogr., s.v.; RAMSAY, Cities and Bishopries of Phrygia, 171 and passim; MULLER, notes on Ptolemy, ed. DIDOT, I, 822. S. PÉTRIDÈS Trappists Trappists The common name by which the Cistercians who follow the reform inaugurated by the Abbot de Rancé (b. 1626; d. 1700) in the Abbey of La Trappe, were known; and often now applied to the entire Order of Reformed Cistercians. Thus it cannot be said that there is an Order of Trappists; though if one were to speak of Trappist monks, he would be understood to refer to monks of the Order of Reformed Cistercians, as distinguished from the Order of Cistercians of the common Observance (see Cistercians and La Trappe). The primitive austerities of the cistercians had fallen into desuetude in practically the entire order principally through the introduction of commendatory abbots, political disturbances, and human inconstancy; and though many and very praiseworthy attempts at their restoration had been made in France, Spain, Germany, Italy, Portugal, etc., yet these were but local or at most national in extent. That of de Rancé, however, was destined by Divine Providence to be more enduring and of wider scope than any other. Although the Abbey of La Trappe flourished exceedingly, even after the death of its venerated reformer, as evidenced by more than 300 professions between the years 1714 and 1790, yet the spirit of materialism and sensualism rampant in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, did not permit the rapid extension of the reform outside its walls; it did not even allow the entire severity of ancient Cîteaux to be introduced at La Trappe, though this reform was the most thorough and perfect of the many attempts that had then been made. Consequently it founded but a small number of monasteries; these were: Buon-Solazzo, hear Florence (1705), and St. Vito at Rome (1709); Casamari, in the Papal States, was obliged to adopt the Constitutions of de Rancé (1717), but for nearly a century there was no further expansion. It was from the time of these earliest foundations that they who embraced de Rancés reform were called Trappists. Too much credit cannot be given to these noble bands of monks, who by their lives demonstrated to a corrupt world that man could have a higher ambition than the gratification of the mere natural instincts of this ephemeral life. At the time of the Revolution, when the monastery of La Trappe, in common with all others, was ordered to be confiscated by the Government, the people of the neighbourhood petitioned that an exception be made in their favour, and the Trappists themselves, encouraged by this, addressed a memorial to the National Assembly and the king considered the matter for nearly a year, but finally decided that they should be despoiled like the others. com augustine de Lestrange (b. 1754; d. 1827, see Lestrange), vicar-general of the Archdiocese of Vienna, had entered La Trappe (1780) in order to escape the burden of the episcopate. He it was whom God had raised up to preserve the Trappists when so direly threatened with extinction; he resolved, therefore, to expatriate himself for the welfare of his order. Having been elected superior of those who were of the same mind, and with the permission of his higher superiors, he left La Trappe 26 april, 1791, with twenty-four religious, and established a monastery at Val-Sainte, Canton of Fribourg, Switzerland. Here they had much to suffer besides the rigour of their rule, for their monastery (which had formerly belonged to the Carthusians) was an unroofed ruin; they were in want of the very necessities of life, not even having the meagre requirements they were accustomed to. In France the Revolution was taking its course. On 3 June, 1792, the commissioners of the Government arrived at La Trappe, took the sacred vessels and vestments, as well as everything moveable, and obliged the eighty-nine religious yet remaining to abandon their abbey and find a home as best they could; some in other monasteries, and others in charitable families of the neighbourhood. At Val-Sainte, whilst celebrating the feast of St. Stephen, the religious resolved to put into practice the exact and literal observance of the Rule of St. Benedict, and three days afterwards, 19 July, they began the new reform; establishing the order of exercises prescribed by the holy patriarch, as well as all the primitive fasts, together with the first usages of Cîteaux; even making their rule still more severe in many points. They entered upon their new mode of life with a fervour that exceeded discretion and had soon to be moderated. Even in their exile many subjects were attracted to them, so that they were enabled to send religious to found several new monasteries: one in Spain (1793), a second in England at Lulworth the same year, a third at Westmalle, Belgium (1794), and a fourth at Mont-Brac, in Piedmont (1794). On 31 July, 1794, Pius VI encouraged these religious by a special Brief, and authorized the erection of Val-Sainte into an abbey and mother-house of the congregation of Trappists. Dom Augustine was elected abbot, 27 Nov. of this year, and given supreme authority over the abbey and congregation. This state of quiet and prosperity lasted but six years. When the French invaded Switzerland (1798) they compelled the Trappists to find a refuge elsewhere; thus they were obliged to roam from country to country, even Russia and America being visited by the indomitable abbot and some of his companions, with the hope of finding a permanent home, until after almost incredible sufferings the fall of Napoleon permitted them to return to France. The monasteries of La Trappe and Aiguebelle came into the possess ion of Dom Augustine, who divided the community of Val-Sainte between them. Other monasteries were re-established from time to time, as the number of religious increased and as they were able to purchase the buildings. From 1813 N.-D. de l'Eternite, near Darfeld, Westphalia (founded 16 Oct., 1795, from the Abbey of Val-Sainte), which had been exempted some years previous from the authority of Dom Augustine, followed the Regulations of de Rancé, which differed from those of Dom Augustine principally in the hour for dinner, and the length of time devoted to manual labour; their order of exercises was naturally followed by the houses founded by them, thus instituting a new observance and the nucleus of a congregation. In 1834 the Holy See erected all the monasteries of France into the "Congregation of the Cistercian Monks of Notre-Dame de la Trappe". The Abbot of La Trappe was by right the vicar-general of the congregation as soon as his election was confirmed by the president-general of the Order of Cîteaux. They were to hold a general chapter each year; were to follow the Rule of St. Benedict and the Constitutions of de Rancé, except for a few points, and retain the liturgical books of the Cistercian Order. Divergences of opinion on several matters concerning regular observance induced the abbots of the various monasteries to believe that this union could not be productive of that peace so much desired, and so at their solicitation the Holy See issued a new Decree, deciding that "All the monasteries of Trappists in France shall form two congregations, of which the former will be termed 'the Ancient Reform of Our Lady of La Trappe', and the second the 'New Reform of Our Lady of La Trappe'. Each shall be a congregation of the Cistercian Monks. The Ancient Reform is to follow the Constitutions of de Rancé, whilst the New Reform is not to follow the Constitutions of the Abbot de Lestrange, which it abandoned in 1834, but the Rule of St. Benedict, with the ancient Constitution of Cîteaux, as approved by the Holy See excepting the prescriptions contained in this Decree. The Moderator General of the Cistercian Order shall be at the head of both congregations and will confirm the election of all abbots. In France each congregation shall have its vicar-general with full authority for its administration" (Apostolic Decree, 25 Feb., 1847). After this the congregations began to flourish. The Ancient Reform made fourteen foundations, some of them in China and Natal; the New Reform was even more fruitful, establishing twenty monasteries as far as the United States, Canada, Syria, etc. The Belgian congregation of Westmalle also prospered, forming five new filiations. As the combined strength of the three congregations thus became greater than the Old Cistercian Order, the earnest desire soon developed amongst all to establish a permanent bond of union between them, with one head and a uniform observance; this was effected in 1892. Dom Sebastian Wyart (b. 1839; d. 1904), Abbot of Sept-Fons and Vicar-General of the Ancient Reform, was elected first abbot-general. After twelve years of zealous labour, the most worthy monument of which was the purchase of the cradle of the Order, Cîteaux, and making it again the mother-house, he passed to his reward, and was succeeded as abbot-general by Mgr Augustin Marre, then Abbot of Igny (a monastery which he had governed since 1881), titular Bishop of Constance and auxiliary to Cardinal Langénieux of Reims; he is still ruling the order (1911), with the greatest zeal and prudence. The name under which the order was reorganized is "Order of Reformed Cistercians" and while its members no longer bear the name of "Trappists", yet they are heirs to the old traditions, and even the name will continue to be connected with them in the popular mind. The present Constitutions (approved 13 Aug. 1894) under which the order is governed and upon which all the usages and regulations are based, is derived from the Rule of St. Benedict, the "Charta Charitatis" and ancient usages and definitions of the general chapters of Cîteaux, and the Apostolic Letters and Constitutions. It is divided into three parts. The first part regards the government of the order; the supreme power residing in the general chapter, which is composed of all the abbots (actually in office), titular priors and superiors of houses, and meets each year under the presidency of the abbot-general, who is elected by themselves for life. During the time the general chapter is not in session the order is directed, in urgent cases, by the abbot-general with the assistance of a council composed of five definitors, also elected by the general chapter, but for a term of five years. The abbot-general is titular Abbot of Cîteaux, and must reside at Rome. The order is not divided into provinces, nor is there an officer similar to a provincial. Each monastery is autonomous and maintains its own novitiate; its abbot or titular prior appointing all local subordinate superiors, and having full administration in both spiritual and temporal affairs. Nevertheless each monastery has the duty of visiting all the houses it has founded, either once each year, or once every two years, according to distance, and then rendering a report of its material and spiritual well-being to the next subsequent general-chapter. The abbot of such a monastery is called the father-immediate, and the houses thus subject are termed "daughter-houses" or filiations. It is especially prescribed that all houses be dedicated to the Blessed Virgin. The second part is concerned with monastic observances; which must be uniform in all the monasteries of the order. The Divine Office must be sung or recited in choir according to the directions of the Breviary, Missal, Ritual and Martyrology, no matter how few may be the number of religious in a particular house; the canonical Office is always preceded (except at Compline, when it is followed) by the Office of the Blessed Virgin; and on all ferial days throughout the year Vespers and Lauds are followed by the Office of the Dead. Mass and the day Offices are always sung with the Gregorian Chant; Matins and Lauds also are sung on Sundays and the more solemn feasts. Mental prayer, one half-hour in the morning, and fifteen minutes in the evening, is of obligation, but of counsel much more frequently. Confession must be made once each week, and daily Holy Communion is strongly commended. Out of the time of Divine Office, before which nothing is to be preferred, and when not engaged in manual labour, the monks devote themselves to prayer, study, or pious reading, for there is never any time granted for recreation; these exercises always take place in common, never in private rooms. The hour for rising is at 2 a.m. on weekdays, 1:30 on Sundays, and 1 on the more solemn feasts; whilst the hour for retiring is at 7 p.m. in winter, and 8 in summer; in this latter season there is a siesta given after dinner, so that the religious have seven hours' sleeping the course of the day; about seven hours also are devoted to the Divine Office and Mass, one hour to meals, four hours to study and private prayers and five hours to manual labour; in winter there are only about four hours devoted to manual labour, the extra hour thus deducted being given to study. The monks are obliged to live by the labour of their hands, so the task appointed for manual labour is seriously undertaken, and is of such a nature as to render them self-supporting; such as cultivation of the land, cattle-raising, etc. Dinner is partaken of at 11 a.m. in summer, at 11:30 in winter, and at 12 on fast days, with supper or collation in the evening. Food consists of bread, vegetables, and fruits; milk and cheese may also be given except in Advent, Lent, and all Fridays out of Paschal time. flesh-meat, fish, and eggs are forbidden at all times, except to the sick. All sleep in a common dormitory, the beds being divided from each other only by a partition and curtain, the bed to consist of mattress and pillow stuffed with straw, and sufficient covering. The monks are obliged to sleep in their regular clothing; which consists of ordinary underwear, a habit of white, and a scapular of black wool, with a leathern cincture; the cowl, of the same material as the habit, is worn over all. Enclosure, according to canon law, is perpetual in all houses. It is never allowed for the religious to speak amongst themselves, though the one in charge of a work or employment may give necessary directions; and all have the right of conversing with the superiors at any time except during the night hours, called the "great silence". Studies Before ordination to the priesthood (and all choir religious are destined for that) the monk must pass a satisfactory examination before the abbot, in the curriculum prescribed by the order and the Decrees of the Holy See; and afterwards all are obliged to participate in conferences on theology and Sacred Scriptures at least once each month. Students preparing for ordination are granted extra time, during the hours of work, for the prosecution of their studies. The third part deals with the reception of subjects. The greatest care is insisted on to see that the postulants are of good character, honest birth, and without encumbrances of any kind; also that they have pursued the course of studies prescribed by the Holy See; they must have attained at least their fifteenth year. The novitiate is of two years' duration, during which time the novice is formed to the religious life, but he can leave, or the superior may send him away, if he is unable or unwilling to conform to the spirit of his vocation. The time of probation completed, the subject is voted for, and if accepted, makes simple, but perpetual vows; these are followed by solemn vows at the end of three, or in special cases, five years. Besides choir religious there are lay brothers. These must be at least seventeen years of age when received; they are then postulants for two years, novices for two more, after which they may be admitted to simple, though perpetual vows, then after six years more they may make solemn vows. They do not recite the Divine Office, but have special prayers appointed to be said at the same hours throughout the day. They are not obliged to follow special studies, but are engaged in manual labour for a somewhat longer time than the choir religious; their habit is nearly the same as that of those in the choir, but brown in colour. They are religious in the full sense of the word, and participate in all the graces and privileges of the order, except that they have neither active nor passive voice in the management of the affairs of the order. It may be well to deny a few customs that have been attributed, by ignorance, to the order. The monks do not salute one another by the "memento mori", nor do they dig a part of their grave each day; in meeting each other they salute by an inclination of the head, and graves are dug only after a brother is ready to be placed in it. (For statistics see Cistercians.) Gaillardin, Les trappistes ou l'order de Cîteaux au XIXe. (siecle Paris, 1844); Hist. populaire de N.-D. de la Grande Trappe (Paris, 1895); La Trappe, by a Trappist of Sept-Fons (Paris, 1870); VErite, Cîteaux, La Trappe et Bellefontaine (Paris, 1883); The Cistercian Order, its Object; its Rule (Cambridge, 1895); La Trappe, congregation de moines de l'ordre benedictino-cistercien (Rome 1864); M.P.P., La Trappe mieux connue (Paris, 1834); Reglements de la Maison Dieu de No.-D. de la Trappe mis en nouvel order et augmentes des usages particuliers de la Val-Sainte (2 vols., Fribourg, 1794); Hist. abregee de l'order de Cîteaux by a monk of Thymadeuse (St-Brieue, 1897); Us des cisterciens reformes de la congregation de la Grande Trappe, with the Charta Charitatis and Decretum Apostolicum quo institutae sunt dua congregationes B.M. de Trappa in Gallia, 1847 (Toulouse, 1876); Us de l'ordre des cisterciens reformes precedes de la regle de S. Benoit et des constitutions, published by the general chapter of 1894 (Westmalle, 1895); Reglement de la Trappe du Rev. Pere Dom Armand-Jean le Bouthillier de Rancé, revu par le chapitre general de la congregation (Paris, 1878). EDMOND M. OBRECHT Sts. Trasilla and Emiliana Sts. Trasilla and Emiliana Aunts of St. Gregory the Great, virgins in the sixth century, given in the Roman Martyrology, the former on 24 December, the latter on 5 January. St. Gregory (Hom. XXXVIII, 15, on the Gospel of St. Matthew, and Lib. Dial., IV, 16) relates that his father, the Senator Gordian, had three sisters who vowed themselves to God and led a life of virginity, fasting, and prayer in their own home on the Clivus Scauri in Rome. They were Trasilla (Tarsilla, Tharsilla, Thrasilla), Emiliana, and Gordiana. Gordiana, led on at first by the words and example of her sisters, did not persevere but returned to the vanities of the world. After many years in the service of God, St. Felix III, an ancestor, appeared to Trasilla and bade her enter her abode of glory. On the eve of Christmas she died, seeing Jesus beckoning. A few days later she appeared to Emiliana, who had followed well in her footsteps, and invited her to the celebration of Epiphany in heaven. Tradition says that their relics and those of their mother, St. Silvia, are in the Oratory of St. Andrew on the Celian Hill. FRANCES MERSHMAN Accusations of Treason Accusations of Treason A common misrepresentation concerning the Elizabethan persecution of English and Irish Catholics from 1570 onwards is the statement that the victims devoted to imprisonment, torture, and death suffered not for their religious belief but for treason against the queen and her government. This view, officially promulgated by Elizabeth's lord high treasurer, William Cecil, Lord Burghley, in 1583, was constantly reiterated by the judges in the courts, by Protestant writers in their controversial works, and has thence made its way into popular manuals of history. At the present day it frequently reappears as one of the stock accusations brought against the Church by Anglican controversialists of various types. The simple fact that in very many instances those condemned to death ostensibly for treason were offered their lives and liberty if they would attend Anglican worship, shows conclusively that the martyrs did in fact suffer for religion; but at this epoch religion and politics were so inextricably confused that this explanation, though valid in the case of individual martyrs, does not suffice to meet the general accusation. As a recent Anglican historian writes: "The vexed question whether the Romanists died for treason or for their faith implies an antithesis which had little meaning in that age of mingled politics and religion" (A.F. Pollard, "Political History of England", VI, 377). Everything centres round the excommunication of Elizabeth by St. Pius V, 25 February, 1570. This act created a situation full of perplexity for English Catholics. It even underlies the history of the rising of the northern earls in 1569, for when they rose they had reason to believe that the excommunication had already taken place. Harassed as they were, the Catholics would take no steps in defence of their rights till the pope declared that Elizabeth's misgovernment had so infringed the spiritual liberty of her subjects as to absolve them from their allegiance. Once this declaration was made a number of Catholics acted on it, and there was a certain section who under the influence of Mendoza and others were implicated in plots against Elizabeth which were undoubtedly treasonable from the Government's point of view. But they might well have urged that in so assailing the royal power they were doing no more against Elizabeth than Bolingbroke had done against Richard II, or Richmond against Richard III. Yet neither Henry IV nor Henry VII are usually branded as "traitors". The subsequent cases of Pym and Hampden, not to mention the successful revolutionaries of 1688, show that success or failure is often made the real test between treason and rebellion. That a certain party of English Catholics was in rebellion against Elizabeth is not disputed, but justified rebellion ceases to be treason and may be the noblest patriotism. Thus Allen with many of the exiles of Douai and Louvain, and Persons with many of the Jesuits, saw in the rule of Elizabeth a greater danger to the highest interests of England than had previously been threatened in cases where history had justified the deposition of kings. And the supreme authority had sanctioned this view. Moreover, such exercise of papal prerogative was one of the recognized principles of the Middle Ages throughout which it had served to protect the rights of the people. This became evident later, when, after the decline of papal power, the autocratic power of the European sovereigns was greatly increased and always at the expense of the people. Nevertheless, it remains true that in the eyes of Elizabeth and her ministers such opposition was nothing less than high treason. But a large number of English Catholics refused to go so far as rebellion. The historian already quoted admits that the opposition which relied on avowedly treasonable methods was "limited to extremists" (ibid., 297). Elsewhere he says of the rank and file of English Catholics: "They tried to ignore their painful dilemma between two forms of allegiance, for both of which they had deep respect" (p. 370). As Lingard writes: "among the English Catholics (the bull) served only to breed doubts, dissensions, and dismay. Many contended that it had been issued by an incompetent authority; others that it could not bind the natives till it should be carried into actual execution by some foreign power; all agreed that it was in their regard an imprudent and cruel expedient, which rendered them liable to the suspicion of disloyalty, and afforded their enemies a presence to brand them with the name of traitors" (ibid., 225). The terrible strain of this dilemma was relieved by the next pope, Gregory XIII, who on 14 April 1580, issued a declaration that though Elizabeth and her abettors remained subject to the excommunication, it was not to bind Catholics to their detriment. The large majority of English Catholics were relieved in conscience by this dispensation, and never gave the Government the least ground for suspecting their loyalty, but they persisted in the practice of their religion, which was made possible only by the coming of the seminary priests. With regard to these priests, who entered England at the risk of their lives to preserve the Catholic religion and to give facilities for Mass and the sacraments there could be no presumption of treason by the ancient laws of England. But in the panic which followed the Northern Rising, Parliament had passed a statute (13 Eliz. c. 2) declaring it to be high treason to put into effcet any papal Bull of absolution to absolve or reconcile any person to the Catholic Church, to be absolved or reconciled, or to procure or publish any papal Bull or writing whatsoever. Thus for the first time purely religious acts were declared by Parliament to be treasonable, a position which no Catholic could admit. It is clear that persons suffering under such a law as this suffered for religion and not for treason. Elizabeth's Government, however, for its own purposes refused to make any distinction between Catholics who had been engaged in open opposition to the queen and those who were forced by conscience to ignore the provisions of this statute of 1571. These two classes, really distinct, were purposely identified by the Government and treated as one for controversial purposes. For when the reports of so many bloody executions for religion began to horrify Europe, the queen's ministers adopted the defence that their severity was not exercised against Catholics as such, but as traitors guilty of treason against their sovereign. This view was put forward officially in a pamphlet by Lord Burghley, which was not only published in English but translated into Latin and other languages for foreign circulation. The very title of this work indicates its scope: "The Execution of Justice in England for maintenance of public and Christian peace, against certain stirrers of sedition and adherents to the traitors and enemies of the realm without any persecution of them for questions of religion, as is falsely reported, and published by the fautors and fosterers of their treasons." This pamphlet, which was issued on 17 December, 1583, may briefly be summarized. Attention is first drawn to late rebellions in England and Ireland which had been suppressed by the queen's power. Whereupon some of the defeated rebels had fled into foreign countries and there alleged that they were suffering for religion. Great stress is laid upon the Bull of excommunication; and all Catholics living abroad are represented as engaged in seditious practices with a view to carrying the Bull into effect. The seminaries are exhibited merely as foundations established to assist in this disloyal object. They have been "erected to nurse seditious fugitives". The priests who came forth at the risk of their lives are not given credit for any religious purpose, but "the seminary fugitives come secretly into the realm to induce the people to obey the Pope's bull". This view is important as it shows the pretext put forth by the Government to defend the Act of 1585 by which it became high treason for any seminary priest simply to come to England. The pamphlet proceeds to decIare that some of these "sowers of sedition" have been taken, convicted, and executed "not being ddealt withal upon questions of religion, but justly condemned as traitors". They were so condemned "by the ancient realm made 200 years past". Moreover, if they retracted their treasonable opinions their lives were spared. As "the foreign traitors continue sending of persons to move sedition in the realm" who cloak their real object of enforcing the Bulls under the pretext of religion and who "labour to bring the realm into a war external and domestical", it becomes the duty of the queen and her ministers to repel such rebellious practices. Burghley insists that before the excommunication no one had been charged with capital crimes on the ground of religion, and brings everything back to the question of the Bull. "And if then it be inquired for what cause these others have of late suffered death it is truely to be answered as afore is often remembered that none at all are impeached for treason to the danger of their life but such as do obstinately maintain the contents of the Pope's Bull aforementioned, which do import that her Majesty is not the lawful Queen of England, the first and highest point of treason, and that all her subjects are discharged of their oaths and obedience, another high point of treason. and all warranted to disobey her and her laws, a third and very large point of treason." A fourth point is taken from the refusal of the Catholics to disavow the pope's proceedings in Ireland. After many other points some of an historical nature addressed to foreign princes the writer anticipates the objection that many sufferers had been simple priests and unarmed scholars. He says "Many are traitors though they have no armour nor weapon." Such people are like spies, "necessary accessaries and adherents proper to further and continue all rebellions and wars. . . . The very causes final of these rebellions and wars have been to depose her Majesty from her crown: the causes instrumental are these kind of seminaries and seedmen of sedition. The pamphlet ends by proposing six questions or tests by which traitors might be distinguished from simple scholars. These interrogatories, known later as "the bloody questions", were ingeniously framed to entangle the victim into admissions with regard to the pope's action in excommunicating Elizabeth, which might be construed as treason. This is the government case and it was promptly answered by Allen in his "Answer to the Libel of English Justice", published in 1584, in which he joins issue on all points, showing "that many priests and other Catholics in England have been persecuted, condemned and executed for mere matter of religion and for transgression only of new statutes which make cases of conscience to be treason without all pretence or surmise of any old treasons or statutes for the same". He defends Campion and the other martyrs from the imputation of treason, points to the oppression of the Government and the prudent attitude of the Catholics with regard to the Bull; he explains the doctrine of the excommunication and deprivation of princes, the advantages of having a supreme authority to decide between princes and people in causes involving questions of deprivation; defends the pope's action in Ireland and concIudes by showing "that the separation of the prince and realm from the unity of the Church and See Apostolic and fall from Catholic religion is the only cause of all the present fears and dangers that the State seemeth to stand in. And that they unjustly attribute the same to the Pope's Holiness or Catholics and untruly call them the enemies of the Realm". In the following year, 1585, the Government took another step forward in their policy of drawing religious and indifferent acts into the political net. This was the statute 27 Eliz. c. 2, by which it was made high treason for any Jesuit or any seminary priest even to be in England, and felony for anyone to harbour or relieve them. Even so biased an historian as David Hume realized the injustice of this measure of which he says: "In the subsequent part of the queen's reign the law was sometimes executed by the capital punishment of priests; and though the partisans of that princess asserted that they were punished for their treason, not their religion, the apology must only be understood in this sense, that the law was enacted on account of the treasonable views and attempts of the sect, not that every individual who suffered the penalty of the law was convicted of treason" (Hist. of Eng., sub an 1584). The martyrs themselves constantly protested against this accusation of treason, and prayed for the queen on the scaffold. In very many instances they were offered a free pardon if they would attend the Protestant church, and some priests unfortunately yielded to the temptation. But the fact of the offer being made sufficiently shows that religion, not treason, was the ground of their offence. This is notably the ease with regard to Blessed Thomas Percy who had himself been the leader of the Northern Rising and who yet was offered his liberty at the price of conformity. There are three beatified martyrs directly connected with the excommunication, Felton, Storey, and Woodhouse, who for that reason stand in a class apart from the other martyrs; their cases have received special treatment by Father Pollen, S.J. (Camm's "Lives of the English Martyrs", II, xvii-xxii). It may not be amiss to state that so careful is the Holy See in such questions that the cause of beatification of James Laborne has been postponed for more careful consideration simply because of certain words he uttered about the queen. With regard to all the other martyrs there is no difficulty in showing that they died for their religion, and that the accusation of treason in their regard is false and unfounded. EDWIN BURTON Diocese of Trebizond Trebizond (TRAPEZUNTINA). An Armenian Catholic diocese. The city owes its ancient name to the fact that it was built on the shores of the Black Sea in the form of a trapeze. It was a Greek colony from Sinopus, established in the eighth century, B.C., and not a colony from Trapezus, in Arcadia, as Xenophon relates, who was received here with enthusiasm during the retreat of the Ten Thousand. After having formed a part of the Kingdom of Armenia, and then of that of Pontus, it fell into the hands of the Romans, and was declared a free city by Pompey. The Emperor Hadrian adorned it and endowed it with great commercial importance by creating its artificial harbor. Under Valerian the Goths took and pillaged it; its inhabitants were slain or sent as slaves to the Cimmerian Bosphorus. Justinian raised it from its ruins and thenceforth it became rich in monuments, especially churches and monasteries. In 1204 when Constantinople fell into the power of the Latins, a prince of the family of the Comneni, who in 1185 sought safety in Iberia, proclaimed himself Emperor of Trebizond under the name of Alexis, and founded a Greek empire, the rival of that of Nicaea. The new state comprised nearly all of the ancient Pontus Polemoniacus and stretched eastward as far as the River Phasis. It was in perpetual conflict with the Seljuk Turks and later with the Osmanli Turks, as well as with the Greeks of Nicaea and Constantinople, the Italian republics, and especially the Genoese. During the two centuries and a half in which it succeeded in subsisting the Empire of Trebizond contributed greatly to the development of Christian civilization and Greek literature in those distant parts, until then somewhat backward. In 1462 Trebizond was taken by assault by the troops of Mohammed II, and its last emperor, David, was exiled to the vicinity of Serrae in Macedonia. He was soon obliged to choose between embracing Islam or forfeiting his life; he kept the faith and was executed together with six of his children. The seventh fled to the Peloponnesus where he founded the Comneni of Morea. From 1204 to 1462 Trebizond had, in all, twenty emperors. At present Trebizond is the capital of the vilayet of the same name, bounded by those of Sivas and Erzeroum, the Black Sea, and Asiatic Russia, which after the war of 1877 absorbed a part of its territory. The vilayet measures about 270 miles from west to east by 65 miles at its extreme length; its area is 11,275 sq. miles. Its total population may be estimated at 900,000. The city itself has 50,000 inhabitants, among whom are 12,000 Greeks, 10,000 Armenians, some Jews, and a few hundred Catholics The remainder are Turkish Mussulmans, Lazis, Circassians, and Afghazis. Trebizond has a citadel, at least 40 mosques, 10 Greek churches, some of which have preserved ancient paintings, several Armenian churches, etc.; it carries on an active trade with Persia, Russia, and European countries by way of the black Sea. Close to the city are several Greek monasteries still inhabited, and which played a certain part in Byzantine history. The first traces of Christianity at Trebizond are found under Diocletian when St. Eugenius, still the patron of the city, St. Canoeists, and their companions were martyred. Among the saints of whom mention is still made were the Bishop St. Basil, tenth century (feast, 20 October), and St. Theodore Gabras, martyred about 1098 (feast, 2 October). At first merely a suffragan of Neocaesarea in Pontus Polemoniacus Trebizond became the metropolitan see of Lazica when the ancient metropolis, Phasis, was lost by the Byzantine Empire. At the end of the ninth century it had seven suffragans, which number continued to increase. The emperors of Trebizond profited by their political situation to secure privileges for the bishop of their capital. By an official act of 1 January, 1260, the Greek Patriarch of Nicaea, at the request of Michael VIII Paleologus, recognized a semi-independence of the Metropolitan of Trebizond. Thenceforth the titulars of this city went neither to Nicaea nor Constantinople to receive episcopal consecration from the patriarch; it was given them in their own church in the presence of a delegate from the patriarch who assisted at, or, if he were a bishop, presided at the ceremony. But the patriarch reserved to himself as formerly the ordinations of the other metropolitans or the autocephalous archbishops of the empire. Of course after the suppression of the Empire of Trebizond in 1462 the metropolitans of this city lost these privileges and were made like all the other metropolitans, in which condition they are at present. Le Quien (Oriens christ., I, 509-14) gives a list of eighteen Greek bishops of Trebizond, to which other names might be added. Among them Domnus, the oldest known, who assisted at the Council of Nicaea in 325; Atarbius, at Chalcedon in 451; Anthimus, the future Monophysite Patriarch of Constantinople, who deposed Pope St. Agapitus in 536; Dorotheus, who assisted at the Council of Florence (1439), and signed its decree of union; Cyril, who in 1653 was in Paris with the Dominican Pere Goar, and made a profession of Catholic faith at Rome. To these may be added the Bishop Ouranios who, according to an inscription (C.I.G., 8636), restored buildings in the year 542. In the Middle Ages, because of the Venetian and Genoese merchants and also because of the missionaries who went to evangelize the Khazars, Comans, and Tatars, a Latin see was established at Trebizond. The oldest-known titular was a Franciscan, Andronicus Comnenus, mentioned in 1289. In Le Quien (op. cit.. III, 1097-1100) and in Eubel (Hierarchia catholica medii aevi, I, 520) will be found the names of several other bishops from 1344 to 1437. The Latin diocese must have lasted until the capture of the city by Mohammed II. The Armenian Catholic diocese erected in 1850 by Pius IX, is of vast extent; it has 4300 faithful, 4 churches, 7 stations, 4 primary schools, 9 secular priests, and 4 Mechitarists. There are also Jesuits at Marsivan and Amasia, engaged exclusively with the Armenians; the Oblates of the Assumption are at Amasia for the same object. The Capuchins are established for the Latins at Trebizond, Samsun, and Ineboli, and are dependent on the delegate Apostolic at Constantinople; the Sisters of St. Joseph of the Apparition have a boarding-school at Trebizond. GAINSFORD, The Historic of Trebizonde (London, 1616); FALLMERAYER Gesch. des Kaisertums Trapezunt (Munich, 1827); FISCHER, Trapezunt u. seine Bedeutung in der Gesch. in Zeitschrift fur allgemeine Gesch., III (Stuttgart, 1886), 13-39: IDEM Trapezuns im 11 u. 1 Jahrhundert in Mitteilungen des Instituts fur ost. Geschichtsforsch. X, 77-127; KRUMBACHER Gesch. der byzantinischen Literatur (Munich, 1897), 1049-1051; MILLET, Les monasteres et les eglises de Trebizonde in Bulletin de correspondance hellenique XIX, 419-459; IDEM, Inscriptions byzantines de Trebizonde, op cit. XX, 498-501; STRZYGOWSKI Les chapiteaux de Sainte-Sophie d Trebizonde, op. cit., XIX, 517-522; PETIT, Acte synodal du patriarche Nicephore II sur les privileges du metropolitain de Trebizonde in Bulletin de l'institut arch. russe de Constantinople VIII, 163-171; Missiones catholica (Rome, 1897), 759. S. VAILHÉ Trebnitz Trebnitz A former abbey of Cistercian nuns, situated north of Breslau in Silesia. It was founded in 1203 by Duke Henry the Bearded of Silesia and his wife St. Hedwig. The story of its foundation relates that one Duke Henry when out hunting fell into a swamp from which he could not extricate himself. In return for the rescue from this perilous position he vowed to build the abbey. With St. Hedwig's consent, Bishop Ekbert of Bamberg, her brother, chose the first nuns that occupied the convent. The first abbess was Petrussa; she was followed by Gertrude, the daughter of St. Hedwig. Up to 1515 the abbesses were first princesses of the Piast House and afterwards members of the nobility. The abbey was richly endowed with lands by Duke Henry. When Hedwig became a widow she went to live at Trebnitz and was buried there. It is said that towards the end of the thirteenth century the nuns numbered 120. In 1672 there were 32 nuns and 6 lay sisters, in 1805 there were 23 nuns and 6 lay sisters. The abbey suffered from all kinds of misfortunes both in the Middle Ages and in modern times: from famine in 1315, 1338, 1434, and 1617, from disastrous fires in 1413, 1432, 1464, 1486, 1505, 1595, and 1782. At the Reformation most of the nuns were Poles, as were the majority until during the eighteenth century. The Abbey of Trebnitz suffered so greatly during the Thirty Years War that the nuns fled to Poland, as they did again in 1663 when the Turks threatened Silesia. The last abbess, Dominica von Giller, died on 17 August, 1810, and on 11 November, 1810, the abbey was suppressed and secularized. The building, which was very extensive, was sold later and turned into a cloth factory. It is now used as the mother-house of the Trebnitz Sisters of St. Charles Borromeo and as a hospital conducted by the sisters. The church, a basilica with pillars in the late Romanesque style, to which Baroque additions were made, is now the parish church. The grave of St. Hedwig is in the chapel of St. Hedwig to the right of the high altar. The grave of Duke Henry I, her husband, is in front of the altar. SCHMIDT, Gesch. des Klosterstiftes Trebnitz (Oppein, 1853); Bach., Gesch. und Beschreibung des Klosterstiftes in Trebnitz (Neisse, 1859); JUNGNITZ, Wahrfahrtsbuchlein fur Verehrer der hl. Hedwig (3d ed., Breslau, 1902). KLEMENS LÖFFLER Lettice Mary Tredway Lettice Mary Tredway (Called "Lady" Tredway) Born 1595; died Oct., 1677; daughter of Sir Walter Tredway, of Buckley Park, Northamptonshire; her mother was Elizabeth Weyman. In July, 1616, Lady Tredway entered the novitiate of the Canonesses Regular of the Lateran of Notre-Dame-de-Beaulieu at Sin, near Douai (where she was probably educated), and in Oct., 1617, made her solemn profession. In 1631 she and Miles Pinkney, better known as Father Carre, a priest of the English College at Douai, conceived the project of opening a house for canonesses for English subjects only at Douai. The idea was approved by the authorities at home and abroad, and in 1634 it was decided to open this English convent at Paris. Dr. Smith, Bishop of Chalcedon, then in exile in Paris, helped them so generously that he may be counted a co-founder. He blessed Lady Tredway as abbess, and the Convent of Notre-Dame-de-Sion was permanently established in the Rue des Fosses in 1639. Father Carre and Lady Tredway were also practically the founders of the Seminary of St. Gregory for training priests for the English Mission. A pension for English ladies and a school were attached to the new convent, of which Lady Tredway held the office of abbess till 1675, when her infirmities compelled her to resign. Since her death the superiors have held the title of prioress. For forty-one years this noble woman laboured bravely for her convent. The community has been obliged to leave France, and is established in England at Ealing (1912). CEDOZ, Un couvent de religieuses anglaises (1891); ALMOND, Les dames anglaises (Paris, 1911). FRANCESCA M. STEELE Francis Tregian Francis Tregian Confessor, b. in Cornwall, 1548; d. at Lisbon, 25 Sept., 1608. He was son of Thomas Tregian of Wolveden, Cornwall, and Catherine Arundell; and inherited property worth three thousand pounds a year, the whole of which was confiscated by Elizabeth becaused he had harboured Blessed Cuthbert Mayne (q.v.). Previously he had resided at Court in order to help the persecuted Catholics, and he is said by his biographer to have incurred the queen's displeasure by refusing her improper advances. After suffering imprisonment at Windsor and in various London prisons for twenty-eight years, he was liberated by James I, who banished him. Having visited Douai he retired to Madrid, where the King of Spain assigned him a pension. Seventeen years after death his body was found incorrupt, and miracles are stated to have been wrought by his intercession. He married Mary, daughter of Charles, seventh Lord Stourton, by whom he had eighteen children. PLUNKETT, Heroum speculum de vita D.D. Francisci Tregeon (Lisbon, 1655); ANONYMOUS, Great and Long Sufferings for the Catholic Faith of Mr. Francis Tregian, contemporary MS. printed by MORRIS in Troubles of Our Catholic Forefathers, I (London, 1872); CHALLONER, Memoirs of Missionary Priests, I (London, 1741); CAMM, Lives of the English Martyrs, II (London, 1905); Third Douay Diary in Catholic Record Society Publications, X (London, 1911); GILLOW, Bibl. Dict. Eng. Cath., s.v.; COOPER in Dict. Nat. Biog., s.v. EDWIN BURTON Tremithus Tremithus Titular see, suffragan of Salamis in Cyprus. The city is mentioned by Ptolemy (Geog., V, xiii, 6), Hierocles (ed. Buckhardt, 708, 7), George of Cyprus (ed. Gelzer, 1109), and other geographers. Among its bishops were: St. Spyridon, a shepherd and married, present at the council of Nicaea in 325, and whose cult is popular in the East (Anal. bolland., XXVI, 239); St. Arcadius and St. Nestor, venerated 14 Feb. or 7 March; Theopompus, at the Second Ecumenical Council in in 381; Theodore, at the Sixth Ecumenical Council in 681, and who wrote a biography of St. John Chrysostom (P.G., XLVII; 51-88); George, at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787; Spyridon in 1081, when the see was temporarily restored. The usurper Isaac Comnenus was defeated here in 1191 by Richard Coeur de Lion who afterwards took possession of Cyprus. The city was then destroyed and survives only in the Greek village of Trimethusia in the district of Chrysocho. LE QUIEN, Oriens christ., II, 1069-72; GELZER, Georgii Cyprii Descriptio orbis romani (Leipzig, 1890), 213; HACKETT, A History of the orthodox Church of Cyprus (London, 1901), 322 sqq. S. VAILHÉ Council of Trent Council of Trent The nineteenth ecumenical council opened at Trent on 13 December, 1545, and closed there on 4 December, 1563. Its main object was the definitive determination of the doctrines of the Church in answer to the heresies of the Protestants; a further object was the execution of a thorough reform of the inner life of the Church by removing the numerous abuses that had developed in it. I. CONVOCATION AND OPENING On 28 November, 1518, Luther had appealed from the pope to a general council because he was convinced that he would be condemned at Rome for his heretical doctrines. The Diet held at Nuremberg in 1523 demanded a "free Christian council" on German soil, and at the Diet held in the same city in 1524 a demand was made for a German national council to regulate temporarily the questions in dispute, and for a general council to settle definitely the accusations against Rome, and the religious disputes. Owing to the feeling prevalent in Germany the demand was very dangerous. Rome positively rejected the German national council, but did not absolutely object to holding a general council. Emperor Charles V forbade the national council, but notified Clement VII through his ambassadors that he considered the calling of a general council expedient and proposed the city of Trent as the place of assembly. In the years directly succeeding this, the unfortunate dispute between emperor and pope prevented any further negotiations concerning a council. Nothing was done until 1529 when the papal ambassador, Pico della Mirandola, declared at the Diet of Speyer that the pope was ready to aid the Germans in the struggle against the Turks, to urge the restoration of peace among Christian rulers, and to convoke a general council to meet the following summer. Charles and Clement VII met at Bologna in 1530, and the pope agreed to call a council, if necessary. The cardinal legate, Lorenzo Campeggio, opposed a council, convinced that the Protestants were not honest in demanding it. Still the Catholic princes of Germany, especially the dukes of Bavaria, favoured a council as the best means of overcoming the evils from which the Church was suffering; Charles never wavered in his determination to have the council held as soon as there was a period of general peace in Christendom. The matter was also discussed at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, when Campegio again opposed a council, while the emperor declared himself in favour of one provided the Protestants were willing to restore earlier conditions until the decision of the council. Charles's proposition met the approval of the Catholic princes, who, however, wished the assembly to meet in Germany. The emperor's letters to his ambassadors at Rome on the subject led to the discussion of the matter twice in the congregation of cardinals appointed especially for German affairs. Although opinions differed, the pope wrote to the emperor that Charles could promise the convoking of a council with his consent, provided the Protestants returned to the obedience of the Church. He proposed an Italian city, preferably Rome, as the place of assembly. The emperor, however, distrusted the pope, believing that Clement did not really desire a council. Meantime, the Protestant princes did not agree to abandon their doctrines. Clement constantly raised difficulties in regard to a council, although Charles, in accord with most of the cardinals, especially Farnese, del Monte, and Canisio, repeatedly urged upon him the calling of one as the sole means of composing the religious disputes. Meanwhile the Protestant princes refused to withdraw from the position they had taken up. Francis I, of France, sought to frustrate the convoking of the council by making impossible conditions. It was mainly his fault that the council was not held during the reign of Clement VII, for on 28 Nov., 1531, it had been unanimously agreed in a consistory that a council should be called. At Bologna in 1532, the emperor and the pope discussed the question of a council again and decided that it should meet as soon as the approval of all Christian princes had been obtained for the plan. Suitable Briefs addressed to the rulers were drawn up and legates were commissioned to go to Germany, France, and England. The answer of the French king was unsatisfactory. Both he and Henry VIII of England avoided a definitive reply, and the German Protestants rejected the conditions proposed by the pope. The next pope, Paul III (1534-49), as Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, had always strongly favoured the convening of a council, and had, during the conclave, urged the calling of one. When, after his election, he first met the Cardinals, 17 October, 1534, he spoke of the necessity of a general council, and repeated this opinion at the first consistory (13 November). He summoned distinguished prelates to Rome to discuss the matter with them. Representatives of Charles V and Ferdinand I also laboured to hasten the council. The majority of the cardinals, however, opposed the immediate calling of a council, and it was resolved to notify the princes of the papal decision to hold a church assembly. Nuncios were sent for this purpose to France, Spain, and the German king, Ferdinand. Vergerio, nuncio to Ferdinand, was also to apprise the German electors and the most distinguished of the remaining ruling princes personally of the impending proclamation of the council. He executed his commission with zeal, although he frequently met with reserve and distrust. The selection of the place of meeting was a source of much difficulty, as Rome insisted that the council should meet in an Italian city. The Protestant rulers, meeting at Smalkald in December, 1535, rejected the proposed council. In this they were supported by Kings Henry VIII and Francis I. At the same time the latter sent assurances to Rome that he considered the council as very serviceable for the extermination of heresy, carrying on, as regards the holding of a council, the double intrigue he always pursued in reference to German Protestantism. The visit of Charles V to Rome in 1536 led to a complete agreement between him and the pope concerning the council. On 2 June, Paul III published the Bull calling all patriarchs, archbishops, bishops, and abbots to assemble at Mantua on 23 May, 1537, for a general council. Cardinal legates were sent with an invitation to the council to the emperor, the King of the Romans, the King of France, while a number of other nuncios carried the invitation to the other Christian countries. The Netherlander Peter van der Vorst was sent to Germany to persuade the German ruling princes to take part. The Protestant rulers received the ambassador most ungraciously; at Smalkald they refused the invitation curtly, although in 1530 they had demanded a council. Francis I took advantage of the war that had broken out between himself and Charles in 1536 to declare the journey of the French bishops to the council impossible. Meanwhile preparations were carried on with zeal at Rome. The commission of reform, appointed in July, 1536, drew up a report as the basis for the correction of the abuses in ecclesiastical life; the pope began preparations for the journey to Mantua. The Duke of Mantua now raised objections against the holding of the assembly in his city and made conditions which it was not possible to accept at Rome. The opening of the council, therefore, was put off to 1 November; later it was decided to open it at Vicenza on 1 May, 1538. The course of affairs, however, was continually obstructed by Francis I. Nevertheless the legates who were to preside at the council went to Vicenza. Only six bishops were present. The French king and the pope met at Nice, and it was decided to prorogue until Easter, 1539. Soon after this the emperor also desired to postpone the council, as he hoped to restore religious unity in Germany by conferences with the Protestants. After further unsuccessful negotiations both with Charles V and Francis I the council was indefinitely prorogued at the consistory of 21 May, 1539, to reassemble at the pope's discretion. When Paul III and Charles V met at Lucca in September, 1541, the former again raised the question of the council. The emperor now consented that it should meet at Vicenza, but Venice would not agree, whereupon the emperor proposed Trent, and later Cardinal Contarini suggested Mantua, but nothing was decided. The emperor and Francis I were invited later to send the cardinals of their countries to Rome, so that the question of the council could be discussed by the college of cardinals. Morone worked in Germany as legate for the council, and the pope agreed to hold it at Trent. After further consultations at Rome, Paul III convoked on 22 May, 1542, an ecumenical council to meet at Trent on 1 Nov. of the same year. The Protestants made violent attacks on the council, and Francis I opposed it energetically, not even permitting the Bull of convocation to be published in his kingdom. The German Catholic princes and King Sigismund of Poland consented to the convocation. Charles V, enraged at the neutral position of the pope in the war that was threatening between himself and Francis I, as well as with the wording of the Bull, wrote a reproachful letter to Paul III. Nevertheless, preparations were made for the council at Trent, by special papal commissioners, and three cardinals were appointed later as conciliary legates. The conduct, however, of Francis I and of the emperor again prevented the opening of the council. A few Italian and German bishops appeared at Trent. The pope went to Bologna in March 1543, and to a conference with Charles V at Busseto in June, yet matters were not advanced. The strained relations which appeared anew between pope and emperor, and the war between Charles V and Francis I, led to another prorogation (6 July, 1543). After the Peace of Crespy (17 Sept., 1544) a reconciliation was effected between Paul III and Charles V. Francis I had abandoned his opposition and declared himself in favour of Trent as the place of meeting, as did the emperor. On 19 Nov., 1544, the Bull "Laetare Hierusalem" was issued, by which the council was again convoked to meet at Trent on 15 March, 1545. Cardinals Giovanni del Monte, Marcello Cervini, and Reginald Pole were appointed in February, 1545, as the papal legates to preside at the council. As in March only a few bishops had come to Trent, the date of opening had to be deferred again. The emperor, however, desired a speedy opening, consequently 13 December, 1545, was appointed as the date of the first formal session. This was held in the choir of the cathedral of Trent after the first president of the council, Cardinal del Monte, had celebrated the Mass of the Holy Ghost. When the Bull of convocation and the Bull appointing the conciliary legates were read, Cardinal del Monte declared the ecumenical council opened, and appointed 7 January as the date of the second session. Besides the three presiding legates there were present: Cardinal Madruzza, Bishop of Trent, four archbishops, twenty-one bishops, five generals of orders. The council was attended, in addition, by the legates of the King of Germany, Ferdinand, and by forty-two theologians, and nine canonists, who had been summoned as consultors. II. ORDER OF BUSINESS In the work of accomplishing its great task the council had to contend with many difficulties. The first weeks were occupied mainly with settling the order of business of the assembly. After long discussion it was agreed that the matters to be taken into consideration by the members of the council were to be proposed by the cardinal legates; after they had been drawn up by a commission of consultors (congregatio theologorum minorum) they were to be discussed thoroughly in preparatory sessions of special congregations of prelates for dogmatic questions, and similar congregations for legal questions (congregatio proelatorum theologorum and congregatio proelatorum canonistarum). Originally the fathers of the council were divided into three congregations for discussion of subjects, but this was soon done away with as too cumbersome. After all the preliminary discussions the matter thus made ready was debated in detail in the general congregation (congregatio generalis) and the final form of the decrees was settled on. These general congregations were composed of all bishops, generals of orders, and abbots who were entitled to a vote, the proxies of absent members entitled to a vote, and the representatives (oratores) of the secular rulers. The decrees resulting from such exhaustive debates were then brought forward in the formal sessions and votes were taken upon them. On 18 December the legates laid seventeen articles before the general congregations as regards the order of procedure in the subjects to be discussed. This led to a number of difficulties. The main one was whether dogmatic questions or the reform of church life should be discussed first. It was finally decided that both subjects should be debated simultaneously. Thus after the promulgation in the sessions of the decrees concerning the dogmas of the Church followed a similar promulgation of those on discipline and Church reform. The question was also raised whether the generals of orders and abbots were members of the council entitled to a vote. Opinions varied greatly on this point. Still, after long discussion the decision was reached that one vote for the entire order belonged to each general of an order, and that the three Benedictine abbots sent by the pope to represent the entire order were entitled to only one vote. Violent differences of opinion appeared during the preparatory discussion of the decree to be laid before the second session determining the title to be given the council; the question was whether there should be added to the title "Holy Council of Trent" (Sacrosancta tridentina synodus) the words "representing the Church universal" (universalem ecclesiam reproesentans). According to the Bishop of Fiesole, Braccio Martello, a number of the members of the council desired the latter form. However, such a title, although justified in itself, appeared dangerous to the legates and other members of the council on account of its bearing on the Councils of Constance and Basle, as it might be taken to express the superiority of the ecumenical council over the pope. Therefore instead of this formula the additional phrase " oecumenica et generalis" was proposed and accepted by nearly all the bishops. Only three bishops who raised the question unsuccessfully several times later persisted in wanting the formula "universalem ecclesiam reproesentans". A further point was in reference to the proxies of absent bishops, namely, whether these were entitled to a vote or not. Originally the proxies were not allowed a vote; Paul III granted to those German bishops who could not leave their dioceses on account of religious troubles, and to them alone, representation by proxies. In 1562, when the council met again, Pius IV withdrew this permission. Other regulations were also passed, in regard to the right of the members to draw the revenues of their dioceses during the session of the council, and concerning the mode of life of the members. At a later date, during the third period of the council, various modifications were made in these decisions. Thus the theologians of the council, who had grown in the meantime into a large body, were divided into six classes, each of which received a number of drafts of decrees for discussion. Special deputations also were often appointed for special questions. The entire regulation of the debates was a very prudent one, and offered every guarantee for an absolutely objective and exhaustive discussion in all their bearings of the questions brought up for debate. A regular courier service was maintained between Rome and Trent, so that the pope was kept fully informed in regard to the debates of the council. III. THE WORK AND SESSIONS A. First Period at Trent Among the fathers of the council and the theologians who had been summoned to Trent were a number of important men. The legates who presided at the council were equal to their difficult task; Paceco of Jaen, Campeggio of Feltre, and the Bishop of Fiesole already mentioned were especially conspicuous among the bishops who were present at the early sessions. Girolamo Seripando, General of the Augustinian Hermits, was the most prominent of the heads of the orders; of the theologians, the two learned Dominicans, Ambrogio Catarino and Domenico Soto, should be mentioned. After the formal opening session (13 December, 1545), the various questions pertaining to the order of business were debated; neither in the second session (7 January, 1546) nor in the third (4 February, 1546) were any matters touching faith or discipline brought forward. It was only after the third session, when the preliminary questions and the order of business had been essentially settled, that the real work of the council began. The emperor's representative, Francisco de Toledo, did not reach Trent until 15 March, and a further personal representative, Mendoza, arrived on 25 May. The first subject of discussion which was laid before the general congregation by the legates on 8 February was the Scriptures as the source of Divine revelation. After exhaustive preliminary discussions in the various congregations, two decrees were ready for debate at the fourth session (8 April, 1546), and were adopted by the fathers. In treating the canon of Scripture they declare at the same time that in matters of faith and morals the tradition of the Church is, together with the Bible, the standard of supernatural revelation; then taking up the text and the use of the sacred Books they declare the Vulgate to be the authentic text for sermons and disputations, although this did not exclude textual emendations. It was also determined that the Bible should be interpreted according to the unanimous testimony of the Fathers and never misused for superstitious purposes. Nothing was decided in regard to the translation of the Bible in the vernaculars. In the meantime earnest discussions concerning the question of church reform had been carried on between the pope and the legates, and a number of items had been suggested by the latter. These had special reference to the Roman Curia and its administration, to the bishops, the ecclesiastical benefices and tithes, the orders, and the training of the clergy. Charles V wished the discussion of the dogmatic questions to be postponed, but the council and the pope could not agree to that, and the council debated dogmas simultaneously with decrees concerning discipline. On 24 May the general congregation took up the discussion of original sin, its nature, consequences, and cancellation by baptism. At the same time the question of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin was brought forward, but the majority of the members finally decided not to give any definite dogmatic decision on this point. The reforms debated concerned the establishment of theological professorships, preaching, and episcopal obligation of residence. In reference to the latter the Spanish bishop, Paceco, raised the point whether this obligation was of Divine origin, or whether it was merely an ecclesiastical ordinance of human origin, a question which led later to long and violent discussions. In the fifth session (17 June, 1546) the decree on the dogma of original sin was promulgated with five canons (anathemas) against the corresponding erroneous doctrines; and the first decree on reform (de reformatione) was also promulgated. This treats (in two chapters) of professorships of the Scriptures, and of secular learning (artes liberales), of those who preach the Divine word, and of the collectors of alms. For the following session, which was originally set for 29 July, the matters proposed for general debate were the dogma of justification as the dogmatic question and the obligation of residence as regards bishops as the disciplinary decree; the treatment of these questions was proposed to the general congregation by the legates on 21 June. The dogma of justification brought up for debate one of the fundamental questions which had to be discussed with reference to the heretics of the sixteenth century, and which in itself presented great difficulties. The imperial party sought to block the discussion of the entire matter, some of the fathers were anxious on account of the approaching war of Charles V against the Protestant princes, and there was fresh dissension between the emperor and the pope. However, the debates on the question were prosecuted with the greatest zeal; animated, at times even stormy, discussions took place; the debate of the next general session had to be postponed. No less than sixty-one general congregations and forty-four other congregations were held for the debate of the important subjects of justification and the obligation of residence, before the matters were ready for the final decision. At the sixth regular session on 13 January, 1547, was promulgated the masterly decree on justification (de justificatione), which consisted of a prooemium or preface and sixteen chapters with thirty-three canons in condemnation of the opposing heresies. The decree on reform of this session was one in five chapters respecting the obligation of residence of bishops and of the occupants of ecclesiastical benefices or offices. These decrees make the sixth session one of the most important and decisive of the entire council. The legates proposed to the general congregation as the subject-matter for the following session, the doctrine of the Church as to the sacraments, and for the disciplinary question a series of ordinances respecting both the appointment and official activities of bishops, and on ecclesiastical benefices. When the questions had been debated, in the seventh session (3 March, 1547), a dogmatic decree with suitable canons was promulgated on the sacraments in general (thirteen canons), on baptism (fourteen canons), and on confirmation (three canons); a decree on reform (in fifteen chapters) was also enacted in regard to bishops and ecclesiastical benefices, in particular as to pluralities, visitations, and exemptions, concerning the founding of infirmaries, and as to the legal affairs of the clergy. Before this session was held the question of the prorogation of the council or its transfer to another city had been discussed. The relations between pope and emperor had grown even more strained; the Smalkaldic War had begun in Germany; and now an infectious disease broke out in Trent, carrying off the general of the Franciscans and others. The cardinal legates, therefore, in the eighth session (11 March, 1547) proposed the transfer of the council to another city, supporting themselves in this action by a Brief which had been given them by the pope some time before. The majority of the fathers voted to transfer the council to Bologna, and on the following day (12 March) the legates went there. By the ninth session the number of participants had risen to four cardinals, nine archbishops, forty-nine bishops, two proxies, two abbots, three generals of orders, and fifty theologians. B. Period at Bologna The majority of the fathers of the council went with the cardinal legates from Trent to Bologna; but fourteen bishops who belonged to the party of Charles V remained at Trent and would not recognize the transfer. The sudden change of place without any special consultation beforehand with the pope did not please Paul III, who probably foresaw that this would lead to further severe difficulties between himself and the emperor. As a matter of fact Charles V was very indignant at the change, and through his ambassador Vaga protested against it, vigorously urging a return to Trent. The emperor's defeat of the Smalkaldic League increased his power. Influential cardinals sought to mediate between the emperor and the pope, but the negotiations failed. The emperor protested formally against the transfer to Bologna, and, refusing to permit the Spanish bishops who had remained at Trent to leave that city, began negotiations again with the German Protestants on his own responsibility. Consequently at the ninth session of the council held at Bologna on 21 April, 1547, the only decree issued was one proroguing the session. The same action was all that was taken in the tenth session on 2 June, 1547, although there had been exhaustive debates on various subjects in congregations. The tension between the emperor and the pope had increased despite the efforts of Cardinals Sfondrato and Madruzzo. All negotiations were fruitless. The bishops who had remained at Trent had held no sessions, but when the pope called to Rome four of the bishops at Bologna and four of those at Trent, the latter said in excuse that they could not obey the call. Paul III had now to expect extreme opposition from the emperor. Therefore, on 13 September, he proclaimed the suspension of the council and commanded the cardinal legate del Monte to dismiss the members of the council assembled at Bologna; this was done on 17 September. The bishops were called to Rome, where they were to prepare decrees for disciplinary reforms. This closed the first period of the council. On 10 Nov., 1549, the pope died. C. Second Period at Trent The successor of Paul III was Julius III (1550-55), Giovanni del Monte, first cardinal legate of the council. He at once began negotiations with the emperor to reopen the council. On 14 Nov., 1550, he issued the Bull "Quum ad tollenda," in which the reassembling at Trent was arranged. As presidents he appointed Cardinal Marcellus Crescentius, Archbishop Sebastian Pighinus of Siponto, and Bishop Aloysius Lipomanni of Verona. The cardinal legate reached Trent on 29 April, 1551, where, besides the bishop of the city, fourteen bishops from the countries ruled by the emperor were in attendance; several bishops came from Rome, where they had been staying, and on 1 May, 1551, the eleventh session was held. In this the resumption of the council was decreed, and 1 September was appointed as the date of the next session. The Sacrament of the Eucharist and drafts of further disciplinary decrees were discussed in the congregations of the theologians and also in several general congregations. Among the theologians were Lainez and Salmeron, who had been sent by the pope, and Johannes Arza, who represented the emperor. Ambassadors of the emperor, King Ferdinand, and Henry II of France were present. The King of France, however, was unwilling to allow any French bishop to go to the council. In the twelfth session (1 Sept., 1551) the only decision was the prorogation until 11 October. This was due to the expectation of the arrival of other German bishops, besides the Archbishops of Mainz and Trier who were already in attendance. The thirteenth session was held on 11 Oct., 1551; it promulgated a comprehensive decree on the Sacrament of the Eucharist (in eight chapters and eleven canons) and also a decree on reform (in eight chapters) in regard to the supervision to be exercised by bishops, and on episcopal jurisdiction. Another decree deferred until the next session the discussion of four articles concerning the Eucharist, namely, Communion under the two species of bread and wine and the Communion of children; a safe-conduct was also issued for Protestants who desired to come to the council. An ambassador of Joachim II of Brandenburg had already reached Trent. The presidents laid before the general congregation of 15 October drafts of definitions of the Sacraments of Penance and Extreme Unction for discussion. These subjects occupied the congregations of theologians, among whom Gropper, Nausea, Tapper, and Hessels were especially prominent, and also the general congregations during the months of October and November. At the fourteenth session, held on 25 November, the dogmatic decree promulgated contained nine chapters on the dogma of the Church respecting the Sacrament of Penance and three chapters on extreme unction. To the chapters on penance were added fifteen canons condemning heretical teachings on this point, and four canons condemning heresies to the chapters on unction. The decree on reform treated the discipline of the clergy and various matters respecting ecclesiastical benefices. In the meantime, ambassadors from several Protestant princes and cities reached Trent. They made various demands, as: that the earlier decisions which were contrary to the Augsburg Confession should be recalled; that debates on questions in dispute between Catholics and Protestants should be deferred; that the subordination of the pope to an ecumenical council should be defined; and other propositions which the council could not accept. Since the close of the last session both the theologians and the general congregations had been occupied in numerous assemblies with the dogma of the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass and of the ordination of priests, as well as with plans for new reformatory decrees. At the fifteenth session (25 January, 1552), in order to make some advances to the ambassadors of the Protestants, the decisions in regard to the subjects under consideration were postponed and a new safe-conduct, such as they had desired, was drawn up for them. Besides the three papal legates and Cardinal Madruzzo, there were present at Trent ten archbishops and fifty-four bishops, most of them from the countries ruled by the emperor. On account of the treacherous attack made by Maurice of Saxony on Charles V, the city of Trent and the members of the council were placed in danger; consequently, at the sixteenth session (23 April, 1552) a decree suspending the council for two years was promulgated. However, a considerably longer period of time elapsed before it could resume its sessions. D. Third Period at Trent Julius III did not live to call the council together again. He was followed by Marcellus II (1555), a former cardinal legate at Trent, Marcello Cervino; Marcellus died twenty-two days after his election. His successor, the austere Paul IV (1555-9), energetically carried out internal reforms both in Rome and in the other parts of the Church; but he did not seriously consider reconvening the council. Pius IV (1559-65) announced to the cardinals shortly after his election his intention of reopening the council. Indeed, he had found the right man, his nephew, the Cardinal Archbishop of Milan, Charles Borromeo, to complete the important work and to bring its decisions into customary usage in the Church. Great difficulties were raised once more on various sides. The Emperor Ferdinand desired the council, but wished it to be held in some German city, and not at Trent; moreover he desired it to meet not as a continuation of the earlier assembly but as a new council. The King of France also desired the assembling of a new council, but he did not wish it at Trent. The Protestants of Germany worked in every way against the assembling of the Council. After long negotiations Ferdinand, the Kings of Spain and Portugal, Catholic Switzerland, and Venice left the matter to the pope. On 29 Nov., 1560, the Bull "Ad ecclesiae regimen," by which the council was ordered to meet again at Trent at Easter, 1561, was published. Notwithstanding all the efforts of the papal nuncios, Delfino and Commendone, the German Protestants persisted in their opposition. Cardinal Ercole Gonzaga was appointed president of the council; he was to be assisted by the cardinal legates Stanislaus Hosius, Jacobus Puteus (du Puy), Hieronymus Seripando, Luigi Simonetta, and Marcus Siticus of Altemps. As the bishops made their appearance very slowly, the opening of the council was delayed. Finally on 18 Jan., 1562, the seventeenth session was held; it proclaimed the revocation of the suspension of the council and appointed the date for the next session. There were present, besides the four cardinal legates, one cardinal, three patriarchs, eleven archbishops, forty bishops, four abbots, and four generals of orders; in addition thirty-four theologians were in attendance. The ambassadors of the princes were a source of much trouble to the presidents of the council and made demands which were in part impossible. The Protestants continued to calumniate the assembly. Emperor Ferdinand wished to have the discussion of dogmatic questions deferred. At the eighteenth session (25 Feb., 1562) the only matters decided were the publication of a decree concerning the drawing up of a list of forbidden books and an agreement as to a safe-conduct for Protestants. At the next two sessions, the nineteenth on 14 May, and the twentieth on 4 June, 1562, only decrees proroguing the council were issued. The number of members had, it is true, increased, and various ambassadors of Catholic rulers had arrived at Trent, but some princes continued to raise obstacles both as to the character of the council and the place of meeting. Emperor Ferdinand sent an exhaustive plan of church reform which contained many articles impossible to accept. The legates, however, continued the work of the assembly, and presented the draft of the decree on Holy Communion, which treated especially the question of Communion under both species, as well as drafts of several disciplinary decrees. These questions were subjected to the usual discussions. At the twenty-first session (16 July, 1562) the decree on Communion under both species and on the Communion of children was promulgated in four chapters and four canons. A decree upon reformation in nine chapters was also promulgated; it treated ordination to the priesthood, the revenues of canons, the founding of new parishes, and the collectors of alms. Articles on the Sacrifice of the Mass were now laid before the congregations for discussion; in the following months there were long and animated debates over the dogma. At the twenty-second session, which was not held until 17 Sept., 1562, four decrees were promulgated: the first contained the dogma of the Church on the Sacrifice of the Mass (in nine chapters and nine canons); the second directed the suppression of abuses in the offering of the Holy Sacrifice; a third (in eleven chapters) treated reform, especially in regard to the morals of the clergy, the requirements necessary before ecclesiastical offices could be assumed, wills, the administration of religious foundations; the fourth treated the granting of the cup to the laity at Communion, which was left to the discretion of the pope. The council had hardly ever been in as difficult a position as that in which it now found itself. The secular rulers made contradictory and, in part, impossible demands. At the same time warm debates were held by the fathers on the questions of the duty of residence and the relations of the bishops to the pope. The French bishops who arrived on 13 November made several dubious propositions. Cardinals Gonzaga and Seripando, who were of the number of cardinal legates, died. The two new legates and presidents, Morone and Navagero, gradually mastered the difficulties. The various points of the dogma concerning the ordination of priests were discussed both in the congregations of the eighty-four theologians, among whom Salmeron, Soto, and Lainez were the most prominent, and in the general congregations. Finally, on 15 July, 1563, the twenty-third session was held. It promulgated the decree on the Sacrament of Orders and on the ecclesiastical hierarchy (in four chapters and eight canons), and a decree on reform (in eighteen chapters). This disciplinary decree treated the obligation of residence, the conferring of the different grades of ordination, and the education of young clerics (seminarists). The decrees which were proclaimed to the Church at this session were the result of long and arduous debates, in which 235 members entitled to a vote took part. Disputes now arose once more as to whether the council should be speedily terminated or should be carried on longer. In the meantime the congregations debated the draft of the decree on the Sacrament of Matrimony, and at the twenty-fourth session (11 Nov., 1563) there were promulgated a dogmatic decree (with twelve canons) on marriage as a sacrament and a reformatory decree (in ten chapters), which treated the various conditions requisite for contracting of a valid marriage. A general decree on reform (in twenty-one chapters) was also published which treated the various questions connected with the administration of ecclesiastical offices. The desire for the closing of the council grew stronger among all connected with it, and it was decided to close it as speedily as possible. A number of questions had been discussed preliminarily and were now ready for final definition. Consequently in the twenty-fifth and final session, which occupied two days (3-4 December, 1563), the following decrees were approved and promulgated: on 3 December a dogmatic decree on the veneration and invocation of the saints, and on the relics and images of the same; a decree on reform (in twenty-two chapters) concerning monks and nuns; a decree on reform, treating of the mode of life of cardinals and bishops, certificates of fitness for ecclesiastics, legacies for Masses, the administration of ecclesiastical benefices, the suppression of concubinage among the clergy, and the life of the clergy in general. On 4 December the following were promulgated: a dogmatic decree on indulgences; a decree on fasts and feast days; a further decree on the preparation by the pope of editions of the Missal, the Breviary, and a catechism, and of a list of forbidden books. It was also declared that no secular power had been placed at a disadvantage by the rank accorded to its ambassadors, and the secular rulers were called upon to accept the decisions of the council and to execute them. Finally, the decrees passed by the council during the pontificates of Paul III and Julius III were read and proclaimed to be binding. After the fathers had agreed to lay the decisions before the pope for confirmation, the president, Cardinal Morone, declared the council to be closed. The decrees were subscribed by two hundred and fifteen fathers of the council, consisting of four cardinal legates, two cardinals, three patriarchs, twenty-five archbishops, one hundred and sixty-seven bishops, seven abbots, seven generals of orders, and also by nineteen proxies for thirty-three absent prelates. The decrees were confirmed on 26 Jan., 1564, by Pius IV in the Bull "Benedictus Deus," and were accepted by Catholic countries, by some with reservations. The Ecumenical Council of Trent has proved to be of the greatest importance for the development of the inner life of the Church. No council has ever had to accomplish its task under more serious difficulties, none has had so many questions of the greatest importance to decide. The assembly proved to the world that notwithstanding repeated apostasy in church life there still existed in it an abundance of religious force and of loyal championship of the unchanging principles of Christianity. Although unfortunately the council, through no fault of the fathers assembled, was not able to heal the religious differences of western Europe, yet the infallible Divine truth was clearly proclaimed in opposition to the false doctrines of the day, and in this way a firm foundation was laid for the overthrow of heresy and the carrying out of genuine internal reform in the Church. J.P. KIRSCH Trent Trent (TRIDENTUM; TRIDENTINA). Diocese; suffragan of Salzburg. Trent became universally known through the famous general council held there from 1545 to 1563. At an earlier date, however, it had a certain historical importance. In 15 B.C. its territory became subject to the Romans. As early as 381 there appeared at the Council of Aquileia Abundantius, Bishop of Trent. While Arianism and the barbarian invasions elsewhere smothered the seed of the gospel, it grew in Trent under the care and protection of St. Vigilius. Bishop Valerian of Aquileia had consecrated the youthful Vigilius, while the great Ambrose of Milan had instructed him as to his duties in lengthy, fatherly, epistles. Vigilius came to his end prematurely; he was stoned to death when barely forty years of age. In the sixth century during the Three Chapters controversy, the Provinces of Milan and Aquileia continued in schism even after Popes Vigilius and Pelagius I had recognized the decrees of the Council of Constantinople; through the Patriarch of Aquileia the bishops of Trent also persisted in the schism. Placed between Germany and Italy, Trent was exposed to the influences of both. Ecclesiastically it remained subject to Aquileia until 1751, but in political affairs it could not withstand the power of the Salic and Saxon kings and emperors. Under the first Franconian king, Bishop Ulrich II became an independent prince of the empire, with the powers and privileges of a duke. In consideration of imperial favour the bishops of Trent sided with Henry IV and Frederick I during the great struggle between the Church and the Empire, but in such a skilful manner so as to avoid a rupture with the pope. Bishop Adelbert is even revered as a saint, although he sided with the antipope Victor IV, who had been chosen by the emperor; in those times of confusion it was often difficult to find the right path. He died a martyr in defence of the rights of his see (1177). Under Innocent III, Friedrich von Wanga raised Trent to the height of its power and influence. He was a great temporal and ecclesiastical ruler. He used every means to kindle and strengthen the religious spirit, and began the building of the splendid Romanesque cathedral. He died at Acre in 1218 during the Fourth Crusade. The untimely death of Meinhard III, son of Margaret of Tyrol, brought Trent under the rule of Austria in 1363. In 1369 Rudolph IV concluded a treaty with Bishop Albrecht II of Ortenburg, by virtue of which Rudolph became the real sovereign of the diocese. The bishop promised in his own name and in that of his successors to acknowledge the duke and his heirs as lords, and to render assistance to them against their enemies. Thereafter Trent ceased to be an independent principality, and became a part of the Tyrol. Ortenburg's successor was George I of Liechtenstein, who endeavoured to regain its independence for the see. His efforts involved him in several wars, terminated only by his death in 1419. More than once during these wars he was taken prisoner, while the duke was excommunicated and the see interdicted. The much discussed story of the death of St. Simon of Trent belongs to the reign of Prince-Bishop Johannes IV Hinderbach. On Holy Thursday of the year 1475, the little child, then about 20 months old, son of a gardener, was missed by its parents. On the evening of Easter Sunday the body was found in a ditch. Several Jews, who were accused of the murder, were cruelly tortured. The sixteenth century was a time of trouble and worry for the Church in the Tyrol. In the towns the Lutherans, in the villages and among the peasants the Anabaptists, multiplied. After many ineffectual efforts, the sovereign, bishops and several monastic orders combined their authority, and a new order set in, which reached its climax in the Council of Trent. At the time of the council Cardinal Christoph von Madrutz was prince-bishop. He was succeeded by three members of his house, with the last of whom the house of Madrutz died out. The decrees of the council were executed but slowly. In 1593 Cardinal Ludwig von Madrutz founded the seminary, which later was conducted by the Somaschi. The Jesuits came to Trent in 1622. Peter Vigil, Count of Thun, governed the see during the Josephite reforms, with which he was in sympathy. He abolished some of the monasteries in his territory, interfered with the constitutions of the various orders, and closed some churches. When the patriarchate of Aquileia ceased to exist in 1751, Trent became exempt. During the administration of his successor, Emmanuel Maria Count of Thun, it ceased to be an independent ecclesiastical principality (1803). The Bavarian Government insisted on the following: (1) priests were to be ordained only after an examination at the university; (2) the bishops were to order their clergy to obey all orders of the Government in connection with the ecclesiastical police; (3) when filling benefices a list of three names was to be presented by the bishop to the Government or by the Government to the bishop; (4) recourse to Rome or combination with other bishops was forbidden. Bishop Emmanuel replied that he would remain true to his oath to support and defend the privileges of the Church, and that he would rather suffer all the consequences which might arise from his refusal rather than act against his conscience. He was expelled in 1807 and crossed the frontier into Salzburg at Reichenhall. He could only return after the Tyrolese had freed themselves of the Bavarian yoke. After the Peace of Viena negotiation were begun relative to the circumscription of the dioceses of the Tyrol, and were concluded in 1825. Trent was made a suffragan of Salzburg, and the bishops, instead of being chosen by the chapter, were appointed by the emperor. The 115th Bishop of Trent was Johann Nepomuk Tschiderer. He died on 12 March, 1860, and his canonization is already under way. The diocese numbers 602,000 Catholics, 1072 priests, 817 male religious, and 1527 nuns. Acta Tirolensia, urkundliche Quellen zur Geschichte Tirols (2 vols., 1886, 1899); KINK, Urkundenbuch des Hochstiftes Trient in Fontes rerum Austriacarum, II (5 vols., Vienna, 1812); ATZ, Der deutsche Anteil des Bistums Trient (Bozen, 1879); Austria sancta: Die Heiligen und Seligen Tirols. (Vienna, 1910); RONELLI, Notizie istorice-critiche delle Chiese di Trento (3 vols., Trent, 1761); PINCIUS, De vitis Pontificum Tridentinorum, lib. XII (Mantua, 1546); Kurze Geschichte des Bistums und der Bischofe von Trient (Bozen, 1852). C. WOLFSGRUBER Trenton Trenton (Trentonensis). Diocese created 15 July, 1881, suffragan of New York, comprises Atlantic, Burlington, Camden, Cape May, Cumberland, Gloucester, Hunterdon, Mercer, Middlesex, Monmouth, Ocean, Salem, Somerset, and Warren counties in the State of New Jersey, U.S.A., an area of about 5,756 square miles. From 1808 to 1853 the territory now occupied by the Diocese of Trenton covered the lower sections of what was then known as East and West Jersey, the former belonging to the jurisdiction of New York and the latter to Philadelphia. In 1853 the Diocese of Newark was formed, and the entire State of New Jersey was placed under Bishop James Roosevelt Bayley, afterwards Archbishop of Baltimore. The Diocese of Trenton lies between New York and Philadelphia and has within its confines all the sea coast from Sandy Hook to Cape May Point, whereon thirty churches have been built to accommodate the summer visitors to the Jersey coast. The first Mass said within its territory was celebrated at Woodbridge, about 1672, and the city of Trenton, in 1814, witnessed the formation of the first congregation and the erection of the first church. The first bishop was the Right Rev. Michael Joseph O'Farrell (b. at Limerick, Ireland, 2 December, 1832; d. 2 April, 1894). Bishop O'Farrell completed his classics and philosophy at All Hallows College, Dublin, and went to St-Sulpice, Paris, where he made his theology course. He became a Sulpician and was ordained in his native city by the Most Rev. Dr. Ryan, 18 Aug., 1855. His superiors sent him to Montreal, Canada, where he taught dogmatic theology at the Grand Seminary. He left the Congregation of St-Sulpice and was made rector of St. Peter's Church, New York City. He took up the work of organizing the new diocese of Trenton with fifty-one priests, sixty-nine churches, and a Catholic population of about forty thousand. Soon new parishes and missions were formed, an orphan asylum was opened at New Brunswick, and a home for the aged at Beverly. At the Third Council of Baltimore Bishop O'Farrell was considered one of the most eloquentr speakers in the American hierarchy. He wrote pastoral letters on Christian marriage and Christian education. His remains were at first interred in the cathedral cemetery, Trenton, but in 1905 were transferred to a vault in the chapel of St. Michael's Orphan Asylum, Hopewell, New Jersey. Bishop O'Farrell was succeeded by his chancellor and vicar-general, the Right Rev. James Augustine McFaul (b. near Larne, Co. Antrim, Ireland, 6 June, 1850), the second and present Bishop of Trenton. The latter went with his parents to America when a few months old. The family dwelt for several years in New York City and then moved to Bound Brook, New Jersey. Bishop McFaul made his collegiate course at St. Vincent's, Beatty, Pennsylvania, and at St. Francis Xavier's, New York City, his theological studies being made at Seton Hall, South Orange, New Jersey. He was ordained on 26 May, 1877, and, when the See of Trenton was erected, was appointed an assistant priest at St. Mary's church, Trenton, which Bishop O'Farrell selected as his cathedral. Hence he early became a friend of his predecessor, by whom he was held in great confidence and by whom he was appointed pastor of the Church of St. Mary, Star of the Sea, Long Branch. In October, 1890, he returned to the cathedral to be its rector and to assist the bishop. He was made secretary and chancellor, and on 1 November, 1892, was appointed vicar-general. On the death of Bishop O'Farrell he acted as administrator of the diocese and on 20 July, of the same year, was raised to the episcopate, being consecrated in St. Mary's Cathedral (18 Oct., 1894) by Archbishop Corrigan, from whom, when Bishop of Newark, he received all his other orders. Being familiar with the diocese he soon placed it on a splendid financial basis, and erected many churches, schools, and institutions, among which are: the orphan asylum, at Hopewell; the home for the aged, at Lawrenceville; and Mount St. Mary's College for young ladies, at Plainfield. Bishop McFaul is organizer of the American Federation of Catholic Societies, which has a membership of about two million. Among the most widely known of Bishop McFaul's works are his pastoral letters, "The Christian Home", "The Christian School", and "Some Modern Problems", as well as a timely and valuable brochure on tuberculosis. His address on "The American Universities", delivered in New York City, June, 1909, revealed to the American people the fact that the professors of several of these institutions were advancing ideas in conflict with morality and the established standards of right and wrong. In May, 1911, he delivered an address on the Press before several thousand newspaper men, in St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York City. In the Diocese of Trenton there are many nationalities, and the Gospel is preached in the following languages: English, German, Italian, Polish, Hungarian, Slovak, Lithuanian, and Rumanian. The religious communities in the diocese are: men -- Franciscans (Minor Conventuals), Augustinians, Fathers of the Pious Society of Missions, Dominicans, Brothers of the Sacred Hearrt, and Brothers of the Christian Schools (summer only); women -- Sisters of Mercy, Sisters of Charity, Sisters of the Third Order of St. Francis, Sisters of St. Francis, Mission Helpers of trhe Sacred Heart, Dominican Sisters of the Perpetual Rosary, Sisters of St. Dominic, Gray Nuns, Poor Clares, Felician Sisters, School Sisters of Notre-Dame, Franciscan Sisters of Christian Charity, Pious Teachers (Pii Filippini), Sisters of the Precious Blood. General statistics (1911): bishop, 1; secular priests, 167; regular, 23; churches with resident priests, 124; missions with churches, 30; stations, 84; chapels, 13; religious women (including novices and postulants), 372; college (Franciscan) 1, students, 90; academies for young ladies, 5, pupils, 350; college for young ladies, 1, students, 87; parishes with parochial schools, 44, pupils, 12,263; Sunday-schools, 153; teachers, 900, pupils, 20,364; orphan asylums, 2, orphans, 313; total number of young people under Catholic care, 13,103: hospitals, 3, patients treated during 1910, about 7,000; day-nurseries 2, children, 125; homes for aged, 2, inmates, 100; Catholic population, about 130,000. FLYNN, The Catholic Church in New Jersey MORRISTOWN, 1904); LEAHY, The Diocese of Trenton (Princeton, 1907); MCFAUL, Memorial of the Rt. Rev. Michael J. O'Farrell; FOX, A Century of Catholicity in Trenton, N. J.; The Catholic Directory (1852, 1882, 1911). JAMES J. POWERS Sir Thomas Tresham Sir Thomas Tresham Knight Bachelor (in or before 1524), Grand Prior of England in the Order of Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem (1557); date of birth unknown; d. 8 March, 1558-9. The eldest son of John Tresham of Rushton, Northamptonshire, and Elizabeth, daughter of Sir James Harrington, of Hornby, Lancashire, he married (1) Anne, daughter of William, Lord Parr, of Horton, by whom he had two sons, and (2) Lettice, relict of Sir Robert Lee, who predeceased him without issue. He was chosen sheriff of Northamtonshire in 1524, 1539, 1545, and 1555, and returned as member for the county in 1541 and twice in 1554. He constantly served on commissions of the peace, of gaol delivery, of oyer and terminer, of sewers, and the like, and was appointed special commissioner in 1527 to search for grain, in 1530 to inquire into Wolsey's possessions, and in 1537 to inquire into the Lincolnshire rebellion. In 1539 he was one of the knights appointed to receive Anne of Cleves at Calais. In 1540 he had licence to impark the Lyveden estate in Aldwinkle St. Peter's parish, where the "New Bield" erected by his grandson still stands. In this year, though his main estates were in Northamptonshire, he had a house with twenty-nine household servants in Wolfeton, Dorsetshire. In 1544 he supplied men for the king's army in France, and a little later was one of the commissioners to collect the "benevolence" for the defence of the realm. In 1546 he was appointed assessor to the "Contribution Commission" and was summoned to Court to meet the French ambassador. In 1549 he assisted in suppressing the Norfolk rising and received £272, 19.6 for his services. He proclaimed Queen Mary at Northampton on 18 July, 1553, and accompanied her on her entry into London. He was one of those appointed on 3 August, 1553, "to staye the assemblies in Royston and other places of Cambridgeshire". In April, 1554, he conveyed a prisoner from Peterborough to be examined by the Privy Council in London. In May, 1554, he was one of the custodians of the Earl of Devonshire. Although by Royal Charter dated 2 April, 1557, he was named grand prior, it was not till 30 November that the order was re-established in England with four knights under him, and he was solemnly invested. In the meantime Sir Richard Shelley had been made turcopolier at Malta. The order was endowed by the queen with lands to the yearly value of £1436. He sat in the House of Lords in January, 1557-8, and sent his proxy to the first parliament of Queen Elizabeth. He was buried at Rushton with great pomp on 16 March, 1558-9. JOHN B. WAINEWRIGHT Treviso Treviso (TARVISINA). Diocese in Venetia (Northern Italy). The capital is surrounded by the River Sile; its environs are the favourite summer resort of the Venetian nobility. The cathedral, erected in 1141, was transformed in 1485 by Tullio and Pietro Lombardo, and modernized in 1758 with five cupolas; the entrance portal dates from 1835. It contains sculptures by the brothers Bregno and by Antonio Lombardo; paintings by Paris Bourdone, Titian, and Francesco di Dominicis; frescoes by Seitz, Pordenone, etc.; and the tombs of Canon Malchiostro and the Bishop Zanetti. The Church of S. Nicolò, designed in Gothic style by Fra Nicolo da Smola, was erected by Benedict XI, who presented it to the Dominicans. It now belongs to the seminary which occupies the ancient convent of Santa Maria Maddalena; it has paintings by Paolo Veronese. Among the civil buildings is the Palazzo dei Trecento (1184) containing the Galleria Comunale with pictures by Lotto, Tintoretto, Bordone, Bellini. Natives of Treviso were: the painters Paris Bordone, Pier Maria and Girolamo Pennacchi; the historian Odorigo Rinaldi (Raynaldus), continuator of Baronius; the jurist Bartolommeo Zuccati; the Carmelite Francesco Turchi, mathematician and architect; and the poet Venantius Fortunatus. Tarvisium was an ancient city of the Veneti, which became Roman in 183 B.C. and was a stronghold of the Goths in the Gothic war. Through the intercession of Bishop Felix the city was spared during the Lombard invasion (569) and became the seat of a duchy. Charlemagne made it a marquisate, extending from Belluno to Ceneda, and from the Adige to the Tagliamento. In 922 Treviso, which was under episcopal jurisdiction, was sacked by the Hungarians. In 1014 it was organized as a commune ruled by consuls, with a council of three hundred citizens. A member of the Lombard league, it later made peace with Barbarossa, who respected its constitution, but appointed as podesta (1173) Ezzellino il Monaco. He was expelled, and thereafter the Ezzelini and Da Canino took turns in the office. Notwithstanding a war with Padua, Belluno, and Feltre, the city flourished through its riches, commerce, and the spirit of its inhabitants. Released from the tyranny of Ezzelino IV (1231-50), Treviso was an independent commune until Emperor Henry VII in 1309 made Riccardo da Canino imperial vicar. He was treacherously slain and succeeded by his son Guecello, against whom a conspiracy was formed. In 1314-18 Can Grande della Scala of Verona annexed Treviso to his state, but the inhabitants revolted to Frederick the Fair of Austria, and afterwards to Louis the Bavarian. Meanwhile, Guecello Tempesta was proclaimed ruler and liberator of the city (1328), but after four years he induced the citizens to recognize the supremacy of Can Grande. Becoming involved in war with Venice, Treviso was ceded to that city (1338), captured by Leopold of Austria (1383), sold to the Carrar, lords of Padua, taken by Gian Galezzo Visconti, Duke of Milan (1404), and finally returned to Venice. In 1848 the papal troops at Treviso, commanded by Ferrari, sustained a siege by the Austrians. The university, established at Treviso in 1317 by Frederick the Fair, did not flourish. The republic of Venice maintained the school until the conquest of Padua (1405), with its great university, resulted in closing the one at Treviso. Treviso probably received the Gospel from Aquileia. The first bishop of certain date was Jucundus, who in 421 took part in the consecration of the church of the Rialto in Venice. The bishops of Treviso who participated in the schism of the Three Chapters were: Felix (see above); Rusticus, present at the Council of Murano (588); and Felix II, who signed the petition to the Emperor Maurice. In 905 Bishop Adelbert received from King Berengar the temporal jurisdiction of the city, which extended to Rozo (969- 1001) and Rolando who adhered to the schism of Clement III. Bishop Tiso (1212-45) suffered from the tyranny of Ezzelino, and Alberto Ricco, O. M. (1255), was imprisoned for preaching against him. Successive bishops were: Loto Gambacurta (1394), exiled by the Florentines from his archbishopric of Pisa; Giovanni Benedetti, O. P. (1418), who reformed many convents of his order and concubinary priests; Ludovico Barbo (1437), Abbot of S. Giustina of Padua, and reformer of the Benedictine order; Ermolao Barbaro (1443), a learned and zealous prelate; Cardinal Pietro Riario, O. M. (1471); Fra Giovanni Dacri (1478), formerly general of the Franciscans, who restored the cathedral and reorganized the revenues of the bishopric, leaving many pious foundations; Nicolò Franco (1486), papal nuncio in various countries; Francesco Cornaro (1577), who founded a seminary, introduced the reforms of the Council of Trent, resigned his see, and was created cardinal; Gian Antonio Lupo (1646), who conflicted with his canons; Giambattista Saniedo (1684), zealous and beneficent pastor; Fortunato Morosini (1710), who enlarged the Seminary; Bernardino Marini (1788-1817), a canon of the Lateran, present at the Council of Paris, 1811, who united the abbey nullius of Novisa with the See of Treviso; and Giuseppe Giapelli, appointed by the Austrian Government, but not recognized by the Holy See, so that the diocese remained in turmoil until the death of the candidate. In 1818 Treviso passed from the metropolitan jurisdiction of Aquileia (Udine) to that of Venice. Bishop Giuseppe Grasser (1822) healed the evils caused by the interregnum, Bishop Antonio Farina (1890) conferred sacred orders on Giuseppe Sarto, now Pius X. United with Treviso is the ancient Diocese of Asolo, the bishops of which are unknown from 587 (Agnellus) until 1049 (Ugo), and that of Heraclea (Città Nova), a city founded in the times of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, as a refuge for the inhabitants of Opitergium (Oderzo), who with their bishop (Magnus) had been exiled by the Lombards. Twenty-six bishops are known, from 814 until the union of the see with Treviso, 1440. The Diocese of Treviso has 215 parishes with 386 secular and 30 regular clergy, 5 monasteries, 27 convents, 2 educational institutions for boys, five for girls, and 414,330 souls. CAPPELLETTI, Le Chiese d'Italia, X; Collectio Historicorum de Marchia Trevisana (Venice, 1636); VERCI, Storia della Marchia Trivigiana (Venice, 1789); RIGAMONTI, Descrizione delle pitture piu celebri nelle chiese di Treviso (Treviso, 1744); RICCATI, Stato antico e moderno della citta di Asolo (Pesaro, 1763); SEMENZI, Treviso e la sua prorincia (Treviso, 1862); PICCOTTI, I Caminesi e la loro signoria in Treviso dal 1283 al 1312 (Leghorn, 1904). U. BENIGNI Jewish Tribe Jewish Tribe (Phyle, tribus.) The earlier Hebrew term rendered in our English versions by the word "tribe" is shebet, while the term matteh, prevails in the post-exilic writings. The two terms are nearly synonymous, signifying "branch", "rod", "staff", "sceptre", and in the sense of "tribe" are used figuratively with probable reference to the derivation of the tribe as a branch of the family of Jacob (stirps), or perhaps signifying originally a company led by a chief with a staff or sceptre. Arrangement by clans represents a form of social and political organization natural to Semitic nomads, as may be observed among the Bedouins of today, and the division of the Jewish people into twelve tribes is a prominent feature of the Old Testament records, while frequent allusion to the same is found in the New Testament writings. There is a difference of opinion among scholars as to the origin and nature of this most famous of all known tribal organizations. If the Biblical account of the patriarchs be accepted as personal (not tribal) history, each of the twelve tribes owed its origin to direct lineal descent from one of the sons or grandsons of Jacob. The sons of Jacob by Lia were Ruben, Simeon, Levi, Juda, Issachar, and Zabulon; and by Lia's handmaid Zelpha, Gad and Aser, who were legally reputed according to the custom of the time as children of Lia. Jacob's sons by Rachel were Joseph and Benjamin, and by Rachel's handmaid Bala, Dan and Nephtali. The names of all of these, with the exception of Joseph, were given to their respective groups of descendants in the tribal organization, but instead of the tribe of Joseph we find in most of the lists and in the final traditional classification two tribes named after his two sons, Ephraim and Manasses. Thus, in reality, there were thirteen tribes in all but they are habitually referred to as twelve, doubtless because in the distribution of the land after the conquest of Palestine only twelve tribal territories were assigned, the tribe of Levi being distributed among the others because of its priestly functions and Divine inheritance. To this may be added the fact that the sons of Jacob or Israel were twelve, to say nothing of the probable artificial influence of this mystic number. According to this traditional view the origin of the tribes was due to the fact that the descendants of each of these thirteen fathers or eponyms kept together, forming as many social groups which were to some extent augmented by the inclusion of foreign slaves and wives. Another theory, which has prevailed to a considerable extent among modern scholars, interprets as tribal history and tradition much of what is told of the patriarchal eponyms in personal form. The tribes, according to this view, were not constituted by a subdivision of Israel, but rather the nation was formed originally by the aggregation of some of the earlier tribes which had themselves grown out of the union of pre-existing groups of families and clans. Little is historically known of the tribal system during the nomadic period, but it is assumed on general grounds that the organization was much similar to that of the nomadic Arabs among whom the unifying forces are chiefly the blood bond and the tribal or family cult. At the time of the invasion of Palestine the nation was still in the stage of loose tribal confederation and the war was waged by tribes and subdivisions of tribes, sometimes acting separately, sometimes in combination with others (Judges, i, 3, iv, v). The process of consolidation went on after the conquest; the kindred families and clans naturally settled in the same neighbourhood, and finally the complete tribal organization was evolved with territorial boundaries and independent historical traditions. It would seem that prior to the monarchy the tribal districts varied in number and extent, as may be gathered from the discrepancies that occur in the Biblical descriptions of their respective boundaries, nor do they appear to have had any fixed or continuous political organization. Aggression by a foreign enemy would unite the clans of a tribe or even several distinct tribes under a common leader as in the case of Gideon and others of the judges; but there is no intimation that in times of peace the tribe was governed by any single chief, though mention is occasionally made of "ancients" and "princes" (Judges, x, 18; xi, 5; 1 Kings, iv, 3; xi, 3; 11 Kings, xix, 11; etc.). These were probably the heads of the clans and families of which the tribes were composed. After the establishment of the monarchy the autonomy and importance of the tribe as a political unit gradually waned, and at length the tribal names came to be little more than geographical expressions. On the other hand, veneration for the ancient tribes as social organizations with their religious and family traditions seems to have increased as time went on, and not only after the exile but also in the New Testament times we find much care displayed in recording the particular tribe or even family to which various persons are said to belong. The descendants of kings and other noted Old-Testament personages could, of course, name their tribe, but in the case of more obscure individuals it is likely that the tribal indication is inferred from the fact of family residence in a particular district of Palestine. JAMES F. DRISCOLL Diocese of Tricarico Diocese of Tricarico (TRICARICENSIS.) Located in the Province of Potenza in the Basilicata (Southern Italy), near the River Perrola. In 1694 it was almost destroyed by earthquake. The cathedral was erected in 968 by Polyeuctos, Patriarch of Constantinople. The names of the bishops, then of the Greek Rite, are not known. Of the Latin bishops after the Norman conquest the first was Arnoldo (1068); others were: the theologians Palmerio di Gallusio (1253) and Fra Nicolo; Cardinal Pier Luigi Caraffa (1624), who restored the cathedral and founded the seminary. From 1805 to 1819 the see remained vacant. The diocese is suffragan of the metropolitan See of Acerenza and Matera; it has 25 parishes, 80,540 souls, 180 secular and regular clergy, one educational institution for boys and one for girls. Cappelletti, Le Chiese d'Italia, XX, 481. U. BENIGNI Charles Joseph Tricassin Charles Joseph Tricassin One of the greatest theologians of the Capuchin Order, b. at Troyes; d. in 1681. There is but little positive information about his life. By continued study he acquired a profound knowledge of the writings of Augustine, and explained and defended with success his doctrine of grace against the Jansenists. Tricassin's writings were violently attacked; they treat exhaustively both the Augustinian doctrine of grace and that of St. Bonaventure. They comprise in the main: "De praedestinatione hominum ad gloriam" (Paris, 1669 and 1673), to which was added "Supplementum Augustinianum" (1673), the work being intended to prove predestination for foreknown merits; "De indifferenti lapsi hominis arbitrio sub gratia et concupiscentia" (Paris, 1673), a thorough explanation of many Augustinian tenets; "De necessaria ad salutem gratia omnibus et singulis data" (Paris, 1673), proof of the sufficient grace for every individual, with special emphasis upon difficult passages in Augustine's writings on which a full understanding of his doctrine depends; "De natura peccati originalis" (Paris, 1677); "De causa bonorum operum" (Paris, 1679), a proof of the virtue of the hope of eternal life and of the fear of hell; a "Supplementum" (Paris, 1679) shows that attrition in connection with the Sacrament of Penance is sufficient according to Augustine and the Council of Trent. Tricassin also published a commentary to several of Augustine's works to prove that Augustine calls the Pelagians heretical teachers, because they do not concede any necessity of grace for the will. Tricassin published at Paris in 1678 a French translation with explanations and applications of Augustine's books, "De gratia et libero arbitrio", "De correptione et gratia" and also a treatise to prove that the Cartesian philosophy was contrary to faith. The importance of the author and his writings is best shown by the fact that the Jansenists bought up his books and burned them because they could not answer them. FATHER ODORICK Tricca Tricca Titular see, suffragan of Larissa in Thessaly. It was an ancient city of Thessaly, near the River Peneius and on the River Lethaeus which devastated it in 1907. It is mentioned in Homer (Iliad, II, 729; IV, 202) as the Kingdom of Machaon and Podaleirius, sons of AEsculapius and physicians of the Greek army. It possessed the oldest known temple of AEsculapius, which was discovered in 1902, with a hospital for pilgrims. Tricca is mentioned by other writers, but not in connection with important events. It was a suffragan of Larissa at an early date and remained so until 1882 when this portion of Thessaly was annexed to the Kingdom of Greece, Since then the see, which bears the names of Triccala and Stagoi, is dependent on the Holy Synod of Athena. Socrates (V 22), Sozomenes (V 12), and Nicephorus Callistus (XII, 34) say that Heliodorus, probably the same as the author of the romance of the Ethiopian women or of Theagenes and Charicles (third century), became Bishop of Tricca. Another bishop, to whom have been wrongly attributed commentaries on the Acts of the Apostles, the Epistle of St. Paul and the Catholic Epistles (for the works published in his name are not his), lived at the end of the sixth century. He was an Origenist and Monophysite who wrote a commentary on the Apocalypse (Petrides "OEcumenius de Tricca, ses oeuvres et son culte" in "Echos d'Orient", VI, 307-10; Le Quien, "Oriens christ.", I, 117-20). Some Latin titular bishops in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries are also known (Eubel, "Hierarchia catholica medii aevi," II, 280; III, 338). Tricca, now Triccala, is the capital of the nome of the same name and has 28,000 inhabitants: Greeks, Turks, and Jews. S. VAILHÉ Diocese of Trichinopoly Diocese of Trichinopoly (TRICHINOPOLITAN.) Located in India, suffragan of Bombay, comprises the south east portion of the peninsula as far as the Western Ghauts by which it is separated from the dioceses of Verapoly and Quilon; bounded on the north by the Dioceses of Kumbakonam and Coimbatore, on the north-east by a portion of the Diocese of Saint Thomas of Mylapur on the east and south by the sea. In order to facilitate administration the diocese is divided into three districts, northern, central, and southern, each under a superior having his residence at Trichinopoly, Madura, and Palamcottah respectively; and these districts are again subdivided into pangus or sections, of which there are in all fifty-two. The Catholic population, according to the census of 1907, is 245,255, who are served by 60 priests of the Toulouse province of the Society of Jesus (41 European and 19 native) and 19 native secular priests, helped by 156 catechists. Besides these, 53 other priests, European and native, are engaged chiefly in educational work at Trichinopoly, Shembaganur, Palamcottah, etc. A novitiate, juniorate, and scholasticate of the Society is established at Shembaganur. There is a congregation of Brothers of the Sacred Heart (native lay brothers) engaged in catechetical work and teaching at Palamcottah, Madura, Panchampetti, and Trichinopoly, and also the following orders of nuns: Daughters of the Cross of Annecy at Trichinopoly and Tuticorin; Sisters of St. Joseph of Lyons at Madura; native nuns of Our Lady of Seven Dolours and native nuns of St. Anna, both with their novitiate at Trichinopoly; finally the Oblates -- native women devoted to the baptism of pagan children and the instruction of village girls. The places of worship in the diocese amount to 282 churches and 811 chapels. There are also fifteen churches and some chapels scattered over the diocese which (by exemption) belong to the padroado jurisdiction of the Diocese of Saint Thomas of Mylapur. HISTORY The present diocese comprises a large portion of the ancient Madura mission, so that down to the year 1836 its history will be found under MANDURA MISSION. In that year the district was once entrusted to the Society of Jesus, and its first vicar Apostolic was appointed in 1845. In 1886, on the establishment of the hierarchy, the vicariate became a diocese suffragan of Pondicherry; but in 1893 it was made suffragan of Bombay, as it still remains. Succession of prelates: Alexis Canoz, S.J., vicar Apostolic 1847, became first bishop in 1887, in 1888; John Mary Barthe, S.J., in 1890, resigned on account of failing sight in 1909; A. Faisandier, S.J., coadjutor bishop from 1909. Educational institutions for boys: St. Joseph's College, Trichinopoly, first opened at Negapatam in 1846, transferred to Trichinopoly in 1883, with about 1800 pupils, prepares students for the degree of M. A. in Madras University; boarding-house for native Catholic boys; ecclesiastical seminary to prepare boys for one at Kandy; lower secondary school for Europeans and Eurasians and seven primary schools for natives, with total of 600 pupils, all at Trichinopoly; St. Xavier's High School, Palamcottah, with boarding-house and St. Anthony's primary school; St. Xavier's High School, Tuticorin; St. Mary's High School, Madura; lower secondary schools at Palamcottah, Dindigul, Uttamplayama; industrial schools at Trichonopoly, Irudaiyakulam, and Adaikalaburam; training schools for teachers at the same places; primary schools in the diocese number 260, with 11,027 pupils. For girls: St. Joseph's High School and lower secondary school, Trichinopoly, for European and Eurasian girls, both under Daughters of the Cross; three secondary schools for native girls (Trichonopoly) under Sisters of Our Lady of Seven Dolours, also training schools for mistresses; lower secondary schools at Palamcottah, Madura, Tuticorin, Vadakangulam, Manapad, Satankulam primary schools at Dindigul, Sarakanai and several other villages; industrial school (Tuticorin) under Daughters of the Cross. Various institutions: orphanages for children born of pagan parents at Trichinopoly, Madura, and Adaikalaburam, and one for girls at Pallamcottah; dispensaries in five places; asylums for native widows at Trichinopoly, Sarakanai, Adaikalaburam, and for Brahmin widows at Trichinopoly; St. Mary's Tope, a settlement in Trichinopoly for Brahmin converts, opened in 1893, has (1912) 45 residents; catechumenates for men and women in three places, besides associations of voluntary catechists who give their leisure time to teaching on Sundays and feasts; St. Joseph's College Press, which publishes the "Tamil Messenger of the S. Heart", the "Morning Star", devotional books, etc. There are over 100 sodalities in the diocese. ERNEST R. HULL Trichur Trichur (TRICHURENSIS.) Vicariate Apostolic in India, one of the three vicariates of the Syro-Malabar Rite, bounded on the north by the diocese of Mangalore, east by the diocese of Coimbature, south by the Vicariate of Ernaculam, and on the west by the Indian Ocean. According to the census of 1900 the Catholics of the, Syrian Rite in the vicariate numbered 91,998, having 63 churches and 23 chapels served by 66 native secular priests. There are also three monasteries of Tertiary Carmelite monks at Elthuruth, Ampalacad, and Paratti, containing about 20 professed and 11 lay brothers, besides a number of novices; also four convents for Carmelite nuns with 31 professed besides novices, postulants and lay sisters. There are in the vicariate 2 high schools, 2 lower secondary schools, and 184 elementary schools, the number of children under training being 19,093. A seminary at Trichur prepares candidates for Puthenpally or Kandy. The vicar Apostolic (John Menacherry, appointed 1896) resides at Trichur. For the ancient history of the Christians of the Syro-Malabar Rite see THOMAS CHRISTIANS. They remained under the jurisdiction partly of Cranganore, till 1887, when on the establishment of the hierarchy, the churches of the Syrian Rite were separated from those of the Latin Rite and placed under two vicars Apostolic with their centres at Trichur and Kottayam respectively. Later on, in 1896, a new division was made and three vicariates established, viz. of Trichur, Ernaculam, and Changanacherry. These three vicariates cover the same ground as the Archdiocese of Verapoly, the Archbishop of Verapoly exercising territorial jurisdiction over all Christians of the Latin Rite, while the vicars Apostolic hold personal and quasi-territorial jurisdiction over all of the Syrian Rite. The vicariates are nominally classed as belonging to the province of Verapoly, but without the usual ecclesiastical connection. (See CHANGANACHERRY, VICARIATE APOSTOLIC OF; VERAPOLY, ARCHDIOCESE OF; DAMAO, DIOCESE OF; EASTERN CHURCHES; THOMAS CHRISTIANS.) Madras Catholic Directory, 1910. ERNEST R. HULL Tricomia Tricomia Titular see, suffragan of Caesarea in Palaestina Prima. It is mentioned in George of Cyprus (Descriptio orbis romani, ed. Gelzer, 1024) and, according to the other cities preceding or following its name, would seem to have been situated in southern Palestine. Malalas (Chronographia, V, in P.G., XCVII, 236) relates an ancient legend regarding Tricomia, which he calls Nyssa and confounds with Scythopolis. According to his account it was the site of a famous temple of Artemis. It was never a Greek see, and Le Quien (Oriens Christ., III, 677) is at fault in his complaint of being unable to find any bishops. The Roman Curia, taking the "Descriptio orbis romani" of George of Cyprus, a civil document, for a "Notitia episcopatuum", has made Tricomia a titular see. It is now a Mussulman village called Terkoumieh on a high hill between Hebron and Bet-Djibrin. It must not be confused with another Tricomia in Arabia which was the camping place of the equites promoti Illyriciani. S. VAILHÉ Triduum Triduum (Three days). A time frequently chosen for prayer or for other devout practices, whether by individuals in private, or in public by congregations or special organizations in parishes, in religious communities, seminaries, or schools. The form of prayer or devotion depends upon the occasion or purpose of the triduum. The three days usually precede some feast, and the feast then determines the choice of the pious execises. In liturgical usage there is a triduum of ceremonies and prayers in Holy Week; the Rogation Days (q.v.); the three days of litanies prior to the feast of the Ascension, and the feasts of Easter and Pentecost, with the first two days of their octaves. There is ecclesiastical authorization for a triduum in honour of the Holy Trinity, of the Holy Eucharist, and of St. Joseph. The first of these, instituted Pius IX, 8 August, 1847, may be made at any time of the year in public or private, and partial or plenary indulgences are attached to it on the usual conditions. The second, also indulgenced, was instituted by Pius X, 10 April, 1907, for the purpose of promoting frequent Communion. The time for it is Friday, Saturday, and Sunday after the feast of Corpus Christi, though the bishops may designate any other more convenient time of the year. Each day there should be a sermon on the Holy Eucharist and Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament, and on Sunday, there should be besides a sermon on the Gospel and on the Holy Eucharist, at the parochial Mass. This triduum is specially for cathedral churches, though the bishops may also require other churches to have it. The prayer, "O Most Sweet Jesus" (Dulcissime Jesu), as given in the "Raccolta", is appointed for reading during Benediction. The triduum in honor of St. Joseph, prior to his feast on 19 March, was recommended by Leo XIII in the Encyclical "Quamprimum pluries" (15 August, 1889), with the prayer, "To thee, O blessed Joseph." The most frequent occasions for a triduum are: when children are in preparation for their first Communion; among pupils in school at the beginning of the scholastic year; among seminarians at the same time; and in religious communities for those who are to renew their vows yearly or every six months. The exercises of these triduums are mainly meditations or instructions disposing the hearers to a devout reception of the sacraments of penance and of Holy Communion and to betterment of life. ST. JOHN, The Raccolta (6th ed., London, 1912); BERINGER, Die Ablasse, ihr Wesen u. Gebrauch (Paderborn, 1900, tr., Fr., Paris, 1905). JOHN J. WYNNE Diocese of Trier Trier (TREVIRENSIS) Diocese; suffragan of Cologne; includes in the Prussian province of the Rhine the governmental department of Trier, with the exception of two districts administered by mayors, and the governmental department of Coblenz with the exception of ten such districts that belong to the Archdiocese of Cologne; it also includes the Principality of Birkenfeld belonging to the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg (see map to article GERMANY). The diocese is divided into 46 deaneries, each administered by a dean and a definitor. In 1911 it comprised 750 parishes, 28 parishes administered by vicars, 200 chaplaincies and similar offices, 70 administrative and school offices. In 1912 there were 711 parish priests, 28 parish vicars, 210 chaplains and curates, 122 ecclesiastics in other positions (administration and schools), 65 priests either retired or on leave of absence, 105 clergy belonging to the orders, 1,249,700 Catholics, and 450,000 persons of other faiths. In most of the country districts the population is nearly entirely Catholic; in the mining and manufacturing districts on the Saar, as well as on the Hunsrück and in the valley of the Nahe River, the Catholic faith is not so predominant. The cathedral chapter has the right to elect the bishop; besides the bishop there is also an auxiliary bishop. The chapter consists of a provost, a dean (the auxiliary bishop), 8 cathedral canons, 4 honorary canons; 6 curates are also attached to the cathedral. The educational institutions of the diocese for the clergy are the episcopal seminar for priests at Trier, which has a regent, 7 clerical professors, and 220 students, and the gymnasial seminaries for boys at Trier and Pr m. Since the close of the Kulturkampf the religious orders have prospered greatly, and in 1911 there were in the diocese: a Benedictine Abbey at Maria-Laach containing 26 fathers, 80 brothers; a Franciscan monastery on the Apollinarisberg at Reimagen, 9 fathers, 8 brothers; 2 houses of the Capuchins, 18 fathers, 12 brothers; 1 house of the Oblates, 5 fathers, 21 brothers; 2 houses of the Pallotines, 9 fathers, 24 brothers; 1 house of the Redemptorists, 9 fathers, 8 brothers; 1 house of the White Fathers, 5 fathers, 5 brothers; 1 house of the Fathers of the Divine Word, 21 fathers, 50 brothers; 126 Brothers of Charity in 4 houses, and 144 Brothers of St. Francis in 7 houses. The female orders and congregations in the diocese in 1911 were: Benedictine Nuns of the Perpetual Adoration, 1 house with 37 sisters; Sisters of St. Charles Borromeo, 71 houses with 500 sisters; Servants of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, 4 houses, 41 sisters; Serving-Maids of Christ, 30 houses, 193 sisters; Dominican Nuns, 2 houses, 69 sisters; Sisters of St. Francis from the mother-houses at Aachen, Heithuizen, Olpe, and Waldbreitbach, 94 houses, 476 sisters; Capuchin Nuns, 1 house, 10 sisters; Sisters of St. Clement, 1 house, 6 sisters; Nuns of the Visitation, 1 house, 50 sisters; Sisters of the Holy Spirit, 47 houses, 300 sisters; Sisters of the Love of the Good Shepherd, 2 houses, 125 sisters; Sisters of the Poor Child Jesus, 1 house, 9 sisters; Sisters of St. Joseph, 1 house, 20 sisters; Ursuline Nuns, 5 houses, 220 Sisters; Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul, 7 houses; 30 sisters. The most important church of the diocese is the cathedral, the oldest church of a Christian bishop on German soil. The oldest section of the building goes back to the Roman era and was a church as early as the fourth century. In the course of time other parts were added which belong to all forms of architecture, although the Romanesque style preponderates. The cathedral contains the remains of twenty-five archbishops and electors as well as those of the last four bishops of Trier. The most precious of its numerous treasures is the Holy Coat of Christ, which, according to legend, was given to the Church of Trier by St. Helena. Two exhibitions of this venerable relic are worthy of special note: that of 1844, connected with the rise of the sect of German Catholics, and the one held in 1891, which attracted over two million pilgrims. Other noted churches in Trier are: the Church of Our Lady, one of the most beautiful ecclesiastical monuments of Gothic architecture, built 1227-43; the Church of St. Paulinus or of the Martyrs, the burial place of Bishop Paulinus, erected in 1734 in Rococo style to replace the old church destroyed by the French in l674; the thirteenth-century Romanesque church of the former Benedictine Abbey of St. Matthias, containing the grave of St. Matthias, the only grave of an Apostle in Germany; it is much visited by pilgrims. Other noted churches of the diocese are: the churches of St. Castor and Our Lady at Coblenz, the abbey church of Maria-Laach, the old monastery churches of Pr m, M nstermaifeld, and Merzig; the Church of St. Maria at Oberwesel, the Gothic churches of Andernach, Boppard, Remagen, Sinzig, and of other places on the Rhine and the Moselle. HISTORY The beginnings of the see of Trier are obscure. From the time of Diocletian reorganization of the divisions of the empire, Trier was the capital of Belgica Prima, the chief city of Gaul, and frequently the residence of the emperors. There were Christians among its population as early as the second century, and there was probably as early as the third century a bishop at Trier, which is the oldest episcopal see in Germany. The first clearly authenticated bishop is Agricius who took part in the Council of Arles in 314. His immediate successors were St. Maximinus who sheltered the excommunicated St. Athanasius at Trier, and St. Paulinus, who was exiled to Phrygia on account of his opposition to Arianism. Little is known of the later bishops up to the reign of Charlemagne; during this intervening period the most important ones were St. Nicetius (527-66) and Magnericus (d. 596), the confidant of the Merovingian king, Childebert II. The bishops during the reign of Charlemagne were: Wiomad (757-91), who accompanied the emperor on his campaign against the Avars; Richbod (792-804), one of Alcuin's pupils; and Amalarius Fortunatus (809-14), sent by Charlemagne as ambassador to Constantinople, and the author of liturgical writings. Charlemagne's will proves that Trier at this era was an archdiocese; Metz, Toul, and Verdun are mentioned as its suffragans. In 772 Charlemagne granted Wiomad complete immunity from the jurisdiction of the ruling count for all the churches, monasteries, villages, and castles belonging to the Church of St. Peter at Trier. In 816 Louis the Pious confirmed to Archbishop Hetti (814-47) the privileges of protection and immunity granted by his father. At the partition of the Frankish empire at Verdun in 843, Trier fell to Lothair's empire; at the partition of Lothair's empire at Mersen in 870, it fell to the East-Frankish kingdom which later became the German Empire. However, after the death of Louis the Child, the lords of Lorraine separated from the East-Frankish Kingdom and became vassals of the West-Frankish ruler King Charles the Simple, until Henry I conquered the country for Germany again. Archbishop Ratbod (883-915) received in 898 complete immunity from all state taxes for the entire episcopal territory from the King of Lorraine and Burgundy, Swentibold, son of Emperor Arnulf. He obtained from Louis the Child the district and city of Trier, the right to have a mint and to impose customs-duties; from Charles the Simple he gained the right of a free election of the Bishop of Trier. In this way the secular possessions of the bishops of Trier, which had sprung from the valuable donations of the Merovingian and Carlovingian rulers, were raised to a secular principality. Archbishop Ratbert (931-56), brother-in-law of King Henry I, was confirmed by Otto I in all the temporal rights gained by his predecessors. Archbishop Poppo (1016-47), son of Margrave Leopold of Austria, did much to enlarge the territory owned by the church of Trier. During the strife over Investiture, Engelbert of Ortenburg (1078-1101) and Bruno of Laufen (1102-24) belonged to the imperial party. Albero of Montreuil (1131-52) had, as Archdeacon of Metz, opposed lay Investiture; during his administration the cathedral school of Trier reached its highest fame. From about 1100 the Archbishop of Trier was the Arch-Chancellor of Gaul, for the German emperor, and thus became the possessor of an imperial office and an Elector of the German king and emperor. As the archbishops of Trier were among the leading spiritual princes of the empire, they became involved in all the struggles between pope and emperor. While Hillin (1152-69) was a partisan of Frederick Barbarossa, Arnold I (1169-83) made successful efforts to bring about a reconciliation between the emperor and pope (1177). John I (1190-1212) was excommunicated by Innocent III on account of his adherence to King Philip of Swabia; Bishop John increased the possessions of the archdiocese by gaining several countships and castles. Theodoric II of Wied (1212-42) belonged to the party of Frederick II, while Arnold II of Isenburg (1242-59) opposed the emperor. Henry II of Vinstingen (1260-86) was the first Archbishop of Trier who took part in the election of a German emperor as one of the seven Electors; the electoral dignity, together with the right to the first vote, was confirmed by the Golden Bull in 1356. As in other German dioceses, so also in Trier, the rising cities, especially Trier and Coblenz, sought to rid themselves of the suzerainty of the bishop. Such attempts were crowned with considerable success during the rule of Archbishop Diether of Nassau (1300-07), brother of King Adolph of Nassau. On the other hand, Baldwin of Luxembourg (1308-54), the most noted of the medieval archbishops of Trier, was able to restore and raise the importance of the See of Trier by his wide-reaching activity both in secular and spiritual affairs. He brought the cities of Coblenz and Trier under his suzerainty again, and was the actual organizer of his possessions as an electoral state. Werner of Falkenstein (1388-1418), one of Baldwin's successors, acquired Limburg on the Lahn; during the great Western Schism he held loyally to Gregory XII. After the death of Otto of Ziegenhain (1418-30), who laboured zealously for the reform of the Church, there was a double election; upon this Pope Martin V appointed a third person archbishop. During the struggle of the candidates to secure the diocese it suffered severely. James of Sierck (1439-56) sought to restore order in the confused finances of the diocese. He was deposed by Eugenius IV as an adherent of the Council of Basle and of the Antipope Felix V, who was elected there. However, the deposition had no effect as the German Electors opposed it. John II, Margrave of Baden (1456-1503), promoted the reform of the Church. He left the diocese heavily in debt, and these debts were increased by his great-nephew and successor, James II of Baden (1503-11). The Reformation limited the spiritual jurisdiction of the Archdiocese of Trier. Although the energetic Richard von Greiffenklau (1511-31) vigorously opposed the Reformation, still he could not prevent the new doctrine from gaining a foothold in the district of the Hunsr ck, and in that on the right bank of the Rhine. He defeated the attacks of Franz von Sickingen upon the city of Trier, as well as the efforts of that city to become independent of the bishop. In 1512 he exhibited the Holy Coat for the first time and spent the donations of the pilgrims on the cathedral. John II von Metzenhausen (1531-40) attempted reforms which were frustrated by his death. John II von Hagen (1541-47) sent a representative to the Council of Trent and began earnest measures of reform. John V von Isenburg (1547-56) attended the council himself, but was recalled home by the incursion of Margrave Albrecht of Brandenburg-Ansbach into the archdiocese, which the margrave devastated horribly. John VI von der Leyen (1556-67) was able to regain Trier, but could not prevent the French from taking possession of his three suffragan dioceses, Metz, Toul, and Verdun. He checked the further spread of the new doctrines by calling the Jesuits into his diocese (1561). James III von Eltz (1567-81) and John VII von Schönenberg (1581-99) carried out in their possessions the reformatory decrees of the Council of Trent. The former secured the administration of the Abbey of Prüm, whereby the secular possessions of the archdiocese reached their final extent; the latter established two seminaries at Coblenz and Trier. Lothair von Metternich (1599-1623) joined the Catholic League in order to secure the stability of the Catholic Church in Germany. In this way his see became involved in the Thirty Years War. His successor, Philip Christopher von S tern (1623-52), withdrew from the League, formed an alliance with France, and permitted the French to garrison the fortress of Ehrenbreitstein. When he made advances to the Swedes he was captured by the Spanish troops in 1635 under suspicion of heresy, and was kept a prisoner at Vienna until 1645. In the struggle between the imperial troops and the French the archdiocese was often devastated. Charles Caspar von der Leyen (1652-76) had scarcely repaired the damage done by the Thirty Years War by an excellent administration, when the marauding wars of Louis XIV of France brought fresh misery upon the country. John Hugo von Orsbeck (1676-1711) refused to recognize the seizure of some of his territories and their incorporation into France by Louis XIV through what was called the "reunions", neither would take the oath of loyalty to Louis. Consequently, during the years 1684-97 large parts of the see were garrisoned by French troops. During the long period of peace in the eighteenth century the archdiocese had excellent rulers. Francis Louis von Pfalz-Neuburg (1716-29) gave particular attention to the organization of the administration of justice, and raised the decaying university by establishing new professorships. Francis George von Sch nborn (1729-56) encouraged learned studies and founded a university library and building. The short administration of John Philip von Walderdorf (1756-68) was followed by the reign of the last Elector of Trier, Clement Wenceslaus, Duke of Saxony (1768-1812), who was also Bishop of Augsburg. He gained a reputation by improving the schools and reforming the monasteries, but, on the other hand, influenced by the ideas of the "Enlightenment", he supported Febronianism, shared in the labours of the Congress of Ems (q.v.), and also was involved in the dispute about the nunciatures (see NUNCIO). After the outbreak of the French Revolution the territories of Trier, especially Coblenz, became the gathering place of the French émigrés. In 1794 Trier and Coblenz were besieged by the French. In 1797, by the Peace of Campo-Formio, the part of the archdiocese on the left bank of the Rhine was ceded to France; in 1797 the university was suppressed. In 1801 the Peace of Lunéville gave to France, in addition, the fortress of Ehrenbreitstein. When the German Church was secularized in 1803, the section of the archdiocese on the right bank of the Rhine was also secularized and the greater part of it was incorporated into Nassau. Clemens Wenceslaus renounced his rights in return for an annual pension of 100,000 gulden and withdrew to the Diocese of Augsburg. An ecclesiastical administration, which lasted until 1824, was established in Ehrenbreitstein for the part of the former archdiocese on the right bank of the Rhine. The French Diocese of Trier was established in 1801 for the section of the former archdiocese which had been ceded to France. It embraced hardly a third of the old diocese and was made suffragan to Mechlin. Its first and only bishop was Charles Mannay (1802-16). The Congress of Vienna gave the territory included in this diocese once more to Germany, largely to Prussia and the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg. In 1816 Bishop Charles Mannay resigned his office and retired to France, where he died in 1824 as Bishop of Rennes. For six years the see remained vacant, the administration being conducted in the interim by Hubert Anthony Corden as vicar-general, from 1818 as vicar Apostolic. On the reorganization of the Catholic Church in Prussia in 1821, Trier was revived as a simple diocese by the Bull "De salute animarum", made suffragan to Cologne, and received about its present territory. In 1824 it contained 531 parishes with 580,000 Catholics. The first bishop of the new diocese was Joseph von Hommer (1824-36). The election of his successor, William Arnoldi (1842-64) which took place in 1839 and was renewed in 1842, was not recognized by the Government until Frederick William IV ascended the throne. Arnoldi did a great deal for the reawakening of Catholic consciousness in Germany. The exhibition of the Holy Coat, which he brought about in 1844, led to the forming of the sect called German Catholics. He was succeeded by Leopold Pelldram (1865-67), formerly chaplain general of the Prussian army, who was followed by Matthias Eberhard (1867-76), who enjoys the honours of a Confessor of the Faith. Eberhard was one of the first to suffer by the Kulturkampf which broke out in Prussia. After being repeatedly condemned to pay heavy fines he was sentenced on 6 March, 1876, to ten months imprisonment. Trier was one of the dioceses that suffered the most during the Kulturkampf. The number of its parishes robbed of their parish priests amount to 197, while nearly 294,000 Catholics lacked regular spiritual care. After the death of the bishop on 30 May, 1876, the see was vacant for five years and had to be secretly administered by an Apostolic Delegate. Finally in 1881, through the personal efforts of Leo XIII, an agreement was made with the Prussian Government, and Mich l Felix Korum (cathedral canon and parish priest of the minster at Strasburg) was appointed Bishop of Trier by the pope, consecrated at Rome on 19 August, and enthroned on 25 September. Up to the present day the bishop has sought to repair the damage inflicted upon his diocese by the Kulturkampf, through the confessional, the pulpit, and religious associational life. He has founded religious institutions for education, and promoted the establishment of numerous houses of the orders. The exhibition of the Holy Coat in 1891 which he carried out was the occasion for impressive demonstrations of Catholic faith and life in Germany (cf. Korum, "Wunder und Gnadenerweise, die sich bei der Austellung 1891 zugetragen haben", Trier, 1894). A complete bibliography is to be found in MARX, Trevirensia. Literaturkunde zur Gesch. der Trierer Lande (Trier, 1909). Most important works are: BROUWER AND MASENIUS, Antiquitatum et annalium Trevirensium libri XXV (Li ge, 1670-71); HONTHEIM, Hist. Trevirensis diplomatica et pragmatica (Augsburg and W rzburg, 1750); IDEM, Prodromus Hist. Trevirensis (1757); Gesta Trevirorum, ed. WYTTENBACH AND M LLER (Trier,1836-39); MARX, Gesch. des Erzstifts Trier (5 vols., Trier, 1858-1864); G RZ, Regesten der Erzbisch fe zu Trier von Hetti bis Johann II, 814-1503 (Trier, 1859-61); IDEM Mittelrheinische Regesten (Coblenz, 1876-86); Codex diplomaticus Rheno-Mosellanus, ed. G NTHER (5 vols. Coblenz, 1822-26); Urkundenbuch zur Gesch. der mittelrheinischen Territorien, ed. ZEYER, ELTESTER, AND G RZ (Coblenz, 1860-74); DE LORENZI, Beitr ge zur Gesch. s mtlicher Pfarreien der Di zese Trier (Trier, 1887); SAUERLAND, Trier Geschichtsquellen (Trier, 1889); IDEM, Urkunden u. Regesten zur Gesch. der Rheinlande aus dem vatikansichen Archiv (4 vols., Bonn, 1902-07); SCHORN, Eiflia illustrata (Bonn, 1888-1892); NEY, Die Reformation in Trier 1559 ihre Entstehung (Leipzig and Halle, 1906-07); VON SCHR TTER, Die M nzen von Trier, II (Bonn, 1908); BASTGEN, Die Gesch. des Trierer Domkapitels im Mittelalter (Paderborn, 1910); EWALD, Die Siegel der Erzbisch fe von Trier (Bonn, 1910). On art and architecture: VON WILMOWSKY, Der Dom zu Trier (Trier, 1874); IDEM, Die Grabst tten der Erzbisch fe von Trier (Trier, 1876); BEISSEL, Gesch. der Trierer Kirchen (1888-89); KR GER AND KENTENICH, Trier zur R merzeit u. im Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1911); VON SCHLEINITZ, Trier (Leipzig, 1909). One of the series, Ber hmte Kunst tten; CRAMER, Das r mische Trier (G tersloh, 1911). Most important periodicals: Trierisches Archiv (Trier, 1898----), and its supplementary numbers (Trier, 1901----); Westdeutsche Zeitschrift f r Gesch. u. Kunst (Trier, 1882----), with supplementary numbers. JOSEPH LINS Francis a Paula Triesnecker Francis a Paula Triesnecker Astronomer, b. at Kirchberg on the Wagram, in Lower Austria, 2 April, 1745; d. at Vienna 29 January, 1817. At the age of sixteen he entered the Society of Jesus, and, after several years' study of philosophy (Vienna) and mathematics (Tyrnau), he taught at various Jesuit colleges. After the suppression of the Society he went to Gras, where he completed his theological studies and was ordained shortly afterwards. He soon attained a reputation as a mathematician and astronomer and was appointed assistant to the director of the Vienna Observatory, Father Max Hell, whom he succeeded in 1792. He occupied this post during the remainder of his life. Triesnecker was thoroughly grounded in the science of mathematics and its applications to astronomy; and the accuracy of his observations, which in spite of ill-health he pursued till an advanced age, was universally recognized. His numerous treatises mainly deal with geography and astronomy. A considerable portion of his time was taken up by the "Ephemerides" of Vienna, the editorship of which, after Father Hell's death, he shared with the ingenious computer Burg. In this periodical he published, between the years 1787-1806, his "Tabulae Mercurii, Martis, Veneris, Solares", and the greater part of his micrometrical observations of the sun, moon, planets, and positions of stars. His "Novae motuum lunarium tabulae" were published separately in 1802. Other astronomical investigations may be found in "Zach's monatliche Correspondenz", in the "Commentarii soc. leg. Götting.", and in Bode's "Astron. Jahrbuch". In geography he determined or corrected the longitude and latitude of various places from the best available data. The results of this labour are embodied in the periodicals referred to above, the "Transactions of the Royal Soc. of Bohemia", and Zach's "Allgemeine geographische Ephemeriden". He completed Father Metzburg's triangulation of lower Austria, using it as a basis for the production of a new map of that country, and assisted him with the triangulation of Galicia. The erection of the "New Observatory" of Vienna (which afterwards gave place to the new structure on the "Turkenschanze") was Triesnecker's work. He was a member of the scientific associations of Breslau, Göttingen, Munich, St. Petersburg, and Prague. J. STEIN Triest-Capo d'Istria Triest-Capo d'Istria (TERGESTINA ET JUSTINOPOLITANA.) Suffragan diocese of Görz-Gradiska; exists as a triple see since 1821, when Cittanova (Æmonia) and Capodistria (Ægida, Capris, Justinopolis) were united to Triest, and its present name was assigned to the see. St. Frugifer, consecrated in 524, was the first Bishop of Triest; since then it exhibits a long line of eighty-seven bishops. Despite their high character and great abilities, however, these bishops only in rare instances attained to eminence, owing to the small size of their diocese, which was subject to Aquileia, and to the rivalry between Aquileia and Venice. Foremost among the bishops is Enea Silvio de' Piccolomini, later Pope Pius II. Petrus Bonomo, a secretary of Frederick IV and Maximilian I, became Bishop of Triest in 1502, and was known as pater concilii in the fifth Lateran Council (1512). Giovanni Bogarino, teacher of Archduke Charles of Styria, was bishop from 1591. Joseph II abolished the Diocese of 'Triest in 1788, transferring the see to Gradiska. His brother, Leopold II, divided Gradiska into the Dioceses of Gorz and Triest, re-establishing Triest in 1791 and appointing as its bishop, Sigismund Anton, Count of Hohenwart and tutor of his children. Other attempts were made to suppress the see, but the emperor decreed its preservation, and von Buset was appointed bishop. After his death (1803) the see remained vacant eighteen years, owing to the disorders caused by Napoleon. Emperor Franz finally appointed Leonardi as Bishop of Triest. At the Synod of Vienna in 1849, Bartholomew Legat was present; he defended, with considerable fervour, the views of the minority in the Vatican Council. In 1909 Bishop Franz X. Nagi was appointed coadjutor cum jure successionis to the ninety-year-old Cardinal Prince-Archbishop Anton Gruscha of Vienna. The see numbers 409,800 Catholics with 291 priests, 81 male religious and 174 nuns. CÖLESTIN WOLFSGRUBER Trincomalee Trincomalee (TRINCOMALIENSIS.) Located in Ceylon, suffragan of Colombo, was created in 1893 by a division of the diocese of Jaffna. The diocese comprises the whole of the eastern province as well as the district of Tamankuduwa. Out of a total population of 186,251 the Catholics number 8773, with 28 churches and chapels served by 13 fathers and two lay brothers of the Belgian province of the Society of Jesus, with two missionaries Apostolic. Candidates for the priesthood are sent to Kandy seminary. There are fifty-five schools with 2523 pupils, and one convent of the Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny with five inmates who conduct an orphanage attached to the convent. The bishop is Charles Lavigne, S.J. (consecrated 1887), who resides at Trincomalee. Madras Catholic Directory, 1910. ERNEST R. HULL Abbey of Trinita di Cava Dei Tirreni Abbey of Trinità di Cava dei Tirreni Located in the Province of Salerno. It stands in a gorge of the Finestre Hills near Cava dei Tirreni, and was founded in 980 by Alferio Pappacarbona, a noble of Salerno who became a Cluniac monk. Urban II endowed this monastery with many privileges, making it immediately subject to the Holy See, with jurisdiction over the surrounding territory. In 1394 Boniface IX made it a diocese, but in 1513 Leo X erected the Diocese of Cava, detaching that city from the abbot's jurisdiction. About the same time the Cluniacs were replaced by Cassinese monks. This monastery, an abbey nullius, possesses a very rich store of public and private documents, which date back to the eighth century, and is now the seat of a national educational establishment, under the care of the Benedictines. The church is famous for its organ. In 1893 the cultus of the first four abbots (Alferius, Leo, Petrus, and Constabilis) was sanctioned. There are 18 parishes with 68 priests, regular and secular, and 28,000 faithful, subject to the abbacy. U. BENIGNI Order of Trinitarians Order of Trinitarians The redemption of captives has always been regarded in the Church as a work of mercy, as is abundantly testified by many lives of saints who devoted themselves to this task. The period of the Crusades, when so many Christians were in danger of falling into the hands of infidels, witnessed the rise of religious orders vowed exclusively to this pious work. In the thirteenth century there is mention of an order of Montjoie, founded for this purpose in Spain, but its existence was brief, as it was established in 1180 and united in 1221 with the Order of Calatrava. Another Spanish order prospered better; this was founded in the thirteenth century by St Peter Nolasco under the title of Our Lady of Mercy (de la Merced), whence the name Mercedarians. It soon spread widely from Aragon, and has still several houses at Rome, in Italy, Spain, and the old Spanish colonies. Finally, the Order of Trinitarians, which exists to the present day, had at first no other object, as is recalled by the primitive title: "Ordo S. Trinitatis et de redemptione captivorum". its founder, St. John of Math, a native of Provence and a doctor of the University of Paris, conceived the project under the pious inspiration of a pious solitary, St Felix of Valois, in a hermitage called Cerfroid, which subsequently became the chief house of the order. Innocent III, though little in favor of new orders, granted his approbation to this enterprise in a Bull of 17 December, 1198. The primitive rule, which has been in turns mitigated or restored, enacted that each house should comprise seven brothers, one of whom should be superior; the revenues of the house should be divided into three parts, one for the monks, one for the support of the poor, and one for the ransom of captives; finally it forbade the monks when journeying to use a horse, either through humility, or because horses were forbidden to Christians in the Mussulman countries, whither the friars had to go; hence their popular name of "Friars of the Ass". In France the Trinitarians were as much favoured by the kings as by the popes. St. Louis installed a house of their order in his château of Fontainebleu. He chose Trinitarians as his chaplains, and was accompanied by them on his crusades. Their convent in Paris is dedicated to St. Mathurin; hence they are also known in France as Mathurins. Founded in 1228, the Paris house soon eclipsed Cerfroid, the cradle of the Trinitarians, and eventually became the residence of the general, also called grand minister, of the order. Towards the end of the twelfth century the order had 250 houses throughout Christendom, where its benevolent work was manifested by the return of liberated captives. This won for it many alms in lands and revenues, a third of which was used for ransoms. But the chief source was collections; and to make these fruitful it was not considered enough to attach indulgences to the almsdeed, recourse was had to theatrical demonstrations to touch hearts and open purses. The misfortunes of the unhappy captives in the Mussulman countries were the readiest subjects for descriptions, sermons, and even tableaux. In Spain these alms-quests were made solemnly: the religious on their mules were preceded by trumpeters and cymbal-players, and a herald proclaimed the redemption by inviting families to make known their kinsfolk in captivity and the alms destined for their ransom. From the fourteenth century the Trinitarians had lay assistants, i.e., charitable collectors, authorised by letters patent to solicit alms for the order in their respective towns; these were called marguilliers. There were also confraternities of the Holy Trinity, chiefly in the towns where the order had no convent; these consisted of lay tertiaries who wore the scapular of the order, were associated with its spiritual favours, and devoted a portion of their income to its work. In fact the Trinitarians had considerable resources to meet the needs of their work. The funds being collected, the ransomers to the number of three or four set sail from Provence or Spain with objects to alleviate the lot of the captives or coax their jailers. Their destination was usually the Barbary States, especially in the sixteenth century when the corsairs of Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco infested the Mediterranean and made plunder their chief means of existence. The Mercedarians went chiefly to Morocco, while the Trinitarians went preferably to Tunis or Algiers. There began their trials. They had to confront the dangers of the journey, the endemic diseases of the African coast, exposed to the outrages of the natives, sometimes to burst of Mussulman fanaticism, which cost several lives. The most delicate part of the task lay in the choice of captives amid the solicitations with which the monks were besieged and the negotiations for settling the ransom-price between the corsairs and the Trinitarians, between the exactions of the former and the limited resources of the latter. When the sum was not sufficient, the Trinitarians were held as hostages in the place of the captives until the arrival of fresh funds. The choice of captives was made according to the funds; ransom was first paid for the natives of the regions which had contributed to the redemption. Sometimes certain captives were previously indicated by their family who paid the ransom. When the captives returned to Europe, the Trinitarians had them go in procession from town to town amid scenery intended to impress the imagination in justification of the use of the alms and to inspire fresh almsdeeds. The number of those ransomed during the three centuries is estimated at 90,000. The most famous of these was Cervantes (ransomed in 1580), who at his death was buried among the trinitarians at Madrid in a habit of a Trinitarian tertiary. Despite the large sums of money which passed through their hands, the Trinitarians had to struggle constantly with poverty. They had to defray the expenses of numerous hospitals, as well as to administer parochial charges. They suffered greatly in France during the English invasion of the fifteenth century and the wars of religion of the sixteenth. Moreover, there were conflicts between the Mercedarians, who had spread from Spain to France, and the Trinitarians, who had spread from France to Spain. They contested each other's right to collect and receive legacies: attempts at fusion failed, and their rivalry gave rise to numerous suits in both countries and to a whole controversial literature. Their poverty resulted in a relaxation of the rules which had often to be revised, and in divisions in the order. While one party followed the mitigated rule, there was a reform party which aimed at a return to the primitive observance. Thus arose the first schism in 1578 at Pontoise, which in 1633 succeeded in entering the mother-house at Cerfroid. About the same time the Trinitarians of Spain formed a schism by separating from the Trinitarians of France under Father Juan Bautista of the Immaculate Conception; the latter added fresh austerity to their rule by founding the Congregation of "Discalced Trinitarians of Spain". This rule spread to Italy and Austria (1690), where the ransom of captives was much esteemed during the constant wars with the Turks. Hence the three congregations, which gave rise to regrettable dissensions. The Discalced also went to France, where they were suppressed by a Papal Bull in 1771. The division between those observing the mitigated and the reformed rule was terminated by uniting without fusing them under a common general. At this time also they began to lay claim in France to the title by which they have since been known: Canons Regular of the Holy Trinity. The Revolution of 1789 suppressed them in all the territories to which they had spread. Joseph II had already suppressed them in 1784 in Austria and the Low Countries. They have retained a few houses in Italy, Spain, and the Spanish colonies. At Rome, where the convent of St. Thomas was united with the chapter of St. Peter in 1387, the Trinitarians protested many times unsuccessfully against this spoliation, when on the occasion of the seventh centenary of the foundation of the order in 1898, the chapter of St. Peter's voluntarily restored it. But their chief house is the Basilica of St. John Chrysogonus which was given to them by Pius IX in 1856. There have always been nuns attached to the hospitals of the order, but they do not seem to have formed an integral part of it. The true Trinitarian Sisters were founded in Spain by Maria de Romero in 1612 and they still have convents at Madrid and in other cities. They form part of the discalced congregation. The Trinitarians wear a white habit, with a cross of which the upright is red and the cross bar blue. CH. MOELLER The Blessed Trinity The Blessed Trinity This article is divided as follows: I. Dogma of the Trinity; II. Proof of the Doctrine from Scripture; III. Proof of the Doctrine from Tradition; IV. The Trinity as a Mystery; V. The Doctrine as Interpreted in Greek Theology; VI. The Doctrine as Interpreted in Latin Theology. I. THE DOGMA OF THE TRINITY The Trinity is the term employed to signify the central doctrine of the Christian religion -- the truth that in the unity of the Godhead there are Three Persons, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, these Three Persons being truly distinct one from another. Thus, in the words of the Athanasian Creed: "the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God." In this Trinity of Persons the Son is begotten of the Father by an eternal generation, and the Holy Spirit proceeds by an eternal procession from the Father and the Son. Yet, notwithstanding this difference as to origin, the Persons are co-eternal and co-equal: all alike are uncreated and omnipotent. This, the Church teaches, is the revelation regarding God's nature which Jesus Christ, the Son of God, came upon earth to deliver to the world: and which she proposes to man as the foundation of her whole dogmatic system. In Scripture there is as yet no single term by which the Three Divine Persons are denoted together. The word trias (of which the Latin trinitas is a translation) is first found in Theophilus of Antioch about A.D. 180. He speaks of "the Trinity of God [the Father], His Word and His Wisdom ("Ad. Autol.", II, 15). The term may, of course, have been in use before his time. Afterwards it appears in its Latin form of trinitas in Tertullian ("De pud." c. xxi). In the next century the word is in general use. It is found in many passages of Origen ("In Ps. xvii", 15). The first creed in which it appears is that of Origen's pupil, Gregory Thaumaturgus. In his Ekthesis tes pisteos composed between 260 and 270, he writes: There is therefore nothing created, nothing subject to another in the Trinity: nor is there anything that has been added as though it once had not existed, but had entered afterwards: therefore the Father has never been without the Son, nor the Son without the Spirit: and this same Trinity is immutable and unalterable forever (P. G., X, 986). It is manifest that a dogma so mysterious presupposes a Divine revelation. When the fact of revelation, understood in its full sense as the speech of God to man, is no longer admitted, the rejection of the doctrine follows as a necessary consequence. For this reason it has no place in the Liberal Protestantism of today. The writers of this school contend that the doctrine of the Trinity, as professed by the Church, is not contained in the New Testament, but that it was first formulated in the second century and received final approbation in the fourth, as the result of the Arian and Macedonian controversies. In view of this assertion it is necessary to consider in some detail the evidence afforded by Holy Scripture. Attempts have been made recently to apply the more extreme theories of comparative religion to the doctrine ot the Trinity, and to account for it by an imaginary law of nature compelling men to group the objects of their worship in threes. It seems needless to give more than a reference to these extravagant views, which serious thinkers of every school reject as destitute of foundation. II. PROOF OF DOCTRINE FROM SCRIPTURE A. New Testament The evidence from the Gospels culminates in the baptismal commission of Matthew 28:20. It is manifest from the narratives of the Evangelists that Christ only made the great truth known to the Twelve step by step. First He taught them to recognize in Himself the Eternal Son of God. When His ministry was drawing to a close, He promised that the Father would send another Divine Person, the Holy Spirit, in His place. Finally after His resurrection, He revealed the doctrine in explicit terms, bidding them "go and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost" (Matthew 28:18). The force of this passage is decisive. That "the Father" and "the Son" are distinct Persons follows from the terms themselves, which are mutually exclusive. The mention of the Holy Spirit in the same series, the names being connected one with the other by the conjunctions "and . . . and" is evidence that we have here a Third Person co-ordinate with the Father and the Son, and excludes altogether the supposition that the Apostles understood the Holy Spirit not as a distinct Person, but as God viewed in His action on creatures. The phrase "in the name" (eis to onoma) affirms alike the Godhead of the Persons and their unity of nature. Among the Jews and in the Apostolic Church the Divine name was representative of God. He who had a right to use it was invested with vast authority: for he wielded the supernatural powers of Him whose name he employed. It is incredible that the phrase "in the name" should be here employed, were not all the Persons mentioned equally Divine. Moreover, the use of the singular, "name," and not the plural, shows that these Three Persons are that One Omnipotent God in whom the Apostles believed. Indeed the unity of God is so fundamental a tenet alike of the Hebrew and of the Christian religion, and is affirmed in such countless passages of the Old and New Testaments, that any explanation inconsistent with this doctrine would be altogether inadmissible. The supernatural appearance at the baptism of Christ is often cited as an explicit revelation of Trinitarian doctrine, given at the very commencement of the Ministry. This, it seems to us, is a mistake. The Evangelists, it is true, see in it a manifestation of the Three Divine Persons. Yet, apart from Christ's subsequent teaching, the dogmatic meaning of the scene would hardly have been understood. Moreover, the Gospel narratives appear to signify that none but Christ and the Baptist were privileged to see the Mystic Dove, and hear the words attesting the Divine sonship of the Messias. Besides these passages there are many others in the Gospels which refer to one or other of the Three Persons in particular and clearly express the separate personality and Divinity of each. In regard to the First Person it will not be necessary to give special citations: those which declare that Jesus Christ is God the Son, affirm thereby also the separate personality of the Father. The Divinity of Christ is amply attested not merely by St. John, but by the Synoptists. As this point is treated elsewhere (see JESUS CHRIST), it will be sufficient here to enumerate a few of the more important messages from the Synoptists, in which Christ bears witness to His Divine Nature. + He declares that He will come to be the judge of all men (Matthew 25:31). In Jewish theology the judgment of the world was a distinctively Divine, and not a Messianic, prerogative. + In the parable of the wicked husbandmen, He describes Himself as the son of the householder, while the Prophets, one and all, are represented as the servants (Matthew 21:33 sqq.). + He is the Lord of Angels, who execute His command (Matthew 24:31). + He approves the confession of Peter when he recognizes Him, not as Messias -- a step long since taken by all the Apostles -- but explicitly as the Son of God: and He declares the knowledge due to a special revelation from the Father (Matthew 16:16-17). + Finally, before Caiphas He not merely declares Himself to be the Messias, but in reply to a second and distinct question affirms His claim to be the Son of God. He is instantly declared by the high priest to be guilty of blasphemy, an offense which could not have been attached to the claim to be simply the Messias (Luke 22:66-71). St. John's testimony is yet more explicit than that of the Synoptists. He expressly asserts that the very purpose of his Gospel is to establish the Divinity of Jesus Christ (John 20:31). In the prologue he identifies Him with the Word, the only-begotten of the Father, Who from all eternity exists with God, Who is God (John 1:1-18). The immanence of the Son in the Father and of the Father in the Son is declared in Christ's words to St. Philip: "Do you not believe, that I am in the Father, and the Father in Me?" (14:10), and in other passages no less explicit (14:7; 16:15; 17:21). The oneness of Their power and Their action is affirmed: "Whatever he [the Father] does, the Son also does in like manner" (5:19, cf. 10:38); and to the Son no less than to the Father belongs the Divine attribute of conferring life on whom He will (5:21). In 10:29, Christ expressly teaches His unity of essence with the Father: "That which my Father hath given me, is greater than all . . . I and the Father are one." The words, "That which my Father hath given me," can, having regard to the context, have no other meaning than the Divine Name, possessed in its fullness by the Son as by the Father. Rationalist critics lay great stress upon the text: "The Father is greater than I" (14:28). They argue that this suffices to establish that the author of the Gospel held subordinationist views, and they expound in this sense certain texts in which the Son declares His dependence on the Father (5:19; 8:28). In point of fact the doctrine of the Incarnation involves that, in regard of His Human Nature, the Son should be less than the Father. No argument against Catholic doctrine can, therefore, be drawn from this text. So too, the passages referring to the dependence of the Son upon the Father do but express what is essential to Trinitarian dogma, namely, that the Father is the supreme source from Whom the Divine Nature and perfections flow to the Son. (On the essential difference between St. John's doctrine as to the Person of Christ and the Logos doctrine of the Alexandrine Philo, to which many Rationalists have attempted to trace it, see Logos.) In regard to the Third Person of the Blessed Trinity, the passages which can be cited from the Synoptists as attesting His distinct personality are few. The words of Gabriel (Luke 1:35), having regard to the use of the term, "the Spirit," in the Old Testament, to signify God as operative in His creatures, can hardly be said to contain a definite revelation of the doctrine. For the same reason it is dubious whether Christ's warning to the Pharisees as regards blasphemy against the Holy Spirit (Matthew 12:31) can be brought forward as proof. But in Luke 12:12, "The Holy Ghost shall teach you in the same hour what you must say" (Matthew 10:20, and Luke 24:49), His personality is clearly implied. These passages, taken in connection with Matthew 28:19, postulate the existence of such teaching as we find in the discourses in the Cenacle reported by St. John (14-16). We have in these chapters the necessary preparation for the baptismal commission. In them the Apostles are instructed not only as the personality of the Spirit, but as to His office towards the Church. His work is to teach whatsoever He shall hear (16:13) to bring back their minds the teaching of Christ (14:26), to convince the world of sin (16:8). It is evident that, were the Spirit not a Person, Christ could not have spoken of His presence with the Apostles as comparable to His own presence with them (14:16). Again, were He not a Divine Person it could not have been expedient for the Apostles that Christ should leave them, and the Paraclete take His place (16:7). Moreover, notwithstanding the neuter form of the word (pneuma), the pronoun used in His regard is the masculine ekeinos. The distinction of the Holy Spirit from the Father and from the Son is involved in the express statements that He proceeds from the Father and is sent by the Son (15:26; cf. 14:16, 26). Nevertheless, He is one with Them: His presence with the Disciples is at the same time the presence of the Son (14:17, 18), while the presence of the Son is the presence of the Father (14:23). In the remaining New Testament writings numerous passages attest how clear and definite was the belief of the Apostolic Church in the three Divine Persons. In certain texts the coordination of Father, Son, and Spirit leaves no possible doubt as to the meaning of the writer. Thus in II Corinthians 13:13, St. Paul writes: "The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, and the charity of God, and the communication of the Holy Ghost be with you all." Here the construction shows that the Apostle is speaking of three distinct Persons. Moreover, since the names God and Holy Ghost are alike Divine names, it follows that Jesus Christ is also regarded as a Divine Person. So also, in I Corinthians 12:4-11: "There are diversities of graces, but the same Spirit; and there are diversities of ministries, but the same Lord: and there are diversities of operations, but the same God, who worketh all [of them] in all [persons]." (Cf. also Ephesians 4:4-6; I Peter 1:2-3.) But apart from passages such as these, where there is express mention of the Three Persons, the teaching of the New Testament regarding Christ and the Holy Spirit is free from all ambiguity. In regard to Christ, the Apostles employ modes of speech which, to men brought up in the Hebrew faith, necessarily signified belief in His Divinity. Such, for instance, is the use of the Doxology in reference to Him. The Doxology, "To Him be glory for ever and ever" (cf. I Chronicles 16:38; 29:11; Psalm 103:31; 28:2), is an expression of praise offered to God alone. In the New Testament we find it addressed not alone to God the Father, but to Jesus Christ (II Timothy 4:18; II Peter 3:18; Revelations 1:6; Hebrews 13:20-21), and to God the Father and Christ in conjunction (Revelations 5:13, 7:10). Not less convincing is the use of the title Lord (Kyrios). This term represents the Hebrew Adonai, just as God (Theos) represents Elohim. The two are equally Divine names (cf. I Corinthians 8:4). In the Apostolic writings Theos may almost be said to be treated as a proper name of God the Father, and Kyrios of the Son (see, for example, I Corinthians 12:5-6); in only a few passages do we find Kyrios used of the Father (I Corinthians 3:5; 7:17) or Theos of Christ. The Apostles from time to time apply to Christ passages of the Old Testament in which Kyrios is used, for example, I Corinthians 10:9 (Numbers 21:7), Hebrews 1:10-12 (Psalm 101:26-28); and they use such expressions as "the fear of the Lord" (Acts 9:31; II Corinthians 5:11; Ephesians 5:21), "call upon the name of the Lord," indifferently of God the Father and of Christ (Acts 2:21; 9:14; Romans 10:13). The profession that "Jesus is the Lord" (Kyrion Iesoun, Romans 10:9; Kyrios Iesous, I Corinthians 12:3) is the acknowledgment of Jesus as Jahweh. The texts in which St. Paul affirms that in Christ dwells the plenitude of the Godhead (Colossians 2:9), that before His Incarnation He possessed the essential nature of God (Philemon 2:6), that He "is over all things, God blessed for ever" (Romans 9:5) tell us nothing that is not implied in many other passages of his Epistles. The doctrine as to the Holy Spirit is equally clear. That His distinct personality was fully recognized is shown by many passages. Thus He reveals His commands to the Church's ministers: "As they were ministering to the Lord and fasting, the Holy Ghost said to them: Separate me Saul and Barnabas . . ." (Acts 13:2). He directs the missionary journey of the Apostles: "They attempted to go into Bithynia, and the Spirit of Jesus suffered them not" (Acts 16:7; cf. Acts 5:3; 15:28; Romans 15:30). Divine attributes are affirmed of Him. + He possesses omniscience and reveals to the Church mysteries known only to God (I Corinthians 2:10); + it is He who distributes charismata (I Cor., 12:11); + He is the giver of supernatural life (II Cor., 3:8); + He dwells in the Church and in the souls of individual men, as in His temple (Romans 8:9-11; I Corinthians 3:16, 6:19). + The work of justification and sanctification is attributed to Him (I Cor., 6:11; Rom., 15:16), just as in other passages the same operations are attributed to Christ (I Cor., 1:2; Gal., 2:17). To sum up: the various elements of the Trinitarian doctrine are all expressly taught in the New Testament. The Divinity of the Three Persons is asserted or implied in passages too numerous to count. The unity of essence is not merely postulated by the strict monotheism of men nurtured in the religion of Israel, to whom "subordinate deities" would have been unthinkable; but it is, as we have seen, involved in the baptismal commission of Matthew 28:19, and, in regard to the Father and the Son, expressly asserted in John 10:38. That the Persons are co-eternal and coequal is a mere corollary from this. In regard to the Divine processions, the doctrine of the first procession is contained in the very terms Father and Son: the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father and Son is taught in the discourse of the Lord reported by St. John (14-17) (see Holy Ghost). B. Old Testament The early Fathers were persuaded that indications of the doctrine of the Trinity must exist in the Old Testament and they found such indications in not a few passages. Many of them not merely believed that the Prophets had testified of it, they held that it had been made known even to the Patriarchs. They regarded it as certain that the Divine messenger of Genesis 16:7, 18, 21:17, 31:11; Exodus 3:2, was God the Son; for reasons to be mentioned below (III. B.) they considered it evident that God the Father could not have thus manifested Himself (cf. Justin, "Dial.", 60; Irenaeus, "Adv. haer.", IV, xx, 7-11; Tertullian, "Adv. Prax.", 15-16; Theoph., "Ad Autol.", ii, 22; Novat., "De Trin.", 18, 25, etc.). They held that, when the inspired writers speak of "the Spirit of the Lord", the reference was to the Third Person of the Trinity: and one or two (Irenaeus, "Adv. haer.", II, xxx, 9; Theophilus, "Ad. Aut.", II, 15; Hippolytus, "Con. Noet.", 10) interpret the hypostatic Wisdom of the Sapiential books, not, with St. Paul, of the Son (Hebrews 1:3; cf. Wisdom, vii, 25, 26), but of the Holy Spirit. But in others of the Fathers is found what would appear to be the sounder view, that no distinct intimation of the doctrine was given under the Old Covenant. (Cf. Gregory Nazianzen, "Or. theol.", v, 26; Epiphanius, "Ancor." 73, "Haer.", 74; Basil, "Adv. Eunom.", II, 22; Cyril Alex., "In Joan.", xii, 20.) Some of these, however, admitted that a knowledge of the mystery was granted to the Prophets and saints of the Old Dispensation (Epiph., "Haer.", viii, 5; Cyril Alex., "Con. Julian.," I). It may be readily conceded that the way is prepared for the revelation in some of the prophecies. The names Emmanuel (Isaias 7:14) and God the Mighty (Isaias 9:6) affirmed of the Messias make mention of the Divine Nature of the promised deliverer. Yet it seems that the Gospel revelation was needed to render the full meaning of the passages clear. Even these exalted titles did not lead the Jews to recognize that the Saviour to come was to be none other than God Himself. The Septuagint translators do not even venture to render the words God the Mighty literally, but give us, in their place,"the angel of great counsel." A still higher stage of preparation is found in the doctrine of the Sapiential books regarding the Divine Wisdom. In Proverbs 8, Wisdom appears personified, and in a manner which suggests that the sacred author was not employing a mere metaphor, but had before his mind a real person (cf. verses 22, 23). Similar teaching occurs in Ecclus., 24, in a discourse which Wisdom is declared to utter in "the assembly of the Most High", i. e. in the presence of the angels. This phrase certainly supposes Wisdom to be conceived as person. The nature of the personality is left obscure; but we are told thnt the whole earth is Wisdom's Kingdom, that she finds her delight in all the works of God, but that Israel is in a special manner her portion and her inheritance (Ecclus., 24:8-13). In the Book of the Wisdom of Solomon we find a still further advance. Here Wisdom is clearly distinguished from Jehovah: "She is. . .a certain pure emanation of the glory of the almighty God. . .the brightness of eternal light, and the unspotted mirror of God's majesty, and the image of his goodness" (Wisdom 7:25-26. Cf. Hebrews 1:3). She is, moreover, described as "the worker of all things" (panton technitis, 7:21), an expression indicating that the creation is in some manner attributable to her. Yet in later Judaism this exalted doctrine suffered eclipse, and seems to have passed into oblivion. Nor indeed can it be said that the passage, even though it manifests some knowledge of a second personality in the Godhead, constitutes a revelation of the Trinity. For nowhere in the Old Testament do we find any clear indication of a Third Person. Mention is often made of the Spirit of the Lord, but there is nothing to show that the Spirit was viewed as distinct from Jahweh Himself. The term is always employed to signify God considered in His working, whether in the universe or in the soul of man. The matter seems to be correctly summed up by Epiphanius, when he says: "The One Godhead is above all declared by Moses, and the twofold personality (of Father and Son) is strenuously asuerted by the Prophets. The Trinity is made known by the Gospel" ("Haer.", Ixxiv). III. PROOF OF THE DOCTRINE FROM TRADITION A. The Church Fathers In this section we shall show that the doctrine of the Blessed Trinity has from the earliest times been taught by the Catholic Church and professed by her members. As none deny this for any period subsequent to the Arian and Macedonian controversies, it will be sufficient if we here consider the faith of the first four centuries only. An argument of very great weight is provided in the liturgical forms of the Church. The highest probative force must necessarily attach to these, since they express not the private opinion of a single individual, but the public belief of the whole body of the faithful. Nor can it be objected that the notions of Christians on the subject were vague and confused, and that their liturgical forms reflect this frame of mind. On such a point vagueness was impossible. Any Christian might be called on to seal with his blood his belief that there is but One God. The answer of Saint Maximus (c. A.D. 250) to the command of the proconsul that he should sacrifice to the gods, "I offer no sacrifice save to the One True God," is typical of many such replies in the Acts of the martyrs. It is out of the question to suppose that men who were prepared to give their lives on behalf of this fundamental truth were in point of fact in so great confusion in regard to it that they were unaware whether their creed was monotheistic, ditheistic, or tritheistic. Moreover, we know that their instruction regarding the doctrines of their religion was solid. The writers of that age bear witness that even the unlettered were thoroughly familiar with the truths of faith (cf. Justin, "Apol.", I, 60; Irenaeus, "Adv. haer.", III, iv, n. 2). (1) Baptismal formulas We may notice first the baptismal formula, which all acknowledge to be primitive. It has already been shown that the words as prescribed by Christ (Matthew 28:19) clearly express the Godhead of the Three Persons as well as their distinction, but another consideration may here be added. Baptism, with its formal renunciation of Satan and his works, was understood to be the rejection of the idolatry of paganism and the solemn consecration of the baptised to the one true God (Tert., "De spect.", iv; Justin, "Apol.", I, iv). The act of consecration was the invocation over them of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The supposition that they regarded the Second and Third Persons as created beings, and were in fact consecrating themselves to the service of creatures, is manifestly absurd. St. Hippolytus has expressed the faith of the Church in the clearest terms: "He who descends into this laver of regeneration with faith forsakes the Evil One and engages himself to Christ, renounces the enemy and confesses that Christ is God . . . he returns from the font a son of God and a coheir of Christ. To Whom with the all holy, the good and lifegiving Spirit be glory now and always, forever and ever. Amen" ("Serm. in Theoph.", n. 10). The doxologies (2) The witness of the doxologies is no less striking. The form now universal, "Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost," so clearly expresses the Trinitarian dogma that the Arians found it necessary to deny that it had been in use previous to the time of Flavian of Antioch (Philostorgius, "Hist. eccl.", III, xiii). It is true that up to the period of the Arian controversy another form, "Glory to the Father, through the Son, in the Holy Spirit," had been more common (cf. I Clement, 58, 59; Justin, "Apol.", I, 67). This latter form is indeed perfectly consistent with Trinitarian belief: it, however, expresses not the coequality of the Three Persons, but their operation in regard to man. We live in the Spirit, and through Him we are made partakers in Christ (Galatians 5:25; Romans 8:9); and it is through Christ, as His members, that we are worthy to offer praise to God (Heb. 13:15). But there are many passages in the ante-Nicene Fathers which show that the form, "Glory be to the Father and to the Son, and to [with] the Holy Spirit," was also in use. + In the narrative of St. Polycarp's martyrdom we read: "With Whom to Thee and the Holy Spirit be glory now and for the ages to come" (Mart. S. Polyc., n.14; cf. n. 22). + Clement of Alexandria bids men "give thanks and praise to the only Father and Son, to the Son and Father with the Holy Spirit" (Paed., III, xii). + St. Hippolytus closes his work against Noetus with the words: "To Him be glory and power with the Father and the Holy Spirit in Holy Church now and always for ever and ever. Amen" (Contra Noet., n. 18). + Denis of Alexandria uses almost the same words: "To God the Father and to His Son Jesus Christ with the Holy Spirit be honour and glory forever and ever, Amen" (in St. Basil, "De Spiritu Sancto", xxix, n. 72). + St. Basil further tells us that it was an immemorial custom among Christians when they lit the evening lamp to give thanks to God with prayer: Ainoumen Patera kai Gion kai Hagion Pneuma Theou ("We praise the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit of God"). (3) Other patristic writings The doctrine of the Trinity is formally taught in every class of ecclesiastical writing. From among the apologists we may note Justin, "Apol." I, vi; Athenagoras, "Legat: pro Christ.", n. 12. The latter tells us that Christians "are conducted to the future life by this one thing alone, that they know God and His Logos, what is the oneness of the Son with the Father, what the communion of the Father with the Son, what is the Spirit, what is the unity of these three, the Spirit, the Son, and the Father, and their distinction in unity." It would be impossible to be more explicit. And we may be sure that an apologist, writing for pagans, would weigh well the words in which he dealt with this doctrine. Amongst polemical writers we may refer to Irenaeus, "Adv. haer.", I, xxii, IV, xx, 1-6. In these passages he rejects the Gnostic figment that the world was created by aeons who had emanated from God, but were not consubstantial with Him, and teaches the consubstantiality of the Word and the Spirit by Whom God created all things. Clement of Alexandria professes the doctrine in "Paedag." I, vi, and somewhat later Gregory Thaumaturgus, as we have already seen, lays it down in the most express terms in his creed (P.G., X, 986). (4) As contrasted with heretical teachings Yet further evidence regarding the Church's doctrine is furnished by a comparison of her teaching with that of heretical sects. The controversy with the Sabellians in the third century proves conclusively that she would tolerate no deviation from Trinitarian doctrine. Noetus of Smyrna, the originator of the error, was condemned by a local synod, about A.D. 200. Sabellius, who propagated the same heresy at Rome c. A.D. 220, was excommunicated by St. Callistus. It is notorious that the sect made no appeal to tradition: it found Trinitarianism in possession wherever it appeared -- at Smyrna, at Rome, in Africa, in Egypt. On the other hand, St. Hippolytus, who combats it in the "Contra Noetum," claims Apostolic tradition for the doctrine of the Catholic Church: "Let us believe, beloved brethren, in accordance with the tradition of the Apostles, that God the Word came down from heaven to the holy Virgin Mary to save man." Somewhat later (c. A.D. 260) Denis of Alexandria found that the error was widespread in the Libyan Pentapolis, and he addressed a dogmatic letter against it to two bishops, Euphranor and Ammonius. In this, in order to emphasize the distinction between the Persons, he termed the Son poiema tou Theou and used other expressions capable of suggesting that the Son is to be reckoned among creatures. He was accused of heterodoxy to St. Dionysius of Rome, who held a council and addressed to him a letter dealing with the true Catholic doctrine on the point in question. The Bishop of Alexandria replied with a defense of his orthodoxy entitled "Elegxhos kai apologia," in whioh he corrected whatever had been erroneous. He expressly professes his belief in the consubstantiality of the Son, using the very term, homoousios, which afterwards became the touchstone of orthodoxy at Nicaea (P. G., XXV, 505). The story of the controversy is conclusive as to the doctrinal standard of the Church. It shows us that she was firm in rejecting on the one hand any confusion of the Persons and on the other hand any denial of their consubstantiality. The information we possess regarding another heresy -- that of Montanus -- supplies us with further proof that the doctrine of the Trinity was the Church's teaching in A.D. 150. Tertullian affirms in the clearest terms that what he held as to the Trinity when a Catholic he still holds as a Montanist ("Adv. Prax.", II, 156); and in the same work he explicitly teaches the Divinity of the Three Persons, their distinction, the eternity of God the Son (op. cit., xxvii). Epiphanius in the same way asserts the orthodoxy of the Montanists on this subject (Haer., lxviii). Now it is not to be supposed that the Montanists had accepted any novel teaching from the Catholic Church since their secession in the middle of the second century. Hence, inasmuch as there was full agreement between the two bodies in regard to the Trinity, we have here again a clear proof that Trinitarianism was an article of faith at a time when the Apostolic tradition was far too recent for any error to have arisen on apoint so vital. B. Later Controversy Notwithstanding the force of the arguments we have just summarised, a vigorous controversy has been carried on from the end of the seventeenth century to the present day regarding the Trinitarian doctrine of the ante-Nicene Fathers. The Socinian writers of the seventeenth century (e. g. Sand, "Nucleus historiae ecclesiastic", Amsterdam, 1668) asserted that the language of the early Fathers in many passages of their works shows that they agreed not with Athanasius, but with Arius. Petavius, who was at that period engaged on his great theological work, was convinced by their arguments, and allowed that at least some of these Fathers had fallen into grave errors. On the other hand, their orthodoxy was vigorously defended by the Anglican divine Dr. George Bull ("Defensio Fidei Nicaean", Oxford, 1685) and subsequently by Bossuet, Thomassinus, and other Catholic theologians. Those who take the less favourable view assert that they teach the following points inconsistent with the post-Nicene belief of the Church: + That the Son even as regards His Divine Nature is inferior and not equal to the Father; + that the Son alone appeared in the theophanies of the Old Testament, inasmuchas the Father is essentially invisible, the Son, however, not so; + that the Son is a created being; + that the generation of the Son is not eternal, but took place in time. We shall examine these four points in order. (1) In proof of the assertion that many of the Fathers deny the equality of the Son with the Father, passages are cited from Justin (Apol., I, xiii, xxxii), Irenaeus (Adv. haer., III, viii, n. 3), Clem. Alex. ("Strom." VII, ii), Hippolytus (Con. Noet., n. 14), Origen (Con. Cels., VIII, xv). Thus Irenaeus (loc. cit.) says: "He commanded, and they were created . . . Whom did He command? His Word, by whom, says the Scripture, the heavens were established. And Origen, loc. cit., says: "We declare that the Son is not mightier than the Father, but inferior to Him. And this belief we ground on the saying of Jesus Himself: "The Father who sent me is greater than I." Now in regard to these passages it must be borne in mind that there are two ways of considering the Trinity. We may view the Three Persons insofar as they are equally possessed of the Divine Nature or we may consider the Son and the Spirit as derivlng from the Father, Who is the sole source of Godhead, and from Whom They receive all They have and are. The former mode of considering them has been the more common since the Arian heresy. The latter, however, was more frequent previously to that period. Under this aspect, the Father, as being: tbe sole source of all, may be termed greater than the Son. Thus Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa, and the Fathers of the Council of Sardica, in their synodical letter, all treat our Lord's words, teaches "The Father is greater than I" as having reference to His Godhead (cf. Petavius, "De Trin.", II, ii, 7, vi, 11). From this point of view it may be said that in the creation of the world the Father commanded, the Son obeyed. The expression is not one which would have been employed by Latin writers who insist thst creation and all God's works proceed from Him as One and not from the Persons as distinct from each other. But this truth was unfamiliar to the early Fathers. (2) Justin (Dial., n. 60) Irenaeus (Adv. haer., IV, xx, nn. 7, 11), Tertullian ("C. Marc.", II, 27; "Adv. Prax.", 15, 16), Novatian (De Trin., xviii, 25), Theophilus (Ad Autol., II, xxii), are accused of teaching that the theophanies were incompatible with the essential nature of the Father, yet not incompatible with that of the Son. In this case also the difficulty is largely removed if it be remembered that these writers regarded all the Divine operations as proceeding from the Three Persons as such, and not from the Godhead viewed as one. Now Revelation teaches us that in the work of the creation and redemption of the world the Father effects His purpose through the Son. Through Him He made the world; through Him He redeemed it; through Him He will judge it. Hence it was believed by these writers that, having regard to the present disposition of Providence, the theophanies could only have been the work of the Son. Moreover, in Colossians 1:15, the Son is expressly termed "the image of the invisible God" (eikon tou Theou rou aoratou). This expression they seem to have taken with strict literalness. The function of an eikon is to manifest what is itself hidden (cf. St. John Damascene, "De imagin.", III, n. 17). Hence they held that the work of revealing the Father belongs by nature to the Second Person of the Trinity, and concluded that the theophanies were His work. (3) Expressions which appear to contain the statement that the Son was created are found in Clement of Alexandria (Strom., V, xiv; VI, vii), Tatian (Orat., v), Tertullian ("Adv. Prax." vi; "Adv. "Adv. Hermong.", xviii, xx), Origen (In Joan., I, n. 22). Clement speaks of Wisdom as "created before all things" (protoktistos), and Tatian terms the Word the "first-begotten work of (ergon prototokon) Of the Father. Yet the meaning of these authors is clear. In Colossians 1:16, St. Paul says that all things were created in the Son. This was understood to signify that creation took place according to exemplar ideas predetermined by God and existing in the Word. In view of this, it might be said that the Father created the Word, this term being used in place of the more accurate generated, inasmuch as the exemplar ideas of creation were communicated by the Father to the Son. Or, again, the actual Creation of the world might be termed the creation of the Word, since it takes place according to the ideas which exist in the Word. The context invariably shows that the passage is to be understood in one or another of these senses. The expression is undoubtedly very harsh, and it certainly would never have been employed but for the verse, Proverbs 8:22, which is rendered in the Septuagint and the old Latin versions, "The Lord created (ektise) me, who am the beginning of His ways." As the passage was understood as having reference to the Son, it gave rise to the question how it could be said that Wisdom was created (Origen, "Princ.", I, ii, n. 3). It is further to be remembered that accurate terminology in regard to the relations between the Three Persons was the fruit of the controversies which sprang up in the fourth century. The writers of an earlier period were not concerned with Arianism, and employed expressions which in the light of subsequent errors are seen to be not merely inaccurate, but dangerous. (4) Greater difficulty is perhaps presented by a series of passages which appear to assert that prior to the Creation of the world the Word was not a distinct hypostasis from the Father. These are found in Justin (C. Tryphon., lxi), Tatian (Con. Graecos, v), Athenagoras (Legat., x), Theophilus (Ad Autol., II, x, 22); Hippolytus (Con. Noet., x); Tertullian ("Adv. Prax.", v-vii; "Adv. Hermogenem" xviii). Thus Theophilus writes (op. cit., n. 22): "What else is this voice [heard in Paradise] but the Word of God Who is also His Son? . . . For before anything came into being, He had Him as a counsellor, being His own mind and thought [i.e. as the logos endiathetos, c. x]). But when God wished to make all that He had determined on, then did He beget Him as the uttered Word [logos prophorikos], the firstborn of all creation, not, however, Himself being left without Reason (logos), but having begotten Reason, and ever holding converse with Reason." Expressions such as these are undoubtedly due to the influence of the Stoic philosophy: the logos endiathetos and logos prophorikos were current conceptions of that school. It is evident that these apologists were seeking to explain the Christian Faith to their pagan readers in terms with which the latter were familiar. Some Catholic writers have indeed thought that the influence of their previous training did lead some of them into Subordinationism, although the Church herself was never involved in the error (see Logos). Yet it does not seem necessary to adopt this conclusion. If the point of view of the writers be borne in mind, the expressions, strange as they are, will be seen not to be incompatibIe with orthodox belief. The early Fathers, as we have said, regarded Proverbs 8:22, and Colossians 1:15, as distinctly teaching that there is a sense in which the Word, begotten before all worlds, may rightly be said to have been begotten also in time. This temporal generation they conceived to be none other than the act of creation. They viewed this as the complement of the eternal generation, inasmuch as it is the external manifestation of those creative ideas which from all eternity the Father has communicated to the Eternal Word. Since, in the very same works which contain these perplexing expressions, other passages are found teaching explicitly the eternity of the Son, it appears most natural to interpret them in this sense. It should further be remembered that throughout this period theologians, when treating of the relation of the Divine Persons to each other, invariably regard them in connection with the cosmogony. Only later, in the Nicene epoch, did they learn to prescind from the question of creation and deal with the threefold Personality exclusively from the point of view of the Divine life of the Godhead. When that stage was reached expressions such as these became impossible. IV. THE TRINITY AS A MYSTERY The Vatican Council has explained the meaning to be attributed to the term mystery in theology. It lays down that a mystery is a truth which we are not merely incapable of discovering apart from Divine Revelation, but which, even when revealed, remains "hidden by the veil of faith and enveloped, so to speak, by a kind of darkness" (Const., "De fide. cath.", iv). In other words, our understanding of it remains only partial, even after we have accepted it as part of the Divine messege. Through analogies and types we can form a representative concept expressive of what is revealed, but we cannot attain that fuller knowledge which supposes that the various elements of the concept are clearly grasped and their reciprocal compatibility manifest. As regards the vindication of a mystery, the office of the natural reason is solely to show that it contains no intrinsic impossibility, that any objection urged against it on Reason. "Expressions such as these are undoubtedly the score that it violates the laws of thought is invalid. More than this it cannot do. The Vatican Council further defined that the Christian Faith contains mysteries strictly so called (can. 4). All theologians admit that the doctrine of the Trinity is of the number of these. Indeed, of all revealed truths this is the most impenetrable to reason. Hence, to declare this to be no mystery would be a virtual denial of the canon in question. Moreover, our Lord's words, Matthew 9:27, "No one knoweth the Son, but the Father," seem to declare expressly that the plurality of Persons in the Godhead is a truth entirely beyond the scope of any created intellect. The Fathers supply many passages in which the incomprehensibility of the Divine Nature is affirmed. St. Jerome says, in a well-known phrase: "The true profession of the mystery of the Trinity is to own that we do not comprehend it" (De mysterio Trinitatus recta confessio est ignoratio scientiae -- "Proem ad 1. xviii in Isai."). The controversy with the Eunomians, who declared that the Divine Essence was fully expressed in the absolutely simple notion of "the Innascible" (agennetos), and that this was fully comprehensible by the human mind, led many of the Greek Fathers to insist on the incomprehensibility of the Divine Nature, more especially in regard to the internal processions. St. Basil. "In Eunom.", I, n. 14; St. Cyril of Jerusdem, "Cat.", VI; St. John Damascene, "Fid. Orth.", I, ii, etc., etc.). At a later date, however, some famous names are to be found defending a contrary opinion Anselm ("Monol.", 64), Abelard ("ln Ep. ad Rom."), Hugo of St. Victor ("De sacram." III, xi), and Richard of St. Victor ("De Trin.", III, v) all declare that it is possible to assign peremptory reasons why God should be both One and Three. In explanation of this it should be noted that at that period the relation of philosophy to revealed doctrine was but obscurely understood. Only after the Aristotelean system had obtained recognition from theologians was this question thoroughly treated. In the intellectual ferment of the time Abelard initiated a Rationalistic tendency: not merely did he claim a knowledge of the Trinity for the pagan philosophers, but his own Trinitarian doctrine was practically Sabellian. Anselm's error was due not to Rationalism, but to too wide an application of the Augustinian principle "Crede ut intelligas". Hugh and Richard of St. Victor were, however, certainly influenced by Abelard's teaching. Raymond Lully's (1235-1315) errors in this regard were even more extreme. They were expressly condemned by Gregory XI in 1376. In the nineteenth century the influence of the prevailing Rationalism manifested itself in several Catholic writers. Frohschammer and Günther both asserted that the dogma of the Trinity was capable of proof. Pius IX reprobated their opinions on more than one occasion (Denzinger, 1655 sq., 1666 sq., 1709 sq.), and it was to guard against this tendency that the Vatican Council issued the decrees to which reference has been made. A somewhat similar, though less aggravated, error on the part of Rosmini was condemned, 14 December, 1887 (Denz., 1915). V. THE DOCTRINE AS INTERPRETED IN GREEK THEOLOGY A. Nature and Personality The Greek Fathers approached the problem of Trinitarian doctrine in a way which differs in an important particular from that which, since the days of St. Augustine, has become traditional in Latin theology. In Latin theology thought fixed first on the Nature and only subsequently on the Persons. Personality is viewed as being, so to speak, the final complement of the Nature: the Nature is regarded as logically prior to the Personality. Hence, because God's Nature is one, He is known to us as One God before He can be known as Three Persons. And when theologians speak of God without special mention of a Person, conceive Him under this aspect. This is entirely different from the Greek point of view. Greek thought fixed primarily on the Three distinct Persons: the Father, to Whom, as the source and origin of all, the name of God (Theos) more especially belongs; the Son, proceeding from the Father by an eternal generation, and therefore rightly termed God also; and the Divine Spirit, proceeding from the Father through the Son. The Personality is treated as logically prior to the Nature. Just as human nature is something which the individual men possesses, and which can only be conceived as belonging to and dependent on the individual, so the Divine Nature is something which belongs to the Persons and cannot be conceived independently of Them. The contrast appears strikingly in regard to the question of creation. All Western theologians teach that creation, like all God's external works, proceeds from Him as One: the separate Personalities do not enter into consideration. The Greeks invariably speak as though, in all the Divine works, each Person exercises a separate office. Irenaeus replies to the Gnostics, who held that the world was created by a demiurge other than the supreme God, by affirming that God is the one Creator, and that He made all things by His Word and His Wisdom, the Son and the Spirit (Adv. haer., I, xxii; II, iv, 4, 5, xxx, 9; IV, xx, 1). A formula often found among the Greek Fathers is that all things are from the Father and are effected by the Son in the Spirit (Athanasius, "Ad Serap.", I, xxxi; Basil, "De Spiritu Sancto", n. 38; Cyril of Alexandria, "De Trin. dial.", VI). Thus, too, Hippolytus (Con Noet., x) says that God has fashioned all things by His Word and His Wisdom creating them by His Word, adorning them by His Wisdom (gar ta genomena dia Logou kai Sophias technazetai, Logo men ktizon Sophia de kosmon). The Nicene Creed still preserves for us this point of view. In it we still profess our belief "in one God the Father Almighty, Creator of heaven and earth . . . and in one Lord Jesus Christ . . . by Whom all things were made . . . and in the Holy Ghost." B. The Divine Unity The Greek Fathers did not neglect to safeguard the doctrine of the Divine Unity, though manifestly their standpoint requires a different treatment from that employed in the West. The consubstantiality of the Persons is asserted by St. Irenaeus when he tells us that God created the world by His Son and His Spirit, "His two hands" (Adv. haer., IV, xx, 1). The purport of the phrase is evidently to indicate that the Second and Third Persons are not substantially distinct from the First. A more philosophical description is the doctrine of the Recapitulation (sygkephalaiosis). This seems to be first found in the correspondence between St. Denis of Alexandria and St. Dionysius of Rome. The former writes: "We thus [i.e., by the twofold procession] extend the Monad [the First Person] to the Trinity, without causing any division, and were capitulate the Trinity in the Monad without causing diminution" (outo men emeis eis te ten Triada ten Monada, platynomen adiaireton, kai ten Triada palin ameioton eis ten Monada sygkephalaioumetha -- P.G., XXV, 504). Here the consubstantiality is affirmed on the ground that the Son and Spirit, proceeding from the Father, are nevertheless not separated from Him; while they again, with all their perfections, can be regarded as contained within Him. This doctrine supposes a point of view very different from that with which we are now familiar. The Greek Fathers regarded the Son as the Wisdom and power of the Father (I Cor., 1:24) in a formal sense, and in like manner, the Spirit as His Sanctity. Apart from the Son the Father would be without Hls Wisdom; apart from the Spirit He would be without His Sanctity. Thus the Son and the Spirit are termed "Powers" (Dynameis) of the Father. But while in creatures the powers and faculties are mere accidental perfections, in the Godhead they are subsistent hypostases. Denis of Alexandria regarding the Second and Third Persons as the Father's "Powers", speaks of the First Person as being "extended" to them, and not divided from them. And, since whatever they have and are flows from Him, this writer asserts that if we fix our thoughts on the sole source of Deity alone, we find in Him undiminished all that is contained in them. The Arian controversy led to insistence on the Homoüsia. But with the Greeks this is not a starting point, but a conclusion, the result of reflective analysis. The sonship of the Second Person implies that He has received the Divine Nature in its fullness, for all generation implies the origination of one who is like in nature to the originating principle. But here, mere specific unity is out of the question. The Divine Essence is not capable of numerical multiplication; it is therefore, they reasoned, identically the same nature which both possess. A similar line of argument establishes that the Divine Nature as communicated to the Holy Spirit is not specifically, but numerically, one with that of the Father and the Son. Unity of nature was understood by the Greek Fathers as involving unity of will and unity of action (energeia). This they declared the Three Persons to possess (Athanasius, "Adv. Sabell.", xii, 13; Basil, "Ep. clxxxix," n. 7; Gregory of Nyssa, "De orat. dom.," John Damascene, "De fide orth.", III, xiv). Here we see an important advance in the theology of the Godhead. For, as we have noted, the earlier Fathers invariably conceive the Three Persons as each exercising a distinct and separate function. Finally we have the doctrine of Circuminsession (perichoresis). By this is signified the reciprocal inexistence and compenetration of the Three Persons. The term perichoresis is first used by St. John Damascene. Yet the doctrine is found much earlier. Thus St. Cyril of Alexandria says that the Son is called the Word and Wisdom of the Father "because of the reciprocal inherence of these and the mind" (dia ten eis allela . . . ., hos an eipoi tis, antembolen). St. John Damascene assigns a twofold basis for this inexistence of the Persons. In some passages he explains it by the doctrine already mentioned, that the Son and the Spirit are dynameis of the Father (cf. "De recta sententia"). Thus understood, the Circuminsession is a corollary of the doctrine of Recapitulation. He also understands it as signifying the identity of essence, will, and action in the Persons. Wherever these are peculiar to the individual, as is the case in all creatures, there, he tells us, we have separate existence (kechorismenos einai). In the Godhead the essence, will, and action are but one. Hence we have not separate existence, but Circuminsession (perichoresis) (Fid. orth., I, viii). Here, then, the Circuminsession has its basis in the Homoüsia. It is easy to see that the Greek system was less well adapted to meet the cavils of the Arian and Macedonian heretics than was that subsequently developedby St. Augustine. Indeed the controversies of the fourth century brought some of the Greek Fathers notably nearer to the positions of Latin theology. We have seen that they were led to affirm the action of the Three Persons to be but one. Didymus even employs expressions which seem to show that he, like the Latins, conceived the Nature as logically antecedent to the Persons. He understands the term God as signifying the whole Trinity, and not, as do the other Greeks, the Father alone: "When we pray, whether we say 'Kyrie eleison', or 'O God aid us', we do not miss our mark: for we include the whole of the Blessed Trinity in one Godhead" (De Trin., II, xix). C. Mediate and Immediate Procession The doctrine that the Spirit is the image of the Son, as the Son is the image of the Father, is characteristic of Greek theology. It is asserted by St. Gregory Thaumaturgus in his Creed. It is assumed by St. Athanasius as an indisputable premise in his controversy with the Macedonians (Ad Serap., I, xx, xxi, xxiv; II, i, iv). It is implied in the comparisons employed both by him (Ad Serap. I, xix) and by St. Gregory Nazianzen (Orat. xxxi, 31, 32), of the Three Divine Persons to the sun, the ray, the light; and to the source, the spring, and the stream. We find it also in St. Cyril of Alexandria ("Thesaurus assert.", 33), St. John Damascene ("Fid.orth." I, 13), etc. This supposes that the procession of the Son from the Father is immediate; that of the Spirit from the Father is mediate. He proceeds from the Father through the Son. Bessarion rightly observes that the Fathers who used these expressions conceived the Divine Procession as taking place, so to speak, along a straight line (P. G., CLXI, 224). On the other hand, in Western theology the symbolic diagram of the Trinity has ever been the triangle, the relations of the Three Persons one to another being precisely similar. The point is worth noting, for this diversity of symbolic representation leads inevitably to very different expressions of the same dogmatic truth. It is plain that these Fathers would have rejected no less firmly than the Latins the later Photian heresy that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father alone. (For this question the reader is referred to Holy Ghost.) D. The Son The Greek theology of the Divine Generation differs in certain particulars from the Latin. Most Western theologians base their theory on the name, Logos, given by St. John to the Second Person. This they understand in the sense of "concept" (verbum mentale), and hold that the Divine Generation is analogous to the act by which the created intellect produces its concept. Among Greek writers this explanation is unknown. They declare the manner of the Divine Generation to be altogether beyond our comprehension. We know by revelation that God has a Son; and various other terms besides Son employed regarding Him in Scripture, such as Word, Brightness of His glory, etc., show us that His sonship must be conceived as free from any relation. More we know not (cf. Gregory Nazianzen, "Orat. xxix", p. 8, Cyril of Jerusalem, "Cat.", xi, 19; John Damascene, "Fid. orth.", I, viii). One explanation only can be given, namely, that the perfection we call fecundity must needs be found in God the Absolutely Perfect (St. John Damascene, "Fid.orth.", I, viii). Indeed it would seem that the great majority of the Greek Fathers understood logos not of the mental thought; but of the uttered word ("Dion. Alex."; Athanasius, ibid.; Cyril of Alexandria, "De Trin.", II). They did not see in the term a revelation that the Son is begotten by way of intellectual procession, but viewed it as a metaphor intended to exclude the material associations of human sonship (Gregory of Nyssa, "C. Eunom.", IV; Gregory Nazianzen, "Orat. xxx", p. 20; Basil, "Hom. xvi"; Cyril of Alexandria, "Thesaurus assert.", vi). We have already adverted to the view that the Son is the Wisdom and Power of the Father in the full and formal sense. This teaching constantly recurs from the time of Origen to that of St. John Damascene (Origen apud Athan., "De decr. Nic.", p. 27; Athanasius, "Con. Arianos", I, p. 19; Cyril of Alexandria, "Thesaurus"; John Damascene, "Fid.orth.", I, xii). It is based on the Platonic philosophy accepted by the Alexandrine School. This differs in a fundamental point from the Aristoteleanism of the Scholastic theologians. In Aristotelean philosophy perfection is always conceived statically. No actlon, transient or immanent, can proceed from any agent unless that agent, as statically conceived, possesses whatever perfection is contained in the action. The Alexandrine standpoint was other than this. To them perfection must be sought in dynamic activity. God, as the supreme perfection, is from all eternity self-moving, ever adorning Himself with His own attributes: they issue from Him and, being Divine, are not accidents, but subsistent realities. To these thinkers, therefore, there was no impossibility in the supposition that God is wise with the Wisdom which is the result of His own immanent action, powerful with the Power which proceeds from Him. The arguments of the Greek Fathers frequently presuppose this philosophy as their bssis; and unless it be clearly grasped, reasoning which on their premises is conclusive will appear to us invalid and fallacious. Thus it is sometimes urged as a reason for rejecting Arianism that, if there were a time when the Son was not, it follows that God must then have been devoid of Wisdom and of Power -- a conclusion from which even Arians would shrink. E. The Holy Spirit A point which in Western theology gives occasion for some discussion is the question as to why the Third Person of the Blessed Trinity is termed the Holy Spirit. St. Augustine suggests that it is because He proceeds from both the Father and the Son, and hence He rightly receives a name applicable to both (De Trin., xv, n. 37). To the Greek Fathers, who developed the theology of the Spirit in the light of the philosophical principles which we have just noticed, the question presented no difficulty. His name, they held, reveals to us His distinctive character as the Third Person, just as the names Father and Son manifest the distinctive characters of the First and Second Persons (cf. Gregory Thaumaturgus, "Ecth. fid."; Basil, "Ep. ccxiv", 4; Gregory Nazianzen, "Or. xxv", 16). He is autoagiotes, the hypostatic holiness of God, the holiness by which God is holy. Just as the Son is the Wisdom and Power by which God is wise and powerful, so the Spirit is the Holiness by which He is holy. Had there ever been a time, as the Macedonians dared to say, when the Holy Spirit was not, then at that time God would have not been holy (St. Gregory Nazianzen, "Orat. xxxi", 4). On the other hand, pneuma was often understood in the light of John 10:22 where Christ, appearing to the Apostles, breathed on them and conferred on them the Holy Spirit. He is the breath of Christ (John Damascene, "Fid. orth.", 1, viii), breathed by Him into us, and dwelling in us as the breath of life by which we enjoy the supernatural life of God's children (Cyril of Alexandria, "Thesaurus"; cf. Petav., "De Trin", V, viii). The office of the Holy Spirit in thus elevating us to the supernatural order is, however, conceived in a manner somewhat different from that of Western theologians. According to Western doctrine, God bestows on man sanctifying grace, and consequent on that gift the Three Persons come to his soul. In Greek theology the order is reversed: the Holy Spirit does not come to us because we have received sanctifying grace; but it is through His presence we receive the gift. He is the seal, Himself impressing on us the Divine image. That Divine image is indeed realized in us, but the seal must be present to secure the continued existence of the impression. Apart from Him it is not found (Origen, "In Joan. ii", vi; Didymus, "De Spiritu Sancto", x, 11; Athanasius, "Ep. ad. Serap.", III, iii). This Union with the Holy Spirit constitutes our deification (theopoiesis). Inasmuch as He is the image of Christ, He imprints the likeness of Christ upon us; since Christ is the image of the Father, we too receive the true character of God's children (Athanasius, loc.cit.; Gregory Nazianzen, "Orat. xxxi", 4). It is in reference to this work in our regard that in the Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan Creed the Holy Spirit is termed the Giver of life (zoopoios). In the West we more naturally speak of grace as the life of the soul. But to the Greeks it was the Spirit through whose personal presence we live. Just as God gave natural life to Adam by breathing into his inanimate frame the breath of life, so did Christ give spiritual life to us when He bestowed on us the gift of the Holy Ghost. VI. THE DOCTRINE AS INTERPRETED IN LATIN THEOLOGY The transition to the Latin theology of the Trinity was the work of St. Augustine. Western theologians have never departed from the main lines which he laid down, although in the Golden Age of Scholasticism his system was developed, its details completed, and its terminology perfected. It received its final and classical form from St. Thomas Aquinas. But it is necessary first to indicate in what consisted the transition effected by St. Augustine. This may be summed up in three points: + He views the Divine Nature as prior to the Personalities. Deus is for him not God the Father, but the Trinity. This was a step of the first importance, safeguarding as it did alike the unity of God and the equality of the Persons in a manner which the Greek system could never do. As we have seen, one at least of the Greeks, Didymus, had adopted this standpoint and it is possible that Augustine may have derived this method of viewing the mystery from him. But to make it the basis for the whole treatment of the doctrine was the work of Augustine's genius. + He insists that every external operation God is due to the whole Trinity, and cannot be attributed to one Person alone, save by appropriation (see Holy Ghost). The Greek Fathers had, as we have seen, been led to affirm that the action (energeia) of the Three Persons was one, and one alone. But the doctrine of appropriation was unknown to them, and thus the value of this conclusion was obscured by a traditional theology implying the distinct activities of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. + By indicating the analogy between the two processions within the Godhead and the internal acts of thought and will in the human mind (De Trin., IX, iii, 3; X, xi, 17), he became the founder of the psychological theory of the Trinity, which, with a very few exceptions, was accepted by every subsequent Latin writer. In the following exposition of the Latin doctrines, we shall follow St. Thomas Aquinas, whose treatment of the doctrine is now universally accepted by Catholic theologians. It should be observed, however, that this is not the only form in which the psychological theory has been proposed. Thus Richard of St. Victor, Alexander of Hales, and St. Bonaventure, while adhering in the main to Western tradition, were more influenced by Greek thought, and give us a system differing somewhat from that of St. Thomas. A. The Son Among the terms empIoyed in Scripture to designate the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity is the Word (John 1:1). This is understood by St. Thomas of the Verbum mentale, or intellectual concept. As applied to the Son, the name, he holds, signifies that He proceeds from the Father as the term of an intellectual procession, in a manner analogous to that in which a concept is generated by the human mind in all acts of natural knowledge. It is, indeed, of faith that the Son proceeds from the Father by a veritable generation. He is, says the Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan Creed, begotten before all worlds". But the Procession of a Divine Person as the term of the act by which God knows His own nature is rightly called generation. This may be readily shown. As an act of intellectual conception, it necessarily produces the likeness of the object known. And further, being Divine action, it is not an accidental act resulting in a term, itself a mere accident, but the act is the very substance of the Divinity, and the term is likewise substantial. A process tending necessarily to the production of a substantial term like in nature to the Person from Whom it proceeds is a process of generation. In regard to this view as to the procession of the Son, a difficulty was felt by St. Anselm (Monol., lxiv) on the score that it would seem to involve that each of the Three Persons must needs generate a subsistent Word. Since all the Powers possess the same mind, does it not follow, he asked, that in each case thought produces a similar term? This difficulty St. Thomas succeeds in removing. According to his psychology the formation of a concept is not essential to thought as such, though absolutely requisite to all natural human knowledge. There is, therefore, no ground in reason, apart from revelation, for holding that the Divine intellect produces a Verbum mentale. It is the testimony of Scripture alone which tells us that the Father has from all eternity begotten His consubstantial Word. But neither reason nor revelation suggests it in the case of the Second and Third Persons (I:34:1, ad 3). Not a few writers of great weight hold that there is sufficient consensus among the Fathers and Scholastic theologians as to the meaning of the names Word and Wisdom (Proverbs 8), applied to the Son, for us to regard the intellectual procession of the Second Person as at least theologically certain, if not a revealed truth (cf. Suarez, "De Trin.", I, v, p. 4; Petav., VI, i, 7; Franzelin, "De Trin.", Thesis xxvi). This, however, seems to be an exaggeration. The immense majority of the Greek Fathers, as we have already noticed, interpret logos of the spoken word, and consider the significance of the name to lie not in any teaching as to intellectual procession, but in the fact that it implies a mode of generation devoid of all passion. Nor is the tradition as to the interpretation of Proverbs 8, in any sense unanimous. In view of these facts the opinion of those theologians seems the sounder who regard this explanation of the procession simply as a theological opinion of great probability and harmonizing well with revealed truth. B. The Holy Spirit Just as the Son proceeds as the term of the immanent act of the intellect, so does the Holy Spirit proceed as the term of the act of the Divine will. In human love, as St. Thomas teaches (I:27:3), even though the object be external to us, yet the immanent act of love arouses in the soul a state of ardour which is, as it were, an impression of the thing loved. In virtue of this the object of love is present to our affections, much as, by means of the concept, the object of thought is present to our intellect. This experience is the term of the internal act. The Holy Spirit, it is contended, proceeds from the Father and the Son as the term of the love by which God loves Himself. He is not the love of God in the sense of being Himself formally the love by which God loves; but in loving Himself God breathes forth this subsistent term. He is Hypostatic Love. Here, however, it is necessary to safeguard a point of revealed doctrine. It is of faith that the procession of the Holy Spirit is not generation. The Son is "the only begotten of the Father" (John 1:14). And the Athanasian Creed expressly lays it down that the Holy Ghost is "from the Father and the Son, neither made, nor created, nor begotten, but proceeding." If the immanent act of the intellect is rightly termed generation, on what grounds can that name be denied to the act of the will? The answers given in reply to this difficulty by St. Thomas, Richard of St. Victor, and Alexander of Hales are very different. It will be sufficient here to note St. Thomas's solution. Intellectual procession, he says, is of its very nature the production of a term in the likeness of the thing conceived. This is not so in regard to the act of the will. Here the primary result is simply to attract the subject to the object of his love. This difference in the acts explains why the name generation is applicable only to the act of the intellect. Generation is essentially the production of like by like. And no process which is not essentially of that character can claim the name. The doctrine of the procession of the Holy Spirit by means of the act of the Divine will is due entirely to Augustine. It is nowhere found among the Greeks, who simply declare the procession of the Spirit to be beyond our comprehension, nor is it found in the Latins before his time. He mentions the opinion with favour in the "De fide et symbolo" (A.D. 393); and in the "De Trinitate" (A.D. 415) develops it at length. His teaching was accepted by the West. The Scholastics seek for Scriptural support for it in the name Holy Spirit. This must, they argue, be, like the names Father and Son, a name expressive of a relation within the Godhead proper to the Person who bears it. Now the attribute holy, as applied to person or thing, signifies that the being of which it is affirmed is devoted to God. It follows therefore that, when applied to a Divine Person as designating the relation uniting Him to the other Persons, it must signify that the procession determining His origin is one which of its nature involves devotion to God. But that by which any person is devoted to God is love. The argument is ingenious, but hardly convincing; and the same may be said of a somewhat similar piece of reasoning regarding the name Spirit (I:36:1). The Latin theory is a noble effort of the human reason to penetrate the verities which revelation has left veiled in mystery. It harmonizes, as we have said, with all the truths of faith. It is admirably adapted to assist us to a fuller comprehension of the fundamental doctrine of the Christian religion. But more than this must not be claimed. It does not possess the sanction of revelation. C. The Divine Relations The existence of relations in the Godhead may be immediately inferred from the doctrine of processions, and as such is a truth of Revelation. Where there is a real procession the principle and the term are really related. Hence, both the generation of the Son and the procession of the Holy Spirit must involve the existence of real and objective relations. This part of Trinitarian doctrine was familiar to the Greek Fathers. In answer to the Eunomian objection, that consubstantiality rendered any distinction between the Persons impossible, Gregory of Nyssa replies: "Though we hold that the nature [in the Three Persons] is not different, we do not deny the difference arising in regard of the source and that which proceeds from the source [ten katato aition kai to aitiaton diaphoran]; but in this alone do we admit that one Person differs from another" ("Quod non sunt tres dii"; cf. Gregory Nazianzen, "Or. theol.", V, ix; John Damascene, "F.O.", I, viii). Augustine insists that of the ten Aristotelean categories two, stance and relation, are found in God ("De Trin.", V, v). But it was at the hands the Scholastic theologians that the question received its full development. The results to which they led, though not to be reckoned as part of the dogma, were found to throw great light upon the mystery, and to be of vast service in the objections urged against it. From the fact that there are two processions in Godhead, each involving both a principle and term, it follows that there must be four relations, two origination (paternitas and spiratio) and two of procession (filiatio and processio). These relations are what constitute the distinction between the Persons. They cannot be digtinguished by any absolute attribute, for every absolute attribute must belong to the infinite Divine Nature and this is common to the Three Persons. Whatever distinction there is must be in the relations alone. This conclusion is held as absolutely certain by all theologians. Equivalently contained in the words of St. Gregory of Nyssa, it was clearly enunciated by St. Anselm ("De process. Sp. S.", ii) and received ecclesiastical sanction in the "Decretum pro Jacobitis" in the form: "[In divinis] omnia sunt unum ubi non obviat relationis oppositio." Since this is so, it is manifest that the four relations suppose but Three Persons. For there is no relative opposition between spiration on the one hand and either paternity or filiation on the other. Hence the attribute of spiration is found in conjunction with each of these, and in virtue of it they are each distinguished from procession. As they share one and the same Divine Nature, so they possess the same virtus spirationis, and thus constitute a single originating principle of the Holy Spirit. Inasmuch as the relations, and they alone, are distinct realities in the Godhead, it follows that the Divine Persons are none other than these relations. The Father is the Divine Paternity, the Son the Divine Filiation, the Holy Spirit the Divine Procession. Here it must be borne in mind that the relations are not mere accidental determinations as these abstract terms might suggest. Whatever is in God must needs be subsistent. He is the Supreme Substance, transcending the divisions of the Aristotelean categories. Hence, at one and the same time He is both substance and relation. (How it is that there should be in God real relations, though it is altogether impossible that quantity or quality should be found in Him, is a question involving a discussion regarding the metaphysics of relations, which would be out of place in an article such as the present.) It will be seen that the doctrine of the Divine relations provides an answer to the objection that the dogma of the Trinity involves the falsity of the axiom that things which are identical with the same thing are identical one with another. We reply that the axiom is perfectly true in regard to absolute entities, to which alone it refers. But in the dogma of the Trinity when we affirm that the Father and Son are alike identical with the Divine Essence, we are affirming that the Supreme Infinite Substance is identical not with two absolute entities, but with each of two relations. These relations, in virtue of their nature as correlatives, are necessarily opposed the one to the other and therefore different. Again it is said that if there are Three Persons in the Godhead none can be infinite, for each must lack something which the others possess. We reply that a relation, viewed precisely as such, is not, like quantity or quality, an intrinsic perfection. When we affirm again it is relation of anything, we affirm that it regards something other than itself. The whole perfection of the Godhead is contained in the one infinite Divine Essence. The Father is that Essence as it eternally regards the Son and the Spirit; the Son is that Essence as it eternally regards the Father and the Spirit; the Holy Spirit is that Essence as it eternally regards the Father and the Son. But the eternal regard by which each of the Three Persons is constituted is not an addition to the infinite perfection of the Godhead. The theory of relations also indicates the solution to the difficulty now most frequently proposed by anti-Trinitarians. It is urged that since there are Three Persons there must be three self-consciousnesses: but the Divine mind ex hypothesi is one, and therefore can possess but one self-consciousness; in other words, the dogma contains an irreconcilable contradiction. This whole objection rests on a petitio principii: for it takes for granted the identification of person and of mind with self-consciousness. This identification is rejected by Catholic philosophers as altogether misleading. Neither person nor mind is self-consciousness; though a person must needs possess self-consciousness, and consciousness attests the existence of mind (see Personality). Granted that in the infinite mind, in which the categories are transcended, there are three relations which are subsistent realities, distinguished one from another in virtue of their relative opposition then it will follow that the same mind will have a three-fold consciousness, knowing itself in three ways in accordance with its three modes of existence. It is impossible to establish that, in regard of the infinite mind, such a supposition involves a contradiction. The question was raised by the Scholastics: In what sense are we to understand the Divine act of generation? As we conceive things, the relations of paternity and filiation are due to an act by which the Father generates the Son; the relations of spiration and procession, to an act by which Father and Son breathe forth the Holy Spirit. St. Thomas replies that the acts are identical with the relations of generation and spiration; only the mode of expression on our part is different (I:41:3, ad 2). This is due to the fact that the forms alike of our thought and our language are moulded upon the material world in which we live. In this world origination is in every case due to the effecting of a change. We call the effecting of the change action, and its reception passion. Thus, action and passion are different from the permanent relations consequent on them. But in the Godhead origination is eternal: it is not the result of change. Hence the term signifying action denotes not the production of the relation, but purely the relation of the Originator to the Originated. The terminology is unavoidable because the limitations of our experience force us to represent this relation as due to an act. Indeed throughout this whole subject we are hampered by the imperfection of human language as an instrument wherewith to express verities higher than the facts of the world. When, for instance, we say that the Son possesses filiation and spiration the terms seem to suggest that these are forms inherent in Him as in a subject. We know, indeed, that in the Divine Persons there can be no composition: they are absolutely simple. Yet we are forced to speak thus: for the one Personality, not withstanding its simplicity, is related to both the others, and by different relations. We cannot express this save by attributing to Him filiation and spiration (I:32:2). D. Divine Mission It has been seen that every action of God in regard of the created world proceeds from the Three Persons indifferently. In what sense, then, are we to understand such texts as "God sent . . . his Son into the world" (John 3:17), and "the Paraclete cometh, whom I will send you from the Father" (John 15:26)? What is meant by the mission of the Son and of the Holy Spirit? To this it is answered that mission supposes two conditions: + That the person sent should in some way proceed from the sender and + that the person sent should come to be at the place indicated. The procession, however, may take place in various ways -- by command, or counsel, or even origination. Thus we say that a king sends a messenger, and that a tree sends forth buds. The second condition, too, is satisfied either if the person sent comes to be somewhere where previously he was not, or if, although he was already there, he comes to be there in a new manner. Though God the Son was already present in the world by reason of His Godhead, His Incarnation made Him present there in a new way. In virtue of this new presence and of His procession from the Father, He is rightly said to have been sent into the world. So, too, in regard to the mission of the Holy Spirit. The gift of grace renders the Blessed Trinity present to the soul in a new manner: that is, as the object of direct, though inchoative, knowledge and as the object of experimental love. By reason of this new mode of presence common to the whole Trinity, the Second and the Third Persons, inasmuch as each receives the Divine Nature by means of a procession, may be said to be sent into the soul. (See also Holy Ghost; Logos; Monotheists; Unitarians.) Among the numerous patristic works on this subject, the following call for special mention: ST. ATHANASIUS, Orationes quatuor contra Arianos; IDEM, Liber de Trinitate et Spiritu Sancto; ST. GREGORY NAZIANZEN, Orationes V de theologia; DIDYMUS ALEX., Libri III de Trinitate; IDEM, Liber de Spir. Sancto; ST. HILARY OF POITIERS, Libri XII de Trinitate; ST. AUGUSTINE, Libri XV de Trinitate; ST. JOHN DAMASCENE, Liber de Trinitate; IDEM, De fide orthodoxa, I. Among the medieval theologians: ST. ANSELM, Lib. I. de fide Trinitatis; RICHARD OF ST. VICTOR, Libri VI de Trinitate; ST.THOMAS, Summa, I, xxvii-xliii; BESSARION, Liber de Spiritu Saneto contra Marcum Ephesinum. Among more recent writers: PETAVIUS, De Trinitate; NEWMAN. Causes of the Rise and Success of Arianism in Theol. Tracts. (London, 1864). G. H. JOYCE Trinity College Trinity College An institution for the higher education of Catholic women, located at Washington, D.C., and empowered under the terms of its charter (1897) to confer degrees. The college originated in the desire of the Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur, who had been thirty-five years established in the city of Washington, to open a select day-school in the suburb of Brookland. Before requesting the necessary ecclesiastical sanction, it was proposed to them by the authorities of the Catholic University to make the new school a college equal in efficiency to the women's colleges already established in the United States. Cardinal Gibbons, chancellor of the university, heartily endorse this project, "persuaded", he wrote, "that such and institution, working in union with, though entirely independent of, the Catholic University, will do incalculable good in the cause of higher education" (5 April 1897). Sister Julia, then provincial superior of the Sisters of Notre Dame, secured a tract of thirty-three acres lying between Michigan and Lincoln Avenues, Brookland. The corner-stone was laid on 8 December, 1899; the South Hall of the building was dedicated by Cardinal Gibbons, on 22 November 1900, and the structure was completed in 1910. It contains residence halls for two hundred students, lecture rooms, laboratories, a museum, a library of 12,000 volumes, and a temporary chapel. The O'Connor Art Gallery and Auditorium, a hall provided by the generosity of Judge and Mrs. M.P. O'Connor of San Jose, California, houses a large and valuable collection of paintings, water colours, mosaics, photographs, and statuary, which was opened to visitors on 31 May, 1904, in the presence of the donors. The Holahan Social Hall contains some rare old paintings, a bequest to the college in 1907 by Miss Amanda Holahan of Philadelphia. The administration of the college is in the hands of an advisory board, of which Cardinal Gibbons is president, and the members comprise the rector, and vice-rector of the Catholic University, the provincial superior of the Sisters of Notre Dame, the president of the college, who is also the superior of the community, and the president of the auxiliary board of regents. The auxiliary board of regents and its associate boards draw their members from all parts of the United States, being composed of Catholic ladies who can help the cause of higher education by their influence and example. The college has no endowment. By the liberality of friends, seventeen scholarships have been established. The faculty of Trinity College is composed of six professors from the Catholic University in the departments of philosophy, education, apologetics, economics, and sociology, and seventeen Sisters of Notre Name in the departments of religion, Sacred Scripture, ancient and modern languages, English, history, logic, mathematics, the physical sciences, music, and art. The college opened its courses on 7 November 1900, with twenty-two students in the Freshman class and has grown only by promotion and admission. For 1911-1912, 160 were registered. Admission is by examination according to the requirements of the College Entrance Examination Board; no specialists are received; and there is no preparatory department. The number of degrees conferred (1904-1912) is 160, viz.: master of arts, 8; bachelor of arts, 130; bachelor of letters, 20; bachelor of science, 2. Annals of Trinity College (Washington, D.C.); SISTER OF NOTRE DAME, The Life of Sister Julia, Provincial Superior of the Sisters of Notre Dame (Washington, D.C., 1911); MCDEVITT, Trinity College and the Higher Education in The Catholic World (June, 1904); HOWE, Trinity College in Donahoe's Magazine (October, 1900). SISTER OF NOTRE DAME Trinity Sunday Trinity Sunday The first Sunday after Pentecost, instituted to honour the Most Holy Trinity. In the early Church no special Office or day was assigned for the Holy Trinity. When the Arian heresy was spreading the Fathers prepared an Office with canticles, responses, a Preface, and hymns, to be recited on Sundays. In the Sacramentary of St. Gregory the Great (P.L., LXXVIII, 116) there are prayers and the Preface of the Trinity. The Micrologies (P.L., CLI, 1020), written during the pontificate of Gregory VII (Nilles, II, 460), call the Sunda after Pentecost a Dominica vacans, with no special Office, but add that in some places they recited the Office of the Holy Trinity composed by Bishop Stephen or Liège (903-20) By other the Office was said on the Sunday before Advent. Alexander II (1061-1073), not III (Nilles, 1. c.), refused a petition for a special feast on the plea, that such a feast was not customary in the Roman Church which daily honoured the Holy Trinity by the Gloria, Patri, etc., but he did not forbid the celebration where it already existed. John XXII (1316-1334) ordered the feast for the entire Church on the first Sunday after Pentecost. A new Office had been made by the Franciscan John Peckham, Canon of Lyons, later Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1292). The feast ranked as a double of the second class but was raised to the dignity of a primary of the first class, 24 July 1911, by Pius X (Acta Ap. Sedis, III, 351). The Greeks have no special feast. Since it was after the first great Pentecost that the doctrine of the Trinity was proclaimed to the world, the feast becomingly follows that of Pentecost. NILLES, Kal. man. (Innsbruck, 1897); BINTERIM, Denkwürdig keiten, I. 264; KELLNER, Heortology (London, 1908). 116; BÄUMER, Geschichte des Breviers (Freiburg, 1895), 298. FRANCIS MERSHMAN Triple-Candlestick Triple-Candlestick A name given along with several others (e.g. reed, tricereo, arundo, triangulum, lumen Christi) to a church ornament used only in the office of Holy Saturday. The three candles of which it is composed are successively lighted, as the sacred ministers proceed up the church, from the fire consecrated in the porch, and at each lighting the deacon sings the acclamation "Lumen Christi", the assistants genuflecting and answering "Deo gratias". As this ceremony is fully discussed under the heading Lumen Christi (and cf. Liturgical Use of Fire) it will be sufficient to say a word here about the material instrument used for the purpose. Both the rubrics of the Missal and the "Caeremoniale Episcoporum" seem to assume that the so-called triple candlestick is not a permanent piece of furniture, but merely an arrangement of three candles temporarily attached to a reed or wand, such a reed for example as is used by the acolytes to light the candles with. "Praeparetur arundo cum tribus candelis in summitate positis" (Caer. Epis., II, xxvii, I). In practice, however, we often find a brass candlestick constructed for the purpose with a long handle. Barbier de Montault (Traité pratique, ete.,II,311) infers from the wording of the Missal rubric (arundo cum tribus candelis in summitate illius triangulo distinctis) that one of the three candles should stand higher than the other, so that the three flames may form a triangle in the vertical plane. A triple and double candlestick are used by bishops of the Greek Church to bless the people with, and an elaborate symbolism is attached to this rite. Thurston, Lent and Holy Week (London, 1904). HERBERT THURSTON Tripolis Tripolis (Tripolitana). A Maronite and Melchite diocese, in Syria. The primitive name of the town is not known; Dhorme (Revue biblique, 1908, 508 sqq.) suggests that it is identical witrh Shi-ga-ta mentioned in the El-Amarna letters between 1385 and 1368 B.C. The name Tripolis is derived from the fact that the city formed three districts separated from each other by walls, inhabited by colonists from Aradus, Tyre, and Sidon, and governed by a common senate. Almost nothing is known of its ancient history. Christianity was introduced there at an early date; mention may be made of a much frequented sanctuary there which was dedicated to the martyr St. Leontius, whose feast is observed on 18 June (Analecta bollandiana, XIX, 9-12). The see, which was in the Province of Tyre and the Patriarchate of Antioch, had a bishop, Helladicus, in 325; other bishops were: the Arian Theodosius; Commodus, who was present at the Council of Ephesus in 431; and Theodorus, at that of Chalcedon in 451 (Le Quien, "Oriens christ.", II, 821-24). After an earthquake Tripolis was restored by Emperor Marcianus about the middle of the fifth century, to be captured by the Arabs in 638, when it became a powerful centre of the Shiite religion, resisting all attacks by the Byzantines. It then had a university and a library of more than 100,000 volumes; the latter was burned on the arrival of the Crusaders. As early as 1103 Raymond, Count of Saint-Gilles, being unable to capture the city, built on a neighbouring hill the stronghold which still exists and compelled the inhabitants to pay him tribute. In 1109 the city was captured, made a countship, and given to Bertrand, Raymond's son, and to his descendants. The latter owned it until 1289, when it was taken from them by Sultan Qalaoun, who massacred the entire Christian population. Du Cange (Les familles d'outre-mer, 811-13) and Eubel (Hierarchia catholica medii ævi, I, 526: II, 281; III, 339) give the list of its Latin residential and titular bishops. In 1517 the Turks finally captured Tripoli and still retain possession of it. In 1697 the Maronite prince Younès was martyred there for the Faith, and in 1711 the Sheikh Canaan-Daher-Shhedid. Tripolis is now a sanjak of the vilayet of Beirut, and contains two towns linked by a tramway: El-Mina, or maritime Tripolis, on the site of the ancient city, and Taraboulos, built since 1289, at the foot of Raymond's fortress. The two cities together contain 37,000 inhabitants, of whom 110 are Latins, 2200 Oriental Catholics of various rites, and 4000 schismatic Melchites; the remainder are Mussulmans. The Maronite bishop, Mgr. Antoine Arida, consecrated on 18 June, 1908, resides at Karrusadde. The Melchite bishop, Mgr. Joseph Doumani, was consecrated on 21 March, 1897. The Franciscans have the Latin parish and two establishments. In this parish are also established the Lazarists, the Carmelites, the Brothers of the Christian Schools, and the Sisters of Charity. The sanctuary of the Blessed Virgin is called Saïdyat el-Harah, Our Lady of the Quarter. The Maronite diocese has 48,000 faithful, 350 priests, and 70 churches. The Melchite diocese, created in 1897, has 1225 faithful, 14 priests, 10 churches or chapels, and 6 schools. The schismatic Melchite diocese has 50,000 members. DU CANGE, Les familles d'outre-mer (Paris, 1869), 477-95; RENAN, Mission de PhÈnicie (Paris, 1864), 120-30; GUÉRIN, Description de la Palestine: Galilee, II, 23-30; GOUDARD, La Sainte Vierge au Liban, 269-77; Missiones catholicæ (Rome, 1907), 783, 819; CHARON in Annuaire pont. cath. (Paris, 1911), 430. S. VAILHÉ Giangiorgio Trissino Giangiorgio Trissino Italian poet and scholar, b. of a patrician family at Vicenza in 1478; d. at Rome, 8 December, 1550. He had the advantages of a good humanistic training, studying Greek under the noted Demetrius Chalcondylas at Milan and philosophy under Nicolò Leoniceno at Ferrara. His culture recommended him to the humanist Leo X, who in 1515 sent him to Germany as his nuncio; later on Clement VII showed him especial favour, and employed him as ambassador. In 1532 the Emperor Charles V made him a count palatine. In spite of the banishment from Vicenza pronounced upon him in 1509 because his family had favoured the plans of Maximilian, he was held in honour throughout Italy. Wherever he abode his home was a centre for gatherings of scholars, littérateurs, and the most cultured men of the time. His family life was far from happy, apparently through little fault of his own. In the history of modern European literature Trissino occupies a prominent place because of his tragedy "Sofonisba" (1515; recent ed., Bologna, 1884), the first tragedy in Italian to show deference to the classic rules. Constantly a partisan of Aristotelean regularity, he disapproved of the genial freedom of the chivalrous epic as written by Ariosto. In his own composition the "Italia liberata dai Goti" (1547-8), dealing with the campaigns of Belisarius in Italy, he sought to show that it was possible to write in the vernacular an epic in accordance with the classic precepts. The result is a cold and colourless composition. He was one of the many who engaged in the discussion as to what is true literary Italian. Following the lead of Dante, he espoused in his "Castellano" (1529) the indefensible theory that the language is a courtly one made up of contributions from the refined centres in Italy, instead of being, as it is, fundamentally of Tuscan origin. For clearness he proposed that in writing Italian certain new characters (derived from the Greek alphabet) abe adopted to show the difference between open and close e and o and voiced and voiceless s and z. This wise proposition was ignored. "I Simillimi" (1548) which is a version of the "Menæchmi" of Plautus, "I Ritratti" (1524) which is a composite portrait of feminine beauty, and the "Poetica", which contains his summing up of the Aristotelean principles of literary composition, made up the rest of his important writings. An edition of his collected works was published by Maffei at Verona in 1729. MORSOLIN, Giangiorgio Trissino (Florence, 1894); FLAMINI, Il Cinquecento 132 sqq.; CIAMPOLINI, La prima tragedia regolare della lett. ital. (Florence, 1896); ERMINI, L'Italia lib. di G.T. (Rome, 1893). J.D.M. FORD Tritheists Tritheists (TRITHEITES). Heretics who divide the Substance of the Blessed Trinity. (1) Those who are usually meant by the name were a section of the Monophysites, who had great influence in the second half of the sixth century, but have left no traces save a few scanty notices in John of Ephesus, Photus, Leontius, etc. Their founder is said to be a certain John Ascunages, head of a Sophist school at Antioch. But the principal writer was John Philoponus, the great Aristotelean commentator. The leaders were two bishops, Conon of Tarsus and Eugenius of Seleucia in Isauria, who were deposed by their comprovinicals and took refuge at Constantinople. There they found a powerful convert and protector in Athanasius the Monk, a grandson of the Empress Theodora. Philoponus dedicated to him a book on the Trinity. The old philosopher pleaded his infirmities when he was summoned by Justinian to the Court to give an account of his teaching. But Conon and Eugenius had to dispute in the reign of Justin II (565-78) in the presence of the Catholic patriarch, John Scholasticus (565-77), with two champions of the moderate Monophysite party, Stephen and Paul, the latter afterwards Patriarch of Antioch. The Tritheist bishops refused to anathematize Philoponus, and brought proofs that he agreed with Severus and Theodosius. They were banished to Palestine, and Philoponus wrote a book against John Scholasticus, who had given his verdict in favour of his adversaries. But he developed a theory of his own as to the Resurrection (see EUTYCHIANISM) on account of which Conon and Eugenius wrote a treatise against him in collaboration with Themistus, the founder of the Agnoctae, in which they declared his views to be altogether unchristian. The two bishops together with a deprived bishop named Theonas proceeded to consecrate bishops for their sect, which they established in Corinth and Athens, in Rome and Africa, and in the Western Patriarchate, while their agents travelled through Syria and Cilicia, Isauria and Cappadocia, converting whole districts, and ordaining priests and deacons in cities villages, and monasteries. Eugenius died in Pamphylia; Conon returned to Constantinople. We are assured by Leontius that it was the Aristoteleanism of Philoponus which made him teach that there are in the Holy Trinity three partial substances (merikai ousiai, ikikai theotetes, idiai physeis) and one common. The genesis of the heresy has been explained (for the first time) under MONOPHYSITES, where an account of Philoponus's writings and those of Stephen Gobarus, another member of the sect, will be found. (2) In the Middle Ages Roscellin of Compiegne, the founder of Nominalism, argued, just like Philoponus, that unless the Three Persons are tres res, then the whole Trinity must have been incarnate. He was refuted by St. Anselm. (3) Among Catholic writers, Pierre Faydit, who was expelled from the Oratory at Paris in 1671 for disobedience and died in 1709, fell into the error of Tritheism in his "Eclaireissements sur la doctrine et Phistoire ecclésiastiqes des deux premiers siecles" (Paris, 1696), in which he tried to make out that the earliest Fathers were Tritheists. He was replied to by the Premonstratensian Abbot Louis-Charles Hugo ("Apologie du système des Saints Pères sur la Trinité," Luxemburg, 1699). A canon of Trèves named Oembs, who was infected with the doctrines of the "Enlightenment", similarly attributed to the Fathers his own view of three similar natures in the Trinity, calling the numerical unity of God an invention of the Scholastics. His book, "Opuscula de Deo Uno et Trino" (Mainz, 1789), was condemned by Pius VII in a Brief of 14 July, 1804. Gunther is also accused of Tritheism. (4) Among Protestants, Heinrich Nicolai (d. 1660), a professor at Dantzig and at Elbing (not to be confounded with the founder of the Familisten), is cited. The best known is William Sherlock, Dean of St. Paul's, whose "Vindication of the Doctrine of the Trinity" (London, 1690) against the Socinians was attacked by Robert South in "Animadversions on Dr. Sherlock's Vindication" (1693). Sherlock's work is said to have made William Manning a Socinian and Thomas Emlyn an Arian, and the dispute was ridiculed in a skit entitled "The Battle Royal", attributed to William Pittis (1694?), which was translated into Latin at Cambridge. Joseph Bingham, author of the "Antiquities", preached at Oxford in 1695 a sermon which was considered to represent the Fathers as Tritheists, and it was condemned by the Hebdomadal Council as falsa, impia et haeretica, the scholar being driven from Oxford. For bibliography see MONOPHYSITES. JOHN CHAPMAN John Trithemius John Trithemius A famous scholar and Benedictine abbot, b. at Trittenheim on the Moselle, 1 February, 1462; d. at Würzburg, 13 December, 1516. The abbot himself, in his "Nepiachus", gives an account of his youth, which was a time of hard suffering owing to the harsh treatment of his selfish stepfather, who allowed the talented boy to grow up in complete ignorance till the age of fifteen, when he learned reading and writing as well as the rudiments of Latin in a remarkably short time. But as his persecution at home did not cease, he ran away, and after a painful journey succeeded in reaching Würzburg, where the well-known humanist, Jacob Wimpheling, was teaching; here the ambitious youth pursued his classical studies till 1482. In order to revisit his home he determined to make an excursion to the neighbourhood of Trèves accompanied by a comrade; it was January and the young men travelled afoot. A short visit to the monastery of Sponheim was to prove of decisive importance for the young Trithemius; hardly had the travellers taken leave of the monks when a snowstorm obliged them to return to the monastery. At the invitation of the prior, Henry of Holzhausen, who had quickly discerned the talents of his young guest, Trithemius remained in Sponheim; eight days later he received the habit of the order and made his vows in the same year, 8 December. His life in the monastery was exemplary; he commanded the respect of his brethren, and the love of his superiors. The proof of the respect in which he was held by all was the fact that although he was the youngest member of the community, and had not yet been ordained, he was elected abbot at the age of twenty-two, during the second year of his life in the order. His election was a great blessing for Sponheim. With youthful vigour and a firm hand he undertook the direction of the much-neglected monastery. He first turned his attention to the material needs of his community, then set himself to the much more difficult task of restoring its discipline. Above all, his own example, not only in the conscientious observance of the rules of the order, but also in the tireless pursuit of scientific studies, brought about the happiest results. In order to promote effectively scientific research, he procured a rich collection of books which comprised the most important works in all branches of human knowledge; in this way he built up the world-renowned library of Sponheim for the enriching of which he laboured unceasingly for twenty-three years till the collection numbered about 2000 volumes. This library, unique in those days, made Sponheim known throughout the entire world of learning. The attractive personality of the abbot also helped to spread the fame of the monastery. Among his friends he numbered, not only the most learned men of his time, such as Celtes, Reuchlin, and John of Dalberg, but also many princes -- including the Emperor Maximilian, who held him in great esteem. But the farther his reputation extended in the world the greater became the number of malcontents in the monastery who opposed the abbot's discipline. Finally he resigned as head of his beloved abbey, which he had ruled for twenty-three years, and which he had brought to a most flourishing condition; after his departure the monastery sank into its former insignificance. The Emperor Maximilian desired to bring the famous scholar to his Court, and to make him the historiographer of the Imperial House with a life-long pension; he was also promised rich abbeys. But Trithemius sought the quiet and peace of a more retired life, and this he found as abbot of the Scottish monastery of St. Jacob, at Würzburg (1506). Here he found only three monks, so he had ample opportunity to display the same activity he had shown at Sponheim. He spent the last ten years of his life in the production of many important writings. Only once did he leave his monastery (1508) for a short stay at the imperial Court. He died at fifty-five years of age and was buried in the Scottish church at Würzburg. The Order of St. Benedict was indebted to this energetic abbot for his zealous promotion of the Bursfeld Congregation, for his encouragement of learning in the order, and for his earnest furtherance of monastic discipline. "The great abbot", says one of his biographers, "was equally worthy of respect as a man, as a religious, and as a writer." Of his more than eighty works only part have appeared in print. The greater number of these are ascetical writings which treat of the religious life and were published by John Busaeus, S.J., under the title "Joannis Trithemii opera pia et spiritualia" (Mainz, 1604); they are among the best works of devotional literature produced at the time. Marquard Freher published a part of his historical works as "Joannis Trithemii opera historica" (Frankfort, 1601). This collection, however, did not include the two famous folio volumes, published in 1690 under the title of "Annales Hirsaugiensis". Trithemius also wrote interesting contributions on points of natural science, then much debated, and on classical literature. The question whether he, by citing two otherwise unknown authorities (Megiahard and Kunibald), was guilty of intentional forgery, is still under debate by some critics. Surely the inscription on his tomb testifies to the truth: Hanc meruit statuam Germanae gloria gentis Abbas Trithemius, quem tegit ista domus (The Abbot Trithemius, the glory of the German race, whom this house covers, merited this statue). [Note: A portrait of John Trithemius was printed in Thevet's Livre des Vrais Pourtraits, Paris, 1584.] SILBERNAGEL, Joh. Trithemius (Landshut, 1868); RULAND in Chiliancum, new ser., I, 45-68 (Bonn, 1869); SCHNEEGANS, Abt. Joh. Trithemius u. Kloster Sponheim (Kreuznach, 1882); JANSSEN-PASTOR, Geschichte des Deutschen Volkes, I (Freiburg, 1897). NICHOLAS SCHEID Trivento Trivento (Triventensis) Diocese in southern Italy. The earliest bishop was St. Castus of an uncertain epoch, the local legend assigning him to the fourth century. Other bishops were: the monk Leo, intruded and deposed by Agapetus I (946); Alferius (1109); the Franciscan Luca (1226), exiled by King Manfred; Pietro dell' Aquila (1348), noted for his learning; Giulio Cesare Moriconda (1582), who restored the cathedral, rearranged the archives, and erected a seminary; Alfonso Moriconda (1717), O.S.B., a learned prelate who restored the cathedral and the episcopal residence. The diocese is suffragan of Beneventum; it has 58 parishes with 130,000 souls, 160 secular priests, and three religious houses. CAPPELLETTI, Le chiese d'Italia, XXI (Venice, 1844), 469. U. BENIGNI Nicholas Trivet Nicholas Trivet (Or "Trevet" as he himself wrote it) B. about 1258; d. 1328. He was the son of Thomas Trevet, a judge who came of a Norfolk or Somerset family. He became a Dominican in London, and studied first at Oxford, then at Paris, where he first took an interest in English and French chronicles. Little is known of his life except that at one time he was prior of his order in London, and at another he was teaching at Oxford. He was the author of a large number of theological and hstorical works and commentaries on the classics, more especially the works of Seneca. A large number of these exist in MS. in various libraries, but only two appear to have been printed, one being the work by which he is chiefly remembered, the chronicle of the Angevin kings of England, the other was the last twelve books of his commentary on St. Augustine's treatise "De civitate dei". The full title of the former work is "Annales sex regum Angliae qui a comitibus Andegavensibus originem traxerunt", an important historical source for the period 1136-1307, containing a specially valuable account of the reign of Edward I. Trivet also wrote a chronicle in French, parts of which were printed by Spelman, and from which Chaucer is believed to have derived the "Man of Law's Tale". His theological works include commentaries on parts of the Scripture, a treatise on the Mass and some writings on Scholastic theology. HOG, preface to Trivet's Chronicle, Eng. Hist. Soc. (London, 1845); TRIVET, Annales sex Regum Angliae (Oxford, 1719); HARDY, Descriptive Catalogue (London, 1871); KINGSFORD in Dict. Nat. Biog., with exhaustive list of MSS.; CHEVALIER, Repertoire des sources historiques du moyen age (Paris, 1905), gives a list of earlier references. EDWIN BURTON Troas Troas A suffragan of Cyzicus in the Hellespont. The city was first called Sigia; it was enlarged and embellished by Antigonus, who peopled it with inhabitants drawn from other cities, and surnamed it Antigonia Troas (Strabo, 604, 607); it was finally enlarged by Lysimachus, who called it Alexandria Troas (Strabo, 593; Pliny, V, 124). The name Troas is the one most used. For having remained faithful to the Romans during their war against Antiochus, Troas was favoured by them (Titus Livius, XXXV, 42; XXXVII, 35); it became afterwards Colonia Alexandria Augusta Troas. Augustus, Hadrian and the rich grammarian Herodes Atticus contributed greatly to its embellishment; the aqueduct still preserved is due to the latter. Julius Caesar and Constantine the Great thought of making Troas the capital of the Roman Empire. St. Luke came to Troas to join St. Paul and accompany him to Europe (Acts, xvi, 8-11); there also many of St. Paul's friends joined him at another time and remained a week with him (Acts, xx, 4-12). A Christian community existed there and it was at that place that Eutychus was resuscitated by the Apostle. He mentions his sojourn there (II Cor., ii, 12), and he asks Timotheus to bring him his cloak and his books which he had left with Carpus (II Tim., iv, 13). St. Ignatius of Antioch stopped at Troas before going to Rome (Ad Philad., XI, 2; Ad Smyrn., XII, 1). Several of its bishops are known: Marinus in 325, Niconius in 344, Sylvanus at the beginning of the fifth century; Pionius in 451, Leo in 787, Peter, friend of the patriarch Ignatius, and Michael, his adversary, in the ninth century. In the tenth century Troas is given as a suffragan of Cyzicus and distinct from the famous Ilium (Gelzer, "Ungedruckte . . .Texte der Notitiae episcopatuum", 552; Idem, "Georgii Cyprii descriptio orbis romani", 64); it is not known when the city was destroyed and the diocese disappeared. To-day Troas is Eski- Stambul in the sanjak of Bigha. LE QUIEN, Oriens christianus, I, 777; TEXIER, Asie mineure (Paris, 1862), 194-97; LEBAS-WADDINGTON, Asie mineure, 1035-37, 1730-40; PAULY-WISSOWA, Real-Encyclopadie fur clas. Altertumswissenschaft, s. v. Alexandria Troas. S. VAILHÉ Trocmades Trocmades (Trocmada) Titular see of Galatia Secunda, suffragan of Pessinus. No geographer or historian mentions a city of this name; Hierocles (Synecemus, 698, 1) gives "regio Trocnades", instead of Regetnoknada, referring, doubtless, to the Galatian name of some tribe on the left bank of the Sangarius; its principal centre was probably in the present village of Kaimez, about twenty-four miles east of Eski Shehir, a vilayet of Broussa. All the "Notitiae episcopatuum" up to the thirteenth century mention the see Trokmadon among the suffragans of Pessinus; the two most recent (thirteenth century) call it Lotinou; perhaps it should be Plotinou, from St. Plotinus, venerated there. The official lists of the Roman Curia give Trocmadae. Le Quien (Oriens christianus, I, 493), gives Trocmada. From these erroneous forms arises a confusion of the name with the Galatian tribe of Trocmi. The last named author gives a list of the known bishops: Cyriacus, who represented his metropolitan at the Robber Synod of Ephesus (449), and was represented by a priest at the Council of Chalcedon (451); Theodore, present at the Council of Constantinople (681); Leo, at Nicaea (787); Constantine at the Photian Council of Constantinople (879). Cyriacus, said to have assisted at the Council of Nicaea (325), is not mentioned in the authentic lists of bishops present at that council. S. PÉTRIDÈS John de Trokelowe John de Trokelowe (THROWLOW, or THORLOW) A monastic chronicler still living in 1330, but the dates of whose birth and death are unknown. He was a Benedictine monk of St. Albans who in 1294 was living in the dependent priory of Tynemouth, Northumberland. The prior and monks endeavoured to sever connection with St. Albans and to obtain independence by presenting the advowson to the king; but abbot John of Berkamsted resisted this arrangement, visited Tynemouth, and sent Trokelow with other monks as prisoners back to St. Alban's. There Trokelowe wrote his "Annales" including the period 1259 to 1296 and a useful account of the reign of Edward II, from 1307 to 1323, after which date his chronicle was continued by Henry de Blaneford. A reference made by Trokelowe to the execution of Mortimer shows that he was writing after 1330. RILEY, Johannis de Trokelowe et Henrici de Blaneforde chronica et annales in Rolls Series (London, 1866). See also RILEY, Introduction to RISHANGER, Chronicle in the Chronica monastica S. Albani in the same series. HARDY, Descriptive Catalogue (London, 1871); HUNT in Dict. Nat. Biog. EDWIN BURTON Ancient See of Trondhjem Ancient See of Trondhjem (NIDAROS). In Norway it was the kings who introduced Christianity, which first became known to the people during their martial expeditions (Hergenröther, "Kirchengeschichte", 1879, II, 721). The work of Christianization begun by Haakon the Good (d: 981) (Maurer, "Die Bekehrung des norwegischen Stammes", Munich, 1855, I, ii, 168) was carried on by Olaf Trygvesson (d. 1002) and Olaf Haraldsson (St. Olaf, d. 1030). Both were converted vikings, the former having been baptized at Andover, England, by Bishop Aelfeah of Winchester, and the latter at Rouen by Archbishop Robert (Bang, "Den norske Kirkes Historie under Katholicismen", Christiania, 1887, 44, 50). In 997 Olaf Trygvesson founded at the mouth of the River Nid the city of Nidaros, afterwards called Trondhjem, where he built a royal palace and a church; he laboured to spread the truths of Christianity in Norway, the Orkney and Shetland Islands, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Greenland (Maurer, op. cit., I, iii, 462). King Olaf Haraldsson created an episcopal see at Nidaros, installing the monk Grimkill as bishop. Moreover, many English and German bishops and priests laboured in Norway, and by degrees Christianity softened the rough instincts of the people. The Norwegian bishops were at first dependent on the Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen, and afterwards on the Archbishop of Lund, Primate of Scandinavia. As the Norwegians nevertheless wanted an archbishop of their own, Eugene III, resolving to create a metropolitan see at Trondhjem, sent thither as legate (1151) Cardinal Nicholas of Albano (Nicholas Breakspeare), afterwards Adrian IV. The legate installed Jon Birgerson, previously Bishop of Stavanger, as Archbishop of Trondhjem. The bishops of Oslo (bishop 1073), Bergen (about 1060), Stavanger (1130), Hamar (1151), the Orkneys (1070), Iceland (Skalholt, 1056; Holar, 1105), and Greenland became suffragans. Archbishop Birgerson was succeeded by Eystein (Beatus Augustinus, 1158-88), previously royal secretary and treasurer, a man of brilliant intellect, strong will, and deep piety (Daae, "Norges Helgener", Christiania, 1879, 170-6). Such a man was then needed to defend the liberty of the Church against the encroachments of King Sverre, who wished to make the Church a mere tool of the temporal power. The archbishop was compelled to flee from Norway to England. It is true that he was able to return and that a sort of reconciliation took place later between him and the king, but on Eystein's death Sverre renewed his attacks, and Archbishop Eric had to leave the country and take refuge with Archbishop Absalon of Lund. At last, when Sverre attacked the papal legate, Innocent III laid the king and his partisans under interdict (Baluze, "Epp. Innocentii III", Paris, 1682, I, i, 226, 227). King Haakon (1202), son and successor of Sverre, hastened to make peace with the Church, whose liberty had been preserved by the unflinching attitude of the pope and his archbishops. What would have happened, asks the Protestant ecclesiastical historian of Norway, Dr. A. Chr. Bang, "if the Church, deprived of all liberty, had become the submissive slave of absolute royalty? What influence would it have exercised at a time when its chief mission was to act as the educator of the people and as the necessary counterpoise to defend the liberty of the people against the brutal whims of the secular lords? And what would have happened when a century later royalty left the country? After that time the Church was in reality the sole centre about which was grouped the whole national life of our country" (op. cit., 109). To regulate ecclesiastical affairs, which had suffered during the struggles with Sverre, Innocent IV in 1247 sent Cardinal William of Sabina as legate to Norway. He intervened against certain encroachments on the part of the bishops, reformed various abuses, and abolished the ordeal by hot iron. Owing in great measure to the papal legates, Norway became more closely linked with the supreme head of Christendom at Rome. Secular priests, Benedictines, Cistercians, Augustinians, Dominicans, and Franciscans worked together for the prosperity of the Church. Archbishops Eilif Kortin (d. 1332), Paul Baardson (d. 1346), and Arne Vade (d. 1349) showed specially remarkable zeal. Provincial councils were held, at which serious efforts were made to eliminate abuses and to encourage Christian education and morality (Bang, op. cit., 297). Nidaros (Trondhjem), the metropolis of the ecclesiastical province, was also the capital of Norway. The residence of the kings until 1217, it remained until the troubles of the Reformation the heart and centre of the spiritual life of the country. There was situated the tomb of St. Olaf, and around the patron of Norway, "Rex perpetuus Norvegiae", the national and ecclesiastical life of the country was centred. Pilgrims flocked from all quarters to the tomb. The feast of St. Olaf on 29 July was a day or reunion for "all the nations of the Northern seas, Norwegians, Swedes, Goths, Cimbrians, Danes, and Slavs", to quote an old chronicler ("Adami gesta pontificum Hammaburgensium", Hanover, 1876, II, 82), in the cathedral of Nidaros, where the reliquary of St. Olaf rested near the altar. Built in Roman style by King Olaf Kyrre (d. 1093), the dome had been enlarged by Archbishop Eystein in Ogival style. It was finished only in 1248 by Archbishop Sigurd Sim. Although several times destroyed by fire, the ancient dome was restored each time until the storms of the Reformation. Then Archbishop Eric Walkendorf was exiled (1521), and his successor, Olaf Engelbertsen, who had been the instrument of the royal will in the introduction of Lutheranism, had also, as a partisan of Christian II, to fly from Christian III (1537). The valuable reliquaries of St. Olaf and St. Augustine (Eystein) were taken away, sent to Copenhagen, and melted. The bones of St. Olaf were buried in the cathedral, and the place forgotten. But when Norway regained its liberty and resumed it placed among independent nations (1814), the memory of the glory of its ancestors awoke. It was resolved to rebuild the ancient dome, and the cathedral stands once more renewed, although not in possession of the religion which created it. But new churches have arisen in the city of St. Olaf, bearing witness that the Catholic Faith still lives in Scandinavia in spite of all its trials. Besides the works cited above see: MUNCH, Throndhjems Domkirke (Christiania, 1859); KREFTING, Om Throndhjems Domkirke (Trondhjem, 1885); SCHIRMER, Kristkirken; Nidaros (Christiania, 1885); MATHIESEN, Det gamle Throndhjem (Christiani, 1897). GUSTAF ARMFELT Trope Trope Definition and Description Trope, in the liturgico-hymnological sense, is a collective name which, since about the close of the Middle Ages or a little later, has been applied to texts of great variety (in both poetry and prose) written for the purpose of amplifying and embellishing an independently complete liturgical text (e.g. the Introit, the Kyrie, Gloria, Gradual, or other parts of the Mass or of the Office sung by the choir). These additions are closely attached to the official liturgical text, but in no way do they change the essential character of it; they are entwined in it, augmenting and elucidating it; they are, as it were, a more or less poetical commentary that is woven into the liturgical text, forming with it a complete unit. Thus in France and England, instead of the liturgical text "Sanctus, Sanctus, Sanctus, Dominus Deus Sabaoth" the lines sung were: 1. Sanctus ex quo sunt omnia; 2. Sanctus, per quem sunt omnia; 3. Sanctus, in quo sunt omnia; Dominus Deus Sabaoth, tibi gloria sit in saecula. The most accurate definition, applicable to all the different kinds of Tropes, might be the following: A Trope is an interpolation in a liturgical text, or the embellishment brought about by interpolation (i.e. by introductions, insertions, or additions). Herein lies the difference between the Trope and the closely- related Sequence or Prose. The Sequence also is an embellishment of the liturgy, an insertion between liturgical chants (the Gradual and the Gospel), originating about the eighth century; the Sequence is thus an interpolation in the liturgy, but it is not an interpolation in a liturgical text. The Sequence is an independent unit, complete in itself; the Trope, however, forms a unit only in connection with a liturgical text, and when separated from the latter is often devoid of any meaning. Accordingly the several Tropes are named after that liturgical text to which they belong, viz. Trope of the Kyrie, Trope of the Gloria, Trope of the Agnus Dei, etc. Originally there existed no uniform name for that which is now combined under the idea and name of Tropus. Only the interpolations of the Introit, the Offertory, and the Communion were called Tropi (trophi, tropos, trophos), and even that not exclusively but only predominantly; for the Introit Trope was frequently called "Versus in psalmis", the Offertory Trope also "Prosa [or prosula] ad [or ante] Offerenda". To all the other interpolations a great variety of names was applied, as "Prosae de Kyrieleison", or "Versus ad Kyrieleison", = Kyrie Tropes; "Laudes" (Lauda, laus), "Gloria cum laudes", "Laudes cum tropis", or simply "Ad Gloria", = Gloria Tropes; "Laudes ad Sanctus", "Versus super Sanctus", = Sanctus Tropes; "Laudes de Agnus Dei", "Prosa ad Agnus Dei", = Agnus Tropes; "Epistola cum Versibus", "Versus super epistolam", = Epistle Trope (Epître farcie); "Verba", or "Verbeta", or "Prosella", = Breviary Trope. How and when the general name of Tropus sprang up, has not yet been exactly ascertained. And just as little has the priority been established of the different kinds of interpolations, whether that in the Introit is the oldest, or that in the Gloria, or the Kyrie, or in any other part of the Mass; for that very reason it is not known yet which of the various designations (Versus, Prosae, Tropi, or Laudes) is the oldest and most original. One thing is certain: the Latin Tropus is a word borrowed from the Greek tropos. The latter was a musical term, and denoted a melody (tropos lydios, phrygios = Lydian, Phrygian, Doric melody), or in general a musical change, like the Latin modus or modulus, similar to the international "modulation". It is quite conceivable that the name of the melody was transferred to the text which had been composed to it, as is the case with the word Sequentia. In reasoning thus, one would have to presuppose that over one syllable of a liturgical text, e.g. over the e of the Kyrie, a longer melisma was sung, which bore the name of tropus; furthermore, that to such a melisma a text was composed later on, and that this text was also called "Tropus". And it is an actual fact that from early times such melismata existed over a vowel of the Kyrie, the Gloria, the Sanctus, etc.; likewise there were many texts which were produced for these melismata, consequently they were interpolations. But the date when these melismata of the Kyrie, Gloria, Sanctus, etc., were first called "Tropi" is still a matter of research; what we know is that the texts under that kind of melisma which has just been described were not called "Tropi" from the earliest times. On the contrary, by the name of "Tropi" were originally designated the interpolations of precisely those parts of the Mass which do not exhibit any long melismata, as the Introit and Offertory. To give an example, an interpolation of the Christmas Introit written in prose, reads: Ecce, adest de quo prophetae cecinerunt dicentes; Puer natus est nobis, Quem virgo Maria genuit, Et filius datus est nobis, etc. The first introductory phrase of this and similar interpolations, particularly when it comprises an entire stanza, as, e.g., Laudemus omnes Dominum, Qui virginis per uterum Parvus in mundum venerat Mundum regens, quem fecerat, Puer natus est nobis, etc. cannot possibly be considered as text to an already existing melisma which was called "Tropus", and which then gave its name to the text that was put to it. And yet, just such interpolations of the Introit and the Offertory were called "Tropi". In this article it must suffice to allude to these difficulties, on the solution of which will depend the theory of the origin and the early development of the "Tropi". As yet no definite theory can be advanced, although several writers on liturgy, music, and hymnology have been so confident as to make assertions for which there is absolutely no ground. Division On the basis of the two choir books for the Mass and the Breviary, namely the Gradual and the Antiphonal, Tropes are divided into two large classes: "Tropi Graduales" and "Tropi Antiphonales," i.e. Tropes of such parts of the Mass and of the Breviary as are chanted. The latter are of slightly later date, are chiefly limited to interpolations of the Responsory after the Lessons, and are almost exclusively insertions into one of the concluding words of such Responsory. Their entire structure resembles so much the structure of the Sequences of the first epoch, upon which they were undoubtedly modelled, that later on they were often used as independent Sequences. Such is the case with the oldest Breviary Trope of the Blessed Virgin, which is built upon the penultimate word, inviolata, of the Responsory of the Assumption: "Gaude Maria virgo . . . et post partum inviolata permansisti." The syllable la of inviolata was the bearer of a long melisma; to this melisma towards the close of the tenth century in France the following text was composed: 1a. Invio-lata integra et casta es, Maria, 1b. Quae es effecta fulgida regis porta. 2a. O mater alma Christi carissima, 2b. Suscipe pia laudum precamina 3a. Nostra ut pura pectora sint et corpora. 3b. Quae nunc flagitant devota corda et ora, 4a. Tu da per precata dulcisona, 4b. Nobis perpetua frui vita, 5. O benigna, quae sola inviolata permansisti. Of a similar structure are all the Breviary Tropes or "Verbeta", and they are dovetailed, as shown above, more or less ingeniously, between the penultimate and last word of their Responsory. The "Tropi Graduales" in their turn are divided into two classes, namely into "Tropi ad Ordinarium Missae" or to the unchangeable text of the Mass, i.e. to the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Agnus Dei, and Ite missa est, and into "Tropi ad Proprium Missarum" or to those parts of the text which change according to the respective feast, i.e. to the Introit, Lesson, Gradual, Offertory, and Communion. This latter class frequently differs from the former also in the external structure of its Tropes; and at first it was the most widespread; it might perhaps even claim to be the oldest and most original; but it disappeared at a relatively early date, whereas the "Tropi ad Ordinarium Missae" still kept their place in liturgy for a considerable time. History and Significance The origin of the Tropes, that is to say of the Gradual Tropes (since the Antiphonal Tropes are evidently of a later date), must almost coincide with that of the Proses or Sequences which are most closely related to them; this would mean that their history begins somewhere in the eighth century. Whether the Trope or the Sequence was the older form is all the more difficult to decide, since the Sequence itself is to a certain degree a kind of Trope. The St. Martial Troper, the oldest one known, of the middle of the tenth century (Cod. Parisin., 1240), abounds in Tropes to the Introit, Gradual, Offertory, and Communion; in other words it has a great many "Tropi ad Proprium Missarum". In addition it contains thirteen Gloria Tropes, but only two of the Sanctus, and not one of the Kyrie. Comparatively poor in Tropes are the St. Gall Tropers, and this fact alone makes it extremely doubtful whether Tutilo of St. Gall was the inventor of the Tropes. It appears that the Trope, like the Sequence, originated in France, where from the tenth century onward it enjoyed great popularity and was most eagerly cultivated. From there it soon made its way to England and to Northern Italy, later to Central and Southern Italy, and became widespread in all these countries, less so, however, in Germany. It was known there as early as in the ninth century, since Tutilo of St. Gall can rightly be considered a composer of Tropes. It remains a curious fact that in spite of the great number of Tropes no poet can be named who gained distinction as a composer of Tropes. In the thirteenth century this once important branch of literature began to decline and survived almost exclusively in Kyrie Tropes, particularly in France until the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Regarding the poetical contents, the Tropes, with few exceptions, are of no great value. But this peculiar poetical production is all the more interesting for the student of liturgy, and especially great is its significance in the development of music and poetry. It is worthy of note that, instead of short insertions into the liturgical text, as time went on several verses, entire stanzas, even a number of stanzas, were fitted in. The non-essential part developed into the main work; the liturgical text withdrew entirely into the background, and was scarcely even considered as the starting-point. In this manner the Tropes grew to be independent cantions, motets, or religious folk-songs. Also the dramatic character, which was quite peculiar to many Introit Tropes at Christmas and Easter, developed more and more luxuriantly until it reached its highest perfection in larger dramatic scenes, mystery plays, and plays of a purely religious character. Tropes finally left the liturgical and religious ground altogether, and wandered away from the spiritual to the profane field of songs of love, gambling, and drinking. And for that reason many specimens of religious as well as secular poetry of later date can be fully understood only when they are traced back to their source, the Tropes. The importance from a musical standpoint of both the Tropes and the Sequences has been most suitably characterized by Rev. Walter Howard Frere in his introduction to "The Winchester Troper" where he says: "For the musician the whole story is full of interest, for the Tropers practically represent the sum total of musical advance between the ninth and the twelfth century. . . . All new developments in musical composition, failing to gain admission into the privileged circle of the recognised Gregorian service-books, were thrown together so as to form an independent musical collection supplementary to the official books; and that is exactly what a Troper is" (op. cit., p. vi). FRERE, The Winchester Troper (London, 1894); WOLF, Ueber die Lais (Heidelberg, 1841); GAUTIER, Les Tropes (Paris, 1886); REINERS, Tropen-Gesange u. ihre Melodien (Luxemburg, 1887); BLUME AND BANNISTER, Tropi Graduales ad ordinarium Missae in Analecta hymnica, XLVII (Leipzig, 1905); BLUME, Tropi Graduales ad Proprium Missarum in Anal. Hymn., XLIX (Leipzig, 1906). CLEMENS BLUME Scriptural Tropology Scriptural Tropology The theory and practice of interpreting the figurative meaning of Holy Writ. The literal meaning, or God-intended meaning of the words of the Bible, may be either figurative or non-figurative; for instance, in Canticles, the inspired meaning is always figurative. The typical meaning is the inspired meaning of words referring to persons, things, and actions of the Old Testament which are inspired types of persons, things, and actions of the New (cf. Exegesis). WALTER DRUM John Thomas Troy John Thomas Troy Archbishop of Dublin; b. in the parish of Blanchardstown, near Dublin, 10 May, 1739; d. at Dublin, 11 May, 1823. He belonged to an Anglo-Norman stock, and received his early education at Liffey Street, Dublin, after which, in 1777 [This is probably a typo for 1757 or 1767 -- Ed.], he joined the Dominican Order and proceeded to their house of St. Clement, at Rome. Amenable to discipline, diligent in his studies, and gifted with much ability, he made rapid progress, and while yet a student was selected to give lectures in philosophy. Subsequently he professed theology and canon law, and finally became prior of the convent in 1772. When the Bishop of Ossory died, in 1776, the priests of the diocese recommended one of their number, Father Molloy, to Rome for the vacant see, and the recommendation was endorsed by many of the Irish bishops. But Dr. Troy, who was held in high esteem at Rome, had already been appointed Bishop of Ossory. He arrived at Kilkenny in August, and for the next nine years he laboured hard for the spiritual interests of his diocese. They were troubled times. Maddened by excessive rents and tithes, and harried by grinding tithe-proctors, the farmers had banded themselves together in a secret society called the "Whiteboys". Going forth at night, they attacked landlords, bailiffs, agents, and tithe-proctors, and often committed fearful outrages. Bishop Troy grappled with them and frequently and sternly denounced them. It was not that he had any sympathy with oppression, but he had lived so long in Rome and had left Ireland at such an early age, that he did not quite understand the condition of things at home, and did not fully appreciate the extent of misery and oppression in which the poor Catholic masses lived. The bent of his mind was to support authority, and he was therefore ready to condemn all violent efforts for reform, and had no hesitation in denouncing not only all secret societies in Ireland, but also "our American fellow-subjects, seduced by specious notions of liberty". This made him unpopular with the masses, but there could be no doubt that he was zealous in correcting abuses in his diocese and in promoting education. So well was this recognized at Rome that in 1781, in consequence of some serious troubles which had arisen between the primate and his clergy, Dr. Troy was appointed Administrator of Armagh. This office he held till 1782. In 1786 he was appointed Archbishop of Dublin. At Dublin, as at Ossory, he showed his zeal for religion, his sympathy with authority, and his distrust of popular movements, especially when violent means were employed; in 1798 he issued a sentence of excommunication against all those of his flock who would join the rebellion. He was also one of the most determined supporters of the Union. In 1799 he agreed to accept the veto of government on the appointment of Irish bishops; and even when the other bishops, finding that they had been tricked by Pitt and Castlereagh, repudiated the veto, Dr. Troy continued to favour it. The last years of his life were uneventful. BRADY, Episcopal Succession (Rome, 1876); CARRIGAN, History of the Diocese of Ossory (Dublin, 1905); D'ALTON, History of the Archbishops of Dublin (Dublin, 1838); WYSE, History of the Catholic Association (London, 1829); MORAN, Spicilegium Ossoriense (Dublin, 1874-84). E.A. D'ALTON Troyes Troyes (TRECENSIS). Diocese comprising the Department of Aube. Re-established in 1802 as a suffragan of Paris, it then comprised the Departments of Aube and Yonne, and its bishop had the titles of Troyes, Auxerre, and Châlons-sur-Marne. In 1822 the See of Châlons was created and the Bishop of Troyes lost that title. When Sens was made an archdiocese the title of Auxerre went to it and Troyes lost also the Department of Yonne, which became the Archdiocese of Sens. The Diocese of Troyes at present covers, besides the ancient diocesan limits, 116 parishes of the ancient Diocese of Langres, and 20 belonging to the ancient Diocese of Sens. Since 1822 Troyes is a suffragan of Sens The catalogue of bishops of Troyes, known since the ninth century, is in the opinion of Duchesne, worthy of confidence. The first bishop, St. Amator, seems to have preceded by a few years Bishop Optatianus who probably ruled the diocese about 344. Among his successors are: St. Melanius (Melain) (390-400); St. Ursus (Ours) (426); St. Lupus (Loup) (426-478), b. in 383, who accompanied St. Germanus of Auxerre to England, forced the Huns to spare Troyes, was led away as a hostage by Attila and only returned to his diocese after many years of exile; St. Camelianus (479-536); St. Vincent (536-46); St. Leuconius (Leucon) (651-56); St. Bobinus (Bobin) (750-66), previously Abbot of Monstier la Celle; St. Prudentius (845-61), who wrote against Gottschalk and Johannes Scotus; Blessed Manasses (985-93); Jacques BÈnigne Bossuet (1716-42, nephew of the great Bossuet; Etienne-Antoine de Boulogne (1809-25); Pierre-Louis Cæur, the preacher (1849-60). Louis the Stammerer in 878 received at Troyes the imperial crown from the hands of Pope John VIII. At the end of the ninth century the counts of Champagne chose Troyes as their capital. In 1285, when Philip the Fair united Champagne to the royal domain, the town kept a number of privileges. John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy and ally of the English, aimed in 1417 at making Troyes the capital of France, and he came to an understanding with Isabeau of Bavaria, wife of Charles VI of France, that a court, council, and parliament with comptroller's offices should be established at Troyes. It was at Troyes, then in the hands of the Burgundians, that on 21 May, 1420, the treatgy was signed by which Henry VI of England was betrothed to Catherine, daughter of Charles VI, and was to succeed him to the detriment of the dauphin. The dauphin, afterwards Charles VII, and Blessed Joan of Arc recovered the town of Troyes in 1429. The cathedral of Troyes is a fine Gothic structure begun in the twelfth, and completed in the fifteenth, century; the ancient collegiate Church of St. Urban is a Gothic building whose lightness of treatment reminds one of La Sainte Chapelle at Paris. It was built by Urban IV at the close of the thirteenth century. He was a native of Troyes and on one of the stained-glass windows he caused his father to be depicted, working at his trade of tailor. The Abbey of Nesle la Riposte was founded before 545 near Villenauxe, perhaps by Queen Clotilde. In the sixteenth century the monks caused to be rebuilt at Villenauxe, with the actual stones which they brought from Nesle, the original doorway of Nesle Abbey, an interesting monument of French history. The Benedictine Mabillon undertook to interpret its carvings, among which might be seen the statue of a reine pÈdauque (i.e. a web-footed queen) supposed to be St. Clotilde. The Abbey of Notre Dame aux Nonnains, founded by St. Leucon, was an important abbey for women. Alcuin and St Bernard corresponded with its abbesses. At his installation the bishop went to the abbey on the previous evening; the bed he slept on became his property, but the mule on which he rode became the property of the abbess. The abbess led the bishop by the hand into the chapter hall; she put on his mitre, offered him his crozier, and in return the bishop promised to respect the rights of the abbey. The Jansenists in the eighteenth century made a great noise over the pretended cure by the deacon Paris of Marie Madeleine de MÈgrigny, a nun of Notre Dame aux Nonnains. The part of the Diocese of Troyes which formerly belonged to the Diocese of Langres contained the famous Abbey of Clairvaux (q. v.). Concerning the Abbey of the Paraclete, founded by Abelard and in which the Abbess Heloise died in 1163, and where her body and that of Abelard were buried until 1792, see ABELARD. On 20 June, 1353, Geoffroy de Charny, Lord of Savoisy and Lirey, founded at Lirey in honour of the Annunciation a collegiate church with six canonries, and in this church he exposed for veneration the Holy Winding Sheet. Opposition arose on the part of the Bishop of Troyes, who declared after due inquiry that the relic was nothing but a painting, and opposed its exposition. Clement VI by four Bulls, 6 Jan., 1390, approved the exposition as lawful. In 1418 during the civil wars, the canons entrusted the Winding Sheet to Humbert, Count de La Roche, Lord of Lirey. Margaret, widow of Humbert, never returned it but gave it in 1452 to the Duke of Savoy. The requests of the canons of Lirey were unavailing, and the Lirey Winding Sheet is the same that is now exposed and honoured at Turin (see TURIN). Among the many saints specially honoured or connected with the diocese are: St. Mathia, virgin, period uncertain; her relics were found in Troyes in 980; St. Helena, virgin, whos life and century are unknown, and whose body was transferred to Troyes in 1209; these two are patronesses of the town and diocese; St. Oulph, martyr (second or third century); St. Savinianus, Apostle of Troyes; St. Patroclus (Parre), St. Julius, St. Claudius, and St. Venerandus, martyrs under Aurelian; St. Savina, martyred under Diocletian; St. Syra, the wonder-worker (end of third century); St. Ursion, pastor of Isle Aumont (c. 375); St. Exuperantia, a religious of Isle Aumont (c. 380); St Balsemius (Baussange), deacon, apostle of Arcis-sur-Aube, martyred by the Vandals in 407; St. Mesmin and his companions and Saints Germana and Honoria, martryred (451) under Attila; St. Aper (Evre), Bishop of Toul, and his sister Evronia, natives of the diocese (towards the close of the fifth century); St. Aventinus, disciple of St. Loup (d. c. 537); St. Romanus, Archbishop of Reims, founder of the Monastery of SS. Gervasus and Protasius at Chantenay in the Diocese of Troyes (d. c. 537); St. Maurelius, priest at Isle Aumont (d. C. 545); St. Lyæus (LyÈ), second Abbot of Mantenay (d. c. 545); St. Phal, Abbot at Isle Aumont (d. c. 549); St. Bouin, priest and solitary (d. c. 570); St. Potamius (Pouange), solitary (close of sixth century); St. Vinebaud, Abbot of St. Loup of Troyes (d. 623); St. Flavitus, solitary (563-630); St. Tancha, virgin and martyr (d. 637); St. Victor, solitary (d. 640); St. Frobert, founder and first Abbot of Montier le Celle (d. 688); St. Maura, virgin (827-850); St. Adalricus (slain by the Normans about 925); St Aderaldus, canon and archdeacon of Troyes, who died in 1004 on returning from the Crusade, and who founded the Benedictine monastery of the Holy Sepulchre in the diocese; St. Simon, Count de Bar-sur-Aube, solitary, acted as mediator between Gregory VII and Robert Guiscard, and died in 1082; St. Robert founder of Molesme and Cîteaux, a native of the diocese (1024-1108); St. Elizabeth of Chelles, foundress of the monastery of Rosoy (d. c. 1130); St Hombelina, first Abbess of Jully-sur-Sarce, and sister of St. Bernard (1092-1135); Blessed Peter, an Englishman, prior of Jully-sur-Sarce (d. 1139); St Malachy (q. v.), archbishop, Primate of Ireland, died at Clairvaux (1098-1148); St. Bernard (q. v.), first Abbot of Clairvaux (1091-1153); St. Belina, virgin, slain about 1153 in defence of her chastity; Blessed Menard and Blessed Herbert, abbots of the monastery at Mores founded by St. Bernard (end of the twelfth century); Blessed Jeanne, the recluse (d. 1246); Blessed Urban IV (1185-1264); Blessed John of Ghent, hermit and porphet, who died at Troyes in 1439; Ven. Margaret Bourgeois (1620-1700), foundress of the Congregation of Notre Dame at Montreal, a native of the diocese; Ven. Marie de Sales Chappuis, superioress of the Visitation Convent at Troyes (d. 1875). Cardinal Pierre de BÈrulle (1575-1629) was brought up on the BÈrulle estate in the diocese. He preached at Troyes before founding the Oratorians. An Oratory was opened at Troyes in 1617. Charles-Louis de Lantage, b. at Troyes in 1616, d. in 1694, was one of the chief helpers of M. Olier, founder of the Sulpicians. Among natives of the diocese may be mentioned: the Calvinist jurisconsult Pierrre Pithou (1539-1596), one of the editors of the "Satire MÈnippÈe", a native of Troyes; the painter Mignard (1610-95), born at Troyes; the revolutionary leader, Danton (1759-1794), b. at Arcis-sur-Aube. The chief pilgrimages of the diocese are: Notre Dame du Chêne, near Bar-sur-Seine, dates from 1667; Notre Dame de la Sainte EspÈrance, at Mesnil-Saint-Loup; Notre Dame de Valsuzenay. Before the application of the Associations Law (1901) there were, in the Diocese of Troyes, Benedictines, Jesuits, Lazarists, Oblates of St. Francis of Sales, and Brothers of the Christian Schools. Many female congregations arose in the diocese, among others the Ursulines of Christian Teaching, founded at Moissy l'Evêque in the eighteenth century by Montmorin, Bishop of Langres; the Sisters of Christian Instruction, founded in 1819, with mother-house at Troyes; the Oblate Sisters of St. Francis of Sales, a teaching order, founded in 1870, with mother-house at Troyes; Sisters of Notre Dame de Bon Secours, a nursing community with mother-house at Troyes. In the diocese the religious congregations at the close of the nineteenth century had charge of one foundling hospital, 20 nurseries, 2 orphanages for boys, 17 orphanages for girls, 2 houses of mercy, 11 hospitals or hospices, 9 houses of district nursing sister, 1 epileptic home. In 1905 (at the breach of the Concordat) the diocese numbered 246,163 inhabitants, 40 parish priest, 383 chapels of ease, and 7 curacies supported by the State. In 1910 there were 239,299 inhabitants, and 344 priests. Gallia Christ., nova, XII (1770), 483-532, instrum., 247-296; DUCHESNE, Fastes Èpiscopaux, II: DEFER, Vie des saints du diocÈse de Troyes, et hist. de leur culte (Troyes, 1865); LALORE, Documents sur l'abbaye de Notre Dame aux Nonnains (Troyes, 1874); PREVOST, Hist. du diocÈse de Troyes pendant la RÈvolution (3 vols., Troyes, 1908-9); CHEVALIER, Topobibl., 3177-83. GEORGES GOYAU Truce of God Truce of God The Truce of God is a temporary suspension of hostilities, as distinct from the Peace of God which is perpetual. The jurisdiction of the Peace of God is narrower than that of the Truce. Under the Peace of God are included only: + consecrated persons -- clerics, monks, virgins, and cloistered widows; + consecrated places -- churches, monasteries, and cemeteries, with their dependencies; + consecrated times -- Sundays, and ferial days, all under the special protection of the Church, which punishes transgressors with excommunication. At an early date the councils extended the Peace of God to the Church's protégés, the poor, pilgrims, crusaders, and even merchants on a journey. The peace of the sanctuary gave rise to the right of asylum. Finally it was the sanctification of Sunday which gave rise to the Truce of God, for it had always been agreed not to do battle on that day and to suspend disputes in the law-courts. The Truce of God dates only from the eleventh century. It arose amid the anarchy of feudalism as a remedy for the powerlessness of lay authorities to enforce respect for the public peace. There was then an epidemic of private wars, which made Europe a battlefield bristling with fortified castles and overrun by armed bands who respected nothing, not even sanctuaries, clergy, or consecrated days. A Council of Elne in 1027, in a canon concerning the sanctification of Sunday, forbade hostilities from Saturday night until Monday morning. Here may be seen the germ of the Truce of God. This prohibition was subsequently extended to the days of the week consecrated by the great mysteries of Christianity, viz., Thursday, in memory of the Ascension, Friday, the day of the Passion, and Saturday, the day of the Resurrection (council 1041). Still another step included Advent and Lent in the Truce. Efforts were made in this way to limit the scourge of private war without suppressing it outright. The penalty was excommunication. The Truce soon spread from France to Italy and Germany; the oecumenical council of 1179 extended the institution to the whole Church by Canon xxi, "De treugis servandis", which was inserted in the collection of canon law (Decretal of Gregory IX, I, tit., "De treuga et pace"). The problem of the public peace which was the great desideratum of the Middle Ages was not solved at one stroke, but at least the impetus was given. Gradually the public authorities, royalty, the leagues between nobles (Landfrieden), and the communes followed the impulse and finally restricted war to international conflicts. SEMICHON, La paix et la treve de Dieu (Paris 1869); HUBERTI, Gottes und Landfrieden (Ansbach, 1892). CH. MOELLER Otto Truchsess von Waldburg Otto Truchsess von Waldburg Cardinal-Bishop of Augsburg (1543-73), b. at Castle Scheer in Swabia, 26 Feb., 1514; d. at Rome, 2 April, 1573. He studied at the Universities of Tubingen, Padua, Pavin, and Bologna, and received his degree of Doctor of Theology at Bologna. At an early age he received canonries at Trent, Spires, and Augsburg. In 1541 he became an imperial councillor and when on an embassy to Rome was made a papal chamberlain. On 10 May, 1543, he was elected Bishop of Augsburg; in 1544 he was appointed cardinal-priest of the Title of St. Balbina by Paul III for settling a long-continued dispute between the emperor and the pope. The condition of his diocese was mournful: the clergy were ignorant and depraved, and Protestantism was widespread. He sought to mend matters by visitations, edicts, synods, and the improvement of instruction. He founded the University of Dillingen, now a lyceum, and the ecclesiastical seminary at Dillingen (1549-55). In 1564 he transferred the management of these institutions to the Jesuits. In 1549-50 and again in 1555 he took part in the papal elections at Rome. In 1552 his diocese was devastated by the troops of Maurice of Saxony. He went once more to Rome in 1559 and was there made the head of the Inquisition and, in 1562, Cardinal-Bishop of Albang. In 1567 he held a diocesan synod at Dillingen. From 1568 he lived altogether at Rome. He was a moral, religious man, of much force of character, to whom half measures and shiftiness were foreign. He incurred the hatred of the Protestants for his protest against the Religious Peace of Augsburg (1555). BRAUN, Gesch. der Bischofe von Augsburg, III (Augsburg, 1814); TRUCHSESS, Literae ad Hosium, ed. WEBER (Ratisbon, 1892); JANSSEN, Hist of the German People, tr. CHRISTIE, VI-IX (London, 1905-8), passim; WEBER, Card. Otto Truchsess in Hist.-pol. Blatter, CX (Munich, 1892)., 781-96; DUHR, Quellen zu einer Biogr. des Kard. Otto Truchsess von Waldburg in Hist. Jahrbuch, VII (Munich, 1886), 177-209, and XX (Munich, 1899), 71-4. KLEMENS LÖFFLER St. Trudo St. Trudo (TRON, TROND, TRUDON, TRUTJEN, TRUYEN). Apostle of Hasbein in Brabant; d. 698 (693). Feast 23 November. He was the son of Blessed Adela of the family of the dukes of Austrasia. Devoted from his earliest youth to the service of God, Trudo came to St. Remaclus, Bishop of Liège (Acta SS., I Sept., 678) and was sent by him to Chlordulph, Bishop of Metz. Here he received his education at the Church of St. Stephen, to which he always showed a strong affection and donated his later foundation. After his ordination he returned to his native district, preached the Gospel, and built a church at Sarchinium, on the River Cylindria. It was blessed about 656 by St. Theodard, Bishop of Liège, in honour of Sts. Quintinus and Remigius. Disciples gathered about him and in course of time the abbey arose. The convent for women, established by him at Odeghem near Bruges, later also bore his name ("Gallia Christiana", Paris, 1887, V, 281). After death he was buried in the church erected by himself. A translation of his relics, together with those of St. Eucherius, Bishop of Orleans, who had died there in exile in 743, was made in 880 by Bishop France of Liège. On account of the threatened inroads of the Normans the relics were later hidden in a subterranean crypt. After the great conflagration of 1085 they were lost, but again discovered in 1169, and on 11 Aug. of that year an official recognition and translation was made by Bishop Rudolph III. On account of these translations the dates 5 and 12 Aug. and 1 and 2 Sept. are noted in the martyrologies. The "Analecta Bollandiana" (V, 305) give an old office of the saint in verse. The life was written by Donatus, a deacon of Metz, at the order of his bishop, Angibram (769-91). It was rewritten by Theodoric, Abbot of St-Trond (d. 1107). BUTLER, Lives of the Saints; WATTENBACH, Geschichtsquellen, Deutschl., I (Berlin, 1873), 146; HAUCK, Kirchengeschichte Deutschl., I (Leipzig, 1904), 306; FRIEDRICH, Kirchengeschichte Deutschl., II (Bamberg, 1869), 347; STADLER, Heiligenlexicon; Bulletin de la societe d'art et d'histoire du diocese de Lieuve, XIV (1904), 251; MABILLON, Acta SS. O.S.B., II, 1022. FRANCIS MERSHMAN St. Trudpert St. Trudpert Missionary in Germany in the seventh century. He is generally called a Celtic monk from Ireland, but some consider him a German. According to legend, he went first to Rome in order to receive from the pope authority for his mission. Returning from Italy he travelled along the Rhine to the country of the Alamanni in the Breisgau. A person of rank named Otbert gave him land for his mission about fifteen miles south of Freiburg in Baden. Trudpert cleared off the trees and built a cell and a little church which Bishop Martinus of Constance dedicated to Sts. Peter and Paul. Here Trudpert led an ascetic and laborious life. One day when he was asleep he was murdered by one of the serfs whom Otbert had given him, in revenge for severe tasks imposed. Otbert gave Trudpert an honourable burial. The Benedictine Abbey of St. Trudpert was built in the next century on the spot where Trudpert was buried. The story of his life is so full of legendary details that no correct judgment can be formed of Trudpert's era, the kind of work he did, or of its success. The period when he lived in the Breisgau was formerly given as 640-643; Baur gives 607 as the year of his death. The day of his death is 26 April. In 815 his bones were translated and the first biography of him was written; this biography was revised in the tenth and thirteenth centuries. Acta SS., April, III, 424-40; Bibliotheca hagiagr. lat. (Brussels, 1898-1900), 1205-6; BAUR, Der Todestag es hl. Trudpert in Freiburger Dioesanar chiv, XI (Freiburg, 1877), 247-52. KLEMENS LOFFLER Antonio de Trueba Antonio de Trueba Spanish poet and folklorist, b. at Montellana, Biscay, in 1821; d. at Bilbao, 10 March, 1889. In 1836 he went to Madrid, hoping to make a livelihood by literary pursuits. To earn his daily bread he discharged the duties of a clerk in a small commercial house, but all the while he beguiled his leisure and his moments of regret by writing little poems and tales redolent of the yearnings and sympathies of a Basque transplanted to the busy cosmopolitan centre. Won over to him by the charm of his writings, Queen Isabella II made him historiographer of the Biscayan district, and he held this post until her flight in 1868. His popularity was fixed by the appearance of his first collection of lyrics, the "Libro de los cantares" (Madrid, 1852). Various collections of his tales, especially charming when they deal with his native region and its people, appeared in 1859, 1860, and 1866. In his more ambitious attempts at writing a novel, as in his work dealing with the Cid of history and legend, he failed signally; he was too conscientiously a recorder of the past and left his imagination no free play. He remains an amiable writer of second rank, but no one can read without sympathy and appreciation his pretty little songs fragrant with love for the landscape of his northern Spanish home. He deserves serious notice among the earlier writers who helped to develop the novel of manners in the Spain of the nineteenth century. BLANCO GARCIA, La literature española del siglo XIX (Madrid, 1899); FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Hist. of Spanish Literature (London, 1898) J.D.M. Ford Trujillo Trujillo Diocese comprising the Departments of Lambayeque, Libertad, Pinra, and the Province of Tumbes, in North-west Peru, formed by Gregory XIII, 13 April, 1577, as suffragan of Lima, an arrangement confirmed by Paul V in 1611, when he appointed Alfonso de Guzman first bishop. The city of Truxillo (8000 inhabitants), formerly very flourishing, was founded in 1535 on the Río Muchi in the Valley of Chimu by Gonzalo Pizarro, who named it after his native place. It is the capital of the Department of Libertad, so named because Trujillo was the first Peruvian city to proclaim its independence from Spain. Most of the houses are but one story high, on account of frequent earthquakes, the severest of which occurred in 1619, 1759, and 1816. Its university was erected in 1831, a college having been founded there earlier in 1621. Near the city lie the ruins of the Gran Chimu, known originally as ChanChan -- Chimu being the title of the Indian sovereign -- one of the most stupendous extant monuments of a departed civilization. They extend over twelve miles north and south, and six miles east and west, and recall a highly civilized race -- the Muchoen -- which fell before the Incas. One may still see the ruined palace and factories, a necropolis, walls nine metres high, and a labyrinth of houses and pyramidal sepulchres (huacas), the most remarkable of which are the Toledo, Esperanza, and Obispo, the latter being 500 feet square and 150 high. From these ruins, over £5,500,000 in gold were recovered by the Spaniards. The Muchoen had reached a high degree of perfection in metal-work and in the art of decorating pottery, many specimens of the latter being unsurpassed since the days of early Greece. An account of the ancient religion has been preserved by Antonio de la Calancha, Augustinian prior of Trujillo in 1619; the chief deity was the moon (Si), her temple (Si-an) situated near the Río Muchi having had an area of about 42,000 square yards. A grammar of the native language -- Mochica -- now dead, was compiled by Padre Fernando de la Carrera (Lima, 1644). Diocesan statistics: 102 parishes; 350 churches and chapels; 160 priests; 2 boys' colleges; 3 girls' high schools; there are communities of Franciscans (2), Conceptionists, Carmelites, Poor Clares, Dominican Tertiaries, and Lazarists, the latter having charge of the seminary. The Catholic population numbers about 581,000. The bishop is Mgr. Carlos García Irigoyen, b. at Lima, 6 November, 1857, edited the "Revista católica", founded "El amigo del clero", succeeded Mgr. Manuel Jaime Medina, 21 March, 1910. Mozans, Up the Andes and down the Amazon (New York. 1911); Feijoo, Relación de la ciudad de Truxillo (Madrid, 1763); Markham, The Incas of Peru (London, 1910). A.A. MACERLEAN Feast of Trumpets Feast of Trumpets The first day of Tishri (October), the seventh month of the Hebrew year. Two trumpets are mentioned in the Bible, the shophar and hacocerah. The latter was a long, straight, slender, silver clarion, liturgically a priestly instrument. The shophar was made of horn, as we see from its now and then being called qeren, "horn" (cf. Jos., vi, 5); in fact, in the foregoing passage, it is designated a "ram's horn", qeren yobel. The Mishna (Rosh hasshanah, iii, 2) allows the horn of any clean animal save the cow, and suggests the straight horn of the ibex. The Feast of Trumpets is ordained in the words: "The seventh month, on the first day of the month, you shall keep a sabbath, a memorial, with the sound of trumpets" (Lev., xxiii, 24). The Hebrew text has: "a memorial of the blast". The Septuagint adds "of trumpets" (salpiggon), a word which together with keratine (made of horn) always designates in the Septuagint, shophar and never the hacocerah. We find the feast also ordained in Numbers, xxix, 1: The first day also of the seventh month. . .is the day of the sounding of the trumpets. This text gives us no more light in the original, where we read only "the day of blast let it be unto you". Here, too, the Septuagint hemera semasias, "day of signaling", affords no light. The feast is called by Philo salpigges, "Trumpets". It would seem, then, that the shophar and not the hacocerah was in Biblical times used on the feast of the new moon of Tishri. In Rabbinical ritual the festival has come to be known as New Year's Day (rosh hasshnah), Day of Memorial (yom hazzikkaron), and Day of Judgment (yom haddin). The shophar gives the signal call to solitude and prayer. In preparation for the great feast, the shophar is sounded morning and evening excepting Sabbaths, throughout the entire preceeding month of Elul. According to the Mosaic Law, the special offerings of the Feast of Trumpets were a bullock, a ram and seven lambs for a burnt offering; a buck goat for sin offering (Num., xxix, 2, 5; Lev., xxii, 24, 25). WALTER DRUM Saint Trumwin St. Trumwin (TRIUMWINI, TRUMUINI). Died at Whitby, Yorkshire, England, after 686. He was consecrated by St. Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury, as a missionary bishop among the Picts, and was consequently regarded later as the first Bishop of Whithorn, in Galloway. When the Picts reasserted their independence he retired with a few of his followers to the monastery of Streaneshalch, now Whitby. In 684 he was present at the synod recorded by Bede (IV, 28), known as the Synod on the Alne, possibly the same as the Synod of Twyford; and he accompanied King Ecgfrith to Lindisfarne to persuade St. Cuthbert to accept the bishopric. The one charter attributed to him is "a clear forgery" (Haddan and Stubbs, III, 166). St. Bede adds that he spent many years of useful labour at Whitby before he died and was buried in St. Peter's Church there. Acta SS., Feb., II; BEDE, Hist. Ecc. Gent. Ang., IV, cc. 12, 26, and 28; RAINE in Dict. Christ. Biog., s. v.; BIRCH, Cartularium Saxonicum, I (London, 1885); KEMBLE, Codex Diplomaticus (London, 1839-48); HADDAN AND STUBBS, Councils and Documents (Oxford, 1869-78); SEARLE, Anglo-Saxon Bishops, Kings, and Nobles (Cambridge, 1899). EDWIN BURTON Trustee System Trustee System I. In the exercise of her inherent right of administering property, the Church often appoints deputies who are responsible to herself. Technically, such administrators, whether cleric or lay, are called the "fabric" of the Church. In very early times ecclesiastical goods were divided into three or four portions, and that part set aside for the upkeep of the Church began to take on the character of a juridical person. The Eleventh Council of Carthage (can. ii) in 407 requested the civil power to appoint five executors for ecclesiastical property, and in the course of time laymen were called on to take their share in this administration, with the understanding, however, that everything was to be done in the name and with the approbation of the Church. A number of early and medieval synods have dealt with the administration of curators of ecclesiastical property, e.g. can. vii, Conc. Bracar. (563); can. xxxviii, Conc. Mogunt. (813); can. x, Conc. Mogunt. (847); can. xxxv, Conc. Nation. Wirceburg. (1287). The employment of laymen in concert with clerics as trustees became common all over Christendom. In England such officials were called churchwardens. They were generally two in number, one being chosen by the parish priest, the other by the parishioners, and with them were associated others called sidesmen. The churchwardens administered the temporalities of the parish under the supervision of the bishop, to whom they were responsible. An annual report on the administration of church property was made obligatory in all countries by the Council of Trent (Sess. XXII, can. ix, "De Ref."): "The administrators, whether ecclesiastical or lay, of the fabric of any church whatsoever, even though it be a cathedral, as also of any hospital, confratemity, charitable institution called mont de piÈtÈ, and of any pious places whatsoever, shall be bound to give in once a year an account of their administration to the Ordinary." II. At the present time, the Church nowhere absolutely forbids the employment of laymen in the administration of ecclesiastical property, but endeavours, generally by means of concordats, to have her own laws and principles carried out on this subject when laymen are among the trustees. According to the present discipline, the fabric of the church is distinct from the foundation of the benefice, and sometimes the fabric, in addition to the goods destined for the upkeep of divine worship, possesses also schools and eleemosynary institutions (S.C.C., 27 Apr., 1895, in caus. Bergom.). All lay trustees must be approved by the bishop, and he retains the right of removing them and of overseeing the details of their administration. In countries in which the church organization was entirely swept away in the troubles of the Reformation period, as in the British Isles, laymen are not generally employed as trustees at the present day. For the trustee system, as far as it can be called such, in use in the Catholic Church in England and Ireland see Taunton, "The Law of the Church", pp. 15, 316. In Holland, laymen were admitted to a share in the administration of church temporalities by a decree of the Propaganda (21 July, 1856). The bishop is to nominate the members of the board, over which the parish priest is to preside. Trustees hold office for four years and may be reappointed at the expiration of that term. When a vacancy occurs the board presents two names to the bishop, from which he selects one. In necessary cases the bishop may dismiss any member and even dissolve the entire board of trustees. In this instance, as in all others where laymen are in question, the Holy See is careful to guard the prescriptions of the sacred canons as to the management and ownership of church goods [see ADMINISTRATOR (OF ECCLESIASTICAL PROPERTY)]. III. In the United States the employment of lay trustees was customary in some parts of the country from a very early period. Dissensions sometimes arose with the ecclesiastical authorities, and the Holy See has intervened to restore peace (see CONWELL, HENRY; PHILADELPHIA, ARCHDIOCESE OF; NEW YORK, ARCHDIOCESE OF). Pius VII vindicated (24 Aug., 1822) the rights of the Church as against the pretensions of the trustees, and Gregory XVI declared (12 Aug., 1841): "We wish all to know that the office of trustees is entirely dependent upon the authority of the bishop, and that consequently the trustees can undertake nothing except with the approval of the ordinary." The Third Plenary Council of Baltimore (Tit. IX, no.287) laid down certain regulations concerning trustees: It belongs to the bishop to judge of the necessity of constituting them, their number and manner of appointment; their names are to be proposed to the bishop by the parish rector; the appointment is to be made in writing and is revocable at the will of the bishop; the trustees selected should be men who have made their Easter duty, who contribute to the support of the Church, who send their children to Catholic schools, and who are not members of prohibited societies; nothing can be done at a board meeting except by the consent of the rector who presides; in case of disagreement between the trustees and the rector, the judgment of the bishop must be accepted. A decree of the Congregation of the Council (29 July, 1911) declares that the vesting of the title to church property in a board of trustees is a preferable legal form, and that in constituting such boards in the United States, the best method is that in use in New York, by which the Ordinary, his vicar-general, the parish priest, and two laymen approved by the bishop form the corporation (see PROPERTY, ECCLESIASTICAL, IN THE U.S.). IV. The legal standing of church trustees according to British law is treated by Taunton, "The Law of the Church", pp.15, 315. In the United States the legal rights of trustees vary slightly in different States, but the following prescriptions (selected from Scanlan, "The Law of Church and Grave") hold almost everywhere: When the statute provides that two lay members of the corporation shall be appointed annually by the committee of the congregation, the members of the congregation have no right to elect said two members, and those appointed in the proper manner are lawful officers. When the election of new trustees is invalid, the old trustees hold over until there shall have been a valid election of their successors. The president and secretary of a church corporation have no authority to make a promissory note unless authorized by the board of trustees. When the laws of the organization give control of matters to the board of trustees, the majority of the members of the church cannot control the action of the trustees contrary to the uses and regulations of the church. A court has no authority to control the exercise of the judgment or discretion of the officers of a church in the management of its funds so long as they do not violate its constitutions or by-laws. Excommunication does not always remove an officer of a church corporation. The legal rights of a bishop in regard to the temporalities of a church, where they are not prescribed by the civil law, must rest, if at all, upon the ecclesiastical law, which must be determined by evidence. When property is conveyed to a church having well-known doctrine, faith, and practice, a majority of the members has not the authority or power, by reason of a change of religions views, to carry the property thus designated to a new and different doctrine. The title to church property is in that part of the congregation which acts in harmony with the law of the denomination; and the ecclesiastical laws and principles which were accepted before the dispute began are the standard for determining which party is right. Taunton, The Law of the Church (London, 1906), s. vv. Fabric; Administration; Ecclesiastical Property; Scanlan, The Law Of Church and Grave (New York, 1909); Smith, Notes on II Council of Baltimore (New York, 1874), x; Concilium Plenarium III Baltimorense (Baltimore, 1886); Wernz, Jus Decretalium, III (Rome, 1901). WILLIAM H.W. FANNING Trusts and Bequests Trusts and Bequests A trust has been defined, in its technical sense, as the right enforceable solely in equity to the beneficial enjoyment of property of which the legal title is in another (Bispham, "Equity", p. 68), and as a right of property, real or personal, held by one party for the benefit of another. (Bouvier, "Law Dict.", s. v. Trusts.) It implies two interests, one in equity and one in law -- an individual to hold the legal title, who is known as the trustee, and another as beneficiary, known as the cestui que trust. The term "trust" is applied sometimes to the equitable title, the obligation of the trustee, or the right which is held in trust. For the creation of a valid trust there are three essentials: a definite subject matter within the disposal of the settlor; a lawful definite object to which the subject matter is to be devoted; clear and unequivocal words or acts devoting the subject matter to the object of the trust (28 Am. and Eng. Ency. of Law, 866, title "Trusts and Trustees"). No specific words are required in the creation of a trust, but they must be sufficient to express the present intent to place a beneficial interest in a specific property in the hands of a trustee beyond the control of the person or persons who are to enjoy the benefit thereof. Any property, real, personal, or equitable, may be the subject of a trust, except in a few cases where statutes have provided to the contrary. The English Statute of Frauds, which has been enacted in most of the United States in some of its provisions, provides that all trusts of land should be proved and manifested by writing. But trusts of personal property are not within the statute; therefore a valid trust of such property may be created verbally, but transfers of existing trusts must be in writing. Under the Roman Law trusts were created for the purpose of empowering certain individuals to inherit property. These trusts were known as fidei commissa and for their benefit a separate equitable jurisdiction was established. There has been some controversy as to whether the English trust is an outcome of the Roman institution or not. The difference between the two is that the latter is a means of carrying out substitutions, while the former separates the ownership and enjoyment of the benefits of an estate, the fundamental idea at the root of both being much the same. This system seems to have appeared in England under the reign of Edward III, for the purpose of avoiding the Statutes of Mortmain, which had been passed to check the growth of landed estates in the hands of religious houses. These trusts were abolished, except as to certain gifts or grants, by the passage of the Statute of Uses, known as the 27th Henry VIII, which held that any person entitled to the use of an estate should have the title to it. This statute has either been recognized as part of the common law in most of the United States through judicial interpretation or been enacted by legislation. Trusts are either executed or executory, express or implied. In an executed trust the instrument must be interpreted according to the rules of law, even though the intention may be defeated. A court of equity will take jurisdiction for the purpose of carrying out executory trusts and seeing that the instrument which purports to fulfil the intention of the settlor really does so, and will reform conveyances where the intentions of the settlor have not been clearly set out. An express trust is one which is created by the direct words of the settlor. Implied trusts are those which arise when the terms or circumstances do not specifically express but simply imply a trust. Where the entire intention of the trust cannot be carried out without violating some rule of law or public policy, equity will carry it out as nearly as possible. Constructive trusts arise by a construction put by a court of equity on the conduct of the parties. The Statute of Frauds 29th Charles II requires that declarations of trust of lands should be proved by writing. WHO MAY BE A TRUSTEE Any person worthy of confidence and possessed of the power to hold real or personal property may be a trustee, the sovereign in England, any of the states of the United States, and perhaps the Federal Government, a public officer in his private capacity or the settlor himself; even the beneficiary or cestui que trust may act as trustee providing there are other beneficiaries besides himself; so too a corporation may act in this capacity if not precluded by the terms of its charter. Municipal corporations have been trustees but the general trend of authority is to the contrary. Married women may be trustees and, acting under the direction of the court, an infant, alien, or lunatic. In cases where no trustee has been named, or for some reason the office has become vacant, the court will supply the deficiency rather than allow the trust to fall, it being inherent in a court of equity to exercise this power, while in many jurisdictions it has been specifically granted by statute. As a general rule, the trustee is appointed by the settlor and provision made for his successors. The settlor may designate whomsoever he wishes and vest in that person the power to appoint succeeding trustees, though sometimes the power is placed with the cestui que trust and sometimes with the settlor. The number of trustees is governed by the provisions of the instrument of the trust, but as a general thing the courts look unfavourably upon single trustees, particularly in the cases of large estates or those for infants or lunatics. There is no particular method by which a trustee accepts a trust. His actions in the matter are usually equivalent to acceptance, although sometimes he joins in the instrument if it is a conveyance. There are, however, but three ways by which he may be relieved: first, the consent of all parties in interest; second, by virtue of the provisions of the instrument of trust; and third, with the consent of the court. The old rule in England forbade a trustee retiring on his own motion, but the modern rule is different except where it is impossible to provide a substitute. The conduct sufficient for the removal of a trustee from his office must be such as to endanger the trust funds, and the courts will not look favourably upon light or frivolous whims and disagreements among the parties. The powers of trustees are general and special -- those which arise by construction of law incident to the office, and those provided by the settlor. Any person who has capacity to hold property may be a cestui que trust, although some jurisdictions restrict the rule to minors or other incompetents. He must be definitely ascertained either in person or as a class, but need not be actually in being at the date of the settlement. A sovereign, any of the states of the United States, or the Federal Government may be a beneficiary, or a corporation so far as personal property is concerned, and also as to real estate within the limits of its charter privilege or unless prohibited by statute. An unincorporated society, however, cannot be a cestui que trust except in the case of a charitable or religious society. The beneficiary has a right to alienate or encumber his estate unless the terms of the trust expressly or impliedly forbid or there is a statute which interferes; so too he may assign his interest or even alienate the income before it becomes due. The cestui que trust or beneficiary has three remedies in the event of a breach of trust on the part of his trustee. He may follow the specific estate into the hands of a stranger to whom it has been wrongfully conveyed; he has the right of attaching the property into which the estate may have been converted; and the further right of action against the trustee personally for reimbursement. As between him and the trustee there is no time limit when an action may be brought. It is the rule that purchasers must see to the application of the purchase money in the cases of trust estates, such as where it is provided that the funds be for the payment of specific legacies or annuities or debts. In some jurisdictions this rule has been abrogated by statute. Technical terms are not necessary in a devise to create a trust but if used will be interpreted in their legal and technical sense. General expressions, however, will not establish a trust unless there appears a positive intention that they should do so. Bequests in trust for accumulation must be confined within the limits established against perpetuities. A settlor can only extend the trust for the life or lives in being and twenty-one years, and any attempt to extend the trust beyond this period vitiates it in toto. By statute, accumulations are forbidden in some jurisdictions excepting during the minority of the beneficiary or for other fixed periods (Bouvier, "Law Dict.", s. v. Perpetuity). As a rule, the interest of a beneficiary is liable for the payment of his debts, but this does not prevail in a majority of the United States. Spendthrift trusts, as they are called, being for the protection of the beneficiary against his own improvidence, are sustained in these jurisdictions. Since the Statute of Wills equitable interests are devisable only in writing. How far a devisee of a trust estate can execute the trust depends on the intention of the settlor expressed in the instrument. General words will not pass a trust estate unless there is a positive intention that it should so pass. In order to create a valid trust by will, the instrument must be legally executed and admitted to probate. There is this distinction between wills and declarations of trusts. The former, being ambulatory, take effect only on the death of the testator, the latter at the time of execution. Formerly under the common law an executor had title to all personal property of the decedent, and was entitled to take the surplus after the payment of debts and legacies; now, by statute he is prima facie a trustee for the next of kin. Although a trustee is, in theory, allowed nothing for his trouble, his commissions are, in point of fact, generally fixed by statute and he is allowed his legitimate expenses. See CHARITABLE BEQUESTS; LEGACIES. Bouvier, Law Dict. (Boston, 1897); Am. and Eng. Encycl. of Law (2nd ed., London, 1904); Lewin, On Trusts (l2th ed., London, 1911); Perry, Trusts and Trustees, (6th ed., Boston, 1911); Bispham, Principles of Equity (Philadelphia, 1882). WALTER GEORGE SMITH Truth Truth Truth (Anglo-Saxon tréow, tryw, truth, preservation of a compact, from a Teutonic base Trau, to believe) is a relation which holds (1) between the knower and the known -- Logical Truth; (2) between the knower and the outward expression which he gives to his knowledge -- Moral Truth; and (3) between the thing itself, as it exists, and the idea of it, as conceived by God -- Ontological Truth. In each case this relation is, according to the Scholastic theory, one of correspondence, conformity, or agreement (adoequatio) (St. Thomas, Summa I:21:2). I. ONTOLOGICAL TRUTH Every existing thing is true, in that it is the expression of an idea which exists in the mind of God, and is, as it were, the exemplar according to which the thing has been created or fashioned. Just as human creations -- a cathedral, a painting, or an epic -- conform to and embody the ideas of architect, artist, or poet, so, only in a more perfect way, God's creatures conform to and embody the ideas of Him who gives them being. (Q. D., De verit., a. 4; Summa 1:16:1.) Things that exist, moreover, are active as well as passive. They tend not only to develop, and so to realize more and more perfectly the idea which they are created to express, but they tend also to reproduce themselves. Reproduction obtains wherever there is interaction between different things, for an effect, in so far as it proceeds from a given cause, must resemble that cause. Now the cause of knowledge in man is -- ultimately, at any rate -- the thing that is known. By its activities it causes in man an idea that is like to the idea embodied in the thing itself. Hence, things may also be said to be ontologically true in that they are at once the object and the cause of human knowledge. (Cf. IDEALISM; and Summa, I:16:7 and 1:16:8; m 1. periherm., 1. III; Q.D., I, De veritate, a. 4.) II. LOGICAL TRUTH A. The Scholastic Theory To judge that things are what they are is to judge truly. Every judgment comprises certain ideas which are referred to, or denied of, reality. But it is not these ideas that are the objects of our judgment. They are merely the instruments by means of which we judge. The object about which we judge is reality itself -- either concrete existing things, their attributes, and their relations, or else entities the existence of which is merely conceptual or imaginary, as in drama, poetry, or fiction, but in any case entities which are real in the sense that their being is other than our present thought about them. Reality, therefore, is one thing, and the ideas and judgments by means of which we think about reality, another; the one objective, and the other subjective. Yet, diverse as they are, reality is somehow present to, if not present in consciousness when we think, and somehow by means of thought the nature of reality is revealed. This being the case, the only term adequate to describe the relation that exists between thought and reality, when our judgments about the latter are true judgments, would seem to be conformity or correspondence. "Veritas logica est adaequatio intellectus et rei" (Summa, I:21:2). Whenever truth is predicable of a judgment, that judgment corresponds to, or resembles, the reality, the nature or attributes of which it reveals. Every judgment is, however, as we have said, made up of ideas, and may be logically analyzed into a subject and a predicate, which are either united by the copula is, or disjoined by the expression is not. If the judgment be true, therefore, these ideas must also be true, i.e. must correspond with the realities which they signify. As, however, this objective reference or significance of ideas is not recognized or asserted except in the judgment, ideas as such are said to be only "materially" true. It is the judgment alone that is formally true, since in the judgment alone is a reference to reality formally made, and truth as such recognized or claimed. The negative judgment seems at first sight to form an exception to the general law that truth is correspondence; but this is not really the case. In the affirmative judgment both subject and predicate and the union between them, of whatever kind it may be, are referred to reality; but in the negative judgment subject and predicate are disjoined, not conjoined. In other words, in the negative judgment we deny that the predicate has reality in the particular case to which the subject refers. On the other hand, all such predicates presumably have reality somewhere, otherwise we should not talk about them. Either they are real qualities or real things, or at any rate somebody has conceived them as real. Consequently the negative judgment, if true, may also be said to correspond with reality, since both subject and predicate will be real somewhere, either as existents or as conceptions. What we deny, in fact, in the negative judgment is not the reality of the predicate, but the reality of the conjunction by which subject and predicate are united in the assertion which we implicitly challenge and negate. Subject and predicate may both be real, but if our judgment be true, they will be disjoined, not united in reality. But what precisely is this reality with which true judgments and true ideas are said to correspond? It is easy enough to understand how ideas can correspond with realities that are themselves conceptual or ideal, but most of the realities that we know are not of this kind. How, then, can ideas and their conjunctions or disjunctions, which are psychical in character, correspond with realities which for the most part are not psychical but material? To solve this problem we must go back to ontological truth which, as we saw, implies the creation of the universe by One Who, in creating it, has expressed therein His own ideas very much as an architect or an author expresses his ideas in the things that he creates except that creation in the latter case supposes already existent material. Our theory of truth supposes that the universe is built according to definite and rational plan, and that everything within the universe expresses or embodies an essential and integral part of that plan. Whence it follows that just as in a building or in a piece of sculpture we see the plan or design that is realized therein, so, in our experience of concrete things, by means of the same intellectual power, we apprehend the ideas which they embody or express. The correspondence therefore, in which truth consists is not a correspondence between ideas and anything material as such, but between ideas as they exist in our mind and function in our acts of cognition, and the idea that reality expresses and embodies -- ideas which have their origin and prototype in the mind of God. With regard to judgments of a more abstract or general type, the working of this view is quite simple. The realities to which abstract concepts refer have no material existence as such. There is no such thing, for instance, as action or reaction in general; nor are there any twos or fours. What we mean when we say that "action and reaction are equal and opposite", or that "two and two make four", is that these laws, which in their own proper nature are ideal, are realized or actualized in the material universe in which we live; or, in other words, that the material things we see about us behave in accordance with these laws, and through their activities manifest them to our minds. Perceptual judgments, i.e. the judgments which usually accompany and give expression to acts of perception, differ from the above in that they refer to objects which are immediately present to our senses. The realities in this case, therefore, are concrete existing things. It is, however, rather with the appearance of such things that our judgment is now concerned than with their essential nature or inner constitution. Thus, when we predicate colours, sounds, odours, flavours, hardness or softness, heat or cold of this or that object, we make no statement about the nature of such qualities, still less about the nature of the thing that possesses them. What we assert is + that such and such a thing exists, and + that it has a certain objective quality, which we call green, or loud, or sweet, or hard, or hot, to distinguish it from other qualities -- red, or soft, or bitter, or cold -- with which it is not identical; while + our statement further implies that the same quality will similarly appear to any normally constituted man, i.e. will affect his senses in the same way that it affects our own. Accordingly, if in the real world such a condition of things obtains -- if, that is to say, the thing in question does exist and has in fact some peculiar and distinctive property whereby it affects my senses in a certain peculiar and distinctive way -- my judgment is true. The truth of perceptual judgments by no means implies an exact correspondence between what is perceived and the images, or sensation -- complexes, whereby we perceive; nor does the Scholastic theory necessitate any such view. It is not the image, or sensation-complex, but the idea, that in judgment is referred to reality, and that gives us knowledge of reality. Colour and other qualities of objective things are doubtless perceived by means of sensation of peculiar and distinctive quality or tone, but no one imagines that this presupposes similar sensation in the object perceived. It is by means of the idea of colour and its specific differences that colours are predicated of objects, not by means of sensations Such an idea could not arise, indeed, were it not for the sensations which in perception accompany and condition it; but the idea itself is not a sensation, nor is it of a sensation. Ideas have their origin in sensible experience and are indefinable, so far as immediate experience goes, except by reference to such experience and by differentiation from experiences in which other and different properties of objects are presented Granted, therefore, that differences in what is technically known as the "quality" of sensation correspond to differences in the objective properties of things, the truth of perceptual judgments is assured. No further correspondence is required; for the correspondence which truth postulates is between idea and thing, not between sensation and thing. Sensation conditions knowledge, but as such it is not knowledge. It is, as it were, a connecting link between the idea and the thing. Differences of sensation are determined by the causal activity of things; and from the sensation-complex, or image the idea is derived by an instinctive and quasi-intuitive act of the mind which we call abstraction. Thus the idea which the thing unconsciously expresses finds conscious expression in the act of the knower, and the vast scheme of relations and laws which are de facto embodied in the material universe reproduce themselves in the consciousness of man. Correspondence between thought and reality, idea and thing, or knower and known, therefore, turns out in all cases to be of the very essence of the truth relation. Whence, say the opponents of our theory, in order to know whether our judgments are true or not, we must compare them with the realities that are known -- a comparison that is obviously impossible, since reality can only be known through the instrumentality of the judgment. This objection, which is to be found in almost every non-Scholastic book dealing with the subject, rests upon a grave misapprehension of the real meaning of the Scholastic doctrine. Neither St. Thomas nor any other of the great Scholastics ever asserted that correspondence is the scholastic criterion of truth. To inquire what truth is, is one question; to ask how we know that we have judged truly, quite another. Indeed, the possibility of answering the second is supposed by the mere fact that the first is put. To be able to define truth, we must first possess it and know that we possess it, i.e. must be able to distinguish it from error. We cannot define that which we cannot distinguish and to some extent isolate. The Scholastic theory supposes, therefore, that truth has already been distinguished from error, and proceeds to examine truth with a view to discovering in what precisely it consists. This standpoint is epistemologieal, not criteriological. When he says that truth is correspondence, he is stating what truth is, not by what sign or mark it can be distinguished from error. By the old Scholastics the question of the criteria of truth was scarcely touched. They discussed the criteria of valid reasoning in their treatises on logic, but for the rest they left the discussion of particular criteria to the methodology of particular sciences. And rightly so, for there is really no criterion of universal application. The distinction of truth and error is at bottom intuitional. We cannot go on making criteria ad infinitum. Somewhere we must come to what is ultimate, either first principles or facts. This is precisely what the Scholastic theory of truth affirms. In deference to the modern demand for an infallible and universal criterion of truth, not a few Scholastic writers of late have suggested objective evidence. Objective evidence, however, is nothing more than the manifestation of the object itself, directly or indirectly, to the mind, and hence is not strictly a criterion of truth, but its foundation. As Père Geny puts it in his pamphlet discussing "Une nouvelle théorie de la connaissance", to state that evidence is the ultimate criterion of truth is equivalent to stating that knowledge properly so called has no need of a criterion, since it is absurd to suppose a knowledge which does not know what it knows. Once grant, as all must grant who wish to avoid absolute sceptieism, that knowledge is possible, and it follows that, properly used, our faculties must be capable of giving us truth. Doubtless, coherence and harmony with facts are pro tanto signs of truth's presence in our minds; but what we need for the most part are not signs of truth, but signs or criteria of error -- not tests whereby to discover when our faculties have gone right, but tests whereby to discover when they have gone wrong. Our judgments will be true, i.e. thought will correspond with its object, provided that object itself, and not any other cause, subjective or objective, determines the content of our thought. What we have to do, therefore, is to take care that our assent is determined by the evidence with which we are confronted, and by this alone. With regard to the senses this means that we must look to it that they are in good condition and that the circumstances under which we are exercising them are normal; with regard to the intellect that we must not allow irrelevant considerations to weigh with us, that we must avoid haste, and, as far as possible, get rid of bias, prejudice, and an over-anxious will to believe. If this be done, granted there is sufficient evidence, true judgments will naturally and necessarily result. The purpose of argument and discussion, as of all other processes that lead to knowledge, is precisely that the object under discussion may manifest itself in its various relations, either directly or indirectly, to the mind. And the object as thus manifesting itself is what the Scholastic calls evidence. It is the object, therefore, which in his view is the determining cause of truth. All kinds of processes, both mental and physical, may be necessary to prepare the way for an act of cognition, but in the last resort such an act must be determined as to its content by the causal activity of the object, which makes itself evident by producing in the mind an idea that is like to the idea of which its own existence is the realization. B. The Hegelian Theory. In the Idealism of Hegel and the Absolutism of the Oxford School (of which Mr. Bradley and Mr. Joachim are the leading representatives) both reality and truth are essentially one, essentially an organic whole. Truth, in fact, is but reality qua thought. It is an intelligent act in which the universe is thought as a whole of infinite parts or differences, all organically inter-related and somehow brought to unity. And because truth is thus organic, each element within it, each partial truth, is so modified by the others through and through that apart from them, and again apart from the whole, it is but a distorted fragment, a mutilated abstraction which in reality is not truth at all. Consequently, since human truth is always partial and fragmentary, there is in strictness no such thing as human truth. For us the truth is ideal, and from it our truths are so far removed that, to convert them into the truth, they would have to undergo a change of which we know neither the measure nor the extent. The flagrantly sceptical character of this theory is sufficiently obvious, nor is there any attempt on the part of its exponents to deny it. Starting with the assumption that to conceive is "to hold many elements together in a connexion necessitated by their several contents", and that to be conceivable is to be "a significant whole", i.e. a whole, "such that all its constituent elements reciprocally determine one another's being as contributory features in a single concrete meaning", Dr. Joachim boldly identifies the true with the conceivable (Nature of Truth, 66). And since no human intellect can conceive in this full and magnificent sense, he frankly admits that no human truth can be more than approximate, and that to the margin of error which this approximation involves no limits can be assigned. Human truth draws from absolute or ideal truth "whatever being and conservability" it possesses (Green, "Prolegom.", article 77); but it is not, and never can be, identical with absolute truth, nor yet with any part of it, for these parts essentially and intrinsically modify one another. For his definition of human truth, therefore, the Absolutist is forced back upon the Scholastic doctrine of correspondence. Human truth represents or corresponds with absolute truth in proportion as it presents us with this truth as affected by more or less derangement, or in proportion as it would take more or less to convert the one into the other (Bradley, "Appearance and Reality", 363). While, therefore, both theories assign correspondence as the essential characteristic of human truth, there is this fundamental difference between them: For the Scholastic this correspondence, so far as it goes, must be exact; but for the Absolutist it is necessarily imperfect, so imperfect, indeed, that "the ultimate truth" of any given proposition "may quite transform its original meaning" (Appearance and Reality, 364). To admit that human truth is essentially representative is really to admit that conception is something more than the mere "holding together of many elements in a connexion necessitated by their several contents". But the fallacy of the "coherence theory" does not lie so much in this, nor yet in the identification of the true and the conceivable, as in its assumption that reality, and therefore truth, is organically one. The universe is undoubtedly one, in that its parts are inter-related and inter-dependent; and from this it follows that we cannot know any part completely unless we know the whole; but it does not follow that we cannot know any part at all unless we know the whole. If each part has some sort of being of its own, then it can be known for what it is, whether we know its relations to other parts or not; and similarly some of its relations to other parts can be known without our knowing them all. Nor is the individuality of the parts of the universe destroyed by their inter-dependence; rather it is thereby sustained. The sole ground which the Hegelian and the Absolutist have for denying these facts is that they will not square with their theory that the universe is organically one. Since, therefore, it is confessedly impossible to explain the nature of this unity or to show how in it the multitudinous differences of the universe are "reconciled", and since, further, this theory is acknowledged to be hopelessly sceptical, it is surely irrational any longer to maintain it. C. The Pragmatic Theory Life for the Pragmatist is essentially practical. All human activity is purposive, and its purpose is the control of human experience with a view to its improvement, both in the individual and in the race. Truth is but a means to this end. Ideas, hypotheses, and theories are but instruments which man has "made" in order to better both himself and his environment; and, though specific in type, like all other forms of human activity they exist solely for this end, and are "true" in so far as they fulfil it. Truth is thus a form of value: it is something that works satisfactorily; something that "ministers to human interests, purposes and objects of desire" (Studies in Humanism, 362). There are no axioms or self-evident truths. Until an idea or a judgment has proved itself of value in the manipulation of concrete experience, it is but a postulate or claim to truth. Nor are there any absolute or irreversible truths. A proposition is true so long as it proves itself useful, and no longer. In regard to the essential features of this theory of truth W. James, John Dewey, and A.W. Moore in America, F.C.S. Schiller in England, G. Simmel in Germany, Papini in Italy, and Henri Bergson, Le Roy, and Abel Rey in France are all substantially in agreement. It is, they say, the only theory which takes account of the psychological processes by which truth is made, and the only theory which affords a satisfactory answer to the arguments of the sceptic. In regard to the first of these claims there can be no doubt that Pragmatism is based upon a study of truth "in the making". But the question at issue is not whether interest, purpose, emotion, and volition do as a matter of fact play a part in the process of cognition. That is not disputed. The question is whether, in judging of the validity of a claim to truth, such considerations ought to have weight. If the aim of all cognitive acts is to know reality as it is, then clearly judgments are true only in so far as they satisfy this demand. But this does not help us in deciding what judgments are true and what are not, for the truth of a judgment must already be known before this demand can be satisfled. Similarly with regard to particular interests and purposes; for though such interests and purposes may prompt us to seek for knowledge, they will not be satisfied until we know truly, or at any rate think we know truly. The satisfaction of our needs, in other words, is posterior to, and already supposes, the possession of true knowledge about whatever we wish to use as a means to the satisfaction of those needs. To act efficiently, we must know what it is we are acting upon and what will be the effects of the action contemplated. The truth of our judgments is verified by their consequences only in those cases where we know that such consequences should ensue if our judgment be true, and then act in order to discover whether in reality they will ensue. Theoretically, and upon Scholastic principles, since whatever is true is also good, true judgments ought to result in good consequences. But, apart from the fact that the truth of our judgment must in many cases be known before we can act upon them with success, the Pragmatic criterion is too vague and too variable to be of any practical use. "Good consequences", "successful operations on reality", "beneficial interaction with sensible particulars" denote experiences which it is not easy to recognize or to distinguish from other experiences less good, less successful, and less beneficial. If we take personal valuations as our test, these are proverbially unstable; while, if social valuations alone are admissible, where are they to be found, and upon what grounds accepted by the individual? Moreover, when a valuation has been made, how are we to know that it is accurate? For this, it would seem, further valuations will be required, and so on ad inflnitum. Distinctively pragmatic criteria of truth are both impractical and unreliable, especially the criterion of felt satisfaction, which seems to be the favourite, for in determining this not only the personal factor, but the mood of the moment and even physical conditions play a considerable part. Consequently upon the second head the claim of the Pragmatist can by no means be allowed. The Pragmatist theory is not a whit less sceptical than the theory of the Absolutist, which it seeks to displace. If truth is relative to purposes and interests, and if these purposes and interests are, as they are admitted to be, one and all tinged by personal idiosyncrasy, then what is true for one man will not be true for another, and what is true now will not be true when a change takes place either in the interest that has engendered it or in the circumstances by which it has been verified. All this the Pragmatist grants, but replies that such truth is all that man needs and all that he can get. True judgments do not correspond with reality, nor in true judgments do we know reality as it is. The function of cognition, in short, is not to know reality, but to control it. For this reason truth is identified with its consequences -- theoretical, if the truth be merely virtual, but in the end practical, particular, concrete. "Truth means successful operations on reality" (Studies in Hum., 118). The truth-relation " consists of intervening parts of the universe which can in every particular case be assigned and catalogued" (Meaning of Truth, 234). "The chain of workings which an opinion sets up is the opinion's truth" (Ibid., 235). Thus, in order to refute the Sceptic, the Pragmatist changes the nature of truth, redefining it as the definitely experienceable success which attends the working of certain ideas and judgments; and in so doing he grants precisely what the Sceptic seeks to prove, namely, that our cognitive faculties are incapable of knowing reality as it is. (See PRAGMATISM.) D. The "New" Realist's Theory As it is a first principle with both Absolutist and Pragmatist that reality is changed by the very act in which we know it, so the negation of this thesis is the root principle of "New" Realism. In this the "New" Realist is at one with the Scholastic. Reality does not depend upon experience, nor is it modified by experience as such. The "New" Realist, however, has not as yet adopted the correspondence theory of truth. He regards both knowledge and truth as unique relations which hold immediately between knower and known, and which are as to their nature indefinable. "The difference between subjeet and object of consciousness is not a differenee of quality or substanee, but a differenee of office or place in a configuration" (Journal of Phil. Psychol. and Scientific Meth., VII, 396). Reality is made up of terms and their relations, and truth is just one of these relations, sui generis, and therefore reeognizable only by intuition. This account of truth is undoubtedly simple, but there is at any rate one point whieh it seems altogether to ignore, viz., the existence of judgments and ideas of which, and not of the mind as such, the truth-relation is predicable. We have not on the one hand objects and on the other bare mind; but on the one hand objects and on the other a mind that by means of the judgment refers its own ideas to objects -- ideas which as such, both in regard to their existence and their content, belong to the mind which judges. What then is the relation that holds between these ideas and their objects when our judgments are true, and again when they are false? Surely both logic and criteriology imply that we know something more about such judgments than merely that they are different. Bertrand Russell, who has given in his adhesion to "The Program and First Platform of Six Realists", drawn up and signed by six American professors in July, 1910, modifies somewhat the naïveté of their theory of truth. "Every judgment", he says (Philos. Essays, 181), "is a relation of a mind to several objects, one of which is a relation. Thus, the judgment, 'Charles I died on the scaffold', denotes several objects or 'objectives' which are related in a certain definite way, and the relation is as real in this case as are the other objectives. The judgment 'Charles I died in his bed', on the other hand, denotes the objects, Charles I, death, and bed, and a certain relation between them, which in this case does not relate the objects as it is supposed to relate them. A judgment therefore, is true, when the relation which is one of the objects relates the other objects, otherwise it is false" (loc. cit.). In this statement of the nature of truth: correspondenee between the mind judging and the objects about which we judge is distinctly implied, and it is precisely this correspondcnce which is set down as the distinguishing mark of true judgments. Russell however, unfortunately seems to be at variance with other members of the New Realist school on this point. G.E. Moore expressly rejects the correspondence theory of truth ("Mind", N. S., VIII, 179 sq.), and Prichard, another English Realist, explicitly states that in knowledge there is nothing between the object and ourselves (Kant's Theory of Knowledge, 21). Nevertheless, it is matter for rejoicing that in regard to the main points at issue -- the non-alteration of reality by acts of cognition, the possibility of knowing it in some respects without its being known in all, the growth of knowledge by "accretion", the non-spiritual character of some of the objects of experience, and the necessity of ascertaining empirically and not by a priori methods, the degree of unity which obtains between the various parts of the universe -the "New" Realist and the Scholastic Realist are substantially in agreement. III. MORAL TRUTH, OR VERACITY Veracity is the correspondence of the outward expression given to thought with the thought itself. It must not be confused with verbal truth (veritas locutionis), which is the correspondence of the outward or verbal expression with the thing that it is intended to express. The latter supposes on the part of the speaker not only the intention of speaking truly, but also the power so to do, i.e. it supposes (1) true knowledge and (2) a right use of words. Moral truth, on the other hand, exists whenever the speaker expresses what is in his mind even if de facto he be mistaken, provided only that he says what he thinks to be true. This latter condition however, is necessary. Hence a better definition of moral truth would be "the correspondence of the outward expression of thought with the thing as conceived by the speaker". Moral truth, therefore, does not imply true knowledge. But, though a deviation from moral truth would be only materially a lie, and hence not blameworthy, unless the use of words or signs were intentionally incorrect, moral truth does imply a correct use of words or other signs. A lie therefore, is an intentional deviation from moral truth, and is defined as a locutio contra mentem; i.e. it is the outward expression of a thought which is intentionally diverse from the thing as conceived by the speaker. It is important to observe, however, that the expression of the thought, whether by word or by sign, must in all cases be taken in its context; for both in regard to words and to signs, custom and circumstances make a considerable difference with respect to their interprctation. Veracity, or the habit of speaking the truth, is a virtue; and the obligation of practising it arises from a twofold source. First, "since man is a social animal, naturally one man owes to another that without which human society could not go on. But men could not live together if they did not believe one another to be speaking the truth. Hence the virtue of veracity comes to some extent under the head of justice [rationem debiti]" (St. Thomas, Summa, II-II:109:3). The second source of the obligation to veracity arises from the fact that speech is clearly of its very nature intended for the communication of knowledge by one to another. It should be used, therefore, for the purpose for which it is naturally intended, and lies should be avoided. For lies are not merely a misuse, but an abuse, of the gift of speech, since, by destroying man's instinctive belief in the veracity of his neighbour, they tend to destroy the efficacy of that gift. For Scholasticism see: scholastic treatises on major logic, s.v. Veritas; Etudes sur la Vérité (Paris, 1909); GENY, Une nouvelle théorie de la connaissance (Tournai, 1909); MIVART, On Truth (London, 1889); JOHN RICKABY, First Principles af Knowledge; ROUSSELOT, L'Intellectualisme de St. Thomas (Paris, 1909); TONQUEDEC, La notion de la vérité dans la philosophie nouvelle in Etudes (1907), CX, 721; CXI, 433; CXII, 68, 335; WALKER, Theories of Knowledge (2d ed., London, 1911); HOBHOUSE, The Theory of Knowledge (London, 1906). Absolutism: BRADLEY, Appearance and Reality (London, 1899); IDEM, Articles in Mind, N.S., LT, LXXI, LXXII (1904, 1909, 1910); JOACHIM, The Nature af Truth (Oxford, 1906); TAYLOR, Elements of Metaphysics (London, 1903); Articles in Mind, N.S., LVII (1906), and Philos. Rev., XIV, 3. Pragmatism: BERGSON, L'Evolution Créatrice (7th ed., Paris, 1911); DEWEY, Studies in Logical Theory (Chicago, 1903); JAMES, Pragmatism (London, 1907); IDEM, The Meaning af Truth (London, 1909); IDEM, Some Problems of Philosophy (London 1911); MOORE, Pragmatism and Its Critics (Chicago, 191O); ABEL REY, La théorie de la physique (Paris, 1907); SCHILLER, Axioms as Postulates in Personal Idealism (London, 1902); IDEM Humanism (London, 1902); IDEM, Studies in Humanism (London 1907); SIMMEL, Die Philosophie des Geldes (Leipsig, 1900), iii. New Realism: Articles in Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods (1910, 1911), especially VII, 15 (July 1910); MOORE, The Nature of Judgment in Mind, VIII; PRICHARD, Kant's Theory af Knowledge (Oxford, 1910); RUSSELL, Philosophical Essays (London, 1910); IDEM, Articles in Mind N.S., LX (1906), and in Proceedings af the Aristotelian Society VII. LESLIE J. WALKER Catholic Truth Societies Catholic Truth Societies This article will treat of Catholic Truth Societies in the chronological order of their establishment in various countries. IN ENGLAND The Catholic Truth Society has had two periods of existence. It was initiated by Dr. (afterwards Cardinal) Vaughan when he was Rector of St. Joseph's Missionary College, and, in the two or three years of its existence, issued a number of leaflets and penny books, some of which are still on sale; but when he became Bishop of Salford, in 1872, the society fell into abeyance and soon practically ceased to exist. Meanwhile, and quite independently, the need of cheap, good literature impressed itself upon some priests and laymen, who raised the sum of twelve pounds, which was expended in printing some little cards of prayers for daily use, and for confession and Communion. The scheme was brought before Dr. Vaughan, who suggested that the new body should take the name and place of the defunct Catholic Truth Society. Under that name it was formally established, 5 November, 1884, and the second period of its existence began under the presidency of Dr. Vaughan, the Rev. W.H. (now Monsignor) Cologan and Mr. James Britten being appointed honorary secretaries. At the death of Cardinal Vaughan, the present Archbishop of Westminster, Cardinal Bourne, became president. The aims of the society are: To spread among Catholics small devotional works; to assist the uneducated poor to a better knowledge of their religion; to spread among Protestants information regarding Catholic faith and practice; and to promote the circulation of good and cheap Catholic literature. These objects have been steadily kept in view throughout the society's existence, although its scope has from time to time been enlarged as necessity has dictated. From them it will be seen that the aim of the society is not controversial, as is sometimes supposed. The position of Catholics in England is such that controversy is unavoidable, and a certain proportion of the society's publications have been devoted to the consideration of the Anglican claims and to the exposure of the fictions assiduously promoted by the less intelligent and bigoted class of Protestants. But the chief aim of the society has been the instruction of Catholics by placing in their hands, at nominal prices, educational and devotional works. The sale of some of these has been phenomenal: the "Simple Prayer-book", for example, has reached a circulation of 1,380,000; the little penny books of daily meditation have reached 114,000; and nearly 200,000 penny copies of the Gospels have been sold. An account of the literary output of the society can be ascertained from the list of publications, to be obtained from the depot, 69 Southwark Bridge Road, London, S.E. Almost every subject of importance to Catholics is taken up in one or other of the society's works; and the number is increasing every month. Already there is an extensive list of books and pamphlets directed to meet and answer rationalist objections; among them may be mentioned a series of penny lives of Catholic men of science, and thirty-nine papers dealing with "The History of Religions"; of these last an aggregate of about 200,000 copies have been issued. For younger Catholics a large number of tales, dealing with the sacraments and other religious subjects, has been provided at the lowest possible price. The society is mainly supported by subscriptions, ten shillings per annum entitling to membership, while ten pounds is a life subscription. Without these the work could not be carried on, as, although the officers have always taken their part gratuitously, the necessary expenses of rent, printing, and storing could not be defrayed out of the often infinitesimal profits accruing from the sale of publications. From the first there has been the heartiest co-operation between clergy and laity in every branch of the society's work; and the difficulties often arising from political differences have never in any way interfered with the work of the society. The society has the cordial approval and support of the highest ecclesiastical authorities, and is indulgenced by the Holy See. The movement has spread to Ireland, Scotland, the United States, and Australia. In addition to its literary work, for seventeen years the society held an annual Catholic conference, which formed an important event in English Catholic life. These gatherings, always largely attended by representative clergy and laity, were the occasion of important pronouncements by the archbishop or by other bishops, and afforded an opportunity for the elucidation and discussion of matters affecting the work and welfare of the Church in England. Their success paved the way for a development by which, from 1910, the society's conference has been merged in the National Catholic Congress. The important work of providing reading for blind Catholics has been taken up by the society, which has established a circulating library of books of instruction, devotion, and fiction, printed in Braille type. It has also provided a number of lectures on matters connected with history and art, illustrated by suitable lantern slides. A special committee was formed in 1891 to work for the spiritual welfare of Catholic seamen of all classes, through the instrumentality of which Catholic seamen's clubs and homes were opened. The society has also been the starting-point for other organizations which now have an independent existence -- e.g. the Catholic Guardians' Association, which has become a centre of usefulness throughout the country, is the ultimate development of a local branch of the society, which made the distribution of literature to the inmates of workhouses and hospitals part of its work; the Catholic Social Guild took its rise in connection with one of the society's conferences; and the Catholic Needlework Guild was initiated by one of its secretaries. The realization of its importance is already growing, and the society is doing effective work for the Catholic Church in England. IN IRELAND The Catholic Truth Society of Ireland was organized at the meeting of the Maynooth-Union in 1899, with the stated purpose of diffusing "by means of cheap publications sound Catholic literature in popular form so as to give instruction and edification in a manner most likely to interest and attract the general reader", and which would "create a taste for a pure and wholesome literature, and will also serve as an antidote against the poison of dangerous or immoral writings". The society has received the earnest and practical support of the hierarchy and laity of Ireland, and has devoted its publications to sound national, historical, and biographical, as well as religious subjects in order to offset the demoralization of the output of the sensational press. In the first ten years of its existence 424 penny publications, with a circulation of over five million copies, were issued. It has also printed a prayer-book and other works in Gaelic. The annual conferences have brought together distinguished gatherings, and the addresses made and papers read at these meetings, printed in "The Catholic Truth Annual", make a valuable compilation in the interest of the object for which the society was started. The society has its main office in Dublin and has over 800 members. IN AUSTRALIA The Australian Catholic Truth Society was started in 1904, and has its headquarters in Melbourne. Its officers have been active in the dissemination of sound Catholic literature and in the spreading of publications that were an antidote to works subversive of faith and morals. On 1 Nov., 1910 the society had 423 annual and 164 life members distributed over the Commonwealth and New Zealand and had published 679,375 pamphlets. Of its prayer-book 42,016 copies were sold. In 1910 it sent the Rev. Dr. Cleary on a mission around the world to establish a chain of agents for an international news service. IN THE UNITED STATES The International Catholic Truth Society was incorporated in New York on 24 April, 1900, the particular objects for which it was formed being: to answer inquiries of persons seeking information concerning the doctrines of the Catholic Church; to supply Catholic literature gratis to Catholics and non-Catholics who make request for the same; to correct erroneous and misleading statements in reference to Catholic doctrine and morals; to refute calumnies against the Catholic religion; to secure the publication of articles promoting a knowledge of Catholic affairs; to stimulate a desire for higher education among the Catholic laity, by printing and distributing lists of Catholic books, and otherwise to encourage the circulation and reading of standard Catholic literature; to generally assist in the dissemination of Catholic truth; and to perform other educational and missionary work. The territory in which its operations are principally conducted is in the United States of America and in Canada. The office of the society is in Brooklyn, the bishop of which diocese is its honorary president, and the Rev. W. N. McGinnis. S.T.D., its president. According to the annual report for the year from March, 1910, to March, 1911, the society had 1005 members, 618 subscribers, and 118 affiliated societies. It had distributed during the year 199,188 pamphlets. A part of its work found to be of special benefit is the remailing of Catholic papers and magazines to people in out of the way sections. During the year 11,579 such families were supplied with 475,000 copies of Catholic weekly papers and magazines. Catholic items are supplied twice a month to 31 daily papers in various parts of the United States. In affiliation with this society, and acting as distributing centres, 94 Councils of the Knights of Columbus and 24 other organizations in various localities have been of material assistance in refuting calumnies against the Catholic religion, in publishing in the daily press articles that tend to promote a knowledge of Catholic affairs; in securing the removal of objectionable textbooks from the public schools, or the expurgation from the textbooks of false and unjust statements concerning the Church; and generally assisting in the dissemination of Catholic truth. The society has established connections with agencies in fifteen foreign countries. JAMES BRITTEN THOMAS F. MEEHAN Tryphon, Respicius, and Nympha Tryphon, Respicius, and Nympha Martyrs whose feast is observed in the Latin Church on 10 November. Tryphon is said to have been born at Kampsade in Phrygia and as a boy took care of geese. During the Decian persecution he was taken to Nicfa about the year 250 and put to death in a horrible manner after he had converted the heathen prefect Licius. Fabulous stories are interwoven with his legend. He is greatly venerated in the Greek Church which observes his feast on 1 February. In this Church he is also the patron saint of gardeners. Many churches were dedicated to him, and the Eastern Emperor, Leo VI, the Philosopher (d. 912), delivered a eulogy upon Tryphon. About the year 1005 the monk Theodoric of Fleury wrote an account of him based upon earlier written legends; in Theodoric s story Respicius appears as Tryphon s companion. The relics of both were preserved together with those of a holy virgin named Nympha, at the Hospital of the Holy Ghost in Sassia. Nympha was a virgin from Palermo who was put to death for the Faith at the beginning of the fourth century. According to other versions of the legend, when the Goths invaded Sicily she fled from Palermo to the Italian mainland and died in the sixth century at Savona. The feast of her translation is observed at Palermo on 19 August. Some believe that there were two saints of this name. The church of the Hospital of the Holy Ghost at Rome was a cardinal s title which, together with the relics of these saints, was transferred in 1566 by Pope Pius V to the Church of St. Augustine. A Greek text of the life of St. Tryphon was discovered by Father Franchi de Cavallieri, Hagio-graphica (Rome, 1908), in the series Studi e Texti, XIX. The Latin Acts are to be found in Ruinart, Acta Martyrum . Analecta Bollandiana, XXVII, 7-10, 15; XXVIII, 217. GABRIEL MEIER Tschiderer Zu Gleifheim Johann Nepomuk von Tschiderer zu Gleifheim Bishop of Trent, b. at Bozen, 15 Feb., 1777; d. at Trent, 3 Dec., 1860. He sprang from a family that had emigrated from the Grisons to the Tyrol in 1529 and to which the Emperor Ferdinand III had given a patent of nobility in 1620. Johann Nepomuk was ordained priest, 27 July, 1800, by Emmanuel Count von Thun, Bishop of Trent. After spending two years as an assistant priest, he went for further training to Rome, where he was appointed notary Apostolic. After his return he took up pastoral work again in the German part of the Diocese of Trent, and was later professor of moral and pastoral theology at the episcopal seminary at Trent. In 1810 he became parish priest at Sarnthal, and in 1819 at Meran. Wherever he went he gained a lasting reputation by his zeal and charitableness. In 1826 Prince-Bishop Luschin appointed him cathedral canon and pro-vicar at Trent; in 1832 Prince-Bishop Galura of Brixen selected him as Bishop of Heliopolis and Vicar-General for Vorarlberg. In 1834 the Emperor Francis I nominated him Prince-Bishop of Trent and on 5 May, 1835, he entered upon his office. During the twenty-five years of his administration he was distinguished for the exercise of virtue and charity, and for intense zeal in the fulfilment of the duties of his episcopal office. He was exceedingly simple and abstinent in his personal habits. On the other hand he loved splendour when it concerned the decoration of his cathedral, the procuring of ecclesiastical vestments, and the ornamentation of the churches. He devoted a considerable part of his revenues to the building of churches, and to the purchase of good books for the parsonages and chaplains' houses. His charity to the poor and sick was carried so far that he was often left without a penny, because he had given away everything he had. Twice the cholera raged in his diocese and on these occasions he set his clergy a shining example of Christian courage. He left his property to the institution for the deaf and dumb at Trent and to the seminary for students that he had founded, and that was named after him the Joanneum. Directly after his death he was honoured as a saint; the process for his beatification is now in progress. Mitteilungen über das Leben des . . . J. N. Tschiderer (Bozen, 1876); TAIT, Leben des ehrwürdigen Dieners Gottes Johann Nepomuk von Tschiderer. Nach den Prozessakten und beglaubigten Urkunden (2 vols., Venice, 1904), Ger. tr. SCHLEGEL (Trent, 1908). JOSEPH LINS John Nepomuk Tschupick John Nepomuk Tschupick A celebrated preacher, b. at Vienna, 7 or 12 April, 1729; d. there, 20 July, 1784. He entered the Jesuit novitiate on 14 October, 1744, and, shortly after, was appointed professor of grammar and rhetoric. In 1763 he became preacher at the cathedral of Vienna, a position which he filled during the remaining twenty-two years of his life with exceptional conscientiousness, prudence, and ability. His preaching was very successful and highly appreciated by Francis I (d. 1765), Maria Theresa (d. 1780), Joseph II (d. 1790), and the imperial Court. His sermons were remarkable for clearness and logical thought, strength and precision of expression, copiousness and skillful application of Patristic and Biblical texts. The first edition of his collected sermons was published in ten small volumes with an index volume (Vienna, 1785-7). This edition was supplemented by "Neue, bisher ungedruckte, Kanzelreden auf alle Sonn-und Festtage, wie auch für die heilige Fastenzeit" (Vienna, 1798-1803). A new edition of all his sermons was prepared recently by Johann Hertkens (5 vols., Paderborn, 1898-1903). An Italian translation was made by Giuseppe Teglio (4 vols., 4th ed., Milan, 1856). SOMMERVOGEL, Bibl. de la Compagnie de JÈsus, VIII (Brussels, 1898), 261-3. MICHAEL OTT Tuam Tuam (TUAMENSIS). The Archdiocese of Tuam, the metropolitan see of Connacht, extends, roughly speaking, from the Shannon westwards to the sea, and comprises half of County Galway, and nearly half of Mayo, with a small portion of south Roscommon. It is territorially the largest diocese in Ireland, including in itself about one-fourteenth of the entire area of the country. At the census of 1901 the Catholic population was 193,768; the entire non-Catholic population was 4,194. There are several parishes in which all the inhabitants are Catholics. The mainland portion of the archdiocese is divided by a chain of lakes extending from the city of Galway to the Pontoon, near Foxford, Mayo. The largest of these lakes -- Corrib, Mask, and Carra -- form a magnificent and continuous watercourse, but are not connected by navigable rivers or canals. The country east of these lakes is a great undulating plain, mostly of arable land, interspersed here and there with bogs and smaller lakes. The country west of the great lakes is of entirely different character. It is nearly all rugged and heathery, with ranges of hills rising steeply from the lakes, especially from the shores of Lough Mask on one side, and from the shores of the Atlantic Ocean on the other, forming many lofty peaks with long-drawn valleys where the streams rushing down widen into deep and fishful lakes, which, especially in Connemara, attract fishermen from all parts of the United Kingdom. The population of this rugged lakeland is sparse and poor, but the scenery very picturesque, especially towards the west, where the bays of the ocean penetrate far in between the mountains, as at the beautiful Killary Bay. This western coast is bordered by many wind-swept islands, affording a precarious sustenance to the inhabitants. Of these the chief are the Isles of Aran in Galway Bay, and farther off, on the north-western coast, Inishark, Inisboffin, and Inisturk, Clare Island and Achill Island -- all of which are inhabited and have schools and churches. There are three priests on the Aran Islands, one on Inisboffin, one on Clare Island, and three on Achill, which has a population of about 6000 souls. The archdiocese comprises seven rural deaneries -- Tuam, Dunmore, Claremorris, Ballinrobe, Castlebar, Westport, and Clifden. There are three vicars-general who preside over three divisions of the archdiocese which from time immemorial have been historically distinct, that is Galway east of the Corrib; West Galway, or the Kingdom of Connemara, and the Mayo portion. There are 143 secular priests, of whom eight are usually employed in the seminary. There are only two regulars, properly so called, who reside in the Augustinian monastery of Ballyhaunis; two priests of the order of St. Camillus have charge of the hospice for infirm clergy, Moyne Park, Ballyglunin, Galway, and four secular clergy of a preparatory college for the African Missions in the Co. Mayo, generously given for the purpose by Count Blake of Cloughballymore. There are four houses of the Christian Brothers, and one of the Brothers of the Christian schools. There are eleven monasteries of the Third Order Regular of St. Francis, who were formed by Archbishop MacHale to counteract the efforts of proselytizing institutions and to teach agriculture to their pupils. Of these schools the most successful has been the Agriculture College of Mount Bellew, which is working under the Agricultural Department. There are three Presentation convents, and ten convents of the Sisters of Mercy with schools. St. Jarlath's Diocesan Seminary has more than a hundred resident students. St. Patrick in Tuam St. Patrick came into the Diocese of Tuam from Airtech in north-west Roscommon most likely in A.D. 440, and thence travelled almost due west from Aghamore, where he founded his first church, on the summit of Croaghpatrick. We have the names of some twelve churches which he established in this district; it is expressly stated that he placed bishops over several of these churches -- at Cella Senes near Ballyhaunis; at Kilbenin, where he placed St. Benignus; at Donaghpatrick, which he gave to Bishop Felartus; at Aghagower, where he placed St. Senach, whom he called Agnus Dei on account of his meekness. His sojourn for forty days on ynod of Kells (1152), and the controversy was carried to Rome and finally decided in their favour. The primates, however, were allowed the rents of certain church lands in Tuam, but these claims they afterwards remitted in exchange for lands in the north of Ireland. The Archdiocese of Tuam now comprises the territories of five of those ancient dioceses which at different periods were united to the original Diocese of Tuam. This original diocese, which may be taken as corresponding roughly with the modern deanery of Tuam, comprised the ancient territory known as the Conmaicne of Dunmore, and also the Ciarraigi of Loch nan-Airneadh, as well as a portion of Corcamogha and the Sodan territory. When the O'Conor kings of the twelfth century came to be the chief rulers of Connacht, and for a time of all Ireland, they resided mostly at Tuam and sought to control the spiritual as they did the temporal rulers of their principality. There can be no doubt that it was the influence of Turlough Mor, then King of Ireland, which induced the prelates and papal legate at Kells in 1152 to make his own Diocese of Tuam the archiepiscopal and metropolitan see of the province. This original See of Tuam was founded about A.D. 520 by St. Jarlath, son of Loga, the disciple of St. Benin of Kilbannon, and the preceptor for a time at Cloonfush near Tuam of St. Brendan the Navigator. The original cathedral known as Tempull Jarlath stood on the site of the present Protestant cathedral. After Jarlath's death his remains were enshrined and preserved in a church built for the purpose and called Tempull na Scrine, close to the spot on which the Catholic cathedral now stands. Around this cathedral, which was begun by Dr. Oliver Kelly in 1826, are grouped in a circle all the other ecclesiastical buildings -- the college, the Presentation convent and schools, the Mercy convent and schools of the Sisters of Mercy, the Christian Brothers' House and schools, and the recently-erected archiepiscopal residence. The ancient See of Annaghdown grew out of the monastery founded by St. Brendan for his sister St. Briga. Its jurisdiction extended over O'Flaherty's country around Lough Corrib and comprised in all some seventeen parishes. The see was independent down to the death of Thomas O'Mellaigh in 1250, when Archbishop MacFlionn seized and held it with the consent of the king. For the next 250 years a prolonged and unseemly conflict was carried on between the archbishops and abbots, the former declaring that Annahdown had been reduced by the pope and the king to the rank of a parish church, whilst the abbots stoutly maintained their independence. In 1484 the wardenship of Galway was established, and all the parishes on the south and west around the lake were placed under the warden's quasi-episcopal jurisdiction, Tuam still retaining eight parishes to the east of the lake. In 1830 the wardenship was abolished, and the See of Galway established as a regular episcopal see, suffragan to Tuam. The Diocese of Cong included all the parishes subject to the Abbey of Cong, which was founded by St. Fechin in 626. The abbots seem to have exercised quasi-episcopal jurisdiction over nineteen parishes in the Baronies of Ballynahinch, Ross, and Kilmaine, which for the most part were served by the monks as vicars under the abbot. In the Synod of Rath Breasail Cong was counted as one of the five dioceses of Connacht, but there is no mention of it at the Synod of Kells in 1152. King Rory O'Conor retired to the abbey for several years and died there. The Diocese of Mayo like that of Cong had its origin in Mayo Abbey, founded by St. Colman about 667 for Saxon monks who had followed him from Lindisfarne. In 1152 it was recognized by the Synod of Kells as one of the Connacht sees, and mention is made of the death of Gilla Isu O'Mailin, Bishop of Mayo, in 1184, but on the death of Bishop Cele O'Duffy in 1209 no successor was appointed and the see was merged in that of Tuam, probably through the influence of King Cathal O"Conor and his relative Archbishop Felix O'Ruadan of Tuam. But bishops of Mayo reappear from time to time in the annals down to 1579 when Bishop Patrick O'Healy coming home to take possession of his See of Mayo was seized with his companion Friar O'Rourke and hanged at Kilmallock by Drury, the English President of Munster. At one time Mayo had no fewer than twenty-eight parishes under its jurisdiction, which extended from the Dalgin River at Kilvine to Achill Head. At present this is a small rural parish, and the "City of Mayo" comprises not more than half a dozen houses. Of the Diocese of Aghagower we need say little. It was founded in 441 by St. Patrick who placed over it Bishop Senach; the "Book of Armagh" tells us that bishops dwelt there in the time of the writer (early part of the ninth century). The jurisdiction of Aghagower extended over the "Owles", the territory around Clew Bay, comprising the modern deanery of Westport. But at an early date these churches were absorbed first into the Diocese of Mayo and afterwards into that of Tuam. Monasteries Besides the great monasteries of Annaghdown, Cong, and Mayo, there were others in the archdiocese that deserve mention. The monastery of St. Enda at Killeany in Aran become famous in the first quarter of the sixth century. Near it was the oratory Tempull Benain, which Benan, or Benignus, of Kilbannon, the disciple of St. Patrick, had built. It is very small but strikingly beautiful, and its cyclopean walls have not lost a stone for the last fourteen hundred years. There are in addition to the Aran Island many other holy islands around this wild western coast, as Island Mac Dara, which all the fishermen salute by dipping their sails, Cruach of St. Caelainn, Ardilaun of St. Fechin, St. Colman's Inisboffin, Caher of St. Patrick. The Cistercian Abbey of Knockmoy (de Colle Victoriae), six miles from Tuam, founded in 1189 by King Crovedearg, was one of the largest and the wealthiest in the West of Ireland. Mention, too, is made of a Bishop of Knockmoy. The ruins are full of interest, for some of its walls were frescoed and the sculptured tomb of King Felim O'Conor is well preserved. At its suppression in 1542 it was found to be in the possession of the rectories of several churches, and large estates in Galway, Roscommon, and Mayo. The same King Cathal of the Red Hand founded in 1215 the Abbey of Ballintubber close to St. Patrick's holy well. It was admirably built and has been partly restored as the parochial church of the district. It contains the tomb and monument of the first Viscount Mayo, the son of Sir Richard Burke and Grania Uaile, Queen of Clew Bay. The Dominican Abbey of Athenry was established in 1241 by Meyler De Bermingham who endowed it with ample possessions. It usually contained thirty friars. The "main" building was erected by Meyler; King Felim O'Conor built the refectory; Flann O'Flynn built the "Scholar House", for the friars kept a noted school; Owen O'Heyne built the dormitory; Con O'Kelly built the "chapter house", and so on with the guest chamber and the infirmary. In Queen Mary's reign this convent was selected to be a university college for Connacht, but the project was never realized. Buried there are many of the early Burkes of Clanrichard, who in life were benefactors and protectors of the convent. The Benedictine Nuns had a convent at Kilereevanty, situated on the Dalgin River, four miles from Tuam. It was founded in 1200 by the same King Cathal O'Conor for the royal ladies of his family, and of other high chieftains by whom it was richly endowed. It held estates not only in Galway but also in Roscommpon, Mayo, Sligo, and Westmeath, and the rectories of score of different parishes. Its inmates at one time secured at Rome a curtailment of the archbishop's rights of visitations and procurations, but after a short experience, the pope found it necessary to restore his full rights to the archbishop. It was however the greatest and wealthiest convent in the West. There were many smaller religious houses in the archdiocese. The Augustinians had ten; the Dominicans three; the Franciscans three or four; the Cistericians two; the Templars one, and there were also three or four nunneries. Archbishops In the long list of the Archbishops of Tuam there are many illustrious names which can be referred to here only briefly. + Hugh O'Hession was present at the Synod of Kells in 1152, where he received the pallium from the papal legate, and so became the first Archbishop of Tuam. + He died in 1161 and was succeeded by Cathal or Catholicus, O'Duffy, who reigned for forty years. In 1172 he was present with his suffragans at the Concil of Cashel, which gave formal recognition to the claims of Henry II. Later, in 1175, he was deputed to sign the Treaty of Windsor on behalf of King Rory O'Conor, by which Rory consented to hold his Kingdom of Connacht in subjection to the English monarch. O'Duffy was also present at the Lateran Council in 1179, and in 1201 held a provincial synod at Tuam under the presidency of the Roman cardinal. He then retired to the Abbey of Cong where he died the following summer. + His successor, Felix O'Ruadain, who previously had been a Cistercian, probably at Knockmoy, filled the sea for thirty-six years. He was a near relative of Rory O'Conor, which strengthened his great influence in the province. Next year he convoked a great synod of the province at Tuam in which it was decreed to unite the termon lands of the monasteries to their respective bishoprics. Tuam thereby acquired vast estates in Galway, Mayo, and even Roscommon. The archbishop also complained that Armagh claimed jurisdiction over the Diocese of Kilmore and Ardagh, which rightfully belonged to his province, and also over several parishes in the Archdiocese of Tuam, to which the primate had no claim. A composition was effected later, in 1211. + In 1258 died Walter De Salerno, an Englishman, who was appointed by the pope but never got possession of his see. + In 1286 Stephen de Fulnurn, who had been justiciary, was appointed to the See of Tuam, but he resided mostly at Athlone. There is extant an inventory of his effects which goes to show that he lived in much state and splendour. + William de Bermingham, son of Meyler de Bermingham, Lord of Carbery, Dunmore, and Athenry, appointed in 1289. He was a powerful high-handed prelate, but the monks of Athenry and Annaghdown resisted him successfully. + Maurice O'Fihely, called in his own time "Flos Mundi" on account of his prodigious learning, was consecrated Archbishop of Tuam by Julius II in 1506, but like Florence Conry in later times, he never beheld his see. + In 1537 Christopher Bodkin, then bishop of Kilmaeduagh, was appointed archbishop of Tuam by Henry VIII, and it is said took the Oath of Supremacy. He managed to hold his ground in Tuam for thirty-five years under Henry VIII, Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth. Bodkin, thought a temporizing prelate, was always a Catholic and zealous in the service of his flock. In 1558 he held a visitation of his diocese, the account of which has been preserved and gives invaluable information regarding the state of the archdiocese at that time. + Malachy O'Queely was one of the greatest Irish prelates of the seventeenth century -- a patriot, a reformer, and a scholar; but he was not a general, and unwisely undertook to command the Confederate troops in Connacht during the wars of 1642-45. His forces were attacked unexpectedly during the night by Sir F. Hamilton near Sligo and the archbishop was slain on the field. + Mention must be made too, of Florence Conry, though he never took possession of his see. He rendered signal service to Ireland by the foundation of St. Anthonyh's Convent of Louvain, whose scholars -- Michael O'Clery, Ward, Fleming, Colgan, and many others -- did so much for the preservation of the literature and the language and the history of Ireland both sacred and profane. + John MacHale has a special article in this Encyclopedia. + His immediate successor, John MacEvilly, was an indefatigable and zealous prelate; he found time to write commentaries in English on practically the whole of the New Testament. He was born in 1818, died in 1902, and lies buried before the high altar of Tuam cathedral beside John MacHale. Moral and Social Condition The moral state of the archdiocese is very good. Temperance is making rapid strides amongst all classes of the population. Grave public crimes of every kind have almost disappeared. Primary education is now universally diffused even in the remotest mountain valleys. The Christian Brothers' schools are remarkably efficient, St. Jarlath's College, Tuam, now holds a premier place amongst the diocesan colleges of Ireland. The social condition of the people also has been greatly improved mainly through he efforts of the Congested Districts Board. They are better housed and better fed; the land is better tilled, and much more is derived from the harvest of the seas around the coast. No part of Ireland suffered more during the famine years from starvation and proselytism than Connemara and the Island of Achill. The starving people were bribed during these years by food and money to go to the Protestant churches and send their children to the proselytizing schools. If they went they got food and money. "Silver Monday", as they called it, was the day fixed for these doles. If they refused to go to the church and to the school they got nothing; and to their honour it must be said, that most of them, but not all, preferred starvation to apostasy. The proselytizers have now completely disappeared, and have quite enough to do to take care of themselves. The present archbishop, Most Rev. John Healy, a native of the Diocese of Elphin, was born in 14 Nov., 1841 at Ballinafad, Co. Sligo. His early education was received at an excellent classical school in the town of Sligo whence, at about fifteen years of age, he proceeded to the diocesan college, in those days situated at Summerhill near Athlone. On 26 August, 1860, he entered the class of rhetoric at Maynooth, and just before the completion of his course was called out by his bishop to be a professor in the college at Summerhill. Here he was ordained in Sept., 1867, and continued to teach for over two years. His missionary experiences were gained in the parish of Ballygar, near Roscommon, where he was curate for two years, and then at Grange, Co. Sligo, where he spent seven years. He was then for one year in charge of a deanery school in the town of Elphin. In 1879, he competed simultaneously for two vacant chairs -- one of theology and the other of classics -- in the national college of Maynooth, and had the unique honour conferred on him of being appointed to both and allowed to make his own choice between them. He naturally selected the chair of theology, which he filled till 1883, when he succeeded Dr. Murray, as prefect of the Dunboyne Establishment. During his tenure of this office, Dr. Healy acted as editor of the "Irish ecclesiastical Record", but this was only for a single year, for in 1884 he was appointed titular Bishop of Maera and Coadjutor Bishop of Clonfert. Here it may be interesting to note that no less than five members of Dr. Healy's class in Maynooth wear the episcopal purple in Irish sees. In 1896, on the death of the saintly Dr. Duggan, he succeeded to the see of Clonfert. Seven years after, by papal Brief, dated 13 Feb., 1903, he became Archbishop of Tuam, and on the following St. Patrick's Day took possession of his ancient see. On 31 August, 1909, he celebrated the silver jubilee of his episcopate. The archbishop is a member of many Irish public bodies notably of the Agricultural Board, the Senate of the National University, the Board of Governors of University College, Galway. He is president of the Catholic Truth society of Ireland, and a Commissioner for the publication of the Brehon Laws. He acted on the Royal Commission of 1901 to inquire into and report on condition of University Education in Ireland. His principal published works are: "Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars", which has reached a fifth edition; "The Centenary History of Maynooth College"; "The Record of the Maynooth Centenary Celebrations"; "The Life and Writings of St. Patrick"; "Irish Essays: Literary and Historical"; "Papers and Addresses", a jubilee collection of fugitive periodical articles and reviews. COLGAN, Acta sanctorum Hiberniae; KNOX, Notes on the Dioceses of Tuam, etc.; IDEM, Hist. of the County Mayo; HEALY, Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars; Annals of the Four Masters, ed. O'DONOVAN; BRADY, Episcopal Succession; D'ALTON, History of Ireland; HARDIMAN, Hist. of Galway; O'CONOR DON, The O'Conors of Connacht. JOHN HEALY School of Tuam School of Tuam (Irish, Tuaim da Ghualann, or the "Mound of the two Shoulders"). The School of Tuam was founded by St. Jarlath, and even during his life (d. c. 540) became a renowned school of piety and sacred learning, while in the eleventh century it rivalled Clonmacnoise as a centre of Celtic art. St. Jarlath was trained for his work by St. Benignus, the successor and coadjutor of St. Patrick, and under this gentle saint's guidance he founded his first monastery at Cluainfois, now Cloonfush, about two miles west from Tuam, and a still shorter distance across the fertile fields from Benignus's own foundation at Kilbannon. Here at Cluainfois, according to a widespread tradition, Saints Benignus and Jarlath and Caillin, another disciple of Benignus, frequently met together to discuss weighty questions in theology and Scripture. The fame of this holy retreat brought scholars from all parts of Ireland, amongst whom were St. Brendan, the great navigator, who came from Kerry, and St. Colman, the son of Lenin, who came from Cloyne. One day Brendan in prophetic spirit told his master that he was to leave Cluainfois and go eastward, and where the wheel of his chariot should break on the journey "there you shall build your oratory, for God wills that there shall be the place of your resurrection, and many shall arise in glory in the same place along with you". Jarlath did not long delay in obeying this inspired instruction. He departed from Cluainfois, and at the place now called Tuam his chariot broke down, and there on the site of the present Protestant, but formerly Catholic, cathedral he built his church and monastic school. And he bade good-bye to Brendan saying, "O holy youth, it is you should be master and I pupil, but go now with God's blessing elsewhere", whereupon Brendan returned to his native Kerry. After the death of St. Jarlath there is little in the national annals about the School of Tuam. There is reference in the "Four Masters", under date 776 (recte 781), to the death of an Abbot of Tuam called Nuada O'Bolcan; and under the same date in the "Annals of Ulster" to the death of one "Ferdomnach of Tuaim da Ghualann", to whom no title is given. At the year 969 is set down the death of Eoghan O Cleirigh, "Bishop of Connacht", but more distinct reference to a Tuam prelate is found in 1085, when the death of Aedh O Hoisin is recorded. The "Four Masters" call him Comarb of Jarlath and High Bishop (Ard-epscoip) of Tuam. COLGAN, Acta sanctorum Hiberniæ (Louvain, 1645); HEALY, Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars (Dublin, 1908); Martyrology of Donegal; Annals of Ulster; Annals of the Four Masters. JOHN HEALY University of Tubingen University of Tübingen Located in Würtemberg; founded by Count Eberhard im Bart on 3 July, 1477, after Pope Sixtus IV had first undertaken by the Bull of 13 Nov., 1476 to endow the university from the property of the Church. The imperial confirmation followed on 20 Feb., 1484. The university had four faculties: theology, law, medicine, and philosophy, and altogether fourteen professorships. Among the distinguished professors at the beginning were the theologians Gabriel Biel, Johannes Heynlin von Stein (a Lapide), Conrad Summenhart, and the jurist Johannes Vergenhans (Nauclerus). A distinguished physician was Johannes Widmann. In the philosophical faculty should be mentioned the mathematicians Paul Scriptoris and Johannes Stöffler, and the Humanists Johannes Reuchlin, Heinrich Bebel, and Melanchthon. Duke Ulrich of Würtemberg was deposed in 1519 on account of his misgovernment of the country, but in 1534 was restored to power by the Lutheran Landgrave Philip of Hesse. In 1535 Ulrich introduced the Reformation into the country and university, notwithstanding the stubborn opposition manifested at the university, especially by its chancellor Ambrosius Widmann. The most prominent of the new professors were the theologians Johannes Brenz, Erhard Schnepf, Jakob Andreæ, Jakob Heerbrand, Andreas and Luke Osiander. Among the other professors were the jurists Johannes Sichard, Karl Molinæus (Du Moulin), and Christopher Besold, the physician Leonhard Fuchs, the philologists Joachim, Camerarius and Martin Crusius, the cartographer Philip Apian, and the mathematician and astronomer Michael Mästlin. To secure capable preachers Duke Ulrich established the Lutheran seminary, and Duke Christopher founded the collegium illustre for the training of state officials. The university, like the country, recovered only slowly from the injuries inflicted by the Thirty Years' War. At first the old rigid orthodoxy still prevailed in the theological faculty; but in the eighteenth century a greater independence of thought gradually gained ground, especially through the efforts of the chancellor, Christopher Matthäus Pfaff, the founder of what is called the collegiate system. Pietism also was represented in the theological faculty. Towards the end of the eighteenth century Christian Gottlieb Storr exerted a profound influence as a Biblical theologian and the founder of the early Tübingen School in opposition to the "Enlightenment' and the theories of Kant. Among his pupils were, in particular, Friedrich Gottlieb Süsskind, Johann Friedrich Flatt, and Karl Christian Flatt. Prominent in the faculty of law were Wolfgang Adam Lauterbach, Ferdinand Christopher Harpprecht, and Karl Christopher Hofacker, and in the faculty of medicine, Johann Georg Gmelin, Karl Friedrich Kielmeyer, and Johann Heinrich Ferdinand Autenrieth. During this era, marked by the spread of the Wolffian and Kantian doctrines, the faculty of philosophy had few distinguished members. The chancellor Lebret, however, ranked high as a historian, and Bohnenberger as a mathematician. Towards the close of the eighteenth century the university was in danger of having the faculties of law and medicine transferred to the school established at Stuttgart by Duke Charles Eugene, after whom the new school was named. This loss was averted, however, by the suppression of the new seat of learning in 1794. Two causes led to a great development of the university in the nineteenth century. First, the Catholic university for Würtemberg, which at the beginning of the century had been established at Ellwangen, was transferred in 1817 to Tübingen as a Catholic theological faculty, and a Catholic house of study called Wilhelmsstift was founded to counterbalance the Lutheran seminary; second, a faculty of political economy was organized in 1817 (called the faculty of political science since 1822), and a faculty of natural sciences in 1863. These changes led to the erection of new university buildings: the anatomical building (1832-35); the new aula, intended to replace the old one dating from 1547 and 1777, and the botanical and chemical institute (1842-45); the clinical hospital for surgical cases (1846); the physiological institute (1867); the institute for pathological anatomy (1873); ophthalmic hospital (1875); medical hospital (1878-79); the physico-chemical institute (1883-85); the institute for physics (1888); the new hospital for women (1888-91), in place of the old one built in 1803; the hospital for mental diseases (1892-94); the mineralogico-geological and zoological institute (1902); the institute for chemistry (1903-07); the new ophthalmological clinic (1907-09). A new building for the library, housed till now in the castle, is in course of construction; the library contains 4145 manuscripts and 513,313 volumes. The regular professors numbered 56 in the summer term of 1911; honorary and adjunct professors, Dozents, 71; matriculated students, 2118, and non-matriculated persons permitted to attend the lectures, 145, making a total of 2263. Since the reign of King Frederick I the university has become more and more a state institution; its income for 1911 was 439,499 marks ($104,382), while the grant from the State for the year was 1,366,847 marks ($324,626). In the Protestant theological faculty the critical view of theological history held by Ferdinand Christian Baur led to the founding of the later Tübingen School, to which belong, besides the founder, Albert Schwegler, Karl Christian Planck, Albert Ritschl, Julius Köstlin, Karl Christian Johannes Holsten, Adolf Hilgenfeld, Karl Weizsäcker and Edward Zeller. Other distinguished theologians, who were somewhat more positive in their views, were Johann Tobias Beck, and Christian David Frederick Palmer. David Frederick Strauss, a follower of Hegel, wrote his "Life of Jesus" while a tutor at Tübingen. The distinguished teachers and scholars of the Catholic theological faculty are often called the Catholic Tübingen School. The characteristic of this school is positive and historical rather than speculative or philosophical. Above all should be mentioned the great Catholic theologian of the nineteenth century, Johann Adam Möhler; further: Johann Sebastian Drey, Johann Baptist Hirscher, Benedict Welte, Johann Evangelist Kuhn, Karl Joseph Hefele, Moritz Aberle, Felix Himpel, Franz Quirin Kober, Franz Xaver Linsenmann, Franz Xaver Funk, Paul Schanz, and Paul Vetter. Distinguished professors of law were: Karl Georg Wächter, Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Gerber, Alois Brins, Gustav Mandry, and Hugo Meyer. Among the noted members of the faculty of political science were: Robert Mohl, Albert Eberhard Friedrich Schäffle, Gustav Rümelin, Gustav Friedrich Schönberg, and Friedrich Julius Neumann. Among the noted members of the medical faculty were: Victor Bruns, Felix Niemeyer, Karl Liebermeister, and Johannes Säxinger. In natural science should he mentioned: Hugo Mohl, Theodore Eimer, and Lothar Meyer. Of the philosophical faculty should be mentioned Friedrich Theodor Vischer, writer on æsthetics; the philosopher Christopher Sigwart; the classical philologists Christian Wals and Wilhelm Sigismund Teuffel; the Orientalists Julius Mohl, Georg Heinrich Ewald, and Walter Rudolf Roth; the Germanists Ludwig Uhland and Heinrich Adalbert Keller; the historians Julius Weizsäcker and Hermann Alfred Gutschmid; and the geologist Friedrich August Quenstedt. KlÜpfel and Eifert, Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt und Universität Tübingen (Tübingen, 1849); KlÜpfel, Die Universität Tübingen in ihrer Vergangenheit und Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1877); Urkunden zur Geschichte der Universität Tübingen aus den Jahren 1475-1550 (Tübingen, 1877); WeizsÄcker, Lehrer und Unterricht an der evangelisch-theologischen Fakultät der Universität Tübingen von der Reformation bis zur Gegenwart (Tübingen, 1877); Funk, Die katholische Landesuniversität in Ellwangen und ihre Verlegung nach Tübingen (Tübingen, 1877); Sproll, Freiburger Diözesanarchiv (1902), 105 sq.; RÜmelin, Reden und Aufsätze, III (Tübingen, 1894), 37 sq.; Hermelink, Die theologische Fakultät in Tübingen vor der Reformation 1477-1534 (Tübingen, 1906); Idem, Die Matrikeln der Universität Tübingen: vol. I, Die Matrikeln von 1477-1600 (Stuttgart, 1906). For further bibliography cf. Erman and Horn, Bibliographie der deutschen Universitäten, II (Leipzig, 1904), 996 sq. JOHANNES BAPTIST SÄGMÜLLER Tubunae Tubunae A titular see in Mauretania Caesariensis, according to the "Gerachia cattolica", or in Numidia according to Battandier, "Annuaire pontifical catholique" (Paris, 1910), 345. The official list of the Roman Curia does not mention it. The confusion is explained by the fact that it was located at the boundary of the two provinces. Bocking, in his notes to the "Notitia dignitatum" (Bonn, 1839); 523, and Toulotte ("Greg. de l'Afrique chret., Mauretanies", Montreuil, 1894, p. 171), speak of two distinct cities, while Muller ("Notes to Ptolemy", IV, 12, ed. Didot, I, 611) admits only one, and his opinion seems the more plausible. It was a municipium and also an important frontier post in command of a praepositus limitis Tubuniensis. St. Augustine and St. Alypius sojourned there as guests of Count Boniface (Ep. ccxx). In 479 Huneric exiled thither a large number of Catholics. Its ruins, known as Tobna, are in the Department of Constantine, Algeria, at the gates of the Sahara, west of the Chott el-Hodna, the "Salinae Tubunenses" of the Romans. They are very extensive, for three successive towns occupied different sites, under the Romans, the Byzantines, and the Arabs. Besides the remains of the fortress, the most remarkable monument is a church now used as a mosque. Three bishops of Tubunae are known. St. Nemesianus assisted at the Council of Carthage in 256. St. Cyprian often speaks of him in his letters, and we have a letter which he wrote to St. Cyprian in his own name and in the name of those who were condemned with him to the mines. An inscription testifies to his cult at Tixter in 360, and the Roman Martyrology mentions him on 10 September. Another bishop was Cresconius, who usurped the see after quitting the Bulla Regia, and assisted at the Council of Carthage in 411, where his rival was the Donatist Protasius. A third, Reparatus, was exiled by Huneric in 484. TOULOTTE, Geog. de l'Afrique chret., Numidie (Paris, 1894), 318-21; DIEHL, L'Afrique byzantine (Paris, 1896), passim. S. PÉTRIDÈS Tucson Tucson (Tucsonensis). Suffragan of the Archdiocese of Santa Fe. It comprises the State of Arizona and the southernmost counties of New Mexico, an extent of 131,212 sq. miles, most of which is desert land. The Catholic population is approximately 48,500, mostly Mexicans. There are 43 priests, 27 parishes, 43 missions, 100 stations, 7 academies, 10 parochial schools, 3 Indian schools, 1 orphanage, 5 hospitals. Up to 1853, date of the Gadsden purchase, Arizona was part of the Mexican Diocese of Durango. In 1859 it was annexed by the Holy See to the Diocese of Santa Fe, made a vicariate Apostolic in 1868, and erected a diocese by Leo XIII in 1897. The first vicar Apostolic was the most Rev. J. B. Salpointe, followed by the Most Rev. P. Bourgade, who both died archbishops of Santa Fe, the former in 1898, the latter in 1908. They were succeeded by Bishop Henry Granjon, born in 1863, consecrated in the cathedral of Baltimore, 17 June, 1900. The mission founded by French missionaries has remained in charge of priests mostly of the same nationality, assisted by Franciscan Fathers of the St. Louis and Cincinnati provinces, who attend principally to the Indian missions, and by the Sisters of St. Joseph, of Mercy, of Loretto, of the Blessed Sacrament, of St. Dominic, and of the Precious Blood. The full-blood Indians in the diocese number 40,000: Apache, Chimehuivi, Hualpai, Maricopa, Mohave, Moqui, Navajo, Pápago Pima, Yava Supai. About 4000 are Catholics. They were visited by the Spanish missionaries as early as 1539 (Fray Marcos de Niza), and evangelized in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries by the Franciscans and the Jesuits. Of the churches then built two remain: Tumacacuri (now partly in ruins), and San Xavier del Bac, nine miles south of Tucson, founded by Father Kino, S.J., in 1699, and kept in a perfect state of preservation by the constant attention and liberal care of the clergy of Tucson. It is considered the best example of the Spanish Renaissance mission style north of Mexico, and the best preserved of all the old mission churches in America. The buildings have been completely restored (1906-10) by the Bishop of Tucson. The Pápago Indians, in whose midst stands the San Xavier mission, have received uninterrupted care from the clergy of Tucson. In 1866 the Rev. J.B. Salpointe founded there a school, which has since been maintained, with the Sisters of St. Joseph in charge, by the clergy of Tucson, at the expense of the parish. That school was the first established in Arizona for the Indians. ORTEGA, Historia del Nayarit, Sonora, Sinaloa, y ambas Californias (Mexico, 1887); Rudo Ensayo, tr. GUITERAS, in Am. Cath. Hist. Soc., V (Philadelphia, June, 1894), no.2; JOLY, Histoire de la campagnie de JÈsus, V (Paris, 1859), ii; ARRICIVITA, Crónica seráfica del apostólico colegio de QuerÈtaro; SALPOINTE, Soldiers of the Cross (Banning, 1898); ENGELHARDT, The Franciscans in Arizona (Harbor Springs, 1899); Diary of Francisco Garces, tr. COUES (New York, 1900). HENRY GRANJON Tucuman Tucumán (Tucumanensis). Suffragan to Buenos Aires, erected from the Diocese of Salta on 15 February, 1897, comprises the Province of Tucumán (area 8926 sq. miles; population 325,000), in the north-west of the Argentine Republic. The first and present bishop, Mgr. Pablo Padilla y Bárana (b. at Jujuy, 25 Jan., 1848), was consecrated titular Bishop of Pentacomia (17 Dec., 1891), transferred to Salta, (19 Jan., 1893), and to Tucumán (16 Jan., 1898). The episcopal city, Tucumán, or San Miguel de Tucumán (population 80,000), is situated on the Rio Dulce, 780 miles north-west of Buenos Aires, and was founded in 1565 by Diego de Villaruel; a Jesuit college was opened there in 1586. In 1680 Tucumán replaced Santiago del Estero as capital of the province. The Spanish forces were utterly defeated at Tucumán in 1812 by the Argentinos under Belgrano, whose statue has been erected in the city to commemorate the victory. One of the most interesting monuments in Tucumán is Independence Hall, where the Argentine delegates proclaimed (9 July, 1816) the Río de la Plata provinces free from Spanish domination. Of the twenty-seven members forming this National Congress fifteen were priests (as were two other delegates who were unavoidably absent, and the secretary of the assembly, JosÈ Agustín Molina, later Bishop of Camaco in partibus and Vicar Apostolic of Salta); two of the fifteen were afterwards raised to episcopal rank -- JosÈ Colombres (Salta) and Justo Santa María de Oro (Cuyo). It is to be noted that the See of Córdoba, founded in 1570, was generally referred to in the seventeenth century as that of Tucumán (Córdoba de Tucumán). On 21 January, 1910, the Province of Catamarca (area 47,531 sq. miles; population 107,000), which till then had been a vicariate forane of Tucumán, was erected into a separate see under Mgr. BernabÈ Piedrabuena (b. at Tucumán, 10 Nov., 1863; consecrated titular Bishop of Cestrus and coadjutor to Mgr. Padillo, 31 May, 1908; transferred to Catamarca, 8 Nov., 1910). Before the separation, Tucumán had 15 parishes, 67 churches and chapels, and Catamarca 15 parishes, 96 churches and chapels; there were 60 secular priests, assisted by Dominicans, Franciscans, and Fathers of Our Lady of Lourdes; there was a conciliar seminary with 3 students of philosophy and 60 rhetoricians; 7 theological students were studying at Buenos Aires and the Collegio Pio-Latino, Rome; in addition there were two Catholic colleges at Tucumán and one at Catamarca; there were communities of the Hermanas Esclavas, Dominican, Franciscan, Good Shepherd, and Josephine Sisters. A Catholic daily paper is published at Tucumán and two Catholic weeklies at Catamarca. A large number of the parishes have the usual Catholic sodalities and con-fraternities. Workingmen's circles are established in the two episcopal cities. Catamarca (San Fernando de Catamarca), lying 230 miles north-north-west of Córdoba, contains 8000 inhabitants. It was founded in 1680 by Fernando de Mendoza. The National College, which has a chair of mineralogy, is located in the old Merced Convent. Most of the inhabitants of the Province of Catamarca are mestizos, descendants of the Quilene, Cilian, Andagala, and Guafare Indians. Cholla (a suburb of Catamarca) is inhabited by Calchaqui Indians, but Spanish is now the only language spoken. USSHER, Guía eclesiástica de la República Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1910). A.A. MACERLEAN Tudela Tudela (TUTELÆ, TUTELENSIS). Diocese in Spain. The episcopal city has a population of 9213. Tudela was taken from the Moors by Alfonso el Batallador (the Fighter) in March, 1115, and in 1117 he obtained the Fuero de Sobrarbe. In 1121 the king gave the mosque and the tithes of several towns to the prior and ecclesiastical chapter of Tudela and built the Church of Santa María, where a community of Canons Regular of St. Augustine was established, the ecclesiastical authority of Tudela being vested in its abbot and prior. In 1238 the priory was raised to the dignity of a deanery, the first dean being D. Pedro JimÈnez and the second D. Lope Arcez de Alcoz. The latter obtained from Alexander IV in 1258 the ring and mitre. In the sixteenth century the deans of Tudela obtained the use of "pontificalia", a favour granted by Julius II to the dean D. Pedro Villalón de Calcena who had been his chamberlain and who held the deanship for twenty-seven years. The rivalry between the deans of Tudela and the bishops of Tarazona and the dissatisfaction of the kings owing to the fact that until 1749 the appointment of the dean was not subject to the royal patronage, a fact finally accomplished in 1749, induced the Council and the Royal Chamber to petition for the erection of Tudela into a diocese, which was done by Pius VI in the Bull of 27 March, 1783. The first bishop was D. Francisco Ramón de Larumbe (1784). He was succeeded (1797) by D. Simón de Casaviella López del Castillo, who during the war of independence saved Tudela from severe measures of retaliation ordered by the French general Lefèvre. The third bishop was D. Juan Ramon Santos de Larumbe y Larrayoz (1817), and the fourth and last D. Ramón María Azpetitia Saenz de Santa María (1819), who founded the Seminary of Santa Ana in a former house of the Jesuits. The seminary was re-established in 1846 in a former Carmelite convent. The last bishop died at Viana on 30 June, 1844. The Concordat of 1851 suppressed this diocese, since which time it has been administered by the bishops of Tarazona on whom the title of Administrator Apostolic of Tudela has been conferred. The cathedral dedicated to Nuestra Señora de la Blanca dates from the end of the twelfth and the beginning of the thirteenth century. It has a very notable facade. There are in Tudela a college of the Jesuits, charitable institutions conducted by the Sisters of Charity: the hospital of Nuestra Señora de Gracia, founded in the sixteenth century by D. Miguel de Eza; the Real Casa de Misericordia founded by Doña María Hugarte in 1771 and the "Hospitalillo" for orphan children founded in 1596 by D. Pedro Ortiz. MADRAZO, Navarra y Logroño in España, sus monumentos y artes: III (Barcelona, 1886); DE LA FUENTE in España sagrada, I (Madrid, 1866). RAMÓN RUIZ AMADÓ Tuguegarao Tuguegarao (TUGUEGARAONENSIS). Diocese in the Philippines; situated in the north-eastern section of the Island of Luzon, and embraces the three civil Provinces of Cagayan, Isabela, and Nueva Viscaya, and the two groups of the Batanes and Babuyanes Islands. It was erected on 10 April, 1910, being separated from the ancient Diocese of Nueva Segovia, erected in 1595. For two hundred years the seat of the Diocese of Nueva Segovia was located at Lalloc on the Cagayan River, a city which lies within the present limits of the new Diocese of Tuguegarao. The history of the Catholic Church in the Cagayan Valley for the three hundred years preceding the Spanish-American War is practically the history of the Spanish Dominican Fathers in this territory. The diocese counts (1912) 23 native secular priests, two Spanish seculars, 17 Spanish Dominicans and 7 Belgian missionaries. There is a boys' college in charge of the Dominican Fathers, and a girls' academy under the direction of the Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres. The population, which is entirely native, numbers about 200,000. With the exception of a few thousand Aglipayans they are all Catholics. The first bishop, the Rt. Rev. Maurice Patrick Foley, was appointed on 10 September, 1910. MAURICE FOLEY Tulancingo Tulancingo (De Tulancingo). Diocese in the Mexican Republic, suffragan of Mexico. Its area is about 8000 square miles, that is to say, almost that of the State of Hidalgo, in which the diocese is situated. It comprises the greater part of the State of Hidalgo, with the exception of a few parishes situated in the western part, and which belong to the Archbishopric of Mexico; but in return it has a few parishes in the State of Vera Cruz. Its population is 641,895 (1910). The bishop lives in the town of Tulancingo (population, 8000), although the capital of the state is the important mining town of Pachuca, situated 7962 feet above the level of the sea, with a population of about 38,620 inhabitants (1910). The Gospel was first preached in this territory in the first half of the sixteenth century by the Franciscan Fathers shortly after their arrival in Mexico; they then founded a convent at Tulancingo, whose first guardian was the venerable Father Juan Padilla, who died from the results of an assault made by the unfaithful Indians of New Mexico. The Augustinian Fathers also worked in this region. On 16 March, 1863, Pius IX made this see suffragan of the Archbishopric of Mexico. When created, many asked that the episcopal see be in the city of Huejutla; preference was given, however, to the city of Tulancingo. This new see was formed from thirty-eight parishes of the Archbishopric of Mexico, and from sixteen taken from the Bishopric of Puebla. It has 1 seminary with 40 students; 39 parochial schools; 5 Catholic colleges, and about 2352 students; there are 6 Protestant colleges with 255 students, and 6 Protestant churches. The town of Tulancingo existed long before the conquest; it is said to have been founded by the Toltecas in A.D. 697 and bore the name of Tollantzinco. Its most noted building is the cathedral, built in the beginning of the nineteenth century. Vera, Catecismo geográfico histórico estadístico de la igl. mÈx. (Amecameca, 1881). CAMILLUS CRIVELLI Louis-Rene Tulasne Louis-René Tulasne A noted botanist, b. at Azay-le-Rideau, Dept of Indre-et-Loire, France, 12 Sept., 1815; d. at Hyères in southern France 22 Dec., 1885. He studied law at Poitiers, but later turned his attention to botany and worked until 1842 in company with Auguste de Saint-Hilaire on the flora of Brazil. He was an assistant naturalist at the Museum of Natural History at Paris 1842-72; after this he retired from active work. In 1845 he was elected a member of the Academy to succeed Adrian de Jussieu. Tulasne was a very industrious, skilful, and successful investigator. He published at Paris numerous botanical works, the first appearing in 1845; he first wrote on the phanerogamia, as for instance, on the leguminosæ of South America, then on the cryptogamia, and especially on the fungi. He gained a world-wide reputation by his microscopic study of fungi (the science of mycology), especially by his investigation of the small parasitic fungi, researches which threw much light on the obscure and complicated history of their evolution. In this science he worked in collaboration with his brother Charles (b. 5 Sept., 1816; from 1843 a physician at Paris; d. at Hyères, 21 Aug., 1885). The chief publications issued by the two brothers are: "Fungi hypogæi" (fol., Paris, 1851), and "Selecta fungorum carpologia" (3 vols. fol., Paris, 1861-65), a work of the greatest importance for mycology, particularly on account of the splendid illustrations in the sixty-one plates. Tulasne wrote numerous mycological treatises for various periodicals such as the "Annales des sciences nat."; "Archives du muséum"; "Comptes rendus"; "Botanische Zeitung". He left his botanical library to the Catholic Institute of Paris. Tulasne openly acknowledged his desire to glorify God by his scientific labours. Several genuses of fungi, as well as several species, are named after Tulasne, as Tulasneinia, Tulasnella. SACHS, Gesch. der Botanik (Munich, 1875); MAGNUS, Nekrolog in Berichte der deutschen botanischen Gesellschaft, IV (Berlin, 1887). J. S. ROMPEL Tulle Tulle (TUTELENSIS). Diocese comprising the Department of Corrèze. It was suppressed by the Concordat of 1802, which joined it to the See of Limoges, but was theoretically re-established by the Concordat of 1817, and de facto re-erected by Bulls dated 6 and 31 October, 1822. It is suffragan of Bourges. According to legends which grew up in later years around the St. Martial cycle, that saint, who had been sent by St. Peter to preach, is said to have restored to life at Tulle the son of the governor, Nerva, and to have covered the neighbouring country with churches. By some of the legends St. Martin of Tours is made founder of the Abbey of Tulle; by others, St. Calmin, Count of Auvergne (seventh century). Robbed of its possessions by a powerful family, it recovered them in 930 through the efforts of a member of the same family, Viscount Adhemar, who left a reputation for sanctity. St. Odo, Abbot of Cluny, reformed it in the tenth century. John XXII by a Bull dated 13 August, 1317, raised it to episcopal rank; but the chapter remained subject to monastic rule and was not secularized until 1514. Among the bishops of Tulle were: Hugues Roger, known as Cardinal de Tulle (1342-43), who was never consecrated, and lived with his brother Clement VI; Jean Fabri (1370-71), who became cardinal in 1371; Jules Mascaron, the preacher (1671-79), who was afterwards Bishop of Agen; LÈonard Berteaud, preacher and theologian (1842-78). St. Rodolphe of Turenne, Archbishop of Bourges, who died in 866 founded, about 855, the Abbey of Beaulieu in the Diocese of Tulle. The Charterhouse of Glandier dates from 1219; the Benedictine Abbey of Uzerche was founded between 958 and 991; Meymac Priory, which became an abbey in 1146, was founded by Archambaud III, Viscount de Conborn. Urban II on his way to Limoges from Clermont (1095) passed near Tulle. St. Anthony of Padua dwelt for a time at Brive, towards the end of October, 1226; and the pilgrimage to the Grotto of Brive is the only existing one in France in honour of that saint. Pierre Roger, who became pope under the name of Clement VI, was a native of Maumont in the diocese. In 1352 the tiara was disputed between Jean Birel, general of the Carthusians, who had been prior of Glandier, and Etienne Aubert, who became pope under the name Innocent VI, and was a native of Château-des-Monts in the Diocese of Tulle. In 1362 Hugues Roger, Cardinal of Tulle, brother of Clement VI, refused the tiara; in 1370 Pierre Roger, his nephew, became pope under the name of Gregory XI. At Tulle and in Bas (Lower) Limousin, every year, on the vigil of St. John the Baptist, a feast is kept which is known as le tour de la lunade (the change of the moon); it is a curious example of the manner in which the Church was able to sanctify and Christianize many pagan customs. Legend places the institution of this feast in 1346 or 1348, about the time of the Black Death. It would seem to have been the result of a vow made in honour of St. John the Baptist. M. Maximin Deloche has shown that this legend is baseless; that the worship of the sun existed in Gaul down to the seventh century, according to the testimony of St. Eligius, and that the feast of St. John's Nativity, 24 June, was substituted for the pagan festival of the summer solstice, so that the tour de la lunade was an old pagan custom, sanctified by the Church, which changed it to an act of homage to St. John the Baptist. Among the saints specially honoured in, or connected with the diocese, besides those already mentioned, are: St. Fereola, martyr (date uncertain); St. Martin of Brive, disciple of St. Martin of Tours, and martyr (fifth century); St. Duminus, hermit (early sixth century); at Argentat, St. Sacerdos, who was Bishop of Limoges when he retired into solitude (sixth century); St. Vincentianus (Viance), hermit (seventh century); St. Liberalis, Bishop of Embrun, died in 940 at Brive, his native place; St. Reynier, provost of Beaulieu, died at the beginning of the tenth century; St. Stephen of Obazine, b. about 1085, founder of the monastery for men at Obazine, and that for women at Coyroux; St. Berthold of Malefayde, first general of the Carmelites, and whose brother Aymeric was Patriarch of Antioch (twelfth century). Etienne Baluze, the learned historian (1638-1718), was a native of Tulle, and the missionary Dumoulin Borie (1808-38), who was martyred in Tonquin, was born in the diocese. The chief pilgrimages of the diocese are: Notre-Dame-de-Belpeuch, at Camps, dating from the ninth or tenth century; Notre-Dame-de-Chastre at Bar, dating from the seventeenth century; Notre-Dame-du-Pont-du-Salut, which goes back to the seventeenth century; Notre-Dame-du-Roc at Servières, dating from 1691; Notre-Dame-d'Eygurande, dating from 1720; Notre-Dame-de-La-Buissière-Lestard, which was a place of pilgrimage before the seventeenth century; Notre-Dame-de-La-Chabanne at Ussel, dates from 1140; Notre-Dame-de-Pennacorn at Neuvic, dating from the end of the fifteenth century. Before the application of the Law of 1901, the Diocese of Tulle contained Carthusians, Franciscans, Sulpicians, Assumptionists, Fathers of the Third Order of St. Francis of Assisi, and many teaching congregations of Brothers. The teaching Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Mary had their mother-house at Triegnac. The religious congregations were in charge of 6 nurseries, 2 orphanages for boys, 5 orphanages for girls, 1 Good Shepherd Home, 1 home for the poor, 15 hospitals or hospices, 10 district nursing institutions, and 1 lunatic asylum. At the time of the breach of the Concordat in 1905 the diocese had 318,422 inhabitants, 34 first-class parishes, 255 succursal parishes, and 71 curacies supported by the State. Gallia Christiana (nova), II (1720), 661-80, instrum., 203, 320; Champeval, Le Bas Limousin historique et religieux; GÈographie de la Corrèze (2 vols., Limoges, 1894, 1899); PoulbriÈre, Histoire du diocèse de Tulle (Tulle, 1885); Idem, Dictionnaire archÈologique et historique des paroisses du diocèse de Tulle (2 vols., Tulle, 1894-99); Champeval, Cartulaire de l'abbaye bÈnÈdictine St-Martin de Tulle (Brive, 1903); Deloche, MÈmoire sur la procession dite de la Lunade et les feux de Saint Jean à Tulle in MÈmoires de l'AcadÈmie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, XXXII (1891); Les principaux sanctuaires consacrÈs à la Sainte Vierge au diocèse de Tulle (2d ed., Tulle, 1886); Niel, Hist. des Èvêques de T. in Bull. de la soc. hist. de la soc. hist. de la Corrèze (1880-4). GEORGES GOYAU Tunic Tunic By tunic is understood in general a vestment shaped like a sack, which has in the closed upper part only a slit for putting the garment over the head, and, on the sides, either sleeves or mere slits through which the arms can be passed. The expressions under-tunic or over-tunic are used accordingly as the tunic is employed as an outer vestment or under another. A tunic that reaches to the feet is called a gown tunic (tunica talaris, Gr. poderes); a tunic without sleeves or with short sleeves is called colobium; one which leaves the right shoulder free, exomis. By tunic (tunicella) is understood in liturgical language that sacerdotal upper vestment of the subdeacon which corresponds to the dalmatic of the deacon. According to present usage the dalmatic and tunic are alike both as regards form and ornamentation. They also agree in the manner of use as well as in the fact that the tunic, like the dalmatic, is one of the essential vestments worn at the pontifical Mass by the bishop. It is unneccesary here to go into full details, but it will suffice in regard to form, ornamentation, and use to refer to what is said under dalmatic. As regards the form, according to the directions of the "Cæremoniale Episcoporum", the tunic should be distinguished from the dalmatic by narrower sleeves, but this is hardly observed even in the pontifical tunic, which is worn under the dalmatic. The bishop himself puts the tunic on the newly-ordained subdeacon with the words: "May the Lord clothe thee with the tunic of joy and the garment of rejoicing. In the name", etc. History According to a letter of Pope Saint Gregory the Great to Bishop John of Syracuse, the subdiaconal tunic was, for a time, customary at Rome as early as the sixth century. Gregory however suppressed it and returned to the older usage. From this time on, therefore, the Roman subdeacon once more wore the planeta (chasuble) as the outer garment until, in the ninth century, the tunic again came into use among them as the outer vestment. As early as the sixth century subdiaconal tunic was worn in Spian, which according to the ninth canon of the synod of Braga, was hardly or not at all distinguishable from the diaconal tunic, the so-called alb. No notice of a tunic worn by subdeacons has been preservcd from the pre-Carolingian era in Gaul, yet such a vestment was undoubtedly in use in France as in Spain. There is certain proof of its use in the Frankish kingdom at the beginning of the ninth century, both from the testimony of Amalar of Metz and from various inventories. About the close of the year one thousand the tunic was so universally worn by subdeacons as a liturgical upper vestment that it was briefly called vestis subdiaconalis or subdiaconale. As early as the first Roman Ordo the tunic is found as one of the papal pontifical vestments under the name of dalmatica minor, dalmatica linea. The Roman deacons also wore it under the dalmatic, while only the tunic and not the dalmatic was part of the liturgical dress of the Roman cardinal-priests and hebdomadal bishops. Outside of Rome also the pontifical vestments frequently included only the tunic, not tunic and dalmatic together, or, as was more often the case, the dalmatic without the tunic. Not until the twelfth century did it become general for the bishop to wear both vestments at the same time, that is, the tunic as well as the dalmatic. The granting to abbots of the privilege of wearing the tunic as well as the dalmatic, is very seldom mentioned, and even then not until the second half of the twelfth century. Before this era abbots never received more than the privilege of wearing the dalmatic. The acolytes at Rome wore the tunic as early as the ninth century; in the Frankish kingdom it was probably customary in some places in the tenth century for acolytes to wear the tunic; it was worn by acolytes at Farfa towards the close of the tenth century. In the late Middle Ages the wearing of the tunic by acolytes was a widespread custom. In the medieval period the tunic was called by various names. Besides tunica, it also bore the name of tunicella; dalmatica minor; dalmatica linea, or simply linea; tunica stricta, or merely stricta; subdiaconale; roccus; alba; and, especially in Germany subtile. As to the original form of the vestment, it was at first a tunic in the shape of a gown with narrow sleeves and without the vertical ornamental strips (clavi). The material of which it was made was linen for ordinary occasions, but as early as the ninth-century inventories silk tunics are mentioned. The development that the vestment has undergone from the Carolingian period up to the present time has been in all points similar to that of the dalmatic; during the course of this development the distinction between the dalmatic and the tunic steadily decreased. Silk gradually became the material from which the tunic was regularly made; It grew continually shorter, and slits were made in the sides which, by the end of the Middle Ages, went the length of entire side up to the sleeve. Finally, outside of Italy, the sleeves were also slit, just as in the dalmatic which, already in the later Middle Ages, was hardly to be distinguished from the tunic, especially as in the meantime the red clavi of the dalmatic had been replaced by another form of ornamentation, which was also adopted for the tunic. When in the course of the twelfth century a canon was developed respecting the liturgical colours, the canon was naturally authoritative for the tunic as well as for the chasuble and dalmatic. In the Middle Ages the use of the tunic at Mass corresponded throughout to that of the dalmatic consequently discussion of it here is unnecessary. The ceremony in which the bishop, after the ordination places the tunic upon the newly-ordained subdeacon had its origin in the twelfth century, but even in the thirteenth century it was only customary in isolated cases. It was not until the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries that the usage was universally adopted in the rite of ordination of subdeacons. As to the origin of the subdiaconal tunic it was, without doubt a copy of the dalmatic, in which the vertical trimming of the dalmatic was omitted, and the sleeves were made narrower. The tunic (stickaphion) worn by the subdeacon in the Oriental Rites does not correspond to the subdiaconal tunic of Western Europe, which from the beginning had the fixed character of an outer tunic, but resembled the alb, even though, according to present custom, it is no longer exclusively white, but often coloured. BOCK, Gesch. Der liturg. Gewänder, II (Bonn, 1866); ROHAULT DE FLEURY, La messe, VII (Paris, 1888); BRAUN, Die liturgische Gewandung im Occident und Orient (Freiburg, 1907). JOSEPH BRAUN Tunis Tunis French protectorate on the northern coast of Africa. About the twelfth century before Christ Phoenicians settled on the coast of what is now Tunis and founded colonies there, which soon attained great economic importance. Among them were: Hippo Zarytus, Utica, Carthage, Hadrumetum, and Tunes. Ultimately all these cities were obliged to acknowledge the suzerainty of Carthage, which ruled a territory almost as extensive as the present Tunis. The fall of Carthage, b.c. 146, made the Romans masters of the country, which as the Province of Africa became one of the granaries of Italy. Numerous ruins of palaces, temples, Christian churches, amphitheatres, aqueducts, etc., which are still to be found, give proof of the high civilization existing under Roman sway. Christianity also flourished at an early era. In 439 the country was conquered by the Vandals, and in 533 Belisarius retook it and made it a part of the Eastern Empire. The supremacy of Constantinople was not of long duration. First the Patrician Gregorius, Governor of North Africa for the Emperor Heraclius, proclaimed his independence. However, on the incursion of the Arabs from the East, Gregorius was overthrown in 648 by the Arabian commander Abdallah, who returned to Egypt with enormous booty. In 670 the Arabs again entered the country, conquered Biserta, and founded the City of Kairwán in the region beyond Susa. In 697 they also took the City of Carthage, up to then successfully defended by the Eastern Empire, and reduced it to a heap of ruins. Tunis, a town formerly of small importance, now took the place of Carthage in commerce and traffic. When the Ommayyad dynasty was overthrown by the Abbassids, almost all Africa regained independence, and it was not until 772 that the caliphs again acquired control over it. Caliph Haroun al Raschid made the vigorous Ibrahim ibn el Aghlab Governor of Africa, but in 800 Ibrahim threw off the supremacy of the caliphate. Kairwán remained the capital of the Aghlabite Kingdom, which embraced Tripoli, Algiers, the greater part of Tunis, and also the Arabic possessions in Sicily and Sardinia. The last of the Aghlabite dynasty made Tunis the capital of the country, and gave the name of the city to the entire country. In 908 the Aghlabite dynasty was overthrown by Obeid Allah, founder of the dynasty of the Fátimites, which in the course of the tenth century conquered the whole of North Africa. After the conquest of Egypt the Fátimites transferred the seat of their power to Cairo and gave the regions in Western Africa in fief to the Zírite family in 972. From the middle of the twelfth century Tunis was ruled by the Almohade dynasty, which, weakened by its struggles with the Christian kingdoms of Spain, was driven out of Tunis in 1206 by a Berber, Abù Hafs, who founded the dynasty of the Hafsites that ruled until 1574. In 1240 Eastern Algeria was united to Tunis. Thus in the course of time the great centralized Arabic Empire was replaced in North Africa by several independent states, such as Morocco, Algiers, and Tunis. In this way the strength of Islam, as contrasted with that of Christian Western Europe, was weakened, and the Christian countries were now able to prepare to attack the Mohammedan power. Thus, King St. Louis of France undertook a crusade against Tunis in 1270 which was unsuccessful; Louis himself died the same year during the siege of the City of Tunis. During the last centuries of the medieval era Tunis was the most flourishing of the North African countries; the cities of Tunis and Kairwán were centres of Eastern civilization and learning. The rule of the Arabic Emirs in Tunis was overthrown by the Turks. Turkish corsairs led by the Greek renegade Horuk Barbarossa appeared in the western part of the Mediterranean about 1510. By gifts they won over the ruler of Tunis, Mulei Mohammed, who permitted them to make the City of Tunis the base for their piratical expeditions. In a short time Horuk Barbarossa gathered a large fleet manned chiefly by Turks, and became master of the City of Algiers and several towns along the African coast. His brother, Khair al-Dín Barbarossa, increased these possessions on the coast and sought to give his conquests permanence by placing them under the suzerainty of the Porte. When disputes over the succession to the throne arose in the Hafsite dynasty, Barbarossa skilfully used the opportunity to overthrow Mulei Hassan and to make himself the ruler of Tunis. Mulei Hassan appealed to the Emperor Charles V, who responded by landing near Carthage with a fleet, capturing Tunis and Goletta in July, 1535, and liberating nearly 20,000 Christian slaves. Mulei Hassan was restored to power in Tunis as a Spanish vassal, but was obliged to promise to suppress Christian slavery in his domain, to grant religious liberty, and to close his ports to the pirates. As a pledge Spain retained the citadels of Tunis and Goletta, which it garrisoned. On the way home the Spanish fleet completed the destruction of Carthage, but failed in an attack on Algiers. Mulei Hassan, who was hated by his people, was overthrown in 1542 by his own son Mulei Hamid. When in 1570 the Turks entered Tunis from Algiers Mulei Hamid appealed to Spain for aid, and as a result Tunis was captured by Don Juan of Austria in 1573. Jealous of his half-brother, however, King Philip recalled him and offered no resistance when the Turks conquered the entire country in 1574. Thus the military supremacy of the Turks was established in Tunis. The real masters of the country were the Turkish garrisons, beside whom the dey, appointed by the Sultan as the possessor of the highest authority, was a mere shadow. As early as the administration of the third dey, the bey, Murad, originally an officer to collect the tribute, gained the chief authority for himself and made it hereditary in his family. Like Algiers and Morocco, Tunis developed in this period into a much dreaded pirate state. The Tunisian galleys sailed along all the coasts of the Mediterranean, devastating and plundering. They stopped foreign ships on the open sea and dragged them as prizes to Tunis, where the cargo would be discharged and the crew and passengers sold as slaves. For a long time Christian Western Europe did nothing to put an end to this impudent piracy. Although the English Admiral Blake in 1665 burned nine large Tunisian pirate ships in the harbour of Porto Farina, yet, as the struggle against the pirates was not continued, no permanent improvement of conditions was attained. At a later date treaties were made between Tunis and the powers interested in commerce in the Mediterranean. Venice, Spain, Portugal, England, Holland, Denmark, and even the United States paid an annual tribute to Tunis. In return Tunis bound itself not to attack the ships that sailed under the flag of the treaty-making powers. For two hundred years Europe endured this nest of pirates. For Tunis it was a brilliant period in which enormous treasures accumulated in the country, and during which the supremacy of the Porte was almost nominal. The nineteenth century completely altered the situation. Sharp resolutions against piracy in the Mediterranean were passed by the Congress of Vienna and England was authorized by the powers to enforce these resolutions by sending a fleet against the piratical countries. In 1816 Lord Exmouth, by the bombardment and partial destruction of the City of Algiers, forced the ruler of Algiers to put an end to Christian slavery. The terrified Bey of Tunis also promised to do the same, yet, in spite of this, Christian ships were repeatedly attacked by Tunisian vessels. When in 1830 the French began the conquest of Algiers, Tunis at first aided the Algerian leader Abd el Kader, but in retaliation the French forced Tunis to suppress piracy completely, to yield an island on the coast, and to pay a sum of money. Alarmed at the danger from France, the Porte now sought to form closer relations with Tunis and to make the country an immediate Turkish province. These efforts, which were successful at that date in Tripoli, failed in Tunis on account of the opposition of French diplomacy. In order to be better able to maintain his position in regard to the Porte, the Bey Sidi Ahmed (1837-55) entered into closer relations with France, and even tried to introduce western reforms; in 1842 he abolished slavery, and in 1846 the slave-trade. Under French and English influence his cousin Sidi Mohammed (1855-59) introduced liberal legislation and reorganized the administration. His brother Mohammed es-Sadok (1859-82) even gave the country a liberal constitution in 1861, but had to withdraw it owing to the opposition of the Arabs and Moors. His extravagant tastes forced the bey to borrow money, thus bringing him into financial dependence on France, which showed more and more undisguisedly its desire to control Tunis. However, the Franco-German War (1870-71) forced France to restrain its hand. In 1871 the sultan granted the hereditary right to rule according to primogeniture to the family of the bey and abandoned all claim to tribute, in return for which the bey promised not to go to war without the permission of the Porte, and to enter into no diplomatic negotiations with foreign powers. France protested against this and would not recognize the suzerainty of the Porte over Tunis, but could not enforce its protests. In the years succeeding the foreign element in Tunis constantly gained in importance, and the Italian Government, especially, sought to acquire a strong economic position in the country. France began to fear that she might be outwitted by Italy in Tunis, so in 1881 she used the disturbances on the boundary of Algiers and Tunis as a pretext for military interference. In April, 1881, in spite of the protests of the bey and the Porte, an army of 30,000 French soldiers advanced from Algiers into Tunis, and readily overcame the resistance of the tribes. A French fleet appeared before the capital, and a squadron landed at Biserta a brigade which advanced against the City of Tunis from the land side. Unable to oppose this force, the bey was obliged to sign on 12 May the Treaty of Kasr el-Said, also called the Bardo Treaty, which transformed Tunis into a French protectorate. The revolt of the native tribes against the French was crushed in the years 1881-82. Although at the beginning of the expedition France had declared that the occupation would only be a temporary one, yet ever since then the French have remained in the country. Economically the control by an European power has proved advantageous to the country. Mohammed es-Sadok was succeeded by his brother Sidi Ali Pasha (1882-1902), who was followed by his son Sidi Mohammed. The regency of Tunis has an area of 45,779 sq. miles and contained, in 1911, 1,923,217 inhabitants, of whom 1,706,830 were natives, 49,245 Jews, 42,410 French, 107,905 Italians, 12,258 English and Maltese, 1307 Spanish. Politically, Tunis forms a French protectorate; France represents the country in foreign relations, makes all the treaties with foreign powers, decides as to peace and war. In return it protects the bey against any threatened attack upon his land and guarantees the state debt. In internal affairs the bey has nominally the legislative power, but decrees and laws are not valid until they have received the signature of the resident-general representing the French Government. The budget is not submitted to the hey for his approval until it has been discussed by the ministerial council and examined by the French Government. The resident-general is the representative of the French Government at Tunis, and is subordinate to the French minister of foreign affairs. He unites in his person all the authority of the French Government, is the official intermediary between the Tunisian Government and the representatives of foreign powers, is the presiding officer of the ministerial council, and of all the higher administration of Tunis. He can veto the actions of the bey, and in case the bey fails to act he can order the necessary regulations or open the way for them. The ministerial council consists of the resident-general, two native ministers, and seven French ministers; the council settles the most important matters and especially determines the budget. The two native ministers direct internal affairs, the administration of justice for the natives, and the supervision of the landed property of the natives. The other branches of the administration are directed by the French ministers. The administration of justice is a double one: all legal disputes in which Europeans are concerned are settled by French law; the natives are under Mohammedan law. As regards the Catholic Church Tunis forms the Archdiocese of Carthage; cf. also the article LAVIGERIE. Ashbee, Bibl. of Tunisia (London, 1889); Broadley, Tunis Past and Present (London, 1882); Tissot, Exploration scientifique de la Tunisie (Paris, 1884-87); Faucon, La Tunisie avant et depuis l'occupation française (Paris, 1893); Fitzner, Die Regentschaft Tunis (Berlin, 1895); Clain de la Rive, Hist. gÈnÈrale de la Tunisie (Paris, 1895); Loth, Hist. de la Tunisie (Paris, 1898); Vivian, Tunisia and the Modern Barbary Pirates (London, 1899); Oliver and Dubois, La Tunisie (Paris, 1898); Hesse- Wartegg, Tunis, the Land and the People (2nd ed., London, 1899); Bahar, Le protectorat tunisien (Paris, 1904); La Tunisie au dÈbut du XXe siècle (Paris, 1904); SchÖnfeld, Aus den staaten der Barbaresken (Berlin, 1902); Schanz, Algerien, Tunisien u. Tripolitanien (Halle, 1905); Loth, La peuple italien en Tunisie et en AlgÈrie (Paris, 1905); Idem, La Tunisie et l'æuvre du protectorat français (Paris, 1907); Babelon, Cagnat and Reinach, Atlas archÈologique de la Tunisie (Paris, 1905-); Violard, La Tunisie du Nord (Paris, 1906); Sladen, Carthage and Tunis (London, 1907); Petrie, Tunis, Kairouan and Carthage (New York, 1909); Reclus, AlgÈrie et Tunisie (Paris, 1909).; Guadiani and Thiaucourt, La Tunisie (Paris, 1910); Gept, La Tunisie Èconomique (Paris, 1910); Statistique gÈnÈrale (Tunis, annually); Lecore- Charpentier, L'indicateur tunisien (Tunis, 1899-). JOSEPH LINS Tunja Tunja (Tunquenensis). Diocese established in 1880 as a suffragan of Bogotá, in the Republic of Colombia, South America. Its jurisdiction comprises the territory of the Department of Boyacá, with a Catholic population in 1911 of 400,000 souls; 145 priests; 153 parishes, and 159 churches and chapels. The capital of the department and see of the bishop is the City of Tunja, which before the arrival of the Spaniards was, under the name of Hunza, the residence of the zaque, the sovereign of the Muisca Indians. It was founded on 6 Aug., 1538, by Captain Gonzalo Suárez Rondón, by order of the conqueror Quesada. Emperor Charles V granted it the title of city in 1681. The wealth and luxury of its ancient founders can still be recognized in the coats-of-arms carved over the stone entrances of its beautiful mansions. Prominent among its public buildings are: the palace of the bishop, the cathedral, and the various churches; the monastery of the Dominicans, and the convent of the Santa Clara nuns. Public instruction in the Department of Boyacá is under the supervision of the governor of the department, assisted by a director of public instruction. There are in the department over 200 primary schools, with about 15,000 pupils of both sexes. Secondary instruction in Tunja is given at various colleges supported by the department, like the College of Boyacá and the normal school for women; and at several Catholic institutions such as the Christian Brothers' College, the Academy of Tertiary Sisters, and the College of the Presentation; for the education of the clergy there is the diocesan seminary. There are also several Catholic schools in other cities of the department, among them the College of Jesus, Mary, and Joseph, under the Christian Brothers; the College of the Presentation, in charge of the Sisters of Charity; the College of Santa Rosa de Lima; and the College of St. Louis Gonzaga, in Chiquinquirá. (See COLOMBIA.) JULIAN MORENO-LACALLE Tunkers Tunkers (German tunken, to dip) A Protestant sect thus named from its distinctive baptismal rite. They are also called "Dunkards", "Dunkers", "Brethren", and "German Baptists". This last appellation designates both their national origin and doctrinal relationship. In addition to their admission of the teaching of the Baptists, they hold the following distinctive beliefs and practices. In the administration of baptism the candidate is required to kneel in the water and is dipped forward three times, in recognition of the three Persons of the Trinity. Communion after the manner of the primitive church is administered in the evening; it is preceded by the love-feast or agape, and followed by the kiss of charity. On certain occasions they also perform the rite of foot-washing. Their dress is characterized by unusual simplicity. They refuse to take oaths, to bear arms, and, in so far as possible, to engage in lawsuits. Their foundation was due to a desire of restoring primitive Christianity, and dates back to 1708. In that year their founder Alexander Mack (1679-1735) received believers' baptism with seven companions at Schwarzenau, in Westphalia. The little company rapidly made converts, and congregations were established in Germany, Holland, and Switzerland. As they were subjected to persecution, they all emigrated to America between the years 1719 and 1729. The first families settled at Germantown, Pennsylvania, where a church was organized in 1723. Shortly after some members, led by Conrad Beissel who contended that the seventh day ought to be observed as the Sabbath, seceded and formed the "Seventh Day Baptists" (German; membership in 1911, 250). The Tunkers, nevertheless, prospered and, in spite of set-backs caused by the Revolutionary and Civil Wars, spread from Pennsylvania to many other states of the Union, and to Canada. Foreign missionary work and the foundation of educational institutions were inaugurated in the decade 1870-1880. About the same time the demands for the adoption of a more progressive and liberal church policy became more and more insistent, and in 1881-82 led to division. Two extreme parties, "the Progressives" and the "Old Order Brethren", separated from the main body, which henceforth was known as the "Conservative Tunkers". These obey the annual conference as the central authority, and have a ministry composed of bishops or elders, ministers, and deacons. They maintain schools in various states, own a printing plant at Elgin, Illinois, and publish the "Gospel Messenger" as their official organ. (Membership, 3006 ministers, 880 churches, 100,000 communicants.) The Progressives hold that the decisions of the annual conference do not bind the individual conscience, that its regulations concerning plain attire need not be observed, and that each congregation shall independently administer its own affairs. (Statistics, 186 ministers, 219 churches, 18,607 communicants.) The Old Order Brethren are unalterably attached to the old practices; they are opposed to high schools, Sunday schools, and missionary activity; they have still, according to the long prevalent custom of the sect, an unsalaried ministry and are extremely plain in dress. (228 ministers; 75 churches; 4000 communicants.) The statistics throughout are those of CARROLL in Christian Advocate (New York, 26 Jan., 1911). Beside the minutes of the Annual Meeting, consult on the doctrine: MACK, A Plain View of the Rites and Ordinances of the House of God (Mt. Morris, 1888), and MILLER, Doctrine of the Brethren Defended (Indianapolis, 1876); BRUMBAUGH, History of the German Baptist Brethren in Europe and America (Elgin, 1899); FALKENSTEIN, History of the German Baptist Brethren Church (Lancaster, 1901); HOLSINGER, History of the Tunkers and the Brethren Churches (Oakland, 1901); GILLEN, The Dunkers (New York, 1906). N.A. WEBER Cuthbert Tunstall Cuthbert Tunstall Bishop of London, later of Durham, b. at Hackforth, Yorkshire, in 1474; d. at Lambeth Palace, 18 Nov., 1559. He studied both at Oxford and Cambridge, finally graduating LL.D. at Padua. Being an accomplished scholar both in theology and law, as well as in Greek and Hebrew, he soon won the friendship of Archbishop Warham, who on 25 Aug., 1511, made him his chancellor, and shortly after rector of Harrow-on-the-Hill. He became successively a canon of Lincoln (1514) and archdeacon of Chester (1515). He began his diplomatic career as ambassador at Brussels, in conjunction with Sir Thomas More, and there he lodged with Erasmus, becoming the intimate friend of both of them. Further preferments and embassies fell to his lot, till in 1522 he was appointed Bishop of London by papal provision. On 25 May, 1523, he became keeper of the privy seal; but neither the work this entailed nor fresh embassies prevented him from making a visitation of his diocese. A visit to Worms (1520-1) had opened his eyes to the dangers of the Lutheran movement and the evils arising from heretical literature. In the divorce question Tunstall acted as one of Queen Katherine's counsel, but he endeavoured to dissuade her from appealing to Rome. On 21 Feb., 1529-30, he was translated by the pope from the Diocese of London to the more important See of Durham, a step which involved the assumption of quasi-regal power and authority within the bishopric (see DURHAM, ANCIENT CATHOLIC DIOCESE OF). During the troubled years that followed, Tunstall was far from imitating the constancy of [St. John] Fisher and [St. Thomas] More, yet he ever held to Catholic doctrine and practices. He adopted a policy of passive obedience and acquiescence in many matters with which he could have had no sympathy. With regard to the suppression of the monasteries, the king's ministers so feared his influence that they prevented his attendance at Parliament. In 1537 Tunstall was given the onerous position of President of the Council of the North, and Scottish affairs occupied much of his attention. Towards the end of Henry's reign he twice was sent on diplomatic business to France. Under the protectorate of Somerset his religious position became very difficult, but he yielded so far in compliance to the new changes that Gardiner protested. But the lengths to which the reformers went opened his eyes to the real significance of the royal supremacy; a change came over his attitude, and he staunchly maintained the Catholic side, steadily opposing the abolition of chantries, the Act of Uniformity, and the law permitting priests to marry. He seems to have hoped that Warwick might be induced to reverse the anti-Catholic policy of Somerset, but this hope soon failed, and in 1551 he was summoned to London and confined to his house there. During this captivity he composed his treatise, "De Veritate Corporis et Sanguinis Domini nostri Jesu Christi in Eucharistia", published at Paris in 1554. At the end of 1551 he was removed to the Tower, and a bill for his deprivation was introduced. When this failed, he was tried by a commission (4-5 Oct., 1552) and deprived of his bishopric. On Mary's accession he was liberated, and his bishopric, which had been dissolved by Act of Parliament in March, 1553, was re- established by a further Act in April, 1554. Through Mary's reign he, being now an octogenarian, ruled his diocese in peace, taking little part either in public affairs or in the persecution of heretics; but on the accession of Elizabeth his firmness in resisting the fresh innovations marked him out for the royal displeasure. He declined to take the oath of supremacy, was summoned to London, and when ordered to consecrate Parker refused to do so. Shortly afterwards he was deprived of his see (28 Sept., 1559) and committed to Parker's care as a prisoner at Lambeth Palace, where within a few weeks he died. He thus became one of the eleven confessor-bishops who died prisoners for the Faith. His works, exclusive of published letters and sermons, are: "De Arte Supputandi Libri IV" (London, 1522); "Confutatio cavillationum quibus SS. Eucharistiae Sacramentum ab impiis Caphernaitis impeti solet" (Paris, 1552); "De veritate Corporis et Sanguinis Domini in Eucharistia Libri II" (Paris, 1554); "Compendium in decem libros ethicorum Aristotelis" (Paris, 1554); "Certaine godly and devout prayers made in Latin by C. Tunstall and translated into Englishe by Thomas Paynelle, Clerke" (London, 1558). Much of his political correspondence is preserved in the British Museum. Despite his weakness under Henry VIII, we may endorse the verdict of the Anglican historian, Pollard, who writes (op. cit. inf.): "Tunstall's long career of eighty-five years, for thirty-seven of which he was a bishop, is one of the most consistent and honourable in the sixteenth century. The extent of the religious revolution under Edward VI caused him to reverse his views on the royal supremacy and he refused to change them again under Elizabeth." The State Papers, domestic and foreign, for the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI, and Mary, and the usual sources of information for those reigns, too numerous for citation here, must be referred to. No independent biography exists but among recent writers the following should be consulted: BRADY, Episcopal Succession (Rome, 1877); BRIDGETT-KNOX, Queen Elizabeth and the Catholic Hierarchy (London, 1889); POLLARD in Dict. Nat. Biog., s. v.; PHILLIPS, The Extinction of the Ancient Hierarchy (London, 1905); BIRT, The Elizabethan Religious Settlement (London, 1907). EDWIN BURTON Ven. Thomas Tunstall Ven. Thomas Tunstall Martyred at Norwich, 13 July, 1616. He was descended from the Tunstalls of Thurland, an ancient Lancashire family who afterwards settled in Yorkshire. In the Douay Diaries he is called by the alias of Helmes and is described as Carleolensis, that is, born within the ancient Diocese of Carlisle. He took the College oath at Douay on 24 May, 1607; received minor orders at Arras, 13 June, 1609, and the subdiaconate at Douay on 24 June following. The diary does not record his ordination to the diaconate or priesthood, but he left the college as a priest on 17 August, 1610. On reaching England he was almost immediately apprehended and spent four or five years in various prisons till he succeeded in escaping from Wisbech Castle. He made his way to a friend's house near Lynn, where is was recaptured and committed to Norwich Gaol. At the next assizes he was tried and condemned (12 July, 1616). The saintliness of his demeanor on the scaffold produced a profound impression on the people. There is a contemporary portrait of the martyr at Stonyhurst, showing him as a man still young with abundant black hair and dark moustache. CHALLONER, Memoirs of Missionary Priests, II (London, 1742); Third Douay Diary, X, XI (Catholic Record Society, London, 1911); FOLEY, Records Eng. Prov. S.J., XII (London, 1879). EDWIN BURTON Simon Tunsted Simon Tunsted English Minorite, b. at Norwich, year unknown; d. at Bruisyard, Suffolk, 1369. Having joined the Greyfriars at Norwich he distinguished himself for learning and piety and was made a doctor of theology. He filled several important ecclesiastical charges, being at different times warden of the Franciscan convent at Norwich, regent master of the Minorities at Oxford (1351), and twenty-ninth provincial superior of his order in England (1360). He wrote a commentary on the "Meteora" of Aristotle, improved the "Albeon" of Richard of Wallingford; and is the reputed author of another work, the "Quatuor Principalia Musicae", a clear, practical, and very valuable medieval treatise on music. Davey gives a thorough discussion of the authorship of this work, which has been ascribed by different writers on the history of music to Tunsted, to John Hanboys, and to Thomas of Tewkesbury; but the arguments brought forward by Davey show that it is certainly not the work of either Hanboys or Thomas of Tewkesbury, whilst his conclusion with regard to the first-named writer is that "the grounds for ascribing it to Tunsted are admittedly insufficient; and internal evidence point to the author being a foreigner either by birth or education". DAVEY in Dict. Nat. Biog., s. v.; IDEM, Hist. of English Music. EDWARD C. PHILLIPS Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot Baron de L'Aulne, French minister, born at Parish, 10 May, 1727; died there, 20 March, 1781. In his youth he was destined for the Church; he composed a treatise on the existence of God, of which fragments remain, and one on the love of God, which is lost. The year 1750, during which he was prior of the Sorbonne, marks the transition between the two periods of his life: on the one hand, he delivered a discourse on the advantages accruing to the human race from the Christian religion, which showed him as still an ecclesiastic; on the other, he delivered a discourse on the successive progress of the human mind, in which the true and false ideas of the philosophers were mingled confusedly. In this discourse he foretold the separation from England of the North American colonies. Early in 1751 the influence of "philosophy" prevailed over Turgot's mind and he decided not to receive Holy orders. In 1752 he entered the magistracy, was master of rêquetes in 1753, spending his leisure time in the acquirement of further knowledge, and in 1761 became intendant at Limoges. In the Limousin government Turgot inaugurated certain attempts in conformity with the new ideas of the economists and philosophers: free trade in corn and the suppression of the taxes known as corvées. When, after a short term in the ministry of marine, he was appointed by Louis XVI (24 Aug., 1774) controller-general of finances, he profited by the office which he held for twenty months to apply in his general policy the principles of economic Liberalism. This caused popular discontent, due especially to the rise in the price of corn, but Turgot flattered himself that he could quell all opposition. The edict, by which he substituted for the corvée a territorial tax bearing on landed property, displeased the privileged classes; that by which he suppressed the maîtrises and jurandes, an act which the philosophers regarded as an advance, destroyed the professional organization which in the Middle Ages, under the auspices of the Church, regulated economic activity and which at present the syndicalist movement in all countries is endeavouring to re-establish. By depriving the Hôtel Dieu of Paris of its privilege of selling meat on Friday to the exclusion of the butchers, by dispensing the owners of public vehicles from the obligation they were under of allowing their drivers time on Sunday to hear Mass, and by attempting to change the coronation oath which he found too favourable to the Catholics, Turgot displeased the clergy who accused him of indifference for the disciplinary precepts of the Church. He was disgraced by Louis XVI, 12 May, 1776. In his retirement he wrote for Price, "Réflexions sur la situation des Américains des Etats Unis", and for Franklin a treatise, "Des vrais principes de l'imposition". His works were edited by Dussard and Daire (2 vols., Paris, 1844). DUPONT DE NEMOURS, Memoires sur la vie et les ouvrages de Turgot (2 vols., Paris, 1782); FONCIN, Essai sur le ministere de Turgot (Paris, 1877); SAY, Turgot (Paris, 1877; tr., London, 1888); SHEPHERD, Turgot and the Six Edicts (New York, 1903); DE SEGUR, Au couchant de la monarchie. Louis X VI et Turgot (Paris, 1910); STEPHENS, Life and Writings of Turgot (London, 1895). GEORGES GOYAU Turin Turin (Turino; Taurinensis) The City of Turin is the chief town of a civil province in Piedmont and was formerly the capital of the Duchy of Savoy and of the Kingdom of Sardinia. It is situated on the left bank of the Po and on right of the Dora Riparia, which flows into the Po not far off. The surrounding flat country is fertile in grain, pasturage, hemp, and herbs available for use in the industries, while on the hills a delicious fungus, a species of truffle is found. The district is also rich in minerals (a species of gneiss and granite), and there are five mineral springs. The population is 270,000. Besides the numerous elementary and intermediate schools, public and private, there are a university (see below), a musical lyceum, commercial and industrial schools. The Accademia Albertina (1652), for the fine arts, possesses the precious Mossi Gallery (Raphael, Dolci, Caravaggio, Rubens, Van Dyck, Giotto Andrea del Sarto, Correggio, Luca Giordano, Guercino, and others, with cartoons of Leonardo da Vinci and others). There is a royal academy of the sciences (1757) and a royal commission on studies in Italian history. The documents of the general archives go back as far as the year 934. Other institutions of sciences and arts are the military academy, the Scuola di Guerra, the practical school for the artillery and engineers, and eight public libraries, among them the National (1714). The last-named contains the precious Bobbio manuscripts and many Greek and Egyptian papyri; in 1904 it was ravaged by a fire in which valuable manuscripts perished, among them some which had not yet been thoroughly studied. The Museum of Antiquities is of great importance, containing a number of marbles collected throughout Piedmont besides one of the most complete Egyptian collections in existence, that made by Bernardino Drovetti, a French consul in Egypt. Worthy of note also are the Royal Gallery (Pinacoteca) and the zoölogical, mineralogical, geological, anatomical, and the rich numismatical museum (the king's medallion). Benevolent institutions are the Opera Pia di S. Paolo, which includes the Pious Institute (ufficio pio) of Alms for the poor and dowries for young girls, and the Monte di Pietà. The hospitals are those of S. Giovanni (fourteenth century), of the Order of Sts. Mauriceand Lazarus, the Opera Pia di S. Luigi (1792), the Ophthalmic Hospital, the Cottolengo (Piccola Casa della Divina Providenza, founded in 1827 for every kind of human misery, in which about 7000 sick, aged, and infirm persons have found shelter), the Royal General Charity Hospice, the asylum of the Infanzia Abbandonata, the Reale Albergo di Virtù (1580). The Opera Pia Barolo has under its direction various charitable and educational institutions. For the Rifugio and Oratory of St. Francis de Sales, see Bosco. CHURCHES The cathedral, dedicated to St. John the Baptist, stands on the site of three ancient churches, and was built (1492-98) by Meo del Caprino, with an octagonal dome. Attached to the cathedral is the chapel of the Santissimo Sudario, built by Guarini (1694), where is preserved in a casket a cloth believed to be the shroud in which the Body of Christ was wrapped when it was taken down from the Cross, The Church of Corpus Domini records a miracle which took place during the sack of the city in 1453, when a soldier was carrying off an ostensorium containing the Blessed Sacrament: the ostensorium fell to the ground, while the Host remained suspended in air. The present splendid church, erected in 1610 to replace the original chapel which stood on the spot, is the work of Ascanio Vittozzi. The Consolata, a sanctuary much frequented by pilgrims, stands on the site of the tenth-century monastery of S. Andrea, and is the work of Guarini. It was sumptuously restored in 1903. Outside the city, are: S. Maria Ausiliatrice, erected by Don Bosco; the Gran Madre di Dio, erected in 1818 on occasion of the return of King Victor Emanuel I; S. Maria del Monte (1583) on the Monte dei Cappucini; the Basilica of Superga, with a dome 244 feet high, the work of Juvara, built by Amedeo II ex voto for the deliverance of Turin (1706), and which has served since 1772 as a royal mausoleum. PROFANE EDIFICES The Royal Palace (1646-58) contains various splendidly decorated halls and an extremely rich collection of arms of all periods and all peoples, as well as the king's library. Under the palace the remains of a Roman theatre were discovered. The Palazzo Madama stands on the site of the old decuman gate, which became a castle in the Middle Ages and was repeatedly enlarged until, in 1718, it was finally prepared by Juvara for Madama Reale, as she was called, the widow of Charles Emanuel II. It is now occupied by the state archives and the observatory. The Palazzo Carignano (1680), a work of Guarini, is the residence of the younger branch of Savovy-Carignano, now the reigning house. This palace was occupied by the Parliament from 1848 to 1864, and now shelters the Museum of Natural History. The Academy of the Sciences, formerly a Jesuit College (1679), houses the Museum of Antiquities and the Pinaceoteca. The Palazzo di Città or City Hall (1669), the work of, Lanfranchi, contains the Biblioteca Civica. There is also a Museo Civico di Belle Arti; and the Mole Antenelliana, 580 feet high, contains the Museo di Risorgimento (1863). The city itself is laid out on a very regular plan. HISTORY Before the Roman conquest of the Graian and Cottian Alps, Taurasia was already an important city of the Taurini, a Ligurian people. In 218 B.C. Hannibal destroyed it. Under Augustus the conquest was completed, and the city was named Augusta Taurinorum; it probably continued, however, to form part of the dominions of Cottius, King of Secusio (the modern Susa). In the war between Otho and Vitellius, it was almost entirely burned down. None of the Roman monuments have survived except the Porta Palatina, commonly known as the Towers, near which are the remains of a monument erected early in the second century in honour of Attilius Agricola. In the fifth and sixth centuries the city suffered from the invasions of the Burgundians and of Odoacer, and in the Gothic War. After the Lombard invasion it became the capital of a duchy, and four of its dukes -- Agilulfus (589), Arioaldus (590), Garibaldus (661), Ragimbertus (701) -- became kings of the Lombards. When the Lombard kingdom fell, Turin became a residence of Frankish counts until, in 892, it passed to the marquesses of Ivrea, from whom, through the marriage of Adelaide with Odo of Savoy (1046), it passed into the possession of the latter house. In 1130 the city was constituted a commune, still remaining, however, under the influence now of the counts of Savoy, now of the marquesses of Saluzzo or of Monferrato, with whom, as also with the emperors, they were frequently at war. From 1280 on, it was almost constantly under the power of the House of Savoy, more particularly the Acaia branch (1295-1418). After 1459 it was the capital of the Duchy of Savoy. In 1536 it fell into the power of Francis I of France, who established a parliament there; in 1562 Emanuel Philibert reconquered it. In 1638, during the quarrel of the regency, the city was besieged by the French and defended by Prince Thomas of Savoy. Still more memorable the siege of Turin in 1706, again at the hands of the French, from which it was relieved by Prince Eugene and by the sacrifice of Pietro Micca. During the French occupation it was the capital of the Department of the Po (1798-1814), though it was in the hands of the Austro-Russian forces from May, 1799 until June 1800. In 1821 the revolution against Charles Emanuel broke out, and a provisional government was set up, the king abdicaing in favor of his brother Charles Felix. After that, Turin was the centre of all Italian movements for the union of the Peninsula, whether monarchical or republican. The transfer of the capital of the Kingdom of Italy from Turin to Florence, in 1864, caused another, though not important, revolution (21, 22 September). The most ancient traditions of Christianity at Turin are connected with the martyrdom of Sts. Adventor, Solutor, and Candida, who were much venerated in the fifth century, and were in later times included in the Theban Legion. As to the episcopal see, it is certain that in the earlier half of the fourth century Turin was subject to Vercelli. Perhaps, however, St. Eusebius, Bishop of Vercelli, on his return from exile, provided the city with a pastor of its own. In any case St. Maximus can hardly be considered the first Bishop of Turin, even though no other bishop is known before him. This saint, many of whose homilies are extant, died between 408 and 423. It was another Maximus who lived in 451 and 465. In 494 Victor went with St. Epiphanius to France for the ransom of prisoners of war. St. Ursicinus (569-609) suffered much from the depredations of the French. It was then that the Diocese of Moriana (Maurienne) was detached from that of Turin. Other bishops were Rusticus (d. 691); Claudius (818-27), a copious, though not original, writer, famous for his opposition to the veneration of images; Regimirus (of uncertain date, in the ninth century), who established a rule of common life among his canons; Amolone (880-98), who incurred the ill-will of the Turinese and was driven out by them; Gezone (1000), who founded the monastery of the holy martyrs Solutor, Adventor, and Candida; Landolfo (1037), who founded the Abbey of Cavour and repaired the losses inflicted on his Church by the Saracen incursions; Cuniberto (1046-81), to whom St. Peter Damian wrote a letter exhorting him to repress energetically the laxity of his clergy; Uguccione (1231-43), who abdicated the bishopric and became a Cistercian; Guido Canale enlarged the cathedral; Thomas of Savoy (1328). Under Gianfrancesco della Rovere (1510), Turin was detached from the metropolitan obedience of Milan and became an archiepiscopal see with Mondovi and Ivrea for suffragans, other sees being added later on. In the time of Cesare Cibo the diocese was infested with the Calvinistic heresy, and his successors were also called upon to combat it. Cardinal Gerolamo della Rovere, in 1564, brought to Turin the Holy Shroud and the body of St. Maurice, the martyr. From 1713 to 1727, owing to difficulties with the Holy See, the See of Turin remained vacant. After 1848 Cardinal Luigi Fransoni (1832-62) distinguished himself by his courageous opposition to the encroachments of the Piedmontese Government upon the rights of the Church, and in consequence was obliged to live in exile. Notable among his successors are Cardinal Alimonda (1883-91), a polished writer, and Cardinal Richelmy (1897), the present incumbent of the see. The dioceses suffragan to Turin are Acqui, Alba, Aosta, Asti, Cuneo, Fossano, Ivrea, Mondovi, Pinerolo, Saluzzo, and Susa. The archdiocese comprises 276 parishes with 680,600 souls, 1405 secular and 280 regular priests, 35 communities of male and 51 of female religious, 15 educational establishments for boys and 27 for girls. There are two Catholic daily newspapers, "Momento" and "Italia Reale", two weeklies, and many other instructive and edifying periodicals. CAPPELLETTI, Chiese d'Italia, XIV; SAVIO, Gli antichi vescovi Piemonte (Turin, 1899), 281; CIBRARIO, Storia di Torino (Turin, 1846); ISAIA, Torino e dintorni (Turin, 1909); SEMERIA, Storia della chiesa di Torino (Turin, 1840); Guido Commerciale ed amministrativa di Torino (Turin, 1911); Cenni storico-statistici delle istituzioni publiche e private di beneficenza e di assistenza del Commune di Torino (Turin' 1906); RONDOLINO, I Visconti di Torino, in Bollettino Storico Subalpino (Pinerolo, 1901-02). The University of Turin The University of Turin The University of Turin was founded in 1404, when the lectures at Piacenza and Pavia were interrupted by the wars of Lombardy. Some of the professors of theology, medicine, and arts at Piacenza obtained permission from Louis of Savoy-Acaia to continue their courses at Turin. This prince had obtained from the antipope Benedict XIII, in 1405, the pontifical privilege for a studium generale, and in 1412 the permission of the emperor was likewise granted. In the following year John XXIII confirmed the concessions of Benedict XIII rendered necessary by the wars which had disturbed the studium of Turin. The studium then comprised three faculties: theology, law (canon and civil), medicine (with arts and philosophy). The Archbishop of Turin was always chancellor of the university. As at Bologna, the rector continued for a long time to be chosen from their own body by the students, who in 1679 represented thirteen nations. The professors' salaries were paid by the communes of Savoy; but from 1420 the clergy also contributed, and at a later period the dukes. In the seventeenth century the university levied a tax on the Jews. Under Duke Amedo VIII, the State began to restrict the autonomy of the studium by means of riformatori and subjected the professors and students in criminal matters to ordinary jurisdiction. From 1427 to 1436 the seat of the university was temporarily transferred to Chieri and Savignano (1434). The number of salaried professors in the years 1456 and 1533 was twenty-five (only two of theology), but the number of lecturers was much greater; e.g., in the statutes of the theological faculty (1427-36) nineteen masters -- eleven Franciscans and and eight Dominicans -- are named. Among the distinguished Professors of that age were the jurisconsult Claudio Beisello, a noted translator of many Greek classics, Pietro Carol Cristoforo Castiglione e Grassi, the physician Guainiero, and the theologian Francesco della Rovere, afterwards Sixtus IV. In 1536 the university was closed, owing to the Franco-Spanish war in Piedmont; in 1560 it was re-established at Mondovi by Duke Emanuele Filiberto back to Turin, with laws permitting increasing state interference in the affairs of the univeristy. Ut acquired a great reputation, which, however declined under Charles Emanmuel I (1580-1630), who, owing to the expenses of the wars, had to suspend his financial contributions to the Studium. In the seventeenth century the officials of the respective nations granted the students the right to interrupt the professors' lectures. Studies naturally languished. In 1687 there were 3 professors of theology, 13 of law, 10 of medicine, 6 of arts. The art course did not then include the belles-lettres, which were taught in the Jesuit college. Victor Amedeo II granted a new constitution to the university (1720-29), which thence forward was a purely state institution; he also had the present building erected after the design of Gio. Antonio Ricca. A royal official was appointed to supervise the observance of the Statutes and to act as a censor of books. From 1729 the rector was chosen from among the professors. At the same time the Collegio delle Provincie was established for students not natives of Turin. The statutes contained a regulation strictly obliging the students to be present in the oratory of the university on holy days of obligation. On the other hand, the king ordered the professors of theology to observe neutrality concerning Gallicanism. At the beginning of the French Revolution the university declined rapidly; the school of anatomy, for instance became a political club. Under Napoleon (1800-14) the studies were reorganized according to french methods; several new chairs were established, and the revival in this sense was continued by Prospero Balbo. In 1821 the students, under the impulse of the constitutional movement, rebelled, and severe measures were adopted. Lectures were continued outside of the university. In the third decade of the nineteenth century there were notable agitations in the theological faculty in favour of papal infallibility, and agitations brought about by the moralist Dettorri, who was afterwards exiled. During the Revolution of July 1830, the university was closed, and the schools dispersed among different cities. In 1845 the curriculum was re-organized. In the theological faculty chairs of ecclesiastical history, oratory, and Biblical exegesis were established. In 1860 this faculty was, here as elsewhere, abolished. Among the distinguished professors of Turin since the sixteenth century the jurist Gian Francesco Balbo and the physician Giovanni Nevizzano are worthy of mention; after the restoration of the university, the jurists Cuiacius and Pancirolus, the physicians Blessed Giovenale Ancina (afterwards Bishop of Saluzzo) and Lucille Filalteo; the Greek scholar Teodoro Rendio, was called to the Collegio Greco by Gregory XIII. Distinguished in the eighteenth century were Vincenzo Gravina and Luigi Fantoni the jurisconsults, the Augustinian Giulio Accetta in mathematics, the Piarist Giambattista Beecaria, in physics, the Barnabite Sigismondo Gerdil, in ethics, Giambattista Carburi and Vitaliano Donati in medicine, the historian Carlo Denino, and Francesco Antonio Chionio, the professor of canon law whose work "De regimine ecclesiae" caused scandal by reducing all religion to internal worship, and leaving the control of the Church to the civil power; in the nineteenth century: Father Peyron, professor of Oriental languages a celebrated Egyptologist, the philologists Vallauri and Fabretti, the mathematician and physicist Galileo Ferrari, the historian Balbo, the physiologist Cesare Lombroso. The university has 22 chairs of jurisprudence with 18 professors and 20 docents; 24 chairs of physical and mathematical sciences with 17 professors and 17 docents; 28 chairs of medicine with 25 professors and 89 docents; 22 chairs of philosophy and literature with 19 professors and 21 docents. In connection with the medical faculty are a school of pharmacy, various clinics, laboratories, etc., as well as the laboratories, cabinets, and astronomical observatory of the other scientific faculties. In 1910-11 there were 2204 students enrolled. Annuario della Universita di Torino (1876); VALLAURI, Storia delle Università degli Studi in Piemonte (Turin, 1875); BONA, Delle constituzioni dell' Università di Torino (Turin, 1852). U. BENIGNI Turkestan Turkestan I. CHINESE TURKESTAN When Jenghiz Khan died (1227) his second son, Djagatai, had the greater part of Central Asia for his share of the inheritance: his empire included not only Mávará-un-Nahr, between the Syr Daria and the Amu Daria, but also Ferghana, Badakhshan, Chinese Turkestan, as well as Khorasan at the beginning of his reign; his capital was Almaliq, in the Ili Valley, near the site of the present Kulja; in the fourteenth century the empire was divided into two parts: Mávará-un-Nahr or Transoxina, and Moghulistan or Jabah, the eastern division. In 1759 the Emperor K'ien Lung subjugated the country north and south of the T'ienshan and divided the new territory into T'ien-shan Peh-lu and T'ien-shan Nan-lu; in 1762 a military governor was appointed and a new fortified town, Hwei-yuan-ching, was erected (1764) near the site of Kulja: a number of Manchus, from Peking and the Amu, and Mongols were drawn to the new place and later on there came a migration of Chinese from the Kan-su and Shen-si Provinces. The local Mohammedan chieftains are known as Pe-k'e (Beg); they are classed in five degrees of rank from the third to the seventh degree of the Chinese hierarchy: the most important titles are Akim Beg (local governor), Ishkhan Beg (assistant governor), Shang Beg (collector of revenue), Hatsze Beg (judge), Mirabu Beg (superintendent of agriculture). The bad administration of the Chinese governors was the cause of numerous rebellions; a great rising took place against the Governor of Ili, Pi Tsing; at the head was Jihanghir, son of Saddet Ali Sarimsak and grandson of one of the Khaja, Burhan ed-Din; unfortunate at first, Jihanghir was victorious in October, 1825, and captured the four great towns of T'ien-shan Nan-lu: Kashgar, Yangi-hissar, Yarkand, and Khotan. The Chinese Emperor Tao Kwang sent General Chang Ling to fight the rebels. Jihanghir was defeated and made a prisoner at Kartiekai (1828) and sent to Peking where he was put to death in a cruel manner. On the other hand, the establishment of Orenburg by the Russians, the exploration of the Syr Daria by Batiakov, the foundation of Kazalinsk (1848) near the mouth of this river, the exertions of Perovsky, the attacks of the Cossacks against the Khanate of Khokand, had for result the arrival of the Russians in the valley of the Ili River. On 25 July, 1851, Col. Kovalevski signed with the Chinese on behalf of the Russians at Kashgar a treaty regulating the trade at Ili (Kulja) and at Tarbagatai (Chugutchak). In the meantime new rebellions broke out after the death of Jihanghir: in 1846 one of the Khoja, Katti Torah, with the help of his brothers took Kashgar, but was soon defeated by the Chinese; in 1857 Wali Khan captured Kashgar, Artosh, and Yangi-hissar; and at last, the son of Jihanghir, Burzuk Khan, with the help of Mohammed Yakub, son of Ismet Ulla, born about 1820 at Pskent in the Khanate of Khokand, taking advantage of the Mohammedan rebellion of Kan-su, began a new struggle against the Chinese. Yakub, having taken Burzuk's place, subjugated Kashgar, Khotan, Aksu, and the other towns south of the T'ien-shan, thus creating a new empire; his capital was Yarkand, and there he received embassies from England in 1870 and 1873 (Sir Douglas T. Forsyth) and from Russian in 1872 (Col. Baron Kaulbars). To check the advance of Yakub to the west, the Russians who had captured Tashkent (27 June, 1865) took possession of Ili, i.e. the north of the T'ien-shan, on 4 July, 1871. When the Chinese had quelled the Yun-nan rebellion after the surrender of Ta-li, they turned their armies against the Mohammedans of the north-west; the celebrated Tso Tsung-tang, Viceroy of Kan-su and Shen-si, had been appointed commander-in-chief; he captured Su-chau (Oct., 1873), Urumtsi, Tih-hwa, and Manas (16 Nov., 1876) when a wholesale massacre of the inhabitants took place; the Russian Governor of Turkestan, General Kauffman, wrote a protest against these cruelties. The task of the Chinese was rendered easy by the death of Yakub (29 May, 1877); Aksu (19 Oct., 1877), Yar-kand (21 Dec.), Kashgar (26 Dec.), and at last Kohtan (14 Jan., 1878) fell into their hands. The Chinese then turned to the Russians to have Ili, occupied temporarily, restored to them. Ch'ung-hou, sent as an ambassador to St. Petersburg, signed at Livadia in Oct., 1879, a treaty ceding to the Russians a large portion of the contested territory including the Muz-Art Pass, giving them the privilege of selling their goods not only at T'ien-tsin and Han-kou but also at Kalgan, Kia-yu, Tang-shan, Si-ngan, and Hanchung; permission was also granted to the Russians not only at Ili, Tarbagatai, Kashgar, and K'urun, but also at Kiayü-kwan, Kobdo, Uliasut'ai, Hami, Turfan, Urumtsi, and Kushteng. The treaty was strongly attacked by the censor, Chang Chi-tung, and Ch'ung-hou, tried by a high court, was sentenced to death. War between Russia and China very nearly broke out, but, thanks to the good offices of foreign powers, a new embassy sent to Russia with the Marquis Tseng arranged matters. A new treaty was signed at St. Petersburg, 12 (24) Feb., 1881, and Russia kept but the western part of the contested territory, restoring the pass of Muz-Art and giving up some of the commercial privileges granted by the Livadia Treaty. After the Mohammedan rebellion had been crushed, the territory was organized in 1878 and was called Sin-Kiang or New Dominion, the names Eastern Turkestan and Chinese Turkestan being also used; it is bounded on the north by Siberia, on the west by Russian Turkestan and India, on the south by Tibet, and on the east by Mongolia and the Chinese Province of Kan-su. Its area is 550,579 square miles, with a population of 1,200,000 inhabitants scattered over this immense desert varying in altitude from 3000 to 4000 feet above the level of the sea and surrounded by mountains: in the south the Kwen-lun and its two branches, the Nan-shan and the Altyn-Tagh; in the west, the Karakoram, the Pamirs and the Trans-Altai; in the north by the T'ien-shan, north of which chain the country is called T'ien-shan Peh-lu or Sungaria, and south of it T'ien-shan Nanlu or Kashgaria. The chief river of Chinese Turkestan is the Tarim or Tali- mu-ho, about 1250 miles in length, resulting from the junction of the rivers or darias, watering Yarkand, Khotan etc.; finally the Tarim empties its waters into the Lob-Nor, now more of a marsh but a lake in ancient times. The principal passes to enter Sin-Kiang are the following: the Tash-Davan (Kwen-lun range), south of Lob-Nor; the Karakoram Pass, road leading from Yarkand to Leh in Ladak; the Shishiklik Pass, in the Pamirs; the Kyzil Art Pass, in the Trans-Alai; the Muz-Art, road from Kulija to Aksu; the Terek-Davan, in the Western T'ien-shan, the Urumtsi Pass, in the Eastern T'ien-shan; the Talki Pass, to the north of the Ili Valley. Sin-Kiang includes the following regions: Hami or Qomujl or Pa Shan; the great Gobi Desert or Shamo, the largest portion of Turkestan, the south-west part of it is the Takla-makan Desert; the region of oases (Khotan, Yarkand, Kashgar, Aksu, Uch-Turfan, Yangi-hissar); the Turfan region (Turfan, Karashar); Sungaria (Urumtsi, Kuch'êng); the Ili region (Kulja). Sin-Kiang is crossed by three main roads: (1) from Kan-su to Turfan, by Ngansi and Hami; (2) north from Urumtsi to Kulja, via Manas; (3) south from Turfan to Kashgar, via Karashar, Kurla, Kucha, Aksu, Maralbashi; there is also a route from Kashgar to Lob-Nor, via Khotan, Kiria, Charchan, Lob-Nor, thence to Sha Chou; this is Marco Polo's itinerary. The New Dominion is divided into four Tao or Intendancies: Chen Ti Tao (Tih-hwa Fu), in 1908 Jung Pei was Tao-t'ai and judge; Aksu Tao (Yenk'i Fu), Tao-t'ai vacant in 1908; Kashgar Tao (Sulofu), in 1910 Yuan Hung-yu was Tao-t'ai; and I T'a Tao (Ning yuan hien), in 1908 K'inghiu was Tao-t'ai. It includes six Fu or Prefectures: Tih-hwa or Urumtsi, Yenki or Karashar, Su lo or Kashgar, Soch'ê or Yarkand, Wensuh or Aksu, and Ili; two Chou, K'uch'ê or Kucha, and Hwotien or Khotan; and eight T'ing: Yingkihshaeul or Yangi-hissar, Wushih or Uch-Turfan, K'ueulk'ohlah Wusu or Kurkara-usu, Chensi or Barkul, Hami or Qomul, T'ulufan or Turfan, Tsingho, and T'ahch'êng or Tarbagatai. The administration of Sin-Kiang has at its head a Fu-t'ai (in 1908, Lien K'uei), who resides at Urumtsi and is deputed by the Shen-Kan Tsung-tu (Viceroy of Kan-su and Shen-si) whose seat is at Lan-chou, Kan-su; the treasurer, Fan-t'ai (in 1908, Wang Shu-nan), who resides at Urumtsi (Tih-hwa); as well as the judge, Nieh-t'ai, who is also the Tao-t'ai of the circuit. The four Tao-t'ai have been mentioned. There are three Tsung Ping (brigade generals) at Aksu (Yênk'i), Palik'un (Barkul), and Ili. The Banner Organization includes: at Ili, a Tsiangkukn (Tatar general), a Futut'ung (deputy military lieut. governor), a Ts'an Tsan Ta Ch'ên (military assistant governor), and the Ling Tui Ta Ch'ên (commandants of forces) of Solun, Oalot, Chahar, Sibe; at Tarbagatai, a Futut'ung, and Ts'an Tsan Ta Chien; at Uliasut'ai, a Tsiang Kün and two Ts'an Tsan Ta Ch'ên; at Urga, a Panshi Ta Ch'ên (commissioner) and a Pangpan Ta Ch'ên (assistant commissioner); at Kobdo, a Ts'an Tsan Ta Ch'ên and a Panshi Ta Ch'ên; and at Si Ning, a Panshi Ta Ch'ên. Mission The Ili country is a part of the second ecclesiastical region of China; it was constituted as a distinct mission (Ili or Sin-Kiang mission) at the expense of the Vicariate apostolic of Kan-su by a decree of 1 October, 1888; it is placed under the care of the Belgian missionaries (Cong. Imm. Cord. B.M.V. de Scheutveld) with Jean-Baptiste Steeneman as their superior. The mission includes five European priests and 300 Christians. II. RUSSIAN TURKESTAN Russian Central Asia includes the two khanates under Russian protection, Bokhara and Khiva, and the Turkestan region with its five provinces: Syr Daria, Samarkand, Ferghana, Semirechensk, and Transcaspian; it extends from the Caspian Sea to China, and from Siberia to Persia and Afghanistan, with an area of 721,277 square miles for Turkestan and 63,012 square miles for the Khanates. To the east, towards China, the country is mountainous and contains numerous lakes, Balkash, Issyk-kul, etc.; to the west, it is a large plain with desiccated lakes, watered by the two large rivers, Amu Daria and Syr Daria which run into the Aral Sea. The conquest of this region began in 1867 with the annexation of the country south of Lake Balkash, and occupation of the valley of the Syr Daria, forming the provinces of Semirechensk and Syr Daria; in 1878 the Zarafshan district was added and became subsequently the Samarkand Province. Later on, in 1873, part of the Khanate of Khiva, on the right bank of the Amu Daria, was occupied and was incorporated with the Syr Daria Province. In 1875 and 1876 the Khanate of Khokand being annexed became the Province of Ferghana. The population is but 6,243,422 inhabitants including, on the one hand, Russians, Poles, Germans, etc.; on the other, the natives: Aryans, Sarts, Tajiks, Tzigans, Hindus, with Mongols: Kirghizs, Ubeks, Torbors, etc., and emigrated Jews and Arabs representative of the Semitic Race. The chief products are corn, barley, rice, jugara, cotton. Cattle-breeding is the main source of commerce. The trade of Turkestan amounts to about 320 millions and a half of rubles, of which 140 millions and a half are exportation and 180 millions are importation. The chief trading province is Ferghana with 120 millions. Tashkent, the chief city of the Syr Daria Province, is also the centre of the administration of Russian Turkestan with a population of 191,500 inhabitants, of which 150,622 are natives, for the most part (140,000) Sarts. The two main rivers of Russian Turkestan which flow into the Aral Sea are the Syr Daria, Sihun, or Jaxartes, and the Amu Daria, Tihun, or Oxus. HENRI CORDIER Turkish Empire Turkish Empire Created in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries on the ruins of the Byzantine Empire, from the caliphate of Baghdad and independent Turkish principalities. It occupies a territory of 1,114,502 sq. miles, with a population estimated at 25,000,000 inhabitants, and extends over parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe between the Eastern Mediterranean, the Black Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Red Sea. The Turkish Empire thus possesses some of the most important highways by land and sea, between these three continents. I. GEOGRAPHY A. The Balkan Peninsula (European Turkey) The Balkan Peninsula (European Turkey), divided into eight provinces or vilayets, comprises the plateaux and terraces which extend to the south-east of the uplands of the Alps between the Adriatic, the Archipelago, and the Black Sea. Turkey still possesses Albania and Epirus, a vast plateau covered with towering mountain ranges (Techar-Dagh, 10,000 ft.) and with uplands stretching from the north-west to the south-east which reach as far as the Pindus; the coastal plains of the Adriatic and the small inland levels (Scutari Lake, Lake Ochrida, plains of Monastir d'Uskuf and of Yanina) are separated by very high ridges; Macedonia, a plain richly cultivated with vines, cereals, and tobacco, includes within the mountains of Macedonia to the west, Rhodope (9842 feet) to the north, Olympus to the south-west, the sharp and rocky peninsula of Chalcidice to the southeast; its only outlet, the port of Salonica (144,000 inhabitants), situated at the opening of an historical trade highway which ascends to the valley of the Vardar as far as Uskub, and over a hill of 1640 feet leads to the valley of the Bulgarian Morawa and as far as the Danube (railway route from Belgrade to Salonica): the plain of Thrace, bordering on the Archipelago and the Sea of Marmora, forming the lower level of the valley of the Maritza, of which Eastern Rumelia represents the upper. Cultivation is broken by the great stretch of sterile plateaux; the only important city in the interior is Adrianople (125,000 inhabitants), but at the extremity of the peninsula situated between the Black Sea, the Archipelago, and the Sea of Marmora, stands Constantinople, which occupies, on the Bosporus, one of the finest strategetical positions of the old continent. This metropolis of 1,500,000 inhabitants is at the cross-roads formed by the great waterway which connects the Black Sea with the Mediterranean, and by the overland route (followed by a railway) which reaches the valley of the Danube by way of Adrianople, Philippopoli, Sofia, and Belgrade. It is composed of the Turkish city of Stamboul, of the European districts of Galata and Pera separated by the natural roadstead of the Golden Horn, and of the suburbs of Scutari, Haïdar-Pacha, and Kadi Keui. These settlements are on both sides of the Bosporus, in Europe and Asia. On account of its military and commercial importance and its population composed of all the races of the earth, Constantinople is a typical cosmopolitan city. The Peninsula of Asia Minor, or Plateau of Anatolia Important for the richness of its coastal plains and its geographical situation; the construction of the railway from Constantinople to Baghdad (in 1912, 781 miles of track open for traffic from Constantinople to Boulgourlou by Eski-Chehir and Konieh) will result in a rebirth of this ancient country; a German company is at present fertilizing the plain of Konieh, diverting for this purpose the waters of a lake. C. Syria A narrow strip of land, 500 miles long by 93 wide, lies between Asia Minor; Egypt, the Mediterranean, and the Desert. It is traversed by the two parallel ridges of Libanus (ranging from three or four thousand to nine thousand feet) and Anti-Libanus, separated by a deep depression, the Gôr bounded on the north by the valley of the Orontes, on the south by that of the Jordan, which abuts on the gorge of the Dead Sea, 1200 feet below the sea level. The most important centres are the ports of Beirut (185,000 inhabitants), St. Jean d'Acre, and Jaffa (55,000 inhabitants), whence starts the railway to Jerusalem (115,000 inhabitants). The largest city is Damascus (350,000 inhabitants) in the middle of an oasis of luxuriant vegetation, one of the chief industrial centres of the Orient. D. Mesopotamia and Turkish Armenia, or Kurdistan Separated from Syria by the Great Desert, extends on the north to Anatolia and Armenia by the vast mountain ranges of Kurdistan, 13,000 feet, intercepted from the plains in the interior by Lake Van, whence flow the Tigris and the Euphrates, whose alluvial valleys are marvelously fertile; corn, wheat, barley, grain, one might say, originated here. Cotton may be also found in abundance, rice and plantations of date palms, and fruit-trees of every kind. The leading centres of Armenia are Erzerum, Van, and Ourfa. In Mesopotamia Mossoul (69,000 inhabitants), Baghdad (125,000 inhabitants), and Bassorah give but a feeble idea of the once great cities of Ninive, Babylon, and Seleucia-Ctesiphon. E. The Peninsula of Arabia The Peninsula of Arabia is a spacious desert plateau, bounded by immense mountain ranges, which rise over 9000 feet above the Red Sea. Scarcely a seventh of this vast territory (over 1,000,000 sq. miles) is dependent on the sultan, and that more nominally than in reality. The volcanic plateau of the centre (Nedjed or Arabia Petraea) is almost a desert. The population has flocked to the coast districts (Hedjaz and Yemen, or Arabia Felix). The only important centres are the sacred cities of the Mussulmans: Mecca (60,000 inhabitants) with its port Djeddah, where the Caaba, which preserves the "black stone" of Abraham, draws each year numerous pilgrims from all points of the Moslem world, and Medina (50,000 inhabitants), where Mohammed resided and died. The possession of these cities lends great political importance to the Turkish Government. A railway, intended to unite Damascus to Mecca, was laid to Medina in 1908. F. Tripolitana Tripolitana, occupied largely at present (1912) by the Italians, is in reality the Saharan coast of the Mediterranean. It is composed of plains of sand and rocky plateaux, to the east the plateau of Barka(ancient Cyrenaica whose coasts in antiquity were very fertile), the oasis and city of Tripoli (30,000 inhabitants), and the inland the oasis of Ghadames. On this territory of 462,767 sq. miles there are scarcely one million inhabitants. The principal resources and in the oases date palms. II. HISTORY The countries which form this immense territory represent what remains of the conquests of the Ottomans, a Turkish tribe originally from Khorassan, which emigrated into Asia Minor about 1224, at the time of the cataclysm produced in Central Asia by the Mongolian invasion of Jenghiz-Khan. The chiefs of the tribe of the Kei-Kankali became the mercenaries of the Seljuk emirs of Asia Minor. One of them, Othman, proclaimed himself independent at the end of the thirteenth century, and took the title of sultan, or padishah. Under Orkhan was organized with some Christian captives the permanent militia of the Janissaries; and then began incessant war between the Ottomans and the Byzantine Empire. In 1359 Suleiman entered Europe by the occupation of Gallipoli. Murad established himself at Adrianople (1360) and attacked the Slavonic peoples of the Balkans. The battle of Kossovo (1389) gave him Servia. The struggle continued until the taking of Constantinople by Mahomet II, who put an end to the Byzantine Empire (1453) and conquered the Peloponnesus (1462), Negropont (1467), Trebzond (1470), Bosnia, and Wallachia. He died in 1481, after failing to take Belgrade and Rhodes, but achieving the conquest of Anatolia as far as the Euphrates, and the peninsula of the Balkans as far as the Danube. To these conquests Selim I added Azerbaidjan, Syria, and Egypt (1517), Diarbekir and Mesopotamia (1518); he received from Mecca the banner of the prophet, and took the title of caliph, which assures to the Sultan of Constantinople the spiritual authority over all the Mussulmans of the world. Soliman I took Rhodes from the Knights of St. John (1522) and conquered Hungary while Khaireddin Barbarossa subjected the Barbary States (1522). Selim II took possession of the Island of Cyprus (1570), but the Turkish domination had reached the limits of its extension. Soliman had been unable to take either Vienna (1526) or Malta (1562), and in 1571 the great victory of the Christian fleet at Lepanto weakened the naval power of the Turks in the Mediterranean. At the end of the sixteenth century The Turkish Empire had attained the zenith of its power on land. The siege of Vienna of 1683, which failed thanks to the intervention of the King of Poland, John Sobieski, marks the last aggressive attempt of the Turks on the West. Henceforth the western powers encroach on the Turkish Empire and begin its dismemberment. In 1699 by the treaty of Karlovitz the Sultan ceded Hungary and Transylvania to Austria. It is true that in 1739 the Turks succeeded in retaking Belgrade, but this was their last military success. The powerful militia of the Janissaries was of no further use; the administration was corrupt and venal. Moreover, the Turks were unable to impede the progress of Russia; in 1774 by the treaty of Kainardji the Turks ceded to Russia the Crimea and the coasts of the Black Sea, and to Austria Rumanian Bukowina. The French Revolution of 1789 saved Turkey from the project of division planned by Catherine II; the Peace of Jassy (1792) restored only a part of Bessarabia of the Dniester. Egypt, occupied in 1789, surrendered to Turkey in 1800, but in the most precarious condition. After the nineteenth century began the forward movement of the Christian nationalities which had submitted up to that time to Turkish domination; public opinion in Europe upheld this movement, and the governments themselves were won over. Meanwhile the rival ambitions of the powers prevented the "Eastern Question" from being regulated in a definitive manner. In 1821 the insurrection of the Greeks, supported by Europe, ended in the creation of the Kingdom of Greece (Treaty of Adrianople, 1829; and Conference of London, 1831). The Servians formed an autonomous principality as early as 1830, and in 1832 the Pasha of Egypt, Mehemet-Ali, revolted; his independence was conceded to him in 1841, on condition that he would recognize the suzerainty of the sultan. In vain the Turks tried to reform; after the massacre and the dissolution of the Janissaries (1826) Mahmoud organized an army resembling the European, established military schools and a newspaper, and imposed the European costume on his subjects. In 1839 Abdul-Medjid organized the Tanzimât (new regime) and accorded to his subjects a real charter, liberty, religious toleration and promises of a liberal government. In 1854 the Tsar Nicholas of Russia strove to take up again the project of Catherine II, and to do away with "the sick man". Protected by France and England, Turkey kept, at the Congress of Paris (1856), all of its territory save Moldavia and Wallachia, which were declared autonomous. The Hatti-Humayoun of 16 Feb., 1856, proclaimed the admission of Christians to all employments and equality with other subjects before the law, but after the Liberal government of Fuad Pasha they resumed their former ways. On all sides the provinces revolted, and about 1875 formed the party of Young Turkey, desirous of reforming the empire on the European model. Two sultans, Abdul-Aziz and Murad, were successively deposed. A new sultan, Abdul-Hamid, proclaimed on 23 Dec., 1876, a constitution resembling the European with a parliament and responsible ministers; but the reforming grand vizier Midhat Pasha was strangled, and the opening of parliament was no more than a comedy. Europe decided to act, and in 1877 Russia took the lead and sent an army across the Balkans, after the difficult siege of Plevna and would have entered Constantinople had it not been for the intervention of an English fleet. The treaty of San Stefano (March, 1878) established a Grand Principality of Bulgaria, and cut Turkey in Europe into many sections. Bismarck, alarmed by the progress of Russia, had this treaty revised at the Congress of Berlin (1878); the independent Bulgarian principality was reduced to Moesia to the north of the Balkans; Eastern Rumelia alone was autonomous, and Macedonia remained Turkish. The independence of Servia, Montenegro, and Rumania was sanctioned. Greece received Thessaly; Austria occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina; England established herself in the Island of Cyprus. This treaty, ratified by all the powers, was followed by new dismemberments. In 1855 Eastern Rumelia was annexed to Bulgaria. In 1897 Crete revolted, and tried to reunite Greece. After the victorious campaign of his army in Thessaly the sultan kept the sovereignty of Crete, but with an autonomous Christian governor, a son of the King of Greece. In contrast to his predecessors, who had sought to restore their country by reforming it, the Sultan Abdul-Hamid established a regime of ferocious repression against the Young Turks, who were partisans of the reforms. A formidable police pursued all those who were suspected of Liberal ideas, and an unpitying censorship undertook the impossible task of depriving Turkey of European publications; the introduction of the most inoffensive books, such as Baedeker's guides, was prohibited. Emissaries everywhere revived Mussulman fanaticism; to the claims of the Armenian revolutionaries the Sultan responded by frightful massacres of the Armenians of Constantinople (Sept., 1895), followed soon by the slaughter which in 1896 drenched Kurdistan with blood; everywhere Armenians were tracked, and isolated massacres of Christians became also the normal order of events in Macedonia Educated in Western ideas, the Young Turks, especially the refugees at Paris, united as early as 1895, and succeeded in spite of prohibitions in circulating in Turkey their journal the "Mechveret". A Committee of Union and Progress was even formed at Constantinople, and by constant propaganda succeeded in gaining to its cause the greater number of the officials. The uprising, the preparation of which deceived the Hamidian police, began 23 July, 1908, at Salonica; an ultimatum was sent to the sultan, who, abandoned even by his Albanians, proclaimed the re-establishment of the constitution (24 July, 1908) in the midst of indescribable enthusiasm, and called a parliament (4 Dec., 1908). In three months 300 journals were started. Abroad, the counterstroke to this revolution was the definitive annexation, proclaimed by the Emperor of Austria, of Bosnia and Herzegovina (3 Oct., 1908). At the same time the Prince of Bulgaria took the title of Tsar of the Bulgarians (6 Oct., 1908), and repudiated the vassalage which still connected him with the sultan. This exterior check weakened the Young Turk party, and on 13 April, 1909, a counter-revolution of Softas and soldiers of the guard broke out in Constantinople. The Young Turks had to flee the capital, but immediately the troops of Salonica, Monastir, and Adrianople consolidated and marched against Constantinople and laid siege to it (17 April, 1909). Negotiations continued for six days; finally at the moment when the massacre of the Christians seemed imminent, the Salonican troops entered Constantinople, and after a short battle became masters of the place. On 27 April Abdul-Hamid was forced to sign his abdication, and banished to Salonica. A son of Abdul-Medjid was made sultan under the name of Mohammed V, and a new constitution was proclaimed, 5 Aug., 1909, the Committee of Union and Progress superintending its execution with dictatorial powers. To-day Turkey is on the road, to reform and political reorganization. III. RACES, NATIONALITIES, AND RELIGIONS According to a tradition which dates back to the earliest antiquity, Oriental nationalities did not commonly form compact groups settled within well-defined boundaries. As a result of violent transmigrations of peoples owing to hurricane-like invasions, or even by the simple chance of migrations due to economic causes, all the races of the Orient are mingled in an inextricable manner, and there is not a single city of the Ottoman Empire which does not contain specimens of all races, languages, and religions. The population has therefore an entirely heterogeneous character; the Turks have never made any effort to assimilate their subjects; they do not appear even to have attempted to propagate Islamism widely. Until the constitution of 1876, and in fact as late as the revolution of 1908, they have jealously striven to safeguard their privileges as conquerors. Up to the present time the population of the empire may be said to be divided into three classes: + The Mussulmans (Turks, Arabs, Servians, Albanians), enjoying alone the right of holding office, the only landowners, but subject to military service. + The Raias (flocks), or infidels, conquered peoples who have obtained the right of preserving their religion, but barred from all office and subjected to heavy tax. It was upon them that the despotism of the pashas was exercised. They are still, following the creed to which they belong, divided into "nations" governed by religious authorities, Christian bishops, Jewish rabbis, responsible to the sultan, but provided with certain jurisdiction over their faithful. + European subjects, established in Turkey for religious or commercial reasons, and under the official protection and jurisdiction of the ambassadors of the Powers. Many of the raïas of class have, however, succeeded in obtaining this privilege. In 1535 the first "capitulation" was signed between the King of France, Francis I, and the Sultan Soliman. It accorded to France the protectorate over all the Christians. This agreement was often renewed, in 1604, 1672, 1740, and 1802. At the treaty of Kainardji Russia obtained a similar right of protection over the Orthodox Christians. The rights of France to the protection of Catholics of all nationalities have been recognized repeatedly by the Holy See, and particularly by the Encyclical of Leo XIII "Aspera rerum conditio" (22 May, 1886). The treaty of Berlin left to each state the care of protecting its subjects, but in practice France preserves the protectorate over Catholics, and even the diplomatic rupture between France and the Holy See has not impaired these civil rights. Each of the Great Powers has therefore considerable interests in the Turkish Empire: each one its own postal autonomy, courts, schools, and organizations for propaganda, teaching, and charity. The Young Turk party, in power to-day, dreams of overthrowing this arrangement. The new constitution granted by the Sultan Mohammed V, 5 Aug., 1909, proclaims the equality of all subjects in the matter of taxes, military service, and political rights. For the first time Christians are admitted into the army, and the parliament, which meets at Constantinople, is chosen indiscriminately by all the races. The effect of this new regime appears to be, in the view of the Young Turks, the establishment of a common law for all subjects, the suppression of all privileges and capitulations. But the religious communities, or millets, hold to the ancient statutes which have safe-guarded their race and religion; the three oldest, those of the Greeks, the Armenians, and Jews, date back to the day following the taking of Constantinople by Mohammed II. The rest of the European powers have in the Turkish Empire, political, economic, and religious interests of considerable importance; a certain number of public services, such as that of the public debt, or institutions like the Ottoman Bank, have an international character. The same holds good of most of the companies which are formed to execute public works, docks, railways, etc. . . The trade in exports and imports involves large sums of money, as one may judge by the following table: FOREIGN COMMERCE from 1 MARCH, 1908, to 28 FEBRUARY, 1909 (IN PIASTRES) Country Imports Exports England 941,274 513,723 France 337,057 363,361 Germany 193,567 114,998 Austro-Hungry 407,519 247,774 Russia 249,417 57,489 Egypt 116,275 165,673 United States 116,275 70,332 A veritable economic war is going on between the Powers, desirous of exploiting the riches of the Orient; to the secular ambitions which menace the existence of the "sick man" have been added new forms of greed. Neither the Russians nor the Greeks have ceased to consider Constantinople as the historic goal of their efforts, and Bulgaria, deprived of Macedonia is claimed by the treaty of Berlin, also finds in its traditions claims on the same heritage. Macedonia is claimed by the Greeks, Bulgarians, Servians, and the Kutzo-Vlachs or Rumanians; Salonica has become a commercial centre for Austrian exportation; and the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina has by one and the same stroke reinforced Austro-Hungarian and German influence in the Balkan Peninsula. Italy has some clients in Albania, and is seeking at the present moment to take possession of Tripoli. Finally, France, England, and Germany are fighting to establish their moral and economic influence. France has maintained an important position because of the protection that it has always exercised over Catholics; French in the Orient has become a kind of second vernacular; while the influence of Germany has increased in the last few years for political reasons, by which the development of German commerce has profited. The European Powers, anxious for the defence of their own interests, are not, however, ready to abandon their capitulations. The Turkish Empire has moreover entered into a period of transformation, the end of which no one can foresee, and what delays still more the task of the new power is the infinite diversity of races and religions which make up the empire. Although the statistical documents are very incomplete, the total population of the empire, including Egypt and the dependencies (Crete, governed by Prince George under the control of the Powers; Samos, governed since 1832 by a Greek prince appointed by the sultan), can be estimated at 36,000,000. Under the direct government of the sultan there are only 25,926,000 subjects, who belong to the following races: (1) Turks, or Osmanlis, estimated at 10,000,000, are settled throughout Asia Minor, the cities of Europe and Syria, and some cantons of Macedonia; most of them are Mussulmans. (2) Arabs (7,000,000), in Arabia, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Tripoli, forming several sects of Mussulmans. (3) Jews, scattered almost everywhere (Jews of Spanish origin form half of the population of Salonica); compact Jerusalem and its outskirts, at Baghdad, Mossoul, and Beirut. Samaritans inhabit the sanjak of Naplouse. (4) Gipsies, a mysterious race, are scattered throughout the empire. (5) Armenians, who have swarmed outside of their country and form powerful colonies in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Constantinople, and Turkey in Europe. From a religious standpoint they are Catholics, Gregorians, or Protestants. (6) Caucasian races: Lazes of Trebizond, Mussulmans or Orthodox Greeks; Kurds, fanatical Mussulmans scattered around Erzerum, Angora, Mossoul, Sivas; Circassians, spread throughout Asia Minor, Mussulmans. (7) Syrians, The descendants of Aramaean peoples, divided into a multitude of communities of different language and religion; Chaldeans, in Baghdad, Mossoul, Aleppo, Beirut, or Nestorians, speaking partly Syrian and partly Arabic. The Melchites speak Arabic, but belong to the Greek Church. The Jacobites, or Monophysies, speak Arabic and Syriac. The Marionites of the Lebanon and of Beirut speak Arabic and are Catholics. The Druses of the Lebanon form an heretical Mussulman sect. (8) The Greeks have remained in their historic country; as in antiquity they are a maritime people; they form powerful groups at Constantinople, Adrianoyple, Salonica, in Macedonia, Asia Minor, in the isles, in Syria, and in Crete. They belong to the Orthodox or to the Greek Uniat Church. They are of considerable importance in the empire. (9) The Albanians appear to be the remnant of a very ancient race. They form in the west of the Balkan Peninsula (Albania) a compact group and still lead a semi-patriarchal life. A large part (1,000,000) is Mussulman, the others, (30,000) Catholic: among them may be found the Powerful tribe of the Mirdites. In 1911 the new government was obliged to direct an expedition against them to effect their disarmament. (10) The Slav peoples, Bulgarians and Servians, are scattered over Macedonia and Old Servia, where they oppose Greek influence; they are divided between Islamism, Orthodox Christianity, and Catholicism. (11) The Kutzo-Vlachs or Rumanians, Orthodox or Catholics, inhabit Macedonia, where they are mostly shepherds. (12) Finally, in all Turkish cities may be found a great number of families of European origin, settled in the country for a long period and who have lost their ethnical characters and their languages. Such are the Levantines, who seek to obtain from the ambassadors foreign naturalization for the sake of its privileges. From a religious standpoint the Mussulmans may be estimated at 50 per cent of the population, the Orthodox Church 46 per cent, Catholics 3 per cent, other communities, Jews, Druses etc., at 1 per cent. In Turkey in Europe, on the contrary, there are 66 percent of Christians to 33 percent Mussulmans. (1) Mussulmans The Mussulman religion has remained the religion of the state. The sultan is always the caliph, the spiritual head of the Mussulmans of the whole world. The Mussulmans comprise the majority of Turks, Arabs, and a portion of the Albanians, Bulgarians, Greeks etc. Polygamy is always legal; four legitimate wives and an unlimited number of concubines are permitted to the believers. Under the influence of Western ideas and Christianity, monogamy tends to establish itself. Divorce exists, and the divorced woman can remarry. The sexes are always separated in the family home, which comprises the selamlik (male apartments) and the harem (female apartments). It is the same in the tramways, railways, ships etc. The women cannot go out except veiled, but circulate freely in the streets of the cities unaccompanied. Slavery is always active, but it has kept a patriarchal character. The master must endow his slave when the latter marries, and the Koran obliges him to provide for the needs of his slaves. Education is progressing. In principle it is obligatory. Primary education is free, a secondary school exists at the capital of each vilayet, as well as one free professional school. Instruction of women is developing at Constantinople; the Lyceum of Galata-Serai, organized by French professors, has 1100 pupils. Higher instruction is represented by the University of Constatinople and special schools. An Imperial museum of archaeology has been created at Tchilini-Kiosk. As in all Mussulman countries the spiritual and temporal duties are blended, and civil relations are regulated by religious law which consists in the Koran and the Cheriat, collection of customs. The interpreters of this law are the ulemas, who form a powerful clergy whose head, the Sheikh-ul-islam, has the rank of vizier, and access to the council of ministers, or divan. At twelve years of age the future ulemas leaves the primary school and enters a medresse (seminary attached to the mosque) as a softa (student) where he learns grammar, ethics, and theology. He finally receives from the Sheikh-ul-islam the diploma of candidate (mulasim) and can be elevated to the rank of the ulemas; he may become cadi (judge). To advance further he must study for seven years, when he may become imam of a mosque. The ulemas wear a white turban, the hadjis, who have been at Mecca, have the green turban. The mesjids are simple places of prayer. In a large mosque or djami maybe found sheikhs in charge of the preaching; kiatibs, who direct the Friday prayer; imams, charged with the ordinary service of the mosque (daily prayer, marriages, burials); muezzins, who ascend four times a day to the minaret to call the faithful to prayer; kaims, a kind of sacristan. Several orders of dervishes form the regular clergy and devote themselves to special practices of which some are noted for their extravagance (howling and whirling); they are distinguished by a conical felt hat. The principal religious obligations, which the faithful perform with zeal are: prayer four times daily, the weekly Friday service, the observance of Ramadan (abstinence from eating, drinking, and smoking from the rising to the setting of the sun). Islam is going through a crisis by contact with the Western world, and under the influence of Christianity many of the enlightened Turks dream of reforming its morals. On the other hand there has always been a certain opposition between the Arabs, who pretend to represent the pure Mussulman tradition, and the Turks. The pan-lslamic policy of Abdul-Hamid had weakened this opposition, and he had availed himself of his title of caliph to form relations with Mussulmans of the entire world. To-day the pan-Islamist movement, of which the University of El-Azhar at Cairo is one of the principal centres, and which has numerous journals at its command, seems to be unfavourable to the Turkish Caliphate. The society " Al Da' wat wal Irchad" is about to create in Egypt a new university destined to form Mussulman missionaries. (2) Greek Orthodox Church The principal indigenous Christian community is the Greek Church, which is the survival of the religious organization of the Byzantine Empire. Its head, the "OEcumenical Patriarch of the Romans" (such is his official title), resides at Constantinople, in the Phanar quarter. He presides over a Holy Synod formed of twelve metropolitans and a "mixed council", composed of four metropolitans and eight laymen. Two million souls obey him. The oecumenical territory is divided into 100 eparchies or dioceses (83 metropolitans and 17 bishops). Since the schisms of Photius (867) and of Michael Caerularius (1054), the Greek Church has been separated from Rome by a succession of ritual and disciplinary observances rather than by dogmatic differences. The tendency of the Greek Church to autonomy has brought about the crumbling of patriarchal authority and the forming of autocephalous churches; outside of the Ottoman Empire may be found the Russian Church, the Church of the Kingdom of Greece, the Servian Church, the Church of Cyprus: in the empire, even since the firman of Abdul-Aziz (11 March, 1870), the Bulgarians have organized an independent church under the name of "Exarchate". The Bulgarian Exarch resides at Orta-Keui on the Bosporus and governs 3,000,000 souls; Thrace and Macedonia are divided into 21 Bulgarian eparchies, but a Holy Synod resides at Sofia. The Arabic speaking Syrians, or Melchites who are attached to the Orthodox Church, are under the authority of the Patriarch of Antioch, who resides at Damascus, of the Patriarchs of Jerusalem and of Alexandria, and of the Archbishop of Sinai, all independent of Constantinople. The Greek Church has two divisions of clergy, one consisting of the popes or papas, who marry before they take orders and cannot become bishops; the other, called the upper clergy, chosen from among the monks. The monasteries are quite numerous. Those of Mount Athos form a veritable independent Republic composed of twenty convents governed by the Council of the Holy Epistasia; its head, the protepistates, is chosen in turn from the monasteries of the great Laura, Iviron, Vatopedi, Khilandariou, and Dyonisiou. The Greek Church has no organized missions, but the Hellenic propaganda is maintained at least in the schools throughout Macedonia, where there is antagonism between the Greeks and Bulgarians: the latter have had often to defend their religions and national independence against the former. (3) Dissenting Churches A certain number of religious communities represent the early and schismatical heretical sects who have remained separate from the Greek Church: a portion of these Christians have, however, returned to the Catholic Church. The Gregorian Armenians (who connect themselves with St. Gregory the Illuminator) have been separated since the Council of Chalcedon (451). They have many heads, the Catholicos of Etschmiadzin in Russian territory, the Catholicos of Sis (200,000 faithful in Cilicia and Syria), and the Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople, who is assisted by a national assembly of 400 members and two councils, civil and ecclesiastical (800,000 faithful, divided among 51 dioceses); finally, the Armenian Patriarch of Jerusalem, in communion with Constantinople. On the Turco-Persian frontier may be found about 100,000 Nestorians, whose patriarch resides at Kotchanes; his dignity is hereditary from uncle to nephew; many have been reunited to the Roman Church. The Monophysites, or Jacobites, to the number of 80,000 in Syria, Mesopotamia, and Kurdistan, represent the remnants of a church that was once powerful; its head, who calls himself Patriarch of Antioch, resides at the Monastery of Dar-uz-Zafaran, between Diarbekir and Mardin. (4) The Catholic Church in the Turkish Empire The Catholic Church in the Turkish Empire comprises two classes of faithful: those of the Latin Rite, and those who preserve their traditional rites, and are united to the Holy See, whence the name Greek-Uniats, Armenian-Uniats, etc. Turkey, a missionary country, depends directly on the Congregation of the Propaganda which has as representatives three apostolic delegates, at Constantinople, Beirut, and Bagdad; assisting them are vicars and prefects Apostolic, heads of the mission and provided with episcopal powers (except the power of conferring major orders). The Latin Catholics are scattered over the entire empire, although 148,000 Albanians form an important group under the Archbishops of Durazzo, Uskub, Scutari, and the Abbot of St. Alexander of Orochi for the Mirdites. The Uniats comprise many distinct groups: (a) the Greeks, whose union was proclaimed by the Council of Florence in 1438, live in Italy and Corsica (Albanian colony of Cargese). In the Turkish Empire there are only some hundred or so placed under the authority of the Apostolic delegate of Constantinople. Among the popes who have striven most to bring about a union with the Greeks Benedict XIV must be remembered, and Leo XIII (Encyclical "Orientalium dignitas", 30 Nov., 1894). (b) The Melchite Greeks (110,000), in Syria, Palestine, Egypt; their patriarch resides at Damascus, and has under his jurisdiction three vicariates (Tarsus, Damietta, and Palmyra) and eleven bishops. (c) The Bulgarian-Uniats, converted about 1860 to escape from the Phanariot despotism. There remain 13,000 directed by the vicarsApostolic of Adrianople and Salonica. (d) The Armenian-Uniats, organized since 1724 under the Patriarch of Cilicia and Little Armenia, who reside at Zmar in the Lebanon. ln 1857 Pius IX conferred this title on the Armenian Archbishop of Constantinople (70,000 faithful, 2 archbishops, of Aleppo and Sivas, 12 bishops, the most of whom are in Persia and Egypt). (e) The Syrian-Uniats, converted by Latin missionaries in 1665; a firman of 1830 has recognized its autonomy (40,000 faithful, a patriarch residing at Beirut, and 12 dioceses). (f) The Chaldean-Uniats, Nestorians converted to Catholicism in 1552. Their Patriarch of Babylon resides at Mossoul (80,000 faithful). (g) The Maronites of the ancient Lebanon, a Monothelite community which abjured its heresy entirely in 1182. Its head, Patriarch of Antioch, resides at Bekerkey, near Beirut; he has 7 archbishops under his jurisdiction. The 300,000 faithful have remained particularly attached to Catholicism. V. CATHOLIC AND PROTESTANT MISSIONS The Christian propaganda has been carried on in the Turkish Empire by means of the missions, the oldest of which date back to the time of the Crusades. As early as 1229 Franciscan and Dominican missions were established in Palestine and as far as Damascus. In 1328 the Franciscans received the "custody" of the Holy Places, and constructed their convents of the Mount of Sion, of the Holy Sepulchre, and of Bethlehem. To-day the Franciscan custody of the Holy Land numbers 338 religious. The missionaries have, however, encountered great obstacles in their work, and they have been unable even to consider a direct propaganda in regard to the Mussulmans. Nevertheless, their moral influence is considerable; it manifests itself by social works due to their initiative (schools, hospitals, dispensaries, etc.) which are very prosperous, and are maintained by numerous organizations founded in Europe: the Society of Foreign Missions of Paris, founded in 1658; the Propagation of the Faith, founded at Lyons in 1822; the Society of St. Francis Xavier, founded at Aachen in the year 1832; the Leopoldsverein, founded in Austria in 1839; the Society of the Holy Childhood, etc. Among the religious orders represented in the Turkish Empire must be mentioned: the Jesuits, who have established the University of St Joseph of Beirut, whose faculty of letters numbers distinguished Orientalists and epigraphists, and whose school of medicine, placed under the control of the University of France, forms a nursery for native physicians; it has a library and a printing-press supplied with Latin and Arabic characters; it publishes a journal and an Arabic review, El-Bachir, and ElMachriq; the Assumptionists, at Constantinople; many of whom devote themselves successfully to the study of archaeology and Byzantine antiquities; the Brothers of the Christian Schools, who had, in 1908, 3449 pupils (8 colleges at Constantinople, 8 at Smyrna, others at Salonica, Angora etc.); the Capuchins, established in Armenia, Asia Minor, Syria etc.; the Lazarists, at Beirut; the Carmelites, at Bagdad, Tripoli, etc.; the Salesians, in Palestine; the Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul, who have opened in almost every district schools, hospitals, and workshops, and who are respected by the Mussulmans for their self-sacrifice; the Sisters of Notre Dame of Sion, with schools in Constantinople; the Dominicans, established at Mossoul and Jerusalem, with a Biblical school. In 1910 a normal school was established at Rhodes to educate members of religious congregations to act as teachers in the East. All these missions are officially placed under the protectorate of France. For the most part the missionaries are French, but there are also a large number of Germans, Italians, and English. Besides these Catholic missionaries, rival societies display immense activity. First of all, the Jewish Alliance, which has founded schools in most of the large cities; the Zionist movement has for its object the repeopling of Palestine by Jews; a few colonists have been attracted thither from Russia. There are throughout the empire Protestant missions from England, Germany, and America. In 1842 an Anglican bishopric was established at Jerusalem, whose titular is alternately English and German. All the large societies of Protestant missions are represented in the Orient (American Board of Foreign Missions, American U.P. Mission, Church Missionary Society, Deutsche Orientmission, German Pioneer Mission, Evangelical Missionary Society of Basle, etc.). All seek to establish their influence by the same propaganda: distribution of Bibles and Gospels translated into the native languages, hospitals, dispensaries, schools etc. At Beirut there is an American University, and more than 30 schools, comprising 3000 pupils. At Constantinople there is the American Robert College. DUTTAND, Empire Ottoman, Turquie d'Europe, Turguie d'Asie, Nouvelle carte administrative, economique et consulaire (Paris, 1908); CUINET, La Turquie d'Asie (5 vols., Paris, 1891-94): Syrie, Liban, Palestine (Paris, 1896-98); BERARD, La Turquie et L'hellenisme contemporain (Paris, 1893); La revolution torque (Paris, 1909); DURAND, Jeune Turquie, vieille France (Paris, 1909); PINON, L'Europe et l'empire ottoman (Paris, 1910); IMBERT, La renovation de l'empire ottoman (Paris, 1909); VON OPPENHEIM, Von Mittelmeer zum persischen Golfe (2 vols., Berlin, 1899-1900); MARK-SYKES, Dar-el-islam (London, 1903); TINAYRE, Notes d'une voyageuse en Orient in Revue des deux Mondes (July-Nov., 1909); Du RAUZAS, Le regime des capitulations dans l'empire ottoman (2nd ed., Paris, 1910); JANIN, Les groupements chretiens en Orient in Echos d'Orient (1906-07); FORTESCUE, The Orthodox Eastern Church (London, 1907); DE MEESTER, Voyage de deux benedictins aux monasteres du mont Athos (Paris, 1908); BERTRAND, La melee des religions en Orient in Revue des deux Mondes (Oct., 1909); DOWLING, The patriarchate of Jerusalem (London, 1909); JEHAY, De la situation legale des sujets ottomans non musulmans (Brussels, l9O6); BERTRAND, Les ecoles d'Orient in Revue des deux Mondes (Sept., Oct., 1909); Carte des ecoles chretiennes de Macedoine (Paris, 1905); LOUVET, Les missions catholiques au XIX siecle (Lyons, 1900); KROSE, Katholische Missionsstaistik (1908); STREIT, Katholischen Missionatlas (1908); BERRE, L'action sociale des missionnaires et les dominicains francais en Turqizie d'Asie (Paris, 1910); Les massacres d'Adana et nos missionnaires (Lyons, 1909); NOPCSA, A Katolikus Eszak-Albania, XXXV (Foldrajzi Kozlemenyek, 1907); MALDEN, Foreign missions (London, 1907); BLISS, DWIGHT, AND TUPPER, The Encyclopedia of missions (2nd ed., London, 1904); BLISS, The missionary enterprise (2nd ed., New York, 1911); WHERRY AND BARTON, The Mohammedan World of To-day (New York, 1911). Periodicals: Missiones Catholicoe cura S. Congregationis de Propaganda Fide descriptoe (Rome); Revue du Monde musulman (Paris; see Nov., 1911, La conquete du monde musulman); Echos d'Orient (Paris, 1897--). BEACH, Statistical atlas of missions (London and New York, 1910); HUBER, Carte statistique des Cultes chretiens: I, Turquie d'Europe; II, Turquie d'Asie (Cairo, 1910-11). LOUIS BRÉHIER Adrian Turnebus Adrian Turnebus Philologist, b. at Andely in Normandy in 1512; d. in Paris, 12 June, 1565. The accounts of the life of the great scholar are scanty and in part even contradictory. Neither is it easy to interpret the name Turnebus, in French Turnèbe. It is said that his father was a Scottish gentleman named Turnbull, who settled in Normandy and gave his name the French form of Tournebæuf. From this it became Tournebu, then Turnèbe, in Latin Turnebus. Whatever may have been the derivation of his name, Turnebus came from a noble though poor family. When eleven years old he was sent to Paris to study. Here his ability and industry enabled him not only to surpass his fellow-pupils but even also his teachers. In 1532 he received the degree of Master of Arts at the University of Paris, and one year later he became professor of humanities at Toulouse. Having held this position for fourteen years, he next became professor of Greek at Paris, and in 1561 exchanged this professorship for that of Greek philosophy. For a time (1552-55) he and his friend William Morel supervised the royal printing press for Greek works. It is said, and can easily be believed of so distinguished a scholar, that important professorships in other places were declined by him while he taught at Paris. As an illustration of his remarkable industry a well-authenticated story is told, that he devoted several hours to study even on his wedding-day. Over-study, however, wore out his strength prematurely, and he died at the age of fifty-three. In accordance with his own testamentary directions, his body was placed in the ground without any religious ceremony on the very evening of his death. This curious proceeding, as well as various utterances and a severe poem on the Jesuits, raised the much controverted question, whether Turnebus remained a Catholic or became an adherent of the new heresy. It seems at least probable that he inclined to Protestant views, even though he did not break completely with the Church, as his Catholic friends steadily maintained. In other respects his character was blameless. His reputation rests not only on his lectures, but also in equal measure on his writings. His numerous works, including commentaries on the ancient classics, short treatises, and poems, were collected and published (2 vols., Strasburg, 1600) with the co-operation of his three sons. De Thou, Histoire universelle; JÖcher, Allg. Gelehrten-Lexikon; Iselin, Neu vermehrtes histor. u. geographisches Lexikon, VI. N. SCHEID Turpin Turpin Archbishop of Reims, date of birth uncertain; d. 2 Sept., 800. He was a monk of St. Denis when, about 753, he was called to the See of Reims. With eleven other bishops of France he attended the Council of Rome in which Pope Stephen III condemned the antipope Constantine to perpetual confinement. He enriched the library of his cathedral by having numerous works copied, and obtained from Charlemagne several privileges for his diocese. Legends grew up around his life, so that by degrees he becomes an epic character who figures in numerous chansons de geste, especially in the "Chanson de Roland". Furthermore, a chronicle known as the "Historia Karoli Magni et Rotholandi" has been attributed to him; but that he was not the author is proved by the use in the chronicle of the word "Lotharingia" which did not exist prior to 855, the mention of the musical chant written on four lines, a custom which does not date back further than 1022, and finally the silence of all the writers of the ninth and tenth centuries regarding this so-called book of Turpin's. The first to mention him is Raoul de Tortaine, a monk of Fleury, who wrote from 1096 to 1145. At the same time Calistus II regarded the book as authentic, and its diffusion revived the fervour of the pilgrimages to St. James of Compostella. In it is related an apparition of St. James to Charlemagne; the saint orders the emperor to follow with his army the direction of the Milky Way, which was thenceforth called the "Path of St. James". Gaston Paris considers that the first five chapters of the chronicle attributed to Turpin were written about the middle of the eleventh century by a monk of Compostella, and that the remainder were written between 1109 and 1119 by a monk of St. AndrÈ de Vienne. This second part has a real literary importance, for the monk who wrote it derived his inspiration from the chansons de geste and the epic traditions; hence there may be seen in this compilation a very ancient form of these traditions. The chronicle was translated into Latin and French as early as 1206 by the cleric Jehan, in the service of Renaud de Dammartin, Count of Boulogne. Editions according to various MSS. have been issued at Paris by Castets (1880) and at Lund by Wulff (1881). Gaston Paris, De pseudo Turpino (Paris, 1865); Auracher, Der altfranzösische Pseudo-Turpin der Arsenalhandschrift in Romanische Forschungen, V (1889-90); Fisquet, La France potificale: Reims (Paris, 1864). GEORGES GOYAU Tuscany Tuscany Tuscany, a division of central Italy, includes the provinces of Arezzo, Florence, Grosseto, Livorno, Massa and Carrara, Pisa, and Siena; area, 9304 sq. miles; population in 1911, 2,900,000. Ecclesiastically it is divided into the provinces of Florence, with 6 suffragan dioceses; Pisa, with 4 suffragans; Siena, with 5 suffragans, the Archdiocese of Lucca; and the immediate Dioceses of Arezzo, Cortona, Montalcino, Montepulciano, and Pienza. The territory is essentially the same as that of ancient Etruria. In the sixth and fifth centuries B.C. the Etruscans were the dominant power in northern and central Italy, and brought Latium and Rome under their supremacy. Towards the end of the sixth century B.C. Rome regained its independence, and from the second half of the fifth century it began a struggle for supremacy. There were many changes of fortune during the long war, but it ended about 280 B.C. with the overthrow of Etruria. During the Empire Etruria formed the seventh region of Italy. After the fall of the Western Empire, Tuscany was ruled successively by the Germans under Odoacer, by the Ostrogoths, by the Eastern Empire through Narses, and by the Lombards. Tuscany, or Tuscia as it was called in the Middle Ages, became a part of the Frankish Empire. during the reign of Charlemagne and was formed a margravate, the margrave of which was also made the ruler several times of the Duchy of Spoleto and Camerino. In 1030 the margravate fell to Boniface, of the Canossa family. Boniface was also Duke of Spoleto, Count of Modena, Mantua, and Ferrara, and was the most powerful prince of the empire in Italy. He was followed by his wife Beatrice, first as regent for their minor son who died in 1055, then as regent for their daughter Matilda; in 1076 Beatrice died. Both she and her daughter were enthusiastic adherents of Gregory VII in his contest with the empire, After Matilda's death in 1115 her hereditary possessions were for a long time an object of strife between the papacy and the emperors. During the years 1139-45 Tuscany was ruled by Margrave Hulderich, who was appointed by the Emperor Conrad III. Hulderich was followed by Guelf, brother of Henry the Lion. In 1195 the Emperor Henry VI gave the margravate in fief to his brother Philip. In 12O9 Otto IV renounced in favour of the papacy all claim to Matilda's lands, as did also the Emperor Frederick II in the Golden Bull of Eger of 1213, but both firmly maintained the rights of the empire in the Tuscan cities. During the struggle between the popes and the emperors' and in the period following the fall of the Hohenstaufens when the throne was vacant, Florence, Siena, Pisa, Lucca, Arezzo, and other Tuscan cities attained constantly increasing independence and autonomy. They acquired control also of Matilda's patrimony, so far as it was situated in Tuscany. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries all Tuscany, except Siena and Lucca, came under the suzerainty of Florence and the Medici. In 1523 the Emperor Charles V made Alessandro Medici hereditary Duke of Florence. The last Tuscan towns that still enjoyed independence were acquired by Alessandro's successor Cosimo I (1537-74) partly by cunning and bribery, partly with Spanish aid by force of arms. In 1557 Philip II, who required Cosimo's aid against the pope, granted him Siena which in 1555 had surrendered to the emperor. Only a small part of Sienese territory remained Spanish as the Stato degli presidi. Thus the Medici acquired the whole of Tuscany, and in 1569 the pope made Cosimo Grand Duke of Tuscany. Although at the beginning of Cosimo's reign there were several conspiracies, especially by the exiled families, the Fuorisciti, the Florentines gradually became accustomed to the absolute government of the ruler. Cosimo had created a well-ordered state out of the chaos existing previously, and had established this state on the foundation of justice, equality of all citizens, good financial administration, and sufficient military strength. Art, literature, and learning also enjoyed a new era of prosperity during his reign. After long negotiations his son Francesco I (1574-87) received in 1576 from the Emperor Maximilian the confirmation of the grand ducal title which had been refused his father. In his foreign policy Francesco was dependent on the Habsburg dynasty. During his weak reign the power was in the hands of women and favourites, and the corruption of the nobility and officials gained ground again, while the discontent of the common people was increased by heavy taxes. After the death of his first wife the grand duke married his mistress, the Venetian Bianca Capello. As he had only daughters, one of whom was the French queen, Maria de Medici, and the attempt to substitute an illegitimate son failed, he was followed by his brother Cardinal Ferdinand (1587-1605, who has been accused without any historical proof of poisoning his brother and sister-in-law. In foreign policy Ferdinand made himself independent of the emperor and Spain and as an opponent of the preponderance of the Habsburgs supported the French King Henry IV. Henry's return to the Catholic Church was largely due to Ferdinand's influence. Ferdinand benefited his duchy by an excellent administration and large public works, e.g. the draining of the Mianatales and the Maremma of Siena, the construction of the port of Leghorn, etc. He re-established public safety by repressing brigandage. In 1589 he resigned the cardinalate with the consent of Sixtus V, and married Christine, daughter of Henry III of France. His relations with the papacy were almost always of the best; he promoted the reform of the Tuscan monasteries and the execution of the decrees of the Council of Trent. His son Cosimo II (1609-21) married Margareta, sister of the Emperor Ferdinand II. Cosimo II ruled in the same spirit as his father and raised the prosperity of the country to a height never before attained. He was succeeded by a minor son of eleven years, Ferdinand II (1621-70), the regent being the boy's mother. Margareta's weakness led to the loss of Tuscany's right to the Duchy of Urbino, which fell vacant, and which Pope Urban VII took as an unoccupied fief of the Church. From 1628 Ferdinand ruled independently; to the disadvantage of his country he formed a close union with the Habsburg dynasty which involved him in a number of Italian wars. These wars, together with pestilence, were most disastrous to the country. Cosimo III (1670-1723) brought the country to the brink of ruin by his unlucky policy and his extravagance. His autocratic methods, inconsistency, and preposterous measures in internal affairs place upon him the greater part of the responsibility for the extreme arbitrariness that developed among the state officials, especially among those of the judiciary. Although he sought to increase the importance of the Church, yet he damaged it by using the clergy for police purposes, proceeded against heretics with undue severity, and sought to aid the conversion of non-Catholics and Jews by all means, even, very material ones. During the War of the Spanish Succession the grand duke desired to remain neutral, although he had accepted Siena in fief once more from Philip V. In this era the land was ravaged by pestilence, and the war-taxes and forced contributions levied on it by the imperial generals completely destroyed its prosperity. Neither of Cosimo's two sons had male heirs, and finally he obstinately pursued the plan, although without success, to transfer the succession to his daughter. Before this, however, the powers had settled in the Peace of Utrecht that when the Medici were extinct the succession to Tuscany was to fall to the Spanish Bourbons. Cosimo III was followed by his second son Giovan Gastone (1723-37), who permitted the country to be governed by his unscrupulous chamberlain, Giuliano Dami. When he died the Medici dynasty ended. In accordance with the Treaty of Vienna of 1735 Francis, Duke of Lorraine, who had married Maria Theresa in 1736, became grand duke (1737-65) instead of the Spanish Bourbons. Francis Joseph garrisoned the country with Austrian troops and transferred its administration to imperial councillors. As Tuscany now became an Austrian territory, belonging as inheritance to the second son, Tuscany was more or less dependent upon Vienna. However, the country once more greatly advanced in economic prosperity, especially during the reign of Leopold I (1765-90), who, like his brother the Emperor Joseph I, was full of zeal for reform, but who went about it more slowly and cautiously. In 1782 Leopold suppressed the Inquisition, reduced the possessions of the Church, suppressed numerous monasteries, and interfered in purely internal ecclesiastical matters for the benefit of the Jansenists. After his election as emperor he was succeeded in 1790 by his second son, Ferdinand III, who ruled as his father had done. During the French Revolution Ferdinand lost his duchy in 1789 and 1800; it was given to Duke Louis of Parma on 1 October, under the name of the Kingdom of Etruria. In 1807 Tuscany was united directly with the French Empire, and Napoleon made his sister Eliza Bacciocchi its administrator with the title of grand duchess. After Napoleon's overthrow the Congress of Vienna gave Tuscany again to Ferdinand and added to it Elba, Piombino, and the Stato degli presidi. A number of the monasteries suppressed by the French were re-established by the Concordat of 1815 but otherwise the government was influenced by the principles of Josephinism in its relations with the Catholic Church. When the efforts of the Italian secret societies for the formation of a united national state spread to Tuscany, Ferdinand formed a closer union with Austria, and the Tuscan troops were placed under Austrian officers as preparation for the breaking-out of war. The administration of his son Leopold II (1824-60) was long considered the most liberal in Italy, although he reigned as an absolute sovereign. The Concordat of 1850 also gave the Church greater liberty. Notwithstanding the economic and intellectual growth which the land enjoyed, the intrigues of the secret societies found the country fruitful soil, for the rulers were always regarded as foreigners, and the connection they formed with Austria made them unpopular. In 1847 a state council was established; on 15 Feb., 1848, a constitution was issued, and on 26 June was opened. Notwithstanding this, the sedition against the dynasty increased, and in August there were street fights at Leghorn in which the troops proved untrustworthy. Although Leopold had called a democratic ministry in October, with Guerrazzi and Montanelli at its head, and had taken part in the Piedmontese war against Austria, yet the Republicans forced him to flee from the country and go to Gaeta in Feb., 1849. A provisional republican government was established at Florence; this before long was forced to give way to an opposing movement of moderated Liberalism. After this by the aid of Austria Leopold was able in July, 1849, to return. In 1852 he suppressed the constitution issued in 1848 and governed as an absolute ruler, although with caution and moderation. However, the suppression of the constitution and the fact that up to 1855 an Austrian army of occupation remained in the country made him greatly disliked. When in 1859 war was begun between Sardinia-Piedmont and Austria, and Leopold became the confederate of Austria, a fresh revolution broke out which forced him to leave. For the period of the war Victor Emmanuel occupied the country. After the Peace of Villa Franca had restored Tuscany to Leopold, the latter abdicated in favour of his son Ferdinand IV. On 16 Aug., 1859, a national assembly declared the deposition of the dynasty, and a second assembly (12 March, 1860) voted for annexation to Piedmont, officially proclaimed on 22 March. Since then Tuscany has been a part of the Kingdom of Italy, whose capital was Florence from 1865 to 1871. GALLUZZI, Storia del granducato di Toscana sotto il governo della casa Medici (5th ed., 18 vols., Florence, 1830); NAPIER, Florentine History (6 vols. London, 1847); ZOBI, Storia civile della Toscana (5 vols. Florence, 1850-52); IDEM, Memorie e documenti officiali (2 vols., Florence, 1860); IDEM, Cronaca degli avvenimenti nel 1859 (2 vols., Florence, 1859-60); Giornale storico degli archivi toscani (7 vols., Florence, 1857-68; CANESTRINI, Négociations diplontatiques de la France avec la Toscane, ed. DESJARDINS (6 vols., Paris, 1859-86); POGGI, Memorie storiche del governo della Toscana 1859-60 (3 vols., Pisa, 1871); Leopoldo II e i suoi tempi (Florence, 1871); REUMONT, Geschichte Toscanas (2 vols., Gotha, 1876-77); REUCHLIN, Geschichte Italiens, III-IV (Leizig, 1870-73); ROHAULT DE LA FLEURY, La Toscane au moyen âge (2 vols., Paris, 1874); MERKEL, Bibliografia degli anni 1859-91 in Bulletino storico italiano (1892); WURZBACH, Die Grossherzöge von Tosk (Vienna, 1883); MÜNTZ, Florence et la Toscane (2nd ed. Paris, 1901). JOSEPH LINS Tuy Tuy (Tudensis.) Suffragan diocese of the Archdiocese of Santiago, comprises the civil provinces of Orense and Pontevedra, is bounded on the north by Pontevedra, on the east by Orense, on the south by Portugal, and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean. The city has a population of 3000, and is of very ancient origin. Ptolemy calls it Toudai and attributes its foundation to Diomedes, son of Tydeus (just as the foundation of Lisbon is attributed to Ulysses). During the Roman period it belonged to the conventus juridicus or judicial district of Braga. The city seems to have been at first situated on the top of Mount Alhoya whence it was moved to its base, where it was in the time of the Goths. When King Egica shared the government with his son Wittiza he made him live at Tuy, probably at the site known as Pazos de Reyes (palaces of the kings). The See of Tuy is very ancient; one of the four bishops of Galicia at the first Council of Braga (561) was Bishop of Tuy. The first historically known bishop was Anila who attended the second Council of Braga (572); he signed as suffragan of Lugo. Neuphilias lived under the Arian King Leovigild, by whom he was exiled and the Arian Gardingus put in his place. Gardingus abjured his heresy at the third Council of Toledo. Anastasius was present at the fourth and sixth Councils of Toledo; Adimirus at the seventh; and Beatus sent the cleric Victorinus to represent him at the eighth. Genetivus was present at the third Council of Braga (675) as a suffragan of Braga, and also at the twelfth Council of Toledo. Oppa was present at the thirteenth, and Adelphius at the fifteenth. Tuy fell into the hands of the Mahommedans, but was not entirely destroyed as it is numbered among the cities reconquered by Alfonso I, but not recolonized until the time of Ordono I. The exiled Bishop of Tuy took refuge in Iria (Compostella), and a parish was assigned to him for his support. The first known Bishop of Tuy after the Saracen invasion is Diego (890-901), present at the consecration of the Church of St. James the Apostle (899), also at the Council of Oviedo in which this see was raised to the rank of a metropolitan (900). Hermoigius founded the monastery of San Cristóbal of Labrugia, resided in Tuy, and in 915 began the reconstruction of the cathedral. At the battle of Valdejunquera he was made prisoner by the Arabs and taken to Cordova where he was forced to leave as a hostage his nephew, St. Pelagius, a child of thirteen. The latter suffered martyrdom in defence of his chastity; his relics were transferred to Oviedo and he was declared the patron of Tuy. Naustianus (926) retired to the monastery of Labrugia to avoid the assaults of the Norsemen who had come up as far as Tuy along the River Miño. His successor, Vimaranus (937-42), retired to the monastery Rivas de Sil, as did the next bishop, Viliulfus (952-70). The Norsemen led by Olaf were encamped at different times at Tuy and ravaged it cruelly (1014), on which account Alfonso V placed it under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Compostella. Bishop Alfonso I and his priests had been made captive, and thereafter, until the time of Doña Urraca, a sister of Alfonso VI, a period of forty-seven years, the See of Tuy was vacant. Doña Urraca re-established it and made Jorge (Georgius) bishop. He took up his residence in the monastery of San Bartolomé, whose monks were canons of the cathedral. The decree of the restoration of the see is dated 13 Jan., 1071. Bishop Adericus (1072-95) succeeded Jorge. The bishops, by concession of Raymond of Burgundy and Alfonso VII, were lords of the city, and Bishop Alfonso II began building the new cathedral, which was finished a hundred years later by Esteban Egea (1218-39). In the time of Bishop Pelayo Meléndez (1131-55) the canons adopted the Rule of St. Augustine. Among the bishops who deserve special mention are: Lucas de Tuy, called "El Tudense", annalist of Doña Berenguela, to whom we owe the compilation known as the "Cronicón de España"; Juan Fernandez de Sotomayor, councillor of Queen Doña Mariá de Molina, who was present at the Council of Vienna (1312); and Prudencio de Sandoval, a Benedictine, celebrated annalist of Charles V. The Western Schism caused a division in the ranks of the clergy of Tuy, the bishop giving allegiance to the Avignon pope, others to the pope at Rome, whom Portugual also obeyed. Martin V commanded the latter to recognize the legitimate bishop, and when some resisted this order their churches were allowed to be governed by vicars residing in Portugal (1441). The cathedral of the diocese, which is dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, resembles a medieval fortress, as it is built on the crown of the ancient castle fort (Castellum Tude). It belongs to the early Gothic period and, on account of its height, the importance of its side naves, its clerestory (now walled up, but preserving its ancient arches and columns), the interior is well worthy of note. The ground plan is that of a Latin cross (the four arms being extremely short) with four naves, those on the side terminating in the apse. The chapel of San Telmo (San Pedro Gonzalez), built by Bishop Diego de Torquemada (1564-82) who transferred to it the relics of the saint, is worthy of note. Between the altar of the Visitation and that of the Seven Dolours is the unique sepulchre of Lope de Sarmiento (d. 1607). To the cathedral is attached a handsome Gothic cloister. The churches of the old Dominican and Franciscan convents have been converted into parish churches, the convent of Santo Domingo being used for a barracks and that of San Francisco for primary and secondary schools. Tuy has a fine hospital (built by Bishop Rodríguez Castañon) and a home for the aged in charge of the Little Sisters of the Poor. The seminary, which is dedicated to St. Francis of Assisi and the Immaculate Conception, was founded in 1850 by Bishop Francisco Garcia Casarrubios y Melgar. Among the illustrious men of the diocese may be mentioned St. Teutonius, the humanist Alvaro Cadaval y Sotomayor, and Francisco Avila y La Creva, author of a history of the diocese. Florez, Esp. Sagrada, XXII-XXIII (Madrid, 1798-99); Marguia, Esp., sus monumentos: Galicia (Barcelona, 1888); Davila, Teatro ecles. de Tuy; Sandoval y Argaiz, Episcopologios. RAMÓN RUIZ AMADO St. John Twenge St. John Twenge Last English saint canonized, canon regular, Prior of St. Mary's, Bridlington, b. near the town, 1319; d. at Bridlington, 1379. He was of the Yorkshire family Twenge, which family in Reformation days supplied two priest-martyrs and was also instrumental in establishing the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary (q. v.) at Bar Convent, York. John completed his studies at Oxford and then entered the Priory of Bridlington. Charged successively with various offices in the community, he was finally despite his reluctance elected prior, which office he held until his death. Even in his lifetime he enjoyed a reputation for great holiness and for miraculous powers. On one occasion he changed water into wine. On another, five seamen from Hartlepool in danger of shipwreck called upon God in the name of His servant, John of Bridlington, whereupon the prior himself appeared to them in his canonical habit and brought them safely to shore. After his death the fame of the miracles wrought by his intercession spread rapidly through the land. Archbishop Neville charged his suffragans and others to take evidence with a view to his canonization, 26 July, 1386; and the same prelate assisted by the Bishops of Durham and Carlisle officiated at a solemn translation of his body, 11 March, 1404, de mandato Domini Papae. This pope, Boniface IX, shortly afterwards canonized him. The fact has been doubted and disputed; but the original Bull was recently unearthed in the Vatican archives by Mr. T.A. Twemlow, who was engaged in research work there for the British Government. St. John was especially invoked by women in cases of difficult confinement. At the Reformation the people besought the royal plunderer to spare the magnificent shrine of the saint, but in vain; it was destroyed in 1537. The splendid nave of the church, restored in 1857, is all that now remains of Bridlington Priory. The saint's feast is observed by the canons regular on 9 October. BUTLER, Lives of the Saints; GASQUET, Henry VIII and the English Monasteries (London, 1889); STANTON, Menology (London and New York, 1892); State Papers, Rolls Series, Northern Registers; WALSINGHAM, Historia Anglicana (London, 1863-76); SURIUS, De probatis Sanctorum Historiis (Turin, 1875-80). VINCENT SCULLY Twiketal of Croyland Twiketal of Croyland (THURCYTEL, TURKETUL). Died July, 975. He was a cleric of royal descent, who is said to have acted as chancellor to Kings Athelstan (d. 940), Edmund (d. 946), and Edred (d. 955), but as this statement rests on the authority of the pseudo-Ingulf, it must be received with caution. Leaving the world in 946 he became a monk of Croyland Abbey, which had been devastated by the Danes and lay in a ruinous and destitute state. He endowed it with six of his own manors, and, being elected abbot, restored the house to a flourishing condition. He was a friend both of St. Dunstan and St. Ethelwold of Winchester, and like them a reformer. The real authority for his life is Ordericus Vitalis; for no reliance can be placed on the long and fictitious account in the fourteenth-century forgery which is published under the name of Ingulf of Croyland (q.v.). EDWIN BURTON Tyana Tyana A titular metropolitan see of Cappadocia Prima. The city must first have been called Thoana, because Thoas, a Thracian king, was its founder (Arrianus, "Periplus Ponti Euxini", vi); it was in Cappadocia, but at the foot of Taurus and near the Cilician Gates (Strabo, XII, 537; XIII, 587). The surrounding plain received the name of Tyanitis. There in the first century A.D. was born the celebrated magician Apollonius. Under Caracalla the city became the "Antoniana colonia Tyana". After having taken sides with Queen Zenobia of Palmyra it was captured by Aurelian in 272, who would not allow his soldiers to pillage it (Homo, "Essai sur le règne de l'Empereur Aurélien", 90-92). In 371 Valens created a second province of Cappadocia, of which Tyana became the metropolis, which aroused a violent controversy between Anthimus, Bishop of Tyana, and St. Basil, Bishop of Caesarea, each of whom wished to have as many suffragan sees as possible. About 640 Tyana had three, and it was the same in the tenth century (Gelzer, "Ungedruckte . . . Texte der Notitiae episcopatum", 538, 554). Le Quien (Oriens christ., I, 395- 402) mentions 28 bishops of Tyana, among whom were Eutychius, at Nice in 325; Anthimus, the rival of St. Basil; Aetherius, at Constantinople in 381; Theodore, the friend of St. John Chrysostom; Eutherius, the partisan of Nestorius, deposed and exiled in 431; Cyriacus, a Severian Monophysite. In May, 1359, Tyana still had a metropolitan (Mikelosich and Müller, "Acta patriarchatus Constantinopolitani", I, 505); in 1360 the metropolitan of Caesarea secured the administration of it (op. cit., 537). Thenceforth the see was titular. The ruins of Tyana are at Kilisse-Hissar, three miles south of Nigde in the vilayet of Koniah; there are remains of a Roman aqueduct and of sepulchral grottoes. S. VAILHÉ St. Tychicus St. Tychicus A disciple of St. Paul and his constant companion. He was a native of the Roman province of Asia (Acts, xx, 4), born, probably, at Ephesus. About his conversion nothing is known. He appears as a companion of St. Paul in his third missionary journey from Corinth through Macedonia and Asia Minor to Jerusalem. He shared the Apostle's first Roman captivity and was sent to Asia as the bearer of letters to the Colossians and Ephesians (Eph., vi, 21; Col, iv, 7, 8). According to Tit., iii, 12, Paul intended to send Tychicus or Artemas to Crete to supply the place of Titus. It seems, however, that Artemas was sent, for during the second captivity of St. Paul at Rome Tychicus was sent thence to Ephesus (II Tim., iv, 12). Of the subsequent career of Tychicus nothing certain is known. Several cities claim him as their bishop. The Menology of Basil Porphyrogenitus, which commemorates him on 9 April, makes him Bishop of Colophon and successor to Sosthenes. He is also said to have been appointed Bishop of Chalcedon by St. Andrew the Apostle (Lipsius, "Apokryphe Apostelgesch.", Brunswick, 1883, 579). He is also called bishop of Neapolis in Cyprus (Le Quien, "Oriens christ.", Paris, 1740, I, 125; II, 1061). Some martyrologies make him a deacon, while the Roman Martyrology places his commemoration at Paphos in Cyprus. His feast is kept on 29 April. FRANCIS MERSHMAN Tynemouth Priory Tynemouth Priory Tynemouth Priory, on the east coast of Northumberland, England, occupied the site of an earlier Saxon church built first in wood, then in stone, in the seventh century, and famous as the burial-place of St. Oswin, king and martyr. Plundered and burnt several times by the Danes, and frequently rebuilt, it was granted in 1074 to the Benedictine monks of Yarrow, and, with them, annexed to Durham Abbey. In the reign of William Rufus, Robert de Mowbray, Earl of Northumberland, re-peopled Tynemouth with monks from St. Albans, and it became a cell of that abbey, remaining so until the Dissolution. The Norman Church of Sts. Mary and Oswin was built by Earl Robert about 1100, and 120 years later was greatly enlarged, a choir 135 feet long with aisles being added beyond the Norman apse, while the nave was also lengthened. East of the choir and chancel was added about 1320 an exquisite Lady-chapel, probably built by the Percy family, which had lately acquired the great Northumberland estates of the de Vescis. The first prior of the re-founded monastery was Remigius, and the last was Robert Blakeney, who on 12 Jan., 1539, surrendered the priory to Henry VIII, he himself, with fifteen monks and four novices, signing the deed of surrender, which is still extant, with the beautiful seal of the monastery appended to it. A pension of £80 was granted to Blakeney, and small pittances to the monks; and the priory site and buildings were bestowed first on Sir Thomas Hilton, and later, under Edward VI, on the Duke of Northumberland. Colonel Villars, governor of Tynemouth Castle under William III and Anne, had a lease of the priory, and id irreparable damage to the remaining buildings. Practically nothing is now left except the roofless chancel, one of the most beautiful fragments of thirteenth-century architecture in England. D.O. HUNTER-BLAIR Types in Scripture Types in Scripture Types, though denoted by the Greek word typoi, are not coextensive with the meaning of this word. It signifies in John 20:25, the "print" of the nails in the risen Lord's hands; in Romans 6:17, the "form" of the Christian doctrine; in Acts 7:43, "figures" formed by a blow or impression, "images" of idols made for adoration; in Acts 7:44, and Hebrews 8:5, the "form", or "pattern", according to which something is to be made; in Philippians 3:17, I Timothy 4:12, etc., the "model" or "example" of conduct. It is to be noted that, in all instances in which the word typos indicates the similarity between something future and something past in either the physical or the moral order, this similarity is intended, and not a matter of chance resemblance. It is, therefore, antecedently probable that in another series of texts, e.g. Romans 5:14, in which a type is a person or thing prefiguring a future person or thing, the connection between the two terms is intended by him who foresees and arranges the course of history. The types in the Bible are limited to types understood in this sense of the word. But while they do not extend to all the various meanings of the word typos, they are not restricted to its actual occurrence. In Galatians 4:24, for instance, the type and its antitype are represented as allegoroumena, "said by an allegory"; in Colossians 2:17, the type is said to be skia ton mellonton "a shadow of things to come"; in Hebrews 9:9, it is called parabole, a "parable" of its antitype. But the definition of the type is verified in all these cases: a person, a thing, or an action, having its own independent and absolute existence, but at the same time intended by God to prefigure a future person, thing, or action. I. NATURAL BASIS OF TYPES It has been pointed out that in the various degrees of nature the higher forms repeat the laws of the lower forms in a clearer and more perfect way. In history, too, the past and present often resemble each other to such an extent that some writers regard it as an axiom that history repeats itself. They point to Nabuchodonosor and Napoleon, to the fleet of Xerxes and the armada of Philip. After Plutarch has informed his reader (De fortuna Alexandri, x) that among all the expressions of Homer the words "both a good king, and an excellent fighter in war" pleased Alexander most, he adds that in this verse Homer seems not merely to celebrate the greatness of Agamemnon but also to prophesy that of Alexander. What is true of nature and history in general is especially applicable to the economy of salvation; the state of nature was superseded and surpassed in perfection by the Mosaic Law, and the Mosaic Law yielded similarly to the Christian dispensation. II. FIGURISTS In the two earlier periods of Revelation there is no lack of men, things, and actions resembling those of the Christian economy; besides, the New Testament expressly declares that some of them typify their respective resemblances in the new dispensation. Hence the question arises whether one is justified in affirming to be a type anything which is not affirmed to be so in Revelation, either by direct statement or manifest implication. Witsius Cocceius (d. 1669) were of opinion that the types actually indicated in Revelation were to be considered rather as examples for our guidance in the interpretation of others than as supplying us with an entire list of all that were designed for this purpose. Cocceius and his followers contended that every event in Old Testament history which had any formal resemblance to something in the New was to be regarded as typical. This view opened the door to frivolous and absurd interpretation by the followers of the Cocceian and Witsian school. Cramer, for instance, in his "De ara exteriori" (xii, 1) considers the altar of holocausts as a type of Christ, and then asks the question, "quadratus quomodo Christus fuerit"; van Till (De tabernaculo Mosis, xxv) presents the snuffers of the sacred candlestick as a type of sanctified reason which destroys our daily occurring errors. Hulsius, d'Outrein, Deusing, and Vitringa (d. 1722) belong to the same school. III. PIETISTS In the Würtemberg school of pietism the types of the Old Testament were no longer considered an isolated phenomena, intended to instruct and confirm in the faith, but were regarded as members of an organic development of the salvific economy in which each earlier stage prefigures the subsequent. Bengel points out (Gnomon, preface, 13) that as there is symmetry in God's works down to the tiniest blade of grass, so there is a connection in God's works, even in the most insignificant ones. In his "Ordo temporum" (ix, 13) the same writer insists on the unity of design, which makes one work out of all the books of Scripture, the source of all times, and has measured the past and the future alike. One of Bengel's disciples, P. M. Hahn, compares (Theologische Schriften, ii, 9) the development of revelation to the growth of a flower. The formative power hidden in the seed manifests itself more and more by the addition of each pair of leaves. This view was followed also by Ph. Hiller in his work ("Neues System aller Vorbilder Christi im Alten Testament" (1758), and by Crusius in his treatise "Hypomnemata theol. propheticae" (1764-78). The last-named writer is of the opinion that the figurative development of God's kingdom changes into an historical growth at the time of David; he considers the Kingdom of David as the embryo of the Kingdom of Christ. IV. MODERATE USE OF TYPES Owing to their lack of a clear distinction between type and allegory, Martin Luther and Melanchthon did not esteem the typical sense of Scripture at its true value. Andreas Rivetus attempted to draw a line of distinction between type and allegory (Praef. ad ps., 45), and Gerhard (Loci, II, 67) closely adhered to his definition. But practically types were used for parenetic rather than theological purposes by Baldwin (Passio Christi typica; Adventus Christi typicus), Bacmeister (Explicatio typorum V. T. Christum explicantium), and other writers of this school. They would have had more confidence in the typical sense of Scripture had they followed the view of Bishops von Mildert and Marsh. For these writers did not leave the typical sense to the imagination of the individual expositor, but rigidly required competent evidence of the Divine intention that a person or an event was to prefigure another person or event. Even in the Bible they distinguish between examples that are used for the sake of illustration only and those when there is a manifest typical relationship and connection. It is true that Calovius (Sytem. theol., I, 663) and Aug. Pfeifer (Thes. herm., iii, can. 10) insist on admitting only one sense, the literal, in Scripture; but as the literal sense clearly indicates several types, writers like Buddeus, Rambach, and Pfaff point out that such an insistence on the literal sense differs only in words from the admission of a limited typical sense. Rambach goes further than this; in order to increase the parenetic force of Scripture, he attributes to each word as wide a meaning and as much importance as the nature of the subject matter allows (Instit. herm., 319). The "Mysterium Christi et christianismi in fasciis typicis antiquitatum V.T." by Joachim Lange, "Jüdische Heiligthümer" by Lundius, and "Der Messias im A.T." by Schöttegen are other works in which the element of edification is chiefly kept in view. V. SOCINIAN INFLUENCE While in Cocceian and Lutheran circles typology flourished either unrestrictedly or within certain bounds, it began to be considered as a mere accommodation or as a subjective work of parallelizing a number of Scripture passages by the Socinians and by all those who failed to see the unity of God's work in our history of Revelation. Clericus, writing on Galatians 4:22, refers typology to a Jewish manner of interpreting Scripture. The derivation of the Mosaic worship from Egyptian and Oriental cults, as explained by Spencer, rendered void the typical sense advocated in the Epistle to the Hebrews. Hence, Henke considers typology as an exploded system; Semler (Versuch einer freieren theologischen Lehrart, 1777, p. 104), does not wish that types should be considered any longer as belonging to the true religion; Döderlein (Institutiones, 1779, n. 229) requires in a type not a mere resemblance, but also that it should have been expressly represented in the Old Testament as a figure of the future; moreover, he believes that at the time of Moses no one would have understood such figures. But how explain the fact that the Apostles and Christ Himself employed the typical sense of the Old Testament? They adapted themselves, we are told, in their use of the Old Testament to the condition of the Jewish people, and to the hermeneutical principles prevalent in the Jewish schools. It followed, therefore, that the use of the typical sense in the New Testament is nothing but Rabbinic trifling. This point of view is followed in Döpke's "Hermeneutik der neutestamentlichen Schriftsteller" (Part I, 1829), and also in the exegetical works of Ammon, Fritzsche, Meyer, Rückert, and others. VI. REACTION AGAINST THE SOCINIAN VIEW On the other hand, there was no lack of defenders of the typical sense of Scripture. Michaelis (Entwurf der typischen Gottesgelährtheir, 1752) points out that, even if we follow Spencer's view of the origin of the Mosaic worship, borrowed rites too may have a symbolic meaning; but the writer's blindness to the distinction between type and symbol is the vulnerable side of his treatise. Blasche shows himself a stout adherent of typology in his "Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews" (1782). Herder in his thirty-ninth letter on the study of theology (1780) believes that, though each stone of a building does not see either itself or the whole building, it would be narrow-mindedness on our part to pretend that we do not see more than any given part can see; it is only in the light of historic development that we can appreciate the analogy of the whole to each of its parts. Rau (Freimüthige Untersuchung über die Typologie, 1784) reverts to a study of Spencer's derivation of the Mosaic worship; and grants that the Jewish rites may be symbols of the New Testament, but denies that they are types in the stricter sense of the word. VII. REVIVAL OF SYMBOLISM AND PIETISM At the beginning of the nineteenth century there was a revival of taste for symbolism, and of an appreciation of Bengel's typicism. Starting from symbolism, de Wette ("Beitrag zur Characteristic des Hebraismus" in "Studien von Daub und Creuzer", 1807, III, 244) concludes that the whole of the Old Testament is one great prophecy, one great type of what was to come, and what has come to pass. F. von Meyer and Stier wrote in the same strain, but they are men of less note. Influenced by Bengel's view, Menken explained in a typical sense Daniel 2 (1802-1809), the brazen serpent (1812), Hebrews 8-10 (1821); from the same point of view, Beck wrote his "Bemerkungen über messianische Weissagungen" (Tübinger Zeitschrift für Theologie, 1831, part 3), and also explained Romans 9 (Christliche Lehrwissenschaft, I, 1833, p. 360). The same principle underlies the view of Biblical history as presented by Hofmann, Franz Delitzsch, Kurtz, and Auberlen. Ed. Böhmer in his treatise "Zur biblishcen Typik" (1855) adopts a similar point of view: One idea prevails through the whole of creation; in nature the lower grades are types of the higher; the material order is a type of the spiritual; and man is the antitype of universal nature. The same law prevails in history; for the earlier age is always the type of the subsequent. Thus the Kingdom of God, which is the climax of Creation, has its types in nature and its types in history. VIII. RATIONALISTIC CONTENTION AND CATHOLIC DOCTRINE Needless to say rationalistic writers repudiate the typical sense of Sacred Scripture. The Catholic doctrine as to the nature of the typical sense, its existence, its extent, its theological value, has been stated in EXEGESIS. -- (2). A.J. MAAS Tyrannicide Tyrannicide Tyrannicide literally is the killing of a tyrant, and usually is taken to mean the killing of a tyrant by a private person for the common good. There are two classes of tyrants whose circumstances are widely apart -- tyrants by usurpation and tyrants by oppression. A tyrant by usurpation (tyrannus in titula) is one who unjustly displaces or attempts to displace the legitimate supreme ruler, and he can be considered in the act of usurpation or in subsequent peaceful possession of the supreme power. A tyrant by oppression (tyrannus in regimine) is a supreme ruler who uses his power arbitrarily and oppressively. I. TYRANT BY USURPATION While actually attacking the powers that be, a tyrant by usurpation is a traitor acting against the common weal, and, like any other criminal, may be put to death by legitimate authority. If possible, the legitimate authority must use the ordinary forms of law in condemning the tyrant to death, but if this is not possible, it can proceed informally and grant individuals a mandate to inflict the capital punishment. St. Thomas (In II Sent., d. XLIV, Q. ii, a. 2), Suarez (Def. fidei, VI, iv, 7), and the majority of authorized theologians say that private individuals have a tacit mandate from legitimate authority to kill the usurper when no other means of ridding the community of the tyrant are available. Some, however, e.g. Crolly (De justitia, III, 207), hold that an express mandate is needed before a private person can take on himself the office of executioner of the usurping tyrant. All authorities hold that a private individual as such, without an express or tacit mandate from authority, may not lawfully kill an usurper unless he is actually his unjust aggressor. Moreover, it sometimes happens that an usurper is accorded the rights of a belligerent, and then a private individual, who is a non-combatant, is excluded by international law from the category of those to whom authority is given to kill the tyrant (Crolly, loc. cit.). If an usurper has already established his rule and peacefully reigns, until the prescriptive period has run its course the legitimate ruler can lawfully expel him by force if he is able to do so, and can punish him with death for his offence. If, however, it is out of the legitimate ruler's power to re-establish his own authority, there is nothing for it but to acquiesce in the actual state of affairs and to refrain from merging the community in the miseries of useless warfare. In these circumstances, subjects are bound to obey the just laws of the realm, and can lawfully take an oath of obedience to the de facto ruler, if the oath is not of such a nature as to acknowledge the legitimacy of the usurper's authority (cf. Brief of Pius VIII, 29 Sept., 1830). This teaching is altogether different from the view of those who put forward the doctrine of accomplished facts, as it has come to be called, and who maintain that the actual peaceful possessor of the ruling authority is also legitimate ruler. This is nothing more or less than the glorification of successful robbery. II. TYRANT BY OPPRESSION Looking on a tyrant by oppression as a public enemy, many authorities claimed for his subjects the right of putting him to death in defence of the common good. Amongst these were John of Salisbury in the twelfth century (Polycraticus III, 15; IV, 1; VIII, 17), and John Parvus (Jehan Petit) in the fifteenth century. The Council of Constance (1415) condemned as contrary to faith and morals the following proposition: "Any vassal or subject can lawfully and meritoriously kill, and ought to kill, any tyrant. He may even, for this purpose, avail himself of ambushes, and wily expressions of affection or of adulation, notwithstanding any oath or pact imposed upon him by the tyrant, and without waiting for the sentence or order of any judge." (Session XV) Subsequently a few Catholics defended, with many limitations and safeguards, the right of subjects to kill a tyrannical ruler. Foremost amongst these was the Spanish Jesuit Mariana. In his book, "De rege et regis institutione" (Toledo, 1599), he held that people ought to bear with a tyrant as long as possible, and to take action only when his oppression surpassed all bounds. They ought to come together and give him a warning; this being of no avail they ought to declare him a public enemy and put him to death. If no public judgment could be given, and if the people were unanimous, any subject might, if possible, kill him by open, but not by secret means. The book was dedicated to Philip III of Spain and was written at the request of his tutor Garcias de Loaysa, who afterwards became Bishop of Toledo. It was published at Toledo in the printing-office of Pedro Rodrigo, printer to the king, with the approbation of Pedro de Oñ, Provincial of the Mercedarians of Madrid, and with the permission of Stephen Hojeda, visitor of the Society of Jesus in the Province of Toledo (see JUAN MARIANA). Most unfairly the Jesuit Order has been blamed for the teaching of Mariana. As a matter of fact, Mariana stated that his teaching on tyrannicide was his personal opinion, and immediately on the publication of the book the Jesuit General Aquaviva ordered that it be corrected. He also on 6 July, 1610, forbade any member of the order to teach publicly or privately that it is lawful to attempt the life of a tyrant. Though Catholic doctrine condemns tyrannicide as opposed to the natural law, formerly great theologians of the Church like St. Thomas (II-II, Q. xlii, a.2), Suarez (Def. fidei, VI, iv, 15), and Bañez, O.P. (De justitia et jure, Q. lxiv, a. 3), permitted rebellion against oppressive rulers when the tyranny had become extreme and when no other means of safety were available. This merely carried to its logical conclusion the doctrine of the Middle Ages that the supreme ruling authority comes from God through the people for the public good. As the people immediately give sovereignty to the ruler, so the people can deprive him of his sovereignty when he has used his power oppressively. Many authorities, e.g. Suarez (Def. fiedei, VI, iv, 18), held that the State, but not private persons, could, if necessary, condemn the tyrant to death. In recent times Catholic authors, for the most part, deny that subjects have the right to rebel against and depose an unjust ruler, except in the case when the ruler was appointed under the condition that he would lose his power if he abused it. In proof of this teaching they appeal to the Syllabus of Pius IX, in which this proposition is condemned: "It is lawful to refuse obedience to legitimate princes, and even to rebel" (prop. 63). While denying the right of rebellion in the strict sense whose direct object is the deposition of the tyrannical ruler, many Catholic writers, such as Crolly, Cathrein, de Bie, Zigliara, admit the right of subjects not only to adopt an attitude of passive resistance against unjust laws, but also in extreme cases to assume a state of active defensive resistance against the actual aggression of a legitimate, but oppressive ruler. Many of the Reformers were more or less in favour of tyrannicide. Luther held that the whole community could condemn the tyrant to death (Sämmtliche Werke", LXII, Frankfort-on-the-Main and Erlangen, 1854, 201, 206). Melanchthon said that the killing of a tyrant is the most agreeable offering that man can make to God (Corp. Ref., III, Halle, 1836, 1076). The Calvinist writer styled Junius Brutus held that individual subjects have no right to kill a legitimate tyrant, but that resistance must be authorized by a representative council of the people (Vindiciae contra Tyrannos, p. 45). John Knox affirmed that it was the duty of the nobility, judges, rulers, and people of England to condemn Queen Mary to death (Appellation). J.M. HARTY Tyre Tyre (TYRUS.) Melchite archdiocese and Maronite diocese. The city is called in Hebrew, Zor, and in Arabic, Sour, from two words meaning rock. It is very ancient. If we are to believe priests of Melkart quoted by Herodotus (II, 44) it was founded in the twenty-eighth century B.C. Isaias himself (xxiii, 7) says that its origin was ancient. According to the authors cited by Josephus (Ant. jud., VIII, iii, 1) and according to Justin (Hist., xviii, 3) its foundation dates from the thirteenth century B.C., but this is manifestly erroneous, for Tyre is mentioned under the name of Sour-ri in the tablets of El-Amarna, between 1385 and 1368 B.C. (Revue Biblique, 1908, 511). King Abimelech was then reigning there independently, though his capital was much coveted by the Egyptians, who forced the Tyrians to ally themselves with their neighbours, especially the Philistines (see Ecclus., xlvi, 21). Ancient writers, particularly Isaias (xxiii, 12), call Tyre "daughter of Sidon", that is, they make it a colony of the latter city. Despite objections which have been made to this, the statement is correct, and on its coins Sidon claims to be the mother of Hippo Regius, in Africa, of Tyre etc. It is true that in a short time the colony overshadowed the mother, but the inhabitants continued to call themselves Sidonians. On the other hand, it is impossible to state which of the two cities, Palaetyrus, on the sea-coast, or Tyrus, built on a rocky island 1968 feet above the sea, existed first. It is generally held, however, that the continental preceded the insular city. The reference in Josue (xix, 29) is not exactly identified, but in the El-Amarna Letters the island is referred to, unless the Egyptians who occupied all the seaboard cities had not subjected it also to their dominion. Tyre seems always to have had kings, like the other Chanaanite cities. It was its sovereigns who made it the "queen of the sea", as it loved to call itself, and its merchants nobles of the earth, as Isaias says (xxiii, 3-8). The city was very proud of its wealth and ships, which plied along the whole of the Mediterranean coast, in Africa as well as in Europe, and the pride of Tyre became almost as proverbial among the prophets of Israel as that of Moab. King Hiram was one of its greatest sovereigns. He sent to David the stone- cutters and carpenters to build his palace (II Kings, v, 11), and to Solomon Lebanon cedar and cypress wood for the construction of the Temple (III Kings, ix, 11; II Par., ii, 3 sq.). The architect and his master workmen were Tyrians. In return Solomon gave Hiram the district of Cabul (Chabul) in Galilee, which included twenty small cities, but the gift seems not to have been to the taste of the King of Tyre (III Kings, ix, 11-14). Nevertheless, the two kings were allies and their combined fleets left the ports of the Red Sea for Ophir and Tharsis to obtain gold (III Kings, ix, 26-28; x, 11 sq.; II Par., ix, 10, 21). Hiram accomplished great works in his capital. He united the two parts of the island hitherto separated by a canal which to a certain extent made them two cities, and besides he built a great aqueduct which brought the waters of Ras- el-Ain to the land. Shortly afterwards court intrigues disturbed the city and gave rise to a bloody revolution. Phalia, an intruder, usurped the power; he was dethroned in turn by his brother Ithobael or Ethbael, high priest of Astarte, a goddess who, with the god Melkart, was much venerated in Tyre. It was Ethbael's daughter, Jezabel, who married Achab, King of Israel. Jezabel was undoubtedly a Tyrian princess; Menander in Josephus ("Ant. jud.", VIII, xiii, 2; "Contra Appionem", I, 18; also III Kings, xvi, 31) calls her father "Kind of the Sidonians", another allusion to the Sidonian origin of Tyre. In 814 B.C. a group of Tyrians went to the coast of Africa and founded Carthage, the most famous colony of Tyre. The very amicable relations of Tyrians and Jews did not last always; they waned especially when Tyre sold as slaves the Israelitish prisoners of war (Joel, iii, 4-8; Amos, I, 9). On the other hand, the luxury and corrupt morals which prevailed in the Phoenician city could not but have a baneful influence on the Jews of the tribe of Aser and other Israelites; so that the Prophets, such as Isaias (xxiii), Ezechiel (xxvi-xxix), Joel (iii, 4-8), and Amos (I, 9), never ceased to thunder against it and predict its ruin. Salmanasar, King of Assur, and Sargon besieged it in vain for five years after the fall of Samaria; although they cut the aqueduct of Hiram and compelled the people of Sidon and Palaetyrus to place their fleets at their service, that of the Tyrians completely vanquished them (Josephus, "Ant. Jud.", IX, xiv, 2). Sennacherib likewise attempted the siege in vain. Although paying him a light tribute, Tyre remained a powerful state with its own kings (Jer., xxv, 22; Ezech., xxvii and xxviii), and was enabled to develop its mercantile proclivities and attain the great prosperity spoken of by the prophets and all ancient writers. On his return from his expedition against Egypt, Asarhaddon, like his predecessors, blockaded Tyre, but the Tyrians, isolated on their rock, with their powerful fleet and valiant mercenaries, laughed at all his efforts. After having received tribute from King Bael, Asarhaddon was compelled to retire. The same was true of Nabuchodonosor after a severe blockade lasting thirteen years. According to custom the Tyrians offered him a light tribute, and the honour of the proud sovereign was declared satisfied. Nevertheless, this long isolation greatly injured the Tyrians, for during this interval a portion of the commerce passed to Sidon and other Phoenician and Carthaginian peoples. Furthermore, the Tyrian colonies, which for thirteen years had broken all links of subjection to the mother country, were in no wise eager to resume the yoke. Finally, as King Ithobael had died during the siege, regents had assumed the authority (Josephus, "Contra App." I, 21) and caused many trouble, as did also the dikastai, or Suffetes, elected for seven years. The monarchy was subsequently restored. As the domination had passed from the Chaldeans to the Persians, Tyre, a vassal or rather an ally of the former, readily assumed the same relations with the latter and continued to prosper. The Tyrians with their numerous ships assisted Xerxes against the Greeks, who moreover were their commercial rivals, and Darius against Alexander the Great. The King of Tyre himself fought in the Persian fleet. Tyre refused submission to the Macedonian hero, as well as authorization to sacrifice to the god Melkart, whose temple was on the island; Alexander, taking offence, determined to capture the island at any cost. The siege lasted seven months. While the fleets of the submissive Cypriots and Phoenicians blockaded the two ports at north and south, Alexander, with materials from Palaetyrus, which he had just destroyed, built an enormous causeway 1968 feet long by about 197 feet wide which connected the island with the continent. He then laid siege to the ramparts of the city which on one side reached a height of 150 feet. Tyre was captured in 332; 6000 of its defenders were beheaded, 2000 crucified, more than 30,000 women, children, and servants sold as slaves. Although Alexander razed the walls, the city was restored very quickly, since seventeen years later it held out for fourteen months against Antigonus, father of Demetrius Poliorcetes. From the power of Egypt, Tyre in 287 passed under the dominion of the Seleucids in 198 B.C., obtaining self-government from them in 126 B. c. This year begins the era special to Tyre. Augustus was the first to rob it of its liberty (Dion Cassius, LIV, 7), for by his command its coins ceased to bear the inscription "autonomous". Various monuments were erected during the Roman period. Herod the Great built a temple and adorned the public places. A colony under Septimius Severus, Tyre subsequently became the capital of Phoenicia; at the time of St. Jerome it was regarded as the richest and greatest commercial city of the province (Comment. in Ezech., xxvi, 6; xxvii, 1). Its factory of purple cloth was foremost in the empire. It was a curious fact that under one of the predecessors of Diocletian, Dorotheus, a learned priest of Antioch, the master of Eusebius of Caesarea, was appointed director without having to renounce his religion (Eusebius, "H. E.", VII, 32). In A.D. 613 the Jews of Tyre formed a vast conspiracy against the Greek Empire, and subsequently ransomed from the troops of Chosroes numerous captive Christians in order to sacrifice them. In 638 the city fell into the hands of the Arabs. Baldwin I, King of Jerusalem, besieged it in vain from 29 Nov., 1111, till April, 1112. Baldwin II captured it, 27 June, 1124, after five months' siege and made it the seat of a countship. When the crusaders lost the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1187 by the defeat of Tiberias, Tyre remained in the hands of the Franks and became one of their chief fortresses. There in 1210 John of Brienne was crowned king, and in 1225 his daughter Isabella was crowned queen. Tyre was captured in May, 1291, after the fall of Saint-Jean- d'Acre, by the Mussulmans, who completely destroyed it, and it was never wholly restored afterwards. Occupied by the Turks in 1516 it has always belonged to them, save for a brief appearance of the French in 1799. It is now a caza of the vilayet of Beirut. The city has 6500 inhabitants, of whom 4000 are Mussulmans of various races, 200 Latin Catholics, 350 Maronites, 1750 Melchite Catholics, 25 Protestants, and about 100 Jews. The Franciscans, established since 1866, have a parochial church and a school for boys, the Sisters of St. Joseph a school for girls; two other Catholic schools for boys are kept by a Melchite priest and the religious of Saint-Sauveur; the Russians have a school and the American Protestants have one for boys and one for girls. Sour is no longer an island, but a peninsula; Alexander s causeway had grown larger as a result of sand formations, and is now an isthmus, one mile and a quarter wide. There are still to be seen the medieval city wall and a portion of the church of the Crusaders, built by the Venetians and measuring 213 feet by 82 feet. It is generally regarded as containing the tomb of Conrad de Montferrat, slain in the street by two members of the sect of the Assassins (1192), and the tomb of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa (d. 1190). However, a German deputation sent by Bismarck in 1874 to conduct excavations discovered nothing. Among the glories of Tyre were: Ulpianus, the celebrated jurisconsult, slain at Rome by the praetorians in 228; the neo-Platonic philosopher, Porphyry, whose true name was Malchus (b. 233; d. 304), the determined enemy of the Christians, against whom he wrote a work in fifteen books; some hold that he was born not at Tyre, but at Balanaia; Origen, who was not born at Tyre, but who died there in 253 in consequence of the tortures which he underwent under Decius, and was buried in the church destroyed under Diocletian; St. Methodius, spoken of by St. Jerome as a martyr and Bishop of Tyre under Decius, was in reality Bishop of Olympus in Lycia, and died about 311; as for Dorotheus, a martyr and the author of a work on the Apostles and the seventy disciples, he never existed, and the work is a forgery compiled in the eighth century by a cleric of Byzantium. Although the corruption of Tyre had become proverbial in the time of Christ (Matt., xi, 21 sq.; Luke, x, 13 sq.), there were Tyrians eager to hear the preaching of Jesus and who came as far as the vicinity of Tiberias to listen to Him. (Mark, iii, 8; Luke, vi, 17). This is perhaps why Jesus went to the neighbourhood of Tyre to cure the sick and convert sinners (Matt., xv, 21-29; Mark, vii, 24-31). A Christian community was formed there at an early date, which St. Paul and St. Luke visited and where they remained seven days (Acts, xxi, 3-7). About 190 the Church in this city was directed by Bishop Cassius, who with the bishops of Ptolemais, Caesarea, and Aelia assisted at the council held in Palestine to deal with the Paschal controversy (Eusebius, "H. E.", V, 25). About 250 we know of the Bishop Marinus mentioned in a letter of Dionysius of Alexandria (Euseb., op. cit., VII, 5). About 250 we know of the Bishop Marinus mentioned in a letter of Dionysius of Alexandria (Euseb., op. cit., VII, 5). The community suffered greatly during the last persecution. After the edict of Diocletian the church was burnt and was only rebuilt after religious peace had been obtained. It was Eusebius of Caesarea who pronounced the discourse at the dedication of the new basilica and who describes the oldest basilica known to us (op. cit., X, 4). Tyrannius, Bishop of Tyre, was captured and drowned at Antioch (op. cit., VIII, 13). Eusebius himself assisted in the amphitheatre of this city at the execution of five Christians of Egyptian origin (op. cit., VIII, 7). In 306 St. Ulpianus was shut up with a dog and an asp in a calfskin and thrown into the sea (Euseb., "De Martyr. Paleaestinae" V, 2). At Caesarea Maritima one of the first victims was St. Theodosia, a young Tyrian girl of eighteen, who was horribly tortured and then thrown into the sea on Easter Sunday, 2 April, 307 (Euseb., "H. E.", VII, I). In 311 a municipal decree forbidding Christians to stay in the city was posted up in Tyre, together with a message of congratulations from the Emperor Maximin (Eusebius, "H. E.", IX, vii). This did not prevent the Church of Tyre from subsisting and developing after peace was granted to the disciples of Christ. Shortly afterwards Tyre furnished Ethiopia with its first and greatest missionary, St. Frumentius, who went to Africa with a philosopher who was his master and was consecrated by St. Athanasius the first bishop of that country. Three councils were held at Tyre. The first, convened by Constantine (335), which had about 310 members, judged the cause of St. Athanasius, who was in Tyre with 48 Egyptian bishops, and after a series of injustices it deposed him. Eusebius of Caesarea presided over the assembly (Hefele-Leclercq, "Hist. des conciles", I, 656-66). Another council was held in February, 449, to examine the cause of Ibas, Bishop of Edessa, who was accused by the clerics of his church and absolved by this council. This sentence had serious consequences at Chalcedon and especially at the Council of the Three Chapters in 553 (Hefele-Leclercq, op. cit., II, 493-98). Finally, in 514 or 515 was held a council under the presidency of Severus, Patriarch of Antioch, and of Philoxens, metropolitan of Hierapolis, and which assembled the bishops of the provinces of Antioch, Apamaea, Augusta Euphratensis, Osrhoene, Mesopotamia, Arabia, and Phoenicia Libanensis. it rejected the Council of Chalcedon, and the Henoticon of the Emperor Zeno was explained in a sense clearly opposed to the latter council (Lebon, "Le monophysisme sévérien", Louvain, 1909, 62-4). Le Quien (Oriens christ., II, 801-12) mentions 20 bishops of this see, some of whom have no right to figure in the list. Besides those already mentioned were: Paulinus, friend of Eusebius of Caesarea, mentioned by Arius in a letter as being one of his partisans (Theodoret, "H.E.", I, v) and who subsequently became Patriarch of Antioch; Irenaeus, previously a count, a partisan of Nestorius exiled in 449 to Petra, and who compiled a collection of very valuable documents which have reached us under the title of "Tragaedia Irenaei"; Photius, very active in the religious quarrels of his time, and who assisted at the Councils of Tyre and Chalcedon, as well as at the Robber Council of Ephesus; John Codonatus, a Monophysite and friend of Peter Fullo, Patriarch of Antioch; Thomas, who at the Eighth Ecumenical Council represented the Patriarch of Antioch. Included at first in the Province of Syria, the Diocese of Tyre formed part of Phoenicia, at the creation of that province by Septimius Severus shortly before 198, when it became the religious as well as the civil metropolis; its bishop, Marinus, had the title of metropolitan as early as 250 (Euseb., "H. E.", VII, v). When between 381 and 425 Phoenicia was subdivided into two provinces, Phoenicia Maritima and Phoenicia Libanensis, Tyre remained the metropolis of the former. At the Council of Chalcedon in 451 Photius had to defend his rights as metropolitan against the Bishop of Berytus, formerly his suffragan, who divided Phoenicia Prima into two parts and assumed authority over all the bishoprics of the north. The council recognized the rights of Photius and gave him jurisdiction over all the dioceses with the exception of Berytus, which remained an autocephalous metropolis. Some years later Tyre became the chief see of the Patriarchate of Antioch, I. e. it attained first rank among the metropolitan sees. The reason for this was that, about 480, John Codnatus, Patriarch of Antioch, having resigned in favour of Calandion, the latter appointed him Metropolitan of Tyre, with the right for himself and his successors of thenceforth sitting immediately after the patriarch (Theophanes, "Chronographia"). In the "Notitia episcopatuum" of Antioch in the sixth century Tyre had 13 suffragan sees (Echos d'Orient, X, 145). In the tenth century the western boundaries of the archdiocese went from the great spring of Zip (Az-Zib) to Nahr-Laitani, the ancient Leontes (Echos d'Orient, X, 97). The Greek archdiocese was retained even during the Latin occupation, but the titular resided at Constantinople. Odo, the first Latin archbishop, was appointed in 1122 and died two years later when the Franks were besieging the city; his successor, William, was of English origin. In disregard of the ancient canon law, the new metropolitan was subjected to the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, which aroused protest on the part of the See of Antioch. The dispute which followed was referred to the tribunal of Pope Innocent II, who decided in favour of the Patriarch of Jerusalem in virtue of a Decree of his predecessor, Paschal II, who granted to King Baldwin the right to subject to Jerusalem all the episcopal sees he should succeed in conquering from the Mussulmans. Hence two letters of Innocent II obliged the Archbishop of Tyre to submit to the jurisdiction of Jerusalem together with his six suffragans, the Bishops of Tripoli, Tortosa (or Antaradus), Byblos, Berytus, Sidon, and Ptolemais. Later, when the cities of Tripoli, Tortosa, and Byblos came into the power of the Prince of Antioch, their bishops also became dependent on the Latin Patriarch of Antioch. For long lists of Latin archbishops see Le Quien (Oriens christ, III, 1309-20) and Eubel (Hierarchia catholica medii aevi, I, 534; II, 284; III, 342). The most famous was William II, the historian of the crusades. The Latins evacuated Tyre in 1291 and the archbishop, by the pope's command, having left the city, 8 Oct., 1294, there were thenceforth only titular archbishops. The Melchite Archdiocese of Tyre is bounded on the north by Nahr el-Laitani, on the east by a line of wooded hills separating the District of Beharre from that of Merdjaioun, on the south by the Diocese of St.-Jean d'Acre, and on the west by the sea. It has 14 churches and chapels, 13 stations with or without residential priests, 16 priests, of whom 6 are seculars and 10 religious of Saint-Sauveur, 16 primary schools for boys and girls, half of which are in charge of Latin missionaries and European sisters. The number of faithful is 5300. Besides their mission at Tyre, the American Protestants have two schools in the Diocese at Almat and Cana. The Maronite diocese, founded in 1906 to the detriment of that of Saida, is bounded on the west by the sea, on the north by the River Zaharani, on the east by the Jordan, and on the south by the Sinaitic peninsula. It has 10,000 faithful, 20 priests, and 20 churches; the number of schools is unknown. The schismatic Graeco-Arabic Archdiocese of Tyre and Sidon has about 9000 faithful. S. VAILHÉ James Tyrie James Tyrie Theologian, b. at Drumkilbo, Perthshire, Scotland, 1543; d. at Rome, 27 May, 1597. Educated first at St. Andrews, he joined Edmund Hay (q. v.) at the time of de Gouda's mission in 1526. In his company he then went to Rome, was there admitted into the Society of Jesus, and was eventually sent to Clermont College, Paris, in June, 1567, where Hay had become rector; and remained there in various posts, e.g. professor, head of the Scottish Jesuit Mission (1585), till 1590. During this period he was once engaged in a controversy with Knox, against whom he wrote "The Refutation of ane Answer made be Schir Johne Knox to ane letter be James Tyrie" (Paris, 1573). Next year he discussed several points of religion with Andrew Melville privately in Paris. In 1585 he was summoned to Rome as the representative of France on the Committee of Six, who eventually drew up Father Acquaviva's first edition of the "Ratio Studiorum", printed in 1586. He was rector of Clermont College during the great siege of Paris (May to September, 1590). His anxieties and difficulties must then have been great, as he had over a hundred scholars as well as a large community to feed, and at a time when men were perishing with hunger in the streets. After the Duke of Parma had revictualled the town (September), Tyrie was again sent to Rome, as French deputy for the congregation, which finally supported the government of Father Acquaviva. On his return in December, Tyrie was sent to the University of Pont-à- Mousson, as professor of Scripture and head of the Scots College, and two years later, on the successive deaths of Fathers Edmund Hay and Paul Hoffaeus, he was again called to Rome (22 May, 1592), where he became Assistant for France and Germany, and played his part in the important Sixth General Congregation of the Society of Jesus (1593). He also supported at Rome the vain endeavours in Scotland of the three Catholic Earls of Huntly, Erroll, and Angus to maintain themselves, with King James's connivance, by force of arms against the Kirk (1594). The earls asked and obtained a subsidy from Clement VIII; and Father Tyrie's advice and opinion were constantly taken by both the papal and the Scottish negotiators. He also took steps to restore the Scottish hospital at Rome, which eventually (1600) became the Scots College there. Rare as it was to keep on good terms with adversaries in those days, Tyrie won praise from such men as David Buchanan, both for his ability and for his courtesy. Part of his cursus is preserved in manuscript at the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. J.H. POLLEN __________________________________________________________________ Casimir Ubaghs Casimir Ubaghs Born at Bergélez-Fauquemont, 26 November, 1800; died at Louvain, 15 February, 1875, was for a quarter of a century the chief protagonist of the Ontologico-Traditionalist School of Louvain. In 1830, while professor of philosophy at the lower seminary of Rolduc, he was called to Louvain, which under his influence became a centre of Ontologism. In 1846 he undertook the editorship of the "Revue catholique", the official organ of Ontologism, in conjunction with Arnold Tits, who had taught with him at Rolduc and joined him at Louvain in 1840, and Lonay, professor at Rolduc. La Forêt, Claessens, the Abbé Bouquillon, Père Bernard Van Loo, and others followed the doctrines of Ubaghs. But opponents soon appeared. The "Journal historique et littéraire", founded by Kersten, kept up an incessant controversy with the "Revue catholique". Kersten was joined by Gilson, dean of Bouillon, Lupus, and others. From 1858 to 1861 the controversy raged. It was at its height when a decision of the Roman Congregation (21 Sept., 1864) censured in Ubaghs's works, after a long and prudent deliberation, a series of propositions relating to Ontologism. Already in 1843 the Congregation of the Index had taken note of five propositions and ordered M. Ubaghs to correct them and expunge them from his teaching, but he misunderstood the import of this first decision. When his career was ended in 1864 he had the mortification of witnessing the ruin of a teaching to which he had devoted forty years of his life. From 1864 until his death he lived in retirement. The theories of Ubaghs are contained in a vast collection of treatises on which he expended the best years of his life. Editions followed one another as the range of his teaching widened. The fundamental thesis of Traditionalism is clearly affirmed by Ubaghs, the acquisition of metaphysical and moral truths is inexplicable without a primitive Divine teaching and its oral transmission. Social teaching is a natural law, a condition so necessary that without a miracle man could not save through it attain the explicit knowledge of truths of a metaphysical and a moral order. Teaching and language are not merely a psychological medium which favours the acquisition of these truths; its action is determinant. Hence the primordial act of man is an act of faith; the authority of others becomes the basis of certitude. The question arises: Is our adhesion to the fundamental truths of the speculative and moral order blind; and, is the existence of God, which is one of them, impossible of rational demonstration? Ubaghs did not go as far as this; his Traditionalism was mitigated, a semi-Traditionalism; once teaching has awakened ideas in us and transmitted the maxims (ordo acquisitionis) reason is able and apt to comprehend them. Though powerless to discover them it is regarded as being capable of demonstrating them once they have been made known to it. One of his favourite camparisons admirably states the problem: "As the word 'view' chiefly expresses four things, the faculty of seeing, the act of seeing, the object seen, e.g. a landscape, and the drawing an artist makes of this object, so we give the name idea, which is derived from the former, chiefly to four different things: the faculty of knowing rationally, the act of rational knowledge, the object of this knowledge, the intellectual copy or formula which we make of this object in conceiving it" (Psychologie, 5th ed., 1857, 41-42). Now, the objective idea, or object-idea (third acceptation), in other words, the intelligible which we contemplate, and contact with which produces within us the intellectual formula (notion), is "something Divine" or rather it is God himself. This is the core of Ontologism. The intelligence contemplates God directly and beholds in Him the truths or "objective ideas" of which our knowledge is a weak reflection. Assuredly, if Ubaghs is right, skepticism is definitively overcome. Likewise if teaching plays in the physical life the part he assigns to it, the same is true of every doctrine which asserts the original independence of reason and which Ubaghs calls Rationalism. But this so-called triumph was purchased at the cost of many errors. It is, to say the least, strange that on the one hand Ontologistic Traditionalism is based on a distrust of reason and on the other hand it endows reason with unjustifiable prerogatives. Surely it is an incredible audacity to set man face to face with the Divine essence and to attribute to his weak mind the immediate perception of the eternal and immutable verities. Ubaghs's principal works are: + "Logicae seu philosophiae rationalis elementa" (6 editions, 1834-60); + "Ontologiae sive metaph. generalis specimen" (5 editions, 1835-63); + "Theodicae seu theologiae naturalis" (4 editions); + "Anthropoligicae philosoph. elementa" (1848); + "Précis de logique élémentaire" (5 editions); + "Précis d'anthropol. psychologique" (5 editions); + "Du réalisme en théologie et en philosophie" (1856); + "Essai d'idéologie ontologique" (1860); + numerous articles in the Louvain "Revue catholique". M. DE WULF St. Ubaldus St. Ubaldus Confessor, Bishop of Gubbio, born of noble parents at Gubbio, Umbria, Italy, towards the beginning of the twelfth centry; died there, Whitsuntide, 1168. Whilst still very young, having lost his father, he was educated by the prior of the cathedral church of his native city, where he also became a canon regular. Wishing to serve God with more regularity he passed to the Monastery of St. Secondo in the same city, where he remained for some years. Recalled by his bishop, he returned to the cathedral monestary, where he was made prior. Having heard that Vienna Blessed Peter de Honestis some years before had established a very fervent community of canons regular, to whom he had given special statutes which had been approved by Paschall II, Ubaldus went there, remaining with his brother canons for three months, to learn the details and the practice of their rules, wishing to introduce them among his own canons of Gubbio. This he did at his return. Serving God in great regularity, poverty (for all his rich patrimony he had given to the poor and to the restoration of monasteries), humility, mortification, meekness, and fervour, the fame of his holiness spread in the country, and several bishoprics were offered to him, but he refused them all. However, the episcopal See of Gubbio becoming vacant, he was sent, with some clerics, by the population to ask for a new bishop from Honorius II who, having consecrated him, sent him back to Gubbio. To his people he became a perfect pattern of all Christian virtues, and a powerful protector in all their spiritual and temporal needs. He died full of merits, after a long and painful illness of two years. Numerous miracles were wrought by him in life and after death. At the solicitation of Bishop Bentivoglio Pope Celestine III canonized him in 1192. His power, as we read in the Office for his feast, is chiefly manifested over the evil spirits, and the faithful are instructed to have recourse to him "contra omnes diabolicas nequitias". The life of the saint was written by Blessed Theobaldus, his immediate successor in the episcopal see, and from this source is derived all the information given by his numerous biographers. The body of the holy man, which had at first been buried in the cathedral church by the Bishops of Perugia and Cagli, at the time of his canonization was found flexible and incorrupt, and was then placed in a small oratory on the top of the hill overlooking the city, where in 1508, at the wish of the Duke of Urbino, the canons regular built a beautiful church, frequented to this day by numerous pilgrims, who come to visit the relics of their heavenly protector from near and far. The devotion to the saint is very popular throughout Umbria, but especially at Gubbio, where in every family at least one member is called Ubaldus. The feast of their patron saint is celebrated by the inhabitants of the country round with great solemnity, there being religious and civil processions which call to mind the famous festivities of the Middle Ages in Italy. A. ALLARIA Prefecture Apostolic of Belgian Ubanghi Prefecture Apostolic of Belgian Ubanghi In Belgian Congo, separated on 7 April, 1911, from the Vicariate of the Belgian Congo and entrusted to the Capuchins. Its boundaries are: west and north, the river Ubanghi from 1° 30' N. lat. to the meeting of the Mbomu and the Uelle at Yakoma; east, a line drawn from that point towards the junction of the Itimbri (Rubi) and the Congo, as far as the southern limits of the village of Abumombasi; south, the parallel passing through Abumombasi, then the watersheds of the Ubanghi and the Congo, and of the Ubanghi and the Ngiri to 1° 30' N. Lat., and thence to the Ubanghi. R.P. Fulgence de Gérard-Montes was appointed first prefect Apostolic 11 July 1911. A.A. MACERLEAN Ubanghi Ubanghi (UPPER FRENCH CONGO.) Vicariate Apostolic; formerly part of the Vicariate of French Congo, erected on 14 Oct., 1890. It has an area of about 386,000 sq. miles, and is bounded south and east by the Congo and the Ubanghi; north by the Prefecture Apostolic of Ubanghi-Chari; west by the Vicariates of Loanga, Gabon, and Camerun; the mission of Linzolo lying south-west of Brazzaville was transferred from Loanga to Ubanghi on 14 Feb., 1911. The principal tribes in the vicariate are the Batekes, Bavanzis, and Bondjos, the last two being cannibals. The French representatives, especially M. de Chavannes and M. Dolisie, have greatly aided in the establishment and development of the mission. The first attempt to gain a foothold in the territory of the vicariate was made by Father (now Bishop) Augouard in 1883 at Brazzaville, but it failed owing to the unhappy experiences of the natives at the hands of Stanley; in July, 1887, however, Mgr. Carrie succeeded, owing to the help of M. de Chavannes. The Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny arrived at Brazzaville on 21 August, 1892, and have a convent, chapel, and school there on a site presented by the French Government. Brazzaville, the centre of French interests in the Congo and in which the bishop resides, is situated on a plateau 120 ft. high at the place where the Congo leaves Stanley Pool. Its cathedral, 37 metres long, 12 broad, and 9 high, surmounted by a steeple and cross rising 20 metres, was dedicated on 3 May, 1894. In 1895 the first two Christian marriages in Ubanghi were solemnized before the vicar apostolic. The mission spread to the surrounding villages and later to the Alima, 300 kilometres up the Congo; still higher up are the stations at Liranga (at the junction of the Congo and the Ubanghi), founded by Fathers Paris and Allaire on 3 April, 1889; at Bangui (1125 miles from the coast), established among the cannibal Bondjos and Buzerus and pastoral Ndris, by Fathers Sallaz and Rémy, in January, 1894; and at Sainte-Famille among the Banziris, in 1895, by Father Moreau, -- this is now the headquarters of the Prefecture of Ubanghi Chari. Near these stations have been established "free villages" where natives escaping from the clutches of the cannibal or slave owners can reside in safety. Bishop Augouard was awarded a prize of $3000 in April, 1912, by the French Academy of Moral and Political Sciences in appreciation of his work during thirty-four years in French Congo. Mission statistics: The vicariate, of which Bishop Philippe-Prosper Augouard, titular Bishop of Sinidos (b. 16 Sept., 1852; joined the Congregation of the Holy Ghost, to whom the mission is entrusted; and was consecrated, 23 November, 1890), is in charge, has 12 priests; 25 lay brothers; 12 Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny; 8 churches; 4 stations; 23 chapels; 23 schools with 1534 children; 7 orphanages with 902 orphans; 8 hospitals; 5 workshops; Catholic population, 3500; 2500 catechumens; and 5,000,000 pagans. The hot damp climate is very severe, and in one year (1897-8) 14 of the 31 missionaries died. A.A. MACERLEAN Ubanghi-Chari Ubanghi-Chari Prefecture Apostolic in Equatorial Africa, lies west of the Bahr-el-Ghazal territory and south of the Tchad district, and extends from 4°30' to 10° N. lat., and from 12° to 26°30' E. longitude. This region was formerly part of the Vicariate Apostolic of Ubanghi or Upper French Congo; its first mission post was established at Sainte-Famille on the Upper Ubanghi, about 1375 miles from the western coast by river, by R. P. Moreau, C.S.Sp., in 1895, among the Banzus or Banziris, in an almost unknown country. At the request of Mgr. Philippe-Prosper Augouard, C.S.Sp., titular Bishop of Sinide and Vicar Apostolic of Ubanghi, Ubanghi- Chari was withdrawn from his jurisdiction in May, 1909, and formed into a new prefecture Apostolic under the care of the Fathers of the Holy Ghost, R. P. Pierre Catel, C.S.Sp., being appointed prefect Apostolic. He resides at Sainte-Famille. The mission contains: 23 priests; 14 lay brothers; 11 nuns; 18 catechists; 15 stations; 17 churches and chapels; 22 schools, with 1756 pupils and 902 orphans; 3500 Catholics; and 2500 catechumens Boundaries: north and east, the Vicariate of the Sudan; south, the Prefectures of Uelle and Belgian Ubanghi, the Vicariate of Upper French Congo; west, the Vicariate of Camerun and the Prefecture of Northern Nigeria. A.A. MACERLEAN Uberaba Uberaba (DE UBERABA.) Suffragan diocese of Marianna, in Brazil, created by the Consistorial Decree of 29 September, 1907, separating it from the Diocese of Goyaz, and placing under its jurisdiction the part of Minas Geraes known as Triangulo Mineiro and the following parishes which formerly belonged to the Diocese of Diamantina: Urcuia or Burity, Capim Branco or Rio Preto, Paracatú, Alegres, Santa Rita de Patos, Capã Redondo, and São Romão. The diocese is bounded: on the north by the Urucuia River; east, the São Francisco River; south, the Marcella and Canastra mountain ranges and the Rio Grande; west, the Paranahyba and Jacaré rivers, and the Geral mountain range. The Catholic population numbered 200,000 souls in 1911. Rt. Rev. Eduardo Duarte Silva, the first and present bishop, was born at Florianopolis, 27 Jan., 1852; studied in the Pio-Latino College of Rome; was ordained priest, 19 Dec., 1874; chaplain of the Florianopolis hospital and canon of the imperial chapel; elected Bishop of Goyaz, 23 Jan., 1891, and consecrated on 8 Feb., 1891; preconized Bishop of Uberaba, 19 Dec., 1908. The following religious orders are in the diocese: Dominicans, Recollects, Lazarists, Dominican nuns, Franciscan Missionary nuns of Egypt. There are 45 churches. The Catholic educational institutions are: the Gymnasio Diocesano, a school of secondary instruction with the privileges of a federal college, directed by the Marist Brothers; and the Collegio de Nossa Senhora das Dôres, for girls, under the Dominican nuns. The principal Catholic charitable associations are: the Sociedade de S. Vicente de Paula; the Irmandade da Santa Casa de Misericordia; and the Associação das Damas de Caridade. The official organ of the diocese is the "Correio Catholico" (Uberaba). JULIAN MORENO-LACALLE Ubertino of Casale Ubertino of Casale Leader of the Spirituals, born at Casale of Vercelli, 1259; died about 1330. He assumed the Franciscan habit in a convent of the province of Genoa in 1273, and was sent to Paris to continue his studies, where he remained nine years, after which he returned to Italy. In 1285 he visited the sanctuaries of Rome, and thence proceeded to Greccio, near Rieti, to see the Blessed John of Parma, who was considered as the patriarch of the Spiritual Friars. Afterwards he settled in Tuscany and in 1287, at Florence, was the companion and disciple of Brother Pierre-Jean Olivi. He held a lectorship at Santa Croce, Florence, but abandoned it after a few years to dedicate himself to preaching, especially at Florence. Being a man of genius, but of an eccentric and restless character, he soon became the leader of the famous Spirituals in Tuscany, professed strange ideas regarding evangelical and Franciscan poverty, and attacked the government of the order, although some of these ideas had been reproved by Olivi in his letter of Sept., 1295, to Blessed Conrado da Offida, a moderate Zelante of Franciscan poverty. The Spirituals of Tuscany were so fanatical as publicly to blame Gregory IX and Nicholas III, and even to condemn them as heretics, for having interpreted the Rule of St. Francis as regards poverty according to justice and moderation; they also condemned Innocent III, who had strongly disapproved of the teaching of Joachim of Flora, whom they regarded as an oracle of the Holy Ghost, and whose theories were the cause of the discord in the Franciscan Order in the first half of the fourteenth century. On account of his excessive and satirical criticism, Ubertino was summoned before Benedict XI and forbidden to preach at Perugia, and was banished to the Convent of La Verna, where in 1305 he conceived and wrote, in only three months and seven days (if he can be believed on this point), his chief work, "Arbor vitae crucifixae Jesu Christi". This work is a collection of allegorical, theological, and political theories regarding civil society and the Church of those days, and expounds also his ideal of the near future. In this work he criticises everything and everyone, the popes and the Church, especially for pretended abuses of riches in the ecclesiastical and civil states, and finally the Franciscan Order for not practising the extremest poverty. In the same work, (book I, chap. iv) is the first mention of the legend of the resurrection of St. Francis, as he affirms to have heard from Blessed Conrado da Offida, and the latter from Blessed Brother Leo, that Christ had raised up St. Francis with a glorious body to console his poor friars, who, according to Ubertino, were of course the Spirituals only. Notwithstanding the Utopian theories of Ubertino, he had many protectors and admirers, and in 1307, after having written the "Arbor vitae", he was chosen chaplain and familiar to Cardinal Napoleone Orsini, nephew of Nicholas III, who had been created by Celestine V protector of the Spirituals of the Marches of Ancona, but which protectorate soon ceased by the election of Boniface VIII in Dec., 1294. Orsini, who in 1306-08 had been pontifical legate in central Italy, deputed Ubertino on 10 Sept., 1307, to absolve the inhabitants of Siena, who had incurred ecclesiastical censure. When Orsini went to Germany in 1308, Ubertino did not accompany him, being then called to France. In the years 1309-12, which witnessed the greatest struggle in the Franciscan Order, Ubertino was called to Avignon with other chiefs of the Spirituals to discuss before the pope the questions at issue between the two parties in the order. Four points were discussed: 1. the relations of the order with the sect of the so-called Followers of the Free Spirit; 2. the condemnation and doctrine of Olivi; 3. the poverty and discipline in the Order of Friars Minor; and 4. the supposed persecutions of the Spirituals of the order. During the discussions Ubertino behaved in a very boisterous and insolent manner against the whole body of the order, accusing it of many false and unjust things; however, he was forced to acknowledge that regular discipline substantially existed in the order; but as regards poverty he attacked openly the pontifical declarations as contrary to the rule and as a cause of ruin to the order. He pretended that the Friars Minor should be compelled to observe ad litteram St. Francis's Testament and Rule, and even all the evangelical counsels taught by Christ. And because all this was not possible to obtain from the majority of the order, he exacted that convents and provinces should be erected for the reform party. But this was absolutely denied, whilst on the other hand the question of practical observance of poverty was settled by the famous Bull, "Exivi de paradiso", 6 May, 1312, partly called forth by the polemical writings of Ubertino. Ubertino thereon retired to Avignon in 1313, and stayed with Cardinal Giacomo Colonna till he had obtained from John XXII (1 Oct., 1317) permission to leave the order and to enter the Benedictine Abbey of Gembloux, Diocese of Liège. Some have doubted whether the Benedictines would have received in their community a person of such a restless character, but we are assured of it by Clareno and a notary of King James II of Aragon in the year 1318. Notwithstanding this, Ubertino did not desist from mixing himself up in the question that troubled the Franciscan Order till he was excommunicated by John XXII. While still a favourite of this pope and a familiar of Cardinal Orsini, he was invited by the sovereign pontiff to give his opinion regarding the other famous question discussed between the Dominicans and Franciscans, that is, concerning the poverty of Jesus Christ and that of the Apostles. This latter question, far more than the one concerning the Spirituals, caused the disastrous schism in the order headed by Michael of Cesena, general of the order, and seconded by the rebellious Louis IV of Bavaria. Ubertino was at Avignon in 1322; on the request of the Pope he wrote his answer to the question then in controversy, asserting that Christ and the Apostles have to be considered in a two-fold condition: as private persons they had repudiated all property, but as ministers of religion they made use of goods and money for necessaries and alms. John XXII was satisfied with the answer, but Ubertino returned again to the service of Cardinal Orsini, and continued his writings to concern himself in the question, which meanwhile had been settled, 1322-23. However this may be, it is certain that in 1325 he was accused of heresy, especially of having obstinately sustained some errors of Olivi. Ubertino, foreseeing the condemnation that hung over him, fled from Avignon, and the pope in a letter dated 16 Sept., 1325, commanded the general of the Franciscans to have him arrested as a heretic; but Ubertino probably went to Germany under the protection of Louis the Bavarian, whom he is said to have accompanied on his way to Rome in 1328. From this time Ubertino disappeared from history, so that nothing more is known of him. Some suppose that he left the Benedictines in 1332 to join the Carthusians, but this is not certain. The Fraticelli of the fifteenth century, who venerated him as a saintly man, spread the news that he had been killed. The end of this famous leader of the Spirituals, remembered by even Dante in the twelfth canto of the "Paradise", will probably remain an obscure point in history. Besides the "Arbor vitae", his principal work, printed once only at Venice in 1485, and of which scarcely thirteen manuscripts are known in the principal libraries of Europe, Ubertino also wrote other works of a polemical kind: + the "Responsio" to the questions of Clement V (1310); + the "Rotulus" (1311); + the "Declaratio" against the Franciscan Order (1311); + the apology of Olivi "Sanctitati Apostolicae", and + the treatise "Super tribus sceleribus" on poverty, compiled also in 1311. HIERON. GOLUBOVICH Ubiquitarians Ubiquitarians Also called Ubiquists, a Protestant sect started at the Lutheran synod of Stuttgart, 19 December, 1559, by John Brenz, a Swabian (1499-1570). Its profession, made under the name of Duke Christopher of Würtemberg, and entitled the "Würtemberg Confession," was sent to the Council of Trent, in 1552, but had not been formally accepted as the Ubiquitarian creed until the synod at Stuttgart. Luther had upset the peace of Germany by his disputes. In the effort to reconcile and unite the contending forces against the Turks, Charles V demanded of the Lutherans a written statement of their doctrines. This -- the "Augsburg Confession" -- was composed by Melanchthon, and read at a meeting at Augsburg in 1530. Its tenth article concerned the Real Presence of Christ in the Blessed Sacrament, a burning question among the Protestants. In 1540, Melanchthon published another version of the "Augsburg Confession", in which the article on the Real Presence differed essentially from what had been expressed in 1530. The wording was as follows: + Edition of 1530: "Concerning the Lord's Supper, they teach that the body and blood of Christ are truly present, and are distributed (communicated) to those that eat in the Lord's Supper; and they disapprove of those that teach otherwise." + Edition of 1540: "Concerning the Lord's Supper, they teach that with bread and wine are truly exhibited the body and blood of Christ to those that eat in the Lord's Supper." Johann Eck was the first to call attention to the change, in a conference at Worms, 1541. Debates followed, and the Ubiquitarian controversy arose, the question being: Is the body of Christ in the Eucharist, and if so, why? The Confession of 1540 was known as the Reformed doctrine. To this Melanchthon, with his adherents, subscribed, and maintained that Christ's body was not in the Eucharist. For, the Eucharist was everywhere, and it was impossible, they contended, for a body to be in many places simultaneously. Adopting Luther's false interpretation of the communicatio idiomatum, Brenz argued that the attributes of the Divine Nature had been communicated to the humanity of Christ which thus was deified. If deified, it was everywhere, ubiquitous, just as His divinity, and therefore really present in the Eucharist. Brenz was in harmony with Catholic Faith as to the fact, but not as to the explanation. His assertion that Christ's human nature had been deified, and that His body was in the Eucharist as it was elsewhere, was heretical. Christ, as God, is everywhere, but His body and blood, soul and divinity, are in the Eucharist in a different, special manner (sacramentally). In 1583, Chemnitz, who had unconsciously been defending the Catholic doctrine, calmed the discussion by his adhesion to absolute Ubiquitarianism. In 1616 the heresy arose again as Kenoticism and Crypticism, but sank into oblivion in the troubles of the Thirty Years War. JOSEPH HUGHES Ucayali Ucayali (SAN FRANCISCO DE UCAYALI.) Prefecture Apostolic in Peru. At the request of the Peruvian Government, desirous of civilizing and converting the Indian tribes inhabiting a large and secluded mountainous region in the east of Peru, known as La Montaña, in which a few Franciscan missionaries had been labouring, the Holy See on 5 February, 1900, erected the district in to three prefectures Apostolic, depending directly on Propaganda. The central prefecture, San Francisco de Ucayali, remained under the control of the Franciscans, who were placed under the immediate jurisdiction of their master-general. The prefecture comprises (a) Chauchamayo, the district drained by the Perené and Pachitea, together with the Gran Pajonal to its eastern valleys, and as far as the Tambo and the upper Ucayali; (b) Apurimac, the territory drained by the Ené, Mantaro, and Tambo, as far as the confluence of the latter and the Urubamba; (c) Ucayali, the region drained by the Ucayali to the meeting of the Tambo and Urubamba. The Indians belong to the Amuescho, Chipivi, and Cunivi tribes, 5140 being Catholics. The mission contains 12 priests, 10 lay brothers, 6 chief stations, 24 churches and chapels, 6 having resident pastors; 11 schools. The first prefect Apostolic, R.P. Augustin Alemany (14 February, 1905), was succeeded by R. P. Bernardo Irastorza (September, 1905). To prevent disputes concerning the jurisdictional limits of the neighbouring prelates, Propaganda decreed that the mission was confined strictly to the forest districts. A.A. MACERLEAN Uccello Uccello Painter, born at Florence, 1397; died there, 1475. His real name was Paolo di Dono, but from his love of painting birds he received the nickname of Uccello, and has been most frequently called by that name ever since. He was apprenticed to Ghiberti, and was one of the assistants engaged in preparing the first pair of bronze gates made for the baptistery in Florence. Vasari tells us that his special love was for geometry and perspective. Manetti taught him geometry, but where he learned painting we do not know, nor are we acquainted with the reasons which led him to leave the botega of Ghiberti and set up for himself. Vasari scoffs at Uccello's study of perspective, regarding it as waste of time, and saying that the artist became "more needy than famous". His skill in foreshortening and proportion, and in some of the complex difficulties of perspective, was quite remarkable, and his pictures for this reason alone are well worth careful study, for they display an extraordinary knowledge of geometric perspective. His most important work is the colossal equestrian figure of Sir John Hawkwood, a chiaroscuro in terraverde, intended to imitate a stone statue, seen aloft, standing out from the wall of the cathedral. One of the most precious possessions of the National Gallery, London, is a battle-picture by this artist. For a long time this was wrongly entitled the "Battle of Sant' Egidio of 1416", but it really represents the rout of San Romano of 1432. Instead of Malatesta, the picture gives us a representation of Nicolò da Tolentino. Mr. Herbert Horne gave considerable attention to the history of this picture some twelve years ago, and was able to arrive at a very accurate determination regarding it. There are very few paintings by Uccello in existence, although he must have painted a considerable number. There is a panel by him in the Louvre, containing his own portrait, associated with those of Giotto, Donatello, Brunelleschi, and Manetti, representing perspective associated with painting, sculpture, architecture, and geometry. Many of the frescoes he executed for Santa Maria Novella have been destroyed. The only other picture of his that need be mentioned here is a predella in a church near Urbino, relating to the theft of a pax, which is attributed to him by many critics. He is said to have studied the works of Pisanello with great advantage, and it is probable that it was from Pisanello that he first learned painting, but he may be practically regarded as one of the founders of the art of linear perspective. There are very few dates known in his history beyond those of his birth and death. But we know that in 1425 he was at work at Venice, in 1436 painting his portrait of Sir John Hawkwood, and in 1468 residing at Urbino. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON Archdiocese of Udine Archdiocese of Udine (UTINENSIS) The city of Udine, the capital of a province and archdiocese in Friuli, northern Italy, is situated in a region mainly agricultural. its cathedral, built in 1236 by the Patriarch Bertoldo, was altered several times, most recently, in 1706, through the munificence of the Manin family, whose tombs adorn the choir. It contains paintings by Pordenone, Tiepolo (chapel of the Blessed Sacrament), Matteo da Verona, etc.; statutes by Torretto (St. Bertrand), Linardi (Pius IX), Minisini (Archbishop Bricato). In the baptistery is a font by Giovanni da Zuglio (1480) and paintings by Tiepolo. The oldest church at Udine is that of S. Maria di Castello, transformed in the sixteenth century. S. Antonio Abbate contains the tombs of the patriarchs Francesco and Ermolao Barbaro; SS. Filippo e Giacomo, statutes by Contieri; S. Peitro Martire and the Zitelle e S. Chiara contain noteworthy pictures; the Madonna delle Grazie preserves a much venerated Byzantine Madonna and is rich in sculpture and paintings. Among the profane edifices, the Castelo, which acquired its present form in 1517, was the residence of the patriarchs of Aquileia, then of the Venetian governor, and is now a barrack; it contains a great parliament chamber painted by Amalteo, Tiepolo, and others. The city hall (1457), the work of Nicolo Lionello, in a sober and graceful Gothic style, is rich in paintings by the most celebrated Venetian masters, as is also the archiepiscopal palace, built by the Patriarch Francesco Barbaro, especially remarkable for the salon of Giovanni da Udine. The city hospital was built in 1782 by Archbishop Gradenigo. Many of the private residences also are rich in works of art. Where the city of Udine now stands there existed, in the Roman period, a fortified camp, probably for the defence of the Via Julia Agusta leading from Aguileia to the Carnic Alps. Narses also made use of this fort after the Gothic War. No mention, however, is found of Utinum until 983, when Otho II granted its stronghold to Radoalso, Patriarch of Aquileia, Prince of Friuli and Istria. A centre of population went on forming here from that time, and successive patriarchs provided it with water-supply and other institutions. The population was notably increased by the arrival of Tuscan exiles in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. In the thirteenth century the patriarch was represented by a gastaldo, while twelve nobles and twelve commons represented the people in the government. The privileges of the citizens were augmented by the Patriarchs Ramondo della Torre (1291) and Bertrando di Saint Genais (1340) on account of the loyalty displayed by the Udinese in the wars against the Visconti of Milan and against the small feudatories. As early as the thirteenth century Udine was the ordinary residence of the patriarchs, and in 1348, when Aquileia was destroyed by an earthquake, the see was definitively transferred to Udine. In 1381 the city opposed Cardinal Philip of Alencon, who had been given the See of Aquileia in commendam; they wished to have an effective prince and patriarch, and the consequent war ended only with the cardinal's renunciation (1387). There was also a popular rising against Giovanni, Margrave of Moravia, who wished to revise the Constitution. In 1420 Udine, after a long siege, surrendered to the Venetians, and thenceforward it belonged to the republic, being the capital of Friuli. However, it retained in substance its ancient form of government. Udine was the birthplace of the military leaders Savorgnano and Colloredo and the painters Giovanni da Udine, Pellegrino da S. Daniele, Giovanni di Martino, and Odorico Politi. In 1752 the Patriarchate of Aquileia was suppressed, and the two Archbishoprics of Udina and Gorizia were formed, the former embracing that part of the patriarchate which was subject to the Republic of Venice. The first archbishop was Daniele Dolfin (1752- 62), who retained the title of patriarch. In 1818 Udine became a bishopric, subject to the metropolitan See of Venice; Pius IX, however, in 1846, re-established the Archbishopric of Udine, though without suffragans. The archdiocese contains 201 parishes, with 438,000 souls; 703 priests, 3 houses of male and 6 of female religious; 2 educational establishments for boys, and 6 for girls. CAPPELLETTI, Le chiese d'Italia, VIII; CICONI, Udine e sua provincia (Udine, 1862). U. BENIGNI Diocese of Ugento Diocese of Ugento (UXENTIN) The city of Ugento, with its small harbour, is situated in the Province of Leece, in Apulia, on the Gulf of Tarentum. It is the ancient Uxentum, and claims to have been founded by Uxens, who is mentioned in the Eighth Book of the Æneid. In ancient times it was an important city. In 1537 it was destroyed by the Turks. Under the Byzantine domination it had Greek bishops. Of the Latin bishops the first known was the Benedictine Simeon, of unknown date. Others worthy of mention are: St. Charles Borromeo (1530-37); Antonio Sebastiano Minturno, poet (1559); the Carmelite Desiderio Mazzapica (1566), who was distinguished at the Council of Trent; and the great canonist Agostino Barbosa (1649). In 1818 the diocese of Alessano (the ancient Leuca) was united to that of Ugento. The Greek rite flourished in many places in this diocese until 1591, when it was abolished by Bishop Ercole lancia. The diocese is suffragan of Otranto, and contains 30 parishes, 60,000 souls, 129 priests, secular and regular, 1 house of male religious, 4 houses of female religious, and 3 schools for girls. CAPPELLETI, Le Chiese d'Italia, XXI. U. BENIGNI Ferdinando Ughelli Ferdinando Ughelli Historian, born at Florence, 21 March, 1595; died 19 May, 1670. Having entered the Cistercian Order in his native city, he was sent to the Gregorian University, Rome, where he studied under the Jesuits, Francesco Piccolomini and John de Lugo. He filled many important posts in his order, being Abbot of Settimo (Florence), and from 1638 Abbot of Tre Fontane, Rome. He was skilled in ecclesiastical history. To encourage him in this work and to defray the expense of the journeys it entaile d Alexander VII granted him an annual pension of 500 scudi. He was a consultor of the Index and theologian to Cardinal Carlo de'Medici, and was frequently offered the episcopal dignity, which he refused to accept. He was buried in his abbatial ch urch. His chief work is "Italia sacra sive de episcopis Italae" (9 vols., Rome, 1643-62), abridged by Ambrogio Lucenti (Rome, 1704); re-edited with corrections and additions by Nicola Coleti (Venice, 1717-22), with a tent! h volume. In compiling this work, he frequently had to deal with matters not previously treated by historians; as a result, the "Italia sacra", owing to the imperfections of historical science in Ughelli's day, especially from the point of view of criticism and diplomatics, contains serious errors, particularly as the author was more intent on collecting than on weighing documents. Nevertheless his work with all its imperfections was necessary to facilitate the labours of critical historians of a later day, and is consulted even now. Among his other writings are: + "Cardinalium elogia ex sacro ordine cisterciensi" (Florence, 1624), on the writers and saints of his order and the papal privileges granted to it; + "Columnensis familiae cardinalium imagines" (Rome,1650), and genealogical works on the "Counts of Marsciano" and the "Capizucchi" (Rome, 1667,1653); + "Aggiunte" to the "Vitae pontificum" of Ciaconius. In the last volume of the "Italia sacra" he published various historical sources until then unedited. U. BENIGNI Uhtred Uhtred (Also spelled: Uhtred or Owtred), an English Benedictine theologian and writer, born at Boldon, North Durham, about 1315; died at Finchale Abbey, 24 Jan., 1396. He joined the Benedictines of Durham Abbey about 1332 and was sent to London in 1337. Three years later he entered Durham College, a house which the Durham Benedictines had established at Oxford for those of their members who pursued their studies at the University of Oxford. He was graduated there as licentiate in 1352 and as doctor in 1357. During the succeeding ten years, and even previously, he took part in numerous disputations at Oxford University, many of which were directed against members of the mendicant orders. It is on this account that Bale (loc. cit. below) wrongly designates him as a supporter of Wyclif. In 1367 he became prior of Finchale Abbey, a position to which he was appointed three other times, in 1379, 1386, and 1392. In 1368 and in 1381 he was subprior at Durham Abbey. Along with Wyclif he was one of the delegates sent by Edward III to the papal representatives at Bruges in 1374, with the purpose of reaching an agreement concerning the vexed question of canonical provision in England. In the same year he represented Durham Abbey at a council held by Edward, Prince of Wales, for the purpose of determining whether the king was obliged to recognize the papal suzerainty which had been granted to Innocent III by King John. On this occasion Uhtred defended the pope's right of overlordship, but, when on the following day the assembly cast its vote contrarily, he followed their example. Among his literary works, none of which have as yet been printed, are worthy of mention: "De substantialibus regulae monachalis", preserved in the Durham Cathedral Library; "Contra querelas Fratrum", written about 1390, extant in the British Museum; and a Latin translation of the "Ecclesiastical History" of Eusebius, which is also preserved in the British Museum. MICHAEL OTT Cornelius Ujejski Cornelius Ujejski Polish poet, born at Beremiany, Galicia, 1823; died at Cholojewie, 1897. His father was a prosperous landowner, member of an ancient noble family. Cornelius completed his studies at Lemberg, and while still a student at the university there wrote "Maraton" (1843), a patriotic lyric poem of excellent form. In 1846, at the instigation of the Austrian Government, the Galician peasants massacred several thousand of the nobility. Ujejski then gave utterance to the universal feeling of indignation in his powerful poem "Choral", which has become the national hymn of Poland. At Paris, 1847, he published a volume of poems entitled "Skargi Jeremiego" (Lamentations of Jeremias). He made the acquaintance of the most distinguished men in the Polish colony at Paris, among them Mickiewicz, and devoted himself with youthful ardor to the poet Julius Slowacki. In 1848 he returned home, and won great popularity. He was regarded and beloved by the people as their national poet. Ujejski wrote a number of other poems of fine sentiment and perfect poetical form, among them "Kwiaty bez woni" (Flowers without perfume), 1848, and "Zwiedle liscie" (Faded leaves) in 1849. In 1852 he published a second volume of poems entitled "Melodye Biblijne" (Biblical Melodies). Ujejski never achieved anything finer than his youthful works, though his later poems are distinguished by strong patriotic feeling, elegance of form, and fine poetic taste. S. TARNOWSKI Kaspar Ulenberg Kaspar Ulenberg Convert, theological writer and translator of the Bible, born at Lippstadt on the Lippe, Westphalia, in 1549; died at Cologne, 16 Feb., 1617. He was the son of Lutheran parents and was intended for the Lutheran ministry. He received his grammar-school education in Lippstadt, Soest, and Brunswick, and from 1569 studied theology at Wittenberg. While studying Luther's writings there his first doubts as to the truth of the Lutheran doctrines were awakened, and were then increased by hearing the disputes between the Protestant theologians and by the appearance of Calvinism in Saxony. After completing his studies he taught for a short time in the Latin school at Lunden in Dithmarschen; he was then sent by his family to Cologne to bring back to Protestantism a kinsman who had become Catholic. After accomplishing this task he remained in Cologne, where, through his friendship with Johann Nopelius and Gerwin Calenius (Catholic countrymen of his), he had an opportunity of becoming acquainted with Catholic life and teaching. In 1572 he became a Catholic, and soon afterwards, upon obtaining degrees in philosophy at the University of Cologne, became professor at the Gymnasium Laurentianum at Cologne. In 1575 he was ordained priest and became parish priest at Kaiserswerth. In 1583 he was made parish priest of St. Cunibert's in Cologne, where he laboured zealously by preaching and catechetical exercises, and made many conversions. In 1593 he became regent of the Laurentian gymnasium, retaining this position for twenty-two years. From 1600 to 1606 he directed the education of princes Wilhelm and Hermann of Baden, sons of Margrave Edward Fortunatus of Baden-Baden. In 1605 he became parish priest of St. Columba's in Cologne, and from 1610 to 1612 was also rector of the university. Ulenberg began his literary career at Kaiserwerth with the work, "Die Psalmen David's in allerlei deutsche Gesangreime gebracht" (Cologne, 1582), an excellent hymn book for the common people, which was widely circulated and often reprinted; the last and revised edition was by M. Kaufmann (Augsburg, 1835). To the first edition was appended a "Katechismus oder kurzer Bericht der ganzen christl. kathol. Religion sammt Warnung wider allerlei unserer Zeit Irrthumb". He completed at Cologne (1589) his chief theological work, "Erhebliche und wichtige Ursachen, warumb die altgläubige Catholische Christen bei dem alten wahren Christenthumb bis in ihren Tod beständiglich verharren", of which he also issued a Latin edition entitled: "Causae graves et justae, cur Catholicis in communione veteris ejusque veri Christianismi constanter usque ad finem vitae permanendum, cur item omnibus, qui se Evangelicos vocant, relictis erroribus ad ejusdem Christianismi consortium vel postliminio redeundum sit". This is one of the best controversial treatises of the sixteenth century and is still instructive reading. A new and revised edition was prepared by M.W. Kerp entitled: "Zweiundzwanzig Beweggründe. Ein buch für Katholische und Evangelische" (Mainz, 1827, 1833, and 1840). Other works worthy of mention are: + "Trostbuch für die Kranken und Sterbenden" (Cologne, 1590), often reprinted; + "Historia de vita, moribus, rebus gestis, studiis ac denique morte Praedicantium Lutheranorum, D. Martini Lutheri, Philippi Melanchthonis, Matthiae Flacii Illyrici, Georgii Maioris, et Andraea Osiandri", which was edited after Ulenberg's death by Arnold Meshovius (1622), a German edition being issued at Mainz (2 vols., 1836-37). + Ulenberg also wrote various shorter polemical and ascetical treatises. His last and most important literary work (Sacra Biblia, das ist, die gantze Heilige Schrifft, Alten und Neuen Testaments, nach der letzten Römisch Sixtiner Edition mit fleiss übergesetxt), the German translation of the Bible, he began (1614) at the request of the Archbishop and Elector of Cologne, Ferdinand Duke of Bavaria, and finished shortly before his death. The first edition appeared at Cologne in 1630; eleven other editions were published at Cologne up to 1747, and eleven more at Nuremberg, Bamberg, Frankfort, and Vienna. + The German Bible which was published (Mainz, 1662) at the command of the Archbishop and Elector of Mainz, Johann Philip Count of Schönborn, was a revision of Ulenberg's translation. This revision, entitled "Die catholische Mainzer Bibel", is still frequently printed and until Allioli's translation appeared was the most popular German translation of the Bible. FRIEDRICH LAUCHERT Ulfilas Ulfilas (Also: Ulphilas), apostle of the Goths, missionary, translator of the Bible, and inventor of an alphabet, born probably in 311; died at Constantinople in 380 or 381. Though Ulfilas in speech and sympathies was thoroughly Gothic, he was descended not from Teutonic ancestors, but from Cappadocians captured, in the reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, during the raids in Asia Minor made by the Goths from the north of the Danube. There seems to be no valid reason for thinking Ulfilas was not born a Christian (Hodgkin places his conversion during his residence at Constantinople). As a young man he was sent to that city either as a hostage or an ambassador, and, after occupying for some time the position of lector in the church, he was consecrated bishop in his thirtieth year by the celebrated Arian bishop of Nicomedia, Eusebius. Shortly after his consecration he returned to Dacia and during the remaining forty years of his life he laboured among his fellow-countrymen as a missionary. The first eight or ten years of his missionary life were spent in Dacia, after which because of the persecution of his pagan countrymen he was compelled with many of his Christian converts to seek refuge in Moesia. It was at this period in his life that he conceived the idea of translating the Bible into the language of the Goths, a task demanding as a preliminary that he should invent a special alphabet. His familiarity with Greek made the task comparatively simple, only a few letters being borrowed from other sources, Runic or Latin. Despite his many other activities Ulfilas translated "all the books of Scripture with the exception of the Books of Kings, which he omitted because they are a mere narrative of military exploits, and the Gothic tribes were especially fond of war, and were in more need of restraints to check their military passions than of spurs to urge them on to deeds of war" (Philostorgius, "Hist. eccl.", II, 5). The Books of the Old Testament were translated from the Septuagint; those of the New Testament from the original Greek. Ulfilas was at the Synod of Constantinople in 360 when the sect of Acacius triumphed and issued its compromise creed as a substitute for the formularies of the Orthodox as well as the Arian parties. It is unfortunate that the career of Ulfilas was marred by his adherence to the Arian heresy. It may be said in extenuation of this fault that he was a victim of circumstances in coming under none but Arian and semi-Arian influences during his residence at Constantinople; but he persisted in the error until the end of his life. The lack of orthodoxy deprived the work of Ulfilas of permanent influence and wrought havoc among some of his Teutonic converts. His labours were impressed not only on the Goths, but on other Teutonic peoples, and because of the heretical views they entertained they were unable to maintain themselves in the kingdoms which they established. Only a few chapters of Ulfilas's translation of the Old Testament are in existence. Of the New Testament we have the greater portion of the Gospels in the beautiful Silver Codex (a purple parchment with silver and gold letters) now at Upsala, and dating from the fifth century perhaps; nearly all of St. Paul's Epistles in a Milanese Codex edited by Cardinal Mai, and a large fragment of the Epistles to the Romans on a Wofenbüttel palimpsest. PATRICK J. HEALY William Bernard Ullathorne William Bernard Ullathorne English Benedictine monk and bishop, b. at Pocklington, Yorkshire, 7 May, 1806; d. at Oscott, Warwickshire, 21 March, 1889. His father was a lineal descendant from [Saint] Thomas More, but had fallen in life and was then the chief tradesman of the village. His mother, a distant connection of Sir John Franklin, the Arctic explorer, was a convert. When he was ten years old, the whole family removed to Scarborough, where young Ullathorne made his first acquaintance with the sea. His lively imagination and adventurous spirit led him to desire to be on the ocean and to see the world; and for three and a half years his wish was gratified, during which time he made several voyages in the Mediterranean and the Baltic Sea and elsewhere. It was on one of these voyages that a chance opportunity of attending Mass at Memel, a port in the Baltic, proved the turning-point of his life, for he then and there made up his mind to devote his life to the service of God. On his return to England, therefore, he entered as a novice of the well- known Benedictine community at Downside, near Bath, in February, 1823. He received the habit in March, 1824, and was professed a year later, taking the name of Bernard. Later on he spent a year as prefect at Ampleforth College, near York, and was ordained priest at Ushaw College in 1831. Soon after his return to Downside, in response to an invitation from Dr. Morris, O.S.B., Vicar Apostolic of the Mauritius, Ullathorne offered himself as a volunteer for the Australian mission, which then formed part of that vicariate. His offer was accepted, and in view of the difficulty there had always been of governing the colony from such a distance, Dr. Morris gave him full powers as his vicar-general there. Ullathorne landed in Australia in February, 1833, and his connection with the colony lasted eight years. During the first part of that time he devoted himself to organizing the beginnings of the mission there. When he first landed there were only three priests, Father Therry and Father McEncroe at Sydney, and Father Connolly in Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania). At both places they were working independently and without any kind of supervision. There were internal dissensions among the Catholics, as well as difficulties with the colonial authorities, both due to the want of proper ecclesiastical government. Ullathorne, by his tact and strength of character, soon succeeded in adjusting these, both at Sydney and in Tasmania. He likewise visited the convict settlement on Norfolk Island, which he describes as "the most beautiful spot in the universe", and his ministrations to those who were condemned to death, as well as to the others, had most consoling results. In 1835 Bishop Polding, O.S.B., arrived as Vicar Apostolic of Australia, accompanied by three priests and four ecclesiastical students. Ullathorne, being thus set free, set out soon afterwards to visit England and Ireland, to obtain further help for the mission. During his stay he was called upon to give evidence before the Parliamentary Commission on the evils of transportation, and, at the request of the Government, he wrote a tract on the subject. He was also summoned to Rome, at the instance of Cardinal Weld, to report on the state of the Australian mission. In 1838 he once more set sail for Sydney, with several priests and nuns who had offered themselves for the work. On his landing, he found himself the centre of obloquy, on account of his evidence on the convict question, for it was supposed to be detrimental to the colony, which thrived on the free labour of the convicts. Nevertheless, his views in the end prevailed, and transportation was abolished. In 1840 Ullthorne left Australia, as it turned out, for good, travelling to England in company with Bishop Polding. He had already drawn out a scheme for a regular hierarchy, rendered possible by the remarkable and rapid increase in numbers and organization, and when Dr. Polding went to Rome he obtained its substantial adoption. Dr. Polding himself became Archbishop of Sydney; but though Ullathorne was more than once pressed to accept a bishopric there, he remained staunch in his refual, and retired to the mission of Coventry. Here he used his energy in building a handsome new church; but after a stay of three years he had once more to move, being appointed Vicar Apostolic of the Western District of England, with the title of Bishop of Hetalona. Two years later, however, he was transferred to the Central District, in which he was destined to spend the remaining forty-one years of his life. He soon acquired influence among his brother bishops, and in 1848 he went to Rome as their delegate, to negotiate the restoration of the English hierarchy--a task for which he was specially qualified, in view of the part he had taken in the similar scheme already carried out in Australia. His negotiations were successful, and after a delay of two years, due to the Revolution in Rome, the new English hierarchy was proclaimed by Pius IX on 29 September, 1850. Cardinal Wiseman became the first Archbishop of Westminster, Dr. Ullathorne being appointed Bishop of Birmingham. He ruled that diocese for thirty-seven years. On the death of Cardinal Wiseman, he was chosen by Propaganda to succeed him; but Pius IX overruled their choice and appointed Cardinal Manning, and Dr. Ullathorne remained at Birmingham. He took part in all the four provincial synods of Westminster, and in 1870 he attended the Vatican Council; but for the most part his episcopate was free from incident beyond the steady growth and administration of his diocese. When he first took up his residence in the Midlands, he found the finances in a deplorable condition: he lived to see his diocese thoroughly organized, and many new missions established, as well as new communities of men, the most famous of which was [Ven. John Henry] Newman's Congregation of Oratorians at Edgbaston. Oscott was at that time a mixed college, and in 1873 Bishop Ullathorne established a regular diocesan seminary--St. Bernard's, Olton. He also devoted himself in a special manner to the convents of his diocese, in all of which he took a personal interest. One of his chief assistants was the well-known Mother Margaret Hallahan, who founded a convent of the Dominican Order at Stone, from which there were several branch houses. In 1888 Dr. Ullathorne obtained leave from the Holy See to resign his diocese, being given the title of Archbishop of Cabasa. He retired to Oscott College, where he died the following year on the feast of St. Benedict, and was buried in St. Dominic's Convent, Stone. His chief works, written during his last years, are: "Endowments of Man" (London, 1880); "Groundwork of Christian Virtues" (1882); "Christian Patience" (1886). He also published "Reply to Judge Burton on Religion in Australia" (Sydney, 1835); "La Salette" (1854); "The Immaculate Conception" (1855); "History of Restoration of English Hierarchy" (1871); "The Dollingerites" (1874); "Answer to Gladstone's 'Vatican Decrees'" (1875); and a large number of sermons, pastorals, pamphlets, etc. For the first half of his life (to 1850), see his Autobiography, edited after his death by THEODOSIA DRANE, of Stone Convent (1891); for the second half, see his Letters, edited by the same (1892). Other authorities: COOPER in Dict. Nat. Biog., s. v.; GILLOW, Bibl. Dict. Eng. Cath., s. v., with fuller enumeration of Ullathorne's works; MAZIERE BRADY, Catholic Hierarchy; Bishop Ullathorne Number of The Oscotian (London, 1886); GLANCEY, Characteristics from the Writings of Archbishop Ullathorne (London, 1889); KENNY, Hist. of Catholicity in Australia (1886); PURCELL, Life of Manning (London, 1896); WARD, Life of Wiseman (London, 1897); BIRT, Benedictine Pioneers in Australia (London, 1911); WARD, Life of Newman (London, 1912). BERNARD WARD Richard Ullerston Richard Ullerston B. in the Duchy of Lancaster, England; d. in August or September, 1423. Having been ordained priest in December, 1383, he became fellow of Queen's College, Oxford (1391-1403), holding office in the college, and proceeding doctor of divinity in 1394. In 1408 he became chancellor of the university and in the same year wrote at the request of the Bishop of Salisbury a sketch of proposed ecclesiastical reforms: "Petitiones pro ecclesiae militantis reformatione". He also wrote a commentary on the Creed (1409), one on the Psalms (1415), another on the Canticle of Canticles (1415), and "Defensorium donationis ecclesiasticae", a work in defence of the donation of Constantine. At the request of Archbishop Courtenay he wrote a treatise, "De officio militari", addressed to Henry, Prince of Wales. From 1403 he held the prebend of Oxford in Salisbury cathedral, and from 1407 the rectory of Beeford in Yorkshire. TANNER, Bibl. Brit.-Heb. (London, 1748); A WOOD, Hist. and Antiq. of Oxford (Oxford, 1792-6); PITTS, De illust. Angliae scriptoribus (Paris, 1619). EDWIN BURTON Antoine de Ulloa Antonio de Ulloa Naval officer and scientist, born at Seville, Spain, 12 Jan., 1716; died near Cadiz, Spain, 5 July, 1795. He entered the navy in 1733. In 1735 he was appointed with Jorge Juan, another young Spaniard, a member of a scientific expedition which the French Academy of Sciences was sending to Peru to measure a degree of the meridian at the equator. They remained there for nearly ten years. In 1745, having finished their scientific labours, he and Jorge Juan prepared to return to Spain, agre eing to travel on different ships in order to minimize the danger of losing the important fruits of their labours. The ship upon which Ulloa was travelling was captured by the British, and he was taken as a prisoner to England. In that country, through his scientific attainments, he gained the friendship of the men of science, and was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. In a short time, through the influence of the president of this society, he was released ! and was able to return to Spain. He became prominent as a scientist and was appointed to serve on various important scientific commissions. In 1766 he was sent as Governor to "La Florida Occidental" (Louisiana), where he remained two years, and in 1779 he became lieutenant-general of the na val forces. He is to be credited with the establishment of the first museum of natural history, the first metallurgical laboratory in Spain, and the observatory of Cadiz. As a result of his scientific work in Peru, he published (Madrid, 1784) "Relación histórica del viaje á la América Meridional", which contains a full, accurate, and clear description of the greater part of South America geographically, and of its inhabitants and natural history. In collaboration with the Jorge Juan mentioned above, he also wrote "Noticias secretas de América", giving valuable information regarding the early religious orders in Spanish America. This work was published by David Barry in London, 1826. VENTURA FUENTES Francisco de Ulloa Francisco de Ulloa Died 1540. It is not known when he came to Mexico nor if he accompanied Hernan Cortés in his first expedition to California. Authorities are divided upon these questions. Diaz del Castillo relates that during the absence of Cortés, his wife, Doña Juana de Zuñiga (Juñeja), sent letters to him by Ulloa, begging him to return. Ulloa, in charge of two ships loaded with provisions, reached Cortés when he was sorely straitened, and he returned to Mexico in 1537. Ulloa soon followed. Eager for new discoveries, Cortés undertook an expedition at his own expense in 1538, dispatching a fleet of three boats under the command of Francisco de Ulloa. According to Clavigero, Ulloa sailed along the coasts of the California peninsula until he was obliged by the scarcity of provisions to return to New Spains, where, in 1540, according to Diaz del Castillo, he was stabbed by a soldier and killed. Other historians relate, however, that of the three boats which sailed from the port of Acapulco the "S. Tomás" was soon lost; the "S. Agueda" was obliged to seek port in Manzanillo to repair damages, was afterwards driven by a tempest to the shores of Culiacan, where it joined the "Trinidad," returning shortly with the discontented members of the expedition, and the ship "Trinidad," under command of Ulloa, was lost, no trace having been found of her. CAMILLUS CRIVELLI St. Ulrich St. Ulrich Bishop of Augsburg, born at Kyburg, Zurich, Switzerland, in 890; died at Augsburg, 4 July, 973. He was the son of Count Hucpald and Thetbirga, and was connected with the dukes of Alamannia and the imperial family of the Ottos. As a child he was sickly; when old enough to learn he was sent to the monastic school of St. Gall, where he proved to be an excellent scholar. He resolved to enter the priesthood, but was in doubt whether to enter the Benedictine Abbey of St. Gall or to become a secular priest. He was sent before April, 910, for his further training to Adalbero, Bishop of Augsburg, who made him a chamberlain. On Adalbero's death (28 April, 910) Ulrich returned home, where he remained until the death of Bishop Hiltine (28 November, 923). Through the influence of his uncle, Duke Burchard of Alamannia, and other relatives, Ulrich was appointed Bishop of Augsburg by King Henry, and was consecrated on 28 Dec., 923. He proved himself to be a ruler who united severity with gentleness. He sought to improve the low moral and social condition of the clergy, and to enforce a rigid adherence to the laws of the Church. Ulrich hoped to gain this end by periodical visitations, and by building as many churches as possible, to make the blessings of religion more accessible to the common people. His success was largely due to the good example he set his clergy and diocese. For the purpose of obtaining relics he went on two journeys to Rome, in 910, and in 952 or 953. Ulrich demanded a high moral standard of himself and others. A hundred years after his death, a letter apparently written by him, which opposed celibacy, and supported the marriage of priests, suddenly appeared. The forger of the letter counted on the opinion of the common people, who would regard celibacy as unjust if St. Ulrich, known for the rigidity of his morals, upheld the marriage of priests (cf. "Analecta Boll.", XXVII, 1908, 474). Ulrich was also steadfastly loyal, as a prince of the empire, to the emperor. He was one of the most important props of the Ottonian policy, which rested mainly upon the ecclesiastical princes. He constantly attended the judicial courts held by the king and in the diets. He even took part in the Diet held on 20 September, 972, when he defended himself against the charge of nepotism in regard to his nephew Adalbero, whom he had appointed his coadjutor on account of his own illness and desire to retire to a Benedictine abbey. During the struggle between Otto I and his son Duke Ludolf of Swabia, Ulrich had much to suffer from Ludolf and his partisans. When in the summer of 954 father and son were ready to attack each other at Illertissen in Swabia, at the last moment Ulrich and Bishop Hartbert of Chur were able to mediate between Otto and Ludolf. Ulrich succeeded in persuading Ludolf and Konrad, Otto's son-in-law, to ask the king's pardon on 17 December, 954. Before long the Magyars entered Germany, plundering and burning as they went, and advanced as far as Augsburg, which they besieged with the fury of barbarians. It was due to Ulrich's ability and courage that Augsburg was able to hold out against the besiegers until the Emperor Otto arrived. On 10 August, 955, a battle was fought in the Lechfeld, and the invaders were finally defeated. The later assertion that Ulrich himself took part in the battle is incorrect, as Ulrich could not have broken through the ranks of the Magyars, who were south of him, although north of the emperor. As morning dawned on 4 July, 973, Ulrich had ashes strewn on the ground in the shape of a cross; the cross sprinkled with holy water, and he was placed upon it. His nephew Richwin came with a message and greeting from the Emperor Otto II as the sun rose, and immediately upon this, while the clergy sang the Litany, St. Ulrich passed away. His body was placed in the Church of St. Afra, which had been rebuilt by him. The burial was performed by Bishop Wolfgang of Ratisbon. Many miracles were wrought at his grave; and in 993, he was canonized by John XV. As early as the tenth century, there is a very beautiful miniature, in a manuscript now in the library of Einsiedeln (no. 261, fol. 140). Other miniatures are at the Royal Library of Munich, in manuscripts of 1454 (Cgm., 94, fo. 26v, and Cgm., no. 751). ULRICH SCHMID Ulrich of Bamberg Ulrich of Bamberg (Udalricus Babenbergensis), a cleric of the cathedral church of Bamberg, of whom nothing more is known than that he lived about 1100 at Bamberg. He is probably identical with the priest of Bamberg of the same name (d. 7 July, 1127), wh o is often mentioned in official documents and who bestowed large benefits on the monastery of Michelsberg. Ulrich's work is called "Codex epistolaris, continens variorum pontificum et imperatorum Romanorum, ut et S.R.E. cardinalium et S.R.I. principum e cclesiasticorum seculariumque epistolas". This collection of documents was completed in 1125 and dedicated to Bishop Gebhard of Würzburg. It contains letters from the year 900 on and was undoubtedly intended for the training of chancellors and statesmen, giving examples as models for the form of letters and public documents. Numerous important letters and charters of that period, which are preserved in it, offer rich material for the history of the relations between the emperors and popes; in particular the letters exchanged by Emperor Lothair, Henry the Proud, and Innocent I give an animated and instructive picture of conditions at that time. These letters also show how the statesmen at the episcopal courts and probably also the bishops were trained. After the collection had been closed by Ulrich several supplements were added that extend to 1134; these additional documents are generally addressed to Bishop Otto of Bamberg. PATRICIUS SCHLAGER Ulrich of Richenthal Ulrich of Richenthal Chronicler of the Council of constance, date of birth unknown; died about 1438. Ulrich was a citizen of Constance, well educated and a good latinist. He was a landowner and a layman, perhaps a son of the town clerk of Constance, Johannes Richenthal, who lived in the second half of the fourteenth century. During the session of the Ecumenical Council of Constance Ulrich frequently came into connection with the fathers assembled. He met the papal delegates who had to provide quarters for the members of the council. He was employed in business matters by princes who were present in the city during the council, and a bishop lived in his house. Ulrich followed the council, the great events that took place in it, the festivities, and all the celebrations of which his native town was the theatre. He wrote in the German dialect of Constance an exact and careful account of all, introducing much statistical matter. This chronicle is preserved in several manuscripts, of which one at St. Petersburg is in Latin. The Manuscripts contain coats-of-arms and other illustrations valuable for the history of civilization. J. P. KIRSCH St. Ulrich of Zell St. Ulrich of Zell (Wulderic; called also of Cluny, and of Ratisbon), born at Ratisbon, at the beginning of 1029; died at Zell, probably on 10 July, 1093. Feast, 14 July (10). Two lives of him are extant: the first, written anonymously c. 1109 by a monk of Zell at the request of Adalbert, a recluse near Ratisbon; the other, also anonymous, written between 1109 and 1130. Particulars of his life are also contained in his writings. His parents, pious and rich, were Bernhold and Bucca, niece of Bishop Gebhard II. Ulrich probably received his education at St. Emmeram, but in 1044 he was called to the court of his godfather, Henry IV, and acted as page to the Empress Agnes. Ordained deacon by his uncle Nidger, Bishop of Freising, he was made archdeacon of the cathedral. On his return from a journey to Rome he distributed his posessions to the poor, made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and, after another short visit to Rome, entered the Abbey of Cluny in 1061, during the reign of St. Hugo. Here he soon excelled in piety and diligence, made his profession, was ordained priest and appointed confessor to the convent at Mareigny in the Diocese of Autun, and prior of the community of men in the same place. Here he lost an eye and was obliged to return to Cluny. He was then named prior at Peterlingen (Payerne) in the Diocese of Lausanne, but on account of troubles caused by Bishop Burchard von Oltingen, a partisan of Henry IV, Ulrich again went to Cluny, where he acted as adviser to his abbot. A nobleman had donated to Cluny some property at Grüningen near Breisach, and Ulrich was sent to inspect the place and eventually to lay the foundation of a monastery. Not finding the locality suitable, he with his monks in 1087 retired to Zell (Sell, Sella, Villmarszelle) in the Black Forest, where the report of his virtues soon brought him many disciples. He enjoyed the esteem of Blessed Gebhard III, Bishop of Basle, who frequently visited him. In 1090 he established a convent for nuns at Bolesweiler (now Bollschweil), about a mile from Zell. God granted him the gift of miracles. The last two years of his life he was blind. He was buried in the cloister, but three years later his body was brought into the church. His feast was celebrated for the first time 14 July, 1139. His life of Hermann von Zähringen, Margrave of Baden, later a monk of Cluny, is also lost. His "Consuetudines cluniacenses" (in P.L., CXLIX, 657) were composed at the request of William, Abbot of Hirschau, in three books. The first two, written between 1079 and 1082, treat of liturgy and the education of novices; the third, written not later than 1087, speaks of the government of monasteries. FRANCIS MERSHMAN St. Ultan of Ardbraccan St. Ultan of Ardbraccan St. Ultan of Ardbraccan, Ireland, was the maternal uncle of St. Brigid, and collected a life of that great Irish saint for his pupil, St. Brogan Cloen of Rostuirc, on Ossory. There seems to be some difficulty in his chronology inasmuch as the assumption of his relation to St. Brigid must involve an extraordinary longevity, namely 180 years, because his death is not chronicled till 657. Windisch, however, explains away the seeming inconsistency. The Irish Annals describe St. Ultan as of the royal race of O'Connor, and he succeeded St. Breccan as Abbot-Bishop of Ardbraccan about the year 570. From O'Clery's "Irish Calendar" we learn that he educated and fed thousands of poor students from all parts of Ireland. Of his literary powers there are several specimens, among others, lives of St. Patrick and St. Brigid. His exquisite Latin hymn of the latter saint, commencing "Christus in nostra insula", is incorporated in the Solesmes Chant books. The exact year of his death is uncertain, the various annalists giving 653, 656, 657, and 662, but probably we are safe in following the "Annals of Ulster", wherein his obit is recorded under the year 657. He died on 4 September, on which day his feast has always been celebrated. St. Ultan's Well is still at Ardbraccan. W. H. GRATTAN-FLOOD Ultramontanism Ultramontanism A term used to denote integral and active Catholicism, because it recognizes as its spiritual head the pope, who, for the greater part of Europe, is a dweller beyond the mountains (ultra montes), that is, beyond the Alps. The term "ultramontane", indeed, is relative: from the Roman, or Italian, point of view, the French, the Germans, and all the other peoples north of the Alps are ultramontanes, and technical ecclesiastical language actually applies the word in precisely this sense. In the Middle Ages, when a non-Italian pope was elected he was said to be a papa ultramontano. In this sense the word occurs very frequently in documents of the thirteenth century; after the migration to Avignon, however, it dropped out of the language of the Curia. In a very different sense, the word once more came into use after the Protestant Reformation, which was, among other things, a triumph of that ecclesiastical particularism, based on political principles, which was formulated in the maxim: Cujus regio, ejus religio. Among the Catholic governments and peoples there gradually developed an analogous tendency to regard the papacy as a foreign power; Gallicanism and all forms of French and German regalism affected to look upon the Holy See as an alien power because it was beyond the Alpine boundaries of both the French kingdom and the German empire. This name of Ultramontane the Gallicans applied to the supporters of the Roman doctrines--whether that of the monarchical character of the pope in the government of the Church or of the infallible pontifical magisterium--inasmuch as the latter were supposed to renounce "Gallican liberties" in favour of the head of the Church who resided ultra montes. This use of the word was not altogether novel; as early as the time of Gregory VII the opponents of Henry IV in Germany had been called Ultramontanes (ultramontani). In both cases the term was intended to be opprobrious, or at least to convey the imputation of a failing in attachment to the Ultramontane's own prince, or his country, or his national Church. In the eighteenth century the word passed from France back to Germany, where it was adopted by the Febronians, Josephinists, and Rationalists, who called themselves Catholics, to designate the theologians and the faithful who were attached to the Holy See. Thus it acquired a much wider signification, being applicable to all Roman Catholics worthy of the name. The Revolution adopted this polemical term from the old regime: the "Divine State", formerly personified in the prince, now found its personification in the people, becoming more "Divine" than ever as the State became more and more laic and irreligious, and, both in principle and in fact, denied any other God but itself. In presence of this new form of the old state-worship, the "Ultramontane" is the antagonist of the atheists as much as the non-Catholic believers, if not more--witness the Bismarckian Kulturkampf, of which the National Liberals rather than the orthodox Protestants were the soul. Thus the word came to be applied more especially in Germany from the earliest decades of the nineteenth century. In the frequent conflicts between Church and State the supporters of the Church's liberty and independence as against the State are called Ultramontanes. The Vatican Council naturally called forth numerous written attacks upon Ultramontanism. When the Centre was formed as a political party it was called by preference the Ultramontane party. In a few years the "Anti-Ultramontane Reichsverband" came into existence to combat the Centre and, at the same time, Catholicism as a whole. As our present purpose is to state what Ultramontanism is, it is beside our scope to expound the Catholic doctrine on the power of the Church and, in particular, of the pope, whether in spiritual or temporal matters, these subjects being treated elsewhere under their respective titles. It is sufficient here to indicate what our adversaries mean by Ultramontanism. For Catholics it would be superfluous to ask whether Ultramontanism and Catholicism are the same thing: assuredly, those who combat Ultramontanis are in fact combating Catholicism, even when they disclaim the desire to oppose it. One of the recent adversaries of Ultramontanism among Catholics was a priest, Professor Franz Xaver Kraus, who says ("Spektatorbrief", II, quoted in the article Ultramontanismus in "Realencycl. für prot. Theol. u. Kirche", ed. 1908): "1. An Ultramontane is one who sets the idea of the Church above that of religion; 2. ...who substitutes the pope for the Church; 3. ...who believes that the kingdom of God is of this world and that, as medieval curialism asserted, the power of the keys, given to Peter, included temporal jurisdiction also; 4. ...who believes that religious conviction can be imposed or broken with material force; 5. ...who is ever ready to sacrifice to an extraneous authority the plain teaching of his own conscience." According to the definition given in Leichtenberger, "Encycl. des sciences religieuses" (ed. 1882): "The character of Ultramontanism is manifested chiefly in the ardour with which it combats every movement of independence in the national Churches, the condemnation which it visits upon works written to defend that independence, its denial of the rights of the State in matters of government, of ecclesiastical administration and ecclesiastical control, the tenacity with which it has prosecuted the declaration of the dogma of the pope's infallibility and with which it incessantly advocates the restoration of his temporal power as a necessary guarantee of his spiritual sovereignty." The war against Ultramontanism is accounted for not merely by its adversaries' denial of the genuine Catholic doctrine of the Church's power and that of her supreme ruler, but also, and even more, by the consequences of that doctrine. It is altogether false to attribute to the Church either political aims of temporal dominion among the nations or the pretence that the pope can at his own pleasure depose sovereigns that the Catholic must, even in purely civil matters, subordinate his obedience towards his own sovereign to that which he owes to the pope, that the true fatherland of the Catholic is Rome, and so forth. These are either pure inventions or malicious travesties. It is neither scientific nor honest to attribute to "Ultramontanism" the particular teaching of some theologian or some school of times past; or to invoke certain facts in medieval history, which may be explained by the peculiar conditions, or by the rights which the popes possessed in the Middle Ages (for example, their rights in conferring the imperial crown). For the rest, it is sufficient to follow attentively, one by one, the struggle kept up in their journals and books to be convinced that this warfare by the Rationalist-Protestant-Modernist coalition against "Clericalism" or "Ultramontanism" is, fundamentally, directed against integral Catholicism--that is, against papal, anti-Liberal, and counter-Revolutionary Catholicism. (See also STATE AND CHURCH; FEBRONIANISM; SYLLABUS.) U. BENIGNI Unam Sanctam Unam Sanctam (Latin the One Holy, i.e. Church), the Bull on papal supremacy issued 18 November, 1302, by Boniface VIII during the dispute with Philip the Fair, King of France. It is named from its opening words (see BONIFACE VIII). The Bull was promulgated in connection with the Roman Council of October, 1302, at which it had probably been discussed. it is not impossible that Boniface VIII himself revised the Bull; still it also appears that Aegidius Colonna, Archibishop of Bourges, who had come to the council at Rome notwithstanding the royal prohibition, influenced the text. The original of the Bull is no longer in existence; the oldest text is to be found in the registers of Boniface VIII in the Vatican archives ["Reg. Vatic.", L, fol. 387]. It was also incorporated in the "Corpus juris canonici" ("Extravag. Comm.", I, vii, 1; ed. Friedberg, II, 1245). The genuineness of the Bull is absolutely established by the entry of it in the official registers of the papal Briefs, and its incorporation in the canon law. The objections to its genuineness raised by such scholars as Damberger, Mury, and Verlaque are fully removed by this external testimony. At a later date Mury withdrew his opinion. The Bull lays down dogmatic propositions on the unity of the Church, the necessity of belonging to it for eternal salvation, the position of the pope as supreme head of the Church, and the duty thence arising of submission to the pope in order to belong to the Church and thus to attain salvation. The pope further emphasizes the higher position of the spiritual in comparison with the secular order. From these premises he then draws conclusions concerning the relation between the spiritual power of the Church and secular authority. The main propositions of the Bull are the following: First, the unity of the Church and its necessity for salvation are declared and established by various passages from the Bible and by reference to the one Ark of the Flood, and to the seamless garment of Christ. The pope then affirms that, as the unity of the body of the Church so is the unity of its head established in Peter and his successors. Consequently, all who wish to belong to the fold of Christ are placed under the dominion of Peter and his successors. When, therefore, the Greeks and others say they are not subject to the authority of Peter and his successors, they thus acknowledge that they do not belong to Christ's sheep. Then follow some principles and conclusions concerning the spiritual and the secular power: + Under the control of the Church are two swords, that is two powers, the expression referring to the medieval theory of the two swords, the spiritual and the secular. This is substantiated by the customary reference to the swords of the Apostles at the arrest of Christ (Luke, xxii, 38; Matt., xxvi, 52). + Both swords are in the power of the Church; the spiritual is wielded in the Church by the hand of the clergy; the secular is to be employed for the Church by the hand of the civil authority, but under the direction of the spiritual power. + The one sword must be subordinate to the other: the earthly power must submit to the spiritual authority, as this has precedence of the secular on account of its greatness and sublimity; for the spiritual power has the right to establish and guide the secular power, and also to judge it when it does not act rightly. When, however, the earthly power goes astray, it is judged by the spiritual power; a lower spiritual power is judged by a higher, the highest spiritual power is judged by God. + This authority, although granted to man, and exercised by man, is not a human authority, but rather a Divine one, granted to Peter by Divine commission and confirmed in him and his successors. Consequently, whoever opposes this power ordained of God opposes the law of God and seems, like a Manichaean, to accept two principles. "Now, therefore, we declare, say, determine and pronounce that for every human creature it is necessary for salvation to be subject to the authority of the Roman pontiff" (Porro subesse Romano Pontifici omni humanae creaturae declaramus, dicimus, definimus, et pronuntiamus omnino esse de necessitate salutis). The Bull is universal in character. As its content shows, a careful distinction is made between the fundamental principles concerning the Roman primacy and the declarations as to the application of these to the secular power and its representatives. In the registers, on the margin of the text of the record, the last sentence is noted as its real definition: "Declaratio quod subesse Romano Pontifici est omni humanae creaturae de necessitate salutis" (It is here stated that for salvation it is necessary that every human creature be subject to the authority of the Roman pontiff). This definition, the meaning and importance of which are clearly evident from the connection with the first part on the necessity of the one Church for salvation, and on the pope as the one supreme head of the Church, expresses the necessity for everyone who wishes to attain salvation of belonging to the Church, and therefore of being subject to the authority of the pope in all religious matters. This has been the constant teaching of the Church, and it was declared in the same sense by the Fifth Ecumenical Council of the Lateran, in 1516: "De necessitate esse salutis omnes Christi fideles Romano Pontifici subesse" (That it is of the necessity of salvation for all Christ's faithful to be subject to the Roman pontiff). The translation by Berchtold of the expression humanae creaturae by "temporal authorities" is absolutely wrong. The Bull also proclaims the subjection of the secular power to the spiritual as the one higher in rank, and draws from it the conclusion that the representatives of the spiritual power can install the possessors of secular authority and exercise judgment over their administration, should it be contrary to Christian law. This is a fundamental principle which had grown out of the entire development in the early Middle Ages of the central position of the papacy in the Christian national family of Western Europe. It had been expressed from the eleventh century by theologians like Bernard of Clairvaux and John of Salisbury, and by popes like Nicholas II and Leo IX. Boniface VIII gave it precise expression in opposing the procedure of the French king. The main propositions are drawn from the writings of St. Bernard, Hugh of St. Victor, St. Thomas Aquinas, and letters of Innocent III. Both from these authorities and from declarations made by Boniface VIII himself, it is also evident that the jurisdiction of the spiritual power over the secular has for its basis the concept of the Church as guardian of the Christian law of morals, hence her jurisdiction extends as far as this law is concerned. Consequently, when King Philip protested, Clement V was able, in his Brief "Meruit", of 1 February, 1306, to declare that the French king and France were to suffer no disadvantage on account of the Bull "Unam Sanctam", and that the issuing of this Bull had not made them subject to the authority of the Roman Church in any other manner than formerly. In this way, Clement V was able to give France and its ruler a guarantee of security from the ecclesiastico-political results of the opinions elaborated in the Bull, while its dogmatic decision suffered no detriment of any kind. In the struggles of the Gallican party against the authority of the Roman See, and also in the writings of non-Catholic authors against the definition of Papal Infallibility, the Bull "Unam Sanctam" was used against Boniface VIII as well as against the papal primacy in a manner not justified by its content. The statements concerning the relations between the spiritual and the secular power are of a purely historical character, so far as they do not refer to the nature of the spiritual power, and are based on the actual conditions of medieval Western Europe. J. P. KIRSCH Ungava Ungava A Canadian territory lying north of the Province of Quebec, detached (1876) from the Great Labrador peninsula. Ungava, whose area (354,961 sq. m.) surpasses that of Quebec (351,873 sq. m.), was annexed to the latter province (1912) by the Federal Government. It is bounded on the west by Hudson's Straits, comprising Ungava Bay, on the north-east and east by Labrador proper, on the south by the Province of Quebec, on the west by Hudson and James' Bays. This land was visited by the Basques, by Cabot (1493), Weymouth (1602), Hudson (1610), and by the Jesuits Dablon (1661) and Albanel (1672), on their journey by land to Hudson Bay. During the last century the Oblates of Mary Immaculate, Babel (1866 and 1870) and Lacasse (1875), evangelized the Indians of the interior. The Moravian Brothers began proselytizing the Esquimaux in 1770. Ungava now depends spiritually on the Vicariate Apostolic of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Its immense forest and mineral resources, fertile soil, and unparalleled hydraulic power reveal a bright prospect for colonization and industry. Railway lines are in preparation between Quebec and Western Canada and Hudson Bay. The census of 1901 gave a population of 5113 souls, comprising the aborigines (Esquimaux on the coast, Montagnais and Nascaupis in the interior) and whites. LIONEL LINDSAY Uniformity Acts Uniformity Acts These statutes, passed at different times, were vain efforts to secure uniformity in public worship throughout England. But as the principle of unity had been lost when communion with the See of Peter was broken off, all such attempts were foredoomed to failure. They were resisted by Catholics on the one hand and the Nonconformists on the other. The first of these Acts (2 and 3 Edward VI, c. 1) was called "An Act for Uniformity of Service and Administration of the Sacraments throughout the Realm". After a long preamble setting forth the reasons which had led to the drawing up of "The Book of the Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments, and other rites and ceremonies of the Church after the use of the Church of England", and the desirability of having one uniform rite and order in use in all churches through England and Wales, the statute enacts that after Pentecost, 1549, all ministers shall be bound to follow the same in all public services. Then follow penalties against such of the clergy as shall substitute any other form of service, or shall not use the "Book of Common Prayer", or who shall preach or speak against it. Further penalties are decreed against all who in plays or songs shall mock said book. Private persons were allowed to use the forms for Matins and Evensong in Latin, Greek, or Hebrew in their own private devotions, and liberty was reserved to the universities to have the service in their college chapels conducted in any of these tongues. There is nothing in this Act to enforce attendance at public worship, but the provisions of the Act apply to every kind of public worship or "open prayer", as it was called, which might take place. The Act itself defines "open prayer" as "that prayer which is for others to come unto or near, either in common churches or private chapels or oratories, commonly called the service of the Church". This Act was confirmed by 5 and 6 Edw. VI, c. 1, repealed by I Mary, sess. 2, c. 2, revived by 1 Eliz., c. 2, and 1 James I, c. 25, and made perpetual so far as it relates to the Established Church of England by 5 Anne, c. 5 (c. 8 according to some computations). The next of these Acts (3 and 4 Edward VI, c. 10) was passed in 1549 under the title "An Act for the abolishing and putting away of diverse books and images". The preamble of the Act recites that the king had of late set forth and established by authority of Parliament an order for common prayer in a book entitled, "The Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments, and other rites and ceremonies of the Church, after the Church of England". The first section then suppresses and forbids all books or writings in Latin or English used for church services other than such as are appointed by the king's majesty. And all such books are to be collected by the mayor and other civil authorities and delivered to the bishop to be destroyed. But as the "First Prayer-book" of Edward VI did not satisfy the reformers, it was soon supplanted by the "Second Prayer-book", issued in 1552 and also sanctioned by Act of Parliament. This Act of Uniformity is the first to be expressly called by that name, being entitled "An Act for the Uniformity of Service and Administration of Sacraments throughout the realm" (5 and 6 Edw. VI, c. 1). It goes much further than the previous Act, for it enforces church attendance on Sundays and holy days. After the preamble declaring the desirability of uniformity, the second section enacts that after 1 November, 1552, all persons shall attend their parish church on Sundays and holy days and shall be present at the common prayer, preaching, or other service, under pain of punishment by the censures of the Church. The archbishops and bishops are charged with the task of enforcing the Act (sect. 3); and they are to inflict the censures of the Church on offenders (sect. 4). The fifth section refers to the new "Book of Common Prayer", to which had been added a "Form and Manner of making and consecrating archbishops, bishops, priests, and deacons", and declares that all the provisions of the previous Act shall apply to it. By the sixth and last section any person convicted of being present at any other form of common prayer or administration of the sacraments shall be imprisoned for six months for the first offence, one year for the second, and shall suffer imprisonment for life for the third. The Act was to be read in church four times during the following year and once a year afterwards. It was repealed by I Mary, sess. 2, c. 2, but revived with certain alterations by 1 Eliz., c. 2, and confirmed by 1 James I, c. 25. It was made perpetual so far as it relates to the Established Church of England by 5 Anne, c. 5 (or c. 8 according to the chronological table of statutes). Queen Mary contented herself with repealing these statutes of Edward and thus restoring the ancient liberty. No fresh Uniformity Act appeared on the statute book till Protestantism returned under Elizabeth. Then the well known "Act for the Uniformity of Common Prayer and Service in the Church and Administration of the Sacraments" (1 Eliz., c. 2) was passed. The first effect of this statute was to repeal the Act of Mary as and from 24 June, 1559, and to restore the "Book of Common Prayer" from that date. The "Second Prayer-book" of Edward VI with certain additions and alterations was thenceforth to be used, and any clergyman neglecting to use it or substituting any other form of open prayer or preaching against it, was on conviction to suffer penalties which increased with offence till on the third conviction they mounted to deprivation from all spiritual preferment and imprisonment for life. Similarly severe penalties culminating in the forfeiture of all goods and chattels and imprisonment for life were decreed against all persons who spoke in derision of the "Book of Common Prayer". Attendance at church service on Sunday at the parish church was rendered compulsory, and any person absent without reasonable cause was to pay a fine of twelve pence, which would be equivalent to ten shillings in modern English money, or two dollars and a half. Long and extensive provisions for enforcing the Act are included, and one section provides for uniformity in the ornaments of the Church and ministers. This enacts that the same ornaments shall be retained "as was in this Church of England, by authority of Parliament, in the second year of King Edward VI". This Act proved a powerful weapon against the Catholics, who could not conscientiously obey it, and it was used consistently as a means to harass and impoverish them. So effective was it that it needed no amending, and a century elapsed before the next Uniformity Act was passed. This was the celebrated Act of Charles II (13 and 14 Chas. II, c. 4: according to some computations it is quoted as 15 Chas. II, c. 4). It was followed by a short Act of Relief (15 Chas. II, c. 6). This Act is of little or no special interest to Catholics, for it was primarily designed to regulate the worship of the Church of England, and so far as Catholics were concerned it added nothing to the provisions of the Edwardine and Elizabethan Acts. Relief from the Acts of Uniformity was granted to Catholics by the Second Catholic Relief Act (31 Geo. III, c. 32), though the benefits of the Act were limited to those who made the declaration and took the oath under the Act. So much of this statute as related to the declaration and oath was repealed in 1871 by the Promissory Oaths Act (34 and 35 Vict., c. 48). There were certain restrictions and conditions as to Catholic places of worship, but these were changed in 1832 by the Act 2 and 3 Wm. IV, c. 115, by which Catholics were placed on the same footing as Protestant dissenters in this and some other respects. Incidentally this statute made it compulsory to certify Catholic chapels to the Anglican bishop and archdeacon and the quarter sessions. But this restriction was abolished in 1855 by 18 and 19 Vict., c. 81, which provided that such buildings could be notified to the registrar-general instead. Even this provision has long fallen into disuse and it is not customary to register Catholic churches except for the solemnization of marriage. Thus for Catholics, as for Nonconformists, the provisions of the Uniformity Acts have been gradually repealed and now they apply only to the Established Church of England; but to that extent they are still on the statute-books and as late as 1872 a statute entitled "An Act for the Amendment of the Act of Uniformity" was passed (35 and 36 Vic., c. 35). As long as the Church of England is the established religion its worship will be regulated by statute, so that Acts of Uniformity in one shape or another will remain part of the English code of law unless, and until, disestablishment takes place. EDWIN BURTON Unigenitus Unigenitus A celebrated Apostolic Constitution of Clement XI, condemning 101 propositions of Pasquier Quesnel. In 1671 Quesnel had published a book entitled "Abrégé de la morale de l'Evangile". It contained the Four Gospels in French, with short notes explanatory of the text, at the same time serving as aids for meditation. The work was approved by Bishop Vialart of Châlons. An enlarged edition, containing an annotated French text of the New Testament, appeared in three small volumes in 1678, and a later edition in four volumes appeared under the title "Le nouveau testament en francais avec dees reflexions morales sur chaque verse, pour en rendre la lecture plus utile et la méditation plus aisée" (Paris, 1693-94). This last edition was highly recommended by Noailes, who had succeeded Vialart as Bishop of Châlons. While the first edition of the work contained only a few Jansenistic errors, its Jansenistic tendency became more apparent in the second edition, and in its complete form, as it appeared in 1693, it was pervaded with practically all the errors of Jansenism. Several bishops forbade its reading in their dioceses, and Clement XI condemned it in his Brief, "Universi Dominici Gregis", dated 13 July, 1708. The papal Brief was, however, not accepted in France because its wording and its manner of publication were not in harmoy with the "Gallican Liberties". Noailles, who had become Archbishop of Paris and cardinal, was too proud to withdraw the approbation which he had inadvertently given to the book while Bishop of Châlons, and Jansenism again raised its head. To put an end to this situation several bishops, and especially Louis XIV, asked the pope to issue a Bull in place of the Brief which the French Government did not accept. The Bull was to avoid every expression contrary to the "Gallican Liberties" and to be submitted to the French Government before publication. To avoid further scandal, the pope yielded to these humiliating conditions, and in Feb., 1712, appointed a special congregation of cardinals and theologians to cull from the work of Quesnel such propositions as were deserving of ecclesiastical censure. The most influential member of this congregation was Cardinal Fabroni. It took the congregation eighteen months to perform its task, the result of which was the publication of the famous Bull "Unigenitus Dei Filius" at Rome, 8 Sept., 1713. The Bull begins with the warning of Christ against false prophets, especially such as "secretly spread evil doctrines under the guise of piety and introduce ruinous sects under the image of sanctity"; then it proceeds to the condemnation of 101 propositions which are taken verbatim from the last edition of Quesnel's work. The propositions are condemned respectively as "False, captious, ill-sounding, offensive to pious ears, scandalous, pernicious, rash, injurious to the Church and its practices, contumelious to Church and State, seditious, impious, blasphemous, suspected and savouring of heresy, favouring heretics, heresy, and schism, erroneous, bordering on heresy, often condemned, heretical, and reviving various heresies, especially those contained in the famous propositions of Jansenius". The first forty-three propositions repeat the errors of Baius and Jansenius on grace and predestination, such as: grace works with omnipotence and is irrestible; without grace man can only commit sin; Christ died for the elect only. The succeeding twenty-eight propositions (44-71) concern faith, hope, and charity: every love that is not supernatural is evil; without supernatural love there can be no hope in God, no obedience to His law, no good work, no prayer, no merit, no religion; the prayer of the sinner and his other good acts performed out of fear of punishment are only new sins. The last thirty propositions (72-101) deal with the Church, its discipline, and the sacraments: the Church comprises only the just and the elect; the reading of the Bible is binding on all; sacramental absolution should be postponed till after satisfaction; the chief pastors can exercise the Church's power of excommunication only with the consent, at least presumed, of the whole body of the Chur