STRASBURG, stras'burg, BISHOPRIC OF: A German diocese first definitely mentioned in the sixth century, although both ancient remains and the testimony of Irenæus (Hær., I, x. 2) prove that Christianity had entered upper Germany during the Roman period. The old diocese lay on both banks of the Rhine. On the left bank it practically coincided with the modern Lower Alsace, except that the southern boundary was somewhat further south, while in the north the district beyond the Hagenau forest belonged to Speyer and that beyond the Vosges to Metz. On the right bank the diocese extended from the mouth of the Elz beyond Baden-Baden, stretching inland to the Black Forest.
(A. Hauck.)

Strasburg eagerly embraced the Reformation and became one of the strongholds of Protestantism, the adherents of the ancient faith being exposed to bitter persecution. Even some of the canons renounced the Roman Catholic faith, and from 1592 to 1604 there was internecine strife as to whether a Protestant or a Roman Catholic should be bishop of the diocese. Protestant supremacy in Strasburg was finally ended by the Peace of Westphalia, and the see then became part of France, although the bishop continued to rank as a prince of the Empire on account of his territories on the right bank of the Rhine. During the French Revolution Roman Catholicism, like every form of religion, suffered heavily, but by the concordat of 1801 the diocese was reorganized, becoming coterminous with Alsace. Hitherto forming part of the archdiocese of Metz, Strasburg was made a suffragan see of Besançon in 1822. Henceforth it remained unchanged until 1870, when Alsace became German territory, and since 1874 the diocese has been under the immediate jurisdiction of the pope.

STRATON, NORMAN DUMENIL JOHN: Church of England, bishop of Soder and Man; b. at Somershall (13 m. w. of Derby), Derbyshire, Nov. 4, 1840. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge (B.A., 1862), and was ordained priest in 1865. He was curate of Market Drayton 1865-66, vicar of Kirkby Wharfe, Yorkshire, 1866-75, and vicar and rural dean of Wakefield 1875-92. In 1892 he was consecrated bishop of Sodor and Man, of which he has also been dean since 1895. He was proctor in York Convocation for the archdeaconry of Craven, 1880-85; honorary canon of Ripon, 1883-88, and of Wakefield Cathedral, 1888-92; and archdeacon of Huddersfield in 1888-92. In theology he is an Evangelical Churchman, opposed to the ritualistic movement. He has written Thoughts for Communicants (London, 1905).

STRAUSS, straus, DAVID FRIEDRICH: German radical theologian; b. at Ludwigsburg (9 m. n. of Stuttgart) Jan. 27, 1808; d. there Feb. 8, 1874.

Symbolics.

I. Creeds and Confessions: The term symbol is

used in a twofold sense; for the pictorial repre

sentation of religious ideas (see MYs

I. Original TAGOGICAL THEOLOGY; SYMBOLISM,

Idea of ECCLESIASTICAL), and for the au

Symbol. thoritative ecclesiastical formulations

of religious doctrines. This article is

to be restricted to the latter class of symbols, other

wise styled the church creeds or confessions. From

them the theological discipline styled " symbolics "

and mostly pursued in Protestantism has derived

its name. The custom of designating as symbols

the formulas by which Christian faith has expressed

itself in history took its origin in referring to

that formula as a symbol by which, in the ancient

Church, the candidates for baptism were wont to

confess their faith. It began with " I believe,"

being therefore decidedly individual and personal.

Of its many names one was simply that of " the

faith." In the East " the lesson " (to mathema)

was sometimes employed, but seldom " the con

fession of faith." The designation of the baptismal

confession as " symbol " originated in the West;

in the East it appeared relatively late. The term

is first found in Tertullian (Adv. Marcionem, v. 1).

The Latin Church borrowed the term from the

secular Greek. Derived from symballein (" to com

pare "), symbolon may be applied to whatever sig

nifies a means of recognition or identification, a

sign, a watchword, a comparison or agreement.

The equivalents in Latin are signum, nota, indicium,

tessera, pactum; some of the older Latin theol0-

BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Fabrini, Breve Chronica delta Congregaxione dei Monachi Silvestrini, Camerino, 1618, new ed., ed. A. Morosi and A. Lacantovi, Rome, 1706; the " Constitution " was printed at Camerino, 1610, and Rome, 1690; Helyot, Ordres monastiques, vi. 170 sqq.; Heimbucher, Orden and Kongregationen, i. 277-279; KL, xi. 1039-41.

gians, such as Rufinus, rendered it by collatio, confusing the Greek symbole and symbolon. The latter attached his interpretation to the legend that the primitive creed was composed jointly by the Apostles, each contributing one sentence. Cyprian (Epist., Ixix [Lxxv.] 7; Eng. transl., ANF, v. 399) is a sure witness of the application of " symbol " to the baptismal confession. In what sense it was applied is open to explanation; it was probably used as a general token of recognition, although different views are held on this point, according to the diverse theories of the origin of the creed itself. The view of the present writer is that all the formulas found in the primitive Church go back to the creed known as the old Roman (designated as R in this article); that this creed was composed in Rome at one time, as the expression of the summary of faith at the period of its date, probably about 100, but rather earlier than later; and that it was composed for liturgical and catechetical purposes, butnotastheoutcome of polemical antagonism to heresy, as is the view advocated by A. C. McGiffert (The Apostles' Creed, New York, 1902). The latter considers R the fundamental formula, indeed, but one composed by the Roman Church during the struggle with Marcion. Loofs doubts the hypothesis of a single " mother-formula," and traces the custom of making the catechumens recite a creed (which was substantially the same everywhere, though not identical in phraseology) to Asia Minor, if not to the primitive churches of Palestine and Syria.

SZEGEDINUS. See KIS, STEPHANUS.

TABERNACLE: The term used in the Middle Ages for the outer vessel in which the host is preserved, the inner being named the pyx (see VESSELS, SACRED). The word also designates the baldaquin above the altar, and the ciborium (see ALTAR, II., 1, § 1).

TABERNACLE CONNECTION. See METHODISTS, I.,2.

TABERNACLE, THE MOSAIC.

The Tent (§ 1).
The Curtains (§ 2).
The Interior and its Furnishing (§ 3).
The Court and its Furnishing (§ 4).
Historicity of the Account (§ 5).
Conclusion; Later History (§ 6).

"Tabernacle" is the term used in the English versions of the Biblical account of the exodus to name the structure serving in the wilderness wanderings as the dwelling-place of God, to which the people assembled. It represents several Hebrew phrases-- 'ohel mo'edh, 'ohel Ha'edhuth, mishkan, mishkan ha'edhuth, which, translated literally, mean "tent of meeting," "tent of testimony," but it is not to be taken as a place in which men met. In structure it was a temple in the form of a tent.

1. The Tent.

The tent itself consisted of a wooden structure of acacia boards covered with curtains. The boards were forty-eight in number, each one ten cubits long and one and a half wide. They were distributed in such away that there were twenty boards each on the north side and the south side, eight boards at the west or rear; the front, on the east, remained open. Inasmuch as the boards were closely joined to make a real wall, the length of the structure was thirty cubits, the width twelve cubits, and the height, corresponding to the length of the boards, ten cubits. The boards were connected with each other and with the floor by tenons and sockets. The sockets were of silver, and each board had two such sockets, i.e., probably holes into which the tenons were put. The rear wall had, besides the six boards that were like the others, two corner boards of a different kind, but it is not clear from Ex. xxvi. 24 wherein their peculiarity consisted. The boards were fastened together with five bars for each side that were thrust through rings of gold; the boards were covered with gold, as were the bars, which were made of acacia wood.

2. The Curtains.

This wooden structure became a "tabernacle" or "tent" only through the curtains spread over it (Ex. xxvi. 1 sqq., xxxvi. 8 sqq.) which were so essential to it that one of them, the byssus curtain, could be called the tabernacle (xxvi. 1, 6, etc.). The lowest covering, the so-called byssus curtain, consisted of ten pieces each twenty-eight cubits long and four wide, of twined byssus, therefore probably of white as the ground-color, interwoven with patterns of blue, purple, and scarlet cherubim. Five of these ten pieces were fastened together so as to make two large curtains twenty-eight cubits long and twenty cubits broad. Each of these curtains had fifty loops of purple yarn through which were thrust golden taches, fastening the whole into one covering. Over this curtain, to which the name "tabernacle" was given, there was spread for its protection a curtain of goats' hair, called "tent." It consisted of eleven pieces, each thirty cubits long and four wide, so connected as to make two curtains, one of five, the other of six of the smaller pieces. In the larger of these two the sixth piece was to be doubled in the forefront of the tabernacle. These were coupled together by the fifty loops on [Page 245]

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RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Table of the Nations TaE9n, Jean

TABORITES. See Huss, JOHN, HussITES, II., § § 3-7.

Taché, ta''she, Alexandre Antoine

TADMOR (TAMAR): A city named in the Bible only in I. Kings ix. 18 (keri) and II Chron. viii. 4, as built by Solomon and generally identified by geographers and historians with Palmyra (150 m. n.e. of Damascus). Practically the whole tendency of modern criticism, however, is to disconnect Solomon from any relationship with Tadmor (in both Biblical passages " Tamar " is doubtless right; the other places named there are in southern Palestine). Inherently, the probability is against any connection of Solomon with a place so far to the northeast of his kingdom. Its site was originally an oasis formed by springs or streams from the neighboring hills, and in the time of Pliny (Hist. nat., v. 24) it was a considerable town, which formed an independent state between the Roman and Parthian empires. In the second century it seems to have been beautified by the Emperor Hadrian, the name being changed to Hadrianopolis. Under Septimius Severus it became a Roman colony, and received the jus Italicum, but it was ruled by its own laws. The most interesting period in the history is the time of Odenatus and Zenobia. The Emperor Valerian being captured by the Persians, Odenatus, perhaps a man who had attained the position of prince of Palmyra, revenged the wrongs of the fallen emperor and vindicated the majesty of Rome. The services thus rendered to Rome were so great, that Odenatus was given the title of Augustus (264 A.D.). He enjoyed his dignity but a short time, being murdered only three years afterward. Zenobia, his widow, succeeded him as queen of the East, and ruled the country during a period of five years. In 272 the Emperor Aurelian turned his arms against her; and having defeated her in two pitched battles invested Palmyra. Zenobia attempted to escape, but was captured and taken to Rome to grace the triumph of Aurelian. Palmyra never recovered its former opulence. It eventually became the seat of a

bishop, but never attained importance. When the successors of Mohammed extended their conquests beyond the confines of Arabia, Palmyra became subject to the califs, and from that period seems to have fallen into decay. In 1173 it was visited by Benjamin of Tudela, who found there a considerable Jewish population, besides Mohammedans and Christians. It was again visited in 1751 by R. Wood, and since the beginning of the eighteenth century by many travelers. The inscriptions recovered at the place have exceptional interest and value.

TAFFI:T, JEAN: Dutch Reformer and preacher; b. at Tournai probably in 1528; d. at Amsterdam July 15, 1602. He came of a well to-do-family, but of his education and youth almost nothing is known. He first becomes known as secretary or librarian to Granvelie, bishop of Utrecht, but how he came to break with the Roman church is not known. . He may have studied under Calvin and Beza at Geneva before the founding of the university there. He was in Amsterdam at the end of 1557, where in the controversy between Gaspar van der Heyden and Adrian van Haemstede he took part against the latter. Thence he seems to have gone to Aachen and worked in the Walloon congregation, which sent him in 1559 to Worms, and from Aachen to Strasburg in 1561, and thence as preacher to Metz, where he stayed till 1565. For a short time he worked in Tournai, but went the same year to Antwerp, where he preached secretly, and his arrest was ordered on the ground that he was " a great heretic and might do much harm." But he avoided arrest, and when the prince of Orange sanctioned public preaching, Sept. 2, 1566, he became preacher to the Walloons in the "Round Temple." But Protestant worship was precluded by agreement, and Taffin went to Metz again, where in Apr., 1569, Charles IX. closed the church; then Taffin settled at Heidelberg as preacher for the Walloon church

I there. He attended the Synod of Emden iii 1571, and was deputed to convey a message to the next synod of the Reformed Church of France. In Heidelberg Taffm farmed a close and lasting friendship with the prince of Orange, by whom he was sent on a confidential mission to Germany in Dec., 1576. He also assisted in promoting the marriage of the prince to Charlotte of Bourbon. Taffin was associated with the prince as court chaplain, representing the

TERTULLIAN, ter-tul'i-an, QUINTUS SEPTIMIUS FLORENS.

I. Life.
II. Writings.
General Character ($ 1).
Chronology and Contents ($ 2).
III. Theology.
General Character ($ 1).
Specific Teachings ($ 2).
IV. Moral Principles.

I. Life:

II. Writings

These number thirty-seven, and several Latin tracts are lost (cf. ANF, iii. 12-13) as well as those written in Greek. Tertullian's writings cover the whole theological field of the time-- apologetics against paganism and Judaism, polemics, polity, discipline, and morals, or the whole reorganization of human life on a Christian basis; they give a picture of the religious life and thought of the time which is of the greatest interest to the church historian. Their general temper is austere, their purpose practical; they are full of life and freshness. In his endeavors to make the Latin language a vehicle for his somewhat tumultuous ideas, the author now and then becomes strained and obscure; but, as a rule, he is quick, precise, and pointed. He is always powerful and intrepid, commanding, not begging, the attention of the reader; with reference to earlier literature and customs he is a master of wit and sarcasm and is always original. He has been likened to a fresh mountain torrent, tumultuous, and making its own path.

The chronology of these writings is in part determined by the Montanistic views that are set forth in some of them, by the author's own allusions to this writing or that as ante-dating others (cf. Harnack, Litteratur, ii. 260-262), and by definite historic data (e.g., the reference to the death of Septimius Severus, Ad Scapulam, iv.). In his work against Marcion, which he calls his third composition on the Marcionite heresy, he gives its date as the fifteenth year of Severus' reign (Adv. Marcionem, i. 1, 15). The writings may be divided with reference to the two periods of Tertullian's Christian activity, the Catholic and the Montanist (cf. Harnack, ut sup., ii. 262 sqq.), or according to their subject-matter. The object of the former mode of division is to show, if possible, the change of views Tertullian's mind underwent. Following the latter mode, which is of a more practical interest, the writings fall into two groups: (1) apologetic and polemic, e.g., Apologeticus, De testimonio animae, Adv. Judaeos, Adv. Marcionem, Adv. Praxeam, Adv. Hermogenem, De praescriptione hereticorum, Scorpiace, to counteract the sting of Gnosticism, etc.; (2) practical and disciplinary, e.g., De monogamia, Ad uxorem, De virginibus velandis, De cultu feminarum, De patientia, De pudicitia, De oratione, Ad martyras, etc. Among the apologetic writings the Apologeticus, addressed to the Roman magistrates, is the most pungent defense of Christianity and the Christians ever written against the reproaches of the pagans, and one of the most magnificent legacies of the ancient Church, full of enthusiasm, courage, and vigor. It first clearly proclaims the principle of religious liberty as an in alienable right of man, and demands a fair trial for the Christians before they are condemned to death. Tertullian was the first to break the force of such charges as that the Christians sacrificed infants at the celebration of the Lord's Supper and committed incest; he pointed to the commission of such crimes in the pagan world, and then proved by the testimony of Pliny that Christians pledged themselves not to commit murder, adultery, or other crimes; he adduced also the inhumanity of pagan customs, such as feeding the flesh of gladiators to beasts. The gods have no existence, and thus there is no pagan religion against which Christians may offend. Christians do not engage in the foolish worship of the emperors; they do better, they pray for them. Christians can afford to be put to torture and to death, and the more they are cast down the more they grow; " the blood of Christians is seed " (chap. l.). In the De Praescriptione he develops as its fundamental idea that, in a dispute between the Church and a separating party, the whole burden of proof lies with the latter, as the Church, in possession of the unbroken tradition, is by its very existence a guaranty of its truth. The five books against Marcion, written 207 or 208, are the most comprehensive and elaborate of his polemical works, invaluable for the understanding of Gnosticism. Of the moral and ascetic treatises, the De patientia and De spectaculis are among the most interesting, and the De pudicitia and De virginibus velandis among the most characteristic.

III. Theology

Though thoroughly conversant with the Greek theology, Tertullian was independent of its metaphysical speculation. He had learned from the Greek apologies, and forms a direct contrast to Origen. Origen pushed his idealism in the direction of Gnostic spiritualism. Tertullian, the prince of realists and practical theologian, carried his realism to the verge of materialism. This is evident from his ascription to God of corporeity and his acceptance of the traducian theory of the origin of the soul. He despised Greek philosophy, and, far from looking at Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek thinkers whom he quotes as forerunners of Christ and the Gospel, he pronounces them the patriarchal forefathers of the heretics (De anima, iii.). He held up to scorn their inconsistency when he referred to the fact that Socrates in dying ordered a cock to be sacrificed to AEsculapius (De anima, i.). Tertullian always wrote under stress of a felt necessity. He was never so happy as when he had opponents like Marcion and Praxeas, and, however abstract the ideas may be which he treated, he was always moved by practical considerations to make his case clear and irresistible. It was partly this element which gave to his writings a formative influence upon the theology of the post-Nicene period in the West and has rendered them fresh reading to this day. He was a born disputant, moved by the noblest impulses known in the Church. It is true that during the third century no mention is made of his name by other authors. Lactantius at the opening of the fourth century is the first to do this, but Augustine treats him openly with respect. Cyprian, Tertullian's North African compatriot, though he nowhere mentions his name, was well read in his writings, as Cyprian's secretary told Jerome.

Tertullian's main doctrinal teachings are as follows: (1) The soul was not preexistent, as Plato affirmed, nor addicted to metempsychosis, as the Pythagoreans held. In each individual it is a new product, proceeding equally with the body from the parents, and not created later and associated with the body (De anima, xxvii.). It is, however, a distinct entity and a certain corporeity and as such it may be tormented in Hades (De anima, lviii.). (2) The soul's sinfulness is easily explained by its traducian origin (De anima, xxxix.). It is in bondage to Satan (whose works it renounces in baptism), but has seeds of good (De anima, xli.), and when awakened, it passes to health and at once calls upon God (Apol., xvii.) and is naturally Christian. It exists in all men alike; it is a culprit and yet an unconscious witness by its impulse to worship, its fear of demons, and its musings on death to the power, benignity, and judgment of God as revealed in the Christian's Scriptures (De testimonio, v.-vi.). (3) God, who made the world out of nothing through his Son, the Word, has corporeity though he is a spirit (De praescriptione, vii.; Adv. Praxeam, vii.). In the statement of the Trinity, Tertullian was a forerunner of the Nicene doctrine, approaching the subject from the standpoint of the Logos doctrine, though he did not fully state the immanent Trinity. In his treatise against Praxeas, who taught patripassianism in Rome, he used the words, " Trinity and economy, persons and substance." The Son is distinct from the Father, and the Spirit from both the Father and the Son (Adv. Praxeam, xxv.). "These three are one substance, not one person; and it is said, ` I and my Father are one' in respect not of the singularity of number but the unity of the substance." The very names "Father" and "Son" indicate the distinction of personality. The Father is one, the Son is one, and the Spirit is one (Adv. Praxeam, ix.). The question whether the Son was coeternal with the Father Tertullian does not set forth in full clearness; and though he did not fully state the doctrine of the immanence of the Trinity, he went a long distance in the way of approach to it (B. B. Warfield, in Princeton Theological Review, 1906, pp. 56, 159). (4) In soteriology Tertullian does not dogmatize, he prefers to keep silence at the mystery of the cross (De Patientia, iii.). The sufferings of Christ's life as well as of the crucifixion are efficacious to redemption. In the water of baptism, which (upon a partial quotation of John iii. 5) is made necessary (De baptismate, vi.), we are born again; we do not receive the Holy Spirit in the water, but are prepared for the Holy Spirit. We little fishes, after the example of the ichthys, " fish," Jesus Christ (having reference to the formula Jesus Christus, theou uios soter, the initials of which make up the Greek word for " fish "), are born in water (De baptismate, i.). In discussing whether sins committed subsequent to baptism may be forgiven, he calls baptism and penance " two planks " on which the sinner may be saved from shipwreck-- language which he gave to the Church (De penitentia, xii.). (5) With reference to the rule of faith, it may be said that Tertullian is constantly using this expression and by it meansnow the authoritative tradition handed down in the Church, now the Scriptures themselves, and perhaps also a definite doctrinal formula. While he nowhere gives a list of the books of Scripture, he divides them into two parts and calls them the instrumentum and testamentum (Adv. Marcionem, iv. 1). He distinguishes between the four Gospels and insists upon their apostolic origin as accrediting their authority (De praescriptione, xxxvi.; Adv. Marcionem, iv. 1-5); in trying to account for Marcion's treatment of the Lucan Gospel and the Pauline writings he sarcastically queries whether the "shipmaster from Pontus " (Marcion) had ever been guilty of taking on contraband goods or tampering with them after they were aboard (Adv. Marcionem, v. 1). The Scripture, the rule of faith, is for him fixed and authoritative (De corona, iii.-iv.). As opposed to the pagan writings they are divine (De testimonio animae, vi.). They contain all truth (De praescriptione, vii., xiv.) and from them the Church drinks (potat) her faith (Adv. Praxeam, xiii.). The prophets were older than the Greek philosophers and their authority is accredited by the fulfilment of their predictions (Apol., xix.-xx.). The Scriptures and the teachings of philosophy are incompatible. "What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?" he exclaims, "or the Academy with the Church?" (De praescriptione, vii.). Human philosophy is a work of demons (De anima, i.); the Scriptures contain the wisdom of heaven. The rule of faith, however, seems to be also applied by Tertullian to some distinct formula of doctrine, and he gives a succinct statement of the Christian faith under this term (De praescriptione, xiii.).

IV. Moral Principles:

Tertullian was a determined advocate of strict discipline and an austere code of practise, one of the leading representatives of the Puritanic element in the early Church. These views led him to adopt Montanism with its ascetic rigor and its belief in chiliasm and the continuance of the prophetic gifts. In his writings on public amusements, the veiling of virgins, the conduct of women, and the like, he gives expression to these views. On the principle that we should not look at or listen to what we have no right to practise, and that polluted things, seen and touched, pollute (De spectaculis, viii., xvii.), he declared a Christian should abstain from the theater and the amphitheater. There pagan religious rites were applied and the names of pagan divinities invoked; there the precepts of modesty, purity, and humanity were ignored or set aside, and there no place was offered to the onlookers for the cultivation of the Christian graces. Women should put aside gold and precious stones as ornaments (De cultu, v.-vi.), and virgins should conform to the law of St. Paul for women and keep themselves strictly veiled (De virginibus velandis). He praised the unmarried state as the highest (De monogamia, xvii.; Ad uxorem, i. 3), called upon Christians not to allow themselves to be excelled in the virtue of celibacy by vestal virgins and Egyptian priests, and he pronounced second marriage a species of adultery (De exhortations castitatis, ix.). If Tertullian went to an unhealthy extreme in his counsels of asceticism, he is easily forgiven when one recalls his own moral vigor and his great services as an ingenuous and intrepid defender of the Christian religion, which with him, as later with Luther, was first and chiefly an experience of his own heart. On account of his schism with the Church, he, like the great Alexandrian Father, Origen, has failed to receive the honor of canonization.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Editions of the works of Tertullian are numerous. The editio princeps by Beatus Rhenanus appeared at Basel, 1521, 3d ed., 1539. Others are by M. Mesnarts, Paris, 1545; S. Gelenius, Basel, 1550; R. L. de la Barre, Paris, 1580; J. von Wouwer, Frankfort, 1603 and 1612; J. Pamelius, Paris, 1608 and elsewhere later; J. A. Semler, Halle, 1770-76; E. F. Leopold, Leipsic, 1839-41; in MPL, vols. i.-ii.; one of the best is by F. Oehler, 3 vols., Leipsic, 1853-54; another is in the CSEL, Reifferscheid and G. Wissowa, Vienna, 1890 sqq., continued by A. Kroymann in new ed., 1906 sqq., who is also issuing editions of separate works, Tubingen, 1907 sqq.; cf. the latter's Quaestiones Tertullianae, Innsbruck, 1898. Eng. transl. of the " Works " in ANF, vols. iii.-iv. The editions of separate works are too numerous to give here.

Works dealing more or less closely with the life of Tertullian are: Grotemeyer, Ueber Tertullien's Leben und Schriften, Kempen, 1863-65; J. Kaye, The Ecclesiastical History of the Second and Third Centuries, new ed., Cambridge, 1889; G. Boissier, La Fin du paganisme, i. 259 sqq., Paris, 1891; H. Leclercq, L'Afrique chretienne, vol. i., Paris, 1904; W. Walker, Greatest Men of the Christian Church, Chicago, 1908; DCB, iv. 818-884 (by Pusey; elaborate); Schaff, Christian Church, ii. 818-833 et passim; Neander, Christian Church, vol. i., passim; and in general the works on the church history and history of doctrine of the period.

On his writings and doctrine consult: J. A. Nosselt, De vera aetate ac doctrina scriptorum Tertulliani, Halle, 1768; W. Munscher, Darstellung der moralischen Ideen des Clemens von Alexandrien und des Tertullian, Helmstedt, 1796; F. C. H. Schwegler, Der Montanismus, Tubingen, 1841; K. Hesselberg, Tertullian's Lehre entwickelt aus seinen Schriften, vol. 1, Leben und Schriften, Dorpat, 1848; J. A. W. Neander, Antignosticus oder Geist des Tertullian und Einleitung in dessen Schriften, Berlin, 2d ed., 1849; G. Uhlhorn, Fundamenta chronologiae Tertullianae, Gottingen, 1852; A. Cres, Les Idees de Tertullien sur la tradition ecclesiastique, Strasburg, 1855; P. Daures, Etude sur l'apologetique de Tertullien, Strasburg, 1855; F. A. Burekhardt, Die Seelenlehre des Tertullian, Budissin, 1857; C. Viala, Tertullien considere comme apologiste, Strasburg, 1857; H. Mauehon, Exposition critique des opinions de Tertullien sur l'origine et la nature du peche, Strasburg, 1559; V. Bordes, Expose critique des opinions de Tertullien sur la redemption, Strasburg, 1860; P. Gottwald, De montanismo Tertulliani, Breslau, 1862; J. Donaldson, Critical Hist. of Christian Literature and Doctrine, 3 vols., London, 1864-66; J. Pelet, Essai sur l'Apologeticus de Tertullien, Strasburg, 1868; C. A. H. Kellner, in TQ, lii (1870), 547-556, liii (1871), 585-609; K. Ronsch, Das neue Testament Tertullians aus den Schriften des Letzteren reconstruirt, Leipsic, 1871; C. E. Treppel, Tertullien, 2d ed., Paris, 1872; F. Boehringer, Die Kirche Christi, 2 vols., 2d ed., Zurich, 1873; K. Leimbaeh, Beitrage zur Abendmahlslehre Tertullians, Gotha, 1874; G. Caueanus, Tertullien et le montanisme, Geneve, 1876; G. N. Bonwetsch, Die Schriften Tertullians, Bonn, 1878; A. Harnack, in ZKG, ii (1878), 572-583; idem, Die griechische Uebersetzung des Apologeticus Tertullians, Leipsic, 1892; idem, Litteratur, i. 667-687, ii. 2 passim; F. Oehninger, Tertullian und seine Auferstehungslehre, Augsburg, 1878; J. de Soyres, Montanism and the Primitive Church, London, 1878: F. Nielsen, Tertullian's Ethik, Copenhagen, 1879; G. R. Hauschild, Die rationale Psychologie und Erkenntnistheorie Tertullians, Frankfort, 1880; G. N. Bonwetsch, Die Geschickte des Montanismus, Erlangen, 1881; W. Belck, Geschichte des Montanismus, Leipsic, 1883; G. Ludwig, Tertullian's Ethik, Leipsic, 1885; L. Atzberger, Geschichte der christlichen Eschatologie der vornicanischen Zeit, Freiburg, 1886; L. Lehanneur, Le Traite de Tertullien contre les Valentiniens, Caen, 1886; M. Klusamann, Curarum Tertullianearum particulae, Halls, 1887; T. Zahn, Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons, i. 51 sqq., 105 sqq., 585 sqq., ii. 449 sqq., Leipsic, 1889-92; P. Corssen, [Page 308]

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Christ's " sympathetic repentance " in his work is a " substitution of humanity plus Christ for humanity minus Christ "; C. C. Everett, The Gospel of Paul (ib. 1893) which represents the curse on sin as removed on account of Paul's view of Christ's death on the cross outside of the walls of the Holy City; and E. D. Burton and others, The Biblical Idea of the Atonement (Chicago, 1909), where the atonement is for the first time brought into line with the social consciousness of sin and salvation.

For contributions on the Spirit of God see SPIRIT of GOD; on conversion and religious experience, see CONVERSION, also Supplement to RELIGION, PSYCHOLOGY OF.

In Apologetics (q.v.) the most notable contributions have been by Henry B. Smith (q.v.), The Re-

lations of Faith and Philosophy (New York, 1877); Horace Bushnell, Nature and the Supernatural (ib., 1858); John Fiske, The Idea of God (Boston, 1886), and Through Nature to God (ib. 1899); Apologetics. w. A. Brown, The Essence of Christianity (New York, 1902); G. W. Knox (q.v.), The Direct and Fundamental Proof of the Christian Religion. (ib. 1903); G. B. Foster, The Finality of the Christian Religion (Chicago, 1906); and G. A. Gordon, Religion anal Miracle (Boston, 1909).

The foregoing presentation has not aimed to be exhaustive, some subjects having been omitted and only few books on each subject named, but the main lines have been indicated and leading works sug-

Theological Seminaries

sent article every possible effort has been made to secure completeness, and to that end a letter was sent by the editors to some person of authority in each theological seminary of every religious communion in the United States. In the interests of strict accuracy it has been deemed best to give accounts of those institutions only from which replies were received. Accordingly, non-mention of a seminary in the article implies that the editors received no response to their request for information.]

I. Baptist.-1. Divinity School of the University of Chicago: This institution, formerly known as " The Baptist Union Theological Seminary," was

founded by " The Baptist Theological Union, located at Chicago," when, in 1865, w. w. Cook of Whitehall, N. Y., and Lawrence Barnes and Mial Davis of Burlington, Vt., subscribed an annual joint sum of $1,500 for five years, thus making possible the organization of the work of instruction. Some preliminary work was done in 1865-66, when a few students received training from Dr. Nathaniel Colver and Rev. J. C. C. Clark, but organized teaching was not actually begun until 1867, when Dr. George w. Northrop, professor of church history in Rochester Theological Seminary, was made professor of systematic theology, and Dr. John B. Jackson, pastor in Albion, ~. Y., was made pro-

THOMAS AQUINAS.

Life (§ 1).
Personality and Character (§ 2).
Writings (§ 3).
The Summa, part i.; Theology (§ 4).
The Summa, part ii.; Ethics (§ 5).
The Summa, part iii.; Christ (§ 6).
The Sacraments (§ 7).
Estimation (§ 8).

1. Life.

The birth-year of Thomas Aquinas is commonly given as 1227, but he was probably born early in 1225 at his father's castle of Roccasecca (75 m. e.s.e. of Rome) in Neapolitan territory. He died at the monastery of Fossanova, one mile from Sonnino (64 m. s.e. of Rome), Mar. 7, 1274. His father was Count Landulf of an old high-born south Italian family, and his mother was Countess Theodora of Theate, of noble Norman descent. In his fifth year he was sent for his early education to the monastery of Monte Cassino, where his father's brother Sinibald was abbot. Later he studied in Naples. Probably in 1243 he determined to enter the Dominican order; but on the way to Rome he was seized by his brothers and brought back to his parents at the castle of S. Giovanni, where he was held a captive for a year or two and besieged with prayers, threats, and even sensual temptation to make him relinquish his purpose. Finally the family yielded and the order sent Thomas to Cologne to study under Albertus Magnus (q.v.), where he arrived probably toward the end of 1244. He accompanied Albertus to Paris in 1245, remained there with his teacher, continuing his studies for three years, and followed Albertus at the latter's return to Cologne in 1248. For several years longer he remained with the famous philosopher of scholasticism, presumably teaching. This long association of Thomas with the great polyhistor was the most important influence in his development; it made him a comprehensive scholar and won him permanently for the Aristotelian method. In 1252 probably Thomas went to Paris for the master's degree, which he found some difficulty in attaining owing to attacks, at that time, on the mendicant orders. Ultimately, however, he received the degree and entered ceremoniously upon his office of teaching in 1257; he taught in Paris for several years and there wrote certain of his works and began others. In 1259 he was present at an important chapter of his order at Valenciennes. At the solicitation of Pope Urban IV. (therefore not before the latter part of 1261), he took up his residence in Rome. In 1269-71 he was again active in Paris. In 1272 the provincial chapter at Florence empowered him to found a new studium generale at such place as he should choose, and he selected Naples. Early in 1274 the pope directed him to attend the Council of Lyons and he undertook the journey, although he was far from well. On the way he stopped at the castle of a niece and there became seriously ill. He wished to end his days in a monastery and not being able to reach a house of the Dominicans he was carried to the Cistercian Fossanova. There, first, after his death, his remains were preserved.

2. Personality and Character.

Thomas made a remarkable impression on all who knew him, as represented in contemporary biographies. He was placed on a level with Paul and Augustine, receiving the title doctor angelicus. In 1319 the investigation preliminary to canonization was begun and on July 18, 1323, he was pronounced a saint by John XXII. at Avignon. Thomas is described as of large stature, corpulent, and dark-complexioned; he had a large head and was somewhat bald in front. His manners and bearing accorded with his noble birth; he was refined, affable, and lovable. In argument he maintained self-control and won his opponents by his superior personality and great learning. His tastes were simple and his requirements few. His associates were specially impressed by his power of memory; but the passion of his soul was the search for the truth involving the inner struggle for the knowledge of God. Absorbed in thought he often forgot his surroundings. His admirers honestly believed him to be inspired, and it was reported that Peter, Paul, and Christ instructed him in visions. What he attained by such strenuous absorption he knew how to express for others systematically, with remarkable clearness and simplicity. In his writings he does not, like Duns, make the reader his associate in the search for truth, but he teaches it authoritatively. Thomas became the teacher of his church and has always remained such. The consciousness of the insufficiency of his works in view of the revelation which he believed to have received was often to him an oppressive burden.

3. Writings

The writings of Thomas may be classified as, (1) exegetical, homiletical, and liturgical; (2) dogmatic, apologetic, and ethical; and (3) philosophical. Among the genuine works of the first class were: Commentaries on Job (1261-65); on Psalms i.-li., according to some a reportatum, or report of oral deliverances furnished by his companion Raynaldus; on Isaiah; the Catena aurea (1475, and often; Eng. transl., ed. by J. H. Newman, 4 vols., Oxford, 1841-45), which is a running commentary on the four Gospels, constructed on numerous citations from the Fathers; probably a Commentary on Canticles, and on Jeremiah; and wholly or partly reportata, on John, on Matthew, and on the epistles of Paul, including, according to one authority, Hebrews i.-x. Thomas prepared for Urban IV., Officium de corpora Christi (1264); and the following works may be either genuine or reportata: Expositio angelicas salutationis; Tractatus de decem proeceptis; Orationis dominicoe expositio; Sermones pro dominicis diebus et pro sanctorum solemnitatibus; and L. Pignon knows Sermones de angelis, and Sermones de quadragesima. Of his sermons only manipulated copies are extant. In the second division were: In quatuor sententiarum libros, of his first Paris sojourn; Questiones disputatoe, written at Paris and Rome; Quoestiones quodlibetales duodecim; Summa catholicoe fidei contra gentiles (1261-64); and the Summa theologioe. To the dogmatic works belong also certain commentaries, as follows: Expositio in librum beati Dionysii de divinis nominibus; Expositiones primoe et secundoe decretalis; In Boethii libros de hebdomadibus; and Proeclaroe quoestiones super librum Boethii de trinitate. A large number of opuscula also belonged to this group. Of philosophical writings there are calatogued thirteen commentaries on Aristotle, besides numerous philosophical opuscula of which fourteen are classed as genuine.

4. The Summa, Part i.; Theology.

The greatest work of Thomas was the Summa and it is the fullest presentation of his views. He worked on it from the time of Clement IV. (after 1265) until the end of his life. When he died he had reached question ninety of part iii., on the subject of penance. What was lacking was afterward added from the fourth book of his commentary on the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard as a supplementum, which is not found in manuscripts of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The Summa was translated into Greek (apparently by Maximus Planudes, c. 1327), into Armenian, into many European tongues, and even into Chinese. It consists of three parts. Part i. treats of God, who is the "first cause, himself uncaused" (primum movens immobile) and as such existent only in act (actu), that is pure actuality without potentiality and, therefore, without corporeality. His essence is actus purus et perfectos. This follows from the fivefold proof for the existence of God; namely, there must be a first mover, unmoved, a first cause in the chain of causes, an absolutely necessary being, an absolutely perfect being, and a rational designer. In this connection the thoughts of the unity, infinity, unchangeableness, and goodness of the highest being are deduced. The spiritual being of God is further defined as thinking and willing. His knowledge is absolutely perfect since he knows himself and all things as appointed by him. Since every knowing being strives after the thing known as end, will is implied in knowing. Inasmuch as God knows himself as the perfect good, he wills himself as end. But in that everything is willed by God, everything is brought by the divine will to himself in the relation of means to end. Therein God wills good to every being which exists, that is he loves it; and, therefore, love is the fundamental relation of God to the world. If the divine love be thought of simply as act of will, it exists for every creature in like measure: but if the good assured by love to the individual be thought of, it exists for different beings in various degrees. In so far as the loving God gives to every being what it needs in relation to the whole, he is just: in so far as he thereby does away with misery, he is merciful. In every work of God both justice and mercy are united and, indeed, his justice always presupposes his mercy, since he owes no one anything and gives more bountifully than is due. As God rules in the world, the "plan of the order of things" preexists in him; i.e., his providence and the exercise of it in his government are what condition as cause everything which comes to pass in the world. Hence follows predestination: from eternity some are destined to eternal life, while as concerns others "he permits some to fall short of that end." Reprobation, however, is more than mere foreknowledge; it is the "will of permitting anyone to fall into sin and incur the penalty of condemnation for sin." The effect of predestination is grace. Since God is the first cause of everything, he is the cause of even the free acts of men through predestination. Determinism is deeply grounded in the system of Thomas; things with their source of becoming in God are ordered from eternity as means for the realization of his end in himself. On moral grounds Thomas advocates freedom energetically; but, with his premises, he can have in mind only the psychological form of self-motivation. Nothing in the world is accidental or free, although it may appear so in reference to the proximate cause. From this point of view miracles become necessary in themselves and are to be considered merely as inexplicable to man. From the point of view of the first cause all is unchangeable; although from the limited point of view of the secondary cause miracles may be spoken of. In his doctrine of the Trinity Thomas starts from the Augustinian system. Since God has only the functions of thinking and willing, only two processiones can be asserted from the Father. But these establish definite relations of the persons of the Trinity one to another. The relations must be conceived as real and not as merely ideal; for, as with creatures relations arise through certain accidents, since in God there is no accident but all is substance, it follows that "the relation really existing in God is the same as the essence according to the thing. "From another side, however, the relations as real must be really distinguished one from another. Therefore, three persons are to be affirmed in God. Man stands opposite to God; he consists of soul and body. The "intellectual soul" consists of intellect and will. Furthermore the soul is the absolutely indivisible form of man; it is immaterial substance, but not one and the same in all men (as the Averrhoists assumed). The soul's power of knowing has two sides; a passive (the intellectus possibilis) and an active (the intellectus agens). It is the capacity to form concepts and to abstract the mind's images (species) from the objects perceived by sense. But since what the intellect abstracts from individual things is a universal, the mind knows the universal primarily and directly, and knows the singular only indirectly by virtue of a certain reflexio (cf. SCHOLASTICISM). As certain principles are immanent in the mind for its speculative activity, so also a "special disposition of works;" or the synderesis (rudiment of conscience), is inborn in the "practical reason," affording the idea of the moral law of nature, so important in medieval ethics.

5. The Summa, Part ii.; Ethics

The first part of the Summa is summed up in the thought that God governs the world as the "universal first cause." God sways the intellect in that he gives the power to know and impresses the species intelligibiles on the mind, and he sways the will in that he holds the good before it as aim, and creates the virtus volendi. "To will is nothing else than a certain inclination toward the object of the volition which is the universal good." God works all in all; but so that things also themselves exert their proper efficiency. Here the Areopagitic ideas of the graduated effects of created things play their part in Thomas's thought. The second part of the Summa (two parts, prima secundae and secundae seconda) follows this complex of ideas. Its theme is man's striving, after the highest end, which is the blessedness of the visio beata. Here Thomas develops his system of ethics, which has its root in Aristotle. In a chain of acts of will man strives for the highest end. They are free acts in so far as man has in himself the knowledge of their end and therein the principle of action. In that the will wills the end, it wills also the appropriate means, chooses freely and completes the consensus. Whether the act be good or evil depends on the end. The "human reason" pronounces judgment concerning the character of the end, it is, therefore, the law for action. Human acts, however, are meritorious in so far as they promote the purpose of God and his honor. By repeating a good action man acquires a moral habit or a quality which enables him to do the good gladly and easily. This is true, however, only of the intellectual and moral virtues, which Thomas treats after the manner of Aristotle; the theological virtues are imparted by God to man as a "disposition," from which the acts here proceed, but while they strengthen, they do not form it. The "disposition" of evil is the opposite alternative. An act becomes evil through deviation from the reason and the divine moral law. Therefore, sin involves two factors: its substance or matter is lust; in form, however, it is deviation from the divine law. Sin has its origin in the will, which decides, against the reason, for a "changeable good." Since, however, the will also moves the other powers of man, sin has its seat in these too. By choosing such a lower good as end, the will is misled by self-love, so that this works as cause in every sin. God is not the cause of sin, since, on the contrary, he draws all things to himself. But from another side God is the cause of all things, so he is efficacious also in sin as actio but not as ens. The devil is not directly the cause of sin, but he incites by working on the imagination and the sensuous impulse of man, as men or things may also do. Sin is original. Adam's first sin passes upon himself and all the succeeding race; because he is the head of the human race and "by virtue of procreation human nature is transmitted and along with nature its infection." The powers of generation are, therefore, designated especially as "infected." The thought is involved here by the fact that Thomas, like the other scholastics, held to creationism, therefore taught that the souls are created by God. Two things according to Thomas constituted man's righteousness in paradise-- the justitia originalis or the harmony of all man's powers before they were blighted by desire, and the possession of the gratis gratum faciens (the continuous indwelling power of good). Both are lost through original sin, which in form is the "loss of original righteousness." The consequence of this loss is the disorder and maiming of man's nature, which shows itself in "ignorance; malice, moral weakness, and especially in concupiscentia, which is the material principle of original sin." The course of thought here is as follows: when the first man transgressed the order of his nature appointed by nature and grace, he, and with him the human race, lost this order. This negative state is the essence of original sin. From it follow an impairment and perversion of human nature in which thenceforth lower aims rule contrary to nature and release the lower element in man. Since sin is contrary to the divine order, it is guilt and subject to punishment. Guilt and punishment correspond to each other; and since the "apostasy from the invariable good which is infinite," fulfilled by man, is unending, it merits everlasting punishment.

But God works even in sinners to draw them to the end by "instructing through the law and aiding by grace." The law is the "precept of the practical reason." As the moral law of nature, it is the participation of the reason in the all-determining "eternal reason." But since man falls short in his appropriation of this law of reason, there is need of a "divine law." And since the law applies to many complicated relations, the practicae dispositiones of the human law must be laid down. The divine law consists of an old and a new. In so far as the old divine law contains the moral law of nature it is universally valid; what there is in it, however, beyond this is valid only for the Jews. The new law is "primarily grace itself " and so a "law given within," "a gift superadded to nature by grace," but not a "written law." In this sense, as sacramental grace, the new law justifies. It contains, however, an "ordering" of external and internal conduct, and so regarded is, as a matter of course, identical with both the old law and the law of nature. The consilia (see CONSILIA EVANGELICA) show how one may attain the end "better and more expediently" by full renunciation of worldly goods. Since man is sinner and creature, he needs grace to reach the final end. The "first cause" alone is able to reclaim him to the "final end." This is true after the fall, although it was needful before. Grace is, on one side, "the free act of God," and, on the other side, the effect of this act, the gratia infusa or gratia creata, a habitus infusus which is instilled into the "essence of the soul," "a certain gift of disposition, something supernatural proceeding from God into man." Grace is a supernatural ethical character created in man by God, which comprises in itself all good, both faith and love. Justification by grace comprises four elements: "the infusion of grace, the influencing of free will toward God through faith, the influencing of free will respecting sin, and the remission of sins." It is a "transmutation of the human soul," and takes place "instantaneously." A creative act of God enters, which, however, executes itself as a spiritual motive in a psychological form corresponding to the nature of man. Semipelagian tendencies are far removed from Thomas. In that man is created anew he believes and loves, and now sin is forgiven. Then begins good conduct; grace is the "beginning of meritorious works." Thomas conceives of merit in the Augustinian sense: God gives the reward for that toward which he himself gives the power. Man can never of himself deserve the prima gratis, nor meritum de congruo (by natural ability; cf. R. Seeberg, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, ii. 105-106, Leipsic, 1898). After thus stating the principles of morality, in the secunda secundae Thomas comes to a minute exposition of his ethics according to the scheme of the virtues. The conceptions of faith and love are of much significance in the complete system of Thomas. Man strives toward the highest good with the will or through love. But since the end must first be "apprehended in the intellect," knowledge of the end to be loved must precede love; "because the will can not strive after God in perfect love unless the intellect have true faith toward him." Inasmuch as this truth which is to be known is practical it first incites the will, which then brings the reason to "assent." But since, furthermore, the good in question is transcendent and inaccessible to man by himself, it requires the infusion of a supernatural "capacity " or "disposition" to make man capable of faith as well as love. Accordingly the object of both faith and love is God, involving also the entire complex of truths and commandments which God reveals, in so far as they in fact relate to God and lead to him. Thus faith becomes recognition of the teachings and precepts of the Scriptures and the Church ("the first subjection of man to God is by faith "). The object of faith, however, is by its nature object of love; therefore faith comes to completion only in love ("by love is the act of faith accomplished and formed").

6. The Summa, Part iii.; Christ

The way which leads to God is Christ: and Christ is the theme of part iii. It can not be asserted that the incarnation was absolutely necessary, "since God in his omnipotent power could have repaired human nature in many other ways ": but it was the most suitable way both for the purpose of instruction and of satisfaction. The Unio between the Logos and the human nature is a "relation" between the divine and the human nature which comes about by both natures being brought together in the one person of the Logos. An incarnation can be spoken of only in the sense that the human nature began to be in the eternal hypostasis of the divine nature. So Christ is unum since his human nature lacks the hypostasis. The person of the Logos, accordingly, has assumed the impersonal human nature, and in such way that the assumption of the soul became the means for the assumption of the body. This union with the human soul is the gratia unionis which leads to the impartation of the gratia habitualis from the Logos to the human nature. Thereby all human potentialities are made perfect in Jesus. Besides the perfections given by the vision of God, which Jesus enjoyed from the beginning, he receives all others by the gratia habitualis. In so far, however, as it is the limited human nature which receives these perfections, they are finite. This holds both of the knowledge and the will of Christ. The Logos impresses the species intelligibiles of all created things on the soul, but the intellectus agens transforms them gradually into the impressions of sense. On another side the soul of Christ works miracles only as instrument of the Logos, since omnipotence in no way appertains to this human soul in itself. Furthermore, Christ's human nature partook of imperfections, on the one side to make his true humanity evident, on another side because he would bear the general consequences of sin for humanity. Christ experienced suffering, but blessedness reigned in his soul, which, however, did not extend to his body. Concerning redemption, Thomas teaches that Christ is to be regarded as redeemer after his human nature but in such way that the human nature produces divine effects as organ of divinity. The one side of the work of redemption consists herein, that Christ as head of humanity imparts ordo, perfectio, and virtus to his members. He is the teacher and example of humanity; his whole life and suffering as well as his work after he is exalted serve this end. The love wrought hereby in men effects, according to Luke vii. 47, the forgiveness of sins.

This is the first course of thought. Then follows a second complex of thoughts which has the idea of satisfaction as its center. To be sure, God as the highest being could forgive sins without satisfaction; but because his justice and mercy could be best revealed through satisfaction he chose this way. As little, however, as satisfaction is necessary in itself, so little does it offer an equivalent, in a correct sense, for guilt; it is rather a "superabundant satisfaction," since on account of the divine subject in Christ in a certain sense his suffering and activity are infinite. With this thought the strict logical deduction of Anselm's theory is given up. Christ's suffering bore personal character in that it proceeded "out of love and obedience." It was an offering brought to God, which as personal act had the character of merit. Thereby Christ "merited" salvation for men. As Christ, exalted, still influences men, so does he still work in their behalf continually in heaven through the intercession (interpellatio). In this way Christ as head of humanity effects the forgiveness of their sins, their reconciliation with God, their immunity from punishment, deliverance from the devil, and the opening of heaven's gate. But inasmuch as all these benefits are already offered through the inner operation of the love of Christ, Thomas has combined the theories of Anselm and Abelard by joining the one to the other.

7. The Sacraments.

The doctrine of the sacraments follows the Christology; for the sacraments "have efficacy from the incarnate Word himself." The sacraments are signs, which, however, not only signify sanctification but also effect it. That they bring spiritual gifts in sensuous form, moreover, is inevitable because of the sensuous nature of man. The res sensibiles are the matter, the words of institution the form of the sacraments. Contrary to the Franciscan view that the sacraments are mere symbols whose efficacy God accompanies with a directly following creative act in the soul, Thomas holds it not unfit to say with Hugo of St. Victor that "a sacrament contains grace," or to teach of the sacraments that they "cause grace." The difficulty of a sensuous thing producing a creative effect, Thomas attempts to remove by a distinction between the causa principalis et instrumentalis. God as the principal cause works through the sensuous thing as the means ordained by him for his end. "Just as instrumental power is acquired by the instrument from this, that it is moved by the principal agent, so also the sacrament obtains spiritual power from the benediction of Christ and the application of the minister to the use of the sacrament. There is spiritual power in the sacraments in so far as they have been ordained by God for a spiritual effect." And this spiritual power remains in the sensuous thing until it has attained its purpose. At the same time Thomas distinguished the gratia sacramentalis from the gratia virtutum et donorum, in that the former in general perfects the essence and the powers of the soul, and the latter in particular brings to pass necessary spiritual effects for the Christian life. Later this distinction was ignored. In a single statement the effect of the sacraments is to infuse justifying grace into men. What Christ effects is achieved through the sacraments. Christ's humanity was the instrument for the operation of his divinity; the sacraments are the instruments through which this operation of Christ's humanity passes over to men. Christ's humanity served his divinity as instrumentum conjunctum, like the hand: the sacraments are instrumenta separata, like a staff; the former can use the latter, as the hand can use a staff. For a more detailed exposition cf. Seeberg, ut sup., ii. 112 sqq. Of Thomas' eschatology, according to the commentary on the "Sentences," only a brief account can here be given. Everlasting blessedness consists for Thomas in the vision of God: and this vision consists not in an abstraction or in a mental image supernaturally produced, but the divine substance itself is beheld, and in such manner that God himself becomes immediately the form of the beholding, intellect; that is, God is the object of the vision and at the same time causes the vision. The perfection of the blessed also demands that the body be restored to the soul as something to be made perfect by it. Since blessedness consist in operatio, it is made more perfect in that the soul has a definite operatio with the body, although the peculiar act of blessedness (i.e., the vision of God) has nothing to do with the body.

8. Estimation.

For two gifts before all others is Thomas to be praised; namely, his great talent for systematizing and his power of simple and lucid exposition. To be sure the work of preceding generations, especially of Alexander of Hales, had lightened his task as concerns the selection and ordering of the material; [Page 427]

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Timothy Tischendorf THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG there after Nero's persecution. Domitian ban ished John to Patmos, and during John's absence Timothy openly rebuked the excesses of the Ephe sians at a heathen feast, was stoned by the mob, died on the third day (Jan. 22, under Nerva, when Peregrines was proconsul of Asia), and was bur ied on the hill " where now stands the holy church of his martyrdom." After his death John returned to Ephesus and filled the bishopric till the time of Trojan. Usener, the first editor of these Acts, dated them before 356 and, probably wrongly, thought that they were based on a veritable history of the Ephesian church. In the time when the traditions of both John and Timothy in Ephesus were current, an Ephesian may well have tried to utilize both traditions to exalt the greatness of his city. The definite data are suspicious because the pro consuls of Asia named are not known from any other source; the author of the Acts introduced them probably imitating Luke, as he did in his prologue. Actual knowledge of Timothy is not preserved except in the New Testament.,, (A. Jiil.lcai;x.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The chief sources are of course the Pauline epistles. For the Acta Timothei consult: R. A. Lipsius, Die Apokryphen, Apostelgeschichten, and Apostellegenden, ii. 2, pp. 372-400, Brunswick, 1884; idem, Acta Apostolorum apocrypha, vol, i., Leipsic, 1891; and cf. the ed. by H. Usener, Bonn, 1877. The principal discussions are to be found in the commentaries on the Pauline epistles, particularly the pastoral epistles; in the works on the life of Paul; and those on the history of the Apostolic Age, e.g., A. C. MeGiffert, 1897. Consult further: M. Sorof, Die Entstehung der Apostelgeschichte, Berlin, 1890; F. J. A. Hort, Judaistie Christianity, London, 1894; idem, The Christian Ecclesia, ib. 1897; E. Kautzaeh, Die Apokryphen and PseudePigraphev, des N. Ts., pp. 46, 48, 102-103, lOfl107, 110-111. Tiibingen, 1900; w. Wrede, Das litterarische Ratsel des Hebraerbriefs, Gottingen, 1908; O. Pfieiderer, Das Urchristeuthum, 2d ed., Berlin, 1902, Eng. transl., Primitive Christianity, 2 vols., New York, 1908-09; DB, iv. 767-768; EB, iv. 5074-79.

TIMOTHY, EPISTLES T0. See Paul, IL, 5; and TIMOTHY.

TINDAL, MATTHEW: English deist; b. at Beer Ferrers (5 m. n. of Plymouth), England, probably about 1653; d. in London Aug. 16, 1733. He studied at Lincoln and Exeter Colleges, Oxford (B.A., 1676; B.C.L., 1679; D.C.L., 1685; and law fellow at All Souls', 1678). Under James II. he joined the Roman Catholic Church, but returned to the Church of England, 1688. He was admitted as an advocate at Doctor's Commons, 1685. His principal work, Christianity as Old as the Creation, or the Gospel a Republication of the Lam of Nature (vol. i., London, 1730), marks the culminating point of the deist controversy. The second volume of this work was withheld by Bishop Gibson, to whom the author had intrusted the manuscript. (For a discussion of the work see DElsnz, I, § 6.) Conybeare, James Foster, Leland, and others attacked Tindal's work; and it was to it, more than to any other, that Bishop Butler's Analogy was meant to be a reply. Tindal's other works were The Rights of the Christian Church Asserted (2d ed., 1706), an attack upon High-church assumptions; A Defence of the Rights of the Christian Church, in Two Parts (1709); and some essays and pamphlets.

B.T.R7.IOGFEAPHY: E. G., Memoirs of the Life and Writings of :;.'atthew Tindall, London, 1733; The Religious, Rational

and Moral Conduct of Matthew Tindal, ib. 1735· J. Hunt, Hzat. of Religious Thought in England, ii. 43182, ib. 1871; L. Stephen, Hist. of English Thought in the 18th Century, i.134-163, New York, 1881; DNB, lvi. 40305. The controversial literature called out by his works is well sumniarized in the British Museum Catalogue under his name.

TINGLEY, KATHERINE: Theosophist; b. at Newburyport, Mass., July 6, 1852. She was educated privately, and, becoming interested in theosophy, made in its interest two tours of the world in 1896-97 and 1904. In 1897 she established the International Brotherhood League, and among the many homes and educational institutions founded by her are the School of Antiquity and the Raja Yoga Academy at Point Loma and San Diego. Since 1898 she has been the official head of the Universal Brotherhood and Theosophical Society throughout the world, as well as the " outer head " of the Inner School of Theosophy (see TAE080FHY). Besides editing the Century Path, the organ of her branch of the theosophical society, she has written Mysteries of the Heart Doctrine (2d ed., Point Loma, Cal., 1903) and Pith and Marrow of Some Sacred Writings (1905).

TIPHSAH, tif'sa: 1. A proper name found in I Kings iv. 24 (Heb. text, v. 4), indicating with Gaza (A. Y., " Azzah ") the boundaries of the district (properly the Persian province) called in certain Assyrian documents and in Persian times after Darius I. " Beyond the River " (Heb. `ether hannahar; Ezra viii. 36; Neh. ii. 7, 9, iii. 7; I Kings v. 4). As Gaza evidently marks the southwest limit, Tiphsah is to be sought in the northeast and (cf. 1 Kings iv. 21 w. 1]; II Chron. ix. 26) on the Euphrates. It was doubtless the classical Thapsacus (Xenophon, Anabasis, L, iv. 11; Arrian, Anabasis, ii. 13, iii. 7; Strabo, ii. 79-80, xvi. 741; cf. C. Ritter, Erdkunde, x. 11 sqq., 1114-15, Berlin, 1843; M. Hartmann in ZDPY, xxii.,1899, p. 137), which was an important center of trade and intercourse in Persian times and has been identified with the village of Dibsah on the Euphrates two and cue quarter hours below Balis (cf. Mordtmann in Petermanns Mittheilungen, 1865, pp. 54-55; B. Moritz in Abhandlungen der Berliner Akademie, 1880, Anhang, p. 31; J. P. Peters, Nipper, i. 96-99, New York, 1897). Extensive ruins of the ancient city lie about one quarter of an hour from the modern village. The common derivation from the Hebrew pasah., giving the meaning " ferry " or " ford," does not fit well with the meaning of pasah (" to leap "), and Lagarde's suggestion (Uebersicht fiber die im aramdischen, arabischen, and hebraischen iibliche Bildung der Nomina, p. 131, Gottingen, 1889) of the Assyrian tapshahu, " resting-place," is better. The passage in I Kings iv. 24 (v. 4), which gives to Solomon's realm a fabulous extent, is late; the words " from Tiphsah even to Gaza " seem not to have been in the original Septuagint text.

2. A town named in II Kings xv. 16. From the reading of the Lucianic Septuagint-text (Taphoe), the " Tappuah " of Josh. xvii. 7-8 is probably meant, situated on the boundary between Ephraim and Manasseh; cf. the commentaries. (H. GUTHE.)

TOULOUSE, tü"lüz': Important town of southern France, and seat of a number of synods. The ancient Tolosa, it was the sacred capital of the Tectosages; was taken by the Romans 106 B.C.; was the capital of the Visigoths, 419-507; came under the power of the Franks, 507, but later regained its independence; was a county of hereditary princes, 778-1271, enjoying prosperity up to the Albigensian wars, after which it was united to France, 1271; it came under the influence of the Inquisition, and later became notorious for intolerance, in gross contrast to its earlier attitude. Its university, founded in 1229, is, after that of Paris, the oldest in France. It is also the seat of an archbishopric. At the suggestion of Louis, a synod was convened in Toulouse, 829, but the decrees are lost. One was held in 883 to adjust the complaint which Jews had made to Charles the Fat of being abused by clergy and laity. One in 1056, summoned by Pope Victor II., consisted of eighteen bishops, and passed thirteen canons forbidding simony, insisting upon the rule of celibacy, and placing the age of ordination to priests' orders at thirty, and to deacons' orders at twenty-five. The synod of 1118 was concerned with the inception of a crusade against the Moors in Spain. The synod of 1119, which Pope Calixtus II. presided over in person, reiterated the laws against simony, confirmed the right of the bishops to tithes, and in three of the ten canons teachers of false doctrine were anathematized. The synod of 1160, at which the kings of France and England, 100 bishops and abbots, and legates of Pope Alexander III. and his rival, Victor III., were present, declared Alexander pope, and pronounced excommunication upon Victor. The synod of 1219 forbade the conferment of offices upon the Cathari (see NEW MANICHEANS, II.), and forbade all work upon church festival days which were mentioned by name.

The synod of 1229, in the pontificate of Gregory IX., is important. It obligated archbishops and bishops, or priests, and two or three laymen, to bind themselves by oath to search out heretics, and bring them to punishment. A heretic's house was to be destroyed. Penitent heretics were to be obliged to wear a cross on their right and left side, and might not receive an office until the pope or his legate should attest the purity of their faith. All men of fourteen years and over, and all women of twelve years and over, were to be required to deny all connection with heresy and heretics. This oath was to be repeated every two years. Laymen were also forbidden the possession of the Old and the New Testament; and the suppression of vernacular translations was especially commended. In 1590 a synod under Archbishop Francis II. of Joyeuse declared the Tridentine decrees binding, and took up various subjects, such as relics, the consecration of churches, oratories, and the administration of hospitals. As late as 1850 a provincial synod was held under the presidency of Archbishop d'Astros, which declared against the tendencies of modern thought, indifferentism, and socialism.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. R. Vincent, In the Shadow of the Pyrenees, pp 211-232, New York, 1883; J. de Labondès, L'Église Saint Étienne, Toulouse, 1890; L. Ariste and L. Braud, Hist. populaire de Toulouse, ib. 1898; L. V. Delisle, La Prétendue Célébration d'un concile à Toulouse en 1160, Paris, 1902; Hefele> Conciliengeschichte, vols., iv. - v. passim.

TOUSSAIN, tü"san' (TOSSANUS), DANIEL: French Reformed; b. at Montbéliard (36 m. w. of Basel) July 15, 1541; d. at Heidelberg Jan. 10, 1602. His father was Pierre Toussain (q.v.), and the son was educated at Basel and Tübingen. Returning to France he preached for six months in his native town, and went to Orléans, 1560, where, after being a teacher of Hebrew, he was ordained minister of the local Reformed church in 1561. In 1568 he was forced to flee with other Protestants, but was soon discovered and imprisoned over two weeks. He then fled with his family to Montargis, where he was protected by the duchess of Ferrara until the king of France demanded the expulsion of all Huguenots. He now sought refuge in Sancèrre, and, after one year, returned to Montbéliard. Here he was charged with teaching Calvinistic and Zwinglian heresies, his reply being an affirmation of his Lutheran belief. In 1571 he was recalled to Orléans, and held services in the castle Isle, a few miles away, but at the news of the massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day, he fled just in time to escape the total massacre and pillage of Isle the next day; and he was concealed by a Roman Catholic nobleman at Montargis and later by the duchess in a tower of her castle. In Nov., 1572, he was able to return to his father at Montbéliard, but Lutheran intolerance again drove him out, and he accepted a call of the French refugees at Basel. In Mar., 1573, he was appointed chaplain to the Count Palatine Frederick III. at Heidelberg, but in 1576 the Calvinistic Frederick was succeeded by his son, the Lutheran Louis VI., and the Reformed were expelled. They found a Calvinistic patron, however, in John Casimir, the brother of the count, at Neustadt, where Toussain became inspector of churches and also helped found an academy in which he was one of the teachers. After the death of Zacharias Ursinus (q.v.) he was also preacher to the refugees' church of St. Lambert. In 1583 Louis VI. died, and John Casimir became regent. Calling Toussain into his council, he expelled the Lutherans from Heidelberg, and Toussain later became professor of theology, and, in 1584, rector. As an author he was prolific, being credited with no less than thirty-three works, for a list of which and his correspondence cf. F. W. Cuno, Daniel Tossanus (Amsterdam, 1898).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Tossanus. Vitae et obitus D. Toasani . . .narratio, Heidelberg, 1603; A. Müller, Daniel Tossanus, Leben and Wirken, 2 vols., Flensburg, 1884; F. W. Cuno,Daniel Tossanus, Amsterdam, 1898; J. Vienot, Hist. de la réforme dans Ie pays de Montbéliard, Montbéliard, 1900.

TOUSSAIN (TOSSANUS), PIERRE: French Reformer of Montbéliard, and father of the preceding; b. at St. Laurent, near Marville (145 m. e.n.e. ofParis), 1499; d. at Montbéliard (36 m. w. of Basel) Oct. 5, 1573. Educated at Metz, Basel, Cologne, Paris, and Rome, he became a canon of Metz in 1515, where he first heard of Protestant doctrines, and, being suspected of adherence to them, he was forced to flee to Basel. After a sojourn at Paris, he attempted to introduce the new doctrines into Metz, only to be imprisoned at Pont à Mousson. On Mar. 11, 1526, deprived of his benefice, he was expelled from Metz. He now returned to Paris, where he became an almoner of Margaret of Navarre, but in 1531 was again obliged to flee from France. After visiting Zwingli in Zurich, Gillaume Farel in Grandson, and Simon Sulzer in Basel, he went to Wittenberg. While in Tübingen on his return, he gladly accepted the invitation of Duke Ulrich of Württemberg to continue the Reformation begun by Johann Gayling and Farel in Montbéliard. Within four years (1535-39) Protestantism was definitely established, the mass was abolished, and the most of the canons retired to Besançon. Toussain became the head of the new ecclesiastical organization, which, being French and Swiss in character, became involved in serious controversies with the German chaplains of Count Christopher of Württemberg, who took up his residence at Montbéliard in 1542. As a result he retired to Basel, 1545-46, but returned to Montbéliard when the difficulty was finally adjusted. He was one of the few clergy undisturbed during the interim (1548-52), and on the second suppression of the Roman Catholics in Montbéliard in 1552 he resumed his position as superintendent at the head of the Protestant clergy. In 1559, under the guardians of the new count, Frederick, the Württemberg agenda were introduced, but the stubborn resistance of Toussain and his clergy forced the count's guardians to make concessions, especially to permit the use of Toussain's liturgy for the time being. In 1568, however, all pastors who refused to adopt the Württemberg agenda were deposed. When, in 1571 Jakob Andreä (q.v.) was sent by the Württemberg government to Montbéliard, the clergy were strictly examined, Daniel Toussain (q.v.), the reformer's son, was banished, and his father was pensioned and replaced by a Lutheran. All the clergy who professed either Zwinglianism or Calvinism were gradually removed, and the Tübingen dogmas were enforced. Strict in life, Evangelical in spirit, Toussain was a model pastor and wise organizer. His sole literary production was L'Ordre qu'on tient en l'église de Montbéliard en instruisant les enfans, et administrant les saints sacramens avec la forme du mariage et des prières (1559), of which only a single copy seems to exist.       

(John Viénot.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Viénot, Hist. de la réforme dans le pays de Montbéliard, 2 vols., Montbéliard, 1903.

TOWNSEND, LUTHER TRACY: Methodist Episcopal; b. at Orono, Me., Sept. 27, 1838. He spent his early life in New Hampshire; studied at New Hampshire Conference Seminary; was graduated from Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H., 1859; from Andover Theological Seminary, Mass., 1862; served as private and adjutant of the Sixteenth New Hampshire regiment, 1862-63; entered the Methodist Episcopal ministry, 1864; was professor of Hebrew, Chaldee, and New-Testament at Boston University,1868-70; of historical theology there, 1872; of practical theology and sacred rhetoric, 1872-93; and since then emeritus professor. Of his works may be mentioned Credo (Boston, 1869); The Sword and Garment (1871); God-Man (1872); Lost Forever (1874); Arena and Throne (1874); The Supernatural Factor in Religious Revivals (1877); The Intermediate World (1878);Bible Theology and Modern Thought (1883); Evolution or Creation, (Chicago and New York, 1896) ;Story of Jonah in the Light of Higher Criticism (1897); Anastasis (1902); God's Goodness and Severity, or Endless Punishment (1903); Adam and Eve - History or Myth (1904); Collapse of Evolution (1905); God and the Nation (1905); The Deluge - History or Myth (1907); and Bible Inspiration (1909).

TOWNSEND, WILLIAM JOHN: English Methodist; b. at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Jan. 20, 1835. He was educated at Percy Street Academy in his native city, and was then engaged in business for several years, after which he studied for the ministry of the Methodist New Connection for a year (1859-60) under James Stacey, of Sheffield. He was minister of various churches of his denomination in Birmingham, Manchester, Leicester, Chester, Halifax, Stockport, and Newcastle until 1886,when he became president of the Methodist New Connection Conference, as well as general missionary secretary of the same body, a position which he held until 1891. In addition to the pastoral work which he then resumed in Birmingham and London, he was editor of the Methodist New Connexion in 1894-97 and was reappointed in 1902. In theology he "holds generally by Evangelical Christianity as expounded by leading modern Methodist theologians," and "has views on inspiration and the last things which differ from a hard and mechanical view of inspiration, or an arbitrary view of future retribution." He has written The Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages (London, 1880); Robert Morrison, the Pioneer of Chinese Missions (1888); Alexander Kilham, the First Methodist Reformer (1890); Reminiscences and Memorials of Rev. James Stacey, D.D. (1891); Madagascar, its Missionaries and Martyrs (1892); Strength perfected in Weakness (1893); Handbook of Christian Doctrine (1897); Handbook to the Methodist New Connexion (1899); Life of Oliver Cromwell (1899); The Great Symbols(1901); History of Popular Education in England and Wales (1903); As a King ready to the Battle (1904); The Story of Methodist Union (1906); and A New History of Methodism (1909; in collaboration with others).

TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL: Theist; b. at Norfolk, Va., Mar. 23, 1836. He was educated at the University of Virginia (A.M., 1856) after which he taught three years (1856-59), and studied for a year (1859-60) at the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, Greenville, S. C. He was professor of Greek in Richmond College, Richmond, Va., in 1861, but left to enter the Confederate Army, in which he served until 1863. In 1864-65 he was professor in the University of Alabama, and after [Page 475]

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